i
SORBET
+
eat ese oranda
or ~ >
A . eo
.
na
a
D8
ele ale
Pr ay :
*
stasis eite
ea o6
hes
che *
*
RS es
ove te
"rw r=
AD oe
Yue wee ewe eaevtive
tes
Vea oe!
Se
De
Sees
ee
*
“+
tae
-
«
oS
-
+e oe ewe
MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.
———______» « ~<_____
RECEIVE Ci aks ae es
Accession NoO..................
Given by..
Place,.
*,* No book or pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab-~
oratory without the permission of the Trustees.
By ey
4d ee
Cae.
SAS oem
ies by
THE JOURNAL
OF
Comparative Neurology
AS OUARTERLY PERIODICAL
DEVOTED TO THE
Comparative Study of the Nervous System.
EDITED BY
Cri, la eRe. Ke,
Professor of Biology tn Denison University.
VOLUME III.
PUBLISHED BY THE EDiTor.
GRANVILLE, OHIO, U.: S. A.
k. Friedlinder & Son, Berlin, European Agents.
nae (i it
}
?
at )
The Journal of Comparative Neurology.
Contents of Vol. III, 1893.
MARCH, 1895.
Pages 1-34, i—xlii. Plates I-II.
NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES, II. NEUuRO-
LOGICAL WoRK AT ZuRICH. By Ad. Meyer, M.D., Ph. D.-----
THE INSULA OF THE Pic, By 7. £. Clark, M.S., Professor in Clin-
ton blains liberaliinstitutes, sWith) Plates 2s] see
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDULLATED NERVE Fipres. By C. Z.
wierricky” NVathY Plate DL .225 3232 eee ee
EpIToRIAL. The Scientific Utility of Dreams
IGUTEERARY (NOTICES = 2! 3002 he ee ee ee eo ee
Bissures ol¢the:Cerebrumass sees ee ee ee eee
AnimallExtractsras Nerve, Stummllanitc pee een ees
Treatment of Insanity of Myxcedema by Thyroid Grafts_._
ithe Lumbar Nerves of ithe Apesiand) Mans222=s2"=s2 ===
The Nerves of the Arm and Hand in Apes and Man_____-
Changes due to Functional Activity in Nerve Cells__..___-
The Brain of Mud Fishes
hes Vittall No desk se 2 ee See ee ere eee
Studies upon the Head of Craniate Vertebrates____._____-
Open Pharyngeal Ciefts in the Human Embryo..___-_____
Peripheral Distribution of the Fibres of the Posterior Nerve
RNG oY HS = fg Me ieee eR AR LE a ge ee ir a
Muscles and Nerves in Mermis and Amphioxus
The Cerebrum of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus
Goltziand)the Cerebral Hemispheres: == - 025200
Application of (GolgijProcess tosWorms22-- =o — =
Development of the Ear of Amblystoma
Skin Sensations of Central Origin
Nerve Terminations in Taste-buds
Ih TAPAS OU A ATES Ot Woe Wriobavey ye ee ee ie
Nervous Endings in the Mucous Layer of the Hleum
Circulatory Changes in Hypnosis
Mirror Writing
IRMA SIN RE Coy Coyer ae A ee ak eS
The Universal Medical Journal
RECENT LITERATURE
XXV
XXV1
XXVl
XXVli
XXvil
XXVIli
XXVill
XXVill
XxXix
xxix
Xxx
XXX
XXXi
XXxl
XXXil
4
JUNE, 1893.
Pages 35—106, xliii—lxxxii. Plates III-VIII, X—XIII.
PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE GENUS CypP-
ris. By C. H. Turner, M.S., Professor of Natural Sciences in
Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. With Plates III-IV____ .--_--
NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES. III. NEURO-
LOGICAL WorK AT ZuRICH. By Adolf Meyer, M.D., Ph.D., Path-
ologist of the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Kankakee,
NEUROLOGICAL NOTES FROM THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES OF
DENISON UNIVERSITY.
I. SELENKA’s ‘‘ PHARYNGEAL SAC”? IN THE Duck. By #.
H. Bawden, A.B., Fellow in Biology, Denison University.
With PR) a tea aaa ee
Il. THE PINEAL AND PARIETAL ORGAN IN PHRYNOSOMA COR-
ONATA. By A. D. Sorensen, A.B., Fellow in Biology,
DenisonsWniversity. Within ate exe e ee
III. THE Roor oF THE DIENCEPHALON. By A. D. Sorensen_-
IV. REVERSION OF THE CEREBELLUM IN AMERICAN LIZARDS.
By Pele Evens o= so Se es ee oe ee
Vie) AMIE SELIPPOCAMPUS-) \By (Gn. FLer7tChee a ene
THE INDUSIUM OF THE CALLOSUM. By P. A. Fash, B.S., Instructor
in Physiology, Vertebrate Zoology and Neurology, Cornell Uni-
versity. Wath Plates xa Soe ee oe eee ee ee ee ee
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORTEX CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION
WITH A REPORT UPON A DoG FROM WHICH THE WHOLE CERE-
BRUM HAD BEEN REMOVED BY PROFESSOR GOLTZ. By Dr. Lud-
Wire Lancer An kfort-O1= Neal eee en ee
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE CEN-
TRAL NERVOUS SysTEM. II.. ToPOGRAPHY AND HISTOLOGY OF
THE BRAIN OF CERTAIN REPTILES. Continued. With Plates
Vie Wily) Valu, WALI Sern dl eX By, |G. e7, 7:70 p ae
EASTER AIR VIN @ Ta CS ee a oe et eae a, REL SN a Oe
Simultaneous Tactile dimpressions= == ee ee
M@he' CerebellariCortexsmitheWWopean a= sae eee eae
AY New Method! ofiColoring Neuroglian ss e2== sees
Anatomical "Nomenclature. 2 {tt eS ie eee ee ee
‘© Sense.of Boundary 7s 228 2eees 2 ee toe oop ee ee ee
Influence of the Nervous System on the Skin----.--.-----
Distance and Color Perception in Infants-_______-_-_----
Origin of the Electric Nerves in the Torpedo__________--
ihesSuprarenaly Capsules sss eee eee a
dhephunctronsiofsthe ronal loo bem ee
EXpPression™ inthe pln Sam eos es ee aes ee
ihe Limits of Animal Intelligences=s55 5-5. ae
Whhe*Senstbilitives: ine Womens) o> oe eee
Asitationtonr baraliysis eNoitanse ssa =e eee een
Oniginwof, “thes. Wille SLA Ses Tee ee em
45
50
54
61
69
77
xliii
xliii
xliv
xl vi
xlv
xl viii
xlix
5
DhewVisualsPabhyand Visual) Centres i= so oeeeseacees ae ana
Natunaliselection: andiNiusice Saas o sas aera eee
The, General’ Morphology of the Brains 2=-2=522-22-----..-
The Development of Human and Animal Physiognomy--_-_-
The Functions of the Temporal Cerebral Lobes_---__-----
Causecloti Epilepsy eee ana = ae a ee Se ce eee
The Activity of the Cortex in Reproduction and Hallucina-
LEK ae SS es Ee te eee ee Ss ee A ee
BadiMedicaliAdvices2 2s 22 So ee ee ee eee ane -
Notes (oni Spidersiabits oe eee ee eee eee aa ee
dihey Diseaseszofathe) Nervous (oyStemiee eae es = ae
ihe: Soullkof (Mantas se. .2 2. 25 Soe eee aa ee
CannabalismeAmono insects ===2— =e ee
The Sense Organs of the San Diego Blind Fish___--__-__-
Cerebral Wocallizalts omnes ee ete eye eee ee
ANE wslheonryaoty Golo Vilsio mses ee ee ee ease
Experimental Investigation of the Relation Between Res-
[MERLOLE Aeenael VaNinyerat Oya ee
Mis cullaty Sens evoty ities 5) tim clea eee eee ae een
diherWawrofis Perce petro mse a cue ee ee en ee ee
The Olfactory Apparatus and Hippocampus-__-_--_----.
Therapeutic Value of Nerve Stretching in Mixed Neuralgia
The Objective Symptoms of Neurasthenia._____-__.__-___
The Early Development of the Pineal Eye_-~-_-____-_____
SEPTEMBER, 18938.
Pages 107—162, I]xxxiii—exxvi. Plates XIV—XXV.
THE INTRINSIC PULMONARY NERVES BY THE SILVER METHOD.
By Henry J. Berkley, M.D., Johns Hopkins Hospital, Balti-
mores Waithy Plate px Vik see eee ee es a Aaa CEL
AN INTERESTING NEuRITIS. By /. D. Barker, M.D., Dayton, O.
NEUROLOGISTS: AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES. IV. NEUROLO-
GICAL WoRK AT ZuRICH. By Adolf Meyer, M.D., Ph.D., Mi-
) ROS Deasionn Isletas Ievalienes
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE CEN-
TRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. IIl.—ToroGRAPHY AND HIsTOLOGY
OF THE BRAIN OF CERTAIN REPTILES. By C. L. Herrick, Den-
israel WWhoryeritiayg — \Wiiiln Tbs. SOWe= Osc, Se Sy ee eee
REPORT UPON THE PATHOLOGY OF A CASE OF GENERAL PARAL-
MSIStsy, (G. We meeZrE ee sev eblates xox xoxo) (Arey Bs
(Cp Dy Wea aR Re OTD aR A LN a ey HO
ETE RPAIR Vi INI@ TTC BS es RU ine dae ET eR DG Te ANB SP
Habits of Scorpions
Habits of Warblers
Mito tienCell Divisione ee ees uO ak ay eed
Effects of Removal of Cerebro-Spinal Fluid
Ixvi
Ixvili
Ixix
Ixxli
Ixxil
Ixxili
Ixxili
Ixxiv
Ixxv
Ixxvil
Ixxxi
Ixxxil
107
1Iz2
114
11g
I4I
Ixxxiil
Ixxxili
Ixxxv
Ixxxv
Ixxxv
6
The Influence of Psychical Phenomena on Brain Tempera-
RUA ase ee eee ee Ixxxvi
Cerebrinelin the’ Dreatmentof Ataxiat=2") 22 eae Ixxxvii
Clinical Investigations of Epilepsy, Hysteria and Idiocy __~ Ixxxvli
The Peripheral Relations of the Auditory nerve ---~~- -__- Ixxxviil
Shenuiowaiesy Oye IDhaephenss = 2 ee ee eee Ixxxvlil
MheyBramnpoteMiy xine ee eee eee ]xxxix
The Rudimentary Jacobson’s Organ of the Crocodile -____- Ixxxix
Infantile INucleany: Deseneration= === naan xc
Restricted Hemiatrophyioftheyhaces2—-222— oes eee xci
Effects of the Pneumogastic and Sympathic Nerves on
IOVReSNON 2 eee a ee oo be eoeo tooo cesses xci
Porked) NervetEndingsion Hattsea== 5 s—s see eees aes xcil
AME JOE Ole Wipes es eee a one eee XClil
Balm SUG ET yey sce re ee as ne ree xciil
Current Views of the Structure of Olfactory Organs and
Maste-Bulbs. “With Blate SehV, Picss(6-8222-=—==—5—"— XCV
Variations in Spinal Nerves in Amphibia_--_.....----__-- cii
Nucleary Division in Regenerating Nerves_-.----_. _---- cill
Influenceof Music 2222 > 222 22 Seas Seen eee eee cili
ILewint onl Nicotinismess 25 22s eee eee eee nee cill
AiheyRespiratony;Centrelesaaaae= eee eee eee eae cv
The Cephalic Extremity of the) Brain’ Mube==2=2-==22s22 3 evi
Subdivision and Nomenclature of the Brain.__.____------ cvi
Symeesthesia= oe oe te oS eae eee So ae ee cviil
Influence of the Cerebral Hemispheres Upon the Circulatory
Apparatus/s22 ae! os Se oe ee eee ee cix
Innenvationlotmtne | Ciliary body.) seen ne ae eee un ee cix
The Pineal and Parietal Foramen in Recent Fish_-_-_-____- cx
Pacini’s Corpuscles in the Trunk of the Tibial Nerve_____- cx
The Sensory Nerves in the Skin of the External Genital
Organs ea ee ow eC 6 ee ed es oe ee eee cx
Regenerationyofe Newey Bib res |e eee eee ee cxi
VBP IS gee] Dh soho ese co N NG eau Sk tee Te ee cxil
hey Brain of Binds=====s BT OME a eter eee ene Se eee cxii
Drew berkleysonithet@ ere elininm te en erate eee eee ees cxvil
RECENT LITERATURE \s- coun ot ea seme eee eee eee eee cxvill
DECEMBER, 1893.
Pages 163—182, cxxvii—clxxxvi. Plates IX, XXVIand XXVII.
NOTE ON THE STRUCTURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF NERVOUS
ELEMENTS. By Paul Mitrophanow, Professor in the Univer-
SUL YO Lp VATS AW eee ae AEN I Te est Se ss 163
JEAN M. Cuarcort. By £. G. Stanley, B.S.,Fellow in Comparative
PNorosooh paver IDeseioye, Uhainkerdyiyys ee 168 -
7
LABORATORY NOTES FROM DENISON UNIVERSITY.
VI. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
OF CERTAIN Birps. By C. Judson Herrick, B.S., Fellow in
Neurology in Denison University. With Plate XXVI__-_- 171
VII. THE CALLOSUM AND HIPPOCAMPAL REGION IN MARSUPIAL
AND LOWER Brains. By C. ZL. Herrick, With Plates IX
and NORV Ee eee oon see BE A ee 176
[PERE RAR Via NOTICES 2a soot ae occa oh oe eae oe Le CXxvli
Alcoholuinebriety ya. ose ws ois =) em ay pe A Te Cxxvii
HRSuanatra ator Art cy Sit 0 CXXxiil
inSanitysin\iGreecesan sae 2. 2s LL ee Pee CXXXiV
Colors DependentyonisHoods.ss == a> eee eee eae CXXXI1V
The Spanish Inquisition as an Alienienist-----..--------- CXXXIiV
The Origin and Distribution of the Nerves of the Lower
SIGGTY (0 ofan RE a eR AEN Noe Na ee CXXXV
GlasciModelsiof gBrains mies =) amano ay ea ee CXXXV
Methodstof brain! Presenvationa sea= 4 see e ee CXXXV
Myxcedema and Cretinism Treated by Thyroid Grafts and
Extracts (sooo eee ee (ee Se ee CXXXV1
An Instrument for Reaction-Time Determination ._-_-__- CXXXVI11
Arrangement of the Sympathic Nervous System__-------. CXXXViil
RecordiotmBrainy E xaminationseses= ose ea aetna Diane CXXXVIiii
Subdural Membranes and Intercranial Pressure__-_---.-- CXXXIX
iihenicnecalienks se Se re ae es eee fe Le ne ee cxl
Some Suggestions Concerning Methods of Psychologic Study cxl
Peripheral Neuritis Following Alcoholism...-.._---.--.-. exlil
SpinallyMuscullarestroplive soa see ee a ee ee exlil
Gerebrinest eee See le ee bere ee Le Le eee are exlil
iihesFunctronsjomuner eiturtanya bodiment exlill
Am ericanmlbamiprey siesta ae eae eee ee oe saa ene exlili
dihe-Brainy ofsthey spotted yNewtseeese seo e eee eke ee exlili
Edinger’s Lectures upon the Structure of the Central Nerv-
OUST SY Sterne te ee ee eee ul eh umes ber exlvil
Kolliker’s! Histology; Sixth) Editions. 2252222225222" soe exlvili
Mibhe: Superstition of Necessity ema se ae a en cl
ewe um bo-sackale Plexus meses eer eo a eee Se cli
AY News Hypothesis Concerning) Visione o2ss eee ce ee eee chi
ANGI OSISH HD OLONOS aera meee eee ae es 2 Nea Ls cliii
Wood’s Reference Hand-Book Supplement. -_-.--..------- cliv
Articles on the Brain in the Reference Hand-Book_______- cliv
‘umorsvof ther brain eee es see sad wee, eal see erate Pa clv
Acromepaly) Secs meee arms wees Bee lh ee ee aan ikea eG clv
ati © perations ete sere ite cee i MA Ste Ee een eae Ed . elvi
The Emotions, The Physiological and Psychophysical Basis of clvi
ihes Gare of pile p tics meee mele yee le eon irae eae t Seder clvi
leved lives 22S Se ee eee entree oa ea oe See a clvi
Blood: Vessels of the Brainy = so 202s sto sae ioe clvii
Cranial and Spinal Nerves.....------- ae ape aS ee elvii
Histological) Formutze 222 soe eee ee eeeeee ee ee
The Meninges: 222222222 22 ee esses econ eee eae eee e eee
The’ Physical Expression ‘of Insanity: 2225. Sscee eee eee
The Innervation of the Chromatophores_-_-_------2---=:
Ganglion Cells and Nerve Termini in the Ventricle of the
Heart 222322) a tose oes be ee eee
ThevErimerof@ Philosophy sesso s-eae a eee
injuniestotmthemliemporalm open eens. a= = aaa ieee ee
Nenve-ndinigssinithe AuditonyeOrngane == see ee sen =e
SpinaliGansliaginyAumphilbiaaeee sa e= eee ee ee
INotes/Upon Elysterta-=_ 22a Se ee os een eee
The Hypoaria, or Lobi Inferiores of Pishes=-2-22-=2----=-
dihes@erebrumyors Ornithorhynchus=s=eee==—— ee eee
dhe Hippocampus == =o eee Sales ee eee
Diseases vofyPersonality=-2- 225 == 22 eee ee
RECENT EVTERATURE 222205 2s 22 sew 2 ee ee eee
clvii
clvil
clvili
clix
clx
clxi
clxili
clxiv
clxv
clxv
cl xxiii
clxxv
clxxv
clxxvil
clxxvili
NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL
LABORATORIES.
II. NeEvuRoLocicAL Work AT ZURICH.
By Ap. Meyer, Pu.D.
The names of F. Arnold, Henle, v. Gudden, Huguenin,
Forel, v. Monakow, T. Martin and Honegger prove that
Zirich is connected with a good amount of first class neuro-
logical work. It is, I think, well worth giving a short account
of the men working there at present and of the opportunities
for students in the laboratories of the different institutions.
Zurich is a town of about 100,000 inhabitants, wonderfully
situated at the end of a fine lake. This relatively small town
has at present the following men working in anatomy of the
nervous system: Prof. Aug. Forel, the director of the Lunatic
Asylum, Burgholzli; Privatdocent, Dr. C., v. Monakow, lec-
turing on neurology at the University; Paul Martin, Professor
of physiology at the Veterinary School; Dr. S. S. Honneger,
specialist for nervous diseases; Huguenin, formerly professor
of internal medicine, doing little neurological work at present ;
the physiologist, Prof. Gaule, and his assistant, Dr. Wlassak, in
the physiological institution of the University. It is very inter-
esting that all these men work independently from each other ;
they form, so to say, so many schools or independent work
shops.
Professor Forel holds no doubt one of the most prominent
positions among the anatomists of the brain. A pupil of
Meynert and of v. Gudden, and besides an expert entomolo-
gist, he unites a great number of faculties which must be con-
sidered as the essential condition for successful work in anatomy
of the brain.
His first original contribution was made under the auspices
2 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
of Meynert, in 1872,! and accepted as an inaugural discussion
by the University of Zurich. I wish to give here a short sketch
of the ground which this paper covers, as it is not easy to get
it in the original. The optic thalamus of the lower mammals
differs from that of man and of the monkey by a gradual de-
crease of the pulvinar, which is very short in the carnivora and
can be considered to be absent in the ungulata and rodents.
The thalamus is however even shorter in the lower mammals
than it seems to be, as what appears to be its posterior part, is
formed by an unproportionately large external geniculate body,
which reaches the upper surface of the thalamus. The small
cuneiform external geniculate body of man is much more inde-
pendent from the thalamus, and it is easy to see why it was not
recognized in the lower mammals, although it is much larger: it
is too little marked off from the thalamus. In the carnivores
the external geniculate body is right above the internal one; in the
rodents, in which the thalamus is even shorter than in the carni-
vora, the internal geniculate body is situated caudad of the exter-
nal geniculate body. The fibres of the optic tract which pass
through the external geniculate body to the corpus guadrigemi-
num anterius are covered in man by the pulvinar thalami, but
are superficial in the lower mammals, where the pulvinar is not
developed. The stratum zonale thalami of man is therefore
different from what might be called stratum zonale thalami in
lower mammals, where the superficial layer in the posterior part
of the thalamus is formed by fibres of the optic tract passing
through the superficial corpus geniculatum externum.—There
are other points which help to explain the difference in the in-
ternal structure of the optic thalamus in man and in lower
mammals. In the latter the hemispheres are small; the corona
radiata is correspondingly small and covers only the anterior
part of the optic thalamus leaving the posterior part free. This
is why the fibries of the corona radiata do not show as a
1. Beitrige zur Kenntniss des Thalamus opticus und der ihn umgebenden
Gebilde bei den Séugetieren, von August Forel aus Waadt. Kaiserl. Academie
der Wissenschaften in Wien, 1872. No. XVI. Math-naturwiss. Classe. 6 Juni,
Ueberreicht von Prof. Dr. Th. Meynert.
Meyer, Neurologists and Neurological Laboratories. 3
radiation, but have a longitudinal course in the posterior part of
the optic thalamus, which is itself covered posteriosly by the
large external geniculate body. The difference in the form of
the laminae medullares is explained in a simular way. The
fornix, before it ends in the corpus mammnillare, sends fibres
into the pedunculus glandulae pinealis. The part of the fornix
situated above the thalamus opticus (corpus fornicis) becomes
thicker than the corpus callosum in lower mammals, — be-
cause the commissural fibres corresponding to the Lyra Davidis
in man are much more numerous, in proportion to the greater
area of the origin of the fornix in these animals.
The latter part of the paper is very often quoted. I can
not help thinking however that many of those who quoted it did
not know it but from quotations; a perusal of the paper would
have made many mistakes evitable.
In 1874 Forel’s splendid work on the ants of Switzerland!
appeared, a wonderful testimony of his talent of observation and
of classification, and this was followed by a number of myrme-
cological studies.” In the same time he worked out the classical
paper on the anatomy of the tegmentum and its connections with
the cephalad portions of the brain.* There is no doubt that v.
Gudden who was psychiatrist at Zurich when Forel was a student
made a deep impression on on him. Huguenin was at that time
working in Meynert’s sense and ways and_ published his
anatomy of the brain 1873.4 Forel too become a pupil of
Meynert, but his independent mind, trained so well by his ento-
mological studies, led him another way. Whereas Huguenin
furnished a translation of Meynert’s work into intelligible Ger-
1. Les fourmis de la Suisse: Nouveaux mémoires de la Société helvétique
des sciences naturelles, 1874.
2. Etudes myrmécologigues, Bull. Soc. vaud. sc. nat. xvi, 81 etc.
3. Untersuchungen iiber die Haubenregion und ihre oberen Verkniipfun-
gen im Gehirne des Menschen und einiger Saéugethiere, mit Beitragen zu den
Methoden der Gehirnuntersuchung. Von Dr. August Forel, Assistentarzt an
der Kreis Irrenanstalt Miinchen. Arch. f. Psychiatrie, Bd. vii. 1877.
4. Allgemeine Pathologie der krankheiten des Nervensystems. 1. Theil.
Amatomische Einleitung. Ziirich, 1873.
4 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
man, as Forel remarks very wittily, with figures still more
schematized than Meynet’s, Forel made an attempt to leave
the ground of speculation and to study attentively what serial
sections of the brain show and what they don’t show. The
scientific training which he has shown in his dissertation and
afterwards in his work on the ants, found congenial encourage-
ment with von Gudden, whose assistant he had become in the
Lunatic Asylum of Munich.
I am perhaps too enthusiastic about Forel’s paper on the
tegmentum. Yet I believe it is to this paper that I owe nearly
all my education for anatomical studies. Edinger’s classical
lectures as an introduction, then Forel’s papers and Burdack’s
famous work ought to form the first school for the study of the
numerous monographs and for original work. The writer of
the present sketch had the chance of getting the late Prof.
Meynert’s copy of Forel’s paper. The numerous remarks by
‘Meynert’s own hand show with what attention the famous mast-
er studied the work of his critical pupil.
It is impossible to give here a fair review of the paper on
the tegmentum. I hope that the reader of this paper is already
familiar with it or, if not, he will be sufficiently rewarded by
reading it in the original. Forel has a great advantage over
most writers on anatomy of the brains French being his native
and I might say natural language, his education and mental
tendancies being German, he handles the difficult subject with
an astonishing simplicity of stile without becoming inexact and
superficial. Let me mention the characteristic features of
Forel’s paper.
The speculative anatomy of Meynert and especially of
Luys are entirely abandoned and purely anatomical methods are
used. The defective nomenclature which has been and for a
long time will be a great impediment for the progress of our
science, is examined and careful definitions are put in the place
of vaguely used terms. It seems that too often names were
created first and then applied to fibres and nuclei which would
best suit the hypothesis, whereas we should try to analyze
the elements first and give them a name when we have recog-.
Meyer, Veurologists and Neurological Laboratortes. 5
nized them sufficiently well as independent elements. Forel
follows the rule of adopting the term which has been used first;
he adheres to historical principals. This requirers a knowledge
of the definition of a term used by the various authors; as there
is no dictionary of synonyms of anatomical terms which would
give all the various uses and misuses, it is advisable that we
should say what definition of the term we assume, by quoting
the name of the author. Where new terms have to be created,
we had best avoid the so-called rational nomenclature, because
experience shows that the most irrational and confusing nomen-
clature has been created in this way. This is all the more true
now, where the brains of lower vertebrates are studied and we
have to adopt the oddest names.
In 1881, Forel was called to Zurich for the chair of psy-
chology, which is connected with the position as director of the
lunatic asylum of the Canton Zurich. In this position he lec-
tured for several years on anatomy of the brain, until he gave
this branch to Privatdocent v. Monakow. The enormous
work connected with the direction of the institution, the active
interest which Prof. Forel began to take in the anti-alcoholic
movement, and his continued work in the study of ants, did not
paralyze him. Through the hands of several pupils he pub-
lished important observations,! in 1886 he wrote the most im-
portant contribution to neurology,” in which he shows again his
great talent for classification and assimilation. This paper even
more so than the papers on the tegmetum, defies every at-
tempt of making an abstract. _It is itself an abstract of an im-
mense field work, a great numner of observations of various au-
thors and of Forel himself, brought under one new head: the
theory of the neuron, of the element of the nervous apparatus.
Had not Veja’s work on the spinal ganglions misled Forel some-
what, he would have given us the complete plan of the nervous
1. Br. Onufrowicz. Ursprung des N. acusticus. Arch. f. Psych. Bd. XVI,
Heft 3. Wl. Onufrowicz. Das microcephale Gehirn Hofmann. Arch. f. Psych.
Bd. XVII.
2. Einige hirnanatomische Betrachtungen und Ergebnisse. von Prof. Au-
gust Forel in Ziirich. Arch. f. Psych. XVIII. Heft 1.
6 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
system which we know now. The numerous facts which he had
observed when using v. Gudden’s degeneration method com-
bined with the new discoveries of Golgi, brought him to the
conclusion that the nerve-cells and their prolongations (fibres)
form one entity, ending free, without anastomosis. The same
idea based on embryological facts was published independently
and in the same month (August, 1886,) by His. This paper of
Forel is so classical that I do not make an attempt of giving a
review of it; it is absolutely necessary to know it in the original.
It contains many details on von Gudden’s, v. Monakow’s and
Forel’s work, which are as a rule omitted in the current text
books.
Forel’s last contribution for neurological literature is a short
communication of results obtained with v. Gudden’s method
with regard to the IX, X, and XII nerves.’ In the introduction
he gives a general review of the methods for anatomical research
on the brain. The chief result of this work is that it proves
that there is no crossed root in the motor part of these nerves,
such as Obersteiner maintains in his work.
To complete the review of the work published by Forel
and his school, I should like to mention here a short communi-
cation of Dr. Schiller,? who tried to compare the numerical dif-
ference between the elements of the new-born and of the adult
cat. He chose as a typical object the third nerve and he found
the average number of fibres 3,000. The new-born cat had
about 50-75 fibres less than the adult one, a difference which
may be caused by the very small size of the fibres in the young
cat—some may have escaped the eye of the observer ; we may
however quite as well think of the individual differences.
Whereas in the new-born animal the fibre measures between 1.5
and 5m, the fibre of the adult measures between 6 and 20m.
Prof. Forel has in his laboratory a fine collection of serial
sections made by himself and by his assistants. Of late years,
he appears rarely in those two rooms; Dr. Mercier has the
whole under his care at present. Those who wish to work in
the laboratory will however always find a hearty welcome.
1. Kdlliker’s Festschrift. Albert Miiller, Ziirich, 1891.
2. Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Sciences de Paris.
Sept. 30, 1889.
thks INSURE A OF THB rei.
By ah); Bi Grane
With Plate I.
The insula (island of Reil) of the pig (Svs scrofa) is located
between the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes and the olfac-
tory tract.1 A small portion of this area is included in the Syl-
vian fissure, but by far the greater part, as in the sheep, lies in
what some authors call the vallicula or Sylvian fossa (rhinal_fis-
sure, Turner), cephalad of the temporal lobe and dorsad of the
enormously developed olfactory tract. The operculums are not
well developed and if present at all are very rudimentary. Lus-
sana and Limoigin say they are wanting in the pig.! Inat least
three-fourths of the 20 brains examined, a fissure was found at
P. (see Figs. 2 and 4,) and I have assumed it to be constant in-
asmuch as the brains in which it was wanting were those of pigs
under one year old. This fissure, although rudimentary, is well
defined and may be the rudiment of the presylvian.
The insula is entirely overlapped dorsally and, when con-
cealed, is also covered laterally by the area in figs. 2 and 4.
Its cephalic portion is somewhat concealed by the area N (fig.
2). Accordingly I have concluded that the operculum (m) and
the prae-or sub-operculum (n) are sometimes present though
rudimentary.
Professor Sir Wm. Turner? names the fissure dorsad of the
olfactory crus (ex, fig. 1) the rhinal fissure (r). This fissure
may be no other than the rhinal fissure if the frontal and par-
ietal lobes are so developed as to completely overlap the insula
laterally, as the Sylvan fossa will then be closed up and the
rhinal fissure would extend to the surface as in fig. 1. How-
I. Fisiologia der Centri Nervosi Encefalici, Vol. I, p. 150.
3. The Convolutions of the Brain, p. 35, Fig. 29.
[7]
8 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ever, in fig. 2, it will be noted that the lateral surface of the
insula is exposed in two areas which although connected are
quite distinct. The intervening space in which the insula is
exposed can be no less than the Sylvian fossa. In brains hav-
ing more highly developed frontal lobes, this fossa is limited, in
the adult, by the development of the pre-and sub-operculums,
to a small portion cephalad of the temporal lobe. The width
of the fissure which Turner calls rhinal, cephalad of its junction
with the Sylvian fissure, is always greater than its width caudad
of the Sylvian or cephalad of the fissure P. (fig. 2) where it is
the true rhinal fissure. This increase in width is probably due
in most cases to the entering of numerous blood-vessels which
transverse the insular area and these go mainly to its dorsal sur-
face. I think therefore that Professor Turner erred in naming
this the rhinal fissure instead of Sylvian fossa, as the rhinal fis-
sure extends ventrad of the insula and the crus is not connected
with the insula at its lateral surface.
Huxley (Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals, p. 61,
Fig. 21) figures (see Fig. 3) the left half-brain of a pig and rep-
resents the insula as normally exposed in the Sylvian fossa.
Krueg! says ‘‘the so-called insula, as in the, carnivora as well as
in the pig (presumably all Suillidae), lies concealed in the depth
of a fissure, while in the remaining ungulates it is exposed.”
In sixteen brains of pigs ranging one year and under,
nearly three-fifths of the insulas were entirely concealed, while
in the remaining two-fifths the areas of exposure differed greatly,
the extreme being shown in Fig. 2. In five brains of pigs be-
tween one and two anda half years, all insulas were entirely
concealed and the conclusion reached was that the insula is not
normally exposed in the pig. There is considerable variation
in the insulas of the same brain.
In No. 9, Left exposed, Right concealed.
In No. 13, Left scarcely exposed (?) Right exposed in two
places, Fig. 2.
In No. 17, Left exposed, Right concealed.
1. Ueber die Furchung der Grosshirnrinde der Ungulaten, in Zeitschrift
fiir Wissenchaftliche Zoologie, Vol. 31, p. 313.
Crark, The Insula of the Pig. 9
The plane of the insula is perpendicular to the lateral as-
pect of the brain, as is the case in the sheep and calf. This
position of the plane, as well as the location of the insula in the
Sylvian fossa, is probably due to the undeveloped state of the
frontal lobes and the unusual development of the olfactory crus.
For in the horse, whose frontal lobes are more highly developed
and whose crus is much smaller, the insula stands at an angle of
about 45° to the lateral surface and the larger part of the insula
is located in the Sylvian fissure. Moreover in one brain (pig)
(No. 4) this plane makes an angle of not more than 60°-65° with
the lateral aspect. This being the case in but one brain, it
naturally suggests an individual peculiarity.
The area which represents the insula in the pig is quite large
and generally well defined except at its junction with the tem-
poral lobe. In but three instances was there any distinct line
ot demarcation. In one of these the depression was slight,
about like the average fissure upon the insular area and might
_ have been caused by pressure of an artery. In the second
insula this depression was at least twice as deep as the first and
easily recognizable as a true fissure. In still another, Fig. 7,
this depression reached a depth of nearly four mm. completely
separating the insular area from the temporal lobe. In the last
mentioned brain the fissure in question was visible upon the
lateral aspect of the brain while inthe two preceding it was not.
The cephalic boundary of the insula is unusually sharply
defined by the circuminsular fissure in pigs of one year and
over, as shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8, g and 10, while in those of
6-10 months the insula is so narrow cephalad that it may grad-
uate insensibly into the frontal lobe without the formation of a
fissure. This is shown in Fig. 5. The area becomes suddenly
much thicker dorso-ventrally near the temporal lobe. Upon
this area one fissure (t, Fig. 5) at least, appears to be constant.
It seems to originate upon the lateral surface of the insula
nearly opposite the mouth of the Sylvian fissure. It sometimes
extends scarcely to the dorsal surface while in others (those of
one year and over) it may extend dorso-caudally almost across
the insular area as in Figs. 6, 8 and Io.
10 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Other fissures are nearly always found upon this area.
The cephalic portion of the insula is divided sometimes into as
many as three gyres but these divisions are not believed to be
constant, and in the pig, as in the sheep, owing to its compar-
atively simple character, these individual differences are very
striking. The fissures as a rule grow deeper as they approach
the meson and the cephalic portion of the insula does not
extend as far as laterad as the rest.
DESCRIPTION OF PEATE I.
fig.z. Lateral aspect of the Left Hemicerebrum of a Pig, (after Turner).
r, rhinal fissure; s, Sylvan fissure.
Fig. 2. Right Hemicerebrum of Pig. No. 13; x %. In, Imsula; Sy,
Sylvian Fissure; Rh, Rhinal Fissure; Olf, Olfactory Tract.
Fig. 3. Lateral aspect of Left Half Brain of Pig (after Huxley). Sy, Syl-
vian Fissure; In, Insula.
Fig. 4. Lateral Aspect of Right Half of Brain of Pig. No 17; x %
Rh, Rhinal Fissure; Sy, Sylvian Fissure; Olf, Olfactory Tract; Op, Optie
Nerve.
fig. 5. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig. No. 12; x 4%. Olfactory bulb re-
moved. Olf, Olfactory Tract; In, Insula.
fig. 6. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig, showing Insula as seen when the Dorso-
lateral overlapping portions are removed. Olfactory Bulb removed No. 133
x 2%. In. Insula; T, Union of Insula with Temporal Lobe; OIf, Olfactory
Tract.
fig. 7. Right Hemicerebrum of Pig. No.9; x %. In, Insula; C, Cir-
cuminsular Fissure; R, Rhinal Fissure.
Fig. §. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig, showing Insula as viewed from dorso-
lateral aspect. No.9; x 24. In, Insula; Olf, Olfactory Tract.
fig. g. Right Hemicerebrum of Brain of Pig. No.9; x 4%. In, Insula.
fig. ro. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig. No. 17; x 2%. In, Insula; Olf,
Olfactory Tract.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDULLATED
NERVE-FIBRES.
With Plate II.
By SG: 1. Herrick.
It is remarkable that a question apparently so simple as
that respecting the development of the nerve fibre should re-
main without an answer. The necessity for a clear comprehen-
sion of the course of normal development of nerves is more
important than it might otherwise appear because of its bearing
on the vexed question ot the degeneration and regeneration of
the same structures. The literature upon the latter subject has
been steadily increasing without affording unambiguous evidence
as to the exact method of regeneration. While several writers,
like Notthaft,! claim that the regeneration proceeds from the
central stump peripherad, others, like Howell and Huber, find
that the new axis-cylinder originates cotemporaneously through-
out the newly-formed sheath. Much obscurity still prevails as
to the part played by the nuclei of Schwann’s sheath during the
regeneration of the axis-cylinder though it is not doubted that
the remarkable proliferation which they undergo sustains some
important relations to the absorbtion of the exudates from the
decomposing nerve and the regenerative processes which follow.
The influence of high authority has supported the view
that a nerve fibre is derived from a central neuron (cell of vent-
ral cornu or spinal ganglion) and extends unbrokenly to its
peripheral end-organ whether the distance thus covered be mil-
limeters or meters. So long as the dogma of nervous conduc-
tion by continuity prevailed this seemed to physiologists a
natural if not a necessary postulate. When, however, we dis-
covered that within the neuraxis the tracts of nervous conduc-
tion are frequently composed of series of contiguous neurons,
1. Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Verlauf der Degenerations- und Re-
generations—processe. Zeztsch. f. wiss. Zool. iv. 1.
[11]
12 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the necessity, at least, of the primitive continuity of a nerve
fibre no longer maintained. The outgrowth of ventral nerves
from the spinal cord was first conjectured by Bidder and
Kupffer who also supposed that the dorsal arose in this manner.
Koelliker, Marshall, and especially His have adopted the
same view. The last mentioned has given very complete descript-
ions of the process of histogenesis and has showed that the
sensory fibres are derived from the ganglionic ridge or spinal
ganglion rudiments and send fibres in both directions, i.e. into
the neuraxis and peripherad. Almost all these authors, includ-
ing Sagemehl, His, and Koelliker, have assumed that the out-
growing fibres are continuous processes of the central cells,
which, accordingly, must attain a prodigious length in order to
reach their peripheral end-organs. According to Koelliker and
His, cellular elements from the mesenchyme surround the
bundles, penetrate between the fibres and, at first sparingly,
but afterwards at regular intervals produce the sheath of
Schwann. Balfour, on the other hand, remained unshaken in his
belief in moniliform adhesions of outgrowing cells which arise in
the cord. In vol. II. of his Comparative Embryology he says
‘“‘The cellular, structure of embryonic nerves is a point on
which I should have anticipated that a difference of opinion was
impossible, had it not been for the fact that His and Koelliker,
following Remak and other older embryologists, absolutely deny
the fact. I feel quite sure that no one studying the develop-
ment of the nerves in Elasmobranchs with well-preserved
specimens could be for a moment doubtful on this point.”
Dohrn at one time took the same position though we believe he
has since receded from it. Hensen’s view is, at first sight,
quite different. I quote from Hertwig’s Embryology as follows.
‘‘He [Hensen] opposes the doctrine of the outgrowth of nerve-
fibres chiefly from physiological considerations. He can think
of no motive which is capable of conducting nerves which
grow out of the spinal cord to their proper terminations—which
shall cause, for example, the ventral roots always to go to
muscles, the dorsal to organs not muscular, and shall prevent
confusion taking place between the nerves of the iris and those
Herrick, Zhe Development of Nerve-Fibres. 13
of the eye-muscles, between the branches of the trigeminus and
the acoustic and facialis, etc. Therefor Hensen maintains on
theoretical grounds that it is necessary to assume that ‘the nerves
never grow out to thew terminations, but are always in connection
with them.’ According to this view, which he endeavors to
support by observations, the embryonic cells are, for the most
part, united with one another by means of fine connecting
threads. He maintains that when a cell divides the connecting
thread also splits, and in this manner there arises an endless
network of fibres; Out of these the nerve-tracts are developed,
while other parts of the network degenerate.”
Respecting this theory it may be said that it has the obvi-
ous virtue of recognizing a difficulty which has been systematic-
ally underestimated or ignored. Furthermore recent discoveries
in lower vertebrates and worms show that the sensory nerves
primarily arise from the general epidermis which in the primi-
tive state consisted of a blending of neuro- and spongio-epithe-
lium. The ectoderm was homogeneous throughout. In the
worms the neuroblastic cells are not concentrated as perfectly as
in vertebrates and even in vertebrates the concentration varies
within wide limits. In Amphioxus the spinal ganglion lies
along the whole length of the dorsal root to its bifurcation.
We believe that the spinal ganglia of other vertebrates are to be
homologized with the disperse neuroblastic cells of the general
ectoderm and that the central trunk contains homologues of one
set of anastomosing branches, the peripheral trunk those of an-
other.
It would seem impossible to doubt that the motor roots
actually arise in the cord and pass to their motor or trophic ter-
mini, though it has often seemed to the writer that the evidence
is that the formation of the specific muscle or gland is to be as-
cribed to the influence of the migrating nerve rather than that
the nerve ‘‘fundament”’ gropes. blindly toward its destination
and plays a temporary game of hide and seek with the latter.
Much more investigation in invertebrate neurology is needed
to enable us to grasp the morphological and physiological laws
which have been involved in the formation of the concentrated
14 JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
motor apparatus in the cord and its relations with muscles, etc.,
external to the neuraxis. It may be assumed that the principle
enunciated by Hensen will be found to lie implicate in earlier
conditions than those which now prevail.
It is intended to give at this time a part of the evidence
which led the writer to say in a previous number of this Journal
(p. cxxxix), ‘‘study of the growth of nerves in embryos of ser-
pents, amphibians and mammals has convinced the writer that,
in some cases at least, the growth is by moniliform adhesion of
neurons.”
The facts and observations will be given as briefly as possi-
ble without attempt to cite literature. Our thesis is the follow-
ing: Medullated nerve fibres are formed from proliferating cell-
masses which arise either within the neuraxis from niduli of mul-
tiplying cells (centrifugal fibres) or from spinal ganglia (centripe-
tal fibres.) The nerve grows by intrinsic proliferation due to
karyokinetic multiplication of the neurons. Such proliferation
may take place anywhere in the nerve. The nuclei of the neu-
rons at first lie in the fibre thus produced and only subsequently
are ‘‘side-tracked’”’ and are connected with the sheath. They .
probably retain a vital connection with the fibre. The sheath is
to be regarded as a peculiarly modified cell-wall of the neuron.
(It is possible that the segment-forming cells of the nerve-fibre
should be compared with spongioblast elements, and it is doubt-
ful whether an arbitrary separation can at first be made between
spongioblasts and neuroblasts, but the point here made is that
they are derivations of the neuraxis. )
1. The nuclei of the nerve fibres are derived from the
neuraxis. Fig. 1, of Plate II, illustrates the origin of the ocu-
lomotor nerve in a young snake embryo. In this case, as in all
other motor roots at an early stage, there is a peripheral migra-
tion of cells connected with the root. Other neuroblasts are
crowding peripherad from within. Some may be traced to the
boundary of the medulla and resemble in every respect others
which lie in the peripheral part of the nerve. Throughout the
entire course of the nerve it is made up of neurons of a similar
sort. Fig. 3, of the same plate indicates the relations in a sala-
Herrick, Zhe Development of Nerve-Fibres. 15
mander larva, where some of the nuclei are actually emerging.
Fig. 11, shows the relations as seen in a horizontal section of
the thoracic cord near its ventral surface. @—a indicates the
position of the median line. The karyokinetic figures near the
periphery belong to the sheath, but the others are undoubtedly
elements of the root system. At an adjacent level very numer-
ous neuroblasts in mitosis are seen near the central canal.
2. After issuing from the neuraxis the cell masses contin-
ue to multiply. Fig. 2 illustrates subdivision of a neuron in the
seventh nerve of a very young embryo of Eutenia near its exit
from the medulla. Fig. 10 is an illustration of mitosis in the
midst of a fibre of spinal nerve in the salamander larva some
distance from the ganglion. Only a few of the neurons are
drawn, but lines mark the width of the nerve. Fig. 12 indi-
cates the subdivision of neurons in the ganglion of the eighth
nerve, (here only a few cells are drawn.)
3. The nuclei thus formed are at first continuous with the
embryonic fibres out of which the axis-cylinder is formed.
Figs. 4, 7 and 8 are introduced to verify this point and were
drawn by aid of an excellent one-twelfth immersion and Abbe
illuminating apparatus. The preparations are from salamander
larve fixed with chromacetic and platinic chlorid and stained
with hematoxylin and acid fuchsin after sectioning in paraffin
and walrath in continuous bands. Fig. 5 is a cross section of a
similar nerve showing the only case observed where the fibre
lay beside the nucleus (a) instead of continuous with it. In all
other cases at this stage the nucleus alone occupied the walls.
Fig. 6, which cuts obliquely through a spinal ganglion, illus-
trates the same fact. Fig. 10 shows that the cells ot a spinal
ganglion actually are converted into nuclei, 6 being regarded as
an intermediate state.
4. Innone of the cases cited is there any other source
visible for the nuclei, which are obviously rapidly multiplying,
than that indicated. There is no evidence of the intrusion of
connective elements to associate themselves with the nervous
fibres. This is especially true in the salamander, where there
is the most diagramatic simplicity in structure. Fig. 9 gives an
16 JoURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
idea of the extreme simplicity where the spongioblasts and neu-
roblasts are clearly seen in their relation to the root and tracts.
In those cases where the sheaths of nerves are forming there is
no difficulty in distinguishing the elements of the latter from
the nuclei of the nerve fibres.
The part played by these nuclei in regeneration is most
simply explained as a mere repetition of that part which they
originally took in the formation of the nerve. In the optic
nerve the formation of sheathes by interpolation of connective
matter is very readily seen in reptilia but the sheath material
cannot be compared with the neurons or their derivatives. In
mammalia and birds the relations are obscure. The chick is
one of the least satisfactory subjects for histogenesis in the
whole realm.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.
Fig z. Root of oculo-motor nerve. Black snake embryo.
fig 2. Seventh nerve near its junction with the medulla of very young
Eutaenia embryo. a@.a. case of subdivision of the neuroblasts.
fig. 3. Very early stage of Salamander larva, showing actual emergence
of neuroblasts from the medulla (on the right.)
fig 4. Isolated neurons of motor nerves in salamander larva. A double
stain of hematoxylin and acid fuchsin.
figs. 5, 6. Cross sections of ganglia with the emerging nerve, illustrating
the fact that the nuclei as well as the fibre, are independent of the wall and
that as a rule at this stage one does not encounter do¢h fibre and nucleus within
the sheath but one or the other as the section may pass. At a, however, the
fibre has been differentiated off from its nucleus whose protoplasm has disap-
peared.
fig. 7. A neuron in which the thread is being differentiated off.
fig. 8. Fibres from the dorsal root crossed by others of the ventral root
passing to the dorsal muscles.
fig. g. Portion of a transection of the spinal cord of salamander larva
showing the distinction between spongioblast and neuroblast cells in the ventral
portion.
fig. ro. A few neurons from a nerve at its exit from the ganglion. At a@
karyokinetic subdivision of a neuron ; at 6a ganglion cell producing a fibre and
transforming into a nerve nucleus; at can unaltered ganglion cell. The width
of the nerve is indicated by the outlines.
fig. 1. One half of a section through the ventral part of the spinal cord
of salamander at the exit of aroot. The median line is along a—a. The large
karyokinetic figures doubtless belong to the sheathiu which mitosis is very easily
observed.
fig. 12. Eighth nerve? Several cells of the ganglion and the nidulus.
EDITORIAL.
TuHeE ScrentTiFic UTILity oF DREAMS.
Our practical age is prone to antagonize anything which
cannot be converted into substantial utility, yet the very
delving after utility not infrequently discovers stern realities in
the most shadowy regions. Even practical men dare not
openly revile the scientific employment of the imagination and
the genius which condenses the vapors of our furnaces into
commercial worth may yet succeed in condensing the vaporings
of the sleeping brain or distilling the mercurial humors which
the school of Descartes fancied hissed through the tube-like
avenues of the cerebrum.
Dreams have undoubtedly had more to do with the origin
and coloring of religious belief than any physical influence
whatever. While the careful student will avoid the rash state-
ment hazarded by Radestock that the belief in the supernatural
is a direct product of dream association and disassociation, the
most reverent critic will recall that in the older time the most
characteristic avenue of inspiration has been ‘‘dreams and vis-
ions of the night.” It is true that destructive scientific criticism
has employed this fact with rude force to undermine the validity
of all revelation and especially to destroy the grounds of con-
fidence in the existence and immortality of the soul, neverthe-
less after such attempts there must follow a period of recon-
struction. Because the source of familiar ideas and beliefs is
not just what we supposed or the medium of vision is of an
unexpected character it does not follow that the content—be it
faith or sight—is worthless or totally unreliable. Narrower
inspection, sharper criticism, wider generalization—these are
the correctives which doubt needs rather than the mildly
soporific prescription of ignorance offered by bigotry and con-
servatism.
18 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
The literature of the subject is enormous but with few
exceptions genuine scientific methods have been conspic-
uously absent. Either the mind has been dominated by a
mysticism akin to dream-life itself or the student has failed to
take the subject seriously. The scientific study of dreams
requires peculiar discipline and unusual conditions. First
catch your dream—and this is by no means so easy as it first
appears, not so much because one cannot dream at will as
because the tissue of a dream deliquesces on exposure to the
daylight of cortical consciousness. A dream melts in the warm
hand, it is distorted by a breath, it phosphoresces and burns
out in an oxygenated atmosphere, the cinder left at the ter-
minus of its comet-like trajectory is very unlike the actual
dream. A dream must be prepared by a special technique as
essential as paraffine imbedding for sectioning the tissues of the
brain which produces it.
One must be conscious of two sets of physical environ-
ments. The dream association is played upon a different stage
and before a different audience from that of waking states. Yet
the drama of the day is frequently the parody of the night.
When one recalls a dream, especially to repeat it, the elements
are clothed in the language of day association and uncon-
sciously to ourselves we recreate the whole scene to an extent
which deprives it of much of its scientific value. Even when
one lies quietly with closed eyes and immediately upon waking
traces hastily on a scratch book the outlines of the dream, he
finds no words to express the peculiar shadowy character of his
dream. I am convinced that one peculiarity of the dream
which distinguishes it from presentations of waking experience
is the fact that a concept is incompletely associated with its sen-
suous elements. During normal states the concept of a dog
involuntarily associates with itself the presentations of hairiness,
size, bark, wagging of tail, warm breath, etc., etc., but the
dream dog may possess only the wag of the tail and be neither
hairy, warm or noisy. The image is like that of a triangle
with three angles and no sides which the geomety of dreams
finds no difficulty in construing. Another peculiarity of the
Editorial, 19
dream is that generally some predominant feeling or general
notion is the determinant which groups the scanty materials at
disposition in aggregates consistent with it. The sudden open-
ing of a new avenue of association, adding new elements to the
complex, changes the whole setting of the dream, forming new
associational groups according to definite laws, but the feeling
is not altered and the change does not bring with it any sense
of incongruity—its personal value remains unaltered.
An illustration of the result of this one-sided association is
a dream which the writer had when a student in Germany.
Being seated with a friend in a garden, a small lizard-like, active
animal appeared which at the same time seemed to be a Jap-
anese student. The impressions were not vivid enough to be
readily recalled but the effect was of some small active unfamil-
iar animal associated on one hand with the concept “zard and
on the other with the concept native of Japan. 1 was told that
most Japanese students were good linguists and accordingly
addressed the lizard in the best German I could command,
politely inquiring if he was familiar with the language. He at
once reqlied in fairly good German and with irreproachable
suavity. There was considerable surprise that the lizard should
speak German but none whatever at the fundamental marvel
that he could speak at all. In general, during that period the
presentations of words and phrases were uncommonly distinct
as a result of a struggle with a new language.
A great deal of historical matter has been collected by
recent writers on dreams, for an excellent summary of which
one may consult Radestock, (Schlaf and Traum, Leipzig, 1879,)
to which author we are indebted for many of the facts here
cited. The older Greek writers recognized dreams as of divine
origin. In Homer they are represented as derived from Zeus,
who, however, was not above sending delusive visions when it
suited his purposes. The Pythagoreans, Socrates and Xenaphon
trusted to the prophetic nature of dreams and even Plato
taught that the moral man might acquire a deeper insight into
truth during sleep than amid the distractions of the day.
Paracelsus describes what he calls the sidereal part of the soul
20 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
which ascends to its native stars during sleep, there extend-
ing its ordinary sphere of knowledge. A curious approach to
the modern doctrine of hypnotic suggestion is found in the
view of Von Nettesheim that through an effort of the will one
may control the dreams of another person even though ignorant
of the distance and position of the subject.
The philosophical importance of dreams lies obviously in
the belief openly expressed by Tylor, Radestock and others
that the concept of the immortality and even the separate
existence of the soul originally grew out of dream appearances.
It is certainly the fact that in the earliest ages dreams were
regarded as the most direct and important means of revelation.
The office of ‘‘interpreter of dreams’ was more important far
than the corresponding meterological bureau of the modern
regime. The history of the Hebrew people would have been
far different, as Dr. Hale has shown with no less acumen than
wit in his clever tale of the yellow dog, if Providence had not
watched over the career of Joseph, the dreamer of Dothan.
When the Guinea negro sees his departed foe in visions upon
his bed it never occurs to him to doubt the reality of the visit.
When the savage dreams of the happy hunting grounds he
awakes with full confidence that his spirit has left the bodily
tenement and tasted the first fruits of his pious ferocity. The
Tagli in Luzon believe that a dreaming person should not be
awakened lest his soul should perchance be absent. An Indian
in Manilla, on awakening suddenly, found only the part of the
body of his companion from the middle upwards lying by his
side, the rest having wandered away in the formof ‘‘Tigbalang,”’
He covered the torso with ashes, at which the missing portion
returned with threatening gestures being unable to reunite with
the trunk by reason of the ashes. It is not merely the savages
of Africa and the Chinese who believe that the air is thick with
spirits who share our food and largely control our acts. A cer-
tain grade of mental development and various conditions of
body and periods in life predispose to a belief in what we char-
acterize, in the natives of New Zealand, as gross superstition.
The most diverse and widely separated races have the com-
Fiditortal. 21
mon belief that special precautions are necessary to prevent the
spirit from returning to its once familiar scenes. The Green-
landers, Siamese and Hottentots carry the body through a
breech in the wall or a window, to prevent this unwelcome vis-
itation. Many African races avoid the hut for a certain time.
It is not difficult to believe that this time is an approximate
measure of the vividness of the association which calls up in
sleep the image of the departed one.
Lower animals and even inanimate objects thus come to be
animated with a being, an essence which corresponds in certain
points with the corporeal object of experience. This dualism is
so universal that philosophy is quite as much under its influence
as popular language and thought. Some modern thinkers seem
to react so far from this view as to be willing to ascribe all onto-
logical concepts to the effects of visionary misconceptions—in
fine, to dreams and analogous products. The monism of a
modern psycho-physicist is inclined to say with Fechner, ‘‘ The
soul is not an independent being within or associated with the
body, but it is bound up with the corporeal substratum. Spirit
and matter, soul and body are two different aspects of one and
the identical essence, depending on whether it is presented to
the external or internal experience.”’
Enough has been said to indicate that the phenomena of
dreams have a deep interest for every thinking man and, inas-
much as the scope of this article does not include the specula-
tive problems just referred to, it will be sufficient to add a word
of warning. Because it seems more or less probable or possi-
ble that some of the very highest and most potent beliefs of the
human mind may have been formulated or given conceptual ex-
pression through the instrumentality of the airy touch of dreams
it by no means logically follows that these same beliefs and con-
cepts may be lightly rejected as a tissue of fantasy with no real
foundation. It would be quite as legitimate to distrust visual
impressions because they are the result of an intangible image
utterly dissimilar to the real object which they present to our
perception. To the psychologist dreams are of value primarily
because they afford a method of analysis which serves to sepa-
22 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
rate elements which in waking experience are indissolubly con-
nected by association. At the same time new applications of
the laws of association themselves are afforded.
The dream is generally a spontaneous abstraction which
does not rise above its simplest form. The qualities thus ab-
stracted are not generally associated with concrete names or, if
so, are so erroneously associated that the separation may be
affected by sufficient care. This abstraction is of the character
of what Morgan calls an isolate rather than a general notion.
It is as though the highly illuminated side of a cube were sepa-
rated from the rest of its sides and presented in consciousness
when the latter is too torpid to supply by associatlon the parts
necessary to a perfect image. On waking one fills out the
hiatus unconsciously but with a degree of uncertainty which he
cannot account for in view of the great vividness of the dream.
Spitta says, ‘‘the first symptoms by which sleep ordinarily an-
nounces its approach a longer or shorter time in advance of its
actual entrance, the feeling of stupidness, weariness, sleepiness,
consists primarily in the fact that we are involuntarily forced to
turn our attention to our own subjective condition.”’ He calls
attention to the fact that, during the day, activities are carried
out with a certain spontaneity which is gradually lost with the
approach of sleep. Even the fixation of the attention upon
external objects is lost.
It seems to us that this analysis is uncritical in one respect.
Granted that the senses become fatigued and that every attempt
at giving expression to the will meets serious hinderances which
force themselves upon our attention if we persist in our pur-
pose, and granted that our internal sensations are not so quickly
quenched, it does not follow that the latter are increased or that
self-consciousness is intensified. That such an appearance is
simply relative is easily seen. Every one knows that the con-
centration of thought upon one’s subjective states is not a good
method of conquering sleeplessness.
Yet in another sense we agree with Spitta that during sleep
subjectivity dominates.
The wide divergence of opinion respecting the psychical
Editortal. 23
nature and value of sleep is gathered from a comparison of
Hegel, who said life is divided into two realms—a night life of
genius, and a day life of consciousness, or of Fortlage who says,
‘only in as far as we sleep do we live, when we awake we begin
to die,”” or Erdman, who said ‘‘ sleep is a regression into embry-
onic life,’’ with that of Spitta, who says that in sleep the life is
impoverished as though it were only present in outline.
The view held by Hegel resembles more than any other
the opinion prevalent among the Greenlanders that there are
two souls; Ist, the breath of life which forms the psychical
continuum during the entire life; 2d, the spirit or shade, which
is a more etherial essence not so strictly connected with the
body. The latter during dreams may entirely leave the body
and pursue an independent avocation in the realm of shades.
The question whether the active life of the soul is inter-
rupted during dreamless sleep has a theoretical importance
quite disproportionate to its practical significance. Were it
true that such an interruption occurs, it would never enter
consciousness, since an unfilled portion of experience like
the non-visual portion of the retina never finds immediate
expression. On the one hand, if the soul were simply the sum
of the physical stimuli which attain a certain violence or refine-
ment there could be no question of chronological continuity or
integrity ; on the other, if the soul be a being distinct from the
body and only incidentally connected with the latter in certain
conditions of excitation, the activity of consciousness might be
doubly determined by the variations of the body and en-
tirely inaccessible psychical phenomena beyond conscious-
ness. If we substitute the monistic interpretation and
consider the conscious life as one aspect of a real being whose
other side finds expression in terms of physical phenomena it
would be natural to expect these two manifestations to be con-
tinuously associated though with varying intensity. Strimpel, !
says, ‘‘ The activity of the soul in sleep is not limited to dreams,
as it is not limited when awake to consciousness. It withdraws
1. Natur u. Entstehung der Traume; Leigzig, 1874.
24 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
inward in its unconscious forms without ceasing to be soul on
that account. But this position, which is also unquestioningly
accepted by Spitta, seems but a begging of the whole question.
If there is a psychical activity apart from my consciousness how
do I know that it is the activity of my soul? Might we not
with equal reasonableness take the position of the savage that
some spirit visited us in dreams ?
So long as we do not know the conditions which enable the
physical stimuli resulting from external and internal physiologi-
cal irritation to appear in consciousness, we can only say that
since these processes are uninterrupted there may be even
during deep sleep some feeble and imperfect consciousness. That
such is the case is rendered probable by the fact that even very
vivid and painful dreams vanish on awaking in case their con-
tent has no direct connection with the present. A fact which
has been variously interpreted is that one can readily determiue
to awaken. at a given hour and rarely fail in so doing if the im-
portance is sufficiently realized. Perhaps one awakens too soon
or is somewhat restless, in other cases the sleep is profound. I
have observed in such cases that upon accidental awaking early
in the night a certain burden is always upon the mind, 1.e.
a consciousness of an obligation which may require some time
to clear up sufficiently to produce a concept of that which is to
be done. This is true of the early part of the night; later, as
the hour approaches, the association with the purpose to rise is
often more close. Many times the writer has plunged out of
bed in a condition of stupor requiring some minutes to gain a
concept of the reason for the act and the place in which he was.
These phenomena we interpret as indicating an enduring effect
exerted by the waking will on the sleeping associational
processes. If one dreams, this impress is nearly always present
in one form or other. It sometimes happens that in dream the
obligation is fulfilled and the pressure is thus relieved and one
fails to awaken at the proper time or awakes with the feeling
that the purpose for which he was to rise is accomplished.
It must be insisted that the fact that no dream was recalled
is no proof that one has not dreamed. As an illustration of
Editorial. 25
the last mentioned fact I may mention that one day as I sat in
Prof. Ebbinghaus’ lecture room following a discussion, I caught
sight of the back of a man’s head, who reminded me of General
C., whom I had not seen for nearly a year. A second glance
showed that there was no resemblance except in the position of
the head and the gray hair, but I then became aware of a dream
of the previous night in which I had conducted a party of
children to the rooms of the general in an American city where
the latter exhibited his interesting collection of microscopic ob-
jects. It appeared that I had conducted the children at the in-
stance of a lady who might have been the principal of a school
or head of a pension and who, as it proved, had presumed to
send the children without invitation. While embarassed by
this information, General C. reassured me by saying that it was
a pleasure to serve in this way as it was the only service he was
now capable of in his failing health, The whole dream was
vivid and affecting. It was a composite of which most elements
were clear on reflection. The evening before I had thought of
General C., had planned to write him in explanation of an ap-
parent neglect. I had been to Urania, a popular Berlin scien-
tific institute, and had been reminded of General C.’s collection,
had seen a teacher conducting a squad of boys of say fourteen
years, had recalled a social obligation respecting a certain lady
at the head of a pension in Berlin and had felt some uneasiness
as to my health. That a dream of this vivid sort did not remain
in memory in the morning when, as was my habit, I lay with
closed eyes ransacking my consciousness tor any evidence of
dream activity may serve to indicate that a vast deal goes on
every night the burden of which we are not forced to carry in
memory during the day.
This is a question which has usually been settled as
Descartes settled it by deduction from the systematic stand-
point: ‘‘As the light always shines, and heat always warms,
so the soul constantly thinks.”’
But we pass to the nature of dreams and the lessons we
may learn from it.
Spitta defines dreaming as the process of unconscious out-
26 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ward projection or objectivizing of a series of conceptual images
in consciousness during sleep, through which they attain an ap-
pearance of reality. In other words, it is, in a sense, a dramatiza-
tion of purely subjective processes of the soul during sleep.
Nearly all modern authors except Wundt agree that dreams
are characterized by a special development of the feelings. We
may add that the most striking peculiarity of dreams is the
small number of elements associated in a concept. In this re-
spect the study of dreams promises much, but it must be crit-
ical study, no mere collection of anecdotes. Of this sort of
critical analysis we have as yet no illustration. The difficulty
lies chiefly in the impossibility of preventing a completion of
these incomplete concepts. Thus I dreamed of a person who
was not sensuously presented at all but simply the peculiarity
that he was a student of history; this ‘‘isolate’’ alone seems to
have come into consciousness. Such an unclothed concept is
never tolerated in waking consciousness long enough to be ob-
served and when we reach the corresponding ‘‘abstraction’’ we
seem to have a composite element. An attentive study of
dreams will show that a certain variety of dreams consists
chiefly in this promenade of isolates. Properly understood we
believe that the same activity is also constantly at work in
waking thought. The formation ot abstractions is not so inex-
plicable as it seems if we grant that the elements of a concept
are not bound up into any such essential unity as we think but
first appear as concrete in every case.
These isolates also exist in waking experience separated
from their concrete. For example, I was walking in a careless
state of mind down a street in Cincinnati and observed a par-
tially finished stone foundation. I thought nothing of it and
continued musing when I saw on the other side of the street an
incomplete brick building. As I looked I became conscious of
a peculiar recognition of a recent experience. My interest was
excited and I asked myself what is it which I seem to recognize
as familiar. It is not the house—that is entirely unfamiliar—
ah, it is the fact that it is incomplete, a concept of incomplete-
ness is in my mind. Where and what have I just seen which
Editorial, 27
has left only this element? I could not tell, but, as I turned
back and .the foundation came into view, I suddenly became
aware of the concrete which had been the origin of my abstract
—it was the foundation which bore no resemblance to the brick
building. A concept of incompleteness could form an inde-
pendent element in a dream and associate with itself the most
heterogeneous elements.
It is true that dreams often consist in simply sensuous
images, but these are not dreams proper but states of visual
fantasy in no way different from those which one has_ before
falling asleep.
Where sensuous images play a part in true dreams there is
usually but one sense occupied at one time. On waking we
add the associative elements from other senses unconsciously.
Thus a dream ,which contained only visual sensuous elements
and a series of general concepts is clothed with tactile sensa-
tions and the concepts are furnished with words. How often
in attempting to relate a dream which seemed perfectly clear in
recollection have we been obliged to subject it to curious meta-
morphoses in order to adapt it to speech in any form. Our or-
dinary speech does not enable us to accurately describe the tact
that we were in some way prepossessed by a feeling of danger
and, looking up, saw a mountain, which was not a mountain
but a painted canvas, which seemed about to fall upon us and
yet, at the same time, would only fall upon us in the belief of
some other people (perhaps an audience) while we knew that it
was alla play and we should escape, but that nevertheless we
must feel a certain fear in our capacity as players. Such a com-
bination of concepts (derived from a recent dream) we would
either describe as a dream of being in Pompeii or acting a part
in a play representing the destruction of Pompei.
The careful study of dreams shows that the interpretation
of our own immediate mental states is much more complicated
than psychologists are wont to admit. The idea that, by intro-
spection, we reach simple and unambiguous realities of our ex-
perience is founded on a fallacy which is especially obvious in
the recollection of a dream. As Miinsterberg well says of will:
28 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
‘“‘The method of study of the will does not consist simply in
self-observation but in a first stage of involuntary perception,
and second, a stage of reproduction in memory of the percep-
tion, and third, analytical dismemberment of the reproduction.”
But it is well known that only a very few elements in any pre-
sentation of sense are selected by attention for actual perception
and the vast spaces between these characteristic elements are
unconsciously filled out by fancy under the laws of association.
In dreams the number of elements associated in a presentation
or concept is very much reduced and the interval between the
perception and act of recollection is greater. We are able to
observe more accurately the process of rehabilitating the isolated
elements. Often it is beyond our power to combine them by
associational processes proper to waking states and they slip
through our fingers.
The sensorial side of dreams finds many analogies in wak-
ing states. It is the belief of of the writer that the images
(visual or otherwise) which have once set their seal upon the
mechanism of consciousness continue to glow there for a longer
or shorter period and that, while ordinary states of attention
obscure them by the superior brilliancy of immediate recepts,
there are physical and mental conditions which may blow them
into a flame vivid even to waking consciousness. As a child,
living apart from others of the same age and nervously sensitive,
it was for many months an almost constant experience, when-
ever tired at night, to be greeted on closing the eyes ina re-
cumbent posture by a succession of involuntary images of the
most varied and complicated description. These appeared in
monochrome or in natural or even brilliant colors, embracing
landscapes of great beauty as well as faces with the most diverse
expressions. These panoramic displays were enjoyed and the
attempt was made to prolong them, which was rarely successful for
more than a moment. They seemed to be associated with after
images which in my then condition persisted for hours. The
effort to retain the visions were chiefly oculomotor. No con-
scious control or immediate suggestion was recognized, though
landscapes usually succeeded landscapes and faces followed faces.
Edttorzal, : 209
These images were not reproductions of familiar scenes or faces,
but fantasy products in which the variety was infinite. In
only one or two cases have similar experiences been admitted
by others. One friend occasionally hears a band of music with
all the parts and claims that .it would be possible to write the
score. The explanation of such phenomena seems to be that
latent residua are revived and intensified by defective blood
pressure and the correlations are carried out in accordance either
with the varying intensity of the irritant or in obedience to laws
as yet undiscovered. It is believed that there is a similar pro-
cess continually going on in our subconsciousness and that
the results of these phenomena make themselves felt in the
b)
thoughts which ‘‘pop into our heads” as we are wont to say
without obvious sense or source.
It has frequently been observed that it is easier to account
for dreams than for sleep. Lotze vainly sought to solve the
problem of the intermittent manifestation of the soul—a _ prob-
lem of vital consequence to his theory of the existence of the
soul—by postulating a large number of small irritants which
cooperate to depress the psychical activity and finally succeed
in temporarily inhibiting it.
For those, on the other hand, who identify psychical pro-
cesses more or less closely with their physical or rather physio-
logical concomitants the more reasonable explanation is that ex-
haustion of the nervous system diminishes its receptivity for
external stimuli which are far the most efficient agents. The
internal irritants, on the other hand, arising from the organic
processes, although normally less intense during sleep, acquire a
greater significance and to a certain extent take the place of
cortical excitements. The seat of the soul is thus in a sense
transferred from the cerebral cortex to the axial portion of the
brain. Thus, the inhibitory or controling effect of cortical in-
nervation being diminished, the sub-cortical processes are free
to make such use as they can of the avenues of association
chance leaves open to them.
If the above theory be true the closer connection of dream
experiences with dominent states of feeling becomes clear upon
30 JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the basis the association of somatic nervous changes with the
feelings.
It is needless to spend time with the earlier attempts to ex
plain sleep. It has been ascribed to a sort of dropsical condi-
tion and to a dessication of the brain, to a plethora and poverty
of blood, to a change in the spleen and a collapse of the vetri-
cles, to an accumulation of carbon dioxide and simple fatigue,
to heat and electricity; sleep has even been ascribed to a
peculiar explosive action in the brain.
All modern authors agree that the active and quiescent
' states ot the brain are constantly associated with changes in
blood pressure and composition, but there is little unanimity as
to the exact chemical and physical conditions of sleep. It can-
not be doubted that oxygen is a very important factor in the
normal activity of the nerve cell as well as all other elements.
The well known facts that in a trepaned subject the brain be-
comes pale and shrunken during sleep and that ligaturing of the
carotid arteries causes unconsciousness, are explained by Preyer
on the assumption that the diminished quantity of oxygen is the
direct cause of the depressed function. He says, ‘‘ Except the
liver there is no other tissue in the body which deprives the
blood corpuscles of their oxygen so rapidly as the brain.” The
same effect as that produced by the ligaturing of the carotids
may be produced by diminishing the oxygen content of the at-
mosphere. However, it is impossible to demonstrate a suffi-
cient difference in blood supply to account for the peculiar phe-
nomena of sleep. It is necessary to assume that the oxygen is
otherwise employed in sleep than during waking. During act-
ive waking hours the muscle and nerve cells form an accumula-
tion of easily oxidizable substance (lactic acid) which during
sleep is oxidized, thus abstracting from the blood a large portion
of its oxygen. The experimental attempts to demonstrate the
availability of lactic acid and its compounds have been variously
interpreted and the result must at present be considered nega-
tive.
Quite recently we have acquired more definite evidence of
sreat histological changes in nerve cells as a result of fatigue. It
Lditorzal. at
is demonstrable that motor nerve-cells after prolonged activity
undergo important chemical changes which results in a changed
reaction toward stains and in shrinkage of the nuclei and va-
cuolation and crinkling of the nucleus. Similar changes may
be assumed in cortical cells and these must play an important
part in producing sleep.
Pfliiger has attempted a detailed chemical theory of vital
phenomena in which oscillatory motions of the molecules result-
ing from explosive decomposition and recomposition constitute
the active agents. It does not appear necessary to associate his
chemical theory with his physical ideas which, as is well known,
demand a physical continuum between all parts of the neuro-
muscular and glandular system—a meshwork with absolute
physical continuity and physiological conductivity, but even
without this physical continuity, which recent histological inves-
tigation renders doubtful it might be supposed that the gradual
destruction of substance, waste of oxygen and acumulation of
carbon dioxide might serve to illustrate, if not entirely explain
the intermittent character of sleep. The attempt is also made
to apply the same principle to the explanation of hibernation
and the analogous summer sleep of amphibia. The fact that
hyperemia as well as anemia of the brain may produce uncon-
sciousness is perhaps simply explained by the supposition that
in the former case blood pressure operates mechanically, pro-
ducing disturbing oscillations. The great variety of nerve stim-
ulants owe their effect to changes induced in circulation, in the
nutrition of the cells, or secondary effects which indirectly pro-
duce these effects. Whatever view may be taken of the chem-
ico-physical causes of sleep it is still important to have a clear
idea of the physiological connex between these processes in va-
rious parts of the nervous system. It grows out of the ana-
tomical structure of the brain that nutritive and circulatory pro-
cesses will not be identically effected in all parts of the organ,
and it is by no means indifferent what relation and order pre-
vails in the variation of these proces, as in various portions of
the brain. Meynert, who has attacked this problem, as is well
32 . JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
known, symbolizes the nerve ganglia as so many colonies of inde-
pendent vital beings like protozoans with common stalks.
The most recent theory concerning the physiological cause
of sleep is that of Meynert, which is repeated in his latest lec-
ture. Hesays: ‘‘As we discover that the cell colonies of the
axial portion of the brain at one movement put forth feeble ac-
tivities compared to those of the cortex and again the situation
is reversed, we must recollect that of the myriads of cortex
cells capable of consciousness all are never simultaneously
awake but the greater number are always, in the language of
Fechner, immersed in partial sleep. Consciousness is never an-
imated by all its images and impulses at once, but rather only
those elements which are wide awake, i. e., according to Fech-
ner, are attentive, are the sustainers of the momentary conscious-
ness. As the animal in its hibernation sleep is ina condition
of depressed nutrition and respiration, so the nutritive condition
of the waking cortical cells is different from that of the sleeping.
The work produced by a cerebral cell we call its state of irrita-
tion. Virchow has shown that, in the case of the epithelium of
the kidney, the cells expand when irritated, the muscle ex-
pands when excited, and the nerve cell must, in like man-
ner, through its molecular activity, exert a nutritive attraction
on the protoplasmic tissues when excited and in. greater
activity, as an accompaniment of which its excitement rises,
according to Fechner, above the threshold of consciousness.
In the most characteristic activity of the brain, such as the
delicate play of association, in which state only a few out of
vast numbers of cells are active and these, through the excita-
tion of associational fibres, call into activity cells in a widely
separate area either simultaneously or in a definite serial con-
~ nex, this selective nutrition can only be produced by an indi-
vidualized suction of the elements.”’
This idea of a vital-endosmotic nutritive activity or ‘‘cell-
suction” receives an anatomical support from the recent discov-
eries by means of Golgi’s method which demonstrate that the
nerve cell is always provided with a vast number of fine tubular
fibrils which tend to collect about blood-vessels and lymph
Editorial. 33
spaces and are regarded by Golgi as protoplasmic or nutritive as
contrasted to nervous or excitory fibres. Van Gehuchten, it is
true, feels confident that Cajal is correct in denying any such
radical distinction in function, but, in any case, the absorbtive
power of a cell must be greatly increased by such intimate com-
munication with the .spongy neuroglia and its circulating vital
sap. In a recent address, Jan. 20, 1891, before the scientific
club of Vienna, Prof. Meynert takes up the subject from the
same point of view. ‘‘What is sleep? Obscure as its chemism
undoubtedly is, it may be compared to an intermission of the
pump-like suction of the cortex—a temporary loss of the mole-
cular attraction which supplies the cells, fibres and centres of
consciousness with nutritive plasma and at the same time sucks
away at the permeable surfaces of the fine capillaries, fills them
with blood and produces a functional hyperemia, a congestion
of the active organ.
This loss of the functional attraction may take place very
quickly, as illustrated in the falling asleep of children who
seemed perhaps in the previous moment wide awake.” The
author applies the same explanation to the phenomena of epi-
leptic fainting, hysterical and hypnotic conditions. In the latter
the cortical nutrition is sluggish while the subcortical centres,
being more directly supplied with blood, and thus at a higher
pressure, are still active. The possibility of suggestion lies in
the fact that the influence of another supplies the subcortical
ganglia with the impulses ordinarily derived from the cortex.
The continual gazing at a fixed point serves to divert the
blood supply, while the expectancy causes exhaustion of the
cortex, facilitating the hypnotic state.
It is interesting to learn that the theory proposed by
Meynert of the differential nutrition of the central ganglia and
the cortex gives a physiological basis, in a certain sense, to the
view held by the psychology of the middle ages that the soul
wanders out of the cerebrum into lower parts of the nervous
system during sleep.
In general, the arena upon which dreams disport them-
selves is more or less completely disassociated from that of prac-
34 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
tical life. We awake with the recollection of having had a very
interesting dream but not one element in it can we recall. Per-
haps on the following night it is continued and some associa-
tional element recalls the whole senseless panorama. As already
remarked the feelings ordinarily are the starting point or centre
of crystallization in dreams. Often, too, the feeling is appar-
ently presented without any concrete basis and a variety of en-
tirely unsuited elements are associated with the feeling. Thus
a great feeling of satisfaction and amusement was associated in
my mind with a pun which on awaking proved to consist in the
instead of ‘‘fiend-
some special witicism being supposed to lie in the’
yy”
employment of the words ‘‘fiend-inszarnate
incarnate, ”’
italicised letters. Again, dreaming that I was called upon to
examine the exercises of a class in logic and feeling distressed
by my long neglect of the subject and fearful of not compre-
hending the purport of the topics, I was greatly relieved to
learn that a syllogism ran ‘‘two things separately equal to the
d
same thing are equal to each other” with which I found myself
sufficiently familiar.
Illustrations. External stimuli may be exalted or over-
estimated. (1) During a period of half slumber scarcely to be
distinguished from sleep one becomes conscious of being annoyed
by the barking of a dog. By a strong effort one rouses suff-
ciently to discover that the sound is the ticking of the clock
which is usually not heard at all.
(2) Just as one is falling asleep he becomes conscious of
standing with others before an open grate which produces a
comfortable roar. A feeling of draft is associated. On rousing
again the roar is identified with the sound of traffic on a distant
street. Chills about the shoulder supply the draft and the com-
fortable warmth which is just beginning to creep over one sup-
plies the heat of the fire.
Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. II]. prate 1
Sy?
Journal of Comparative Neurology.
PLATE Il.
Vol. II.
Motor neuren
Ventral fascroude
\e—
ae
PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
OPStiEy GENUS CYPIRIS:
[With Plates III and IV.]
By C?-H., TuRNER:
Some time ago I began to collect material for a study of
the histology of the Ostracoda. The work is progressing, but,
owing to_delays in obtaining material, it will be a year or more
before the work is completed. This being the case and since,
so far as I have been able to discover, no work has been
published on the histological neurology of the fresh-water Os-
tracoda, it is thought that a preliminary note on the nervous
system of Cypris will not be an unwelcome contribution to
Biology. Since it is intended, in the final paper, to give a
resumé of all the histological papers that have been published
on the Ostracoda, no bibliographical list is given in this note:
however, comparisons will be made between the nervous sys-
tem of Cyprzs and that of the other forms that have been de-
scribed. For a similar reason, it is not considered necessary
to give an account of the technique involved. The following
remarks are based chiefly on a study of Cypris herrickt, but
sections of other members of the genus have been used for
comparison.
The nervous system of Cyprzs agrees with that of other
crustacea in being composed of a compound supra-cesophageal
ganglion and a multi-ganglionic ventral chain.
The supra-cesophageal ganglion [fig. 9] or brain lies much
nearer the dorsal than than the ventral surface of the body and
lies cephalad of the foregut. This is a compound structure,
being composed of at least three sets of ganglia. These sets
are: the optic ganglion, the antennulary ganglia and the cere-
# 36 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
bral ganglia. The optic ganglion occupies the dorso-cephalic
portion of the brain. It is a median unpaired structure, but its
histology seems to indicate that the ganglion has been formed
by the fusion of three ganglia. From the apex of the optic
ganglion, which is also the apex of the brain, a single median
nerve [fig. 10] arises. This is the optic nerve. After passing
dorsad a short distance this nerve separates into three branches
—one branch for each division of the tripartite median eye [fig. 2]
The antennulary ganglia occupy the lateral portions of the
brain. From each of these ganglia a nerve arises [fig. 10]
which passes latero-cephalad to the antennule of the same side.
Near the meson, but ventrad of the optic ganglion, there is a
pair of ganglia. These I have considered the cerebral ganglia.
There is a commissural connection between the two halves of
the supra-cesophageal ganglia; but nothing has been discovered
that would lead one to suppose that the nerves decussate within
the brain.
The brain is connected with the ventral chain by two cir-
cumcesophageal commissures. These are not true commissures,
for about midway between the brain and the ventral chain each
commissure contains a ganglion. This is the antennary gang-
lion. The antennary nerve [Fig. 3, 8] of each side leaves the
corresponding circum-cesophageal commissure immediately
behind the brain. A few of the fibres of this nerve arise in the
brain, the remainder arise in the antennary ganglion.
As far as I have been able to ascertain what is known
about the ventral chain of the Ostracoda may be summarized in
the following words of Professor Lang’: ‘‘The ventral cord of
Cythere which follows the brain and cesophageal commissures is
said to consist of an infra-cesophageal ganglion and of four sub-
sequent ventral ganglia. The infra-cesophageal ganglion is said
to show its composition out of two ganglia and to innervate the
jaws, while the three subsequent ganglia give off nerves to the
limbs, and the last ganglion nerves to the most posterior divi-
sions of the body and the genital apparatus.
1Text book of Comparative Anatomy. Trans. by H. Bernard, 1891, Vol. 1,
Ps 344: :
TurnER, Zhe Nervous System of Cyprits. 37
In contrast with the above, the ventral chain of Halocypris
appears much concentrated. It consists of an infra-cesophageal
ganglion with nerves to the jaws and maxillipedes, and a small
ventral ganglion. Out of the latter arise two pairs of nerves,
which probably innervate the musculature of the limbs and the
abdomen.’
Morphologically the ventral chain of Cypris herrtckt
Turner, is intermediate between these two extremes. It is
more concentrated than that of Cythere but not quite so com-
pact as that of Halocypris. In this case the ventral chain con-
sists of an infra-oesophageal ganglion and two subsequent ven-
tral ganglia. All these ganglia are connected not only by two
longitudinal commissures, [fig. 7] which extend throughout the
chain, but also by straggling chains of cells [fig, g].
The infra-cesophageal ganglion is compounded out of three
pairs of ganglia and innervates the jaws and maxillae. Three
transverse commissures can be demonstrated in this compound
ganglion corresponding to its three pairs of nerves; viz. the
mandibular and the two maxillary nerves. The mandibular
nerve arises in the cephalic portion of the infra-cesophageal gan-
y)
glion. It passes forward into the circum-cesophageal commissure
for a short distance and then passes laterad to the mandible.
[fig. 3] A short distance caudad of the mandibular nerve the
first maxillary nerve leaves the infra-cesophageal ganglion and
passes laterad to the first maxilla. [ftg. 7] Still further caudad
the second maxillary nerve leaves the infra-cesophageal ganglion
and passes latero-caudad to the second maxilla. [fig. 7] In ad-
dition to these nerves, in some of my sections I have observed
what appears to be a nerve passing to the digestive tract. If
this be a nerve (which I doubt) it may bea representative of the
sympathic system.
The two ganglia which follow the infra-cesophageal ganglion
correspond to the two pair of legs which follow the maxilla.
From the lateral borders of each ganglion nerves pass to the
corresponding pair of legs. In addition to this, from the last
ganglion a prominent tract passes caudad to innervate the pos-
terior portion of the body and the post-abdomen. Ass this tract
38 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
nears the caudal portion of the body it becomes more and more
attenuated. This attenuation is probably due to the giving off
of nerves to the neighborlng parts.
The entrance to the mouth of these creatures is fringed
with hairs. These hairs, I am inclined to think, function as sen-
sory setae. This view is supported by the fact that these hairs
rest upon a layer of elongated cells [fig. 4] which have, in well
stained preparations, large clear nucleiand small densely colored
nucleoli—cells that are innervated by the infra-cesophageal gan-
glion and whose general appearance indicates that they are ner-
vous in function.
The most conspicuous sense organ of the genus Cyfr7s is
the eye. This is a tripartite structure [fig. 2]. It consists of
a median and two lateral portions. The median portion lies
further ventrad than the two lateral. The space between these
three portions is liberally supplied with pigment. Each of the
three divisions of this so-called pigment spot is multicellular.
In the lateral portions the cells are as long as the structure is
wide, and they are arranged with their longitudinal axes perpen-
dicular to that section of the eye. In the median portion the
cells are arranged radially. The median eye of the Copepoda,
according to Grenacher, is, in all essentials, similar to the eye
above described. In describing that eye, Lang' considers the
three divisions to be retinal cells. In that connection he says,
in describing the tripartite eye of Calanella mediterranea :
‘‘FKach single eye is composed of a pigment cup and a strongly
refractive transparent ‘lens’ laid inand onit. The term lens
is, however, not applicable. It is composed of several cells,
each of which is connected, whether at its outer or inner side is
not yet certain, with a fibre of the optic nerve, and must, there-
fore be considered as a retinal cell.”’
In Cypris herricki the nerve fibres are united to the outer
ends of the cells. This agrees with what Dr. Claus found to be
1Op. cit., p. 352.
Turner, Zhe Nervous System of Cypits. 39
the case in the median eyes of the Copepoda, Cladocera and
Ostracoda investigated by him.!
Since the publication of the paper® in which O. Biutschli
attempts to show how the lateral eyes of the vertebrates may
have been derived from the median tripartite eye of Sa/pa, this
tripartite eye, which is of almost universal occurence among the
entomostraca, becomes enhanced in interest. One at once be-
gins to speculate on the possibility of this median tripartite eye
of the entomostraca becoming transformed into the lateral eyes
of the crustacea. Indeed, Dr. Claus, in his late work,? has
already stated that the lateral eyes of the Corycaeidz are later-
ally rotated portions of the median eyes. In this connection it
may be of interest to quote a portion of Dr. Giesbrecht’s
resume of Dr. Claus’ paper: ‘‘ Die Seitenaugen der Corycaei-
den sind abgeriickte Theile des medianauges, diejenigen der
Pontelliden entsprechen dagegen dem zusammengesetzten
Arthropodenauge, wahrend ihr ventrales Auge ein dreitheiliges
medianauge durfte ebenso wie die beiden frontalen Sinnesorgane
der ersten anlage nach auf Zellengruppen der Scheitelplatte,
von der aus wir, . . . die obern Schlundganglien der
gliederthiere abzuleiten haben, zu beziehen sein; die drei Aug-
entheile sind vielleicht mit den drei Punktaugen an der Scheit-
elplatte von Annelidenlarven phylogenetisch in Beziehung zu
bringen; die Lage ihrer Pigmentzellen und ihre inverse Form
werden auf eine convergent nach einem Punkte gerichtete
Drehung zuriickgefiihrt, welche mit dem Herabriicken des Or-
gans in die Tiefe verbunden war: die Secret und Cornealinsen
werden von Hypodermiszellen abgeschieden, ahnlich wie Krys-
tallkegel und Corneafacette des zusammengestzten auges: das
auge besitzt eine mesodermal Hille, die sich in das neurilemm
1C. Claus. Ueber die feineren Bau des Medianauges der Crustaceen.
Anzeiger Akad. Wien. 1891, pp. 124-127. Ref. in Zool. Jahresbericht fiir 1891,
Arthropoda 29.
2Einige Bemerkungen Ueber die Augen der Salpen, Zool. Anzeigcr, XV,
Jahrg., 349.
3 Op cit.
40 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
des Opticus fortsetzt: Die function des medienauges war urs-
priinglich, das Thier beziiglich der Richtung der Lichtquelle zu
orientiren; bei complicirterem Bau, schon bei den Calaniden,
hat es wahrscheinlich auch die Fahigkeit einer beschrankten
Bildperception. Am medianauge der malakostrakenlarven ist
der ventral Becher bisher nicht beobachtet, aber wohl auch
vorhanden.”’
In a Cypris obtained at Burlington, Ohio, each of the three
divisions of the median tripartite eye appears to be supplied
with a lens.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES:
@, antennulary nerve; a’, antennary nerve; ¢, circum-oesophageal com-
missure; #d@, mandibular nerve; mx!, mx, first and second maxillary nerves;
n, ventral chain; W. S., infracesophageal ganglion; O, optic nerve; S. G., su-
pracesophageal ganglion,
All figures were drawn with an Abbé camera from sections of Cyprds her-
rickt.
Fig. 1. Transverse section of body in the region of the posterior portion of
the midgut.
Fig. 2. Transverse section of median eye.
Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of circum-cesophageal commissure.
Fig. 4. Transverse section through sensory organ at margin of mouth [fig.
7 A.J]. Only the bases of the hairs appear in the section and look like teeth, but
in adjoining sections the tips of the hairs can be demonstrated.
Fig. 5. Transverse section of the chitinous muscular support which lies
immediately dorsad of the nervous chain. ‘This is show in situ in fig. 1.
Fig. 6. Transverse section of body in the region of the lateral diverticles
of the midgut.
Fig. 7. Longitudinal section through the infracesophageal ganglion.
Fig. 8. Longitudinal section through the brain at the level of the origin
of the circum-cesophageal commissures,
Fig. g. Median longitudinal section of the entire body.
Fig. zo. Transverse section of brain, through the origins of the optic and
antennulary nerves.
Fig. 1. Longitudinal section through a portion of ventral chain showing
its intimate connection with the mesenteries. Seen in situ in fig. 9 B.
NEUROLOGISTS AND NEURQEOGICAL
DABORATORIES.
III. NEuRoOLoGIcAL WorK AT ZURICH.
By ApotF Meyer, M. D.
Pathologist of the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Kankakee: Honorary:
fellow of the University of Chicago.
Dr. C. v. Monakow, private docent for anatomy, physi-
ology and pathology of the nervous system at the University of
Zurich, is another very active disciple of v. Gudden’s School.
As assistant physician of St. Perminsberg, one of the Swiss
asylums, he made numerous experiments, especially on new-
born rabbits and cats, and later on, as Privatdocent of the
Zurich University (1885), he had the opportunity of doing
much valuable work in experimental and pathological anatomy
at the University and in his private laboratory.
He began with experiments on the connection of the cere-
bral cortex and the subcortical ganglia. Among these experi-
ments, those on the visual apparatus have been completed and
combined very elaborately with the study of pathological ma-
terial. The auditory apparatus comes next, but still shows a
number of gaps; further, we find remarks on the fornix and its
supposed connection with the optic thalamus, and finally, nu-
merous remarks on the more peripheral connections of the cor-
tex. .cerebri.
The examination of a case of tumor of the superior pari-
etal gyrus causing chiefly sensory symptoms, Munk’s discovery
of sensible and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex and a com-
munication of von Gudden (partial atrophy of the thalamen-
cephalon after extirpation of a cerebral hemisphere of a dog)
induced v. Monakow to study the course of the fibres which
connect the cortex with the periphery and more especially with
42 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the infracortical ganglions.’ After the removal of a cortical
area of the parietal lobe, the lateral nucleus of the thalamen-
cephalon was remarkably atrophied; after the removal of a re-
gion from the occipital lobe corresponding to Munk’s area A,
in the dog, the external geniculate body was found atrophied,
and the internal geniculate body was shown to have the same
relation to Munk’s area B, (the auditory sphere).
v. Monakow arrives at the following conclusions based on
a great number of experiments: |
1. The extirpation of limited cortical areas in the new-
born rabbit invariably causes a limited degeneration of the tracts
depending on them, no matter what their physiological signifi-
cance may be.
2. As arule every single cortical area is in distinct con-
nection with more than one tract of fibres.
3. Every nucleus of the thalamencephalon, as well as the
external and internal geniculate bodies is distinctly connected
with a limited cortical area.
4. The external and internal geniculate bodies are analo-
gous to the nuclei of the thalamancephalon, and ought to be
classified with them.
Subsequently, v. Monakow began to pay special attention
to the optic apparatus. One of the papers published in 1883,”
initiates a series of contributions, by which he has done so
much to elucidate the anatomy of the parts concerned, and at
the same time to furnish material of great theoretical and
histological importance. These studies were taken up and
treated in a more elaborate form later on, and have been
brought to a certain conclusion in a new series of contributions
Ueber einige durch Extirpation circumscripter Hirnrindenregionen be-
dingte Entwicklungshemmungen der Kaninchen Gehirns. von Dr. med. C. v.
Monakow, Assistentarzt in St. Pirminsberg (Schweiz). Archiv. fuer Psychiatrie,
Vol. XII, pp. 141-156 and 535-549, plates II and IX.
* Experimentelle und pathologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber die
Bezeichungen der sogenannten Sehsphaere zu den infracorticalen Opticuscentren
und zum N. opticus, von Dr. v. Monakow, II. Arzt in St. Pirminsberg
(Schweiz). Arch. f. Psych. Vol. XIV, pp. 699-751, Plate IX.
Meyer, Neurologists and Neurological Laboratortes. 43
last year.’ I have no right to enter here upon a complete
analysis of these important testimonials of v. Monakow’s talent
and activity, the chief results of the work referring more to the
anatomy and physiology of the higher mammals and to the
pathology of man; I restrict my present communications to
those points which are of the greatest importance for the under-
standing of modern views about the brain as a whole. Itis the con-
dition of the external geniculate body, of the pulvinar and of the cor-
pora quadrigemina ant., and the varying appearance, according as
the visual areaof the cortex, or the eye, is removed by operation
in new-born mammals. The external geniculate body and the
pulvinar lose most of their ground substance if the eye-ball is
removed, whereas the cells persist and seem to be more numer-
ous, as they are in very close contact instead of being separated
by ground substance. If, however, the occipital lobe, or rather
part of the visual cortex of the occipital lobe is removed, the
cells themselves undergo atrophy and the external geniculate
body shrinks. This observation, together with others obtained
by v. Gudden’s method, was one of the reasons why Golgi’s
theories of nervous histology found such a ready reception and
able criticism in Prof. Forel’s paper, written in 1886. Indeed,
it forms one of the finest documents in favor of the ‘‘ Neuronen-
thorie.”’ I do not find a satisfactory explanation for the fact that
even in recent contributions on the anatomy and physiology of
the optic centres, there are blunders in very elementary views,
which ought to be considered as overcome once for ever by the
clear and unambiguous results of v. Monakow’s work.
If I am not able to do full justice to v. Monakow’s views
on the subject here, I wish at least to say that they give, more
than any other, a nearly complete and satisfactory exposition of
the matter both from the standpoint of the anatomist and phy-
-siologist and also from the standpoint of the pathologist.
1Experimentelle und pathologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber die
optischen Centren und Bahnen (Neue Folge) von Dr. C. v. Monakow, Docent
an der Universitat in Ziirich. Arch. f. Psych. Vol. XX. Plates XI.-XIII.
Experimentelle und pathologich-anatomiche Untersuchungen iiber die optischen
Centren und Bahnen nebst klinischen Beitragen zur corticalen Hemianopsie und
Alexie. (Neue Folge.) Archiv fiir Prychiatrie, Vol. XXIII.
44 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Another, though less complete, seriés of experiments has
the same relation to the auditory apparatus as the one mention-
ed has to the optic apparatus. I have already alluded to the
connection found between Munk’s area B (Horsphaere) and the
posterior corpora quadrigemina. Ina most valuable paper,’ he
explains the character of the striae acusticae (s. medullares) as a
secondary tract of the auditory apparatus, originating from the
long ganglion-cells of the tuberculum acusticum, whereas the ©
posterior auditory root ends in the deep layer of the tubercu-
lum. It is certain that the striae acusticae form part of the
lower fillet and that, most likely, part of them end in the
posterior corpora quadrigemina and especially in the internal
geniculate body. In an early paper’ v. Monakow had proved that the
so-called external auditory nucleus, or nucleus of Dieters, as v.
Monakow calls it, has nothing whatever to do with the auditory
apparatus. I merely mention another of v. Monakow’s contri-
butions? which deals with the fornix and the bundle of Vicq
d’Azyr, showing that the latter cannot be a direct continuation
of the former.
The reader of these notes will see how all these works have
a certain logical connection, as they concern the study of
sensory paths of the brain. It is very interesting to see what a
great number of facts has been produced in this field by the use
of v. Gudden’s method. It is to be hoped that Dr. v. Monakow
will be able to carry out his researches on the auditory centre
in the same thorough and successful manner which we so ad-
mire in his work on the optic centres, and that he will develop
before long the deductions drawn from the numerous facts with
regard to the general architecture and the physiology of the
brain. Dr. v. Monakow is still in the commencement of his
career. Besides a successful practice in nervous diseases, his
activity in his private laboratory—which is open to students of
the university, and his lectures at the university, secure to him
and to us an outlook for eminent work in neurology.
1Striae acusticae und untere Schleife. Archiv f. Psychiatrie, Bd. XXII. Heft 1.
*Experimenteller Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Corpus restiforme, des ‘* aussern
Acusticus Kerns” und deren Beziehungen zum Riickenmark. Arch. f. Psychi-
atrie Bd. XIV. Heft 1.
’Einiges iiber secundaére Degeneration im Gehirn. Schweizer 4rztl. corr.
Bl. XVI. p. 398, 1886.
NEUROLOGICAL. NOTES FROM THE, BIOLOGICAL
DABORATORY (OF DENISON UNIVERSIDY.
The following notes are derived from the memoranda taken
during the preliminary studies of various members of the labor-
atory corps, and are gathered at this time in the hope of calling
the attention of others to points in course of elaboration. The
undersigned acknowledges responsibility for the morpological
generalizations involved. Co. HERRICK.
I. SELENKA’S ‘‘ PHARYNGEAL SAC” IN THE DUCK.
By H. H. Bawven.
In his monograph on the development of the opossum
[Studien ber Entwicklungsgeschicte der Thiere. Heft. 1V.1887]
Selenka describes a branched diverticle of the pharynx immedi-
ately back of the pharyngeal velum.
In the case of embryos of five days the glandular organ
has attained its maximum development. A few hours earlier a
connection can be demonstrated with the chorda dorsalis which
is so direct and obvious as to admit of no doubt that there is
ontogenetic connection between the two structures. The
pharyngeal sac is very transitory and leaves no trace behind it
after the seventh day. _—It appears earlier than the hypophysis
and. has all the characteristics of a rudimentary organ. The
tubular portion which communicates with the pharynx is hollow
while the remainder is solid and variously lobed and divided,
one lobe only being in communication with the chorda.
The author says:—‘‘Die morphologische Bedeutung der
Gaumentasche konnte gleichwohl mit Sicherhelt festgestellt
werden.” ‘‘ Damit ist der Nachweis erbracht dass die Gaumen-
tasche nichts Anderes ist als das verdickte, lappig verzweigte
und ausgehohlte Vorderende der Chorda dorsalis, mit anderen
Worten, die vordere Chordahohl oder Chordatasche ! ”’
46 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
‘‘Die Umgestaltung des vorderen Chordaendes zu einer
driisenformigen Tasche erscheint auf den ersten Blick hochst
seltsam, verliert jedoch bei naherer Betrachtung das Auffallige.
Ist doch die Chorda ihrer Genese nach anfanglich ein hohler
Schlauch [Nebendarm, Ehlers], welcher swar schliesslich zu
einem soliden strange wird, aber wahrend der Entwickelung
seine urspriingliche Gestalt nie ganz verlaugnet.”’ ‘‘ Auch die
Knie oder Scheifenform des vordern Chordaendes erklart sich
auf einfache Weiss. Durch die Hirnbeuge wird das unter Vor-
der und Mittelhirn gelegene Mesodermgewebe sowie auch die
Chorda, welche ja Anfangs bis unter den vorderen Rand des
Vorderhirn erstreckte, zusammengedriickt und zuzammenge-
klappt und zur vorderen Sattellehne umgemodelt.” ‘‘Sehr
deutlich fallt dieser Process der Verlagerung des vorderen Chor-
daendes in’s Auge, wenn man sich die Hirnbeuge wider aufge-
hoben denkt: dann wiirde die Mesodermmasse der Sattellehne
wider auseinandergeklappt, die geknickte Chorda miisste sich
wieder gradestrecken und ihr Vorderende, d. h. die Mundung
die ‘Gaumentasche’, kame ganz dicht an das vordere Ende des
Korpers zu legen. Die Hypophyse ware dann dorsal iber dem
vorderen Chordaende zu suchen !”’
At the date when Selenka wrote he was unable to find de-
scriptions of the structure mentioned in any other type. This
was explained as due to the transitory nature of the organ. In
view of recent studies upon the morphogenesis of the head,
notably the papers of Kupffer, which are tending to locate the
cephalic extremity of the head at a point farther forward than
the optic chiasm, it seems worth while to call attention to the
evidence implicit in the above mentioned facts that the region
of the infundibulum represents approximately the cephalic ex-
tremity of the brain. [Cf, His, in Axch 7. Anat varias.
Anat. Abth., 1892. |
From this point of view we call attention to the existence
of the structure, described by Selenka in the opossum, as it
appears in the duck. The specimen figured was about six days
old and was provided with both epiphysis and hypophysis
‘‘fundaments.’”’ [Fig. 1.] The former lies, as in amphibia,
BawvEN, Veurological Laboratory Notes. 47
near the middle of the roof of the diencephalon. The pharyn-
geal sac in this stage is situated immediately behind the hypoph-
ysis, the interval between the two being filled for the most part
with the same dense variety of connective tissue which occupies
the site of the future basis cranii. [See also fig. 2.] There is,
however, a small opening or blood sinus which extends nearly
parallel to the axis of the hypophysis for the whole length of the
latter.
The pharyngeal velum is absent at this stage; but must
have been situated immediately caudad of the hypophysis, so
that the sac in question belongs to the hypoblastic tissue of the
alimentary tract. The sac is simple and in this respect differs
from the same organ in the opossum. Its cavity, which at first
is narrow, expands dorsally and the walls rapidly thicken, giving
a bulb-like configuration to the whole organ. There is a slight
tendency to lobate form, but no actual diverticles at this stage.
[Fig. 2.] The epithelium is single-layered, vacuolated toward
the free surface, and much elongated in the deeper portions,
the nuclei collecting at the ental poles of the cells. There is an
indication of close connection of the dorsal part of the walls of
the sac with the adjacent connective tissue, the epithelium cells
being apparently in process of transformation or degeneration,
losing their distinctness and becoming permeated with the sur-
rounding connective tissue elements.
The chorda at this stage exhibits curvatures in the lateral
as well as the vertical plane. The latter curvature is obviously
due to the head flexure. The unaltered part extends to within
a short distance of the hypophysis, but the entire cephalic ex-
tremity has suffered a peculiar degeneration and reduction in
size, and is composed of closely massed nuclei bearing an un-
mistakable resemblance to the nuclei of the connective elements.
[Fig. 1.] The end of the chorda is not only flexed and reduced
but irregular in outline. Froma ventral protuberance of the de-
generated tip of the chorda a slender cord, resembling in struc-
ture the chordal sheath, passes ventrad and terminates in imme-
diate proximity to the sac with which, however, no direct con-
nection can now be traced.
48 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
In later stages this organ seems to disappear, but a glance
at Fig. 3 will show that it becomes amalgamated with the stalk
of the hypophysis, In the stage figured, the pituitary has
acquired its glandular form and has nearly severed its connection
with the pharnyx. The chorda has become encased in the car-
tilage of the future basis cranii, but there are still ill-defined
rudiments of the connecting cord. [Cz. con. and x. Fig. 3.]
The cause of the union of the two bodies is obviously the in-
creasing of the head-flexure and development of the saddle-cleft.
Fig. 4 illustrates the poorly developed pharyngeal sac of the
chick at about four days.
Il. THE PINEAL AND PARIETAL ORGAN IN PHRYNOSOMA
CORONATA.
By A. D. SORENSEN.
The external appearance of the pineal organ in Phrynosoma
has been so amply described that futher mention of it need not
be made here. The different structures associated with the
epiyhysis and their interrelations have not, I think, been fully or
satisfactorily determined.
In an article which appeared in the Bulletin of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology for 1890, Mr. W. E. Ritter has given
a detailed discription of the epiphysial structures of P. dou-
glassii and P. coronata. Among the sections of different groups
of which a comparative study of the epiphysial structures is
being made, a number of sections of P. coronata have been
studied and relations have been found to exist which do not
appear in Mr. Ritter’s drawings.
The Parietal Organ. The position of the parietal organ
with reference to the parietal bones, is not the same as described
by Ritter in either of the three different animals that have been
studied. No pit or even depression appears below the organ.
The terminal points of the parietal bones differ somewhat in
their positions as related to the parietal organ. The preparietal
bone lies in the normal position, while the post parietal bone
appears to project backward, the parietal organ lying in a straight
SORENSEN, eurological Laboratory Notes. 49
line with the terminal points. Between the post-parietal bone
and just above the nerve (to be described later) is a distinct
blood sinus, which was traced some distance toward the epiphy-
sis. The parietal organ is spheroidal in form and consists. of
three parts, a lense and an inner and outer wall. The wallsare
deeply pigmented and their histology has not yet been studied.
The Epiphysts. The combination of structures arising from
the roof of the diencephalon, Mr. Ritter, in keeping with the
former nomenclature, designated as the Epiphysis. He the gave
the following parts: A proximal part with an anterior, much
folded, epithelial wall, and a posterior, not folded and thiner
epithelial wall; an epiphysial vesicle ; a blood sinus; and a string
of connective tissue. From a study and comparison of his
drawings it is quite evident that what he has termed the ‘ proxi-
imal part with an anterior, much folded, epithelial wall’ is the
plexus formed anteriorly to the supra-commissure and found in
many groups (‘‘Polster’’ of Burckhardt.) It is evident, moreover,
that no connection appeared in his sections between the “‘ epi-
physial vesicle’’ and the roof of the diencephalon. In the sec-
tions which I have studied, the following structures appear:
Epiphysis (epiphysial vesicle); epiphysial stalk; nerve; blood
sinuses; and plexus.
The Epiphysis is prominent and cannot be mistaken. It
is composed of columnar epithelium very different from that of
the plexus and profusely pigmented and consists of a large num-
ber of diverticles from the same visicle.
The epiphysial stalk connects it directly with the roof of
the diencephalon just back of the supra-commissure. There
can be no question that the so-called vesicle, with its stalk, con-
stitutes the true epiphysis which is in this case flexed cephalad at
the tip. Moreover the entire structure exhibits the same rela-
tions which are encountered in all other Sauropsida.
ihe cpiphysial nerve was traced through different sections
from its origin in the supra-commissure to its terminus just below
the parietal organ. No fibers, however, were found to enter the
organ.
50 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Two blood sinuses lie one on either side of the Epiphysis.
The one lying posteriorly being considerably larger.
The plexus, as was noted by Mr. Ritter, is an exceedingly
complex and intricately folded mass. Its points of origin, how-
ever, are not uncertain, as it forms the roof of the diencephalon
cephalad of the supra-commissure. The plexus, as in other
reptiles, consists of two parts. The posterior part, at least, is
identical with Burckhardt’s ‘‘Polster.”” The caudal extremity
unites with the supra-commissure and the cephalic end with the
hippocampal commissure and projects laterally a short distance
into the lateral ventricles.
The connective tissue is also present as Mr. Ritter describes
it.
So far from agreeing with Ritter that ‘‘the epiphysial
’ we have seen that it
alone, with its stalk, has any claim to this name.
vesicle is not a portion of the epiphysis’
II]. THe Roor oF THE DIENCEPHALON.
By A. D. SORENSEN.
Professor V. Kupffer, in his interesting discussion of the
roof the Diencephalon,’ calls attention to the fact that the posi-
tion of the pineal and associated supra-commissura is not the
same in amphibia as in other groups.
He says: ‘‘The roof of the thalamencephalon or dien-
cephalon (Zwischenhirn) in the usual sense lies in front of the
superior commissure in Acipenser, while in the frog, accord-
ing to Professor Osborn’s drawings, it lies behind that
commissue. In Acipenser the supra-commissure and post-com-
missure are closely approximated, while in the frog (fide
Osborn), they are widely separated. In Acipenser the pineal
lies immediately cephalad of the post-commissure as in Amni-
ates and particularly in man, in the frog there is an extensive
segment of the brain roof, separating the pineal from the post-
2Studien zur vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschicte des Kopfes. Heft .1.
1893.
SorENSEN, Veurological Laboratory Notes. 51
commissure, which Osborn calls the thalamencephalon. It is
obvious that the part of the brain since considered as dien-
cephalon in ganoids, and which I have called ‘‘ Nebenhirn,”’ or
parencephalon is not homologous with Osborn’s thalamen-
cephalon, in the frog. In the frog larva there is a segment of
the brain roof between the post-commissure and the stalk of the
epiphysis.’ In another paragraph he states that these relations
are peculiar to Amphibia (p. 36.) ‘‘und eine vergleichende
Beleuchtung erfordern.”’
Such a comparative study is now in progress and the fol-
lowing lines are intended to call attention to the topographical
relations ina few cases,.with only incidental reference to the
morphological problems involved. In a median longitudinal
section of a duck embryo of six days the pineal appears as a
knob-like evagination from the median portion of the roof of the
diencephalon. Between % and % of the roof between the
pineal and mesencephalon is occupied by the post-commissure.
The remaining portion is precisely similar in structure to the
pre-pineal portion of the roof. The pre-pineal portion, i. e.,
the roof of the diencephalon from the pineal to the velum
transversum, describes a uniform convex curve, there being no
trace of supra-commissure, ‘‘polster,”’ dorsal sac, plexus, or
paraphysis. The pineal diverticle or recess exhibits the same
structure as the rest of the roof of the diencephalon, with, how-
ever, rather more numerous karyokinetic figures.
In this stage the pineal is in almost immediate contact with
the epidermis.
The dorsal roofs of the mesencephalon, diencephalon and
primary prosencephalon are approximately equal in extent
and lie in about the same straight line. The pituitary and
pharyngeal pouch are both lightly developed in this stage. The
former is closely approximated to the relatively large Infundi-
bulum (Hypencephalon). It therefore appears that the rela-
tions, which Kupffer claims are peculiar to Amphibia, are found
in the early embryo of the duck, and it becomes important to
trace the subsequent modifications. In embryos of the same
species, two or three days later, the relative position of the pin-
52 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
eal has evidently changed. Instead of lying midway between
the terminal points of the diencephalon, the pineal is included
in the caudal one-fourth. The pre-pineal portion retains ap-
proximately the same thickness, but grows rapidly forward,
keeping pace with the roof of the prosencephalon.
While the post-pineal portion becomes depressed and
thickens and is rapidly encroached upon by the fibers of the
post-commissure. At this stage important changes are also
taking place in the pineal itself. It becomes irregularly lobed,
thickens and projects forward.
Thus the conditions which are shown to be permanent in
Amphibia, are transitory in the amniate vertebrates. In trout
fry of nine days old, the post-pineal segment is thrust under by
invagination forming the torus, in which process the post-com-
missure is also sharply plicated.
It would appear that the bony fishes are more closely
allied, in this respect, to amphibians than are the ganoids.
In duck embryos of a somewhat later stage the entire roof
of the diencephalon has undergone important morphological
changes. For convenience, the following nomenclature will be
used: I, post-commissure; 2, pineal recess; 3, pineal; 4, su-
pra-commissure; 5, post-paraphysis; 6, vellum transversum ;
7, pre-paraphyses, with a possible post-and pre-plexus. In
this stage the pineal recess does not appear, having been partly
encroached upon by the post-commissure, and partly absorbed
into the pineal.
The postparaphysis extends from the supra-commissure to
the velum and is somewhat corrugated. The velum separates
the post- and preparaphyses and joins the roof and base of the
cephalic limit of the diencephalon. The preparaphysis unites
the velum with the prosencephalon. From the cephalic side
of the velum the preplexus has developed and enters the pro-
sencephalic ventricles.
The epiphysis at this stage projects cephalad and forms
several diverticles. This process goes on as development con-
tinues, until the base or undivided portion of the epiphysis be-
comes almost disconnected from the third ventrical, or, in other
SORENSEN, JVeurological Laboratory Notes. 53
words, resembles the so-called epiphysial vesicle of Phrynosoma.
In the turtle the entire outgrowth from the roof of the
Diencephalon resembles in size and the relative position of its
parts the epiphysial structures of the horned toad already de-
scribed.
The epiphysis arising immediately behind the supra-com-
missure and grows forward by a somewhat narrow stalk, which
soon expands to form the vesicle of the epiphysis. This vesicle
is somewhat irregular in that several lobes project from the main
vesicle. The whole structure is highly vascular, the walls being
permeated with numerous blood vessels.
The epiphysis rests on the slender lamina of the plexus,
which runs forward to the cephalic extremity of the epiphysial
vesicle and there becomes intricately plicated. The infolding of
the plexus at this point forms between this plicated structure
and the cephalic origin of the plexus, another structure which is
also found, formed in apparently the same way, in snakes, and
which I have called for convenience the dorsal sac. This sac
runs dorsal toward the cephalic end of the epiphysial vesicle.
Just in front of the cephalic end of the plexus is a large
blood sinnus which runs the whole length of the dorsal sac and
joins a blood vessel above.
The whole structure, including the epiphysial vesicle, plexus,
and dorsal sac is extremely vascular.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.
BAWDEN.
Fig. z. Part of a median-longitudinal section of the head of a duck-embryo
at six-days illustrating the relations between the chorda and pharyngeal sac,
The relation of the commissures of the diencephalic roof to the epiphysis may
also be seen.
fig. 2 The pharyngeal sac and hypophysis from the preceding section.
fig. 3. The same region from a much older embryo.
fig. 4. A similar section from a chick of four or five days.
fig. 5. Median-longitudinal section through the head of a duck embryo
somewhat older than that figured in Fig. 2.
54 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII.
SORENSEN.
Fig. 1. Composition drawing from several longitudinal sections of Phry-
nosoma coronata, showing the epiphysial structures and parietal nerve and
vesicle. The nerve arises from the supra-commissure, while the pineal stalk
springs from the roof immediately caudad of the commissure.
fig. 2. A single section illustrating the relations of the pineal on a larger
scale. The nerve is not shown.
fig. 3. Median-longitudinal section of the head of a duck embryo at six
days.
Fig. 4. Similar section (somewhat oblique) from a later embryo, showing
relative increase of the prepineal roof of the diencephalon.
fig. 5. Enlarged view of the epiphysis figured in 4.
fig. 6. View of the roof of the diencephalon and mesencephalon in later
duck embryo.
fig. 7. Epiphysis in still later stage.
Refer also to Plate VI.
Fig. 4. External view of the Epiphysis of Cistudo, from a model com-
posed with the aid of the camera lucida from sections.
fig. 5. Composite section of the same showing the relation of Epiphysis
and paraphyses.
IV. REVERSION OF THE CEREBELLUM IN AMERICAN LIZARDS.
By P. T. Evans.
In the March number of the JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE
Nevuro.ocy for 1891, Prof. Herrick calls attention to a forward
folding and consequent reversion of the cerebellum in the Scel-
oporus undulatus. The passage in question is found on page
7, and reads as follows: ‘‘In the case of lizards we have ap-
parently a completely dissimilar plan of structure. Here the
gray matter is dorsal and white ventral (Plate IV, Figs. 4 and
5). This reversal of the two layers is explained, upon a more
careful examination, as the product of a complete forward and
median fold of the caudal and lateral margins of the cerebellum
(compare Plate IV, Figs. 6-9). This is but the completion of
the process indicated by the incipient retroflexion seen in the
turtle. The result of this fold is the formation of an actual
cavity surrounded caudad and laterad by the white (morpho-
logically dorsal) zone of cerebellum. Thus the fusion of the
lateral margin, or, more accurately, the union of the whole lat-
ero-caudal, reflected margin due to a general cephalo-median in-
crease, produces the hollow organ just described.”
Evans, Veurological Laboratory Notes. 55
Dr. Ludwig Edinger, in his report’ upon the investigation
of the anatomy of the central nervous system for [8g1, offers
the following criticism: ‘‘ Herrick comes to the conclusion, as
a result of the tracing of the various layers of the cerebellum
thoughout the vertebrate series, that in the reptilia there pre-
vails a forward reversion of the cerebellum in such a way that
parts which before lay upon the surface come to lie ventrally.
The preparations which were prepared by the carmine method
do not enforce this conclusion.”’
The last statement is erroneous. The carmine method was
not used. Being a student of Prof. Herrick’s, I was led to in-
vestigate this point in other species since we have received more
material. An examination of the brain of Phrynosoma as seen
in Fig. 8, Plate VI, reveals the forward reversion very plainly.
It is not possible to be mistaken in this. In noticing this figure
it is to be seen that there is no plexus. This was torn away in
order that this forward reversion might be seen. The tearing
away of the plexus leaves the fourth ventrical uncovered. It
is also noticed in Fig. 1g—c, Plate V, Vol. 55, No. 1, of the
Zeitschrift fir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, that the same thing
exists in Iguana, but Dr. Meyer doest not seem to have noticed
it. In the study of sections of the species of which Fig. 1,
Plate XU1.and- Fig. 10, Plate V; are representative, 1 find',the
histology to be the same as that of all reptilia. This forward
reversion of the cerebellum gives the ventral surface the dorsal
position and the white upper layer is inverted over the optic
lobes. In comparing the sections from which figures 4, 5 and
6, Plate IV, of the March number, Vol. I, were made, with the
sections of which Figs. 10, 11 and 12, Plate V, were taken, I
find that the histology agrees in every particular, and the histol-
ogy of the part spoken of as the plexus in Figs. 10, 11 and 12,
Plate V, agrees with the histology of the plexi. There can be
no doubt that this reversion is a fact. We find the same thing
in the Iguana, Sceloporus, and in Phrynosoma the same condi-
tion exists, and, curiously enough, all these lizards also have
the parietal eye.
1Schmidt’s Jahrbiicher der gesammten Medicin Bd. CCXXXVI, p. 20,
56 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
V. THe HIppocaMpus IN REPTILIA.
By C.-L) HERRICK:
In his most instructive paper on the olfactory and hippo-
campal apparatus’ Dr. Edinger offers many valuable suggestions
growing out of his own investigations and those of others.
With these the present writer is fully in sympathy and now de-
sires simply to call attention to the fact that even in his earlier
papers, to which Dr. Edinger refers, there existed no such dif-
ference as he supposes. Hesays ‘‘ Von spateren Untersuchern
des Reptilien-gehirnes hat sich Koppen meiner Auffassung ang-
eschlossen, wahrend Herrick ein ganz anders Gebeit, die Gegend
caudal von stammganglion, an der Basis des Gehirnes, also
nicht ein echtes mantelgebiet, als ‘‘ Occipito-basal nucleus” der
Ammons formation homologisiren mochte.’’ Reference is made
to the papers ‘‘ Notes on the Brain of the Alligator,’’ Journ.
Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., 1890, and ‘‘ Topography and _ His-
tology of the Brain of certain Reptiles,” Journ. Comp. Neurolo-
gy, March, 1891. At the time when these were written (1890)
Dr. Edinger’s paper was as yet inaccessible to me and any
agreement found between our views may be taken as entirely
independent. In both of the papers, which purported to be
simply ‘‘ preliminary notes,” very slight reference was made to
the literature as the comprehensive paper, now approaching
completion, was then contemplated, On page 141 are the fol-
lowing lines: ‘‘The olfactory fibres gather in the lower me-
dian angle . . . it may be conjectured that fibres proceed
to the cortex of the calloso-marginal or occipital region. It is
probable that other and important parts of the tract are super-
ficial on the inferior and lateral basal areas, collecting at the
postero-basal margin, and sending fibres by way of the fornix
to the colloso-marginal region.”” Of course the use of the
word ‘‘fornix’’ was here a slip of the pen. On page 143, in
describing the cell areas, this passage occurs: ‘‘A third cell-
1 Vergleichend-entwickelungsgeschichtliche und anatomische Studien im
Bereiche der Hirnanatomie. Anat. Anzetger, VIII, 10, 11.
Herrick, Neurological Laboratory Notes.
s)
clustre, which occupies a relatively small area anteriorly, but
increases caudad, occupies the lower median portion of the
mantle. It consists of flask-like or sensory cells with fibres
which can be traced ventrad to the ventral median portion of
the posterior part of the brain, i. e. the hippocampal region,
and seems to embrace the continuation of the olfactory tract.”
If the sentence is perhaps awkward, it would nevertheless un-
mistakably indicate that the writer homologized the mesal and
caudal region of cortex with the ‘‘ Ammonshorn”’ as he has
continued to do up to the present time, differing from Edinger
only in restricting the hippocampus to the caudal part and ex-
cluding the cephalic region of the calloso-marginal mantle area.
On page 145 a more explicit passage occurs. ‘‘ The remaining
median part of the ventricle . . . separates a thick por-
tion of the mantle, corresponding in some respects with the an-
terior portion of the Ammonshorn.”’
It is really remarkable that there could be any mistake as
to the view presented in the second paper referred to. On page
15 occurs the following passage: ‘‘ The base (ventral surface)
of the hemispheres exhibits a slight protuberance in the latero-
caudal portion, which is due to the occzpzto-basal lobe. (The use
of the word lobe is a pure convention from which no escape
could be found.) The latter is not a sub-division of the cortex
but a well-defined portion of the axial lobe. [It is the same as
+)
Edinger’s ‘‘kugelformiger Kern,” which the latter now agrees
with the writer in considering an implicate or masked bit of cor-
tex.] This lobe can probably be distinguished in all Saurop-
sida. It is partially separated from the remainder of the axial
lobe by a fibre tract, and bears laterad and dorsad a film of cor-
tex which projects caudad as a free occtpital lobe of cortex for a
short distance and terminates in a velum cerebri. The latter ts
morphologically a part of the wall of the lateral ventricle, which
has lost its cellular elements and contains, at one point, the tae-
nia thalami. The extent to which this lobe [i. e. the occipital
not the occipito-basal, as understood by Edinger] is developed
varies greatly even in reptiles. It is reduced to a minimum in
birds. It contains the undoubted homologue of the hippocampus,
58 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
but in the black-snake that portion homologous with the hippo-
campus is relatively highly differentiated. | Even the portions
corresponding to the fornicate and uncinate gyri may be distin-
guished, though there is, of course, no external indication of
the distinction.”’
On page 16, it is said that ‘‘the ventro-basal protuberance
of the hemispheres, which seems analogous with the pyriform
lobe of Rndents, for example, contains a concentric zone or hol-
low spheroid of gray matter greatly (though spurtously) resembl-
ing the hippocampus,”
Certainly there can be no ambiguity in this passage and we
are unable to find a passage which can be construed to indicate
a belief that the ‘‘occipito-basal lobe’’ corresponds to the ‘‘Am-
monshorn.”’
In his first paper on the forebrain, Edinger calls attention
to the existence of a distinct bundle from the median wall of
the hemisphere to the diencephalon which he unhesitatingly
homologizes with the fornix. The median part of the mantle
contains a cortex characterized by the small size and close ar-
rangement of its cells. This corresponds to the region where
in mammalian embryos the arcuate fissure appears. At the
point where the median wall thins to form the plexus cho-
roideus the cortex is exposed. Between it and the margin of
the hemisphere is a protuberant ridge, in which are fibres.
This ridge Edinger identifies as the fornix ridge. The layer of
closely associated cells above it in the median wall of the hemi-
sphere is called Ammonsrinde or hippocampus. ‘‘Das betref-
fende Rindstiick muss man als erstes Auftreten der Ammons-
by
rinde in der Therreithe ansehen.” ‘‘Sie enthalt also bei ihrem
ersten Auftreten alle die elemente, welche spiter, wenn auch
durch Windungen und dergleichen verwischet, das character-
isch Ammonshorn bilden.”’
On page 20 of this Journal for March, 1892, the relations
of the occipital cortex to the septum (intra-ventricular lobe) are
indicated. ‘‘In the meantime the free caudal margin of the
cortex has extended medianly, fusing with the intra-ventricular
lobe, completing a ring or cap of cortex, which entirely en-
Herrick, WVeurological Laboratory Notes. 59
closes the axial lobe, which latter, by the encroachments of the
ventricle, has become separate from the wall. The cells of the
occipital cortex resemble those of the fronto-median lobe.”
While, therefore, the writer independently identified much
the same region as that called by Edinger Ammons cortex with
the hippocampus, it will be seen that it is rather the caudal than
the mesal region which is thus identified; while Dr. Edinger
seems to include the whole median wall as far forward as the cal-
losum and does not specifically include the occipital cortex. A
comparison of the hippocampus of reptiles with that of the
opossum is exceedingly instructive. In the latter case, where
the callosum is not developed to the extent characteristic of
higher mammals, the relations are identical with those of reptiles
except that the backward development of the cortex has folded
the free caudal margin upon itself. (See plates A, B and C,
Vol. II., Feb. 1893.) The influence of the fold is felt far for-
ward and there is other evidence of the unity in structure of the
whole belt of cortex thus folded. In rodents the folds are enor-
mously exaggerated and carried beneath the callosum, but it is
still morphologically the caudal margin—that part which lies
next the tela—which is thus modified.
Inspection of Fig. 5 of Plate V. will show that in Phryno-
soma the evidence for our position is quite conclusive. In that
genus there is a distinct fornix commissure. It is about half
way between the callosum and the supracommissureand contains
a number of fibers, being nearly as large as either of the others
mentioned. These fibers are associated with the fornix columns
which pass forward in Edinger’s Fornix-leiste and describe the
ventro-caudal curvature. Both sorts of fibers pass ‘caudad and
spread out in the entire caudal cap of cortex. (Fig. 6, Plate V.)
Meyer,’ writing without knowledge of the writer’s paper,
in 1892, makes very much the same distinctions between the
small-celled (facia dentata) and large-celled lateral portion. He
is convinced that there are no connections with the olfactory
tract. Meyer identifies the mesal wall cephalad with the sep-
1Ueber das Vorderhirn einiger Reptilien. Zestsch. wiss Zool. VI. 1, Nov.1892
60 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
tum, as we had done the ‘‘intra-ventricular lobe,”’ although un-
willing to use this term which has a_ special sense in mammals.
Meyer has also noticed the fornix commissure and carefully figur-
ed it (Op. cit., Figs. 33-36) in Iguana. We feel confident that
this commissure is, as Ruckhard suggested, a true fornix com-
missure. In serpents the same fibres lie within that part of the
mesal wall which corresponds to the fornix body. The occasion
for the separation of these fibers in reptiles is the folding of the
brain axis which thrusts the dorsal cortex backward over the
diencephalon.
The statement has been made that the so-called fornix or
hippocampal commissure of reptiles cannot be homologous with
the organ so named in mammals, because in the former the
plexus passes dorsad of it. This is, however, an illusion as the
study of these fibers in Ophidia, Lacertilia and Chelonia has
fully convinced the writer. In those cases where the plexus lies
dorsad of the commissure, it is in the form of a diverticle of the
roof cephalad or caudad of the commissure. The fibres them-
selves lie zz the roof of the aula.
In amphibia the callosum is very small and, if we correctly
identify it, lies for cephalad so that it appears in the same _hori-
zontal section with the hippocampal commissure. The latter is
quite a strong band which after passing along the line of union
of the cerebral hemispheres and thalamus turns ventrad and
crosses immediately dorsad of the precommissure. We cannot
agree with Osborn who identifies this bundle with the collosum.
In the first place, its fibres are derived from the caudal part of the
cortex and, in the second, they cross caudad of the porta, and,
finally, there is a small band of fibres crossing in front of and dor-
sad of the porta which better deserves this title. The above re-
marks are based particularly upon several good series of J/enop-
oma, Menobranchus, Salamandra and Rana. The larval sala-
mander has the hippocampal tract well-developed while the cal-
losum is not apparent at all.
fae INBUSIUM OF THE CALLOSUM:
By Pierre A. Fisu, B.S.
Instructor in Physiology, Vertebrate Zoology and Neurology, Cornell University.
The recent papers by Blumenau' and Marchand? on the de-
velopment of the callosum have conduced to a much more
complete morphological understanding of that important region.
Simple as it may appear superficially, there are nevertheless
involved questions which may be of the profoundest significance,
from a physiological as well as from an anatomical standpoint.
Perhaps no other part of the human body exemplifies bet-
than this the importance of correlating the earlier and later con-
ditions of organs and their parts, in order to obtain an adequate
and true conception of their structure and function. | Embryol-
ogy and morphology should go hand in hand—one should sup-
plement the other.
Industum griseum is the name applied by Obersteiner™
to the vestigial layer of the cerebral cortex, existing with greater
or less distinctness upon the dorsal surface of the callosum, in
many other mammals.
It has long been known that the apparent dorsal surface of
the human callosum does not present a distinct transversely
straited appearance. Lancisius’ noted two mesal and two
lateral striations passing longitudinally over the dorsum of the —
callosum. He describes the mesal as ¢eretes nervi stmiliter medu-
Hares and the lateral as non vert nervi sed limbt.
Valentin’ has recognized a delicate remnant of gray sub-
stance between the meson and the sézae laterales, which ap-
peared to be identical with that of the fasciola. Jastrowitz‘ found
that the fibers(?) do not lie freely on the dorsum of the callosum,
but are imbedded ina layer of nerve cells. Stieda® observed
the indusium in the dog and the rabbit. In the dog he found
that the extension from each side projected far enough to meet
at the meson, but at this point there were no nerve cells. In
62 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the rabbit there also existed an extremely small layer of nerve
cells, connecting both hemispheres, representing extensions - of
the cortex over the callosum. Blumenau finds the free dorsal
surface of the rabbit’s callosum very small and covered with a
thin and scarcely noticeable layer of cinerea. The same writer
finds the indusium well developed in the pig. The s¢rzae later-
ales are large, but caudad they recede from the meson and flat-
ten out; between these striz there is a minimum layer of cin-
erea.
Giacomini® has also noted that the elements of the brain
cortex enclose these striz, and that a thin intermediate layer of
cinerea exists. This he differentiates into two layers: L. Stieda. Studien iiber das centrale Nervensystem der Wirbelthiere.
Leipzig. 1870.
6 Giacomini. Giornale della r. Accad. Med. di Torino. 1883.
7B. G. Wilder. Article, Brain. Supplementary volume of the Reference
Hand book of the Medical Sciences. 1893. [In Press. ]
8E. Zuckerkandl. Uber das Riechcentrum. Stuttgart. 1887.
9V. Mihalkovics. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Gehirns. Leipzig. 1877.
10, C. Spitzka. Article, Brain Histology. The Reference Handbook of the
Medical Sciences. Vol. VIII. 1889.
68 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
1G, Schwalbe. Lehrbuch der Neurologie. 1881.
2C,.S. Minot. Human Embryology. 1892.
13H. Obersteiner. Central Nervous Organs. 1890.
14@T. Meynert. Psychiatry. 1885.
15C, Golgi. Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria e di Medicina Legale. 1883.
16B. G. Wilder and S. H. Gage. Article, Anatomical terminology. Refer-
ence Handbook of the medical sciences. Vol. VIII., 1889.
17], M. Lancisics. Opera Omnia Lib. VII., de sede cogitantis Animae.
Geneve. 1718.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.
Cal. callosum ;ca/. f. callosal fissure; fas. fasciola; fm. fimbria; gen. genu ,
ind. indusium; zc/, nerve cell layer; frcs. precommissure; sept. hemiseptum ;
sm, stria mesalis; sf/. splenium.
Fig. 7. Human fetus of five months, after Marchand.
The outlines of the remaining figures were drawn with the aid of Abbe’s
camera lucida, using, except for figures 2 and 7, Leitz’s No. 1 ocular and No. 2
objective. The details are filled in free hand and absolute accuracy is not in-
tended.
fig. 2. A transection through the callosum of man. The specimen was
hardened in a ¥f per cent. solution of ammonium bichromate in 50 per cent.
alcohol. Stained with hematoxylin. Enlarged twenty diameters.
fig3. Chimpanzee, Tvroglodytes niger. The brain was hardened by a con-
tinuous injection of alcohol through the blood vessels. The section was taken
from the region of the genu. Stained in hematoxylin. Enlarged forty diameters.
fig.4. Macacus cynomolgus. Hardened in alcohol 20 c. c., water 80 c.c.,
glycerin 8 c. c., zinc chloride 4 grams. Stained in an alcoholic acid solution of ©
carmine. x 40.
Fig. 5. Sheep, Ovzs artes. Hardened ina 5 per cent. alchoholic solution
of zinc chloride. Stained in hematoxylin and eosin. x 4o. From genual region.
Fig. 6. Cat, Felis domestica. Hardened in potassium bichromate 8 grams,
potassium nitrate 4grams, water 600 c.c. The specimen was transferred from
hardening fluid direct to ammonia carmine stain. The section was taken from
the splenium. x 40.
Fig. 7. Pyramidal nerve cell from the indusium of the sheep. Golgi pre-
paration.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORTEX CONSIDERED
IN CONNECTION WITH A REPORD, UPON A. DOG
FROM WHICH THE ENTIRE CEREBRUM HAD
BEEN REMOVED BY PROF. GOLTZ.?
By Dr. Lupwic EDINGER.
(frankfurt-on- Main.)
Thanks.to the kindness of Professor Goltz, of Strassburg,
I have been placed in possession of most valuable material
for cerebral anatomy—none other than the brains of a large
number of dogs from which a larger or smaller portion of the
cerebrum had been removed.
The anatomical investigation of these brains requires a long
time and it is still far from completion. Nevertheless I shall re-
port at present upon a part of the results which have been ob-
tained from the study of the brain of that widely known dog
from which Professor Goltz succeeded, by a method hitherto un-
approached, in removing the entire cerebrum. This dog, which
survived the last operation more than eighteen months, was doubt-
less known to many of you. The unparalleled success of the
operation, the possibility of studying an animal entirely deprived
of cerebrum so many months after the disappearance of all irri-
tative phenomena, the valuable observations which have been
made upon the animal, and which Professor Goltz has pub-
lished in his Abhandlung uber die Verrichtungen des Gross-
hirns, VII. (Pliger’s Archiv. Bd. LI.) all these have awakend
much interest in the anatomical results. Added to this is the in-
terest which such a preparation has in virtue of its manifold
secondary degeneration phenomena for those who realize upon
how slender footing our knowledge of the fibre tracts of the di-
encephalon now stands.
1 A lecture before the Medical Congress at Weisbaden. Printed from advance
proofs very kindly forwarded by the author. Translated by the editor.
70 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
I may at once remark that this ‘‘ dog without cerebrum,
Goltz” actually proves, on anatomical investigation, to possess
scarcely a trace of the cerebrum. This dog was able during its
lifetime to employ its limbs in walking, running and standing, he
perceived tactile irritation of all parts of the body and could be
awakened from a deep sleep by these excitements or loud noises.
He possessed a distinct sensation of the position of his members
and could unquestionably be incited to adaptive activity by such
sensory stimuli. Nor was he totally blind, though it could not
be proven that he was so affected by visual sensations as to mod-
ify the position or movements of the body. It was evident that
hunger and gustatory sensations remained. The animal was pro-
foundly imbicile and it was impossible to enter into any sort of
personal relation to him. No expressions of joy or fear escaped
him. In restless and unvarying round he ran in hiscage. With
the exception of the gradual reacquirement of the power to feed
himself, he never learned anything. However often an act may
have been repeated, as, for example, his daily removal from his
cage for feeding during eighteen months, it produced no evidence
of acquired experience ; each time, no matter how hungry, he
snapped and bit angrily. Every trace of methodical activity
was lost. The dog was capable of a variety of vocal express-
ions. His spontaneous acts, which were numerous enough, ex-
hibited no trace of reflection or the slightest evidence of exper-
lence.
The most remarkable deficiency resulting from the removal
of the cerebrum was the suppression of all expressions which be-
tray understanding, memory, reflection, and intelligence in the
animal. On the other hand those faculties remained intact
which may be exercised without these functions, such as a cer-
tain degree of motor power, sensation and general irritability.
And now, gentlemen, a glance at the charts ' and prepara-
tions will show that, caudad of the great injury which has re-_
moved the entire cerebrum and somewhat injured the thalamus,
! The illustrations will appear at the proper time with the extended oe
tion of the results of the study of the operated dog brains.
EpIncer, Zhe Significance of the Cortex. fa
in the region of the corpora quadrigemina only slight divergence
from the normal conditions are observable at first sight.
In this section of spinal cord you will detect nothing to dis-
tinguish it from a section from a normal dog, and it is only after
close inspection that you will discover that a few fibres are ab-
sent from dorso-lateral columns and that the whole pyramidal
tract, which is not very strongly developed in the dog at best,
is affected by secondary degeneration on both sides. Even in
these sections of the medulla and quadrigemina no one would
discover without careful study that farther forward such an
enormous region of the ventral nervous system had been in-
jured. From these observations we might conclude that the
spinal cord and the ganglia and fibres in the medulla and mid-
brain are distinct centres which possess a high degree of ana-
tomical independence of those parts of the brain lying farther
cephalad. The functions which they subserve, motor co-ordi-
nation, receptivity to sense impressions, were not so ser-
iously affected in this dog. The opinion which might be
formed on anatomical grounds, that an animal which retains only
these centres intact could, in case of necessity, get on with them
alone, has become certainty through the evidence afforded by
eighteen months’ observation of this dog. I shall discuss this
point more in detail later.
Glance, in the next place, at the illustrations of sections
through the forebrain. These were prepared by drawing the
outline of the sections through the fragments of brain of the op-
erated dog and projecting sections from the same level of normal
dog brains. The projection distance was so adjusted that the
two outlines were made to correspond and thus articial figures
of two equal brains were produced.
It appears that almost the entire forebrain has been re-
moved in an extraordinarily skiltul and complete manner.
Cephalad both the frontal lobes are absent, together with a part
of the striatum and the callosum and corpus fornicis. On the
right side a part of the internal capsule is retained with the
body of the striatum but on the left side only traces of these re-
72 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
main. The precommissure, the olfactory fibres of which should
be visible at this point, has completely disappeared.
Notice that the inner capsule, even in the first section, con-
tains quite a number of medullated fibres. These, there-
fore, must have their origin not in cells of the cortex but in
structures lying farther caudad. The next section shows that
the caudatus is relatively well preserved on the right side while
on the left only insignicant fragments remain. A trace of the
cortex belonging to the trigonum olfactorium lies ventrad of the
head of the striatum on the brain base. The lentiformis is al-
most completely removed with the hemispheres. Farther caudad,
in region of the commissura media, the thalamus is present on
both sides but all its niduli are atrophied to a marked extent.
Only a much atrophied internal capsule, not a trace of hemis-
pheres, no fornix and only the fragments of an ammonshorn of
one side remained. The uncus of the parietal lobe is retained
because the operator wished to pseserve the optic nerve. In
this he was successful on the right side but on the left side the
section passed a little too far mesad and also removed the corpus
geniculatum laterale. Thus the optic nerve of that side is atro-
phied although intact on the other side. Behind the sections
here figured all the thalamus ganglia are present and send their
fibres caudad quite like those of a normal brain. In spite of the
enormous injury in the forebrain region, the tegmental region and
mesencephalon gradually appear, sections passing through
which are but slightly distinguishable from those of a normal
midbrain. The farther caudad one goes the fewer tracts are af-
fected till, as already remarked, in the cord the only defect is the
absence of the pyramidal tracts.
I have thus far scarcely taken into consideration tracts sec-
onarily degenerated, in part because these relations lie outside the
range of this lecture, and in part because the investigation is as
yet incomplete. Our present purpose is to indicate the ex-
tent of the destruction due to the operation.
I again summarize the results. Of the entire cerebrum,
aside from the remnants of the right Ammonshorn, there remains
not a trace except a strongly atrophied uncus of the parietal
EpIncER, The Significance of the Cortex. 7.3
lobe, which is reduced to a mere membrane. The incision on
the right side passes laterad of the capsule leaving the thalamus
ganglia and opticus intact, while on the left side the genicula-
lum externum, optic nerve, the gangalon of the lattice layer,
and a part of the ventral thalamus nidulus were also removed.
The left optic nerve remains visible only in the form of atread
of nonmedullated fibres. Of the ganglia of the mesencephalon,
cerebellum, etc. all are intact.
This dog which, as you see, had lost almost the entire cere-
brum, possessed the greater part of those faculties which for a time
we have been led to believe eminated essentially from the cere-
brum. The experiments of Goltz, which have removed so large
a mass of brain substance, have always produced great interest.
But the results of these operations, which he described in his
usual masterly manner, seemed to many to contradict the results
of the majority of the physiologists who have employed stimu-
lation and exterpation. In other words, a distinct contradiction
was thought to exist between the results of localization and those
produced by Goltz. Here, however, we must be content with
the facts. It is possible to explain that, on one hand, a slight
injury of cortex in man or the ape produces evident symptoms
or lameness, motor insufficiency, etc., that we may diagnose the
spot and treat it successfully, and that, on the other hand, this
dog, and many others operated upon by Goltz, gave evidence of
no marked motor disturbances.
I am convinced that the facts which comparative anatomy
has taught us are well adapted to thro w a strong light upon the
significance of the cortex and cerebrum and to explan the con-
tradictions which so many find between the results of stimula-
tion of the cortex and its total extripation.
There is a large class of animals which are totally devoid of
a cortex and the fibres originating there. Itis the gronp of bony
fishes [Teleostei.] In this group the brain ‘‘ begins’, szt venza
verbo, with the axial ganglon, corpus striatum, as indicated in
the drawing. The thalamus ganglia are relatively insignificant,
it is only when we reach the mesencephalon that great cell and
fibre masses appear. I may add that these do not differ in es-
74 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
sentials of arrangement from those with which we are familiar in
the mammals and man. No one would assume that the cortex-
less fish is lame or without sensation or blind, yet it lacks those
tracts which in higher animals conduct from the first termini of
the motor, sensory and cranial nerves to the cortex. The sole
conclusion which is warranted is that the first stations of these
nerves suffice to exert those functions which we recognize as
characteristic of the central organs.
As one ascends the scale there is added (I use the word
‘‘added”” purposely) to the structures already existing a cortex.
We are able to clearly distinguish the cortex from all other parts
of the brain (by the form and arrangements of the cells) since
we possess the Golgi method. Such cells appear first in an irreg-
ular and sporadic manner in the amphibia. In the reptilia we
find a well-defined, regularly arranged cortex clothing the mantle.
From it arise a few fibres which connect the mantle with the
deeper centres. Even among the mammals the cortex is, as
well known, exceedingly variable in its extent. Its amount in
rodents and many other mammals seems quite small when com-
pared with that of the thalamus and mid-brain ganglia. It is
not until the higher mammals are reached that the cortical layer
of the cerebrum gradually acquires its extensive development
which, through the magnitude of the connections which it con-
tains and especially the radiations which pass to the thalamus,
produces the familiar convolutions. The cortex is, therefore,
not a necessary element in the concept of a vertebrate brain, it
is of gradual development and continues to increase in size in
the grqup of mammals itself.
The latest to develop is that part of the cortex which, with
its radiations, is called the frontal lobe. In the carnivora it is
still very small, and even in the ape it has relatively slight devel-
opment, while in the anthropoids, those apes which most nearly
approach man, there are remarkable differences between the
frontal lobe and that of the lowest races of men. The rate of
development is not the same for all parts of the cortex. Those
parts of the cortex pertaining to the olfactory sense, the mar-
ginal gyre and ammonshorn, may attain an enormous develop-
Epincer, The Significance of the Cortex. 75
ment in those animals which depend much on this sense, while
in the case of the apes and man these parts occupy a subordi-
nate place.
It is not necessary to rehearse in this circle the evidence
that the cortex with its numerous cells and fibre tracts is essen-
tially the bearer of the psychical functions. Comparative anat-
omy and Goltz’s experiments show that its existence is not
necessary for the so-called lower functions which take place
without constant intervention of the intelligence and were
formerly called instinctive. Schrader, by his experiments on
doves and lizards has obtained results like those I reached onan
anatomical basis and the experiments of Steiner have not offered
any contradiction.
If the cortex is non-essential for the above functions, it by
no means follows that it has no influence upon them, and at
this point the results obtained by experimenters who have em-
ployed localization, offer a valuable supplement. It must be
assumed that, in fact, a chart of the surface of the brain may be
constructed, a chart which indicates at which points stimuli may
be applied to produce a specific motor or sensory reaction upon
the deeper centres. There is no contradiction between the two
experimental tendencies, but one supplements the other. Goltz,
however, shows that the removal of the cortex and its connec-
tions deprives the animal of the organ for all those functions
which make possible the higher psychical manifestations, such as
intelligence and reflection. _
In progressive paralysis of insanity we meet clinically and
anatomically a disease from focal beginnings which gradually
destroys the cortex. The final result is just what Goltz obtained
operatively, the patient becomes deeply imbecile. Naturally
the symptomatic complex is greatly modified in man, who has
become accustomed in his activities to permit the codperation of
memory and and reflection to a very great extent. Thus man
bears cortical injuries much worse than animals and reacts from
_ injuries which would hardly permanently affect a dog at all,
to the extent of complete obliteration of function. Moreover
the clinical symptoms of paralysis, so far as these questions are
76 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
concerned, are much complicated by the fact that, in the course
of the disease, spinal cord symptoms usually appear.
The new-born child has but few connections of the first
centres with the cortex. The optic radiations do not develop
until weeks after birth. In spite of this, however, it may be
easily proven that the child sees well, but there appears for a
time no evidence of comprehension of what is seen, as in the de-
corticated dog, nor of the power to practically apply what is
seen. These appear only after the development of the optic ra-
diation permits the cooperation of the cortex. But aman who
in later life loses the occipital lobe of both sides no longer has
the capacity to see, like the dog or the child, with the deeper
centres. I have the record of a man who suddenly became
completely blind. He lived for years without being able to see
in the slightest degree. In the autopsy I found bilateral soften-
ing of the two occipital lobes, probably as a result of embolism.
The cortex plays a more important part and becomes more
indispensable the higher we ascend in the animal scale. This is
the explanation of the divergent results of the experimenters.
It is not only possible but very probable that the destruction of
the occipital lobes would have a very different effect on vision in
the ape than in the dog or rabbit.
Since we have discovered that the cortex is something
which has gradually been added to the rest of the brain in the
animal series and that it serves the higher faculties of psychical
life, such as intelligence, experience, and reflection, it is not of
slight moment to enquire what sensations are localized in the
small cortex which first appears in amphibians, or still better, in
reptiles. It is only within the last months that I have reached
a solution of this problem. It proves that the cortex of these
animals is connected by a strong system of fibers almost exclu-
sively with the olfactory apparatus. The phylogenetically old-
est cortex serves the olfactory sense and has, even thus early,
certain peculiarities which permit us to consider it closely re-
lated to the Ammonshorn. The conclusion which is self-evi-
dently to be drawn is that the first of the higher psychological
functions which makes its appearance in the animal kingdom is
Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. ii
that which has to do with the memory and evolution of olfac-
tory sensations (For particulars see Anatomischer Anzeiger,
1893, 10.)
I present not only the preparations from the dog operated
on by Goltz but also a series from a normal dog and finally a
number of sections of the brain of the giant turtle, Chelone
midas, which clearly show the connection of the oldest cortex
with the olfactory lobes.
CONTRIBUTIONS) TO: THE COMPARATIVE? (MOR:
RHOLOGY OF THE CENTRAL (NERVOUS /SYS-
TEM.
II.—Topography and Histology of the Brain of Certain Reptiles.
(Continued from Vol. I. p. 37.)
By € 1) HERRICK:
Additional remarks upon the cerebrum. The olfactory tuber
is large in nearly all reptiles. In some cases, as we have shown
elsewhere, the tuber is carried forward by the growth of the
skull and separated from the cerebrum, as in fishes. This is
true in the alligator, giving rise to the mistaken idea that the
peduncles are the olfaclory nerves (Rabl-Rickard and Wieder-
sheim). In serpents the tuber retains its direct connection with
the hemisphere but it is greatly expanded, with a laterally di-
vergent terminal bulb. The ventricle extends nearly to the
end. It would appear that there are two distinct portions of
the pero. The longitudinal sections of black snake brain ( Plate
VII., Figs. 1-3.) show that at the very tip there is a mass of is-
olated pero which is the source of the olfactory nerve proper,
while the nerve to the large Jacobson’s organ is derived from
fibres from the mesal olfactory fossa. The real configuration of
the tuber is best seen from the horizontal section (Plate VIL.,
Fig. 4.) It will be seen that serpents have developed to an
enormous extent the structure we have described as the olfac-
78 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
tory fossa in the rhinencephalon of the alligator and opossum.!
This structure consists of an excavation of the mesal aspect of
the organ which is filled out by the fibres which enter there.
The whole pero is greatly thickened and the rhinenccel is thus
diverted laterad and describes an arch in both the horizontal and
vertical plane. The ventricle is not only thus reduced to a half-
moon shaped slit but the lateral walls of the tuber are thinned
to such an extent that they contain little but the epithelium of
the pes.
A longitudinal section (Figs. 1-3, Plate VII.) is very in-
structive in showing that the attenuation extends ventrad and
dorsad so that the radix fibres emerge through these thin walls
of the lateral aspect.
It is this delicate and one-sided structure of the tuber
which, taken in connection with the flinty brittleness of the
skull, makes the mutilation of the tuber almost a constant oc-
currence, explaining the incompleteness of earlier descriptions.
This configuration is established before birth. The local-
ized development of the pero on the ventral aspect is perhaps
correlated with the isolated course of the highly developed tract
of Jacobson’s organ.
The structure of the tuber offers nothing peculiar other-
wise. The ganglion cells surround the cup-shaped fossa and
send their slender apex processes into the glomerule layer where
they enter into association with the olfactory fibre. The cen-
tral end of the nerve cells sends out short processes which break
up into dichotomous branches. The granules adjacent to the
ventricle are, as usual, of two sorts; larger pale nuclei with
slight protoplasm and which may be regarded as immature
nerve cells, and small dark nuclei which are perhaps migra-
tory corpuscles.
In transections of the olfactory tuber of serpents ( Zxopzdon-
otus, Coluber, Eutenia) the fibres from the mesal aspect arch |
dorso-laterad and collect with those of the lateral aspect and
1 Journ. Comp. Neurol. Vol. II. Feb. 1892.
Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 79
form the radix lateralis, which is soon covered by a cap of cor-
tex. On the mesal aspect a few fibres of uncertain origin col-
lect and pass caudad into the post-rhinal lobe where they are
closely enveloped with dense cell-clusters of that lobe. Into
the same clustre the fibres of the olfactory branch of the pre-
commisure may be traced, though it may be that the continuity
is broken here.
The olfactory tuber in Pkhrynosoma is very small
and slender and might very readily be mistaken for a
nerve. It is cylindrical rather than bulb-like and passes well
forward to the narrow space left for its reception in the frontal
portion of the skull. The glomerulary structure occupies its
terminal portion. Material now at disposal does not permit a
careful histological examination. It would appear that the rela-
tively slight olfactory development may be correlated with the
small development of the occipito-basal lobe and hippocampus.
In the turtles the olfactory tuber is much simpler than in
the serpents. The uniform oval form, absence of olfactory
fossa and the symmetrical arrangement of the several layers
about the ventricle all indicate a more primitive condition.
The ventricle or rhinenccel is large and expanded. The pedunc-
les are applied obliquely to the ventro-mesal aspect of the hemi-
spheres.
The preparations at present at disposal throw but little
light upon the course of the radices, which are disperse, rather
compact and resemble the similar structures in Amphibia.
It appears, however, that the lateral radix passes along the
lateral aspect of the hemisphere and occupies a distinct fissura
radicis, as in higher vertebrates. It enters the inverted convo-
lution homologous with the ‘‘nucleus sphzericus”’ of serpents
and thus connects with the hippocampus. More distinct than
these fibres are those of the supracommissure, which pass ectad
of the peduncles and cephalad of the optic tract and, entering
the cerebrum, arch rapidly dorso-cephalad to connect with the
above-mentioned lateral radix bundle, though with present ma-
terial it is imposible to determine actual continuity.
The olfactory radices have been very carefully studied by
80 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the writer in fishes and the opossum and by Professor C. Jud-
son Herrick in rodents and we have agreed in tracing the lateral
radix along the fissura radicis to the pyriform lobe where’ the
tract either splits or is met by fibres from the supra-commissure
tract. The fibres remaining in the cerebrum spread out over
the pyriform and can be traced more or less directly to the hip-
pocampus. In fishes where the hippocampus is not differenti-
ated from the ‘‘occipito-basal lobe’’ (homologue of the pyri-
form) the fibres pass, in a continuous sweep, from the olfactory
tuber to the point where the hippocampus would appear. Dr.
Edinger agrees with our suggestion that the latter body may be
looked upon as an outgrowth from the occipito-basal lobe.
In reptiles we have found a similar arrangement. Dr. Ed-
inger’s recent paper follows the radix lateralis in the turtle
through the occipito-basal lobe (‘‘nucleus spheericus’’) to the
cortex of the Ammonshorn.
Dr. Meyer, in his discussion of the olfactory radices', says
that the great majority of the fibres of the olfactory tract assem-
ble laterad of the ventricle and thence pass to the nucleus
sphericus, where, apparently, the fibres, after losing their
sheaths, break up into fine terminal brushes and are distributed
to the inner portion which is poor in cells but is surrounded by
a dense layer of cells, like a cap. According to our observation,
however, this which has been regarded as a core of the organ is
really but an invaginated portion of the caudo-ventral surface.
It is so folded that the olfactory radix is included within the
groove-like entrance and conducted into the central (morpho-
logically ectal) space, where they spread out just as in other
reptiles, If Dr. Edinger is correct and the nucleus sphericus
belongs specifically to the hippocampus then the fact that the
radix lateralis fibres cannot be as distinctly traced to the free
cortex as in other reptiles need produce no surprise. However,
in suitable sections fibres can be traced from the nucleus spheer-
icus to the caudal cortex or hippocampus proper.
Dr. Meyer adds: ‘‘It is indubitable that other olfactory
1Zettsch. f. wiss. Zool., LV, 1.
Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 8I
radices exist; (1) the fine layer of the fibres forming dorsal
remnant of the coronal fibres and (2) the basal [ventral] rem-
nant of the same fibres.
[This so-called ‘‘ Randfaserkranz”’ includes the fibres
which clothe the ventral and mesal surface of the hemispheres
immediately caudad of the olfactory peduncle.] As to the
ental olfactory radix, or pars olfactorii of the precommissure
fibres, Dr. Meyer is in doubt as to the identification (/. ¢. p. 81),
but figures them as we have done.
Dr. Meyer describes the relations of the nucleus sphaericus
to the remainder of the brain base and remarks that the olfac-
tory radix passes through a groove of the lateral ganglion and
then is separated from the surface. The way in which the
nucleus sphzericus is formed accounts for both facts.
In turtles the relations are simpler, as the xacleus sphaericus
can hardly be said to exist, but the occipito-basal lobe is simply
forced into the caudal cornu of the ventricle by a direct invagi-
nation the nature of which is very plain. The connection of
the hippocampal cortex is very close and distinct with the spur-
ious cortex of this region and there seems to be no reason why it
should not be recognized as a masked convolution. The radix
lateralis enters this closed fissure as described by Edinger. We
have verified these points in three species of Chelonia and
find them constant.
The lizard Scoleporus affords an illustration of an intermedi-
ate condition. The ‘‘nucleus sphzricus"” is scarcely devel-
oped and is in obvious connection with the hippocampus. The
radix: lateralis is somewhat submerged and enters a small blind
sac formed on the same plan as the corresponding organ in
serpents.
In Phrynosoma our sections are very unambiguous and one
can easily trace the radix into the inner space of the sphzricus
which here lies far latero-ventrad and which is plainly an invagi-
nation.
In the alligator no true ‘‘nucleus sphericus”’ is formed,
but there is a large massive occipito-basal lobe projecting into
the caudal cornu of the ventricle. The transition of its super-
82 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ficial cortex into the hippocampus is direct and the fibres of the
olfactory radix seem to be superficial.
The occipito-basal lobe, which is so largely developed in
snakes, requires a more particular study. Though, as previous-
ly described, it is embraced within the axial lobe, it has many
characteristics of a cortical area.
In the bird brain Mr. Turner found a submerged convolu-
tion or masked bit of cortex in the occipital region. Dr. Ed-
inger in 1893 has explained the less highly developed organ in
—as a continuation of the
”
Chelonia—his ‘‘ nucleus sphericus
Ammon’s horn, while the writer in 1890 and again in 1891 had
contented himself with suggesting that the occipital cortex may
have sprung from this lobe through the active proliferation there
taking place.
It is obvious enough how the nucleus sphzricus may have
been formed, but the corresponding organ of serpents is so un-
like it, so deeply imbedded in the axial lobe, and so complicated
that it is difficult to understand its origin. An attentive study
of sections, however, shows that as above indicated, it is in-
verted cortex from a caudo-ventral region which has been thrust
cephalo-dorsal and pushed bodily into the ventricle and axial
lobe. (Really, of course, the process is incident to the com-
pactness of the organ and the above expressions are to be taken
as illustrative rather than literal.) The core of the lobe is there-
fore, morphologically ectal surface and its peripheral margin is
morphologically ventricular. In some cases, where the brain
had _ been slightly macerated and then rapidly hardened, the
core became shrunken and revealed this connection with the
surface. It is notable that the place where this invasion origin-
ates is just beneath the limb of the hippocampus where it joins
the axial lobe, so that it would be possible to adopt Dr. Eding-
er’s view and include it with the hippocampus. This homology,
however, we hesitate to adopt unconditionally, because the ele-
ments of the hippocampus seem adequately represented other-
wise and, besides, this body has its apparent homologue in the
pyriform lobe of mammals which may therefore be regarded as
a part of the basal portion of the pallium which has been thick-
Herrick, Bratz of Certain Reptiles. 83
ened by conduplication. The cellular structure of this body in
reptilia is nearer that of the axial lobe than that of the cortex.
Fibres pass from this body, at its mouth on the ventro-caudal
aspect, into the hippocampus. From the ventricular aspect
(ental aspect of the cells) a strong bundle of large dark fibres
passes to the precommissure. A part of these fibres do not en-
ter the commissuré but pass at once to the thalamus. These
fibres the writer has compared to a separated tract from the for-
nix which took a more direct route than the rest whose position
was described as like that in mammals. We find similar fibres
in fishes and think it is a mistake to compare them to any part
of the fornix. Edinger is probably in error in thinking these
fibres (f' Fig. 4, Plate VII,) the bundles from the habena, for
the latter, if our observations are correct, pass to the lateral as-
pect of the brain base and arch caudo-dorsad upon the convex-
ity of the caudo-lateral cortex (parietal lobe ?) or connect with
the radix lateralis. The fornix fibres appear at fin the same
figure.
Inasmuch as the spheroidal structure which is so conspicu- .
ous in serpents is not developed in all reptiles even, it seems to
us that the term nucleus sphericus can hardly be adopted as
a general term, but may be restricted to that organ where de-
veloped, while the occipito-basal lobe may include the whole re-
gion however developed. In the snake it would include more
than the spheericus.
THE HISTOLOGY OF THE CORTEX.
In conformity with our determination to postpone a discus-
sion of the literature to a later period in this series, we only
consider the recent papers which have a direct bearing upon the
topics in hand.
Dr. Adolf Meyer has contributed an extended paper! upon
the fore brain which covers much the ground of our own previ-
ous work in a thorough and painstaking manner. Although he
has unwittingly repeated many of our own observations they
are none the less welcome.
\Zettsch. f. wiss. Zool., LN, 1.
84 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
The greater part of the paper deals with the brain of the
adder, Callopeltis esculapit.
The histological elements are so grouped that a number of
fields are rather sharply distinguishable. The cells may be dis-
tinguished by their pasition as well as their form in several
classes which are mentioned rather for convenience than as_hts-
tologically distinct types. (1) Cells with multiangular, often
pyramidal nuclei surrounded by a relatively small protoplasmic
body, more or less parallel to the nucleus. These form the
mantle layers. (Figured by Edinger, Plate 1V, Fig. 36.) - (2)
Cells with round nuclei situated either centrally or near the wall
in a clear space. These may be isolated or grouped in nests of
from two to six cells somewhat resembling cartilage cells.
The present writer has already discussed these differences
at length in several papers and has laid off the cortex into areas
or ‘‘lobes”’ with their respective niduli each distinguished by
the form of the cells. If any thing is needed to complete the
evidence that these distinctions have physiological significance,
it is found in the fact that the pyramidal cells lie in areas which
are tributary to the ventral peduncles. The suggestion of Brill
that the greater part of cortex is homologous with the subicu-
lum cornu ammonis may be regarded as gratuitous assumption.
The ‘‘fronto-median lobe’’ seems to be homologous with the
limbic region of higher vertebrates and is of the flask-shaped
type (sensory). As in mammals, the motor areas are mingled
with sensory cells, so there is no exclusive seggregation in rep-
tilia. The statement of Meyer that the processes of these cells
can only be detected by Golgi impregnation requires modifica-
tion.
The cell-nests of the axial lobe which Meyer compares to
cartilage cells, have been described by the writer in the alligator,
lizards, serpents and fishes, and by C. H. Turner in birds, and
constitute a remarkable structural modification, for which the
theory of proliferation has been proposed—a theory which adds
probability to the view of Edinger and the writer that the
hippocampus and other parts of the cortex are progressively
thrust out from the axial lobe. Meyer follows Edinger in call-
Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 85
ing the median cortex cephalad of the callosum ‘‘cortex am-
monis.’’ This region the writer termed fronto-median lobe and
cannot see how it is possible to so modify homologies as to com-
pare it with the Ammonshorn. It seems clear that it is the
limbic region—the sensory cortex of the mesal hemisphere
wall.
Again the ‘‘intra-ventricular lobe”’ of the present writer
is called septum pellucidum or ‘‘ fornix ridge” of Edinger. To
this usage we can only say that, if the term septum pellucidum
is used in the restricted sense as employed in mammals, where
it is limited to that part of the intra-ventricular walls which co-
alesce, it does not exist in reptiles. If the usage is extended
to embrace the entire intra-ventricular wall, it includes too much
and is liable to combine cortex and basal regions in one unnat-
ural assemblage. We cannot assent to Edinger’s employment
of the term Fornix Leiste for the ventral median wall cephalad
of the callosum. Its use, if restricted to that part containing
the fornix fibres, makes it sufficiently identical with the corpus
fornicis to deserve that term.
For a discussion of the septum, see Mihalcovics, p. 122,
especially these words: ‘‘Durch die Verwachsung der Hemsi-
phareninnenwande entstand vor dem 3. ventrikel eine solide
Masse, die durchsichtige Scheidewand (septum pellucidum) des
Saugethiergehirn.”’
The real nature of the cortex is well illustrated by a com-
parison of the embryonic condition of higher vertebrates with
that of Amphibia and Chelonia. (As Meyer well observes,
there are many points of resemblance between the amphibian
and turtle brain. )
A comparison of Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XIX of Vol. II of
this Journal will illustrate the early condition of the cortex in
the snake and dog. It will be seen that the cortex proper is
derived from wandering neuroblasts whose points of develop-
ment were at the ventricular surface. The extent to which the
free neurons separate from the less differentiated cells near the
ventricle varies with age and with the group, as well as with the
region of cortex. It would seem that the simplest form of pal-
86 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
lium is that seen in nearly all regions of the amphibian brain
where there is no sharp distinction of region, and where the
ventricular and cortical layers are not yet distinguished. The
number of fibres is, as yet, insufficient to develop a white layer.
The pallium, therefore, consists, at that stage, solely of (1) outer
neurolgia and fiber layer, (2) cellular layer, and (3) epithelial
layer (i. e., layer of the nuclei of the spongioblasts. ) Two ele-
ments introduce the differentiation; first, the increase of cellular
elements adjacent to the ventricle through the process of pro-
liferation of neurons to serve as reserves (as well as possibly for
nutritive purposes) and, second, the increase of fibres forming
distinct tracts and a more or less continuous white layer.
In many turtles the whole pallium retains much of its
primitive simplicity. The pallium is relatively large and of a
nearly uniform structure, and its cellular elements are in a com-
mon stratum, or at least, there is no marked line of separation.
We believe that it may prove expedient to distinguish two
varieties of cortex. ‘The first or more primitive type is produced
by a migration of the whole cellular area to a belt some distance
from the ventricle. This is found in almost the entire cortex of
turtles and characteristic of the occipital and dorsal regions of
serpents and lizards, and is retained in the hippocampal cortex
of higher vertebrates. The second type is that which is found
in other regions of the pallium where the ventricular belt is re-
tained and a second band of cortex is differentiated. Both these
forms are derivable from the embryonic structure where both
are united in a common stratum about the ventricle. The latter
condition is that which is, with slight modification, the perma-
nent one in amphibians. The complicated cortex of mammals
is a modification of the second type above mentioned.
We conceive that we are warranted in insisting upon the
essential uniformity of the neuron, whether it takes part in the
formation of a nerve or of a tract or of a cortical area. It is
essentially a cell with processes which form associations, if not
anastomoses, with like elements, and thus produces chains of
progressive association and translation. The neuroblasts, which
arise from the ventricle, migrate from it to a suitable position,
Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. 87
and there produce their nerve-fibres which connect at suitable
levels with others. The fibres which spring from one end may
be many times longer than those from the other (for the neuron
is primarily bi-polar), but it is indubitable that both may convey
stimuli.
Transeciton of the cerebrum of the Phrynosoma. (Plate V.)
Topographically considered there are few points of especial in-
terest in this brain that have not already been alluded to. /%g.
Zz cuts the right olfactory tuber near its base. The tuber has
already been described.' Its ventricle is very small. The left
hemisphere is cut where it joins the rhinencephalon. The fibres
of the radix lateralis accumulate laterally.
In /“g. 2 the rhinenccel has expanded into the ventro-ce-
phalic cornu of the ventricle and the latter communicates with a
large sickle-shaped dorsal cornu. It will be observed that in
this and other sections a sharply marked fissure on the mesal
aspect, corresponding to a furrow of the ventricle opposite it,
nearly separates the cortical from the basal part of the mesal
wall.
In Fig. 3 the projection of the central lobe (striatum sensu
strictu) forms a large part ofthe section. The cortex is differen-
tiated as already described in the lizard. That portion which
lies dorsad of the fissure of the mesal cortex above referred to
’)
was called by me ‘‘fronto-median lobe”’ and its structure is
fully described on p. 18 of this Journal for March, 1891. See
a, fig. 5. Laterad from this lobe there is a smaller portion of
cortex which caps the front of the brain and is occupied,
like the parieto-frontal lobe which clothes the lateral parts of the
free cortex, by pyramidal cells or at least a variety distinctly
different from the remaining regions. These two areas may be
located upon /zg. 5, the one mesad, the other laterad of the ref-
erence line passing to the hippocampal commissure.
We still unhesitatingly adhere to our belief that these cen-
tres along the frontal and fronto-parietal aspects of the cortex
1Tt should have been added that the tuber is exceedingly produced in the
adult, being, in fact, as long as the entire prosencephalon and cylindrical and
slender throughout.
88 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
are motor. This belief, being founded not simply upon an anal-
ogy in appearance but upon the fact that the ventral peduncu-
lar bundle distributes its fibres to these regions; we cannot
agree with those writers who claim the whole cortex for sensory
apparatus, still less with those who appropriate it tothe olfactory
sense alone.
There is a rudimentary rhinalis fissure separating a ventral
region devoid of cortex from one which although flanked by the
central lobe still has a cortical differentiation. We have noth-
ing to add to the description of the intra-ventricular lobe, or
that part of the mesal walls which lies ventrad of the fissure.
This is not cortical in structure and is wonderfully similar to the
corresponding part in the opossum (we are not prepared to use
the term septum pellucidum for this structure. )
As we pass caudad the peduncular fibres accumulate on the
mesi-basal aspects and the occipito-basal lobes appear along the
latero-basal aspects (/7gs. 4-5. Fibres from the fronto-median
lobe gather near the mesal fissure and accumulate dorsad of the
intra-ventricular lobe, which now is forming a transition into
what must be called corpus fornicis. The callosal fibres (in ac-
cordance with the usage of Osborn) pass from the fronto-median
lobe of one side to the other, not without decussations but in
just the same sense as in higher vertebrates. Before one can
unhesitatingly commit himself to a term as much mooted as this
one it is desirable to secure a unambiguous definition of it. This
we evidently cannot soon expect. We propose for the. present
to consider as a callosum any bundle of nerve fibres passing
from the dorsal cortex of one side to the dorsal cortex of the
opposite side cephalad of the fornix. It shall not be obligatory
to determine whether the parts connected are homologous or
otherwise for the latest admissions of Meynert left us in doubt
whether such fibres are characteristic of the human callosum.
The above definition excludes the commissure described —
by the the writer in fishes though recent studies have added ev-
idence in favor of the hypothesis that homologues of cortical
niduli may remain in the axial lobes. What was intended by
the employment of the term callosum in that connection was to
Herrick, rain of Certain Repiiles. 89
emphasize to the utmost the functional homologies believed to
exist.
Back of the callosum the roof of the aula is a thin tela
which is plexiform and gives rise at its lateral portions to the
preplexus, which enters the lateral ventricles a short distance.
Lying some distance caudad is the hippocampal commisure.
This does not differ in any morphological respect from the cor-
responding body in mammals. The statement that it is pecu-
liar in being situate beneath a plexus, i. e. that it perforates the
ventricle instead of lying in the dorsal wall has been very care-
fully investigated in many families of reptiles and in birds. It
is an error, or rather a misinterpretation. Above the commis-
sure of Fig. 5, a part of the plexus may be seen but it is a vet-
roflexed diverticle of the plexiform roof in front of it. Ina
section immediately following, the commissure lies plainly in
the roof without connection with the plexus. Fig. 6. reveals
the interesting fact that the fornix fibres and those of the com-
missure pass to the caudal cortex, i. e. to the exact locus which
in the March number was identified with the hippocampus.
We differ from Edinger only in that he seems to include
the whole mesal and dorsal region with our occipital lobe as hip-
pocampus. This question, however, we discuss in full else-
where.
The callosum. Dr. Meyer’ regards the indentification of
the callosum in lower vertebrates as unwarranted. He says:
‘‘In ungulates it is easy to see how the callosum stretches be-
tween the outer acuate gyre and the septum pellucidum or for-
nix fibres of the two sides in the form of a secondary bridge—a
completely discrete organ. This locus corresponds to the
groove which forms the mesal limit of the mantle—and such a
structure is [in reptiles] entirely lacking.’’ To this it must be
said that embryology shows that the callosum develops within
the lamina and never normally lies free upon the surface. The
indusium, which is carefully described by Mr. Fish in this num-
ber, is the remnant of the supracallosal cortex which has be-
Dive. py 77 and Lrs:
go JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
come reduced proportionally to the development of that organ.
Moreover in those cases where the callosum lies superposed up-
on the fornix there is always a remnant of the plicated roof of
the aula between them.
The amount of gray matter covering the callosal fibres is a
matter of no morphological importance.
In Phrynosoma and other lizards the callosum is in quite a
different frontal plane from the precommissure and is quite dis-
tinct. Its fibres are derived from the ventricular aspect of the
fronto-median cortex. |
In his paper upon the callosum Osborn said, ‘‘the evidence
regarding the fornix in Ophidia is not as yet sufficiently clear to
be conclusive, but I believe that turther evidence will soon be
forthcoming to show that there are true fornix tracts in the rep-
tilian brain.”’ We think there can no longer be any doubt as to
the constancy of the fornix and the hippocampal commissure in
all vertebrates above the fishes at least. | We subscribe fully to
the view that the whole mesal mantle is united with its fellow of
the opposite side by a common commissure which is divided in-
to a cephalic and a caudal portion, the latter developing earlier
because of its relation to the olfactory cortex which is first to
become functional. It is not a little strange that Osborn should
have failed to find the hippocampal commissure of snakes while
recognizing the few and doubtful fibres of the callosum which
Meyer thinks simply decussate.
It is certain that what Osborn called posterior bundle of
the callosum is, as he thought probable, ‘‘ the commissural por-
tion of the ‘‘Cornu Ammonis.”
In Chelydra we encounter a peculiar development of the
commissures which is instructive as to the range of variation.
The sections embracing the precommissure show that just dor-
sad of it and apparently connecting the two sides of the axial
lobe, like the precommissure, is a strong bundle of fibres which
turns sharply cephalad and then gradually enters the median
cortex. In short, it is the (so-called) callosum, which is dis-
placed ventrad and placed in juxtaposition with the precommis-
Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. gI
sure. Its fibres pass to the ventricular aspect of the limbic cor-
tex, as in other reptiles.
The course of the commissures of the mesal cortex can be
well traced in Czstudo. The hippocampal fibres pursue the us-
ual course but they are accompanied by cortex for nearly all
their extent and the fimbria thus becomes small and incomplete.
The fibres pass to the mesal side of the callosal tract without de-
cussation and there turn abruptly ventrad and caudad. Such
commissural fibres as there are are clesely associated with the
callosum immediately dorsad of the precommissure. The callo-
sum itself, after crossing in a large compact bundle extends for
some distance on either side in the ‘‘septum’”’ directly cephalo-
dorsad and afterwards divides into scattered fascicles which pass
to the ventricular aspect of the intraventricular wall of the pal-
lium. In perpendicular sections it can be seen that these fibres
include the whole extent of the fronto-median lobe and continue
upon the dorsal surface at least as far as this lobe extends.
It might be questioned how far we are authorized to go, in
following these commissures in their fluctuations with the fa-
miliar names “of mammalian anatomy, but, for our part, we
think our nomenclature should express our morphological point
of view as far as consistent with clearness.
The explanation of the modifications here exhibited is
found in the relatively great distension of the ventricles in tur-
tles, which elevates the median wall disproportionately. The
terma drops very abruptly and the course of all the commissures
_of the median wall below the arcuate fissure is lengthened. Thus
the perpendicular length of the fronto-median cortex in a snake
might form less than one third of the entire height of the cere-
brum, while in a corresponding region of the turtle the fronto-
median cortex is two thirds the entire height.
In Amphibia we are inclined to differ from Osborn in his
identification of the callosum. He does not identify the fornix
and hippocampal commissure, but classes all fibres connecting
the mantle and crossing dorsad of the precommissure as callo-
sum. The position and course of these fibres makes the identi-
fication of these fibres unsatisfactory for, as he indicates, the po-
g2 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
sition is caudad of the porta and most of the fibres, so far as we
can see, are derived trom the caudal cortex, in other words, it
resembles the hippocampus commissure and fornix and connects
with a descending fornix tract. The early period at which these
fibres develop is against their recognition as the callosum.
In horizontal sections of Menopoma one may trace the
fibres from the caudo-median cortex ventrad immediately cau-
dad of the porta till a level is reached slightly dorsad of the pre-
commissure, here the fibres cross, as described by Osborn.
These fibres however, can hardly be compared to the callo-
sum. Cephalad of the porta and just where one might expect
it is a small bundle of fibres which crosses by a strongly curved
course from one intraventricular lobe to the other. Study of
the embryos of salamanders shows that the tract first above
mentiontioned appears early, while the callosum was not found .
at all. All analogy would lead us to expect that the hippo-
campal commissure and fornix would be first to appear and
most highly developed in the lower forms. This discovery
is in harmony with our view that the cortex is derived from the
axial lobes and the commissures with it. (The figures illustrat-
ing these statements are prepared but cannot be printed until a
succeeding number. )
The epiphysis in serpents consists of a more or less balloon
shaped modification of the original tube and a short stalk which
communicates with a spot just caudad of the supracommissure.
There are fibres which resemble the connective elements of a
parietal nerve arising from the commissure itself but there is no
special evidence of nervous function. The terminal bulb itself
is contained within a special chamber formed by the adherent
meninges and is directed cephalad between the hemispheres.
A portion of the pigmented roof above the brain enters the in-
tercerebral fissure and is closely associated with the tip of the
epiphysis to such an extent that this portion of the organ be-
comes invested with chromatophores. No traces of a true par-
ietal organ have thus far been noticed. In late embryos of
Eutzenia and the black snake the whole region of the dorson of
the brain is enveloped in an enormous blood sinus. The epi-
Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 93
physis is slung by its membranes in such a way that it is at-
tached ventrad to the region of the supracommisure and dorsad
to the cranium. Even at the earliest stage observed it has the
adult characters and is accompanied by a special blood vessel.
The spaces occupied by the sinuses are subsequently encroached
on by the hemispherses and the epiphysis comes to lie between
the former.
The histological structure of the globular part of the epiphy-
sis is peculiar. At first glance it seems to be a solid mass of deep-
ly stained corpuscles, but inspection proves that it is formed of a
ramosely branched tube which is closely packed within the
space alloted to it. Each branch is enveloped by a delicate
sheath of connective tissue and the interspaces in some species
contain blood vessels and pigment while in others they are
almost devoid of foreign elements. Say y
Ties
+ Ay
Pe Miho s ‘
Pg RG ro No
id ve f
if
Ny AAs ~ a
ud Pay ; , ty f
7. Pact te
EEO AE
Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. III. SS an
BLE lp
ip pf U/fifly
Wy hee
gl UY, YP
Vie
SASK PINTRO CRE DIR
MANO ARR
WAY
ef)
=a
. W// “ot
Von
Gy
7!
{
7 ees mm
tHE INTRINSIC PULMONARY NERVES BY THE
SIEVE METHOD:
[ ABSTRACT PAPER. |
(With Plate XIV.)
From the Patholgical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity and Hospital.
By Henry J. Berxiey, M.D., BALTIMORE.
Little information, from either histological text books or
recent monographs, is to be found concerning the final distribu-
tion of pulmonary nerves. Krause’ apparently gives the entire
knowledge on the subject in the following words: ‘‘ The pul-
monary nerves course with the bronchi, and contain many pale
nucleated as well as double contoured fibres, and have clusters
of ganglion cells among the filaments. The first named fibres
are distributed to the smooth muscular cells, the dark contoured
to the mucous membrane of the bronchi. Their terminations
are not known.”
By the older methods of preparation with osmic, acetic, or
chromic acids, it was more than difficult to obtain positive re-
sults beyond those already stated by Krause; even in prepara-
tions of the lung treated according to the Weigert hematoxylin
methods little can be determined concerning the double con-
toured fibres (and of course nothing of the sympathetic ones),
owing to the lung tissues decolorizing very slowly in the borax
and ferricyanide of potassium solution.
For the purpose of this experiment the gray rat was al-
most entirely used, the fibres staining better in it than in
other animals, and the methods of fixation and staining were
the same as used in our recent investigation on the hepatic
nerves, namely, the rapid Golgi, and its modification the picric-
acid-osmium-bichromate method. The latter gave incomparably
finer results.
The pulmonary nerves in general present some slight dif-
1 Allg. Anatomie, 1876.
108 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ferences in appearance from those distributed to the viscera of
the abdominal cavity in a tendency to a more general fascicular
arrangement of the nerves, and also to a greater inclination than
is usually seen in glands to a racemiferous development of the
bronchial terminations, both in the mucous membrane and non-
striated muscular layers. The likeness to the nerve distribution
of the layers of the small intestine is superficially striking, but
close analogies are not apparent. The nerves themselves are
of two varieties, an extremely fine fibre accompanying both the
vessels and air-channels; and a much coarser thread, usually in
pairs or bundles, also following the vessels and bronchi, but at
times departing from them, and wandering off among the sur-
rounding tissues. As the Golgi method does not allow of a
distinction being made between medullated and non-medullated
fibres, no conclusions can be drawn as to whether the coarse
fibres are medullated, and the finer, especially the arterial plex-
uses, non-medullated, nevertheless it is reasonable to suppose
that some of the coarser fibres are provided with a myeline
sheath, as like fibres have been frequently seen by the older
observers running with the air-tubes. Ganglion cells are stained
somewhat sparingly by the silver, a few bipolar cells situated
near the bronchi have been found, but they bear no proportion
to those made apparent by other methods. Generally speak-
ing, nerves are most numerously stained near the root of the
lung, and gradually diminish in numbers toward the free mar-
gins.
Nerves of the Broncht.—In the external fibrous layer of
each bronchus is situated a considerable plexus of fine nerve
fibres, with at the outer margin an occasional coarser tube, or
small bundle; all connected together by frequent ramuscules.
From this peri-bronchial plexus very numerous stems come off
that have a two-fold destination: [1], they are distributed upon
the cells of the smooth muscular layer, and show at many
points simple end-knob terminations, usually in rounded, less
frequently elongated shape. More rarely a fibre will come off
from the parent marginal plexus, and after giving off a few side
branches, will end in a very complex figure [Fig. 1], but all the
BERKLEY, Jutrinsic Pulmonary Nerves. 109
final terminations are simple bulbs. All the end-knobs are, ap-
parently situated between the muscular fibres without especial
relation to their nuclei, so far as we have been able to determ-
ine. [2]. Numbers of fibres, branched and unbranched, pass
through and beyond the muscular zone, and form a sub-epithe-
lial plexus, in the mucous layer. This plexus is quite distinct
and well developed, not only in the larger bronchi, but also
in divisions of the second and third order; and forms a circular
network of interlacing and connecting filaments around the bases
of the epithelial infoldings. From this meshwork nerve fibres
ascend upon the fibrous tissue in the centre of the epithelial
folds, some nearly to the apices, others only half way, and there
terminate in knob-form [Fig. 2]. No trace of any ending is
to be seen entering the cement substance between the columnar
epithelial cells.
On the smallest bronchi, when the surrounding muscular
cells have become very greatly diminished in numbers, the
nerve arrangement is somewhat different, there is now only one
plexus or network, and from its fibres new twigs penetrate
quite numerously into the epithelial layer, where they terminate
in end-knobs, after the development of curious arborescent
figures with many thickenings and nodosities [Fig. 3]. These
end terminations seem distinctly to lie between the outermost
margins of the flattened epithelial cells surrounding the lumen
of the tube, quite close to the fibrous layer.
In all the fibres of the networks, both peri-bronchial and
mucous, are developed local thickenings and varicosities, but
true ganglionic cells within the muscular layer have not been
seen. That the ganglionic developments found in the paths
of the fibres coming from the terminal arborizations in the
epithelium of the bronchioles act the part of intermediate trans-
mitters of nerve impressions from the epithelial surface of the
air tubes, as is the case with some of the organs of special
sense, in particular the cutaneous surfaces [see the studies of
Retzius' and Lenhossék? on Lumbricus] to nerve cells in more
1Biol. Untersuch. Neue Folge IV, 1892, Stockholm.
2Arch, f. Mik. Anat. Bd. 39, 1892.
110 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
distant localities is possible, as they bear the same relation to
the nerve terminations of the bronchi as the endings of tactile
sensation do to their intermediate ganglionic cells, but their
structure is so hidden by the dense silver precipitate that it is
extremely difficult to decide if they are simply large varicosities
of the fibre, or actual ganglionic enlargements provided with a
nucleus and nucleolus.
Neither of the methods of preparation give a distinct clue if
there are endings to the nerves upon the epithelium of the
alveoli. It is true that near some of the bronchi, fibres depart
from the main network surrounding the tube and artery, and
for short distances give off branches to the air cells lying just
along the edge of the tube, terminating near the pavement
epithelium in a small bulb; but scattered muscular fibres cannot
be definitely excluded from such situations, and it is quite pos-
sible that these endings are distributed to them.
Inter-alveolar fibres. Nerve fibres pass off from the
broncho-arterial network in the form of bundles or single fibres
and wander quite long distances in the septa between the air
cells. Many of them give off dichotomously numbers of side
branches, and all of them may either join the extensions of
other bronchial plexuses or may be distributed to the inter-
alveolar tissues, and also are occasionally seen supplying the
surfaces of the smallest bronchioles. Near the root and in the
mid-regions of the lung these inter-alveolar nerves are quite
frequent and from striking pictures [ Fig. 4], from their coarse-
ness and prominence. Their final ending in the septa is ina
simple bulb like arrangement.
Anterial Supply. The nerve supply to the bronchial arter-
ies is an exceedingly rich one, and is more extensively developed
than in any of the glandular organs, the ovary perhaps excepted.
Quite often, as in Fig. 5, the peri-arterial spaces are marked out
by lines of thicker nerve bundles, whose side branches anasto-
mose with the fibres of the arterial networks proper. End-
terminations are not so numerous as one would expect from the
extreme closeness of the network, yet they are quite frequent,
always arising as short branches from the plexus and ending as
BERKLEY, Jutrinsic Pulmonary Nerves. III
simple knobs, seemingly between the smooth muscular cells of
the middle coat of the vessel. Few ganglion cells are to be
found at the margin of the plexus, but local enlargements of the
fibres are common.
The nerve distribution to the artery and bronchial tubes
are intimately connected, nerve fibres not only wander off from
the main bundles that follow the vessels, but from the vascular
plexus itself come off quite numerous rami that are distributed
to the smooth muscle, and to the epithelial lining of the air
tubes, perhaps after the formation of numerous anastomoses and
peculiar figures upon them.
Nerve plexuses also accompany the pulmonary arteries,
but are not so well developed as those about the bronchial, still
traces of them are rather frequently met with in the form of
single fibres and portions of anastomosing networks following
the direction of the artery, and here and there an occasional
end-knob may be found bearing the same relation to the mus-
cular layer as it does in the bronchial arteries. Nerve fibres in
sparce numbers may also be found on the walls of the larger
veins, but upon the smaller as well as upon the walls of the
capillaries they are not to be seen.
June 24, ’93.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIV.
Fig, 1.—Intricate nerve termination from the muscular layer of a medium
sized bronchus. ‘The dotted line indicates the internal margin of the muscular
zone.
Fig. 2,—Two adjacent infoldings of the mucous membrane of a larger
bronchus, showing the relation of the nerve fibres to the epithelial cells.
Fig. 3.—Complex termination of anerve fibre from from the epithelial
lining of a bronchiole. The dotted line indicates the internal margin of the
epithelium. A, marks what is apparently asmall ganglion cell interposed in the
path of the transmitting fibre.
Fig. 4.—Nerve bundles and single fibres in the septa between the air
cells. From the mid-region of the lung.
Fig. 5.—Drawing from a arterio-bronchial plexus showing the intimate re-
lation between the two. A, A, fibres arising from the plexus distributed to the
layers of the bronchus. The x indicates the margin of the peri-bronchial
spaces.
All the drawings are from picric-acid-osmium-bichromate hardened speci-
mens, stained with silver nitrate. Zeiss, ocular 4, objective DD.
AN INTERESTING NEURITIS,
By ED, BARKER, BH MyM. D). Dayton. ©:
The patient, Dr. G., is a dentist, 48 years old. For sev-
eral years prior to 1890, there was slight twitching of the mus-
cles on right side of neck. General health was good. He was
a moderate though regular drinker.
In 1889 the twitching (chorea) increased till it became quite
annoying. In January, 1890, he had a severe attack of La
Grippe. The chorea increased under the best treatment attain-
able. Later the Doctor’s general health improved, but a con-
dition of ‘‘spasmodic wry-neck”’ developed with considerable
deformity and great pain. Any attempt to maintain an erect
posture was accompanied by powerful contractions of the right
cervical muscles, drawing the head downward and to the side.
These spasms were accompanied by most excruciating pain.
In June, 1890, two operations were performed by a Co-
lumbus, Ohio, surgeon, first making simple section and then
excising the Spinal Accessory nerve. Neither operation was of
any benefit. The skill of this surgeon is such that it is unlikely
that he failed to reach the Spinal Accessory.
The patient's condition remained unchanged till in April,
1892, when he came to me for operation. May 5th, a subcu-
taneous tenotomy was done, cutting off the Sterno-cleido-mast-
oid at its insertion into the collar bone. The antiseptic dress-
ings were removed on the fifth day, when the wound was healed.
From this operation the Sterno-mastoid ceased to draw the head
forward. It was, however, still drawn hard and strong to the
side and somewhat backward.
On June 5th, I excised the posterior branches of the cer-
vical nerves supplying the powerful group of muscles on right
side and back of neck, including the Trapezius, Levator Anguli
Scapulae, Trachelo-mastoid and Complexus.
This necessarily was a long and tedious operation. The
patient was anesthetized face down. AQ free incision was made
BARKER, Ax Interesting Neuritis. 113
about five inches long from the occipital protuberance down-
ward, about one inch to right of median line and parallel with
the spine. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae
were layed bare. Free hemorrhages greatly obscured the field
of operation.
A peculiar condition of the nerves existed. All were en-
larged and there was great hyperesthesia. The Great Occipi-
tal nerve was probably twice its natural size and gave evidence
of long continued inflammation.
Although the patient was profoundly anesthetized, when-
ever a nerve was touched there was marked muscular contrac-
tion. Sections of the Great Occipital and all the posterior
branches of the cervical nerves were exercised at their points of
exit from the spinal column.
Using the index finger as dissector, all the muscles were
raised to the line of the ear and nerves freely excised wherever
found. Notwithstanding the very extensive wound and free
bleeding the patient made a rapid and uneventful recovery.
When he sat up, to the intense disappointment of the patient
and operator we found the head drawn over and a narrow bun-
dle of the anterior fibres of the Trapezius stood out above its
atrophied and paralyzed neighbors like a small rope.
For the third time under my direction the patient was an-
aestetized and a section over an inch in length was cut from the
centres of the offending group of muscles. The ends retracted
and I allowed a mass of blood to accumulate, hoping that the
clot would prevent reunion of the muscles. This probably
unique operation was successful. Rapid recovery ‘followed.
After several weeks we found the head feebly drawn to the
right. An apparatus was then made with a supporting mast at
the back of the neck and passing around beneath the chin and
occiput. Formerly no form of apparatus would control the
spasms and the patient was compelled to lie down every half
hour to avoid the terrible paroxysms of pain.
He left the hospital wearing the brace and able to sit or
walk for an indefinite time, only growing weary sooner than
usual. There was undoubtedly a low form of inflammation in
114 JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the nerves that controlled the affected muscles. The patient
seems to have been carefully and skilfully handled, both by phy-
sicians and surgeons. Medical and surgical skill have exhausted
themselves in the effort to cure him. He is by no means well
and sound. There are many similar cases and their disorders
belong to that long list of neuroses that, alas, must be classed
in our present knowledge as incurable. Will not the neurolo-
gists come to the rescue and tell us the nature and cause of the
disease? Then let us hope a remedy may be found.
NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL TARCRS
TORTES:
IV. NEvUROLOGICAL WoRK AT ZURICH.
By ApotpH Meyer, M.D.,
Pathologist of the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane. Kankakee.
Honorary Fellow of the University of Chicago.
J. J. Honegger works quite independently of the other neu-
rologists of Zurich. He is the representative of the old school
of anatomical research, restricting himself as much as possible
to the descriptive anatomy of the adult brain. Although a pu-
pil of Huguenin and Meynert, unlike them, he never left the
ground of anatomy proper and therefore never exposed himself
to the criticism of belonging to the speculative school. This is
certainly meritorious. Wild speculation has been so demoral-
izing that anatomy is, in the hands of many, little more than a
yielding and practical source of apparent proof of preconceived
ideas and is no longer the exact description of what the eye
sees.
Our great biologists have shown us what anatomy has to be
in order to be a creditable science. They had the advantage of
finding a great amount of apparently dead material in the ana-
tomical descriptions of former times; they brought it back to
Meyer, LVeurologists and Neurological Laboratories. 115
life by utilizing it for the problems of physiology and they con-
tinued its study so as to make it both profitable and trustworthy.
The problems of physiology and of evolution take more of the
interest of the present generation than the dry and often unsat-
isfactory humiliating study of descriptive anatomy. Yet, it is
better that the anatomist should say: Here I am at the limit
of my present knowledge—than that he should make the uncrit-
ical reader believe that his speculations belong to the category
of proved facts. JI admire Honegger for limiting his discussions
to what belongs to his field, giving all that he could obtain, but
with severe criticism, from a strictly anatomical standpoint. In
this way he offers all the information which anatomy can give
him; he leaves the solution of the physiological problems to the
physiologist and is not misled, like Meynert, to be too ready to
see in his preparations what his speculations made him presup-
pose.
Honegger began his anatomical research in 1876 under
Huguenin’s direction. In 1879 he worked in Meynert’s labora-
tory and since that time he devoted much of his leisure adding
to his splendid collection of serial sections. He was first work-
ing on the selachian brain, but was finally led to a question of
more special interest which he treats so fully in the only publi-
aation he has so far produced, in the paper on the Fornix.’ In
order to understand Honegger, it is absolutely necessary to be
familiar with Ganser’s excellent monograph on the brain of the
mole, and with most of the literature on the parts in question.
He, who studied all this, will not fail to admire the learning and
earnest research of Honegger, although it will be difficult to
excuse him for giving the reader so much trouble, the style and
the absence of more instructive drawings making the reading
exceedingly difficult.
After a very elaborate review of the literature on the for-
nix, he starts with a discussion of the histological and morpho-
1 Vergleihend-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber den Fornix und die zu ihm
in Beziehung gebrachten Gebilde im Gehirn des Menschen und der Saugethiere.
Mit 10 Lichtdruck-Tafeln. von J. J. Honnegger. Recueil Zoologique Suisse,
t. V. Geneva, 18g0.
116 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
logical relations of the cornu ammonis. He shows clearly that
the knowledge of this region is still limited and that we are not
justified in making too many assertions before the method of
Golgi has satisfactorily shown the histological connections of all
the various elements. After the cornu ammonis, Honegger
treats the following parts: stria Lancisii; psalterium, fornix
longus and fimbria; septum pellucidum and pedunculus septi
pellucidi ; columnae fornicis; tuber cinereum and corpus mamil-
lare ; decussatio subthalamica posterior and pedunculus corporis
mamillaris; Vicq d’ Azyr’s and Gudden’s bundles; fasciculus
longitudinalis posterior; tania thalami optici; ganglion hab-
enulae, pedunculi conarii; Meynert’s bundle, teenia semicircu-
laris, nucleus amygdale. As I hope to enter very fully on
Honegger’s work in a future paper, I give merely these out-
lines here.
The results of Honegger’s very intricate studies are rather
unsatisfactory, inasmuch as they are to a great extent negative,
telling us that we have no right to use many dogmatic views of
authorities before they have found fuller proof. A comparison
with Alexander Hill’s speculative method shows, however, the
value of such ‘‘negative’’ and critical work and numerous re-
marks, especially those relating to the anatomy of lower verte-
brates, make us feel hopeful that the strictly objective study
will finally triumph over apparently ingenious but often badly
founded speculations.
Honegger's collection is worth seeing because it contains
the finest carmine and gold series, such as are becoming very
rare since the carmine of today is so bad that haematoxylin
governs the field entirely.
Prof. Paul Martin, whose paper on the embryology of the
cranial nerves! is not accessible to us, cannot devote as much
time to neurology as the above mentioned scholars. His col-
lection, however, is very interesting on account of the fine Gol-
gi preparations and the embryological material. There is no
1MarTIN, P. Die erste Entwickelung der Kopfnerven bei der Katze. © ds-
ter. Mon. Schr. f. Thierheilkunde. 15. Jahrgang; Sept., 1890-
Meyer, Weurologists and Neurological Laboratories. 117
doubt that we are going to obtain many valuable contributions
from this author.
Prof. I. Gaule’ has written several interesting neurological
papers. His work is, of course, largely dealing with physiology
but hasso many original features that I wish to mention one paper
on the numerical relations of the medullated fibres of the spinal
cord of the frog. Gaule compares the number of the fibres of the
cross-section with the corresponding number of the entering
perpherial nerve-fibres. He starts from the following supposi-
tions:
I. Every fibre of the white substance is in functional
coordination with the central ends of the root-fibres.
2. The fibres of the white substance form connections
among the central ends of the root-fibres themselves and with
the brain.
3. The white fibres may be divided into the following
groups:
a. tracts which go beyond the spinal cord into the oblon-
gata and other parts of the brain,—the long tracts; |
b. connections within the spinal cord among its various
segments—intermediate tracts;
c. connections of all the single elements within the same
area—short tracts.
4. The central end of every root-fibre corresponds to a
certain number of fibres of the white substance, the number be-
ing constant for every one.
5. The central ends of the root-fibres and consequently
the starting-points of the corresponding fibres are not far from
the entrance of the roots into the spinal cord.
6. The length of the fibres of the white substance depends
on their function, 1. e., on the distance of the segments united.
7. The central end of every root-fibre contributes two fi-
bres for the long tracts, the one’for the same side, the other for
1Gaule, J. Zahl und Vertheilung der markhaltigen Fasern im Froschriick-
enmark, Mit 9 Tafeln. Abhandlg. d. mathemat. phys. Klasse der kgl. sachs.
Ges. Wiss. XV. 9. p. 739. 1889. and Edinger Jahresbericht f. d. Jahr 1890; p.
31-33.
118 JOURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
the opposite, the intermediate tracts receive one fibre, the short
tracts eight fibres (two ascending and two descending ones on
each side).
According to Birge, the brachial enlargement of the spinal
cord receives about 4000 root-fibres, the dorsal ‘‘region 1500,
and the lumbar enlargement about 4500,” making altogether
10000 root-fibres. Gaule counted the fibres of five sections,
and compared the actual number with the number obtained on
ground of his hypothesis. For the first section (from the
upper end of the cervical cord) he makes the following calcula-
tion:
1. Fibres of the long tracts, 2 for each of the root-
fibres entering the spinal cord. 10,000 x 2 20,000
2. Fibres of the intermediate tracts: none; as they
don’t reach this segment.
3. Fibres of the short tracts. 4 to each fibre of the
half of the brachial enlargement — xX 4 8,000
Fibres of one half of the section 28,000
Fibres of the whole section 56,000
The results of the hypothesis and of the actual number
obtained in the 5 sections compare very favorably:
Section I. Hypothesis 56000 actual number 56674
es i; ee 74000 om oa 74699
of VOL, i 45500 a 41825
Hy Ve a 60500 vi ie 61058
“Ss V. As 18000 ee us 16313
Conclusive as this proof of the hypothesis seems to be,
there is no doubt that it has to be accepted with due reserve for
reasons too numerous and too obvious to be mentioned here. I
put this abstract before the reader, because this instance is a
fair example of the speculative character of Gaule’s work.
Dr. Wlassak, Gaule’s assistant, has so far published an ana-
tomy of the cerebellum of the frog and is now preparing a num-
ber of interesting studies on other parts of the amphibian brain.
In this short review I have not been able to do full justice to
any one of the Zurich scholars; but if I have succeeded in induc-
ing some of my readers to take up a careful study of the works
mentioned, I feel confident that they will agree with me in call-
ing Zurich a remarkably productive neurological center.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE” COMPARATIVE “MOR=
PHOLOGY Or SHE. ‘CENTRAL NERVOUS 7S¥S-
TEM.
II.—Topography and Histology of the Brain of Certain Reptiles.
(Continued from Vol. III. p. 106. With Plates XV-XX.)
By C. L. Herrick.
In seems desirable to supplement the previous instalment
by a few data derived from a comparison with Amphibia and
from an application of the Golgi method. The turtle and
Anura have much in common in the structure of the fore-brain.
while the Urodela displays a still greater simplicity of structure.
In general, it may be said that a comparison of the two types of
amphibian brain affords very strong evidence in favor of the
view that all nervous elements are modifications of a single
typical neuroblast. In Menopoma, for example, all of the brain
regions retain very much of the embryonic simplicity. The
structure of the optic lobes does not appreciably differ from that
of the cerebrum or olfactory tuber. The connections via the
various tracts, however, remain practically as in higher forms.
In the Anura the optic lobe acquires the stratified structure
found in turtles and fishes, and other regions are equally com-
plicated. Suitable methods show that the idea that the Am-
phibian brain is chiefly composed of disconnected granules is
erroneous, for the size and ramification of the processes of the
cells is marvelous.
Application of the Golgi method to the turtle brain. In con-
nection with the data by the hematoxylin method, which is
certainly most reliable, we have employed the method of silver
impregnation. It is possible to use it readily in connection
with the familiar process of paraffin imbedding. The fragments
are passed into go per cent. alcohol from the nitrate of silver and
then into absolute. They are then imbedded in paraffiin in the
ordinary way and mounted in benzole balsam, covering at once,
120 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
after gently heating to stiffen the balsam. The latter process,
recommended by Huber, seems non-essential if the paraffin im-
bedding is used. We have not experimented a sufficiently long
time to be sure that no change will be affected, but sections
prepared without any more heating than that necessary to
coagulate the fixative have remained unchanged for over three
years. The results obtained compare favorably with anything
we have seen and it is quite possible to cut serially or by a rib-
bon process if desired. Naturally the specimen must be small
if thorough permeation is to take place.
In the olfactory tuber a fair number of the cells are perme-
ated. There seems to be no essential difference between the
more superficial and the deeper ganglion cells. The peripheral
processes pass to the glomerules and there subdivide into»a
close brush which is in close contact with similar fibres from
the olfactory fibres. From the base a long practically un-
branched fibre (presumably the axis cylinder) can be traced
toward the cerebrum. The protoplasmic processes of the
deeper cells pass between the peripheral cells and subdivide
similarly.
The relations described are illustrated by /“gs. 1-3 of Plate
XIX. /ig. 7. is a section from the ventricle to the glomerule
layer showing the general distribution of cells and processes.
Fig. 2. shows two of the peripheral ganglion cells on a larger
scale with their protoplasmic processes entering a glomerule.
Fig. 3. shows the minute subdivision of the protoplasmic pro-
cesses in the glomerules.
The structure of the cerebrum is not greatly simplified by
a resort to the Golgi method. Everywhere evidence is afforded
that the cells are abundantly supplied with processes but the
clear and unambiguous distinction claimed by many writers be-
tween protoplasmic and axis cylinders is not obvious to the
writer in all or even the majority of cases. The appearances
seem to favor the interpretation of an obliquely peripheral pro-
cess as the axis cylinder in the mid-dorsal cortex (/zg. 4. Plate
XIX.) This is certainly not the case in the hippocampal region,
however, where the unambiguous evidence of the haematoxylin
Herrick, Bram of Certain Reptiles. 121
prepararions agrees with that of the Golgi method in showing
the axis cylinders extending entad toward the tract leading to
the fimbria. The direction which the processes take is, how-
ever, obviously a secondary matter, for in the amphibia, where
the embryonic type of cortex is persistent, i. e. the cells do not
migrate from the ventricle, the same fibres have a_ peripheral
course and yet.can be traced via the homologue of the fimbria
to the hippocampal commissure. /7zgs. 5-6 illustrate the im-
pregnated cells of the hippocampal region; the former being less
highly magnified.
In the axial lobe a very complicated structure is revealed
where it is difficult to get a sufficiently deep stain to bring out
the processes in their full extent. /7zg. 8-9. show that these
cells (see a, /zg. ro.) are abundantly provided with processes.
The appearance seems to warrant the assumption that we have
an invaginated cortex as claimed by Edinger. It is interesting
that it is the lateral part which has the fibres brought out;
whether this is solely due to the greater accessibility to the
reagents remains to be seen.
The region for transfer of impulse or switch-station seems
to be on the basal aspect, a, /zg. zo, and corresponding regions
farther cephalad. /2zg. 7. illustrates the cells of the ventro-
mesal angle of the cerebrum cephalad. The cells seem to be
of a kind suitable to facilitate the transfer. Two axis cylinders
appear to emerge from each cell, as in the niger, ruber, etc.
fig. ro. is a transection near the supra-commissure, the tract
of which is seen at * The figure gives a fair idea of the
fickleness of the silver impregnation.
The interpretation of the relations in the region where the
transition into the diencephalon is affected is peculiarly difficult.
The whole ventro-lateral region is clothed with large pyramidal
cells which seem (perhaps spuriously ) to connect with the
peduncular fibres. If one could trust appearances it would
seem that the supracommissure tract blends with olfactory radix
fibres and passes to the occipito-basal lobe (spheericus.) A
smaller tract leaves the supracommissure tract and passes mesad
and caudad into the diencephalon. The peduncles (basal fore-brain
122 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
bundles) break up into small fascicles and lie parallel to the
ventro-lateral margin. They seem to receive fibres from the
large pyramidal cells of that region and to continue to the
cephalo-dorsal region. zg. 72. illustrates a few cells from the
optic lobe, from the deeper tectum layers. The arrowsyv and d
indicate the directions ventrad and dorsad respectingly. /zg. 13.
is part of the dorso-median region at the level of the front of the
optic lobes. 4 is a cell in the optic tract which is shown more
highly magnified in /z7g. rz, No attempt is here made to dis-
cuss the arrangement of tracts in the mesencephalon.
The olfactory tuber ‘in the frog has been studied by deeply
staining with hematoxylin with results which closely correspond
with those of Retzius and others by use of the Golgi method.
The hematoxylin method has the advantage of permitting com-
plete orientation. The elements of the rhinencephalon are very
simple. About the ventricle we have the same relations which
prevail in other regions of the fore brain. The elements of the
olfactory ganglionic layer, or specific cells of the tuber, vary
greatly in size but consist of a more or less bipolar cell body
enclosing a nucleus nearly occupying its transverse diameter.
Two processes of considerable size are developed, one from the
peripheral or cephalic extremity, the other from the ental end.
The former in many cases can be traced into a glomerule where
it breaks up by dichotomous branching to intermingle with sim-
ilar branches from the olfactory nerve. The other processes ex-
tends caudad beyond the limits of the tuber, beyond which we have
thus far not succeeded in tracing the isolated fibre. In other
cases the cell, while it has the form just described, seems to
have its relations only within the pero and cannot be proven to
give rise to an axis cylinder. Fig. 3, Plate XX, illustrates the
typical olfactory neuron in the frog. Often the axis cylinder
can be traced farther than in the case figured. While it has
not proven possible to trace separately the various fibres of the
olfactory neurons, it is easy to follow their combined course.
Collecting on the caudo-lateral aspect of the pero these fibres
form a strong radix which passes, by a strong lateral sweep,
caudad and dorsad to a point behind the entrance of the ped-
Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 123
uncles. The tract there breaks up but part of it may be traced
caudo-mesad to the hippocampal lobe. This tract for some
time evaded us because it is not superficial but lies near the
ventricle. There seem to be two main branches in the pero,
one arising from the dorsal and the other from the ventral as-
pects, both curving to a common point on the lateral aspect.
It may perhaps be doubted whether this single strong band
represents the precommissural radix or the radix lateralis, or
both. Some fibres from it do, in fact, seem to enter the pre-
commissure but, if our observation is correct, a larger part pass-
es to the hippocampal region, (Plate XVI, Fig. 9.) There is a
smaller tract passing from the region of the precommissure ceph-
alad, which may correspond to the olfactory branch of the com-
missure but, inasmuch as the radix obviously branches about
half-way from the ruber to the commissure and one portion
passes dorso-mesad to the hippocampal region, it is better to
think of the two radices as fused until more definite evidence is
at hand. The region where the compound radix enters the cere-
brum is differentiated from the adjoining cortex by the presence
of certain deeply staining cells whose axes lie in the plane of
transverse section, while the remaining cells are less susceptible
to stain, less shrunken and with clear granular nuclei. Whether
the peculiar dark cells which are locally distributed in the cortex
should be regarded as motor or simply such cells as for any rea-
son have been recently active, is yet a question. There is, of
course, a possibility that the difference is wholly accidental, but
this seems improbable. Fig. 12, Plate XVI, illustrated a por-
tion of the transverse section with the olfactory radix. At a
point farther caudad the course of the above olfactory tract is in-
terupted by nuclei in the course of the fibres, These are evidently
the second neurons in the course of the tract if the fibres to
this point are supposed to be derived from the specific olfactory
ganglia.
In longitudinal sections it is seen that the region where the
disperse olfactory fibres converge to form the radix is at a point
near the peculiar lateral olfactory lobule which lies adjacent to
the post-rhinal lobe or ventral tuberosity of the cerebrum. (Fig.
124 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
9, lat. tub., Plate XVI). In Necturus there are a few scattered
fibres on the very ventral surface which run directly caudad to
beyond the chiasm—probably to themammillary region. These
fibres have not been elsewhere encountered.
The hippocampal region of Necturus has proven susceptible
to a stain which brings out the cellular relations with all desira-
ble completeness. It is possible to trace the axis cylinder fibres
from the scattering cells of this lobe into the tracts which’ col-
lect to unite in the fornix commissure. It will be noted that in
the figure the protoplasmic processes spring from the same end
or the opposite end of the cell depending on the position of the
cell’ (hig 11; (Plate xox:
The above connection is precisely that which we have de-
termined in reptilia except that in the latter case the hippocamp-
al cells have assumed the secondary relation, i. e., have retreated
from the ventricle in a body and, as a consequence, the axis
cylinder processes have gathered entad of the cells while in am-
phibia the cells have departed little from their embryonic condi-
tion and the fibres remain ectad of the mass of cells. If these
tracts are, as appears, homologous with the fimbria we have in
the conditions prevailing in lower vertebrates a strong presumpt-
ive evidence in favor of the writer’s position that fimbria fibres
arise from the cortical cells of the hippocampus. Compare Fig.
13, Plate XX, which is a portion of the hippocampus of the
black snake.
The white matter and tracts of the fore-brain and dienceph-
alon of amphibians has received an exhaustive treatment at the
hands of Dr. Edinger, which resulted in the statements sum-
marized below.’
Connections with the prosencephalon. 1. The basal pros-
encephalic bundle (so also Osborn, Koppen’s ‘‘ round bundle,’’)
Schulgin’s ‘‘Tract P.” or analogue of the pyramids. Osborn
speaks of a branch to the thalamus as ‘‘ infundibular tract,”’
which Koppen terms ‘‘ Thalamus Tuber cinereum Bahn.”
2. Tenia thalami, or tractus ganglii habenule ad prosen-
1 Untersuchungen u. d. vergl. Anatomie des Gehirns, 2. 1892.
Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. 125
cephalon—a fine bundle which passes from the mesal wall of the
prosencephalon to the supracommissure.
3. Diencephalic radix of the olfactory (our tract of the
supracommissure). It is described by Edinger (following Bel-
lonci) as arising in the tuber and extending to the supracommis-
sure. This is constant in all the vertebrates we have examined
though its absolute continuity with the olfactory radix is not so
clear.
4. Edinger thinks it very probable (influenced by studies
in Selachii) that fibres arise in the lateral part of the mantle
which pass caudo-ventrad, passing ectad of the chiasm and cross
to the other side behind the latter. After decussation these
fibres pass to the roof of the mesencephalon. In other words
the course is the same as that of the ‘‘mantle bundle.” He
says ‘‘Bei den von mir untersuchten Arten war nur das Stiick
des Zuges, welches hinter dem chiasma liegt, gang sicher zu
stellen, das frontale ende, der zug aus der Decussatio postoptica
uber den Sehnerv hinweg in das Vorderhirn liess sich aus einzel-
nen Befunde vermuten, aber nicht durch solche beweisen.’’ Os-
born described a tract from the optic nerve into the hemisphere
which the author supposes to be the missing part of the mantle
bundle.
The decussatio postoptica has been identified with the com-
missura transversa, but another decussation lying dorsad of it
deriving its fibres from the caudad part of the mid-brain, Eding-
er considers equivalent to this or v. Gudden’s commissure.
(There is some confusion due to the fact that on the same plate
the three names are used, viz: ‘‘ Decussatio postoptica,”’ de-
cussation of the mantle bundle, and ‘‘ decussatio transversa,”’
and seem to apply to different tracts. )
From the diencephalon Edinger derives the following tracts :
1. Tractus thalami frontalis springing from the dorsal region of
the thalamus and passing cephalo-ventrad and then suddenly
caudad (its terminus caudad was not made out). 2. Tractus
thalami caudalis, which springs from the ganglion caudale thal-
ami and passes in the same direction as the preceeding but, be-
cause non-medullated, its fibres cannot be traced beyond the
126 JouRNAL oF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
mesencephalon. Both the above lie in the ectal regions and
seem to constitute Osborn’s direct diencephalic tract. 3. Mey-
nert’s bundle. 4. Tractus ganglii habenule ad mesencephalon,
fibres passing directly caudad. 5. Tractus descendens ganglii
habenulz, with no determinate end caudad. Edinger does not
recognize Osborn’s commissura infundibularis. From the mes-
encephalon, besides the optic tracts, no fibre tracts are recog-
nized beside those of the commissura transversa. There re-
mains only the processus cerebelli ad diencephalon which is said to
arise in the caudal region of the gray matter of the diencepha-
lon and pass caudo-dorsad to decussate ventrad of the fourth
nerve decussation.
The following observations may be hazarded: First, as to
the basal prosencephalic tract, we do not find all the fibres con-
tinuous into the medulla but in Anura sundry connections are
formed with the cerebellum via the niger cells. There is also a
fine-fibred tract from the thalamic niduli to the mesal or meso-
ventral part of the cerebrum. Some of its fibres seem to de-
cussate beneath the precommissure, while others pass directly
the caudo-dorsal parts of the hemispheres. This mass we homol-
ogize with the dorsal or sensory peduncles.
The tracti thalami, which Edinger derives from the frontal
and caudal (or, on the plates, anterior and posterior) niduli of
the thalamus we regard as part of the dorsal peduncle system
which is continued cephalad as indicated.
The tractus ganglii habenulz ad mesencephalon we fail to
recognize as fully distinct from the optic brachia which follow
the course indicated, though arising laterad of the habenz in the
geniculata and passing to the inner fibre layer of the tectum.
It is important to determine whether the present suggestion can
be erroneous ; it is against it certainly that so thorough a mor-
phologist as Dr. Edinger could find no cephalic tract from the
tectum, although the frog is well supplied with eyes. Yet the
brachia exist in fishes and reptiles. (See note at end.)
The course of the supra-commissure tract in the toad is
clearly shown by the transverse section figured, (Plate XVI,
Fig. 1), The tract passes cephalo-ventrad and laterad from the
Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 127
lareral aspect of the hemisphere where its fibres may be traced
cephalad for some distance. Other fibres pass into the thalamus
but they seem to be derived from the infra-habena or habena
rather than the supra-commissure. The results of the Golgi
method as applied to the turtle are in harmony with this case.
Plate XIX, Fig. Lo.
The Ventral Commuissure System is diffuse and much less
easily studied than in fishes. One element, the commuissura
horizontalts is sufficiently separable but consists of several bund-
les which keep approximately parallel. The fibres are first
detected in the cells immediately cephalad of the post commis-
sure, the ‘‘nidulus corticalis” of fishes or nidulus aqueductus
(mihi) of reptiles’. The fibres collect into two or three distinct
bundles which pass ventrad, traversing the whole extent of the
nidulus ruber (as this term was used by me in fishes and reptiles)
to near the ventral surface of the tuber. Its fibres pierce the
peduncles caudad of the post-commissural tract and cross upon
the ventral aspect of the tuber somé distance behind the chiasm.
It is not a little gratifying that the agreement between the
course of these fibres in the Amphibia and the fishes should
prove so close. It seems to warrant the hope that we shall
ultimately determine homologies in detail from lowest to high-
est. The ventralis and transversa are not easily separable and
consist of disperse fibres arising from the cephalo-lateral aspects
of the diencephalon and decussate or cross from one side to the
other dorsad of the chiasm. We are forced to admit our inabil-
ity to find the mantle-bundle of Edinger which should connect
with our com. transversa.
The peduncles in Anura sustain the same relations as in
fishes, complicated by the presence of the cortex. The ventral
peduncles enter the cerebrum far ventrad and pass into a strong _
nidulus corresponding toa part of the striatum, many of the
fibres here affect union with cells whose opposite end is contin-
ued as a fibre extending cephalo-dorsad. The ultimate destina-
tion in the cortex seems to be the ventro-lateral region and the
Vourn. Neurol, Vol. III. p. 98.
128 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
cephalo-dorsal parts of the cortex. There is no apparent reason
why this tract should not be homologized with the motor pedun-
cles of higher brains. It is not clear to the writer that the fibres
terminating in the striatum should be distinguished as basal
fore-brain bundle in lower animals unless the same kinds of
fibres in higher brains be distinguished within the motor pedun-
cle. This Edinger has, in fact, done. In the present instance
the fibres do not all emerge from cells at the same level.
The dorsal or sensory peduncles enter a dorsal and mesal
region and are more disperse and less easily followed. They
pass chiefly into the mesal portion of the axial lobe and come
into more or less direct connection with cortical regions which
for other reasons might be regarded as sensory.
In Urodela the apparent position of the ventral peduncles
is rather farther dorsad relatively by reason of the fact that
much of the axial lobe, which in frogs, etc., becomes crowded
dorsad by the preoptic structures is, in the urodela, left upon
the ventral surface and the base of the prosencephalon in the
former is in part the lateral aspect in Urodela.
It would even seem possible that the dorsal peduncle to a
certain extent changes places with the ventral. At any rate the
precommissure seems to cross ventrad of the ventral peduncle.
The commuissures of the fore-brain are \eft out of account in
the present discussion. The whole question as to the relation
of the calloso-fornix structurs requires special considerations on
the widest possible comparative grounds. The fornix, at any
rate, is fully represented. The fibres collecting from the hip-
pocampal region collect in a strong tract which crosses dorsad
of the precommissure, but there is a tract in Anura, at any rate,
which passes near the ventricle obliquely caudad to the mammil-
lary region. They may be followed in a single perpendicular
section of the toad brain for most of their course. There is,
therefore, close harmony with the conditions in the Reptilia.
The Gray Matter of the Thalamus. Edinger treats the
gray matter of the diencephalon less extensively than the tracts.
The geniculatum is recognized as usual but includes the whole
mass of cells in the superficial portion of the region beneath the
Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 129
optic tract. The ganglion habenule and the gray matter of the
tuber are distinguished and, in addition, a frontal and caudal
ganglion or, as he elsewhere terms them, nucleus anterior and
posterior occupying the median and lateral aspects of the thala-
mus. These masses constitute the subthalamus and ruber of
our papers. We have been able to locate several other niduli
and especially the homologues of the mammillaria just caudad
of the infundibulum.
Where the thalamus adjoins the cerebrum the gray matter
is not segregated from the ventricular layer. The peduncles
pass into the striata in which are numerous scattered cells in a
dense stroma. (Plate XVI. Fig. 2.) In the midst of this gray
matter surrounding the preoptic recess of the third ventricle a
nidulus of larger cells—the preoptic nidulus which lies a short
distance caudad of the precommissure and extends from about
the level of that commissure to a point well ventrad. The large
fibres from these cells arch latero-ventrad and do not collect into
a definite tract. It seems most probable that they form a part
of the optic or infra-commissural system. Farther dorsad there
is a gap in the gray matter about the ventricle in which the for-
nix tracts lie. Dorsad of this region is a clustre of similar cells
which lie in the cephalo-caudal plane and give off processes
which may be traced in the clear space enclosing the descend-
ing fornix tracts. These cells seem to be intercalated in the
tracts. In longitudinal sections (Plate XVII. Figs. 2, 3.) a
clear space containing fibres from the preoptic nidulus separates
the gray matter of the preoptic recess into a cephalic and
candal portion fre. 0. c. r and pre. o. c. 2.
A transection somewhat caudad of the region just described
reveals the fact that the gray matter has considerable gained in
complexity. The habena lies dorsad and beneath it a strong
stratified nidulus which may be vaguely compared with the sub-
thalamicus of fishes. Immediately ectad and rather dorsad of
this group is what may be confidently homologized with the ex-
ternal geniculatum of fishes and, strangely enough, it shares
with the latter group the striking peculiarity of having a pseudo-
130 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
epithelium or radial superficial layer of cells with entally directed
processes.
The geniculatum (Fig. 3, Plate XVI, gez.) lies dorsad of
the ventral peduncles and receives fibres from the dorsal pedun-
cle which are less compact than those of the ventral. Caudad
of the level where the geniculatum occupies the surface a scat-
tered infra-habena nidulus appears dorsad of the subthalamicus.
The infrahabenaria and Meynerts’ nidulus are separable
from the habena proper. The respective positions may be
gathered from Plate XVI, Fig. 3, and the figures on Plate
xv:
The nidulus ruber has hitherto not been identified in am-
phibians. Reissner figures the bundles of the commissura hori-
zontalis' and indicated them as ‘‘herabsteigende Bundeln von
Nervenfasern,”’ the figure is from a section somewhat too far
cephalad to show the nidulus very well—its real site is in
the most protuberant region dorsad and laterad of C in the fig-
ure. The structure of the nidulus is less close than in the fishes
but it is obviously like the latter, a terminus of many of the
dorsal peduncular fibres. Under a high power the cells resolve
themselves into those with long processes extending into axis
cylinders in different directions and those with less evident pro-
cesses lying clustered as in fishes. The whole area is filled out
with fibres from various directions. The recognition of this ele-
in the thalamus is a useful step in construing the difficult region.
The homology is made more complete by the fact that the tract
of the commissura horizontalis traverses the nidulus ventro-dor-
sad and leaves it on its way to the post-commissure region. In
the tailed amphibians I was unable to detect the ruber in 1892.
(Vol. II, p. 67). (The fullest account of this nidulus yet re-
corded respecting fishes, etc., is that on pages 58-67 of the
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. II.) Although there
is no distinct ruber in Urodela yet it is possible to trace fibres
of the commissura horizontalis dorsad to a point a little cephal-
1 Bau des Centralnervensystem der ungeschwdnzten Batrachien, Plate XII,
Fig. XI.
Herrick, Lrain of Certain Reptiles. 131
ad of the post-commissure. The niduli in this case simply re-
main undifferentiated from the ventricular gray, though potential-
ly and functionally present. (Plate XVIII.)
The diencephalon and mesencephalon of Urodela constitute
one continuous segment interrupted only by the post-commis-
sure. It is probable that the most diagrammatic representation
of the segments in question could be secured by generalizing
the relations as they exist in Menopoma or Necturus, which are
essentially similar. The drawings and descriptions of Osborn
have made us sufficiently familiar with the external form and
general relations. It will be desirable, however, to examine a
series of horizontal sections beginning from the dorson in order
to get a comprehensive view of the structures.
The most dorsal section shows three structures; 1. The
preparaphysis (often mistaken for the epiphysis) consisting of an
enormous expansion of the preplexus dorsad of the aula. It is
composed of a large irregular central chamber with complicated
peripheral diverticles of a tubular or irregular character around
which blood vessels anastomose. The form is, in general, nearly
spherical. 2. The post-paraphysis or ‘‘ polster’’—a dorsal ex-
pansion of the third ventricle with irregular projections ectad
and entad. The diplexus is a derivative of this system. 3.
Immediately caudad of this, but separated from it by the supra-
and habena-commissures is the epiphysis, which consists of an
irregular aggregate of vesicles connected with the third ventricle
by anarrow opening. The supra-commissure system consists
of two distinct bundles, a small cephalic and dorsal and a larger
caudal and ventral bundle, a small branch to the epiphysis from
the former was doubtfully identified (parietal nerve.) The ven-
tro-caudal bundle passes laterad of the smaller commissure and
comes to lie ectad and cephalad of it, forming the main body of
the commissure, while the supra-commissure proper continues
directly ventrad, forming (?) a part of the optic system. (?) /7g.
z, Plate XVIII, illustrates these conditions. /7g. 2 is the re-
gion of the supra-commissure, showing the several tracts. From
the habena as well as what seems to be the locality of Meynert’s
132 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
nidulus fibres arise from the cells and collect into Meynert’s
bundle with the usual course.
At a section farther ventrad (/zg. 3,) the dorsal part of the
tectum appears. The optic tract enters laterad. The structure
of the tectum is exceedingly simple, consisting of ganglion cells
arranged about the ventricle with long bifurcating processes of
great length and delicacy. There is no stratification into zones
as in the higher forms but, nevertheless, the essential elements
are present. The optic nerves are small and hollow (i. e., the
old cavity of the primary optic ventricle is not wholly obliter-
ated) and the small number of fibres in the optic tract calls out
relatively few neurons from the second layer to the first. These
few cells are scattered irregularly somewhat above the level of
the general gray matter. A second layer of fibres approxim-
ately parallel to the ventricle is the brachial system. These
fibres are smaller than those of the optic tract. They arise
from cells in the region where in other vertebrates the genicu-
lata occur and pass caudad to constitute the inner horizontal
fibre zone. In the caudal aspect of the tectum bundles enter
from obliquely ventro-laterad and caudad and penetrate the tec-
tum between the meshes of and nearly at right angles to the
preceeding. This tract can be none other than the lemniscus.
Its course is obliquely latero-caudad to near the region of exit
of the trigeminus. In the middle region of the tectum occur a
few giant ganglion cells—the mesencephalic nidulus of the tri-
geminus. Each of these cells gives off a large dark fibre which
passes entad of the lemniscus to the exit of the trigeminus,
There are several bundles of such fibres in each side. The
fibres are larger than those of the 4th nerve.
The optic tectum in the frog is exactly similar to that of the
fishes in all essential particulars. It, therefore, differs from that
in Urodela much as the cortex of reptiles differ from that in the
embryo. It is very curious that none of the writers on the am-
phibian diencephalon seem to have systematically sought for the
optic brachia or Sylvian commissure, The latter is a very evi
dent band crossing from one tectum to the other and lying be-
neath the ectal ganglion layer. The cephalic brachia extend
Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. 133
from the deeper portions of the tectum and run parallel to the
optic tracts cephalad and penetrate the geniculata. The caudal
brachium is difficult to make out certainly but seems to run par-
allel with the caudal optic tract and to be associated with the
infracommissure tract, thence with the cerebrum. It is ob-
scured by its association with the numerous other tracts of the
base of the mesencephalon. The caudal optic tract is
wholly distinct from the cephalic and, as in fishes, lies in a
groove beneath the tectum, whence it arches over the caudal as-
pect of the lobe. The lemniscus tracts, which seem always to
have been overlooked, have the usual course, springing from
the deeper layers of the tectum and accumulating, after a sep-
arate course caudo-ventrad, into a loose bundle which follow the
course of the caudal peduncle of the cerebellum. It would ap-
pear that Edinger’s tractus ganglii habenula ad mesencephalon
runs with or includes the cephalic brachium. Longitudinal
sections, however, clearly show that a fine-fibred tract arising
from the inner fibre layer of the tectum passes cephalad at some
distance from the median and enters the geniculatum. The re-
semblance between the optic tectum in Anura and turtles and
fishes may be seen by comparing Plate X, Fig. 10, Vol. III,
smirnubiate Vil ric. 1; andwPlate ey Rio i2,.or Vol, ak! ahis
structure is strikingly contrasted with that in Urodela.
In Urodela the zone surrounding the common ventricle is
clothed with neurons whose processes extent peripherad and in-
terblend with the transversely or irregularly disposed neurons
which send axis cylinders into the optic tracts. The conditions
are much like those prevailing in very young fish [see Plate IX,
Bisse) 2, 3: Vol. Ty
The tracts to the leminscus blend with the optic nerve
tracts and brachia, while in the frog these several fibre layers
are differentiated as in reptiles and fishes. In higher reptilia
the relations are obscured by the complication of the tectum, as
is also the case in mammals. The fish, turtle or frog is there-
fore an incomparably better subject for study of the tectum
than the other groups, while the salamander is instructive as
showing how this complicated mechanism is derived from the
134 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
common type in which at first cells are everywhere collected
about the ventricles.
Respecting the cerebellum, Osborn, in 1883, described in
the Amphiuma, (1) a continuous band of fibres arching from
side to side of the medulla, (2) a fine layer of fibres which have
an antero-posterior direction, (3) an investing layer of cells one
or two rows deep. The transverse band wes homologized with
the inferior peduncles and restiformia. The fine layer termi-
nates in the lateral portions of the cerebellum and optic lobe
and is morphologically ventrad of the preceeding. The cells
are thought to be of a nervous character but no processes were
discovered. Ina later paper’ he states that in Cryptobranchus
the ‘‘cerebellum is chiefly composed of decussating tracts, pass-
ing on the one side into the lateral regions of the medulla and
into the mesencephalon. It may even be questioned whether
we have here the essential elements of the cerebellum, the
structure is so extremely simple.’’ He withdraws from the
homology of the tract to the mesencephalon with the prepedun-
cles of the cerebellum and states that it is really the mesenceph-
alic or descending trigeminal tract. The cerebellum of Am-
phiuma contains no cells except the ependyma, while in
Cryptobranchus there is a small mass of round cell similar to
those of the central substance of the optic lobes. The fine
fibres of the first sort above described are derived chiefly from
the eighth nerve though some come from the seventh.
Alborn considers that the fibres entering the cerebellum
are commissural between the auditory niduli of opposite sides
while Koppen and Osborn think they are decussating tracts
from the nerve.
The middle peduncle of the cerebellum is fairly well devel-
oped in Anura but instead of tracing it unbrokenly into the in-
fundibulum with Dr. Edinger it seems to us that most of its
fibres either mingle with those of the ventral peduncles or come
into relations with them through the scattered ‘‘niger”’ cells of
the pes region. The decussation of these bundles (‘‘Bindearme’’)
VJourn. Morph. I1., 1. 1888.
Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 135
is high up and the fibres then come into close relations with the
corpora posterioria. The number of cells scattered in this region
of interblending (niger locus) is not large but much greater
than at first appears by reason of the dispersness of the
mduluso; 1( Plate XOVI., Fig..7; Plate XV1),) Fis. 10} z2ger-.)
The cephalic peduncle of the cerebellum was not definitely
located. A few dark fibres coming from the base of the cere-
bellum can be traced in a lateral arch cephalad to the region of
the ruber, where they seem to turn dorsad but their actual
course is simple surmised to correspond with that in fishes. It
thus appears that, ifthe above surmise is correct, the amphibian
cerebellum has the same major connections as other groups.
The cerebellum is ventro-laterally supported by a dense
nidulus which Osborn figures and mentions; this ‘‘dentatum”’
(see Plate XVII., Figs. 2-3.) contains numerous spindle
cells from which arise fibres constituting a tract which arches
cephalad and penetrates the cell-clustre lying laterad of the nid-
- ulus posterior (‘‘mucleus magnus’). The ultimate destination
of the fibres is not easy to demonstrate but they can be traced
to beneath the ‘‘colliculi’’ and apparently terminate in the
sensory niduli of the thalamus.
The tract arising from the central or axis cylinder processes
of the cells of Purkinje pass directly caudo-lateral and form the
restiformia on the dorso-lateral aspects of the medulla. The
fibres are thick and uniform.
The corpus posterior consists of a more or less spheroidal
body with a dense peripheral zone of cells whose apex process-
es project into the core of the organ. This is one of the num-
erous illustrations of a pseudo-epithelial arrangements of cells,
reminding one of the rodundus of fishes. In the caudal aspect
the cells, which have deeply staining muclei, are as closely ar-
ranged as possible; elsewhere less compactly. The core is less
close in structure than the periphery. The middle peduncle of
the cerebellum comes into very close relations with it though
the nature of the connection is not clear. ( Plate XVIII, Fig.g.)
While not here especially concerned with the homologies
of the cranial nerves we may note in passing that the three eye-
136 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
muscle nerves seem to be derived from one common band of
ventricular gray on either side the median line. In the am-
phibia the primitive relations are little altered. The oculomotor-
trochlearis nidulus is very large and lies very near the ventral
aspect driving the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus almost into con-
tact with the ventral surface. The cells resemble those of rep-
tiles closely. The third nerve emerges a little distance caudad
of the mammillaria and lie in the groove laterad of the tuber.
Between the niduli of these nerves and the ventricle is a consid-
erable mass of ventricular gray of the ordinary sort with small
cells consisting almost wholly of the spherical nuclei.
There are two clusters of smaller cells lying laterad of the
oculomotor tracts which seem to correspond with the peduncu-
lar niduli of other groups. Caudad of the trochlearis nidulus
the dorsal longitudinal fascicle turns rather abruptly dorsad and
soon attains its usual position along the floor of the ventricle.
In conclusion it remains to summarize a few general results
of these studies hitherto.
1. The theory of neurons is clearly seen to be the sole ad-
equate means of construing the concordant facts of comparative
anatomy and histology and of embryology. All the nervous
elements of the central nervous system arise as neuroblasts from
the ventricle and undergo more or less extensive modification.
2. There is great difference in the degree of modification
of the neurons. They may become functional when in an al-
most embryonic condition morphologically.
3. A considerable but variable number of the neurons are
held back in their development to form reserves or accessory
structures. |
4. The nerve tube is originally similar in the arrangement
of the neurons from end to end. In the Urodela this simplicity
is largely retained. Their brain warrants us in the belief that
they are permanent larve. They are not to be regarded as illus-
trations of the precursor of amphibia but as a form of modifica-
tion which is due to the persistence of a larval state. They
must be used in phylogenetic speculation with considerable cau-
tion and only ina general way. They cannot be fairly expected
Herrick, ram of Certain Reptiles. 137
to stand a rigid test in detail for such a purpose. A compari-
son of the structure of Anura and Urodeles must always take
this into account.
5. In spite of these great differences and allowing for the
practical absence of the cerebellum in Urodela there is remark-
able correspondence not only with each other but with Reptilia
in the actual fibre-connections.
6. The study of the fish brain is a good preparation for
making out the amphibian problem.
7. The ‘‘projection system’ theory of Meynert should
be expanded. A more general theory of neural concatenation
(no simpler term suggests itself) is nearer the truth. Chains of
nervous translation may be affected between appropriate centres
by the intercalation of as many neurons as may be necessary.
There is no necessity for a physical continuum but a series of
reciprocating elements is sufficient. The last stage in such a
transformation is a perfect nerve fibre with shunted nuclei and
continuous fibre. This is an expedient for rapid transit over
long distances. ‘The first stage in the series may be a slight re-
ciprocal influence of parallel neurons through their processes.
(See article page 11 of this volume.)
8. A physiological concomitant of this anatomical theory’
is that of zygomorphism which may be succinctly defined as the
theory that when adjacent elements are brought into relations of
mutual influence or one becomes a discharging agent for the
other there is a tendency for the cells concerned to adjust them:
selves to each other. At first the result is interstitial change,
later a closer connection is affected, and, still later, a polarity or
actual rearrangement of the cell axes and, finally, a fusion and
insulation may be developed by the transferring of the influence
of the nuclei to the periphery and a change in the nutritive pro-
cesses of the latter.
g. So far as our histological results are concerned we must
confess their incompleteness but trust that enough has been
suggested to indicate that the same structures (however obscured)
exist in the frog as in higher vertebrates and that the gray mat-
ter is by no means so homogeneous as usually regarded. The
138 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
connection of the sensory niduli of the thalamus is on the
one hand, with the cerebrum and, on the other, with the met-
encephalon.
The following summary of tracts to and from the tectum in
reptiles should have appeared with the preceeding instalment.
1. Cephalic optic tract, covering the cephalo-lateral aspect of
the tectum and passing to its superficial layers. 2. Caudal op-
tic tract, passing along the caudal aspect, in a groove between
the optic lobe and thalamus, to spread out upon the caudo-lat-
eral and dorsal regions. 3. The cephalic optic brachium, col-
lecting from the deeper layers and passing toward the cerebrum
through the geniculata. 4. Caudal brachium, with a similar
course. 5. Fibres of the Sylvian commissure, connecting the
superficial layers of the two sides. 6. The lemniscus fibres,
passing from the middle of the tectum to the lateral region of
the medulla of the same side. 7. The descending mesenceph-
alic tract, from the middle portions of the tectum directly cau-
dad into the medulla. 8. The mesencephalic root of the tri-
geminal. g. The coordinating oculomotor tract, which rises
from the deepest regions of the cortex and passes in a slight
curve through the raphe into close connection with the oculo-
motor nidulus. All of these are clear and unambiguous in rep-
tiles as in fishes.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
PLATE XV.
Figs. 1-3. Transections of the cerebrum of Menopoma, injected with gel-
atin through the heart.
Figs. 4-6. Three horizontal sections from the same species
fig. 7. Perpendicular section of the cerebellum of a frog larva.
figs. 8-9. Two horizontal sections of frog brain.
RIGA Exava:
fig. 1. Transection of toad brain cephalad of chiasm. prepar. preparaphy-
Sis; s4#f7, c. SUpracommissure tract on its way to rhinalis sinus in cerebrum; x,
thalamic branch of commissure of habena? tract; v. ped. ventral or motor ped-
uncle,
fg. 2. Section of same brain at precommissure. Hzfp. c. hippocampal
commissure tract; ca//. callosal fibres; s¢rzatum, portion only of this body ; off.
radix, fibres from the olfactory radix at point of division.
Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 139
Fig. 3. Section of same brain in chiasm region; Z. epiphysis; A. hab-
ena; /nf. H, infra-habena; Meynrt.n. Meynert’s nidulus; ge. geniculatum ex-
ternum, that portion forming a pseudo-epithelium at surface cephalad of optic
tracts; suéth. probably homologue of internal geniculata grouped with others
as subthalamicus niduli; 7: ventral peduncles; zzf. infracommissural fibres ;
x, ventricular gray.
Figs. 4-7. Sections from frog brain at different levels ; sz¢. V. mesenceph-
alic nidulus of trigeminus; fed. md. peduncular nidulus or accessory nidulus of
the third nerve; corp. ~. eorpus posterior; Med. ped. cer. middle peduncle
of cerebellum which decussates after exit from the outer layer of the cerebel-
lum and passes through and about the corpus posterior and, passing cephalo-
ventrad, enters the ventral peduncular region, losing itself in tbe locus niger;
Lem, lemniscus tract, fibres which pass from the inner fibre layer of the tectum
to a region near the exit of the fifth nerve.
fig. 8. Cells from the nidulus ruber. The fibres seen are from the com-
missura horizontalis.
Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of frog brain. Compare Plate XVII; Jat. tud.
lateral expansion or lobe of the olfactory tuber, near which the radix originates ;
corp. dent. the dentate nidulus.
| Fig. ro. A similar section well mesad; ¢#/fh: infra-habena nidulus; Afeyn.
n. Meynert’s nidulus; Br. brachium; 7#/. infundibulum region or tuber ciner-
eum; x, thalamic nidulus in the peduncle bundle.
Fig. zr. Cell from the intra-ventricular lobe of frog.
Fig. 12. Portion of the gray matter of the cerebrum of a toad about the
cephalic end of the olfactory radix.
Fig. 73. Result of injection of Menopoma brain, fine meshwork of the
gelatin emerging from blood-vessles. Are the cavities pre-existant or is this
structure simply due to the peculiar texture ?
PLATE XVII.
A series of longitudinal sections of the brain of the frog. 4.2.g. Basal
peduncular ganglion or part of striatum with fibres of the ventral peduncles;
Olf.n olfactory nerve; g/. glomerulary layer; gang. ol. specific ganglia of olfac-
tory tuber; Chéas,chiasm; Mamm. mammillary body; Sufr. c. supracommis-
sure M. 2. Meynert’s nidulus; Ge. geniculatum; #. 0. g. nidulus of the post
optic region in the course of the ventral peduncles; Corp. forn. corpus fornicis;
Br. brachial tracts; ¢r. oft. ceph. cephalic optic tract; tr. oft. caud. caudal
optic tract; P. c., Post. ¢. postcommissure; Sy/v. c. Sylvian commissure or tectum
commissure; @. /. f. dorsal longitudinal fasciculus; Ayph. hypophysis; Dors. .
ped. sensory or dorsal peduncles; Pre. o. c.1, and Pre.o.c. 2 Preoptic cinerea in
two portions separated by atract or space; Pre.o.m. preoptic nidulus. The
series is from a lateral level to the centre.
PLATE XVIII.
Figs. 1-8. A series of horizontal sections through the brain of Necturus.
Hematoxylin preparations.
Fig.1. Section at the level of the supracommissure. Prepar. preparaphy-
140 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
sis; Postpar. postparaphysis; Com. hab. commissure of the habena; £fzph.
epiphysis.
fig. 2. Portion of a section, somewhat farther ventrad, enlarged, showing
the two commissures of the habena.
Fig. 3. Meyn. B. Meynert’s bundle; Plex. auliplexus; Post. ¢. postcom-
missure; 4r. brachial tract.
fig. 4. Section still ventrad.
Fig. 5. com, horiz. commissura horizontalis; Afes. x. v. mesencephalic
nidulus of the trigeminus; fié. fimbria.
Fig. 6. Corp. forn. Corpus fornicis; Supra. tr. supracommissure tract
passing to cerebrum; C. ¢rvamsv. commissura transversa; Zen. lemniscus.
fig. 7. Section near ventral part of hippocampal lobe.
Fig. 8. Cells from region of ventricle adjoining the nidulus niger. :
Fig. 9. Corpus posterior (left side) in frog. The arrow indicates cephalic
direction.
PEATE XEXe
Details of Histology of Reptiles and Amphibians.
fig.1. A portion of the hippocampal region of Necturus. Horizontal
section (5-1), right hemisphere. The arrow indicates the direction of the
fornix commissure.
Fig. 2. Olfactory cells from perpendicular section of olfactory tuber of
the frog.
Fig. 3. Olfactory neuron and connection with glomerule (g/o7.)
fig. 4. Hippocampal region of frog from a perpendicular section (7-6).
fig. 5. Mid-cortex region of frog from perpendicular section (4).
Fig. 6. Perpendicular section of cerebellum of the turtle ( Cstzdo).
Fig. 7. Cells from a perpendicular section of cerebellum of frog
Fig. 8. Similar cells from horizontal section showing dissimilarity of adja-
cent cells. Due probably to differential functioning.
Fig. g. Longitudinal section of cerebellum of black snake (13).
fig. ro. Cells from the nidulus niger of frog. Arrow indicates ventral
direction. From a perpendicular section.
fig. ri. Cells of same region (3) Fig. a.
fig. r2. Cells from thalamic niduli of frog from which arise infracommis-
sure fibres.
Fig. 13. Cells from hippocampus of black snake (13-14.
REPORT (UPON fie PATHOLOGY ORVA CASE: OF
GENERAL PARALYSIS:
By C. L. Herrick, Professor of Biology at Denison University.
Nore oF TRANSMISSAL.*
Dr. A. B. Richardson, Superintendent of the State Hospital for the
Insane, Columbus, Ohzo,
DEAR Sir: In pursuance of your suggestion, a microscopi-
cal examination has been made of the specimens placed in my
hands with results which are detailed beyond. While the his-
tory of the case, as you informed me, warranted us in expect-
ing only the usual lesions of general paralysis incident upon al-
coholism it was thought worth while to not simply make such
examination as should detect the expected lesions but to make
the study extended enough to afford a somewhat complete pic-
ture of the diseased brain as a whole. Circumstances have pre-
vented the completion of the task in the way at first contem-
plated. The employment of the slow and tedious fibre-stain
methods was rendered impossible by pressure of work immedi-
ately upon reception of the specimen. The present paper is
devoted almost exclusively to the cells of the various portions
of the brain. It is thought that what we now need is the col-
lection of minute, detailed data presenting the facies of a path-
ological state in its entirety and we have accordingly presented
illustrations of the various regions even where involving some
repetition and, in order to make the account more generally
useful, some historical and physiological suggestions are added.
Unexpectedly the distribution of the degenerated structures has
thrown incidental light upon an important morphological prob-
lem, reenforcing generalizations derived from the comparative
realm.
Hoping that the paper, imperfect as it is, may serve its
purpose in preparing the way for more systematic and useful
work in the same direction.
I am yours respectfully,
C2 HERRICK:
*Simultaneously appearing as Pathological Bulletin, No. 1, of
the Columbus State dospital for the Insane.
142 JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
HISTORY.
Supplied by the Medical Corps of the Columbus Hospital for
the Insane.
J Wes was admitted to this institution June
20th, 1891. He wasa native of Ohio, forty years of age, a
merchant and a man of good education. He had been ad-
dicted to the use of intoxicants for several years but was more
temperate within the two or three previous to his admission.
There was no history of specific disease and he had been a man
of good character in his community and of active business
habits. The mental symptoms began about six months previous
to admission. When admitted he had delusions of grandeur
and was-becoming somewhat demented. He imagined he was
quite wealthy and was anxious to run for the office of Governor
or of President of the United States. His pupils were unequal,
there was incoordination in gait and he had the characteristic
defect in speech that marks the paretic. There was no history
of insanity or nervous disease in his family and the cause as-
signed was financial trouble, of which he had had considerable.
His intemperance was also in my opinion a cause. He contin-
ued an inmate of the institution until his a which occurred
Jan. 8th, 1893.
He became rapidly more demented and the paresis in-
creased. His digestion was good during nearly all of the time
and only failed him within the last month or two before his
death. There was no evidence of focal lesion in a local paralysis
and the disease pursued the characteristic history of general
paralysis. I regret that the history is so meager, but while we
could add illustrations of his delusions they would be cf no
value in a Pathological Bulletin. The previous history is diffi-
cult to secure, but there was nothing very characteristic in his
life as far as we can discover. He was a man of active business
habits and at one time was worth considerable property, but he
lost it all, his reverses, in part at least, being due to his
dissipation.
It is further stated that the first symptoms os motor en-
"HERRICK, Pathology of General Paralysis. 143
feeblement were a slight speech disturbance, in the nature of a
blurring of the articulation, and awkwarkness in the gait that de-
noted slight incoordination. These facts are significant inas-
much as it will be shown that the most seriously affected corti-
cal areas are those in Broca’s region and in adjacent parts, while
still more serious lesions are located in the coordinating centers
of the thalamus nnd mesencephalon. No sensory aura nor
other disturbances, nor any visual, auditory, or olfactory hallu-
cinations were detected. As it was not expected that a careful
pathological investigation would be possible, no dynometric or
aesthometric tests were made nor were systematic registrations
of temperature or urine analyses attempted. *
NATURE OF THE DISEASE.
Mendel says .of the etiology of progressive paralysis:
‘‘From the results there can remain no doubt that the es-
sential thing is interstitial inflamation. The cell-multiplica-
tion, development of spider cells, the increased excretion of
intercellular substance, these leave no doubt in this connection,
and at the acme of the disease, according to my observation,
the evidences of this inflamation are never absent.”’
‘‘In acute paralysis the nucleary proliferation and the de-
*The following extract from a letter from Dr. Richardson re-
ceived too late to be inserted in the proper place will be of interest:
‘‘T have just learned a few facts in the history of J. S., whose case
you are investigating, which may be of interest in case it is not too late
to include them in the record. He was a man of more than usual
business activity and conducted a mercantile business in a small
town. He was always good hearted and indulgent and inclined for
years to the use of intoxicants in moderate amount when with his
friends. ‘Through his indulgence to his friends his business became
complicated’ during the years 1888 and 1889, and he was compelled
to make an assignment about the close of the latter year. In the
spring of 1890 he had an attack of La Grippe and after that never
seemed as well as before, and was somewhat despondent. He grew
worse that Fall and his disease began to change to a state of exalta-
tion. He became talkative and excitable and enthusiastic over busi-
ness, until finally, during the winter of 1890 and 1891, his actions
144 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
velopment of spider cells is not great while they are replaced by
the phenomena of hyperemia of the vessels or stasis through
the collection of blood corpuscles in the adventiva. In the very
aged the preceding processes of irritation are only here and
there to be noticed, or not at all; the general atrophy extends
’ The changeringieme
cell bodies is, so far as our methods show, a secondary process,
to include spider cells and granules.’
which in many cases can only be made out by microscopic ob-
servation, in a very limited extent, while in other cases, as
above shown, producing a very remarkable alteration.”
‘«Changes in the membranes are likewise, in the rule, sec-
ondary. : : . The pia as well as the dura, in most
cases, is implicated through the disturbances in the circulation
in the brain itself which react upon it, as well as through the
progressive diseased condition of the vessels, From all these
considerations I conclude that progressive paralysis is a diffuse
interstitial cortical encephalitis resulting in brain atrophy.
‘‘The beginning of the process is a transmigration of leuco-
cytes and it is accompanied by an increase of the connective
elements. The compression of the capillaries and of the small
arteries through the accumulations in the adventitious sheath
disturbs the regularity of the nutrition of the nervous elements,
became so unreasonable that he was adjudged insane and sent to the
asylum. He remained there until about May of 1891, during which
time he became more quiet and was finally taken home on a visit.
In June of ’g1 while at home he hada sudden epileptiform seizure
with hemiplegia on the right side, which, though not complete, lasted
for about three weeks. His speech was much worse after this than
before, andin August of the same year he had an attack of speech-
lessness lasting for a day or two, during which time he was entirely
unable to talk. Soon after this he was returned to the asylum where
he remained until his death and did not afterwards have any sudden
attack nor any symptons of local paralysis. The history during this
time we have heretofore narrated. Thereis no history of insanity in
the family. During the four years previous to his death he did not
drink any. In 1888 his only child became lost and the excitement
and worry in the search for him was a severe shock to him and his
friends were afraid at that time it would cause some mental trouble.”
Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. — 145
producing degeneration of the latter and finally leads to atrophy
and shriveling.”’
Mendel suggests that the great diversity in the symptom-
ology of general paralysis may be due to the existence of varie-
ties with an interstitial and a parenchymatic origin.
The present case shows sufficiently well that the intensity
of the degenerative process varies greatly in various regions.
This is sufficient to account for great diversity in the facies of
the disease. It would seem that there could be no limit to the
range of variation where the slightest change in the seat of dis-
turbance might interrupt a different set of channels of commun-
ication. ‘Historically the opinions of the cause of the malady
have varied between wide extremes. Meschede, in 1865, con-
sidered the alteration in the ganglion cells of primary impor-
tance and considered the disease a parenchymatous inflamation.
Mangan, in 1866, described it as an interstitial encephalitis,
while Rokitansky and, finally, Luys referred the trouble to the
neuroglia; the latter called it diffuse interstitial sclerosis of the
neuroglia.
It is not unnatural that vaso-motor changes should be ap-
pealed to as fundamentally important, as has been done by
Obersteiner, Thompson and others, in fact it is difficult to see
how the undoubted connection between mental strain. on the
one hand, and vaso-motor disturbance of alcoholism on the other,
with the degenerations of general paralysis is to be explained
without admitting, via functional hyperemia and temporary
vaso-moter incordination, the graver and more permanent changes
which should make way for morbid nutritive changes in the
cells. If metabolism is altered by altered blood pressure it
would be natural that other cellular elements besides the cortical
cells should be modified. It would seem more rational to sup-
pose that all the cellular structures in the region affected should
feel the effects of vascular disturbance and react, each after its
kind, while reciprocally modifying each other and thus the
course of the disease. Instead then of drawing a distinction
between interstitial and parenchymatous phases we may
restrict ourselves to such practical classification in accordance
146 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
with predisposing cause and the sequence of symptoms as shall
most nearly correspond with the requirements of treatment.
The prevailing unwillingness to recognize the great influence of
alcoholism may account for the failure adequately to construe
the influence of slight vascular disturbances if sufficiently long
continued.
It will be gathered from our own observations that the
facts seem hardly to bear out the statements of Hirt: ‘‘This
view, according to which the atrophy is the primary process, is
in all probability correct, though it is still combatted by many
authorities (Mendel), who look upon the death of the nerve
fibres as the secondary, upon the increase of the connective tis-
sue, the thickening of the vessel walls and the appearance of
spider cells as the primary process (‘encephalitis interstitialis’).”’
In the present case, however, the development of the spider
cells, upon which Bevan Lewis, Mendel and others lay so much
weight, is a very insignificant factor. The most important one
seeming to be the involvement of the blood-vascular system and
the greatest cellular modifications are seen in the motor co-ordi-
nating centres of the axial lobe. Our case supports the view
of Zeigler’ that the phemomena of general paralysis are not
uniformly inflamatory ‘‘but not rarely simply degenerative
processes in the meninges and the cortex.’’ He says: ‘‘Es ers-
cheint danach die gestorte Ernahrung und die Degeneration der
Ganglienzellen und Nervenfasern als die wesentliche, und die
entztindliche Infiltration und die Zunahme der fibrillaren Stitz-
substanz sind zwar flr die anatomische Beurtheilung des Pro-
cesses, nicht aber fiir die Krankheitssymptome von wesentlicher
Bedeutung.”
Mierzejewski and Voisin regard these spider cells and
fibrous aggregates, which are not noticeable in some cases, as
coagula of fibrin derived from homogeneous masses which may
contain nuclei. It may be that diverse structures have been
combined under this name. The ‘‘spider cells’? which were
'Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Pathologische Anatomie und Pathogenese,
4th Edit. 1885, p. 591.
Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. 147
sparingly present in this case may be of the character of a dif-
fuse stroma. Ziegler says that the spider cells are frequently
not increased in number but simply more conspicuous because
ofthe atrophy of other parts of the cortex. The fact referred
to by Lewis that representativeness is a function early lost in
the course of general paralysis may have its anatomical explana-
tion in the fact that slight sporadic changes would interfere with
associational tracts (association being intimately connected with
representation) before becoming sufficiently pronounced to in-
terfere with the direct presentational processes of perception,
etc. In fact, according to Tuczek, there is a marked primary
atrophy of the fine medullated nerve fibres, particularly in the
outer layers of the cortex, in the tangential ‘‘associational”’
fibres which run parallel to the surface. Friedmann describes
four varieties of atrophy of the white matter and others have dis-
covered secondary degeneration in the dorsal columns of the
the cord. Our methods were selected with reference to the
cells and, whether for this reason or because no genuine degen-
eration of the fibres had set in, only sparing and unimportant
degenerations of white matter were encountered.
In determining the cause and nature of the circulatory
changes preceding cerebral degeneration a thorough knowledge
of the nature and reactions of the blood and lymph which fill
the delicate cerebral organ as fluid fills a sponge is necessary.
The brain is almost as really an erectile tissue as the pan-
creas and we already know enough to be convinced that slight
changes in pressure may become the occasion for the rapid pro-
liferation of the corpuscles and that the presence of small quan-
tities of certain substances may greatly change the balance of
the fluids in the capillaries, lymphatics and tissues. R. Heid-
enhain has conducted very elaborate investigations upon the
lymph! and finds that there are lymphagogues or substances
which increase the formation of the lymph. Various extracts
of invertebrate muscles, egg albumen, peptone, etc., are
1Versuche und Fragen zur Lehreivon der Lymphbilding. Pflagers Archiv
f. d. ges. Physiologie XLIX, p. 209.
148 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
among the lymphagogues.' It is shown by experiment that in
this case, as when sugar is injected into the veins, the capillaries
exert a genuine secretory influence. In the latter case the
blood is extracted from the tissues by the dehydrating action
of the sugar. It seems probable that alcohol would operate
in a similar way. There are many things which suggest that a
sort of protoplasm poisoning is an early incident to the devel-
opment of the circulatory changes preceding paralysis.
One must remember that even in the normal state the va-
riations in metabolism find other expressions than in the form
and reaction of the cells. Carazzoni? has shown that the ratio
of solids in the cerebro-spinal fluids is greater in the morning
than in the evening in the percentage of 135 to 100 and is more
alkaline in the morning also. Substances injected into the ab-
dominal cavity make their way into this fluid after half an hour
or more which is, however, more slowly than their entrance into
the blood or even the aqueous humor, as would be expected.
The theory that prevails to some extent in this country
that the moderate use of alchohol serves to substitute to some
extent for proteids in the diet has apparantly been exploded by
Minra’s researches.* A slight increase of albumen is regarded as
evidence that alcohol acts like chloroform as a protoplasm pois-
oning which may be expected as one of the incidents of early
stages of the pathological condition now under consideration.
(Cf. Heymans. Sur l’action toxique et antiseptique du chloro-
form etc., Azn. Soc. med. Gand. 1892. )
EXTERNAL CHANGES.
Macroscopically there was less alteration than might have
been legitimately expected. Plate A. illustrates the appearance
of the brain after the removal of the membranes. The mem-
branes were slightly adherent but not closely enough to pro-
duce decortication upon their removal. The characteristic
lCentralblatt f. Phys. 816.
3Centralblatt f. Phys. VI. 14.
3Ueber die Bedeutung des Alkohols als Eweisssparer in der Ernahrung des
gesunden Menschen. Zeztsch. f. Klin. Med. XX, 112.
Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. 149
opalescence was noticed on the surface of the fresh brain and
some hemorrhagic patches along the sulci. The cerebellum
was superficially injected but section shows nothing abnormal in
its deeper portions. The membranes themselves were thickened
but there was no evidence of acute inflamation. The cortex
itself appeared nearly normal but the sulci were more conspic-
uous than would be expected from the age of the subject. The
atrophy was especially marked about the insula, fissure of Ro-
lando and the tip of the temporal lobe and not noticeable in the
occipital. A wax model made by the method of impregnation
of the right hemisphere with Japan wax brought out the atro-
phy more clearly as the shrinkage incident to the method was
more marked in the regions mentioned. The surface of the
brain was minutely pitted throughout its extent. The figure
sufficiently represents the configuration of the right hemisphere.
The weight of the entire brain was about 58 oz., and there
seemed to be an abnormal amount of ventricular fluid.
THE MEMBRANES
Circumstances have thus far prevented giving special atten-
tion to the meninges but, while somewhat thickened and ad-
herent and while the surface of the brain when removed had the
peculiar opalescent character so often described, the most notice-
able changes are connected with the vessels. In the sinuses
lying in the sulci great accumulation of leucocytes has taken
place and the leucocytes fill the considerable space about the
vessels and may be readily seen entering the brain and collecting
at various levels below the surface. These changes are simply
analogous to those which are taking place in the vessels within
the cortex and, like the latter, point to an inflammatory condi-
tion.
In those regions in which the morbid changes are most
marked the blood vessels are also greatly affected. The first
characteristic of change is the increased number of white corpus-
cles and their transmigration into the surrounding tissue. There
can be no doubt that normally this transmigration is continually
taking place. The large pyramidal ganglion cells almost invari-
I50 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ably have a certain number about their bases or active pole.
They present a great variety of stages between the full, plump
nuclei which have recently reached the cell and the dark, shriv-
eled, exhausted cells which seem to have yielded their nourish-
ment to the nerve cell. Whether as cause or effect, the condi-
tion of general paralysis is accompanied by an abnormal
collection of leucocytes. These gather in great numbers in the —
space between the intima and adventiva of the vascular walls
and thus narrow the lumen until a partial stasis of the red cor-
puscles results. Masses of yellow pigment accumulate in the
adventitious sheath among the the leucocytes, sometimes in con-
siderable quantities. These hamatoid granules have been
frequently noticed. This yellow pigment which collects in the
adventitious sheaths of the blood vessels and elsewhere is doubt-
less derived from the red corpuscles, which are colorless in these
cases. We are reminded of Mihlman’s studies on the pigment-
ary metamorphosis of red corpuscles in the Arachnoid.’ The
yellow grains are found in the walls of the arachnoid vessels.
They are not soluble in chlorform but, unlike fat, partially dis-
solve in sulphuric and nitric acids. Tests with sulphide of
ammonia and potassium ferrocyanide demonstrate iron. The
author supposes that the pigment formation is due to a state of
irritation caused by pressure. They accumulate in the arachnoid
because there the texture is so slight as to submit them to pres-
sure. It might be supposed therefore, that the granules found
so generally in the clogged capillaries of paralysis are due to a
similar irritative cause. |
THE CORTEX.
We may begin our examination by glancing at sections
from the tip of the temporal lobe (middle convolution). The
outer neuroglia layer differs little from that of the normal brain.
A careful study shows, however, numerous so-called spider cells
or scavengers, which here appear as multipolar bodies staining
faintly and lying closely involved in the mesh-work of the neu-
1Zur Pigmentmetamorphose der rothen Blutkérperchen. Beobachtungen von
der Arachnoides cerebralis. Virchow’s Arch. (12) VJ, 1s. p~. 160.
Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. I51
roglia (Fig. 9, Plate B). Opinion differs greatly as to the nature
of these bodies, but from the sections before us one might con-
clude that they are essentially.amceboid and their form depends
upon that of the interstices in which they may happen to lie.
In the next succeding layer, that of small pyramids, the
changes are not such as to attract the eye but we soon notice
that a great number of the small pyramids have undergone more
or less pigmentary degeneration. While their processes and
form have altered little if any, small areas of degeneration are
present in the protoplasm. Sometimes these areas are appar-
ently but an extension of the normal pigmentation near the base
and adjacent to the nucleus, but it quite as often happens that
the area forms a rather sharply limited cyst im other parts of the
cell. The pigmented areas refuse the stain and are recognized
by their own brownish yellow color. Fig. 5, Plate B. is a cell
from this region. In some cases the degenerated area causes
a bulbous protrusion of the cell, yet the nucleus is not at all
affected. In the third layer or region of medium pyramids the
conditions are not much different but before one reaches the layer
of large pyramids it appears that there has been a dispersion of
granules which fill the whole field. It is the region of the ram-
ification of small vessels. The larger radial vessels at this point
give evidence of important morbid changes; the walls at first
seem thickened but we soon see that the inner membrane or
intima seems normal, but the outer or adventitious layer is
gorged with leucocytes so that it occupies more space than the
lumen. One frequent result is that the cavity is more or less
occluded and the red corpuscles hence undergo degeneration.
Their coloring matter collects among the white corpuscles form-
ing hematoid masses. It seems improbable that this leaching is
due to the reagents—in fact, this is a well-recognized pathologi-
cal phenomenon. The smaller vessels are usually empty, as
though by the cutting off of the source of supply. Fig. 8, Plate
D, illustrates such a vessel as above described. Seealso Plate E.
It will be remembered that Flemming’ has shown that in the
1Ueber Theilung und Kernformen bei Leukocyten, etc. 'P)
ke
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. PLATE XIX,
Any
PLATE XxX.
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III.
%;
we
ae:
Sew
7
i
Ee.
(alan
= re
Ta
RRS
yas Cy
SS
ie
ie
\ AN PARR
<<
S44,
ournal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. pate a.
]
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. PLATE B.
sf
t
f ‘
“ ‘
x
i
n
| {
ry
zE
/
1 j
|
1
\
\
\
4
.
* U 7
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. II]. PLATE C.
x
A
Ss
‘a (oA
-
NN
HN
ed 1,5
‘el Ny x A
Va a
Late
a Ss “i = 7 5
We CF CLES RR
CT SERAPH
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. PLATE D.
Barf t
nb I oY (F
t=
™
=
~_ « “ . y
ps ;
a ’ -
6
Bow .
2 \
'
' :
.*
i
‘
— -
> .
Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. II]. pate Ee.
NOTE ON THEYSTRUCTURE AND) DHE) DEVELOP:
MENT OF NERVOUS ELEMENTS.
By Paut MITROPHANOW,
Professor in the University of Warsaw.
The question of the origin of the nerves, of their structure,
and the character of the nervous endings in the sense organs
was studied during the last year with special assiduity. Ina
recent session of the biological section of the Society of Natur-
alists in Warsaw I took occasion to indicate the investigations
of Lenhossek' and Dohrn,” which seemed to alter essentially
the opinions respecting the peripheral nervous system. A very
important fact in these investigations is the part taken in the
formation of the elements of the nervous system by the cutane-
ous integument—embryonic in vertebrates, but even in adults
of invertebrates. But while Lenhossek sought simply to regard
the cutaneous integument as the birth place of the sensory
nervous cells and fibres, Dohrn attempted a revision of the
doctrine of the nervous elements by demonstrating that the
nervous fibre is a formation of many cells, that it is composed
of a row of ectodermic cells, every one of which gives to the
fibre its constituent parts: the axis cylinder, the envelops and
the nucleus. He calls these cells nervous, wishing to distin-
guish them from the ganglionic ones which, according to his
opinion, do not take any part in the formation of the nervous
fibre, that is to say, of the axis cylinder, and are in connection
with it only by contaet.
Sometime since* I exposed the weak sides of Dohrn’s po-
sition and the possible explanation of the facts from which he
developed it. It was natural that I should expect a more par-
1M. LenHOossEK. Ursprung, Verlauf und Endigung der Sensibeln Nerven -
fasern bei Lumbricus. Arch. f. mtkr. Anat. XXXIX. 1892.
. 7A. Dourn. Nervenfaser und Ganglienzelle. Jittheclungen aus d. Zool.
Station zu Neapel. X, 1891.
3P, MITROPHANOW. Suggestions on the development of vertebrates. 1892.
164 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ticular critique of this doctrine in the recent investigations,
though it is scarcely to be expected on the part of Dohrn himself.
However the new investigations of the embryos of Scyllium
catulus of 13 mm. have revealed to him* the mistakes in his
most essential observations and cast doubt upon the justness of
his elaborately formulated theses. Opportunity did not afford
for Kolliker to reply to the doctrine expressed in Dohrn’s note,
of which I speak, at the session of the Anatomical Society in
Vienna for 1893.° Nevertheless, Kolliker has presented a refu-
tation of the same doctrine on the part of Beard, and I am glad
to say that his arguments are in many respects identical with
which oblige me to differ from Maurer.’
This observer employing my observations on the origin of
the lateral organs in the Selachia and Amphibia as a basis, con-
siders the thickenings of the ectoderm, indicated by me, as
germs of the nerves, which, in his opinion, are differentiated 2
6
those of my thesis,
situ from the elements of the ectoderm instead of entering it -
secondarily from the brain. He returns therefore to the stand-
point of Dohrn. I have already shown whether it is well
founded. He was not acquainted with my last work on the
origin of the nerves and the formation of the lateral organs.
The contradiction pointed out by Maurer between his opin-
ions and mine, relative to the development of the nervous lat-
eral sense organs of the Amphibia, is due to the fact that he
did not observe the difference which I established between the
first origin of the nervous lateral sense organs and their new
formation. :
In the first case, as I have presented it (..c. T: I fi
*A,. DoHRN. Die Schwann’sche Kerne der Selachierembryonen. Anat.
Anzeiger, 12, 1892.
5A. KOLLIKER Ueber die Entwicklung der Elemente des Nervensystems
contra Beard und Dohrn. ELyrgaenzungsheft d. Anatom. Anz. 1892.
6P. MIrROPHANOW. (a) On the Organs of the Sixth Sense of Amphibians.
(b) On the Nature of the Peripheral Nerve Endings. (c) On the Question of
Peripheral Nerve Endings. 1887.
7F. Maurer. Hautsinnesorgane, Feder und Haaranlagen. Morpholog.
Jahrbuch, XVIII, 1892.
MitropHanow, Development of Nervous Elements. 165
T. III, f. 33, 34,) the elements of the lateral sense organ are
more or less homogeneous, and Maurer insists on this; in the
second, the difference between the central (sensory) and exter-
nal (investing) cells becomes manifest (I. c. T. I, f. 2, 5, 6).
Some cells, which form, according to my descriptions, the ner-
vous lateral sense organs, have an entirely different significance
from that attributed to them by Maurer ; his opinion contradicts
completely my conclusions as to the origin of the nervous lat-
eral sense organs of the Amphibians. I have already had oc-
sion to give my standpoint concerning the nature of the sensory
cells which Kolliker describes in the skin of the tadpole of the
frog.®
The above mentioned investigations of Lenhossék do not
change essentially the doctrine of the peripheral nervous system.
His generalizations are not confirmed by his own later observa-
tions. In an article which appeared recently,’ he concludes
that the relations which he and Retzius have indicated in the
skin of the earth-worm, do not exist in vertebrates in any other
than the olfactory region. But even as to the last mentioned
point, one of the most accurate investigators concludes very re-
cently that the question of the connection of the olfactory cells
with the nerves must be considered as open, although many ob-
servers make out this connection, relying on the method of
Golgi.” A very original explanation is given by Gorono-
witsch,' for the processes which, until now, have been described
as the beginnings of the formation of the cranial nerves.
According to him, the outgrowths of the neural (ganglionic)
ridge do not have any relation to the development of the
nerves and ganglia, but simply take part in the development
of the mesoderm (mesenchym). His opinion is the same
8P. MITROPHANOW, Die Nervenendigungen und die Stiftchenzellen.
Zool. Anzeiger, 1886, 232.
3M. v. LENHOsSEK. Der feinere Bau und die Nervenendigungen der
Geschmaksknospen. Anat. Anzeziger, 1893, No. 4.
10K, ARNSTEIN. The End-apparatus of the Gustatory Organ. 1893.
11N, Goronow!tscH. Die Rolle der sog. ‘‘Ganglienleisten’’ im Auf-
baue der Nervenstimme. Azat. Anzeiger. 1892. No. 15.
166 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
respecting the branchial sense organs, which appear later. The
mesoderm, therefore, has its source in the ectoderm in the
region of the central nervous system, and in other places. The
formation of the cranial nerves begins, according to Gorono-
witsch, ‘‘in the early stages of the mesencephalic curvature”
by differentiation from the mesoderm of the trunks of the mesh-
work [web] enveloping the nerve. The trigeminus is formed
only by the mesoderm, and has no relation to the derivatives of
the ganglionic outgrowths. In the formation of the supraor-
bital branch, however, the ectoderm of the supraorbital region
also takes part. The facialis, that is to say, the trunk of the
web enveloping the nerve, is equally composed of the out-
growths (the ganglionic one, secondare Leiste) and also of the
elements of the adjacent mesoderm. The glossopharyngeus, so
far as I am able to understand him, is formed by the participa-
tion of the second lateral metamer—the derivate of the third
outgrowth. In this way, the formation of the above-mentioned
nerves occurs in the region of the ganglionic outgrowths, though
not from them, but rather from the mesoderm which has been
derived from these outgrowths. It is evident that in this case
Goronowitsch simply gives an original explanation of facts al-
ready stated and, as he himself says, unites the opinions of
Gotte and His. How these opinions can be compatible is an-
other question.
It seems to me that Goronowitsch has not sufficiently ex-
plained the exclusive participation of mesoderm in the forma-
tion of the nerves. It is also not clear how he presents the
origin of the nerve from the neuroblasts and the appearance of
the latter. If he defines the neuroblasts in the same sense as
His, he does not add anything new to the development of the
nerve; but if he admits the mesodermic origin of the ganglion
cells (independently of the outgrowths) it changes the composi-
tion of the cranial nerves essentially.
The suffusion and loss of determinate contours in the
ganglion outgrowths is not necessarily an indication of the trans-
formation of their elements in the mesenchyme. In the Sela-
chians these outgrowths always preserve the character which
MirropHanow, Development of Nervous Elements. 167
distingushes them from the mesodermic elements ; the histolog-
ical difference between the embryonic elements in the chick is
less considerable. All our knowledge of the development of
the nerves obliges us to think that the ganglionic outgrowths
preserve their individuality till the formation of the nerves,
though by the ordinary methods, this is inconspicuous, as we
see it, for example, in the region of the trigemini. We know
from the study of the Selachia that the embryonic group of this
nerve (the first outgrowth of Goronowitsch) presents compli-
cated and well determined modifications; probably identical
facts may occur in the chick.
If the nerve (or the ganglion) is formed at the point where
the ganglionic outgrowth was at first clearly seen, it is natural
to think that the elements of the latter have been used for the
formation of the nerve (or ganglion) and not the elements of
the mesoderm, which is formed from the same outgrowth.
The late formation of the mesodermic elements (mesenchyme)
of vertebrates from the ectoderm is a point to which much
study must yet be given, and it awaits further elucidation.
That the embryonic elements which form the germ of the nerve
are exclusively used for the tissue enveloping the nerve is also
a question to be developed. A part of these elements which
have in every case been formed through the ganglionic out-
growths, or as I have presented it, through the embryonic
groups, is certainly used for the formation of the ganglion cells;
others perhaps form the sheath of Schwann and, through its
agency, the medullary sheath, and the purely mesodermic cells,
penetrating later into the nervous germ (fundament), are used
for the formation of the connective tissue which combines the
nervous elements into a single whole.'
1 The editor has in a few instances taken some liberties with the phrase-
ology in the interests of the conventional English idiom, but trusts that he has
in no case departed from the meaning of the learned author’s original. It is to
be regretted that the typography of an American printing office make it impos-
sible to give the titles of the Russian papers quoted in the course of this
article. The editor ventures to express his gratification in the substantial
identity of results attained by the author and those reached by other methods
by himself.
JEAN) MEY CHARCOT.
By E. G. STANLEY,
Fellow tn Comparative Anatomy in Denison University.
In the person of Prof. J. M. Charcot, we mourn the loss
of one of the brightest lights in the realm of neurology, espec-
ially of neuro-pathology, and neuro-psychology.
Born, in the year 1825, of humble parentage, his career
will remain as an example of what almost unaided native genius
and perseverence can accomplish.
In 1853 he was graduated from the medical school, and
soon after accompained a wealthy parent on a foreign journey.
During these months he was able to save the money needed for
further study. In 1862 he was made physician to the Sal-
petriere, which became and remained renowned through the
name and the reputation of Charcot. A fact that might have
proved dangerous to his success was that he gained a fortune
through marriage, but he seems to have loved science for its
own sake; and indeed it is owing to the encouragement and ef-
forts of his wife that much of the material used in his lectures,
was made accessible to the public. He was so wrapped up in
his investigations and in the preparation of new lectures, that he
could only with difficulty be urged to prepare anything for the
press. He became a member of the Academy of Medicine in
1873, and in 1883 he received the honor of election to member-
ship in the French Institute. It was during a vacation trip with
two of his friends, that, on the night of the 16th of last August,
he quietly slept from life to death.
Among his numerous works, those of most lasting value
and especially to the medico-psychologists are his ‘‘ Maladies
des Viellards et les Maladies Chroniques,’’ his ‘‘ Maladies du
Systeme Nerveux,” and his ‘‘Lectures on the Localizations of
‘Cerebral and Spinal Diseases.” The ‘‘ Archives de Neurologie,”’
STANLEY, Jean M. Charcot. 169
commenced in 1880, and published under Prof. Charcot’s direc-
tion, contain his first articles on hypnotism. For the past fif-
teen vears, Prof. Charcot has done nearly all that has been done
to develop hypnotism on a purely scientific basis, clearly recog-
nizing its importance in the clinical study of neuro-pathology,
but not seeming to attribute to it much therapeutic value. A
short time before his death he himself says that he had found
hypnotism ‘‘a rich field” for his studies in neurology. In his
work in hypnotism, he held that the condition induced by artifi-
cial means is a neurosis, and a neurosis allied to hysteria.
Charcot was by no means willing to accept the extreme maxim
of the school at Nancy ‘‘no suggestion, no hypnosis,” for while
allowing the great value of suggestion in producing the hypnotic
state he was able to adduce the highly interesting phenomenon
of neuro-muscular hyperexcitability, one of the most certain char-
acteristics, he used to say, of hypnosis. Delicate pressure on a
point ina limb or on the face, which in the normal state pro-
duces no effect on the muscle, was found by him to be followed
by its proper physiological action when the subject was in a cer-
tain.stage of hypnotism. He used this incontestable fact in a
two-fold manner, first to refute the explanation offered by the
upholders of ‘‘suggestion’’ as a universal solvent, and second to
confute opponents who had recourse to ‘‘imposture’’ as the
correct explanation, for he was accustomed to say that both ob-
jectors must believe an ignorant woman to preserve as minute a
knowledge of the action of each muscle as Duchenne himself.
In thinking of Prof. Charcot’s doctrine, that artificial sleep
is a neurosis allied to hysteria, the fact must be borne in mind,
that his experiments were conducted almost entirely upon hys-
terical patients. This undoubtedly served to color the symp-
toms he observed, and consequently the inference he drew as to
the close alliance between hypnotism and hysteria. Indeed,
his lucid article in the ‘‘ Dictionary of Psychological Medicine,”
bears as title the significant words, ‘‘ Hypnotism in the Hyster-
ical.’ While Charcot himself without doubt kept this fact in
mind, it has been overlooked by many other experimenters,
who, failing to find the phenomenaas he sets forth, have blamed
170 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
his descriptions as imaginary or possibly manufactured. Hys-
teria was the soil on which Charcot experimented, and when
experiments are made upon another soil, the results may be
very different frem those recorded by him, being no longer
stamped with the hysteric seal.
No man was more opposed to quackery, and to him is due
the credit of helping to rescue artificial somnambulism from the
illegitimate embrace of the charlatan. His scorn of the frauds
and follies which sprang up ina credulous circle outside his own
school, was only equalled by that which he manifested for the
incredulous ignoramuses of his own profession who sneered at
phenomena which they could not understand, but in which he
recognized a rich source of neurological and psychological
knowledge.
Although the illustrious Professor has gone from us, he
has left able successors imbued with his teaching and familiar
with the nature and signs of. hypnosis. More than this, he has
left behind the solid and lasting results of his investigations in
not only confirming, but extending, the conclusions at which
Braid arrived; in reducing to something like order the multi-
form phenomena of artificial sleep, and in bringing within the
range of medical science and the laws of physiology, abnormal
states of the nervous system, regarded by the vulgar as miracu-
lous, and formerly by many medical men as fraudulent. *
*The following letter from the Nestor of Cincinnati physicians,
explains itself.
CiIncINNATI, Nov. 13, 1893.
My Dear Pror. HERRICK: You have reminded me that in
past conversations with you I have frequently alluded to the late Prof.
J. M. Charcot as one of my instructors in clinical medicine in’ La
Charité Hospital, Paris, and now you ask me to write briefly my no-
tions of him.
Forty-two years ago M. Charcot was kind enough to receive me
as a private pupil in his service in La Charité, where he was Chef de
Clinique and therefore,able to offer very large facilities to foreign stu-
dents who went to Paris for clinical study.
Herrick, Surface Anatomy of the Brains of Bids. 17%
He held a high position in that early period of his career as
clinician and his instruction was very much sought for. His deliber-
ate and careful manner of procedure at the bedside aroused the atten-
tion of his pupils, who soon were made to feel that the methodic in-
vestigation of disease requires the highest intellectual effort. It was
not difficult at that time even to foresee for the young teacher a dis-
tinguished future.
What he did to develop the advance in the medical sciences dur-
ing the past forty years, I shall not attempt to detail. That he has en-
riched and enlarged the pathological and clinical field to as great an ex-
tent as any man of the age, is generaliy conceded. More especially has
he done his full share of the work that has brought again French medi-
cine to the front line of modern progress. I believe that his genius,
culture, and special researches entitle him to be ranked with the cele-
brated men of modern times.
I had the inexpressible pleasure of spending a short time in his
house two years ago. He was then 68 years of age, as he said. In
an interval of forty years he had changed in appearance much less
than I had anticipated. His warm greeting touched me very much ;
he was no longer the clinician of La Charité, but a member of the
Institute of France! I was merely passing through Paris, so our in-
terview was brief. It seemed to me that he was good for several
years still of important work.
Sincerely, . C. G. ComeEcys.
LABORATORY NOTES FROM DENISON UNIVERSITY.
VI. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE
BRAIN OF CERTAIN BirRps. WITH PLATE XxXVI.
By C. Jupson Herrick.
fellow in Neurology.
These notes refer mainly to the brains of the following
birds: the wood-cock, Philohela minor; the black tern, Hy-
drochelidon nigra ; the white pelican, Pelicanus erythorhynchos;
the golden eagle, Aquila chrysztos.
Of these, the one presenting the most striking peculiarities
of form is the wood-cock, Phzlohela minor. This brain is flexed
upon itself to a surprising degree (see Plate xxvi, Figs 1-3),
forming a sigmoid curve, each limb of which forms nearly a
172 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
complete semi-circle. The cephalic, ventrally concave curva-
ture is strongest at the Sylvian region ; the caudal, ventrally con-
vex curvature is strongest in the pons region and is much shorter
cephalo-caudad than the other curvature. Asa result of these
flexures the olfactory bulbs are directed ventrad, or even a little
caudad, instead of cephalad and the spinal cord seems to be
directed at first almost dorsad. The prosencephalic flexure,
then, is longer than the pons flexure and so extreme as to bring
the olfactory bulbs into close proximity to the chiasm. The
chiasm itself is crowded caudad so as to appear in ventral view
almost as if superposed upon the pons. This flexure of the
brain is but an extreme application of the general compactness
of the avian brain and is due to the unusual curvature of the
whole head, which in turn is correlated with the feeding habits
of this bird.
Although the prosencephalic flexure occurs mainly in the
Sylvian region, yet the Sylvian fissure proper is not so deep as
in many other birds. The dorsal fissure also is shallow and wide
and disappears entirely caudad. It originates in the median line
about one-third of the length of the prosencephalon behind the
front of the latter, passes obliquely caudo-laterad and fuses with
the wide Sylvian fissure. In this latter respect it differs from
any of the brains figured by Professor Turner in his monograph. *
The crebrum is not only shorter, but narrower and _ shal-
lower than that of the snipe, Gallinago wilsoni. The relative
mass of the prosencephalon, estimated by Turner’s method (i. e.,
the cube root of the product of length, breadth and depth
—see Vol. I, pp. 58-61) gives 69.9 as compared with 75.2 for
the snipe. The front part of the cerebrum is narrow and unu-
sually shallow. All things considered, this is one of the most
difficult of the American birds to which to apply any system of
linear measurements. Any conclusions of taxonomic value
which might be drawn from the measurements of this brain, as
given in the appended table, must be interpreted with caution,
in view of the extreme flexion and of the other peculiarities
presented.
1C. H. Turner, ‘“‘ Morphology of the Avian Brain,’’ this Journal, Vol. I.
Herrick, Surface Anatomy of the Brain of Birds. 173
The olfactory lobes are not fused and project freely and
are large, even for a bird so low in the taxonomic series. The
optic lobes are exposed, as is usual in the lower orders of birds.
The cerebellum is well developed, with strongly projecting
flocculi. The medulla presents, in connection with the extreme
curvature referred to above, an apparent enlargement of the
pons region. This, however, is due to a spreading of the ele-
ments rather than to an actual increase in the volume of the
medulla.
Pelicanus erythorhynchos, the white pelican. This brain
resembles, as would be expected, the goose brain in its general
features. This specimen, taken from a bird with an expanse
of wing of 2.5 meters, has a total length of 49 mm., a total
breadth of 41 mm. The mass of the prosencephalon, as shown
3
by 11. 3p. is less than that of any of the birds given in Profes-
sor Turner’s tables except the Ardezde and the Cuculide, being
64.4, as compared to 69.3 for the domestic duck. This is in
harmony with the inferior position given to the Pelicanide in the
systematic works.
The olfactory lobes were unfortunately mutilated, but seem
to have been small, though quite distinct from each other.
The dorsal fisure of the cerebrum is very deep in front, but un-
like that of the goose brain it disappears entirely behind. Its
cephalic end is considerably farther cephalad than in the goose.
The optic lobes are much smaller than usual and arealmost entirely
covered by the cerebrum. The cerebellum, too, is smaller than
usual. As is well known, this bird is avery clumsy flier. In
order to discover whether the size of the cerebellum is corre-
lated with powers of flight, a few comparative measurements
have been taken. The comparative volumes of the cerebellum
were obtained by the same method used by Professor Turner
for the cerebrum. The ratios of the length, breadth and depth
of the cerebellum to the total length of the brain, expressed in
hundredths, were multiplied and the cube root of the product
taken. This gives approximately the ratio of the cube root of
the volume of the cerebellum to the total length of the brain.
174 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
This ratio for the black tern, Hydrochelidon, is 55.6; for the
domestic duck, 33.3; for the white pelican, 36.9; for the wood
cock, 42.8; for the great horned owl, Bubo virginianus, 39.7 ;
for the golden eagle, 47.2.
The eagle and the owl, both belonging to the Raptores
yet with conspicuous differences in powers of flight, differ by
7.5 per cent. in size of the cerebellum. There is a difference
of 8.2 per cent. in the volumes of the cerebrum in the opposite
direction, i. e. in favor of the owl. The domestic duck and
the pelican each possesses a very small cerebellum, while the
tern which is also a low type, but which has remarkable pow-
ers of flight, has a larger cerebellum than any of the birds tab-
ulated by Professor Turner. Upon inspection of his table
(Journal Com. Neurology, Vol. I, p. 84-85), it is apparent that
the swallow and other birds of strong wing-power have as a
rule large cerebella, as compared with the more inactive birds.
Such measurements, however, must be used with some caution,
as a highly developed flocculus, for example, may greatly exag-
gerate the apparent volume of the cerebellum. Yet it would
seem that the size of the cerebellum is to a large extent regu-
lated by the habits of flight of the bird independently of tax-
onomic relations, though much more extensive observations
would be necessary to establish the generalization for the Aves
as a whole.
Hydrochelidon nigra, the black tern, is remarkable for the
large dimensions of the brain. As above noted, the cerebellum
is relatively larger in this bird than in any other whose measure-
ments are recorded. The cerebrum, too, is larger than that of
many birds which are placed far above it in the taxonomic
series. The ; ‘L.B. bp. iS 77.9, which is not equaled by any cere-
brum below the Rapéores in Professor Turner’s tables. It will, how-
ever, be noticed that the large cerebellum is crowded forward so
as to divaricate the cerebral lobes behind and thus to increase
the apparent width of the cerebrum. This introduces a source
of error which must be taken into account in making compari-
sons with other birds. The low rank of this bird is clearly indi-
Herrick, Surface Anatomy of the Brain of Birds. 175
cated by the free, projecting olfactory lobes. The other fea-
tures of this brain may be gathered from the illustration and the
measurements presented elsewhere.
Aquila chrysetos, the golden eagie. The specimen from
which this brain was taken measured 2.6 meters from tip to tip
of wings. The total length of the brain is 4 cm. The olfac-
tory lobes are not fused and do not project. The cerebrum is
is small, the i ans B.D. being 70, as compared with 78.2 for Bubo
virginianus. The surface is smooth and uniform, even the dor-
sal fissure being shallow and very broad. The dorsal fissure is
frontal, but not so much so as in Bubo. (Compare Plate
exVvin Figs. 5 and.7 with Vol. I, Plate vig.) 1. a phe op-
tic lobes are almost wholly exposed, thus again differing from
Bubo.
TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS.
=|
S)
~
od 2 a
bs o a 9
mi ie) s 5
5 = = oC
S c oO
‘
*
}
,
-
»
\
o
'
.
ea -
= *
,
«
‘-
25s
-
S :
mt,
4
~ ,
re
2
u
4 '
LIPERARY NOTICES:
Fissures of the Cerebrum.
Dr. D. J. Cunningham,! in the memoirs of the Irish Academy
of Science bearing his name, gives an extended account of the com-
parative development of the surface anatomy of the cerebral hemis-
pheres. We condense from this work the following statements. _
I. Complete fissures [‘‘Total falten”.] The transitory fissures
which appear in an early period of the development of the hemis-
pheres are distinguished by the fact that they are a result of a series
of deep infoldings of the thin cerebral wall and form shelf-like pro
jections into the ventricles.
Under normal conditions none of the fissures which appear
on the lateral aspects of the hemispheres persist in the adult though,
in the ape, two, at least, are persistent. Upon the mesal aspect, on
the contrary, the choroid, a portion of the arcuate, and sometimes
the parieto-occipital with part of the calcarine fissures persist. The
choroid and arcuate appear as early as the fifth week. The choroid
fissure occupies the lowest limit of the mesal wall, reaching the
porta, cephalad, and extending caudad nearly to the extremity of the
temporal lobe. Though not at first occupied by blood vessels and,
therefore, not formed by them, its walls do not develop into nervous
tissue but remain epithelial and are occupied by this preplexus. The
fissura arcuata | Ammonsfurche of Mihalkovics] makes its appearance
on the mesal face of the hemisphere at a higher level than the choroid
fissure and while it extends, like the preceding, into the temporal
lobe it also passes cephalad into the frontal region. That portion of
the hemisphere lying between the two fissures mentioned is termed
the arcus marginalts, in connection with which are formed the
callosum, the gyrus dentatus and the fornix.
The caudal part of the fissura arcuata is retained in adults as
the hippocampal fissure and gives rise to the elevation in the floor of
the descending cornu known as the hippocampus major.
1Contribution to the Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres, J. D.
CUNNINGHAM. Cunningham Memoirs of Royal Irish Academy, vii.
ii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Dr. Cunningham does not agree with Mihalkovics and other
writers that the cephalic part of this fissure produces the callosal
fissure but regards this portion as transitory.
The remainder of the complete fissures are transitory. The
mesal wall of the hemispheres being thicker than the outer the tran-
sitory fissures there first appear. They may appear as early as the
eighth week and reach a high degree of development only after the
tenth week. Their maximum development is reached between the
periods when the fornix and callosum appear, i.e. near the beginning
of the fifth month.
On the mesal aspect of the hemispheres the transitory fissures,
which vary in number, radiate from the arcuate fissure toward the
free border of the hemisphere and others, lying between them but not
connecting with the arcuate fissure, appear near the margin. The
usual number on each hemisphere appears to be eight.
The primitive fissures which bound the cuneus are the pre-
cursors of the calcarine and parieto-occipital fissures. As the wall of
the cerebral vesicle thickens, and the hemisphere elongates, the
stellate fissures become detached from the arcuate fissure and gradu-
ally disappear.
Upon the outer aspect the arrangement of the fissures is also
radial, with the Sylvian fossa as the centre, but these fissures usually
do not reach the fossa. There is frequently an additional fissure oc-
cupying the place of the future Sylvian. In some cases the pre-
cursor of the calcarine is carried horizontally around the occipital
pole, appearing on the lateral surface as an external calcarine fissure.
It is regarded probable that under abnormal conditions, as when
the callosum fails to develop, the transitory fissures may persist to a
certain extent. The fact emphasized by Sir William Turner that in
Macropus, where the callosum is rudimentary, the radiating fissures
resemble those of an immature human brain is at least suggestive
that the development of the callosum has some effect on the disap-
pearance of these fissures.
Dr. Cunningham fully agrees with His and Koelliker that the
occipital lobe is due to a general growth and not a local out-pouching
of the hemisphere, its peculiar form is due to the transformations pro-
duced by axial flexures—especially the pons flexure. This backward
thrusting of the posterior part of the hemisphere is chiefly responsi-
ble for the preservation of the precursory calcarine and _parieto-
occipital fissures. The temporary fissures are in all probability
Literary Notices. ili
peculiar to primates and appear prior to the appearance of a distinct
occipital lobe.
The parieto-occipital and calcarine fissures form upon the mesal
aspect of a posterior part of the adult hemisphere a >— shaped figure.
The stem is directed obliquely ventrad and intersects the gyrus
fornicatus. The parieto-occiptal fissure forms the more direct contin-
uation of the stem and continues on the ectal surface as the external
parieto-occipital fissure. The calcarine branch passes toward the
occipital pole. The stem is called the anterior calcarine fissure. The
apex of the cuneus gives off two deep annectant gyri—the gyrus
cunei and anterior cuneo lingual gyrus. The gyrus cunei forms a bar-
rier between the parieto-occipital fissure and the stem, while the gyrus
cuneo-lingualis anterior separates the stem and the posterior part of
the calcarine fissure.
The calcar (hippocampus minor) is formed wholly by the stem or
anterior calcarine fissure.
In apes the calcarine fissure is deep and much more stable than
the parieto-occipital. In the chimpanzee the gyrus cuneus is on the
surface (a condition found in 3-9 per cent. of human brains) while in
the orang and gibbon the cunei may be on the surface or at the bot-
tom of the fissure. The gyrus cunei is never absent. Cunningham
believes that the whole calcarine fissure of anthropoids corresponds
to the ‘‘stem” of the human calcarine or rather the whole length of
the precursor of the human calcarine is the equivalent of the ape
calcarine. The posterior calcarine of man is of later origin and takes
the place of an abolished portion of the original fissure. The cuneus
of the ape does not have the same morphological value as that of man.
Only the cephalic part is present in the ape, the caudal part is absent
or blended with the gyrus lingualis. In the ape the entire length of
the calcarine fissure is on the tentorial face of the hemisphere.
The posterior calcarine fissure is distinct from the ‘‘stem” in
origin, the latter being a ‘‘complete fissure” and having unbroken
continuity of existence with the fore-part precursor.
The occipital and parietal indices are the distances along the mesal
margin of the hemisphere intercepted by the intersection of the ex-
ternal parieto-occipital fissure and the fissure of Rolando respectively,
in the firsc case measuring from the occipital pole, in the second, from
the parieto-occipitai intersection, both these distances in terms of
hundredths of the entire length along the dorsal margin of the
hemisphere.
iv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
For the human brain the following averages are given :
5% to 6% months—O. idex, 18.8; P. index, 28.5.
6% to 7% months— * ‘* 18.6; * OG Me
Wig to 832 months— ioe) 2007/5) 6° ce 24.1.
Rall timesfcs tus ess) — acces Oyrce 25 e712
Pins tarz monthse | ——ert cme 22. giacc cc 25-0"
4 to 5 years See Ores Zags “6 24.2.
II to 15 years = ERE ZOLS FE COR E274"
Adults CU Te An a) (ry eae Sey 25-5.
For apes the following table is given:
Orang —O. idex, 23.2; P. index, 21.3.
Chimpanzee 6 eae ss 19.9.
lomadnyas: © $= ES zones Oe 2085;
Cynocephalus — “* “ 29.7; ‘ 522.0%
Mangaby —— 66 6-30.55 < 2 ate
Macaque aes OCS TER THO msc “6 19.0.
Cexcopithecws—— BREMER, L. Itching of Central Origin. Review of Insanity and Nervous
Disease. Dec. 1892. °
3 Der feinere Bau und die Nervenendigung der Geschmaksknospen. Anat.
Anzeiger VIIL, 4.
Literary Notices. xxi
Intrinsic Nerves of the Kidney.'
The following conclusions were reached: ‘‘ That the renal
nerves enter with the vessels at the hilum, and that with their multi-
farious ramifications and ganglionic enlargements they form a not in
considerable portion of the kidney’s entire substance. From the vas-
cular nerves-—which we may call the primary ones—come secondary-
divisions, distributed throughout all the cortical and medullary-cortical
regions in the form of a vast open network. That the glomerules are
surrounded by a wide meshed plexus of fibres having terminal and
end-knobs approximated closely to the Bowman capsule, but that no
finer nerves can be seen penetrating that membrane; and end-termin-
ations within the capsule upon the convoluted vessels, either in the
form of knobs, or in the finer pointed terminations cannot be discov-
ered. That fibres piss off singly and separately from the vascular
nerves, and are distributed on the convoluted tubules, not only with
end-terminations in the form of the well-known globular ending, but
also in fine, delicate threads that penetrate the membrana propria of
the tube and presumably enter the cement substance between the ep1-
thelial cells, and that the function of these divisions to the tubuli con-
torti is probably one concerning the urinary secretion. Lastly, that
ganglionic enlargements occur widely, but that, strictly speaking, no
nerve cells provided with nucleus, body, and protoplasmic areas are to
be found; and that all renal nerves belong to the sympathetic system.
The work was done by a modification of the rapid process of Gogli
which has not been made public.
Nervous Endings in the Mucous Layer of the Hleum.
Dr. Henry J. Berkley’ has applied the rapid Golgi method to
the ileum with good result within the musoca, while the plexi of
Auerbach and Meissner were not well differentiated. From the
ganglionic masses of Meissner’s plexus numerous non-medulated
nerve fibres run in groups to the mucous layer. Many of the bundles
encircle the arterioles and branch upon them. The other branches
pass more directly to the mucosa where they branch and with the
others form a subplexus in the muscularis mucose. Some of the
branches supply curious globular masses which are regarded as homo
logous with the motor end plates. Four or more fibres enter each
1BerKLEY, H. J. Bul. Johns Hopkins Hospital. 1V. 28.
2 Anat. Anzezger, Vol. I11, 7.
xxx JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY,
bulb which consists of a capsule filled with deeply staining particles in
a highly refracting substance. A second form of end organ has the
terminal knobs of the fibres more separately disposed among the fibres.
The granular zone at the base of the follicles of Lieberkiihn is
devoid of nervous structures while the bundles passing through it
divide into those destined to the plexuses of the villous and Lieber-
kiithn portions. The latter ramify in the adenoid tissue between the
follicles forming an open plexus. The fibres to the villus are usually
distinct in origin and pursue a zigzag course, often twisting about each
other and terminate in end bulbs. The author does not regard these
bulbs as cells but as homologues of the tactile corpuscles of the skin.
The nervous supply of the mucosa is wholly derived from the plexus
of Meissner. Free aborescent terminations were not found.
Circulatory Changes in Hypnosis.'
Dr. Kraup has shown that in hypnotic states the portions of the
brain which have their function reduced are those which are supplied
by the internal carotic arteries, while those parts which are function-
ally more excitable are§jsupplied by the vertebral arteries. He be-
lreves that the carotid arteries are contracted and the vertebral arteries
dilated during deep hypnotic sleep and finds the symptoms—such as
the flushed face and changes in masseters, glands, eyes, etc. in har-
mony with the hypothesis. Hyperzemia of the pons and cord may
account for the cataleptic state of the muscles.
Mirror Writing.’
t is shown that among left-handed imbeciles there is a more or
less apparent tendency to write backward in such a way that it can
only be read when reversed by reflection in a mirror.
Those who have practiced mirror writing find it easier with the
left hand. An experiment was tried with a class of sixty children
who were told to write their names with their left hands. Out of the
number five wrote in mirror writing and these were the only left-
handed pupils in the school.
The Ms. codex Atlanticus of Leonardo da Vinci, which is in
mirror writing, is supposed to be the result of paralysis of the right
side, which forced him to write with the left hand. The author be-
lieves that the image or localized changes is inverted in these cases.
1 Hospitals-Fidende. 1892, p._777.
2TRELAND, W. W. Alientst and Neurologist, X1V, 1, Jan., 1893.
Literary Notices. XXXi
Dr. Bianchi concludes that in hemiplegia of the right side the image
not calling forfh, on the left hemisphere, any centrifugal motion of
the muscles of the right hand, will oblige the extensor cellular groups
of the sound right hemisphere to write from the left, because of the
preserved remembrance of the muscular combination associated with
the image of the word. Hence there will be an identical centrifugal
motion and the reversed lithographic writing.
Revue Neurologique.
A new journal which comes to our table, published under the
direction of Wm. E. Bressaud and P. Marie and bearing the above
title, is intended to offer synopses of the important articles in neurol-
ogy as well as some original matter.
The journal, which is printed on thick opaque paper and _ illus-
trated with process cuts, is to appear on the 15th and 3oth of each
month and contains summaries of the recent papers on anatomy, pa-
thology, physiology, psychiatry and therapeutics of the nervous sys-
tem.
Society reports and programs are included and the first number
gives promise of usefulness. j
Each number contains 24 pages and the supscription is 22 francs.
The original article of the first number is entitled Sept cas di polyneu-
rite, by Dr. Dutil, being derived from the clinics of Professor Charcot.
An index of current literature is devoted chiefly to the pathology
and therapeutics of the nervous system.
The Universal Medical Journal,
This is the name under which the ‘‘ Satellite” which has re-
volved so usefully about the annual of the Universal Medical Sciences
for six years or more, now appears. It promises to become even
more representative and useful under its new name than it has been
hitherto. The corps of editors contains widely known specialists
from most European countries.
RECENT LITERATURE.
ADAMKIEWICcz, A. Tafeln zur Orienterung an der Gehirnoberfliche des
lebenden Menschen bei chirurgischen Operationen. 4 plates. Text in English,
French and German. Vienna and Leipzig. W. Braunmiiller.
ADOLPHI, H. Ueber Variationen der Spinalnerven und der Wirbelsaule
anurer Amphibien. Morpholog. Jahrb., XIX, 3, 1893.
ANTONINI, A. La corteccia cerebrale nei mammiferi domestici. Seconda
nota preventiva. Jon. Zool. ital., III, 11, 12.
ASSHETON, R. On the Development of the Optic Nerve of Vertebrates and
the choroidal Fissure of embryonic life. Qwzart. Journ. Microsc. Sctence,
XXXIV, 2, 1892.
Bay.iss, W. M. On some points in the innervation of the mammalian
heart. Journ. of Phys., XIII, 5, 1892.
BayLiss, W. M., and STARLING, E. H. On some Points in the Innervation
of the Mammalian Heart.
BECHTEREW. Ueber die Rindcentra sphincteris ani et vesice. Meurolog.
Centralblatt, Feb., 1893.
BERTELLI, D. Sulla membrana timpanica della Rana esculenta. Mon.
zool. ttal., IXI, 10.
Brans, H. Die Rami ventrales der vorderen spinalnerven einiger Selach-
ier. Jena, H. Pohle. Med. Inaug. Diss.
BuRCHARDT, R. Ueber des Centralnervensystem der Dipnoer. Verhandieg.
d. Deutsch. zool. ges. auf. 2. Jahresvers. zu Berlin, 1892.
BuRCKHARDT, R. Das Centralnervensystem von Protopterus annectens.
Eine vergleichend-anatomische Studie. Berlin, Friedlander u. Sohn, 1892.
CajJAL, S. R. El nuevo concepto de la histologia de los centros nerviosos.
Revista de ctenc. med. de Barcelona, XVIII, 1892.
CAPOBIANCO, F. Ulteriori ricerche sulle alterazioni istologiche del midollo
spinale sequite alla tiroidectomia. Bol. della socteta de naturaliste in Napolt,
Ser, Ly Vij 18925 1.
Cu1AruGl, G. Sullo sviluppo del nervo olfattivo nella Lacerta muralia,
Mon. zool. ttal., Anno 3, N. to.
[xxx1l]
Recent Literature. XXXiii
DARKSCHEWITSCH, L. Ueber die Verinderungen in dem centralen
Abschnitt eines motorischen Nerven bei Verletzung des peripheren Nerven.
Jahrb. f. Psychiatrie, X1.
D’Evant, T. Sopra un ganglio sfenopalatino accessorio nell’ uomo. Gorn.
@ Assoc. napolit. di med. e natural, III, 1, 1892.
Dona.pson, J. W. Involuntary Recollection. Sczence, X XI, 528, March
17, 1893.
EBNER, V. VON. Ueber die Beziehungen der Wirbel zu den Urwirbeln.
Sttzungsberichte Akad. d. Wassensch., CI, 1-2. Vienna, 1892.
EBERTH, C. J., und BunGE, R. Die Endigungen der Nerven in der Haut
des Frosches. Bus.
Hoim, H. Die Anatomie u. Pathologie des dorsalen Vaguskerns. Arch,
jf. path. Anat. u. Phys., CXXXI, 1.
Horsey, V. The Structure and Functions of the Brain and Spinal Cord.
Being the Fullenan Lectures for 1891, Philadelphia, Blakiston, Son & Co.
Horstey, V. The Structure and Functions of the Brain and Spinal Cord.
Lonxdon, 1892.
Recent Literature. XXXV
HokseE1, O. Die Centralwindungen ein Centralorgan der Hinterstringe
und des Trigeminus. 4. Psychiatrie, XXIV, 2.
KATZENSTEIN, J. Ueber die Innervation des M. crico-thyreoideus. Archiv.
path. Anat., CXXX, 2.
KEssEL, G. Die Histologie der Ohrmuschel, des duszeren gehérganges
Trommelfells und mittleren Ohrs. Hand. der Ohrenhetlkunde.
KIRILZEW, S. Zur Lehre vom Ursprung und centralen Verlauf des Gehéo-
rnerven. Veurol. Centralb., XI, 21.
KRONTHAL, P. Von der Heterotypie der grauen Substanz im Riicken-
mark. Nach ein Vortrag geh. im psych. Ver., Berlin. Neurol Centralblatt
EXO 2 3.
KuuHN, A. Vergleichende Anatomie des Ohres. Handb. der Ohrenheil-
kunde.
KupFFER, C. v. Studien zur vergleichenden Entwickelungsgeschicte des
Kopfes der Kranioten. Munich and Leipzig, J. F. Lehmann.
LANGLEY, J. N. On the larger medullated Fibres of the Sympathetic
System. /ourn. of Physiology, XIII, Suppl., 1892.
LENHOSSEK, M. v. Die Nervenurspriinge und Endigungim Jacobson’schen
Organ des Kaninchens. Mosso, A. Les Phenomenes Psychiques et la Temperature des Cerveau.
Turin. 1892.
Literary Notices. Ixxxvii
rent. The author believes that consciousness involves active metabol-
ism in the cells. These results were embodied in the Croonian Lec-
ture, March, 1892. (Philos. Trans., CLXXXIII1.)
Cerebrine in the Treatment of Ataxia.
Dr. G. M. Hammond reported before the New York Medical
Society a case of locomotor ataxia which had been treated with hypo-
dermic injections of cerebrine prepared by Dr. W. A. Hammond.
The symptomatic complex was apparently unmistakable and after ten
weeks’ treatment almost complete restoration resulted.
Clineal Investigations of Epilepsy, Hysteria, and Idiocy.!
This volume by the physicians of the Bicetre Asylum is largely
devoted to idiocy and related phenomena. The cases are classified
under (a), Idiocy with traumatism or malformation ; (b), Idiocy with
arrested development of convolutions and cerebral atrophic sclerosis ;
(c), Idiocy due to simple atrophic sclerosis of the convolutions ; (d),
Idiocy associated with cerebellar tumor; (e), Idiocy with meningo-
encephalitis ; (f), Idiocy with epilepsy. The reports of cases are
very full and clear.
The author states that the pathology of meningo-encephalitis dif-
fers from that of general paralysis of the insane, which it greatly re-
sembles, in that the cortical vessels are degenerated and the degenera-
tion of the nerve cells is secondary to that of the vessels, while in
general paralysis the reverse is the case.
It would appear from numerous examples that the heredity of
cerebral malformations is total; like that of the color of the eyes, for
example. Thus Dr. Bourneville says that he has never observed any
attenuation in the course of degeneration in families by well-selected
alliance or intermarriage with the normal; in such cases the children
are healthy or degenerate, but, if degenerate, rarely less so than the
diseased parent.
In microcephalic idiocy the antecedents are usually pathological
on one side or the other and frequently there are convulsions in in-
fancy. The patients are not necessarily undersized or deficient in
sexuality. The theory that the premature ossification of the cranium
is the cause of restricted brain development is certainly not universal-
ly applicable.
The work is comprehensive and conservative.
1 Recherches Clinique et Therapeutiques sur l’epilepsie, l’hysterie, et l’idi-
otie. Par M. Bourneville. Paris: Vve Babe et Cie., 1891.
Ixxxviii © JouRNAL OF ComPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
The Peripheral Relations of the Auditory Nerve.'
The author is continuing his studies on the Morphology of the
Vertebrate Ear,? using the method of Golgi. This method in the
hands of Retzius and Van Gehuchten lead to the conclusion that the
nerve-endings in the Organ of Corti are intercellular. This author,
however, considers that these results were derived from preparations
which had been imperfectly colored. His own preparations show
unmistakable instances of direct continuity of nerve fibres and hair
cells. His conclusions are summoned up as follows:
A. The hair cells and the ganglion cells in connection with them
constitute a single morphological unit—an acoustic element—
which effects connection between superficial and central points.
B. No fundamental distinction exists between acoustic and olfactory
elements.
C. The so-called ‘‘spiral fibres” are only short portions of radial
fibres which reach their destination by a circuitous path.
D. All fibres of the eighth nerve, so far as is definately established,
originate in the hair cells.
E In the embryos of all mammals the eighth nerve is made up at
one stage of nerve fibres which arise from the Sauropsida-organ,
and at the disappearance of this and the simultaneous formation
of the Organ of Corti the acusticus passes over to the latter, thus
altering its connections.
Statistics of Dreams.
Under this title Mary W. Calkins? records the results of ex-
tended observations upon dream phenomena and makes interesting
observations upon their psychological significance. ‘Tables are given
of the number of recorded dreams in which representations of the
various senses are included and, as would be expected, the visual
greatly exceed all others; thus in 298 dreams there were 240 visual,
157 auditory, 21 dermal, 4 olfactory, and r general representations of
sense. The psychological analysis might have been closer but the
statistics cannot fail to be useful.
1Avers, H. Ueber das peripherische Verhalten der Haarzellen des
Gehoérorganes. Anat. Anzeiger, VIII, 1893, No. 12 and 13.
2Journal of Morphology, Vol. VI, 1 and 2, 1892.
3 Am. Journ. Psychology. v. 3.
Literary Notices. Iscxxcisx
The Brain of Myxine.'
The brain was exposed by direct preparation of the hardened
subject or by teasing specimens macerated in 20 per cent. nitric acid,
a method which often affords beautiful views of the entire brain and
connected fibres in minute detail.
The olfactory organ is so enclosed by annular cartilages that the
whole structure is inseparably connected with the brain and is_pre-
served in the author’s figures. The detailed histology is not described
while the external features are very carefully and minutely recorded.
From the absence of histological data several points are left undecided
by the author which could otherwise be readily determined. Thus
the author doubttully identifies a segment of what seems like the mes-
encephalon as the cerebellum and is uncertain as to the homologies
of the parts of the forebrain. No trace of the mantle of the cere-
brum was encountered, which gives the author occasion to express
much surprise. If we were to attempt an explanation upon the basis
of Professor Retzius’ figures it would seem to be furnished by the rel-
atively enormous extent of the olfactory tuber and the compactness
of the brain and its obvious conduplication through shortness of the
cavity of the cranium. It would appear that the whole free portion
of the hemispheres, so far as present at all, is covered by the glomer-
ules. In Fig. 7, Plate XXIV, Av seems to be the recessus przopti-
cus, the habena and Meynerts’ bundle are very large and the infund-
ibulum and hypophysis are in the usual relations. It is not a little
remarkable that, although the habenz are all well developed, no trace
of the epiphysis was discovered in the dissections or slides.
The aqueduct is closed anteriorly apparently by the obliteration
of its connecton with the third ventricle, which is also closed, with
the exception of the infundibulum and recessus preeopticus.
The structure of the glomerules was studied by the Golgi method
and found to correspond with that in vertebrates at large.
The Rudimentary Jacobson’s Organ of the Crocodile.!
Dr. Rose describes the development of the common nasal am-
pulla by the closing of the gum processes and the subsequent separa-
ration into two chambers by the union of these processes with each
1Retzius, G. Das Gehirn und das Auge vohn Myxine; 3 plates, Bzolog.
Unters., v. 9, 1893.
1RoseE, C. Ueber das rudimentrare Jacobsonscche Organ der Crocodile
und des Memschen. Anxat. Anz., VIII, 14, 15, June, 1893.
ade JouRNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
other and the septum. ‘Asa result of the slight development of
Jacobson’s organ Stetson’s ducts do not develop. These develop
elsewhere through separation of an epithelial duct during the closing
of the gum processes and almost uniformly le about at the place
where the primitive choana open into the mouth cavity.” As a re-
sult of the peculiar formation of the nasal passages it is natural that
in crocodiles they should stand in close relations to the rudimentary
fundaments of Jacobson’s organ. The organ after assuming the form
of a considerable sac-like appendage to the passage occupying an ex-
cavation in the vomer, it undergoes retrogression. The highest stage
of development is reached when the embryo is 9% mm. long in
Crocodilus porosus. The author thinks it, on the whole, improbable
that the predecessors of Crocodilia had a completely developed Jacob-
son organ. The old idea that Jacobson’s organ and Jacobson’s cartilage
are to be correlated is an error. This cartilage (Luschka’s or Jacob-
son’s) is simply the basal part of the primitively simple cartilaginous
nasal capsule. It correspond’s apparently to what Gaup called
solum nasale in the frog. The Jacobson’s organ of man lies high up,
far above the basales narium cartilage, which has its usual positton.
Infantile Nucleary Degeneration.
In this paper a series of observations are collected bearing on the
perplexing problem involved in paralysis of the eye-muscles of central
origin. The first section embraces opthalmoplegia exterior with or
without paralysis of the facialis. ‘The second section relates to bilat-
eral abducens-facialis paralysis, the third with congenital bilateral ab-
ducens paralysis, the fourth with bilateral oculomotor paralysis, the
fifth with bilateral ptosis, and the sixth and seventh with unilateral
abducens paralysis and ptosis. Curiously enough no cases are known
of congenital bilateral facialis paralysis unaccompanied by abducens
paralysis.
The development of the degeneration may be gradual but the
result is persistent and beyond amelioration. The differential diagno-
sis especially as against tertiary syphilitic and labitic ophthalmoplegia
is discussed, but the confession is made that nothing is known of the
pathological anatomy.
1Mosrus, P. J. Ueber infantilen Kernschwund. Jiinchener Med. Ab-
handlungen, VI, 4.
Literary Notices. xci
Restricted Hemiatrophy of the Face.!
A case of limited atrophy of the face in a child of seven years
who had no family history of neuritis or other nerve lesion is reported
by Dr. Gulland. No assignable cause could be found and the gener-
al health was good. The atrophy is confined to the left side of the
face, beginning in the middle of the forehead by a well-defined ridge
gradually disappearing in the region of the coronal suture. On the
side of the face the atrophy extends to the outer canthus and upper
border of the zygoma. The skin and subcutaneous tissue as well as
the bones are affected. The skin is slightly reddened and glossy and
the hair of the scalp is thinned. ‘The sensation and motions of the
face, tongue, etc. are unimpaired, an occassional pain running down
the affected side of the nose is the only subjective symptom. The
author regards the cause as peripheral rather than central.
Effects of the Pneumogastric and Sympathic Nerves on Disgestion.?
The vagus nerve of the batrachia supplies motor fibres to the
stomach, especially to the longitudinal fibres and sphincters, also in-
hibitory fibres for reflex motions. Under the influence of curare
after double vagotomy, the fluids of the mouth can not be swallowed
on account of the contraction of the cardiac sphincter which contin-
ues for hours to pulsate rhythmically. The stomach continues for
days its peristaltic motions. ‘These motions are due to the loss of the
inhibitory influence of the vagus leaving the muscles hyperexcitable.
If not curarized the loss of motor function is most prominent.
The air cannot pass the glottis during inspiration by reason of paraly-
sis of the extensors of the glottis and thus is swallowed.
The sympathic fibres affect chiefly the circular muscle fibres. Irrita-
tion of the sympathic,the ganglion cceliacum or the lumbar cord when
separated from the higher regions have the same effect. The con-
traction begins at the pylorus. Removal of the celiac ganglion in
the toad causes the stomach to perform diastole and systole. Besides
vasoconstrictor fibres the vagus supplies to the stomach vaso-dilators
while the sympathic is chiefly vaso-constrictor in function.
The secretion of the stomach is directly dependent on the vagus
1GULLAND, G. L. A Case of Hemiatrophy of the Face, Confined to the
Area of Distribution of the first Division of the Fifth Nerve. dinburgh
Hosp. Rep., vol. 1, 1893.
2CONTEJEAN, C. Action des nerfs pneumogastrique et grand sympathique
sur l’estomas chez les batraciens. Arch. de phys. [5] IV, 4.
xcii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
and sympathic, the former being excitory the latter antagonistic.
There is, however, an intrinsic plexus, so that the vagus and sympa-
thic are simply regulators.
Forked Nerve Endings on Hairs.!
The authors have contributed a number of extended papers on
the nerve termini in the skin? and Mrs. Hoggan now collects data
from their combined labors.
In 1872 Jobert discovered the coil about the hair follicle which
bears his name. Sch6n, in 1871, had founda medullated nerve pass-
ing to each hair follicle and forming a nerve ring about it and also de-
scribes a nerve coil below the bulb which is not reidentified by later
writers. Arnstein? finds, in the mouse ear, a terminal nerve brush
subdividing in the skin about the follicle.
Bonnet, in 1878, (Adorph. Jahrbuch.) describes the tactile hairs
in various animals, and figures, in a vibrissa from the dog muzzle, a
large forked fibre. Ruichardi, in 1884, describes, in similar hairs of
the ox, medullated nerves passing into non-medullated tortuous fibres
which again divide, forming ovoid or fusiform irregular nerve tufts
extending to about the middle of the follicle.
Mrs. Hoggan states that Joberts’ coils exist in all hairs and are
the most superficial of the nerve structures of the follicle and are
found just below the openings of the sebaceous glands, external to
the forked terminations, between them and the basement membrane.
These coils receive nerves horizontally from the side of the follicle,
and a connection was traced between some of these fibres and the
branched cells lying perpendicularly below them.
The forked terminations lying between the lower layer of epider-
mic cells lining the follicle and the basement membrane are not very
easily seen on large vibrissze, but they are found on the smaller feel-
ers, where they show, as Bonnet has shown, a row of short, broad,
spade-like bodies, just above the end bulbs or the branched nerve
1 HoccAn, G. AND Mrs. F. F. E. Journal of Anatomy and Phystology
XXVII, 2, Jan., 1893.
2 On some Cutaneous Nerve Terminations in Mammals. Lzzzean Soc. Journ.
XVI, 1893. Des Formes nouvelles de Terminaisons nerveuses dans la Peau des
Mammiferes, XX, 1884. Neue Formen von Endigungen in der Haut von
Saugethieren, 1884. New Forms of Nerve Terminations in Mammalian Skin.
Journ. Anat. Phys., XVIII, 1884.
3 Die Nerven der behaarten Haut. Sttzungsb. a. hk. k. Ahad., 1876.
4
:
Literary Notices. xciii
cells. On the ordinary hair follicles the branched processes are the
most prominent of all the nervous elements. The author regards this
fact as favoring the belief that these divided endings are organs of
general tactile sensibility. Various modifications of these forks are
said to occur in all known kinds of tactile bodies from the two or
three-pronged fork, through the Browne and Hoggan bodies, the Pa-
cinian and Meissner corpuscles, etc. ‘‘The complicated organ of
Eimer is but the survival of the nerve elements belonging to an origin-
al clustre of hairs, dragged out, in the course of evolution, by the
digging habits of the mole, and in this organ the homologies of the
forked endings may be distinctly traced.”” The peripheral endings of
the forks varies from spade- or hoof-shaped (horse) to lance-shape
(mouse) or club-shaped (seal). The variations do not appear, how-
ever, to be significant.
The Eye of Myxine.!
The careful descriptions of Miiller and Krause are summarized
and compared with data derived by the author from his own chromic-
acid and Golgi preparations. The homologies suggested by those
earlier writers are for the most part sustained, though the structure of
the retina is found to be considerably simpler than that described by
either. He concludes: ‘‘ The eye of Myxine, as I look at it, is far
more rudimentary than those investigators supposed. The prevailing ir-
regularity of form, as well as its alterations, bespeak a degenerate
structure. That no traces of cornea and lense are present, Johannes
Miiller has already recognized. I then agree with W. Krause—con-
trary to W. Miiller—that ‘the rudimentary retina therefore cannot
be used in construing the phylogenetically complete retina.’ This is
much to be regretted because the lowest stages of the development of the
sense-organs are of the highest significance for Biology and for Mor-
phogenesis.”’
Brain Surgery.
An interesting series of operations is reported by Dr. F. C.
Schaefer in the Journal of the American Medical Association (xxi, 5.)
These cases emphasize the importance of surgical action and minute
attention to aseptic proceedure.
In the same number Dr. Emory Lanpeear reports a number of
1 RETziIus, GusTAF. Das Auge von Myxine. Bvologische Untersuchungen,
V. Band, No. 9, pp. 64-68, with one plate. Stockholm, 1893.
xciv JOURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
cases of brain surgery from which the following suggestions are
copied :
1. When there has been a blow upon the head and hemiplegia,
aphasia, or hemianopsia follows, there is nearly always a hemorrhage
which may be cured by opening the cranium at the point indicated by
the cerebral localization. .
2. Paralysis of the third, fourth or sixth pairs of nerves indicates
a lesion in the pons and contraindicates operation.
3. A slight premonitory attack, affecting speech temporarity, or
producing a heaviness of hand or foot for a few moments, if followed
by hemiplegia, may be taken as a good point in favor of operation, as
the bleeding vessel is probably on the surface or very superficial.
4. Paralyses of very limited extent, especially if complete, are
not often due to hemorrhages—being local palsies rather than the
peripheral indicatives of cerebral desease.
5. A very severe headache, followed by gradually but rapidly
deepening coma and hemiplegia becoming more and more complete,
means a hemorrhage into the great basal ganglia—probably beyond
surgical help.
6. When the case presents a history of moderate loss of power
or complete hemiplegia without unconsciousness, followed in a few
hours by sudden appearance of coma, marked fall of temperature suc-
ceeded by some fever, a hemorrhage has broken into the ventricles or
beneath the membranes, is still progressing, and indicates immediate
trephining.
7. Very sudden and complete hemiplegia and coma usually
means embolism; heart lesions, endoarteritis and syphilis enhances the
probability.
8. Bilateral hemianopsia appearing suddenly probably indicates
hemorrhage in the occipital lobe of the oposite side and justifies ex-
ploratory operation,
g. Profound coma and relaxation without any hemiplegia usual-
ly depend upon injury to the pons and decide against operation.
10. Vomiting, severe occipital headache and vertigo, with or
without a distinct paralysis render a cerebellar hemorrhage probable ;
ocular symptoms, like nystagmus and strabismus are apt to accompany
these symptons of cerebellar lesion. Exploratory operation is justi-
fiable.
11. According to Hughlings Jackson, convulsions, early rigidity
and conjugate deviation of the eyes of asplastic form are conclusive
Literary Notices. XCV
evidence of hemorrhage. Convulsions always accompany hemorrhage
in young persons.
An interesting portion of the paper deals with results of cranio-
tomy for psychical improvement in idiocy. The results on some of
the cases are exceedingly promising.
Current Views of the Structure of Olfactory Organs and Taste-bulbs.!
(With Plate XIV, Figs. 6, 7, and 8.)
The application of Golgi’s method to the peripheral nervous sys-
tem, especially to the sense-organs, has proven of late a very product-
ive field of investigation. The uncertainty formerly existing in the
minds of many investigators as to the exact nature of the termini of
the olfactory nerve in the nazal cavity and in Jacobson’s organ seems
now to be quite satisfactorily removed. The concurrent testimony of
so skillful investigators as Cajal, Van Gehuchten, Lenhossék, Brunn, |
and Retzius, leaves but little doubt that the so-called olfactory cells of
the olfactory epithelium and of Jacobson’s organ are real nerve cells
and that there is actual nervous continuity between the cilia at one pole
and the fibre of the olfactory nerve springing from the other pole of
these cells. In fact the relations here are very like those commonly
described for the organs of the lateral line of the lower vertebrates
and more recently for the skin of some of the worms.
When we come to the nerve-termini in the taste-bulbs, the recent
authorities are by no means so harmonious. Whether the taste-cells
are really connected with the adjacent nerve-fibres may fairly be con-
sidered an open question, in spite of the recent striking results of
Retzius? and of Lenhossék.* I quote from the latter paper: ‘‘ The
results of Fusari and Panasci, so often quoted recently, that they [the
taste-cells] pass directly into nerve-fibres at the basal pole, are incor-
rect. On the contrary they all end obtusely. This is not a case then
of typical, well-developed nerve-cells, which give rise to peripheral
nerve-fibres, as is the case with the olfactory cells and the sensory
cells of the epidermis of Lumbricus, but of sensory epithelial cells
which are related to the nerve-fibres by contact only.”
In this author’s preparations from the rabbit the nerve-termini are
of two kinds: 1. Intergemmal fibres previously described (by Ser-
1 Abstract by C. Judson Herrick.
2 Biologische Untersuchungen, N. F., Bd. IV and V.
SAnat. Anzeiger, VIII, No. 4.
xcvi JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
toli, in 1876, and others) which pass up between the taste-bulbs and
end free at the surface. They probably are not concerned with the
sense of taste. 2. Perigemmal fibres (one to three in number) pass
to the base of the bulb and rise up, branching freely and enveloping
the bulb completely. ‘They do not anastomose but each branchlet
ends free in a little tuberosity. These relations are shown in the fig-
ure (Plate XIV, Fig. 7) copied from Lenhossék’s. In the fish
(Barbus) intergemmal fibres cannot be demonstrated and the perigem-
mal fibres are much more regularly arranged, all ending in a ring at
the apex of the bulb (Plate XIV, Fig. 8.) In this fish to a slight ex-
tent (Plate XIV, Fig. 8, c) and much more conspicuously in Conger
vulgaris, these fibres give off, just as they separate at the base of the
bulb, numerous short, exceedingly varicose fibrils which form a cup-
shaped body (‘‘cupula”’) enveloping the base of the bulb. In the
latter type, too, there are fibres loosely enveloping the neck of the
taste-bulb which are probably homologous with the intergemmal fibres
ot the rabbit.
As to the morphological significance of the taste-cells, the author
continues: ‘‘ By their characteristic reactions with stains, their form,
their cilia, and above, all their functional significance, they ally them-
selves directly with nerve-cells, from which they are distinguished
only by the lack of a nervous process. They represent as it were
short nerve-cells without processes, nerve-bodies in which the function of
the process has been supplanted by projections which pass to them
from other distant cells.
‘From the results recently brought out as to nerve-termini in
the auditory organ! (Retzius), in the skin of vertebrates (Fr. Eilh.
Schulze, van Gehuchten, Retzius), in addition to the present contri-
butions, we are in a position to assert that /Aat relation which the au-
thor and Retztus have shown tn the skin of the earthworm prevatls in the
vertebrates in no place except in the olfactory mucous membrane.”
Retzius, in the work cited above, agrees perfectly with the re-
sults of Lenhossék, except that in his earlier paper (Vol. IV) he found
branches of the perigemmal fibres penetrating into the taste-bulbs be-
tween the taste-cells. This however he does not find in the fish. In
his later paper (Vol. V) he says: ‘‘I have recently in Golgi prepara-
tions of the mucous membrane of the mouth of Salmo salar been
1Tt will be noticed that this does not agree with the recent results of Ayers
on the connections of the hair-cells of the auditory organ, as noticed elsewhere
in this number (p. ]xxxviil.)
=,
Literary Notices. XCvii
able to examine many hundred end-bulbs and affirm that I have never
certainly seen one nerve-fibre penetrating into the interior of these
structures, but only the arrangement described by Lenhossék.”’
If these results can be relied upon, the organs of taste must mor-
phologically be more widely separated from those of smell than has
hitherto been customary. The familiar fact that sapid substances
must be present in fluid solution in order to be perceived and that
odorous substances, in air-breathing animals at least, must be present
in gaseous media, may point to physiological differences in the end-or-
gans involving profound structural modifications. But it is more
probable that the difference, if difference there be, finds its basis in
Organogeny rather than in Physiology. Thus, the processes of the
olfactory cells do not connect with any other cells centrally. Prepar-
ations recently made by my brother, both by Golgi’s method and by
the hematoxylin process and figured in this number (Plate XIX, Figs.
I, 2, and 3; plate XX, Fig. 3) prove conclusively, if additional
proof were necessary, that the fibres of the olfactory nerve as they
pass into the olfactory tuber break up into terminal brushes (‘‘ end-
baumchen ”) in the glomerules without coming into relations with any
cells at this end of their course. In accordance, then, with the cur- -
rent morphological ideas of nervous structure,! the peripheral neuron
of the olfactory system would consist of the olfactory ganglion cell in
the nasal membrane, its axis-cylinder process which forms one of the
constituent parts of the olfactory nerve,? and its terminal brush in the
glomerule.
The nerves supplying the taste-bulbs, on the other hand, unques-
tionably spring from nerve-cells in the ganglion at the root of their
proper nerve-trunk. Since, then, the ganglion cell is at the central
end of the fibre, the terminal brush must be sought at the peripheral
end; viz. in the ‘‘ perigemmal fibres.”’ It is obvious that the neuron
is complete without the taste-cell; in fact, the latter would be an in-
explicable structure if it were found in direct continuity with the
nerve-fibre.
The views of Lenhossék and Retzius, though concordant with
each other and with the most recent morphological ideas of nervous
structure, are so different from those commonly held that it is not sur-
1Compare Obersteiner in Jour. Comp. Neurol., May, 1892, pp. 73-84.
* According to views current in some quarters the fibre of the olfactory
nerve does not run continuously from the nasal epithelium to the glomerule, but
consists of several nerve-units in moniliform connection. This, however, if
true, would not materially affect the question now in hand.
XCViil JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
prising that they should not find ready acceptance in all quarters.
Frederick Tuckerman, in a note recently contributed to the Anatom-
ischer Anzeiger, commenting on these views, calls attention to the
fact that he had in 1889 discovered the ‘‘ intragemmal” fibres de-
scribed in Retzius’ earlier account of the taste-bulbs of Mammals.
He, however, seems unwilling to admit that the question as to the
nervous connections of the taste-cells is closed. Further investiga-
tion in this interesting field promises much of value and it may be
confidently expected that corroborative evidence will soon be forth-
coming. As an aid to such investigations the following bibliograph-
ical notes are appended. Only the more recent titles are included.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.
The figures here presented are copied from Lenhossék’s Der feinere Bau
und die Nervenendigungen der Geschmachsknospen, Anatomischer Anzeiger,
VIII, No. 4.
PLATE XIV.
fig. 6. Taste-bulb from the papilla foliata of the rabbit. Impregnated
taste-cells and a single supporting cell. Under the bulb a ‘‘subgemmal cell.”
fig. 7. Taste-bulb from the papilla foliata of the rabbit. The nerve-
termini on and between the bulbs, #, perigemmal fibres ; 7, intergemmal fibres.
fig. 8. Taste-bulbs from the epithelium of the palate of Baréus vulgaris.
a, taste-cells and one supporting cell; 4, and c, the termini of the nerve-fibres
interwoven about the bulbs; at the base of ¢ are traces of a ‘‘cupula.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
OLFACTORY END-ORGANS.
BARTH, A. Bericht iiber die Leistungen und Fortschritte im Gebiete der
normalen und pathologischen Anatomie und Histologie sowie der Physiologie
die GehGrorganes und Nasenrachenraumes in der ersten HAlfte des Jahres 1891.
Zeitschrift f. Ohrenheilkunde, Bd. XXII, 1892, Heft 3-4, pp. 323-335.
Von Brunn, A. Ueber die Ausbreitung der menschlichen Riechschleim-
haut. Naturforsch. Geselleschaft zu Rostock, 26 June, 1891. Also, Rostocker
Zettung, No. 317, 1891.
Von Brunn, A. Die Nervenendigung im Riechepithel. Maturforsch. Gesell-
schaft zu Rostock, 30 July, 1891.
Von Brunn, A. Zwei Mikroskopische Praparate vom Riechepithel eines
Hingerichteten. (Demonstration). Verhandl. der Anatom. Gesellschaft, auf der
3. Versammlung, 1889, pp. 133-134.
Von Brunn, A. Beitrage zur Mikr. Anat. der menschlichen Nasenhéhle.
I plate and 2 figures. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat, Bd. 39, 1892. Heft 4, pp. 632-651.
Literary Notices. xcix
BURCKHARDT, Rup. Untersuchungen am Hirn und Geruchsorgan von
Triton und Ichthyophis. 2 plates. Zeztsch. f. wiss. Zool, 52 Bd. 3, Heft, pp.
369-403.
CAJAL, R. y. Terminaciones del nervio olfactorio en la mucosa nasal. Bar-
celona, 1889.
CAJAL, R. y. Origen y terminacion de las fibras nerviosas olfatorias. Gace-
ta Med. Catalona, 1890.
GRASSI, BATTISTA and CAsTRONoVA, A. Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Geruchs-
organs des Hundes. 1 plate. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. XXXIV, 1889. Heft
3, PP- 385-390.
VAN GEHUCHTEN, A. Contributions 4 1’étude de la muqueuse olfactive
chez les Mammiféres. Za Cellule, T. VI, 1890, pp. 393-407.
v. LENHOsSEK, M. Die Nerven-urspruenge und endigungen im Jacob-
son’schen Organ des Kaninchens. 1 fig. Amat. Anzeiger, VII, No. rg and 20,
pp. 628-635, Sept., 1892.
PREOBRASCHENSKY, S.S. Zur Kenntnis des Baues der Regio olfactoria.
Aus dem Embryologischen Institute in Wien. Vorlaufige Mitth. Weener klin-
ische Wochenschrift, V1, 1891, No. 7, p. 123-124.
Rerzius, G. Die Endigungsweise des Riechnerven. Stologische Unter-
suchungen, N. F. III, 1 plate.
SUCHANNEK, HERMANN. Beitrige zur feineren normalen Anatomie des
menschlichen Geruchsorganes. I plate. Archiv f. Mikr, Anat. Bd, XXXVI,
Heft 3, 1890, pp. 375-403.
SUCHANNEK, HERMANN. Beitrage zur normalen und pathologischen His-
tologie der Nasenschleimhaut. Amat, Anzetger, VII, No. 2, 5 Feb. 1892, pp.55-
59. 1 fig.
SUCHANNEK, HERMANN. Beitrage zur Frage von der Specifizitat der Zellen
in der tierischen und menschlichen Riechschleimhaut. Azar. Anzeiger, V1, No.
7, pp. 201-205, April, 1891.
SUCHANNEK, H. __ Beitraige zur Mikr. Anatomie der menschlichen Nasen-
hodhle, speciell der Riechschleimhaut. 18 schemat. Zeich. Z. Ohrenhetlk. Bd.
34, Heft 1-2, pp. 93-102.
WILDER, H. H. Die Nasengegend von Menopoma alleghaniense und Am-
phiuma tridactylum nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Morphologie des Ramus oph-
thalmicus profundus trigemini. 2 plates. Zool. Jahrbiicher Abtheilung f, Anat.
und Ontogenie der Tiere, Bd. V, 1892, Heft 2, pp. 155-176.
TASTE-BULBS. i
ARNSTEIN, C. Die Nervenendigungen in den Schmeckbechern der Sauge-
thiere. 1 plate. 4. Mikr. Anat., Bd. 41, Heft 2, pp. 195-218.
Bruns, L. Erwiderung an Herrn Dr. Ziehl in Liibeck, die Innervation
des Geschmachs betreffend. Virchow’s Archiv, Bd. 119, Folge XI, Bd. IX, pp.
185-191.
e JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
FusArI, R. and Panasct, A. Sulla terminazione dei nervi nella mucosa
della lingua dei mammiferi. Aé¢z della reale Accad. det Lincez, Vol VI, p. 266.
Also Atti della R. Accad. della science di Torino, Vol. XXV, pp. 835-857. 1 plate,
cf. also Zstr. d. Monitore Zoolog. Italiano, Anno I, No. 4, 30 April, 1890, 4 p.
GoTTscHAU, M. Ueber Geschmacksorgane der Wirbelthiere. Szol. Cen-
tralbl., 1882, pp. 240-248.
GUITEL, FreD. Sur les organes gustatifs de la Baudroie (Lophius piscator-
ius). Revue Sctentifigue, Tome 47, 1891, No. 18, p, 569.
GUITEL, FrEp. Recherches sur les boutons nerveux bucco-pharyngiens de
la Baudroie (Lophius piscatorins.) Arch. de Zool. Expér., UX, 4, p. 671.
Hintze, K. Ueber die Entwickelung der Zungenpapillen beim Menschen.
Inaug.-Disc. Strassburg, 1890.
Howe Lt, W. H. and KastLe, J. H. Notes on the Specific Energy of the
Nerves of Taste. Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies from Biol. Lab., Vol. 4, No. 1,
pp- 13-19, June, 1887.
KokELLIKER, A. Zur Entwickl. d. Auges u. Geruchsorganes menschl. Em-
bryonen. Grat.-Schrift f. die Ziiricher Universitat, 1883.
v. LENHOSSEK, M. Die Nervenendigungen in den Endknospen der Mund-
schleimhaut der Fische. Vhdlg. d. Naturf. Ges. zu Basel, Bd. 10, 1892, Heft
Lp l7APP-olwlate:
v. LENHOSSEK, M. Der Feinere Bau und die Nervenendigung der Gesch-
macksknospen. Preliminary contribution. Amat. Anzeziger, VIII, No. 4, 18
Jan., 1893, pp. 121-127. 3 figs.
NAGEL, W. Der Geschmackssinn der Actinien. Zoologischer Anzeiger
XV, No. 400, 12 Sept., 1892, pp. 334-338.
PREOBASCHENSKY, S. Beitrage zur Lehre iiber die Entwickelung des
Geruchsorganes des Huhnes, I plate. Mcttetlungen aus dem embryologischen In-
stitute der Universitat Wien, Heft XII, Zweite Folge, Heft V, 1892.
ReEtTzius, GusTaF. Die Nervenendigungen in dem Geschmacksorgan der
Saugethiere und Amphibia. SAzologische Untersuchungen, N. F. Bd. IV.
Retzius, GusTar. Ueber Geschmacksknospen bei Petromyzon. S&2-
ologishe Untersuchungen, N. F. Bd. V, No. 10, Stockholm, 1893. 1 plate.
SERTOLI, E. Beitrége Zur Kenntnis der Endigungen der Geschmacksner-
ven. Moleschott’s Untersuchungen zur Naturlehere, Bd. XI, 1876, p. 408.
TAVERNARI, L. Contributo all’ Anatomia degli organi del gusto. La
lingua del Cercopithecus diana. Aft della societa det naturlisti di Modena,
Memorie originalt, Serie III, Vol. X, Modena, 1891, 16 pages, with one plate.
TUCKERMAN, FREDERICK. On the Gustatory Organs of Sciurus Carolinen-
sis. The Microscope, Vol. 1X, No. 7, July, 1889, pp. 193-196. 1 plate.
TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Organs of the Mammalia. Zhe Pro-
ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. XXIV, 1890, pp. 470-482.
Literary Notices. ci
TUCKERMAN, F. The Development of the Gustatory Organs in man.
American Jour. of Psychology, Vol. II1, No. 2, 1890.
TUCKERMAN, F. Gustatory Organs of Procyon lotor. 1 plate. Journal of
Anatomy, Vol. XXIV, New Series, Vol. IV, Part 11, Jan. 1890, pp. 156-160.
TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Buds of some of the Mammalia.
Journal of Morphology, Vol. 1V., No. 2, Oct., 1890.
TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Organs of Some Edentata. Jnternat.
Monatsschrift f. Anat, u. Phys. Bd. VII, 1890. Heft 9, pp. 335-339:
TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Organs of Sciurus hudsonius. 1 plate.
Internat. Monatsschrift f. Anatomieund Physiologie, Bd. VIII, 1891. Heft 4, pp.
137-139.
TUCKERMAN, F. Observations on some Mammalian Taste-Organs. Zhe
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XXV, New Series, Vol. V, Part IV,
Pp- 505-508, 1891. ;
TUCKERMAN, F. The Gustatory Organs of Belideus ariel. 1 plate. /our.
of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XXIV, P. 1., pp. 85-88.
TUCKERMAN, F. Further observations on the Gustatory Organs of the
Mammalia, /our. of Morphology, V. 7, Part 1, pp. 69-94.
TUCKERMAN, F. An Undescribed Taste Area in Perameles nasuta. 1 fig.
Anat. Anzetger, 4 Jahrg., No. 13, pp. 411-412.
TUCKERMAN, F. The Gustatory Organs of Ateles ater. Zhe Journal of
Anat. and Phys., Vol. XXVI, New Series, Vol. VI, Part III, 1892, pp. 391-393,
TUCKERMAN, F. On the Terminations of the Nerves in the Lingual Papil-
lz of the Chelonia. With 1 plate. Jternationale Monatsschrift f. Anatomie
und Physiologie, Bd. IX, 1892, Heft 1, pp. 1-4.
TUCKERMAN, F. Note on the Structure of the Mammalian Taste-Bulb.
Anat. Anzeiger. VIII, No. to and 11, Apr., 1893, pp. 366-367.
ZIEHL, F. Einige Bemerkungen zur der Erwiderung des Herrn Dr. L.
Bruns in Hannover, meinen aufsatz tiber die Innervation des Geschmacks betref-
fend. Virchow’s Archw f. patholog. Anatomie, Bd. 120, Folge XI, Bd. X, 1890,
PPp- 192-194.
Postscript.—While these pages are going through the press the
paper by Professor Arnstein, mentioned in the preceding bibliog-
raphy, on the nerve-termini in the taste-bulbs of Mammals has come
to hand. He applies a modification of Ehrlich’s methyl blue to the
papilla foliata of the rabbit. After injection with methyl blue the
papilla is cut into thin sections with a razor. ‘The color is fixed in
ammonium picrate and the preparation may then be mounted in
glycerine. But preparations thus made are not conclusive as to the
terminal relations of the nerve-fibres. Ammonium picrate is an ex-
cellent macerating fluid and herein lies the great advantage of this
cil JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
method over the chrome-silver method, which so often pro-
duces deceptive appearances. By the addition of a suitable
proportion of picro-carmine to the ammonium picrate a solution
is obtained which at the same time fixes the methyl blue, giving the
nerve-fibres a brown-violet color, macerates the epithelium, stains the
cells light yellow and their nuclei bright red. After treatment with
this fluid and mounting in glycerine, light pressure on the cover-glass
is sufficient to separate the elments. Preparations in which the cells
have not been isolated after maceration show varicose nerve-fibres
ramifying over the surface of the taste-bulbs and ending in little tuber-
osities around the pore, very much as in Lenhossék’s figures (cf.
Plate XIV, fig. 7.) After isolation of the elements these fibres are
seen to envelop the supporting cells, branching freely and apparently
anastomosing, though the latter is not certain. The axial cells or
‘*taste-cells” are similarly enveloped throughout their whole length
by varicose fibres which end free at the distal end of the cells. The
fibres are plainly strictly superficial and do not enter the cells or their nu-
clet. The cell-bodies are not usually colored by the methyl blue
so that the course of the fibres can be followed with great distinctness.
The cilium of the taste-cell is not colored nor do the free ends of the
nerve-fibres extend out beyond the wall of the pore. The fibres en-
veloping the axial cells probably come from the N. glossopharyngeus,
those belonging to the superficial cells and the indifferent epithelium
from the trigeminus.
Prof. Arnstein considers his preparations absolutely conclusive as
to the nature of the nervous termini in mammalian taste-bulbs and ap-
pends to the record of his own observations an excellent historical
sketch and critical review of the whole subject.
Variations in Spinal Nerves in Amphibia.
Dr. Adolph! has studied the variations in the spinal nerves of
amphibia, comparing especially Bufo variabilis, Rana esculenta, and
Pelobates fuscus. It appears that there is a definite tendency toward
cephalization in the sacral and brachial plexus. Pelobates is more
primitive in some respects than the others, for in 20 per cent of the
cases the fifth spinal retains its "connection with the brachial plexus,
which is the case in no other anura yet studied.
The ninth vertebra is the sacral in all anura but in the above
cases of Pelobates the tenth also frequently participated in the sacrum.
1 Sitzungsb. Naturf.-Gesellschaft Dorpat., 1892, p. 45.
Literary Nottces. Ciil
Nucleary Division in Regenerating Nerves.
Professor G. Bizzozero calls attention to the fact that the priority
of the discovery of the karyokinetic division of the nuclei of
Schwann’s sheath during regeneration of nerves belongs neither to
Huber nor Biingner, but to Dr. A. A. Torre who, while working in
Bizzozero’s laboratory, described the mitotic division not only in cases
of degeneration, but during normal growth.!
Influence of Music.
Professor Dogiel has studied the effect of music upon man and
animals. The arm of the subject was enclosed in a glass cylinder
filled with water which communicated with a delicate manometer and
registering apparatus. The frequency of the pulse and the variations
in blood pressure are thus registered at the same time.
In the experiments with animals the manometer is applied direct-
ly to the vessels. In dogs and rabbits a remarkable increase in pulse
rate and pressure is shown in each case during whistling.
Strychnia and other poisons increase the irritability of the audi-
tory nerve, while spirituous liquors and opium decrease the effect of
music upon the circulation. It might seem probable that these
changes are due to contractions of the voluntary muscles, but it was
found that even after curare poisoning, by which the voluntary mus-
cles are paralyzed, the reaction continued.
It is a fact familiar to all that dogs and, to a less extent, cats are
very susceptible to musical sounds. Many dogs are strongly affected
by the ringing of bells.
Lewin on Nicotinism.’
The functional disturbances caused by the excessive use of tobac-
co, have been fully studied in appreciation of their social importance.
The deleterious influence of tobacco may be observed after its use in
any form; smoking, chewing, snuffing. Typical nicotinism occurs,
as a rule, after a long continued abuse of tobacco, sometimes not
until after twenty years and more. The human organism is
capable of a certain degree of accommodation to the tobacco poison,
1 Giornale della R. Accad. di med. di Torino., Nov. 28, 1884.
BizzozERO. Ueber die Regeneration der Elemente der Gewebe unter path-
ologischen Bedingungen. Centralblt. f.d med. wissenchaft, 1886, 5. Archiv. f.
mtk, Anatomie, XLI, 2, p. 338,
2Internationale Klintsche Rundschau, No, 24.
Civ JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
but it can never be perfectly immunized—no period of tolerance is
long enough to exclude the final appearance of intoxication. It is
a fact that many smokers reach old age, but it is probably equally
true that many people do not live to old age because they are
smokers.
The disturbances of nicotinism may be observed in almost all or-
gans of the body. On the skin we see itching and erythema; the
nerves of taste are blunted; in the throat an angina granulosa devel-
ops; leukoplakia is probably a consequence of the abuse of tobacco;
loss of appetite, fullness and pain in the epigastrium are quite com-
mon, as is matutinal vomiting and disturbed function of the intestine ;
the secretion of urine is usually increased; in smoking women dis-
turbances of menstruation are the rule ; in female cigar-makers abor-
tion appears to be frequent ; diminished sexual appetite and power,
even impotency, have been observed.
The most frequent pathological effect of nicotine is a disturb-
ance of the action of the heart, palpitations, rapid heart-beat, inter-
missions, preecordial anxiety, weakness, fainting spells and collapse.
Sclerosis of the coronary arteries, hypertrophy of the left ventricle,
perhaps myocarditis and fatty degeneration of the heart seems to be
favored by the abuse of tobacco. The smoking of cigars, and more
so of cigarettes, produces an irritation of the nasal mucous membrane
(the so-called vasomotor catarrh) and diminishes olfactory sensibility.
There usually is chronic hyperemia of the epiglottis and larynx, some-
times even of the trachea and bronchi.
The use of tobacco in any form may produce disturbances of the
sight. This may be favored by general debility, excessive heat, men-
tal overwork, etc. The most common form of optic disturbance is
bilateral nicotine amblyopia. There usually is central disturbance of
the field of vision, a central horizontal elliptic scotoma for red and
green, sometimes also for blue, in a lesser degree; the external limits
of the field of vision are normal, as a rule.
In the auditory organ a swelling of the tubes and congestion of
the tympanum is often observed in higher degrees of nicotinism; also
paresis of the auditory nerves or the disturbances consequent upon
this, such as noises in the ears, etc.
The functions of the central nervous system may be affected too.
It has been observed that in higher schools the non-smokers get along
better than the smokers, and that children from nine to fifteen years
that were addicted to smoking, showed dimished intelligence, laziness
and a craving for spirits. Adult persons given to excess in smoking
‘
ee
Literary Notices. cv
often complain of cephalic pressure, sleeplessness, in some cases
sleepiness, melancholic disposition, aversions to labor and d¢zziness.
The latter is most disagreeable ; the patient has a peculiar sensation
of emptiness, is afraid of losing consciousness, is unable to concen-
centrate his attention, in spite of all efforts; his movements get inco-
herent, and everything seems to be in motion. In those smoking ex-
cessively there have also been observed symptoms of ataxia, paretic
weakness of the sphincters, trembling and spasms.
The nicotine-psychoses that have lately been reported, are said
rarely to affect smokers and to be more common in those that snuff,
and most so in chewers. The prodromal stage, which lasts about
three months, shows general uneasiness, restlessness, anxiety, sleep-
lessness, depression of mind, often of a religious character ; after this
follows precordial anxiety, and finally the psychoses proper, consist-
ing of three stages: 1, hallucinations of all senses, tendency to sui-
cide, depression of spirits, attacks of fright with a tendency to vio-
lent acts, sleeplessness; 2, exhilaration, slight maniacal exaltation,
agreeable hallucinations: after from two or four weeks’ relaxation, again
followed by a maniacal condition; 3, the intervals between exaltation
and depression get shorter, the patient becomes irritable, but other-
wise does not pay much attention to his surroundings; perception
and attention are diminished.
It is claimed that the patient is curable in five or six months if he
stops the use of tobacco during the first stage ; if he does so during
the second stage, he may be cured in a year or so; after the third
stage 1s reached, the disease seems to be incurable.
Of the therapeutic measures against nicotinism, withdrawal of the
tobacco is the most important. lLodide of potassium, laxatives, warm
baths, are said to hasten the elimination of the poison that accumu-
lated in the system. Against the dizziness, subcutaneous injections
of ether have been recommended; against the disturbances of hear-
ing, pilocarpin; against the amblyopia, strychnine, hyoscyamus, bin-
iodide of mercury, pilocarpin, etc.
The Respiratory Centre.
In the case of a child whose head was crushed during parturition,
destroying the whole cerebrum and cerebellum, Dr. Kehrn reported
that respiration continued rythmically six to the minute. Hand and
foot reflexes were also present. All spontaneous movement was of
course absent. The medulla was cut across one centimeter above the
calamus but no change in respiration or reflexes followed. A section
cvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
made at the apex of the calamus caused both to be permamently des-
troyed. This observation offers support to the older view as to the
respiratory centre.
The Cephalic Extremity of the Brain Tube.'
Professor His discusses at length the relation between the views
presented by Kupffer in his ‘‘ Studien zur vergleichenden Entwick-
lungsgeschicte des Kopfes der Kranioten? and his own summarized
in the Archiv in 1892.3
His objects to the term /obus olfactorius impar proposed by Kupffer
for the point where the lamina terminalis closes last, claiming, as we
have done, that it has nothing to do with the olfactory, and substitut-
ing the term angu/us terminalis. The difference between the two po-
sitions is, in a word, that Professor His considers the whole terma
from olfactory recess to angulus terminalis the neuropore (Hirnnabel)
while Professor Kupffer includes only the angulus. Professor Kupffer
has called in question the existence of a frontal suture line upon
which the theory of His is founded while the latter claims to have
demonstrated its existence in Selachians and’ the rabbit. The figures
given by Professor His seem to us to favor our own view in accord-
ance with which the recessus infundibuli should be considered the
primitive cephalic extremity of the tube. The point where the brain
tube closes last will sustained no necessary relation to the morphologi-
cal front but will be determin by the rate of growth and index of
curvature.
Subdivision and Nomenclature of the Brain.
In the same periodical and in connection with the above topic
Professor His offers suggestions as to the subdivisions of the brain
tube.4 We are permitted to become slightly accustomed to the use of
one set of terms when we have our equinimity destroyed by seeing
the familiar names replaced by others more formidable in polysylabic
and barbaric splendor than the preceeding, or, what is still worse, we
see the familiar terms doing duty for an entirely different segment of
the brain with no more reason than to form a pleasantly alliterative
1H1s, WILHELM, Ueber das frontale Ende des Gehirnrohres. Archiv f.
Anat, u. Physiologie p. 157, 1893.
*See March number of this Journal p. xxiii.
3See review in June number of this Journal p. ivi.
*Vorschlage zur Eintheilung des Gehirns. l.c. p. 172.
Vi tet
ae |
ee
ae
Literary Nottces. cvii
background for the newly invented ones. Thus it is difficult to speak
patiently of Professor Kupffer’s application of the term epencephalon
to cerebral hemispheres.
In the paper before us Professor His has stated his reasons for
adopting the system suggested which combines much that is familiar
with a number of new usages. As would be expected, these sug-
gestions are based on embryological data and are free from the am-
biguity of purely topographical terminology. They have much to
recommend them.
The following table indicates the system:
if Medulla oblongata AZyelencephalon (1)
It ite 5
a Z a ae \ Metencephalon (2) + Rhombencephalon(Rautenhirn).
III. Lsthmus-rhombencephali (3)
IV 1. Pedunc. cerebri
IV 2. Corp. quadrig. \ Aesencephaton (4) 7}
V_ 1. Parsmamillaris hypothalami 7 =
y 2. Thalamus ; Diencephaton (5) | 3
3. Metathalamus Thalamencephalon SU Gerahy
V 4. Epithalamus | Bs Peso
VI 1. Pars optici hypothalami ) t = |
VI 2. Striatum | PA
VI 3. Rhinencephalon } Hemstspherium ERAT 2
VI 4. Pallium ae
One might feel disposed to critcise the system as making too
large concessions to anthropotomy in the use of such major groups as
trhombencephalon and cerebrum, for, however convenient this may
be in the superficial description of the mammalian brain, it expresses
false morphology. On the other hand the six prominent divisions
are morphological. Even here it may be questioned whether the
older terms Prosencephalon, Mesencephalon and Metencephalon are
not more nearly in accord with morphology and embryology. The
recognition of a separate segment known as the isthmus has its advan-
tages but,on the other hand,serves to separate the niduli of eye-muscle
nerves whose close connection scarcely admits of doubt.
The separation of the pars mamillaris and pars optica hypothalami
in two different major divisions causes some inconvenience.
While this system certainly recognizes the close relationship of
the diencephalon and the hemispheres one could wish that the genetic
subordination of the latter to the former could be made more promi-
nent. It is by repeated attempts that we shall secure a system com-
mensurate to the needs of descriptive as well as theoretical anatomy.
cviii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Synesthesia.
This peculiar form of association which consists in the spontan-
eous application of the data of one sense or group of sensations to
another without appreciable cause has recently received considerable
attention. When President Jordan described the fact that he discov-
ered that he was in the habit of associating certain colors with the
concepts of various letters or symbols probably few outside the tech-
nical students were aware of the existence of pseudo-chromeesthesia
or “photism.” Sometime since, M. Claparede sent out 3600 circulars
of inquiry respecting this phenomenon and received 694 answers-over
half of which were positive. The results’ have been studied by:
Flournoy.! Associate Professor Mary Calkins, of Wellesley College,
has recently given the subject a statistical study.2 Curiously enough :
the possession of such associations is regarded by these subjects as of |
assistance in various ways.
One says ‘‘If I hear an opera I can come home and play it by
colors; I know what chords make a certain combination of colors.”
One subject, in speaking of the way the arbitrary form came to be:
associated with number, said ‘‘the other forms have arisen from the
ways that I have used to remember.” The present writer is aware
of a faint instance of such association. which grew out of the
arrangement of the spots on dominoes—a mental. trick to assist
in keeping a few numbers, particularly 5, in mind. Doubtless
many of the mental forms have grown up in the same. way.
and are simply ideographs. One of Miss Calkin’s” students
said: ‘‘Colors do not look right unless a word is spelled. right... For
instance I spelled permanent, the other day, with two a’s, and it did
not look pale enough,
It appears that the statistics do not prove that the color associa-
tions can be shown to have arisen from primitive associations of col-
ored objects though this is inherently most probable for almost all color
associations date back to childhood The color may be associated
with the sound or sight of a word or letter but more frequently with
both.
Some uniformity was noted, thus: # was black-or blackish in 15
cases out of 21 and positively colored in only one instance, 0 was °
white or whitish in 18 cases out of 22. But otherwise very little.
constancy is observed.
1Des Phenomenes de Synopsie, Paris, 1893.
2Am. Journ, Psychology v.i.
Literary Notices. ci.x
Influence of the Cerebral Hemispheres upon the Circulatory Apparatus.
Tsherevhoff! conducted experiments on dogs to determine the
nature of this influence and states that: 1. The maximum effect (in-
crease of blood-pressure and modification in the heart’s action) was
obtained by stimulation of the gyrus sigmoideus and sulcus cruciatus
region were of three kinds, (a) increase of blood pressure without ac-
celeration of the heart’s action, (b) increase of pressure and accelera-
tion of cardiac action, lasting, however, but a short time, (c) consid-
erably accelerated action and increase of pressure. All changes in
the action of the heart and vessels are obtained in animals through
the spasm induced by the current. He showed that the spasmogenic
portion of the cortex may be removed in case of epilepsy.
Inneryation of the Ciliary Body.
Dr. Agababou, working under the direction of Professor Arnstein
of Kasan, has studied the nerves of the ciliary body of the eye in the
rabbit, cat and man.
An albino cat is killed with chloroform and a three percent solu-
tion.of methyl] blue is injected into the carotid, after quarter or half an
hour the blued eye ball is excised and, removing the retina and _teas-
ing away the tapetum from the tractus uvealis, the ciliary body may
be studied with a low power.
The circular course of the nerve stems of the orbiculus gangliosus
is easily seen. These stems divide and form a nerve mat with scat-
tered ganglion cells chiefly of nonmedullated fibres and form the vaso-
motor tracts for the vessels of the ciliary body. The medullated
bundles form free ‘‘end-brushes” of a peculiar form. The terminal
fibres are varicose and relatively thick and end with a knob.
The fibres lie at various depths. There is also a superficial
‘nerve -lattice’” of anastomosing fibres. This lies upon the serous
surface of the ciliary body. It could not be determined whether this
reticulum isin continuity with that described by Meyer on the
front of the iris or not. On the bundles of the ciliary
muscles fine varicose fibres appear with the usual! arrangement of
nerves of involuntary muscles.
Thus four, kinds of nerves are represented: 1. vaso-motor, 2.
motor end organs of the ciliary muscle, 3. a diffuse lattice on the
scleral surface of the ciliary body, 4. terminal tufts in the intermuscu-
lar connective tissue.
l~naug. Dis. Harkoff. 1892.
cx JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
No. 3, is obviously sensory, the terminal tufts of No. 4, are sup-
posed by the author to serve to supply muscular sensation and thus
to play an important part in accommodation. (Anatomischer Anzeiger,
VIL, 37, p.555: July, 2893:
The Pineal and Parietal Foramen in Recent Fish.
Professor Klinckowstrém of Stockolm embraced the opportunity
afforded by a visit to Surinam to study the parietal foramen in the
curious armored fishes Callichthys asper and Uittoralis. The foramen
had already been described in the genera Dorcas, Clarias, Loricaria
and others by Bashford Dean. The resemblance between these struc-
tures and those found in the Paleozoic placoderms is startling.
The author succeeded in sectioning the whole head in young
specimens which were completely decalcified and stained i tofo with
borax carmin. The epiphysis consists of three parts: 1. a proximal
tubular part communicating with the third ventricle, 2. a middle
thread-like portion connecting with 3.and spheroidal mass which gener-
ally looses its cavity. No true parietal nerve was found. The termi-
nal organ may be compared with the frontal fleck of Anura.!
(Anatomischer Anzeiger. VIII. 17.)
Pacini’s Corpuscles in the Trunk of the Tibial Nerve.
It has been known for some time that these bodies occur not only
in the superficial regions but also in the nerves in the bones and joints,
in sympathic nerve plexi and in the arterial walls. Dr. Askanzy? now
describes them from the upper part of the tibial region of an am-
putated human limb. They lie in the epineureum, either superficially
or in a deeper part of the stem.
The Sensory Nerves in the Skin of the External Genital Organs.’
This author, who is continually adding to the remarkable evi-
dences of his skill and industry, has given us a beautifully illustrated
and detailed description of the marvelous nerve-endings in the ex-
1Compare also Bashford Dean. The Pineal Fontanelle of Placodermata and
Catfish. 19. Rep. Comm. of Fish, New York. HEcCKSHER, W. Bidrag til
Kundskapen om Epiphysis cerebri udvikings historie. Kopenhagen, 1890.
2Vater-Pacini’sche Kérperchen im Stamme des menschlichen Nervus-
tibialis. Axat. Anz. VIII. 12, 13.
3DoGIEL, A. S. Die Nervenendigungen in der Haut der duseren Genitalor-
gane des Menschen. Archiv. f. mikr. Anat., XLI, 4.
Literary Notices. cxi
citory areas of the skin. His method is that which he has used so
successfully in other areas.
The mucous membrane in pieces 2x3 cm. or less, were treated on
the slide with one-sixteenth per cent methyl blue solution and fixed
with a saturated solution of ammonium picrate or mixture of ammoni-
um picrate and osmium. In most cases the epithelium was removed
carefully from the surface, which latter was arranged on the slide and
imbedded in glycerin. After a few days the preparation became per-
fectly transparent. Sections from the glans penis were stained and
embedded between pith and cut with the freezing microtome.
Three sorts of end-organs were recognized: 1, genital nerve
bodies; 2, nervous end organs, (end kolben); and, 3, Meissner’s tac-
tile. bodies. The differences between these bodies is not an essential
one. In all cases the axis cylinder enters the cavity of the bulb and
divides into a certain number of varicose branches and threads which,
during their course, form a number of spiral turns and anastomose and
interblend in the most various manner, and finally form a complicated
system of loops and meshwork. The differences between the several
varieties consists chiefly in the details of combination and ramification
of these fibres in the cavity of the bulb, The genital bodies are the
most complicated of these structures. The Meissner’s bodies are
next in complexity. All these terminal bodies have this in common
that from the nervous apparatus of the body in each type a certain
number of fibres are separated, which penetrate the epithelium and
end free with knob-like tuberosities. The non-medullated fibres pass
to the blood vessels about which they form a close network. Separate
nerve bulbs are connected by fine fibres with each other, though each
end bulb receives several branches. It would appear that the genital
bulbs particularly are combined into a close system.
Regeneration of Nerve Fibres.!
This paper adds to the long list of ambiguous data and does not
include references to the latest literature. We fail to find any recog-
nition of the paper by Howell and Huber and other important con-
tributions to this difficult subject.
The nuclei of Schwann’s sheath could not be discovered to have
any part in the regeneration process. New growths spring from the
central tips of the severed fibres and gradually become encased in a
2KousTER, R. Zur Kenntniss der Regeneration durchschnittener Ner-
ven. Archiv. f. mikr. Anat,, XLI, 4.
exii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
new sheath. When the nuclei begin mitotic multiplication a strong
connective tissue sheath is formed about the persistent axis cylinder.
A protoplasmic sheath appears inside the sheath of Schwann, this be-
gins to grow peripherally about, the axis cylinder. This process is
supposed to introduce the formation of the sheath. In the vicinity
of the regenerating axis cylinders granulation tissue appears, in which
the nuclei arrange themselves in longitudinal series. These. nuclei
are not only products of the neurilemma nuclei recognized. by their
long torm, but oval and spherical nuclei also occur. The nuclei are
not found to have any part in the restoration of the fibre. The fibre °
bundle finally reaches the peripheral stump which, at this period, con-
sists only of decomposed clumps of myelin within the shrunken
sheath. No traces of axis cylinders are found in it.
A New Fixing Fluid.
Gustav Man deseribes a fluid composed of Absolute alcohol 100
-cem. picric acid 4 grm. corrosive sublimate 15 grm. Pieces should
not exceed 1 cm. in thicknessand are left 12-24 hours. Then wash
in running. water and place in 30 per cent. alcohol with tincture .of
iodine sufficient to produce a brown color, for 12 hours, after. which
the tissue is hardened gradatim in alcohol and imbedden in paraffin.
A shorter method is to wash in absolute alchohol for 10 hours,
changing the fluid at least once and then, after sectioning, treat the
sections with iodine and iodide of potash solution. It is stated the
plasma and nuclei are well fixed with slight. shrinkage and the cell
outlines are well brought out. Amat. Anzeiger. VIL, 12-23.
The Brain of Birds.!
The two installments of Dr. Brandis’ investigations which have
thus far appeared are characterized by a painstaking thoroughness
which wins for them a very high place in the literature of this difh-
cult field. The brains were hardened in Miiller’s fluid and imbedded
in celloidin. Sections were stained by Weigerts’ haematoxylin
method and Wolter’s modification of Kultschitzky’s method, together
with carmine and nigrosin. The results secured seem to surpass by
far any illustrations of bird brains hitherto published.
IBRANDIS, F, Untersuchungen iiber das Gehirn der Végel. I. Theil:
Uebergangsgebiet vom Riickenmark zur Medulla oblongata. 1 plate 4rchiv f.
Mtkroskopische Anatomie, Bd. XLI, Heft 2, April, 1893, pp. 168-195. Il. Theil:
Ursprung der Nerven der Medulla oblongata. 1 plate. Do. Heft 4, July 1893,
pp- 623-649.
Literary Notices. CXili
The first part deals with the transition between the cord and the
medulla and opens with a detailed description of the histological
structure of the cervical cord. Asthe cord passes into the medulla,
the first significant alteration is the presence of more numerous
medullated fibres in the grey matter. The ventral commissure in-
creases In size, more fibres passing to the lateral columns and some
even to the dorsal columns. The dorsal commisure also becomes
stronger, sending part of its fibres laterally and dorsally in-such a
way as to isolate the dorsal cornu from the rest of the grey matter.
Other fibres of the dorsal commissure pass further ventrad to the later-
al columns.
The alterations in the white substance appear first laterad of the
dorsal cornu and dorsad of the lateral cerebellar tracts, where the
longitudinal fibres begin to turn ventro-laterad. Gradually the lateral
columns begin to assume the same direction, until finally they reach
the ventral surface and cross’'the median line under the ventral col-
umns, thus closing the ventral fissure. Some of these fibres enter the
ventral columns and there assume a longitudinal direction again.
Meanwhile the dorsal columns have diminished in size and in density
and part of their fibres have gradually turned laterad and pursued the:
course followed by the fibres of the lateral columns. At’ this level
the ganglion cells of the ventral cornu begin to send their fibres to
the hypoglossus instead of to the first cervical nerve, and the: nidulus
of the vagus appears.
The lateral columns receive contributions from almost all of the other
columns and present a very complicated aggregation of fibres.
After crossing either in the ventral commissure or beneath the ven-
tral columns, they take up their former axial direction somewhat ven-
trad of the position occupied by the uncrossed fibres. Some of these
crossed fibres, however, pass farther dorsad and enter the restiform
tracts. The latter also receive some fibres from the uncrossed portion
of the lateral columns of the same side. The lateral columns supply
the optic lobes; from them also pass at least a part of the fibres of the
pedunculi cerebri. The exact course of the pyramidal bundles in
birds is still an open question.
The dorsal columns send a great part of their fibres either cross-
ed through the ventral commissure or directly to the lateral columns.
Of the remainder which retain their dorsal position, the lateral part
enters into relations with the ascending trigemimus’ root’ and, after
crossing, apparently with the fasciculus solitarius; the median’ part
is cqnnected with the cerebellum and the-acusticus group.
Cxiv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
The lateral cerebellar columns pursue a very simple course up to
the outer part of the cerebellar crus.
The ventral columns are made up largely of the dorso-median
fasciculus.
The second part presents detailed descriptions of the internal
origins of the cranial nerves.
I. Hypoglossus. The first cervical nerve sends its fibres chiefly
to the ventral cornu of the same side, but that some fibres cross to
the opposite side in the ventral commissure is shown by degeneration
effects after section of the first cervical in the dove. Farther cephal-
ad the fibres of the hypoglossus take a similar course, the crossed
fibres entering the raphe. Recent methods of investigation have neg-
atived the tract formerly described as descending along the raphe from
the cerebrum.
The cells of the nidulus of the hypoglossus are connected with
the higher centres by fine fibre tracts, which passing mesad enter the
ventral bundles. Only rarely could they be traced to the neighbor-
hood of the raphe and commissural fibres passing transversely through
the raphe between the two niduli could not be demonstrated.
This relation was found chiefly in the gallinaceous birds and is
regarded as primitive, because here the resemblance is closer to a mo-
tor root of the cord. In most other birds there is also a second nidu-
lus for the hypoglossus, composed of large multipolar cells lying dors-
ad and cephalad of the first. When both niduli are present the
ventral is smaller in proportion as the dorsal is larger. Fibres of the
hypoglossus cannot be traced to the cephalic end of the dorsal nidu-
lus. This end lies beneath the dorsal vagus nidulus and appears to
serve also the ventral vagus root. No crossed fibres from the dorsal
niduli were observed. Both niduli correspond to cells of the ventral
cornu of the cord, and in all cases the hpyoglossus is to be compared
with the motor root of the spinal nerves.
TT. Vagus Group. (a) Accessorius. Emerging fibres of the
accessorius lie just dorsad of the dorsal cornu in the cervical region of
the cord, cephalad of the exit of the dorsal roots of the first cervical
nerve. They are directed mesad, then ventrad to a cell-cluster lying
at the base of the dorsal cornu near its lateral border. Scattered
cells apparently belonging to this cluster are found farther cephalad in
the medulla, though the nerve fibres cannot be followed to them.
Farther cephalad, these cells become more numerous and constitute
the ventral nidulus of the vagus, which, as above mentioned, is so
closely related to the dorsal nidulus of the hypoglossus.
Literary Notices. CXV
(b) Vagus. The large dorsal nidulus of the vagus lies close to
the ventricle on each side, extending for a considerable distance from
the end of the cord cephalad. _ Its cells are-of two kinds, large, blad-
dery cells, deeply staining with carmine, and small, faint multipolar
cells. ‘The fibres passing from this nidulus, emerge in a line which
passes from a point just cephalad of the emergence of the dorsal root
of the first cervical ventro-cephalad to the lateral aspect of the medul-
la, just caudad of the emergence of the glossopharyngeal.
In addition to this dorsal nidulus there is the ventral nidulus al-
ready mentioned in connection with the accessorius. The fibres of
the vagus upon entering the medulla pass to the dorsal nidulus, and
divide into two tracts. One terminates in this nidulus, the other con-
tributes some fibres to the ventral nidulus, while others pass farther
mesad to the dorsal part of the raphe in which they cross and pass
ventrad until they reach the ventral bundles of the opposite slde.
None of these crossed fibres could be traced to cells.
There is a small but distinct bundle of fibres which passes ventrad
from the dorsal nidulus, part to join the dorsal end of the raphe, part
however, crossing the dorsal fibres of the latter and going over into
the formatio reticularis. The connection of the dorsal nidulus of the
vagus with the higher centres is to be sought in these fibres.
Thus the vagus proper consists of three parts, the largest of
which arises from the dorsal nidulus. The origin from this nidulus
was demonstrated experimentally by two methods. (1) In two doves
just hatched the vagus was cut on one side in such a way as to leave
the ganglion. After six and eight weeks respectively, the vagus root
was found in both cases to be thinner, and the dorsal nidulus much
smaller than on the other side. Moreover, the cells were less sharply
defined, were less susceptible to carmine, their nuclei were smaller
and the intervening fibres were more sparse and presented a pale and
varicose appearance. (2) The coloring of degeneration products by
Marchi’s method was applied to the crow. Two adult specimens
were deprived of the nerve on one side without destroying the gang-
lion. After six weeks they were killed and the medulla, together with
the vagus ganglion, was cut into serial sections and stained. Peripher-
ally from the ganglion the fibres were degenerated and filled with black
lumps. OIG 2%
SENSORY ORGANS.
ADELUNG, N. von. Tibial Auditory Apparatus of Locustide. Abs. in
Jour. Royal Micro. Soc. April, 1893, p. 177.
AGABABOW, (ARNSTEIN). Die Innervation des Ciliarkérpers. Anat. Anz.
NADU 76
ARNSTEIN, C. Die Nervenendigungen in den Schmeckbechern der Sduge-
tiere. Arch. f. Mikrosk. Anat. XLI. 2.
ASKANAZY, M. Vater- Pacini’sche Kérperchen im Stamme des mensch-
lichen Nervus tibialis. Avat. Anz. VIII. 12.
BAUMGARTEN. Development of Auditory Ossicles. Abs. in Journ. Royac
Micro. Soc. April 1893. p. 154.
BEAUREGARD, H. Recherches sur l'appareil auditif chez les mammiferes.
(Prise Bondin) Jour. Anat. Phys. XXIX, 2.
Sensory Organs. Cxxiii
BERANECK, Ep. Etude sur l’embryogenie et sur l’histologie de 1’oeil des
Alciopides. &. Suzsse de Zool. I. 1893.
BERTELLI, D. Sur la membrane tympanique de la Rana esculenta. Arch.
ttal. d. Brol., XVXII, 13.
CajaL, R. S. La retine des Vertebres. La Cellule. IX, 1.
CHIARUGI, G. Surle developpement du nerf olfactif chez la Lacerta
muralis. Arch. ttal. Biol. XVIII. 3.
Dreyruss. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschicte des Mittelohres und des
Trommelfeldes des Menschen und der Saugetiere. Morph. Arbeit. II. 3.
EycLEsHYMER, A. C. The Development of the Optic Vesicles in Amphibia.
Jour. Morph, VIII, 1.
FRIEDENWALD, H. Congenital Cranial Deformity and Optic Nerve Atro-
phy. Am. J. Med. Sct. CV. 5.
FROMAGET, C. Recherches sur l’histologie de la retine. Arch. a’ ophth., X11
1892, Paris.
GAHAN, C. J. Sensory Nature of ‘‘Appendix of Antenne of Coleopterous
larve. Abs. in Jour. Royal Micro, Soc. April, 1893, p. 176.
GANIN, M. A Few Facts on the Question as to Jacobson’s Organ in Birds.
(Russian), Charkow.
GAUBERT. Nerve-ganglion in Legs of Phalangium opilio. Abs. in Journal
Royal Micro, Soc. April, 1993, p. 181.
GEHUCHTEN, A. VON. Les terminaisons nerveuses intra-epidermiques chez
quelques mammiferes. Ce//ule, IX. 2
GépPERT, E. Optic Organ of Salpa. Abs. in Jour Royal Micro, Soc. April
1893, p. 168.
Hoccan, G. Forked Nerve Endings on Hairs. Journal Anat. Phys.
XXVII. 2, 1893.
KLINcKosTRe@M, A. de. Le primier developpment de l’oeil pineal, lepi-
physe et le nerf parietal chez Iguana tuberculata. Anat. Anzeiger, VIII, 8, 9.
Koiurr, C. Remarks Accompanying the Demonstration of Corneal
Nerves. TZyvans. Am. Ophth. Assoc. VI. Hartford, 1892.
Krause, W. Die Retina, IV. Die Retina der Reptilien. Jnternat.
Monatsch. f. Anat. u. Phys., X, 2.
Leypic, F. Besteht eine Beziehung zwischen Hautsinnesorganen und
Haaren. Stol. Central6. XVII, 11, 12.
MeETcALF, M M. Eyes and Central Nervous System of Salpa. Abs. in
Journal Royal Mtcro. Soc. April, 1893, p. 167.
MusGrRewE, J. The Blood vessels and Lymphatics of the Retina. Sit.
Assoc. Adv. Sct. 1892.
Onop!, A. Die Nasenhéhle und ihre Nebeshdhlen. Vienna. J. Holder.
CXXIV JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
PURCELL, F. Eye of Phalangiide. Abs. in Jour. Royal Micro. Soc. April,
1893, p. 181.
RITTER, W. E. On the Eyes, the Integumentary Sense Papillae, and the
Integument of the San Diego Blind Fish (Typhlogobius Californiensis, Stein-
dachner). Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoilogy at Harvard College,
Vol. XXIV, No. 3, 101 pages and q plates.
ScHAPER, A. Zur Histologie der menschlichen Retina. A. mzkr. Anat.,
MEMS De, WAG).
STUDNICKA, F. CH. Sur les organes parietaux de Petromyzon planeri.
Vestrel Kral. del Ceskl. Spol. Nauk. Tr. math .prir, 1893.
Vall, E. Untersuchungen an Verbrechern iiber die morphologischen
Veranderungen der Ohrmuschel. Arch. f Okrenhetlk. XXXIV, 4.
VIALLANES, H. Compound Eye of Arthropods, Abs. in /ourmal Royal
Micro. Soc. April, 1893, p 170.
VILLANES, H. Ganglionic Lamina of Palinurus. Abs. in /ournal Royal
Micro. Soc, April, 1893, p 182.
WASMANN, E. Sounds made by Ants. Abs. in /ournal Royal Micro. Soc.
April, 1893, p 177.
PATHOLOGY.
ALEXANDER, H.C. B. Insanity in Children, Akemtst and Neurologist,
eV
BABINSKI, H, Association of Hysteria with Organic Diseases of the Ner-
vous System, Neuroses, and other Affections. Universal Medical Monthly Jour-
nal, VII, March, 1893. ;
Bastian, H. C. Various Forms of Hysterical or Functional Paralysis. Lon-
don, 1893,
DESARLO, Psychology of Queen Christina of Sweden. Alenist and Neurol-
ogest, XIV, 3.
FERE. CH. La Pathologie des Emotions, Paris, 1892.
FLournoy, T. Des Phenomenes de Synopsie. Paris, Alcan, 1893.
FRIEDMANN, M, Ueber die neurasthenische Melancholie. Deutsche Med.
Wochenschrift, XIX, 3%.
Fry, F. R. The Sensory Symptoms in three Cases of Syphilitic Spinal
Cord Disease, Alzenzst and Neurologist, XIV, 3.
HALLEY, Gro. Some Effects of the taking off of the Cerebrospinal pressure.
Anemia of the Brain and Wounds of the Sinuses, Journal Am. Med. Assoc. XXI,
3, July, 1893.
Physiological Psychology. CXXV
Lanecpon, F. W. Surgical Anatomy of the Brain, Cemcinnati Med. Journal
July, 1893.
LANGDON, F. W. Applied Anatomy of the Brain. Cimcinnat2 Med. Journal,
August 15, ae
Mann, E. C. Medico-Legal and Psychological Aspect of the Trial of Jo-
sephine pes Smith. Alentst and Neurologist, XIV, 3.
MARIE, PIERRE. Lecons sur les Malades dela Moelle. Paris, 1892.
Moi, A. Der Rapport in der Hypnose, Untersuchungen iiber Thier-
ischen Magnetismus. Leipzig, 1892.
NorpDan, Max. Entartung, Berlin, 1892.
PACE and MiraGiia, Contribution to the Study of Transitory Mania.
Alientst and Neurologist, “XIV, 3.
RANDOLPH, R. L. A Clinical Study of Forty Cases of Cerebro-spinal Men-
ingitis, with reference to the Eye Symptoms. Bul. Johns Hopkins Hospital, IV,
32, July, 1893.
RILEY, W. H. Three Cases of Multiple Neuritis, Modern Medicine.
HY, 6:
Rosinson, W. F. Electro-therapeutics of Neurasthenia, G. G. ip
Detroit, 1893, 25 cents.
SCHANZ, F. Ueber das Zusammenvorkommen von Neuritis optica und
Myelitis acuta.
STARR, M. A. Brain Surgery, Wm. Wood & Co, N. Y. $3.00.
STEARNS, H. P. Lectures on Mental Diseases. Philadelphia, 1882.
STEFANOWSKI, D. Morbid Jealousy, Alienist and Neurologist, XIV, 3.
TOURTETTE, GILLES DELA. Traite Clinique et Therapeutique de l’Hys-
terie. Paris, 1891.
Tutti, A. H. Report of Cases of Trephining and Cerebral Injury. /our-
nal Amer. Med. Assoc. XX, 13.
WILLIAMSon, R. T. and M. R. C. P. The changes in the Optic Tracts of
Unilateral Optic Atrophy. Srazz LVIII, 1892.
Wotra, S. Pachy meningitis- Myxedema. American Therapist, 1, 11
May, 1893.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY.
BALDWIN, J. MARK. A New Method of Child Study. Sctemce, XXI, 533.
CALKINS, Mary W. Statistics of Dreams. American Journal of Psychology.
Vs; (3.
CALKINS, Mary W. A Statistical Study of Pseudochromesthesia and Mental
Forms. Am. Journal Phychology. V. 1.
CxXxvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
HeErRIcK, C. L. The Evolution of Consciousness. Sctence, X XI, 543, June,
1893.
KREIDL, A. Weitere Beitrige zur Physiologie des Ohr Labyrinthes.
Sttzb. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien., CII, III, also CII, III.
MUELLER, G. E. Berichtigung zu Professor Miinsterberg’s Beitragen zur
experimentellen Psychologie, Heft 4. Zeztsch. f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Stunesorgane,
IV.
MuELtEr, F. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Seelenblindheit. Arch. f.
Psychiatrie, XXIV, 3.
PETREN, K. Untersuchungen iiber den Lichtsinn. Skand, Arch. f. Phys.
IV.
SANFORD, E. C. Some Practical Suggestions on the Equipment of a Psy-
chological Laboratory, Am. Journal Psychology, V,X.
WALLIAM, S. S. Sound and Color. Scéence, XXI, 543, June, 1892.
,
SUPPLEMENTARY.
FaGAN, P. J. Report upon the Communication between the Ulnar and
Median Nerves in the Forearm. 77. R. Acad. Med. Ireland, X, 1892.
Feist, B. Ein Fall von Heterotopie und aufsteigender Degeneration sen-
sibler Lumbarnervenwiirzeln im Riickenmark eines Paralytikers. Arch. f. path.
Anat., CXXXI, 3.
JABOVLAY and VILLARD. Sur un de l’anatomie des nerfs dentaires poster-
eures. Lyon med., 1892.
Kars, T. Ueber den Faserreichtum der II, und III, Meynert’schen Schict
sowie iiber vergleichende Messungen der gesamten Hirnrinde und deren
einzelner Schicten. Neurol. Centrald., XII, q.
Ko.isko, A. Beitrage zur kenntnis der Blutversorgung der Grosshirngang-
lien. Waener klin. Wochensch, V1, 11, 1893.
Lronowa, O. v. Zur pathologischen Entwickelung des Centralnervesys-
tems. Ein Fall von Anencephalie, combinirt mit totaler Amyelie. ezrol.
Centralb., X11, 7.
MorpurGo, B. and TIRELLI, V. Sur le dcveloppement des ganglions in-
tervertebraux du lapin. Arch. ztal. Biol., XVIII, 3.
BECHTEREW, W. V. Ueber die Geschwindigkeitsverinderungen der
psychischen Processe zu verschiedenen Tageszeiten. MVeurol. Centrald., XII, 9.
Bourbon, B. Recherches sur la succession des phenomenes psychologi-
ques. ev. Philos., XVII, 3.
FERE, Ch. La pathologie des emotions. Etudes physiologques et cliniques,
Paris, Alcan.
EIFERARY NOTICES:
Alcohol Inebriety.
The marked interest recently awakened in scientific circles re-
specting the pathology of alcoholism and particularly its hereditary le-
sions of the nervous system warrant us in quoting quite fully from a
recent leader in the Universal Medical Journal, by NoRMAN KERR,
MD:
*¢ Prominence has been given to it in medical journals, and I have
already had occasion to call the attention of our readers to it in this
journal. In a series of articles! the question has been moderately and
dispassionately considered. ‘Twenty years ago it was rare to see a
woman drinking at the bar of a public-house in Britain. Now it is a
common sight. At an inquest held recently in London on the body
of a woman who had died suddenly on the threshhold of her home, ©
after returning from a public-house where she had gone for liquor by
6 o’clock in the morning, I had occasion to testify that I had never
seen so much female drunkenness before. Morning, noon, and night
such houses had been thronged, largely by women; many with infants
at the breast, who were treated by the wretched mothers to sips of
rum or gin. On the streets were groups of from three to six women
(many of them young), going about from public-house to public-house
to expend in liquor all the money they could jointly provide for their
weekly dissipation. The coroner, Dr. Danford Thomas, in confirm-
ing this evidence, said that he had lately held an increased number of
inquests on intemperate females. In London, during 1891, there had
been an increase of 500 apprehensions of females for drunkenness.
In Glasgow? there were to,500 women arrested for drunkenness and
allied offenses in one year. Four thousand women were responsible for
this long tale of convictions, no fewer than 450 of whom having been
sent to jail for from six to thirty-four separate terms. Of some female
inebriates in England and Ireland there have been hundreds of drunken
commitments. Of criminals convicted over ten times (these are
1 Brit, Med. Jour., Oct. 1 and 8, 1892, and other journals.
2 Totd, Oct. 1, 1892.
CXXVili JouRNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
chiefly habitual drunkards) the women in England and Wales were,
in 1884, three times as many as the men. In other ranks of life
drunkenness (often secret among the cultured and and the wealthy)
has also markedly increased. In many other countries, though Eng-
land surpasses all other lands in this shocking pre-eminence, there has
also been a similar increase. T. D. Crothers, of Hartford,! does not
think that indulgence among women has progressed in America, but
this 1s notin accord with my own experience. For one drunken
woman in the United States whom I knew thirty years ago, I know
at least twenty; and of later years women in some parts of America
have broken fresh inebriating ground in the cultivation of inordinate
consumption of strongly-spirituous preparations of ginger. Apart,
however, from the mere number of drunken jwomen, there can be lit-
tle doubt that the proportion of intemperate females, who may fairly
be regarded as diseased individuals, has largely grown. ‘This is a
more serious matter. The inhibitory power of such sufferers has been
practically lost, and compulsory seclusion with appropriate treatment
is essential to a cure in the majority of cases. T. D. Crothers, of
Hartford,’ holds that the women charged in American _police-courts
with drunkenness and associated offenses are profoundly degenerate
in body as well as in mind. The same may truly be said of only
about one-sixth of the corresponding class of offenders in England,
Englishwomen being, in the main, much more robust than their Amer-
ican sisters. Lawson Tait? asserts that an intelligent and educated
woman never becomes a drunkard but from some deep-rooted and
often carefully-concealed cause. The indulgence may be from phys-
ical suffering or mental distress, but there is always a reason for it.
Scores of his cases of suffering from inflammatory affections of the
appendages have been cured of their drunkenness by the same _pro-
ceedings as have cured their physical misery.
M. Lancereaux, of Paris, holds that in alcoholic delirium the
real chance of recovery lies in sleep. He isolates the alcoholic delir-
iate in a quiet, dark, and, if necessary, padded room, no physical re-
straint being employed. To procure sleep the patient receives 1 to 1%
drachms of chloral hydrate, with % grain of hydrochlorate of mor-
phine, in an infusion of limes. If sleep does not come on in about ten
1 Brit. Med. Jour., December 11, 1892.
2 Jbtd., December 31, 1892.
3 Jbtd, October 15, 1892.
4 Bulletin general de therapeutique, Feb, 15, 1893.
Literary Notices. CxS
minutes, from % to ™% grain of morphine is injected hypodermatic-
ally. After the alcoholic disturbance has subsided, strychnine or nux
vomica is given, followed by hydro-therapeutic measures. If there
should be gastric complication an antacid such as sodium bicarbonate
is administered. The heroic doses of these narcotics, with the cardiac
depression apt to follow their exhibition, call for deliberation in their
administration to aged and infirm inebriates, and I prefer as a _ hyp-
notic a simple febrifuge frequently repeated, such as liq. ammon. acet.
Sleep, thus quietly and safely induced, has proved much more cura-
tive than the sleep for which I formerly resorted to narcotics.
M. J. Arnaud, of Marseilles,! describes various forms of alcoholic
paralysis. There are attenuated alcoholic paralyses, evidenced by
tremors on awaking from a drunken sleep. The inebriate has re-
course to alcohol to dissipate for the moment these tremblings, a re-
petition of which injurious habit tends to induce a graver form of par-
esis. The matutinal tremors are permanent though highly-curable
forms, with but slight local loss of power. Then there are paralyses
affecting the extensors of the upper and lower limbs; still very amen-
able to treatment. Contrary to general experience, the author finds
the upper limbs not less disturbed than the lower, and, indeed, the.
disease is frequently confined to the former. In addition to these
fleeting paralyses, there.is a group of permanent chronic paralyses
which may be classified as progressive and non-progressive. Both
forms creep on slowly, with prodromata of some weeks’ or months’
persistence. The progressive is the most intense and fatal variety,
and is often complicated with agonizing pain, insomnia, maniacal par-
oxysms, and other highly-intensified symptoms. M. J. Arnaud cites
the case of a female domestic, aged 27, who suffered from the gravest
form of alcoholic paresis complicated with albuminuria, and yet made
a complete recovery. The explanation of this unexpected recovery,
advanced by the author, is that the lesions were peripheral, the axis-
cylinder remaining intact or nearly so, while there was wanting that
degeneration so frequently found in the more acute and aggravated
forms. Dr. Lardier, of Rambervillers,? states that the children of al-
coholic inebriates present from their birth a particular degeneration.
Alcoholism does not cease with the individual, but continues in the
progeny in various degrees, and forms, from a slight tendency to
drinking to complete physical degeneration. In the Vosges he has
1 Gazette des hopitaux, March 2, 1893.
2 Bulletin médical des Vosges, January, 1893.
CXXx JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
seen families beginning with wine and going on to brandy, the chil-
dren from 2 years of age receiving it from their parents. ‘The father,
mother, and children dip their bread in brandy, and absorb in this
fashion notable quantities of the poison. By imitation the young
tread in the footsteps of their progenitors. The offspring of inebri-
ates ought to be taken from them. In the case of such children, who
are the subjects of the inebriate inheritance, there should be firm in-
culcation of the dangers of drinking, with hygienic training and de-
velopment. Hydrotherapy is strongly recommended as a_prophy-
lactic.
By the withdrawal of the privilege des bouilleurs de cru the French
government hope to restrict drunkenness. In Sweden, after a similar
step, the distilleries decreased from 170,001 to 300, with a diminu-
tion in the consumption of liquor. Formerly drunkenness in
France! existed principally in cities and large factory and commer-
cial towns, the rural population being comparatively temperate. Now
there is an alarming increase of intemperance in country towns and
villages. From the Atlas by M. Tarquau, drawn up under the direc-
tion of M. Claude, reporter on the Commission of Enquiry of Con-
sumption of Alcohol in France,” the average consumption of alcohol
in 1850 was 1 litre 60 centilitres for each person, which increased in
1870 to 2 litres 81 centilitres, and in 1885 to 3 litres 85 centilitres.
The varieties as well as the quantities of strong liquors have increased.
Less alcohol has been distilled from fruits, more from _ beet-root,
molasses, and seeds, these latter being dangerously toxic. The Com-
mission procured samples of alcoholic drinks from the most luxurious
and most squalid wine-shops and restaurants in Paris. All the sam-
ples analyzed were labeled ‘‘bad,” ‘‘ dangerous,” and were reported
to have been imperfectly rectified.* The liquors supplied in dining-
rooms frequented by workmen were declared to be three-sixths im-
pure, and containing aurylic acid. In haunts of ill-fame, among the
noxious adulterants was methylene, though these beverages were not
more so chemically than certain brandies sold at 744d and tod the
glass in several first-class restaurants. Legislative measures have
been urged to check the falsification of fermented drinks.
T. D. Crothers, of Hartford,4 computes that there are 1,600,000
1 British Medical Journal, February 4, 1893.
*La normandie médicale, Rouen, March 15, 1893.
3 British Medical Journal, February 25, 193.
‘Journal of the American Medical Association, October 8, 1892.
EE
SS
Se ee ee
a
Literary Notices. CXxxi
excessive drinkers in the United States, in addition to the victims to
morphine, chloral, and other narcotic drugs,—all centres of degener-
ation and the most unsanitary physiological and psychical conditions.
There are over a million unrecognized inebriates who are the most
defective, dangerous, and degenerate classes. The superstition of
personal freedom permits this army of inebriates to go on increasing
the burden of their families and building up centres of physical and
mental degeneration. Public sentiment should not permit one to be-
come an inebriate, or tolerate him after that stage, unless under legal
guardianship and restriction until he recovers.
M. Feéré! describes as mechanical drunkenness a state, corre-
sponding in its symptoms to alcoholic drunkenness, developed in cer-
tain subjects under the influence of forced movements and muscular
exertions. He observed this in a person who had since died from
general paralysis, and that prior to any other psychical or motor phe-
nomena. The individual was taken for the first time with this apparent
drunkenness in an accession of excitement after hunting. Afterward,
consequent on every fresh day with the hounds, the drunken symp-
toms reappeared. Are these motory intoxications important in the
early diagnosis of general paralysis ?
Morphinomania and Cocatnomania.—J. L. Maxwell, of London,?
recalls the conclusions of Dr. Valentine, after thirty-one years of
practice in India, that to opium is due a large per centage of mortality
among children, crime, murder, and disease. More than three-
fourths of between 800 and goo prisoners in Jeypore Central Prison,
fully twenty-five years ago, used opium, quite one-half of them to
excess. Maxwell says 100,000 persons commit suicide by opium
every year in China. McReddie, of Hardoi,* states that, in that
limited district, of the 180 suicides in three years, 97 were from
opium, 80 per cent. of these being women. Opium inquests are com-
mon in Calcutta now;! there is one almost every day. W. B. Brooks,
of Dallas, Tex.,® argues that the morphine habit is sometimes the
only cause of some severe forms of hysteria, neuralgia, chorea, asthma
and other nerve disorders; that morphinists, however confident of
1 Le Bulletin-médical, October 8, 1892.
2 London Lancet, January 28, 1893.
3 Indian Medical Gazette, June, 1891.
4 London Lancet, January 28, 1893.
5 Texas Courier-Record, September, 1892.
CXXXil JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
cure, are liable to relapse; that physicians are more prone to relapse
than other morphinomaniacs, from generally having morphine in their
possession and administering it, as well as from the despondency and
excitement of their irregular life; that cured morphinomaniacs are less
apt to relapse the second than the first time. One physician patient,
who became addicted to morphine through having recourse to opiates
for the relief of cough, returning home too soon (on the eighth day),
relapsed, but made, on a second trial, a permanent cure, after then
remaining twenty-seven days. J. H. de Wolff, of Baltimore,! gives
20 grains of sulphonal for sleep, with auri et sodu chlor. Stephen
Lett, of Guelph,” narrates a case of double addiction (morphine and
cocaine) whose daily ration-was 60 grains morphin. sulph. and 7o
grains cocain. hydrochlor. hypodermatically; and one of laudanum,
16 fluid ounces being taken daily. Amenorrhoea and sterility are
generally present, these functions resuming vigor on discontinuance
of the opiate. J..B. Mattison® relates the case of a physician’s wife,
aged 34, who, after 4o grains hypodermatically and one or two 5-grain
doses daily by the mouth, advanced to 60 to 75 grains daily of mor-
phine by the mouth only, and at one dose. Afterward she resumed
the hypodermatic injection of 40 to 50 grains a day. ‘Three women,
dismissed cured, each took 30 grains daily for years Two were
sisters; one had indulged for ten, the other for seventeen years. Ad-
ministered by the skin, the narcotic action is double of that by mouth.
He has generally found female morphinomaniacs neat and tidy. One
laudanum-taker of twenty-two years’ standing had reached. nearly a
pint a day. J. B. Mattison, of Brooklyn,‘ attributes nearly all his
cases of narcotic inebriety to the medical prescription of the drug, in
the first instance; though he recognizes the peculiar narcotic status,
ancestral and acquired. It should be made felony for retail druggists
to sell morphine, chloral, or cocaine, or to repeat a prescription con-
taining either drug, except on order of a physician.
Tobacco.—¥rancis Dowling, of Cincinnati,® dwells on the influ-
ence of tobacco in causing amaurosis. He found in 3,000 tobacco
workers in ‘Cincinnati, 150 with impaired vision. A woman of 4o0_
1 Medical Brief, March, 1893.
2 Times and Register, October 18, 1893.
3 To¢td, October 22, 1892.
4 Weekly Med. Review, St. Louis, February 11, 1893.
® Medical and Surgical Reporter, Octobér 22, 1892.
Literary Notices. CXXNili
had amblyopia. She had not used tobacco, but had been working in
it from five to six years. Few of the men drank. The men were
mostly flabby and anemic. The majority of the 150 had both pupils
contracted ; 45 showed amblyopia, 30 being well-marked; 30 had
gradual failure of vision. Some smoked 20 cigars a day. Three-
fourths were over 35, the oldest being 61. Those affected had dis-
turbed sleep, their muscles were easily tired, and their hands trembled
on holding a book or pen. One young man of 19 was 2ffected.
Noyes has recorded the case of a boy of 15 who exhibited similar
symptoms from cigarette-ssmoking. With chewing the effects were
more intense. On ophthalmoscopic examination the papille of the
optic nerve were seen to be abnormally reddened at first, later
aneemic, ending finally in atrophy of the disc.
Running Amuck.!
A Malay who runs amok 1s always in a state of furious homicidal
passion, and runs armed through the most crowded street or village
stabbing rmght and left at man, woman, or child, relation, friend, or
stranger. So common was this habit or mania that sixty years ago
long poles with prong-like ends were kept in al! villazes, with which
the amoker should be pinned to the ground when the dread cry,
‘« Amok ” was raised. When caught the amoker was either ruthlesely
slaughtered, like a mad dog, or judicially executed, or, if wealthy
and not sold into’slavery, he was sometimes ransomed and set at lib-
erty.
The author shows that an idea, in some quarters prevalent, that
the amok is an institution of the Mohamedan religion, is false.- It is
confined to the Malay and must be regarded as a race perversion.
The diseased condition is essentially a depressed state of vitality,
giving rise to a species of emotional exaltation comparable to that
which in other races gives rise to suicide. The religious beliefs and
traditions of the Malay oppose suicide and his passion leads him to
seek death at the hands of others. After the amok the person is con-
fused and describes the period as a blank preceded by deep depres-
sion. Very often everything turns black or red and memory ceases.
The author believes the amok to be a genuine impulsive insanity-—a
‘¢fulminating neurosis,’’ with its predisposing cause in racial idiosyn-
crasies. Malays are disposed to a form of melancholia called ‘‘ sakit
LEiiis, W. G. The Amok of the Malays. Zhe Journ. of Mental Science,
XXXIX, 166, July, 1893.
\
ce
CXXXiV JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
hati,” which is often a premonitory symptom of the. amok. The
analogies are with various forms of masked epilepsy though, as a race,
the Malays are not subjects of epilepsy, neither are they prone to
alcoholism.
Insanity in Greece.
Dr. F. B. Sanborn, late Inspector of Health, Lunacy and Char-
ity of the Massachusetts Board of Health, contributes to the Journal
of Mental Science a suggestive article on the comparative frequency
of mental diseases in Greece and America. He shows that while the
population of Greece is about that of Massachusetts, the estimated
number of insane in the former is 2,000, while in the latter there are
over 7,500. The proportion of those under treatment in the two
countries is as rt to I5.
As one reason for this difference Dr. Sanborn assigns the much
less alcoholic insanity in Greece. Something must doubtless be at-
tributed also the less density of population and the genius of the race.
While the Greeks are prone to shocking crimes there is less of
vice than in northern Europe or the United States. Vice is a fre-
quent cause of insanity. General paralysis is terribly prevaient in
America and is much less common in Greece. ‘‘ General paralysis
almost always proceeds from vice and most generally from debauch.”
Colors Dependent on Food.
E. B. Poulton, in Proceedings of the Royal Academy for June
8, 1893, offers facts to substantiate his theory that colors of certain
Lepidopterous larve are made up of modified chlorophyll derived
from the food plant. Larve from one batch of eggs of Zryphena
pronuba were divided into three lots fed (in darkness) throughout their
whole life upon (rt) green leaves, (2) yellow etiolated leaves and (3)
white mid-ribs of cabbage. The larvee of (1) and (2) acquired their
normal green or brown colors as in nature, while those feed on white
plant tissue, containing neither chlorophyll or etiolin were unable to
produce the green or brown ground color, though the production of
dark superficial pigment was unchecked.
The Spanish Inquisition as an Alienist.-
Mr. H.C. Lea presents several characteristic pictures of religious
monomania during the Fifteenth Century, and the action taken in the
matter by the church, (Popular Science Monthly, XLIII, 3.) It isa
question whether future generations will find our treatment of alien-
Literary Nottces. CXXXV
ism much more reasonable than the lurid procedure which blackens
the records of the Roman Church.
The Origin and Distribution of the Nerves of the Lower Limb.
Under the above title, Dr. A. M. Paterson begins an exhaustive
study of the sacral plexus and the peripheral distribution, in the Jour-
nal of Anatomy and Physiology, XXVIII [N. S. VII] 1, Oct. 1893.
Although notice of the paper 1s deferred until it is completed, we ob-
serve that the author found much assistance in dissecting the nerves
from the use of 5-10 per cent. of nitric acid solutions, which dissolve
the connective tissue and harden the nerves. He regards it as doubt-
ful whether any spot of the skin or muscle in the mb is supplied by
but a single nerve.
Glass Models of Brains.
Professor His exhibited! at the meeting of the Anatomical Society
at Gottingen, May, 1893, a model of the brain of a human embryo,
made up of about 50 separable glass plates. The sections were pho-
tographed and drawn upon rectangular glass plates of equal size, with
an amplification corresponding to the thickness of the plates (1.2 mm).-
If all of the plates are put together it produces a solid model of the
object, which renders all the inner details visible at once. To inves-
tigate separate parts, the corresponding part of the system of plates
can be detached; thus, for instance, the passage of the Nervus In-
termedius from the Ganglion Geniculi to the Medulla and its annexa-
tion to the tractus solitarius can be very plainly demonstrated.
Methods of Brain Preservation.’
This useful paper contains a full compendium of methods for
preparing dried or wet preparation and impregnation models. All of
the methods result in considerable shrinkage but have their place in
the technology of neurology.
Any one who has seen Dr. Blackburn’s preparations must admit
that with the exception of shrinkage they leave little to be desired.
Our own experience proves that great pains must be taken to dehyd-
rate carefully in absolute alcohol before using the Japan wax asa
‘filler’ and a rather long time in the wax at a temperature of 50° C.
14nat. Anz. Erginzungsheft. VIII, 1893.
2Fisu, P. A Brain Preservation, with a resume of some old and new
methods. The Wilder Quarter-Century Book.
CxXxxvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
is required. We have also seen good preparations by the paraffin
method made by Dr. Burckhardt of Berlin but one would always fear
lest when exposed to unusual heat they would deform.
Mr. Fish himself recommends a mixture of water 400 cc.,
95 percent alcohol : : pe i 400 CC.,
’ glycerin . 6 : : : j_s 250eGx
zinc chlorid : : : - . 20 grams, and
sodium chlorid . , 20 grams.
Afterwards the brain is Achydrated in Aeonol aac is passed into tur-
pentin, 3. parts, with castor oil, 1 part, for gne or two weeks. After
drying on absorbent cotton it is varnished with bleached shellac.
Another process substitiites for the last mentioned a mixture of
glycerin 100 cc., castor oil, 100 cc., gum arabic or tragacanth, 50
grams. The specimen may be shellaced. Attention may be called
to a series of papers by Professor J. Frenzel of Berlin who has made
some very permanent and Heel pliable preparations of entire bodies
of fish and reptiles.!
Myxedema and Cretinism Treated by Thyroid Grafts and Extracts.’
The extended article mentioned gives a comprehensive view of
the efforts to apply the thyroid gland and its extracts to the treatment
of the obscure diseases of that gland. In February of 1890 Professor
Horsley suggested the possibility of grafting upon the human body
the thyroid of a sheep with the view of arresting the progress of the
disease. M. Lannelongue of Paris is thought to have been the first
to carry out the operation in 1890.
The effects were prompt—too prompt perhaps to be attributed to
the slow changes of nutrition incident to a new generation of the se-
cretion and suggest that the improvement is due to the absorbtion by
the system of the secretion at the time in the gland. 'Dr. George Mur-
ray, accordingly, prepared a fluid extract of the fresh thyroid of the
sheep with glycerine and injected subcutaneously. The result has in
almost every case proven satisfactory. Passing from the complex to
1Verfahren zur Einbalsamirung von Fischen iind ahnlichen Objecten.
Naturw. Wochenschrift. V1, 12, 14, et. seq. 1892. Verfahren zur Herstellung
von zoolog. und anatomischen Preparaten mittelst der Glycerindurchtrankung.
Zool. Jahrbiicher 1, 1, 1886.
2BEADLES, C. F. The Treatment of Myxcedema and Cretinism, being a
Review of the Treatment of these Diseases with the thyroid gland, with a table
of 100 published cases. Zhe Journal of Mental Science, XXXIX, 166, [N.S.,
130-131.]
Literary Notices. CXXXvVil
the simple, the next step was reached when Dr. Mackenzie adopted
the plan of feeding patients suffering with myxcedema with the thyriod
itself. In order to be made more easy of administration Dr. Arthur
Davies employed a powdered extract of the active principle with
glycerin which was dried by heat and administered by way of the
mouth. ;
Thus far the cures have not been permanent, though a relatively
small dose may be necessary to continue the improvement. The
disease is more common in females but both sexes are benefited, nor
is there an age limitation. Chronic cases seem quite as amenable as
others.
The treatment is invariably followed by marked improvement in
bodily condition, the general puffy swelling subsides, the coarse dry
skin becomes smooth and moist, the thick, blunted features become
natural, hair begins to grow on scalp and eyebrows, the special senses
improve. Body and mind become more active, the temperature
rises. The majority of cases of myxcedema are accompanied by grave
mental disturbance, often acute melancholia. It seems certain that
the treatment serves to improve mental as well as bodily conditions
and if employed eariy enough should forestall the insanity of myxced-
ema. Even in the congenital cases (Cretinism) much improvement
has been noted. The numerous cases enumerated and the table re-
ferred to make the article a very useful one.
An Instrument for Reaction-Time Determination.!
On a square standard of pine supported by a tripod with leveling
screws is screwed a rectangular piece of hard wood 3 feet above
the floor at a convenient height to permit the registration of falling
rods, which serve to indicate the time. The hand of the subject rests
on a table while powerful electro-magnets in the circuit opened by the
finger serves to clamp in position the falling rods. At the summit of
the vertical standard is a device for releasing the rods, which in the
improved instrument are four in number and made of box-wood grad-
uated into hundreds of a second. The complete fall of a rod occu-
pies 3-10 of a second. After falling a short distance a brass plate
which rides astride the top of the rod encounters a diaphragm so pro-
ducing a sound signal, an electric bell being rung by a current broken
at the same time. A visual signal is given by a slit and diaphragm
1Lewis, BEVAN. An Improved Reaction-time instrument. Journ. Mental
Science. Oct., 1893. XXXIX, 167. [N.5S. No. 131.]
exxxvili JOURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
device by which a beam of light is obscured at a proper moment in
the fall of the rod. The observer sits with his finger on the key which
opens the current, clamping the rod as it falls, and presses the key
when the signal selected is made by the falling rod. It is only neces-
sary to read off the time upon the rod, for the figure at the clamp gives
it directly.
In the improved instrument the release of the rods is silently
accomplished by electro-magnets. The rods fall on sand bags and
each rod in its fall strikes a key, releasing the next, and thus contin-
ues the record for a length of time, greater than could be conven-
iently be recorded by the fall of a single rod. The mechanism de-
pends upon the familiar laws of falling bodies. It is not stated what
degree of accuracy may be expected.
Arrangement of the Sympathic Nervous System.!
Using the cat as a subject, the author traces the pilo-motor
nerves. The spinal nerves containing pilo-motor nerve fibres in their
roots are usually the fourth thoracic to the third lumbar inclusive.
The spinal pilo-motor fibres run into the sympathic trunk, there they
become connected with nerve cells; on leaving the sympathic chain
they run to their peripheral endings. In the body they accompany
those dorsal cutaneous branches of the spinal nerves which supply the
skin near the vertebre. In general, the fibres issuing from any gang-
lion are connected with nerve cells in that ganglion and with no other
sympathic nerve cell. Each ganglion supplies in any individual a
definite area of skin. The areas supplied by the ganglia from above
downward are successive with some overlapping.
The details must be sought in the paper, which is illustrated.
The author thinks it probable that the fibres of the gray ramus of a
nerve (viz. the postganglionic sympathic fibres of a spinal nerve)
have in the main the same distribution as the sensory fibres of the
nerve. He finds less overlapping than Sherrington did in the sensory
fibres.
Record of Brain Examinations.
Dr. Goodall of West Riding Asylum has composed a table for
guidance in the superficial examination of the brain which seems well-
adapted for use in autopsies where brain lesion is expected. See
Journ. Mental Sctence, CLXIV, N. S. 130, p. 437.
ILANGLEY, J. N. Preliminary account of the arrangement of the sympathic
nervous system, based chiefly on observations upon pilo-motor nerves. voc.
Rey. Soc. LII, 320.
Literary Notices. Cxxxix
Subdural Membranes and Intereranial Pressure.)
Cerebral atrophy is of common occurrence with membrane for-
mation, and the loss of support thus caused is given by many as the
occasion of the engorgement and rupture of the vessels. The com-
pensating hypertrophy of the skull in chronic insanity is another re-
sult. In cases of cerebral atrophy the cerebrospinal fluid tends to
increase in a compensating manner.
On account of being contained in rigid walls the brain needs
special arrangements to permit of shrinkage and expansion. The
brain is essentially erectile tissue and the adjustment is affected by the
cerebro-spinal fluid which exists normally in the meshes of the pia-
arachnoid.and the ventricles and does not exceed four ounces in the
healthy adult. The source of the fluid is the plexuses. From the
fourth ventricle ‘‘it passes by the foramen of Magendie to the inferior
cerebellar lake, and round the cerebellum and crura cerebri to the
superior cerebellar lake. This communicates along the peripeduncu-
lar and basilar canals with the great central lake at the base of the
brain. From the sides of the central lakes there arise the two Sylvian
lakes, which are extended into the Sylvian and Rolandic rivers.
From these rivers tributaries extend along the minor sulci and by
these means, though somewhat circuitous, cerebro-spinal fluid is car-
ried to every part of the surface of the brain.” The fluid is absorbed
by the Pacchionian glands and is secreted into the veins and sinuses.
The rate of absorbtion is more rapid than that of secretion and seems
to depend on the pressure of the fluid.
The blood and not this fluid plays the active part in regulating
intercranial pressure.
It is found that the size of a blood vessel varies greatly within a
brief time in paralytics. Now with atrophied brain and increased
fluid it would appear reasonable that a sudden engorgement followed
by constriction of the vessels might produce a demand for increase of
cerebro-spinal fluid greater than could be met and the vessels of the
dura would become gorged and ruptured. The seat of ‘‘ false-mem-
branes” is limited to the parietal bone; this the author explains as due
to the habitual position which leads the brain to tend to fall away
from the vault by gravitation, enhancing the tendency to tear in this
region.
1ROBERTSON, G. M. The Formation of Subdural Membranes or Pachy-
meningitis hemorrhagica. Journ. Mental Science, XXXIX, N.S. 130, July.
1893.
cxl JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
The middle meningial artery is most liable to disease and its
superficial distribution is in this same area.
Pachymeningitis hemorrhagica, then, is due, according to the
author, to passive engorgement of a compensatory nature, caused by
a process analogous to dry-cupping. This is brought about by a
shrinkage of the brain, which, owing to its suddenness, and to a de-
ficiency of cerebro-spinal fluid, has not been compensated for.
The Knee Jerk.!
The knee-jerk is largely produced by reflex contractions of the
vastus internus and crureus muscles. The centre was located in the
4th and sth lumbar segments of the cord in the Rhesus monkey (3d
and 4th of man). The efferent path is in the anterior roots of the 4th
and 5th lumbar nerves and was traced along the anterior crural nerve
to the muscles mentioned. The afferent path was found in the pos-
terior root of the 5th lumbar of Rhesus (4th of man, 6th of ‘cat).
The afferent fibres arise within those muscles to which the efferent
fibres concerned with the ‘‘jerk” belong.
It was found easy to abolish the conductivity of the afferent root
by cold, cocain, carbon dioxid, etc. for the ‘‘jerk”’ while reflex
stimuli from the skin were still transmitted. Perhaps the fibres for
the former are more delicate.
The knee jerk is exaggerated by section of afferent branches be-
low those producing the jerk, which is explained as due, not simply to
the resulting relaxation of the muscles but to the interrupting of a
stream of afferent stimuli that passes from the ham-string muscles which
would exert an inhibitory influence. Excitation of the afferent fibres
coming from one set of antagonistic muscles induces reflex tonic con-
traction of the opposite set very readily.
Some Suggestions Concerning Methods of Psychological Study.
An interesting paper under the above caption appears in the
Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy IX, 1, from the pen of Pro-
fessor J. J. Blaisdell. The suggestions are good and new, and
whether one shall say, as in another case, ‘‘ what is good is not new,
and what is new is not good,” or otherwise will depend very largely
upon one’s prepossessions or prejudices or, as we say more euphemis-
tically, one’s point of view.
ISHERRINGTON, C.S, Note on the Knee-Jerk and the correlation of An.
tagonistic Muscles. Proceed. Roy. Soc. LIL. 32 a.
Literary Nottces. exli
The first suggestion is that psychology should be a science and a
science of observation. But he insists that physiological psychology
is but physiology masking behind a high-sounding name. He well
says, ‘‘ Certainly any possible science of physiological psychology is
conditioned upon the authenticity of consciousness, for its ‘ cortical
irritations’ are only disjecta membra, to whose disclosure conscious-
ness holds the key of witness.”
‘There is no apparent justice in arrogating to physiological psy-
chology exclusively the designation empirical psychology, as has been
strangely done of late. It seems like the forwardness of unripe intel-
legence, the crudity of alate arrival in the realm of metropolitan
science.”
What physiological psychology may claim to be is the elementary
instructor whose work is essential to a proper approach to the study of
mind as such. If empirical psychology is to sit in judgment upon the
sanity of this mind of ours it at least ought to learn to understand the
elements of the language the mind speaks. In the teaching of psychol-
ogy the author depreciates the restriction of the term laboratory practice
to practice in a laboratory, but wishes to enlarge it to include experi-
ments where consciousness only is employed. But the present writer.
fails to see that the fact that Garfield and a certain college president ona
log constitutes a college compels us to convert a Plato plus Socrates
into a laboratory, unless, indeed, an older method weli loaded with
honor is jealous of the untested laurels green on the brow of experi-
mental science.
Again Professor Blaisdell objects to the conventional order of
presentations—intellect, sensibilities, will. He says: ‘‘ The prelimi-
nary question ought to be fairly discussed, which one of the two con-
ceptions ought to rule the teaching of science.
Mr. Hebert Spencer would, no doubt, answer that the various
sciences ought to be taught entirely in the interests of one comprehen-
sive natural procedure of the universal. . . . There is but one
science in this view, that of evolution. Some others of us believe in
the reality of final causes, and that man’s being is determined by ref-
erance to that moral final cause. . . . We think him disengaged
from the tyrannic current of natural processes, and that he has in
himself, and not in nature, the law by which he is to be studied and
held responsible.”
With more of this sort the author ignorantly or disingenuously
seeks to array in hostile ranks the laws of nature as expressed in evo-
lution and the laws of God as expressed in human freedom. One 1s
exlii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
oppressed by a feeling of hopelessness that such a view can still be
seriously presented as the only alternative to the reign of chance,
How one can fail to see in the course of evolutionr evealed by science,
with its wonderful coincidences touching human nature at every point,
any less of final cause than that which we are forced to postulate in
the destiny of man is a problem too great for the writer. From such
a standpoint one must deny the validity of natural law or the evi-
dence of his own consciousness—how much better to combine them
with the same divinity immanent in both. The question as to order
of treatment may then be left to convenience. Will the author re-
gards as the main constituent of personality and to it, therefore, the
first place should be given. After a discussion of the proper order of
presentation, the paper closes with a plea for a psychology of social
personality—‘‘ the empirical psychology of the social mind.”
Peripheral Neuritis Following Alcoholism.
Arthur Maude in the British Medical Journal, Feb. 18, 1893,
describes a case of peripheral neuritis resulting from alcoholism in
which a prominent symptom was the exaggeration of the patellar re-
flexes. After a period of abstinence these symptoms disappeared.
Spinal Muscular Atrophy.
Thompson and Bruce (Edinb. Hospit. Reports, 1893) report the
case of a child in which at the age of two years a weakness of the
legs became apparent and continued until all the muscles of the body
became involved in the weakness and atrophy. After death at six
years autopsy revealed simple idiopathic dystrophy. The nerve-cen-
tres contained degenerated fibres and the cells of the ventral cornua
of the cord particularly in the lumbar region exhibited signs of simple,
non inflammatory atrophy.
Cerebrine.
The curious dispute respecting the virtue of the cerebral extracts
continues. Dr. G. Hammond reports cases where subcutaneous in-
jection has produced marked improvement in tabes. The patient in
one case regained control over bowels, bladder and sexual organs,
and was able to run up and down stairs. The knee jerk, however,
had not returned.
J. Collins has used Gibier’s preparation in locomotor ataxia with
similar results. ,
Literary Notices. exliii
The Functions of the Pituitary Body.
Vassale and Sacchi! have published the results of experimental
extirpation of hypophysis. They were able to destroy that body with-
out grave operative complications. ‘The complete destruction of the
organ is fatal in dog or cat, but partial injury may exist for a long
time though it is impossible to say whether regeneration follows.
Though the symptoms of injury to the pituitary are similar to those
arising from extirpation of the thyroid the authors do not admit that
the interrelations are such that one may substitute for the other.
These functions show that the hypophysis belongs to the class of
glands destruction of which occasions the accumulation of toxic sub-
stances.
American Lampreys.
Neurologists will be grateful for the descriptive information on
the habits and specific characters given by Professor S. H. Gage in the
Wilder Quarter Century Book, published in September, 1893. The
paper is fully illustrated and is provided with map and bibliography.
The Brain of the Spotted Newt.’
The author is already well known as a skillful scientific artist and
by reason of several anatomical papers. The present contribution is
a bulky monograph fully illustrated and dealing with the topograph-
ical rather than histological relations. The incitation to the study
seems to have been the suggestion that striking structural changes
might accompany the remarkable change in habit which has already
formed the subject of an interesting paper by Professor S. H. Gage.
The descriptions of the regional anatomy is painstaking and
shows familiarity with the literature. While admitting that in the
finer structure of the nerve cells, in the path of nerve tracts, and their
exact processes of growth, determined by finer methods, a more com-
plete correlation of brain structure with the crises of the life history
may be found, there are no marked changes in morphology revealed by
methods employed corresponding to these crises. ‘There is, however,
1Rev. Sperimentale, XVIII, 3, 4, Dec., 1892.
2GAGE, SUSANNA PHELPS. The Brain of Diemyctyus viridescens from
Larval to adult Life and comparisons with the Brain Amia and Petromyzon.
Wilder Quarter Century Book. Sept., 1893.
’Life History of the Vermillion-spotted Newt. Amer. Naturalist, XXV,
1891.
cxliv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
a marked general growth at about the time of final transformation so
that the brain much more nearly fills the skull than in the late red
forms.
The morphological suggestions about which questions would nat-
urally be raised are those associated with the callosal commissure and
the hippocampal structures. While apparently recognizing a hippo-
campal lobe by implication the whole mass of the commissure is called
callosum and no fornix or hippocampal commissure is recognized.
We have already suggested a question as to this homology and think
it most probable that the highly osmatic brain would have a structure
comparable to the hippocampal or fornix commissure of reptiles. A
brief preliminary discussion of the structure has appeared in the Sep-
tember number of this journal, p. 124-128. From the illustrations
accompanying this article reasons may be gathered for comparing at
least a greater part of the so-called callosum with the fornix commis-
sure. If analogies with other groups can be employed, it is hard to
see how one can neglect the obvious necessity for limiting the region
of origin of the callosum to parts lying far cephalad in an osmatic
brain.
The second part of the paper institutes comparison with Amia
and the lamprey. Among the interesting observations may be men-
tioned the existence in Diemyctylus of a metapore—an opening
through the metaplexus into the subarachnoid space. Morphologic-
ally considered, the improbability is so great that repeated investiga-
tion is well worth making. The section on the cerebral commissures
is interesting, especially in the discovery of two commissural bands for
the fore brainin Amia. We, however, would regard the ventral one
(cm Fig. 103) if actually a commissure, as a homologue of the pre-com-
missure and the so-called pre-commissure the representative of the
dorsal system (callosum, etc.) Fig. 104 strongly re-enforces this con-
jecture, for in that figure fem cannot be tortured into an homology with
the precommissure of other vertebrates.
Lying in the ‘‘crista,” Mrs. Gage finds suggestions of fibres
such as the writer has figured on Plate XV, Fig. 5 ca//, in Menopoma
and which might from their position prove a part of the fibres of the
callosum or the homologue of the fibres, so-called in fishes. The
summary given at the close is repeated here.
1. A true metapore exists in adult Diemyctylus and indications
of it appear in the larve. In the lamprey and Amia at a correspond-
ing part of the metaplexus a sac communicating with the metaccel pro-
trudes over the myel.
Literary Notices. cxlv
2. The callosum and callosal eminence [intra-ventricular lobe]
are only beginning to develop in early larve of Diemyctylus, and the
position of the cerebral commissures differs in early stages more from
the anurous type than does the adult, the aula being much larger pro-
portionally. The type in urodeles and fishes may be one of an ar-
rested embryonic development. [Cf. Journ. Comp. Neurol., p. 136,
Sec. 4.] In the Diemyctylus there is evidence, in the adult, of a
caudal growth of the terma which if continued would bring the com-
missures in the same relation to the terma as in the frog and higher
forms.
3. The crista in Diemyctylus and Amia is shown to be a defi-
nite structure beyond which the cerebrum develops cephalad and from
over which the auliplexus is reflected, and thus is a landmark in dis-
cussing the relations of the aula and cerebral commissures. [These
considerations might seem to suggest that the callosum might be ceph-
alad to the reflected plexus as in Opossum. |
4. The paraphysis of Diemyctylus is traced through different
stages of development and homologies discussed in Amia and the
lamprey, and a possible use in the nourishment of the brain is sug-
gested.
5. Sulcus is proposed as a general term for the furrows on the
endymal surface, which have a morphological significance and lophius
for the ridges between sulci. [If anatomists would agree to thus apply
a term which is certainly as much used as ‘‘ fissure” for cortical
grooves, it might be well, but meanwhile the ambiguity which is
charged to the descriptive terminology introduced by the writer is not
removed. Moreover those fissures which are due to the deformation
of the cerebrum as a whole (1. e. to flexures of its axis, etc.) may im-
press themselves upon the axial lobe and, if the view suggested by the
writer that the axial lobe of fishes is but the undeveloped ‘‘ proton ”
of the whole cerebrum and not, as often represented, homologous
with the hemispheres minus the cortex, there might still be a sort of
reasonableness in a terminology which should suggest the homology,
however distant. These remarks apply particularly to the sylvian and
rhinalic depressions of the fish. |
6. In the discussion of the geminums it is shown that homolo-
gies are not dependent upon the membranous or solid condition of the
roof nor the angle at which parts unite.
7. The morphological relations of the pallium are considered in
Amia and its homolog in amphibia and the lamprey suggested.
8. The cerebrum of Amia and other fishes is not to be consid-
exlvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
ered from its recurved position as different from other types. The
sulci upon its endymal surface are compared with those of Diemycty-
lus. The pallium is considered as a plexus much stretched, not as an
undeveloped part representing the dorsal and mesal walls of other
brains.
[This is in effect a restatement of a theory frequently stated and
implied by the writer in several papers during the past four or five
years. Ina paper in the Festschrift zum siebenzigsten Geburtstage Ru-
dolf Leuckart’s, p. 279, occurs the following passage: ‘‘In those
portions of the primary nerve tube which are to form plexiform struc-
tures the spongioblasts retain their primitive structure. In cases
where the development is delayed the original simplicity is retained
long after other regions have acquired a complicated neurologia.
Thus in very young Ambiystoma (Plate XX VII, Fig. 1) the temporary
pallium which ultimately becomes the median walls of the prosenceph-
alon remains single-layered and exhibits only an occasional neuro-
blast.”’
In other places it has been clearly stated that the axial lobe of
teleosts and ganoids is supposed to contain the elements which other-
wise would enter the cortex; thus the pallium would correspond in
position and nature to the thin median walls of the ventricle. The
author of the paper before us takes a step farther in seeking to
definitely homologize the pallium with a specially modified part of
this wall—the plexus. This is probably a form of statement unsus-
ceptible to proof or disproof, because of the lack of means to deter-
mine whether a tela-form membrane might not be directly converted
into plexus. |
g. Arguments and facts are given for considering the rhinencephal
as equal to other segments having a tripartite arrangement. [From
a strictly morphological point of view it would seem necessary to
settle the preliminary question as to the front of the brain tube be-
fore one could venture to ascribe regional independence to the
olfactory lobe. ‘The term rhinencephalon is now so generally used
for the whole limbic region as to seriously compromise its availabilty. |
We venture to express regret at the increasing custom of spelling
generic names without capitals, which seems an offense only second
to the capitalizing of specific names. In the present paper Diemyc-
tylus is uniformly spelled without capitals, while other genera referred ~
to are capitalized (viz. Cryptobranchus, p. 264).
The paper is a welcome addition to the anatomy of the brain and
affords evidence of the hold morphology is taking in America. The
Literary Notices. cxlvii
compliment to Professor Wilder implied in the volume dedicated to
him is augmented by the character of the work by his students and
collaborators. :
Edinger’s Lectures upon the Structure of the Central Nervous System.!
No better testimony to the value of the book before us is needed
than the repeated necessity for new editions. It is but a year since '
the appearance of the third edition in Germany and not a much longer
time since the second edition was made available to the American
public through the excellent translation of Vittum and Riggs. The
present edition is considerably extended and has been in some parts
rewritten. To those who are acquainted only with the second or the
English edition the volumn is now practically new.
There have been many good works on the anatomy of the brain
but among them this lhttle book of Edinger’s stands preeminent in
virtue of two excellencies, clearness and a comparative method. We
can be no longer blind to the fact that the way to study the human
brain successfully is to spend the first moiety of time at disposal upon
that of lower animals and a good share of the remaining time upon
the embryonic stages. Dr. Edinger enjoys the great advantage of
basing his descriptions very largely upon personal investigation of
a wide range of subjects.
We notice that considerable use has been made of the results of
the methyl blue and Golgi methods and the rather meager statements
upon the histogenesis of the nervous system have been considerably
augmented by reference to the recent work of Retzius, VanGehuchten
and Cajal. Colored plates of excellent workmanship enrich this sec-
tion. The embryological portion is still insufficient to give a clear
idea of the instructive correspondences between ontogeny and phylog-
eny. —
The interpolation of new matter has, we think, disturbed the unity
of presentation in several cases. One would think that it would now
be safe to admit a reference to the parietal nerve in connection with
the parietal vesicle. The writer is not yet prepared to admit the as-
sociation of the habenulee with the olfactory function, in spite of the
admitted close connection of the teenia with the lateral radix.
The account of the regional anatomy of the mammalian cerebrum
TEDINGER, L. Vorlesungen iiber den Bau der Nervésen Centralorgane.
Fiir Aerzte und Studirende. (Fourth Revised Edition) Leipzig, F. C. W.
Vogel, Price 7 marks.
cxlviii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
is as before clear and usually satisfactory. The statement on page
58 that all marsupials so far studied lack a callosum ignores the de-
scription of it by Osborn and the writer. | See elsewhere in this num-
ber.] The treatment of the olfactory apparatus and limbic lobe is a
decided advance over any anatomical discussion so far.
The new portions on the thalamus are especially valuable and are
elucidated by the new figures 66, 67, 69, 70 very satisfactorily. The
author has seen no reason to admit a recently advocated idea that the
cerebellar functions are chiefly sensory.
The discussion of the medulla has been completely remodeled and
the result of the phenominal activity in the study of this region are
largely included.
YVhe last chapter is devoted toa very brief discription of the
technical methods of studying the nervous system.
While the exigencies of publication do not permit as careful a re-
view as the work deserves we can give it the warmest praise and con-
sider that it will prove a necessity to every neurologist whether he has
access to the earlier editions or not.
Kolliker’s Histology, Sixth Edition.’
The part of this well known work relating to the nervous system
has been awaited with a degree of impatience, for it has been evident
from numerous occasional papers that the distinguished author has
been giving himself to the cultivation of this special fleld by the re-
cent technological methods with marked diligence and his usual suc-
cess. The papers in the Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zoologie during the last
few years have been among the most beautiful illustrations of the pos-
sibilities of the Golgi method. The present instalment of 372 pages
includes but half of the nervous system, including a discussion of the
medullated and non-medullated fibres, nerve cells in general, the
spinal cord, medulla and cerebellum.
The work begins by presenting the neuron theory, thus revealing
on its first page the tendency of the whole. Professor Kélliker, how-
ever, discards the word neuron from linguistic reasons and substitutes
‘*neuro-dendridien’”’ (neuro-dendrits), which is open to a still greater
objection that not al! neurons are provided permanently with den-
dritic processes.
The sympathetic system is not seperated from the ‘‘ animal”
1KOELLIKER. A. Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen. Wilh.
Engelmann, Leipsig, 1893.
Literary Nottces. cxlix
nervous system, but forms a peculiarly modified portion of the peri-
pheral system.
The section on the structure of the nerve fibre is quite full and
the author retains the old position, that the Schwann’s sheath with its
corpuscles is derived from connective tissue and has no direct relation
with, the formation of the nerve. To the writer, it seems that the
evidence from experimental and pathological, as well as histological
sources, is overwhelmingly opposed to this view, which rests on un-
supported assumption. ‘The above position is the more remarkable in
view of the description of the olfactory which follows. The latter,
however, simply retains a structure much like that of the earlier stages
of all nerves. The section on the spinal cord is practically exhaust-
ive. Following the general description of the spinal cord is a com-
parative section from which the following data are collected :
In Amphioxus the cord consists of a folded plate with the edges
approximated in such a manner that the ventricle is a mere slit which
is clothed witha layer of gray matter composed of epyndyma cells with
a few nerve cells. The cell walls of the epyndyma pass from ventri-
cle to surface in the form of thin tubes and frequently collect in clus-
tres. Aside from these fibres the stroma of the cord is composed of
nerve fibres only, there being no neuroglia. In this as well as other
respects the cord of Amphioxus resembles the nerve-axis of worms.
The nerve fibres are all non-medullated. Those of the dorsal region
are smaller than those of the ventral region and in various regions
there appear colossal fibres whose origin can be traced to enormous
nerve cells of the dorsal part of the tube. ‘The smallest nerve cells he
with the epyndyma along the ventricle, the intermediate type of cells
occurs in a row along either sidethe ventricle and are bipolar or multi-
polar. The colossal cells lie across the ventricle one third its height
from the dorsal su:face. The cephalic cell of this series lies immedi-
ately behind the sixth left sensory root and gives rise to an enormous
fibre which lies ventrad of the canal and sends another fibre into the
seventh sensory root. ‘Then follow eleven others each of which sends
a fibre caudad. From the last of these and the 39th sensory root there
are none of the colossal cells, but from that point they reappear and
the 14 caudal cells send fibres cephalad. In all cases the colossal
fibres cross ventrally to the opposite side before assuming their defini-
tive position. The small nerve cells, according to Retzius, send
fibres into the sensory roots.,
Of general interest is the suggestion afforded by the relations of
the nerve cells that all the nerve cells arise form the epyndyma.
cl JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
KOlliker remarks respecting the origin of the dorsal nerves from cells
within the cord and the absence of ganglia on the roots that if these
-nerve cells are found to be the most dorsal in the cord there would be
a correspondence with the ganglionic ridge of higher vertebrates which
would make it still more probable that this ridge pertains to the neu-
ral tube rather than the adjacent ectoderm. No reference is made to
the fact that while there are no ganglia yet the dorsal root contains
ganglion cells to a point lying near the skin, as shown by Hatschek, a
fact which suggests a very different interpretation of the spinal
ganglia.
Professor K6lliker compares the caudal colossal fibres to com-
missural fibres and those of the cephalic cells with the pyramids, (p.159.)
In the later sections the discussion 1s limited more strictly to the hu-
man subject and we cannot select from the vast amount of carefully
elaborated material special portions for notice at this time. The
work will serve as the neurologist’s vade mecum for years to come.
The Superstition of Necessity.'
.
The author uses the term in the way indicated by its etymology :
as a standing-still on the part of thought; a clinging to old ideas after
those ideas have lost their use. He endeavors to show that the doc-
trine of necessity is a survival which holds over from an earlier and
undeveloped period of knowledge; that as a means of getting out of
and beyond that stage it had a certain value, but having done its
work, loses its significance. That judgment uses the idea of necessity
as acrutch by means of which it steps up out of uncertainty upon
solid ground of fact, and then discards it as unnecessary and only a
hindrance to further progress. As he says: ‘‘ We learn (but only at
the end) that instead of discovering and then connecting together a
number of separate realities, we have been engaged in the progressive
definition of one fact.” ‘* The progress of judgment is equivalent to a
change in the value of objects—that objects as they are for us, as
known, change with the development of our judgments ” ‘‘ It is the
necessary influence which one exerts upon the other that finally rubs
away the separateness and leaves them revealed as elements of one
unified whole. This done, the determining influence —necessity—has "
gone too.”
‘* Contingent and necessary are thus the correlative aspects of
one and the same fact.”
1DEwy, JOHN. ‘* Zhe Monist,’’ April, 1892, Vol. III, No. 3.
Literary Notices. cli
*¢ Chance stands for the irrelevancy as the matter at first presents
itself to consciousness ; necessity is the required, but partial negation
of this irrelevancy.”
Our separation of one side from the other, for instance, of cause
from effect, of means from end, gives rise to the superstition of ne-
cessity. We have committed the error of taking a part for the whole.
The idea of necessity marks only a certain stage in the development
of judgment. Its whole value consists in the impulse which it gives
toward the ‘is’ in contradistinction from the ‘ must.’
The Lumbo-Saecral Plexus.!
The above paper is a very detailed and elaborate account of the
root bundles and distribution of the nerves entering the plexus. Most
of the anatomical facts brought out are in confirmation of similar
work by Professor Sherrington. The plates are very clear.
In the experimental part, the peripheral stump of a cut root
was first excited, then the integral fibres were separated as far as pos-
sible and each irritated by a minimal current. The tendons of the
muscles then moved being cut, the experiment was repeated to deter-
mine whether others remained in connection with the nerve. As a
control experiment, a nerve root was divided and general epilepsy
was induced by intravenous injection of the essential oil of absinthe,
and the resulting deficient participation in the fit of the limb in rela-
tion with the divided root or roots carefully observed.
The first two lumbar roots did not produce movement of the
limb. The third produced slight flexion of the hip.
General excitation of the 4th lumbar produced flexion of the hip,
adduction of the thigh and extension of the knee. The three parts
isolated, each produced one of the above motions.
Stimulation of the whole 5th root caused extension of the whole
limb with adduction and internal rotation of the thigh and dorsiflexion
of the foot. The separated fascicles reacted as follows: (1) adduc-
tion of the limb, (2) extension at the knee, (3) dorsiflexion of the
foot, (4) extension of the digits, (5) extension of the hallux.
The 6th lumbar caused extension of the hip, and adduction and
outward rotation ; flexion at the knee with the foot at right angles and
everted at the ankle, the digits and hallux being flexed at the distal
phalangeal joints. The several fascicles reacted as follows: (1) ex-
1RussELL, J. S. R. An Experimental Investigation of the Nerve Roots
of the Lumbo-Sacral Plexus of Macacus rhesus. Proc. Roy. Soc., LIV, 327.
clii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
tension at the hip, (2) flexion at the knee, (3) dorsi-flexion at the
ankle, (5) eversion of the foot, (6) extension of the digits, (7) flex-
ion of the digits, (8) flexion of the hallux, (9) extension of the
hallux.
The 7th lumbar caused extension at the hip, flexion at the knee,
with the plantar surface of foot looking inwards, flexion of the digits
at their metacarpo-phalangeal joints, flexion of the hallux and its ad-
duction into the sole of the foot beneath the flexed digits.
The several fascicles reacted as follows: (1) extension at hip,
(2) flexion at knee, (3) extension at ankle, (4) flexion of digits, (5)
flexion of hallux, (6) adduction of hallux. The rst sacral produces
interossal flexion of the digits with flexion and adduction of the hal-
lux and three parts were isolated, each having one of the functions
named.
The muscles were exposed during life and the nervous connec-
tion established directly, as follows: 2d /wmbar, psoas magnus; jd
lumbar, psoas parvus, psoas magnus, sartorius; gth lumbar, psoas
magnus, iliacus, sartorius, adductor longus, quadriceps extensor, gra-
cilis; 5¢h dumbar, iliacus, gluteus minimus, adductor magnus, adduc-
tor longus, quadriceps extensor, gracilis, tibialis anticus, tibialis post-
icus, extensor long. digitorum, flexor long. digit., peroneous longus,
p- brevis, ext. long. hallucis, gluteus medius, pyriformis, obturator
externus, 0. internus, gemellus superior, g. inferior, quadratus femor-
is, propliteus, plantaris; 7¢h /wmbar, hamstrings, gastrocnemius,
soleus, flexor long. digitorum, peroneus longus, p. brevis, flexor long.
hallucis, adductor hallucis, interossei, and the last ten of the list un-
der the 6th lumbar ; 7 sacra/, intrinsic muscles of the foot.
The author concludes that a single bundle of nerve fibres, repre-
senting a single simple movement may remain distinct during its
course to the muscle it supplies, without inosculation with other motor
nerve fibres, and that where more than one nerve supplies a given
muscle, any given muscle fibre is suppled from but one nerve.
The advantage of the anastomoses of the nerve fibres is shown
by the observation that the section of no single nerve root was suffi-
cient to produce a visible alteration in the climbing or running move-
ment. ‘
The paper closes with a comparison with the results of the exper-
iments of Sherrington, and Ferrier and Yeo.
A New Hypothesis Concerning Vision.
In the Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. LIV, No. 827, Dr. Haycraft
offers a new theory of color vision based on evolutionary data. He
Literary Notices. cliii
regards the fact that colored surfaces, when highly illuminated, ap-
pear white as a special case of the law of maximal stimulation that,
when a stimulus is increased beyond a certain amount, it is not fol-
lowed by any increased sensory effect. The upper limit of retinal ex-
citation, however, corresponds to the sensation white.
When common natural pigments are observed spectroscopically,
they are seen to transmit broad bands of spectral rays, generally ex-
tending to parts of the spectrum other than that part which corre-
sponds in color to that of the pigment. Thus a yellow natural pig-
ment transmits a flood of red, yellow and green spectral rays. When
mixed with red and green, yellow spectral rays do not produce a sensa-
tion of their own proper color, but intensify the yellow sensation,
which would be produced to a less extent by the intermediate yellow
ray, when acting alone. Itis a fact, beyond which we cannot go that
the combination, red plus green spectral ray, stimulating the eye when-
ever we regard a yellow pigment, produces the sensation we call
yellow ; an artificial mixture of such spectral rays gives rise to the
same sensation. In color mixing experiments, as when you mix a
blue and yellow on the discs and produce grey, the blue paper transmits
to the eye one-half the spectrum, viz., violet, blue, and some green,
and the yellow paper transmits the other half, viz., some green, yellow
and red. You are, therefore, looking at what is physically the same
stimulus as that given by a piece of white paper seen in half light.
The statement of the theory is, in its present form, too obscure
for criticism, and manifestly brings us no nearer a solution of the
physological problems involved.
Adiposis Dolorosa.!
This was reported as a new disease in June, 1892, at the meeting
of the American Neurological Association. In many respects it simu-
lates myxcedema, from which it would seem’premature to differentiate
it until the pathology has been more fully studied. While presenting
the appearance of ordinary obesity, it was found that the enlargement
was very unequally distributed. Shooting pains were present in all
cases at some time. There was diminished cutaneous sensibility in
some regions and soreness over nerve trunks in some stages. The
connective tissue is largely increased and of an embryonic character,
and interfiltrated with fat. The most significant change seems to have
1DercuM, F. X. in Supplement to Wood's Reference Handbook of the
Medical Sciences.
cliv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
been an induration of the thyroid gland. The author speaks of the
disease as a connective-tissue dystrophy, a fatty metamorphosis of
various stages of completeness, occurring in separate regions, with
symptoms suggestive of an irregular and fugitive irritation of the
nervous trunks—possibly a neuritis. ;
Wood’s Reference Hand-book Supplement.
The Supplement embraces 1076 quarto pages of closely printed
matter which, on the whole, is of excellent quality and will serve to
bring the work down to date. Several neurological articles have
already been noticed. It is obviously impossible to offer even a sum-
mary of all. The following jottings may, however, prove useful :
Articles on the Brain in the Reference Hand-Book.
Among the many useful articles in the supplement to Wood’s
Reference Hand-book of the Medical Sciences are two by Professor
B. G. Wilder, on the brain. ‘The first of these is a supplement to his
paper in the eighth volume of that work. After illustrating the prin-
ciple enforced in his article in an earlier volume of this journal, that
it is each author’s duty to correct his own mistakes as soon as discov-
ered, he enters upon questions of nomenclature. Among other sug-
gestions are these: Neuron might better be associated with axon and
enteron as a name for the whole neural axis and neuraxis would be
appropriate instead of axis cylinder.
Professor Wilder suggests that the bulbs, their crura, the olfactory
portion of the precommissure and a part of the aula might be recog-
nized as constituting a sixth definitive segment (Rhinencephalon);
but—unless the word encephalon in composition is to be shorn
altogether of segmental significance—it should no more be used
for a ventral portion of a region than for a dorsal portion, e¢. g.
the cerebellum, without the supporting preoblongata. Very nat-
urally he objects to the use of the term ‘‘ Rhinencephalon,”
by Sir William Turner in a third sense. We may add that the
confusion in nomenclature is here absolutely intolerable. One who
is indisposed to apply a term of his own coinage for all parts of the
olfactory apparatus may have a choice and varied assortment of
names for every part. The German usage seems to embrace under
the term olfactory lobe, a projecting bulbus, a connecting peduncle
and an eminence on the cerebrum, the tuber. Others use lobe as
restricted to the tuber, which is also termed the tract. In other cases
the word tuber is applied to the bulb.
Literary Notices. clv
An instructive summary of the gray masses of the cerebellum
follows.
It seems strange that it should still be necessary to insist that the
thalamus does not forma part of the wall of the lateralventricle. If this
remains necessary it simply illustrates the crying need for some element-
ary work in embryology on the part of our descriptive anatomists.
The paper closes with an extended abstract of recent work on the sur-
face topography of the cerebrum.
The second article referred to deals with methods of removing,
preserving, dissecting and drawing the brain. It would be impossible
to compile from this article, which we would gladly reproduce entire.
We must content ourselves with recommending it to all practically
concerned with neurological manipulation and teaching and an espe-
cial emphasis on the well-deserved strictures upon the book-makers
who insert diagrams with now the dorsal and now the ventral aspects
uppermost.
Tumors of the Brain.
This subject is presented with a full tabulation of the eighty-five
operations attempted since 1884 by Dr. Mary Putnam-Jacobi. The -
percentage of success is not large enough to be very flattering, yet it
affords data under the guidance of which the indications for operation
may be made out.
The cases of recovery include only one of operation on the cere-
bellum. The great majority of successful cases have been where the
tumor exists in the motor convolutions (29 out of 39 cases.)
A conservative position is taken with reference to trephining for
non-traumatic epilepsy.
Acromegaly.!
Dr. O. T. Osborn gives a full and interesting account of this rare
disease which is characterized as a chronic affection evidenced by an
abnormal increase in the extremities due to hypertrophy of the bones
and soft parts in these regions. ‘The disease was first noticed by P.
Marie in 1886. Pain in the head is the first subjective symptom and
is often exceedingly intense and may be accompanied by joint pains
and tingling in the extremities.
The reflexes and special senses are not necessarily involved. The
1Article under this head in Supplement to Wood’s Reference Handbook of
the Medical Sciences. p. 2.
clvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
intelligence, particularly memory, is frequently lowered. One of the
most constant symptoms is hypertrophy of the pituitary body. There
is often some abnoxmal enlargement of the sympathic nervous system.
The disease is obviously closely related with Myxcedema from which
it is distinguished by the following points:
Both sexes are about equally affected; it begins most frequently
between the ages of twenty and forty; bones are always enlarged; the
face is oval or elliptical; the ends of the fingers are of the same size
as the base (not club-shaped); the skin is yellowish, wrinkled, and
hairy (not puffy and shiny.)
Up to the present time the disease remains incurable. A full
bibliography accompanies the article.
Ear Operations.
The report on this subject by Dr. E. B. Dench is unusually full
and contains admirable digests of the recent work.
The Emotions, The Physiological and Psychophysical Basis of.
A rather abstruse paper by C. L. Herrick, editor of this Journal.
The Care of Epilepties.
A very interesting paper by Dr. Frederick Peterson, an sation
on the subject, who makes a plea for a more rational attempt to provide
for such unfortunates conditions suitable to their peculiar state. The
proportion of epileptics who are insane is shown to be small (less than
ten per cent.), and very many are entirely able to fill positions of use-
fulness, except for the occasional seizures. Epileptic colonies have
proven efficient in providing for the adjustment to these conditions,
and association, so far from increasing, rather diminishes the number
of seizures. Out of door employment and all manner of trades and
avocations are provided, as also means of amusement. We failed to
notice any allusion to the effect such social seggregation might be ex-
pected to have upon the hereditary propagation of the disease—a
point worthy of careful attention. Embracing, by implication at
least, among the epileptics such names as Handel, Moliere, Petrarch,
Czesar, Napoleon, Mahomet and St. Paul, it is little wonder that the
author finds a place for the class.
Heredity.
The article on this subject by Professor H. F. Osborn is essen-
tially a revision of the third Cartwright Lecture before the Alumni of
Literary Notices. clvii
the College of Surgeons, and has largely appeared in papers in the
American Naturalist. It goes without saying that the interesting
modern theories are accurately and graphically stated. In fact, the
article is one of the most convenient compends within reach, and con-
tains valuable hints as to the lines along which research should be
prosecuted. The physician, more than any other professional man,
is in a position toanswer the questions which Weismann has addressed
to science.
Blood Vessels of the Brain.
The paper under this caption is by Dr. William Browning and is
in the form of critical notes rather than a connected description. The
illustrations—one a beautiful lithograph after Adamkiewicz—are
very useful.
Cranial and Spinal Nerves.
Dr. Frank Baker gives an interesting summary of recent results
respecting the nerve roots. Considerable attention is given to the
histogenetic problems. In the discussion of the internal relations of
the roots the old and new views are stated and illustrated for compar-_
ison. We regret that the ingenious theory of Gaskell (if mentioned
at all) should have been so briefly put as to be quite unintelligible
even with the figures, to one not already familiar with it. Cajal,
Lenhossék and Kolliker are laid under contribution and the material
is well though too briefly used. We think the article would have
been of vastly more value if it could have been doubly as extended.
An excellent bibliography accompanies. (See also an excellent sum-
mary of modern histological results by the same author in a recent
number of the Alienist and Neurologist.)
Histological Formule.
Prof. Fish’s article is a very useful compilation of the recent
methods and is particularly valuable for its formulee for the nervous
system.
In this connection we may add that Herrick’s permanent hema-
toxylin, as described in 1891, proves not only permanent in the slide
but the solution is unalterable so far as observed. It is essentially
Delafield’s, with the addition of a small amount of the antiseptic (one
tablet to a pint) and the solution may be used at once if diluted with
alum water, which is all that is necessary to ‘‘ripen” it. Acid in
the section is of course fatal.
elviii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
The Meninges.
Dr. Wilder described with numerous illustrations the mem-
branous envelopes of the brain and card. We are struck with a con-
servativeness of statement and reservation of judgement upon many
points upon which those who have given the subject less study are
prone to positiveness. The present writer must admit that it seems
impossible to expect the same uniformity or consistency in the devel-
opment of the connective envelopes as one must logically postulate of
a morphologically primitive wall like that of the brain tube. Collect-
ed by a process of accretion around the brain, these envelopes will
obey mechanical rather than morphological principles and the exist-
ence of one or more layers in a given case is a matter to be settled in
that case by itself without reference to any canon of interpretation.
A perforation through the tela requires explanation and may justly be
viewed with suspicion until its origin is discovered; a perforation
through the meninges is a fact of observation. We fail accordingly
to understand the significance of the analogy suggested between the —
fontanels and the tela (p. 609.)
Professor Wilder carefully reviews the evidence for the existence
of the metapore (foramen of Legendie) with new material and form-
ulates the following: ‘‘ In the normal adult human brain there is a
considerable orifice in the roof of the metaccele whereby the liquid of
of the encephalic cavities may escape into the post-cisterna.” In re-
ply to the obvious morphological inconsistency he refers to the solu-
tion of membranous integrity in the case of the septum between the
stomodeum and cesophagus (the oral plate.) Figure 422 seems to
make the matter very clear from the standpoint of gross dissection
though the writer must admit that he puzzled a long time as to the sig-
nificance of a curious unnamed body near the base of the figure before
it dawned upon him that it represented the thumb of a manipulator and
still longer before he felt sure that an outline above indicated a finger tip.
A label or reference in the description would make all clear. Though
probably a valueless suggestion, it would be interesting to make sure
that there is not in man az elaborate eversion of tela from the edges of
this and other openings far beneath the dura. The degree of modifica-
tion to which the tela is susceptible is in some cases very remarkable.
No final decision is reached as to the lunulate foramina described by
Dr. Langdon.
The Physical Expression of Insanity.
Dr. Charles P. Bancroft whose article in the Handbook is char-
Literary Notices. clix
acterized throughout by scientific thoroughness, very truly says that,
while it is true that the expression of the emotions receives its most
perfect and frequent demonstration in the facial region, it must not
be forgotten that the entire periphery is likewise a participant. Three
factors enter into the mechanism of expression: I. The storage and
discharge of nerve-force from the central nervous system. II. The
power of inhibition possessed by the cerebral cortex. III. The
trophic changes consequent upon the processes of waste and repair
that are constantly occurring in the cerebral cells. As the chief in-
hibitory centres seem to lie within the cortex so cortical disturbance
or insufficiency is especially likely to produce uncontrolled and spas-
modic reflexes.
The author gives a careful analysis of the manifestations accom-
panying different forms of mental disease with numerous half-tone por-
traits and closes by recommending that a suitable photographic outfit
be made a part of the equipment of every insane hospital.
Other articles of neurological interest in the Hand-Book are on
Meningitis, by Dr. James T. Whittaker; Myelitis, by Dr. Leopold
Putzel; Regeneration of Nerves, by E. T. Reichert; Comparative
Anatomy of the Nervous System, by C. L. Herrick; Histogenesis of
the Elements of the Nervous System, by C. L. Herrick; Recupera-
tive Power of Old Age. The last mentioned paper by T. L. Sted-
man gives interesting evidence of the great vitality and resisting
power of the aged which, however is not to be explained as due toa
measure of independence of the several organs so that local trouble
does not affect the system at large but to the fact that the aged have
undergone a process of natural selection and therefore have unusual
vitality and recuperative power. Pott’s paralysis in children, by J. H.
Huddleston; Surgery of the Spinal Cord, by W. W. Keen (a very
useful and interesting summary of recent progress in operations on the
brain is given;) Sympathetic Nervous System, by Dr. Hand Baker; De-
velopment of the Organs of Taste, Frederick Tuckerman ; Thought
Transference; Richard Hodgson ; Development of the Thymus Gland,
by F. P. Mall ; Development of the Thyroid Gland, by F. P. Mall;
Pathology of the Thyroid Gland, by Wyatt Johnston ; Waller’s Law,
by C. L. Herrick.
The Innervation of the Chromatophores.!
The difficulties attending the investigation of the innervation of
the chromatophores have been partially overcome by Professor Eberth
1EBERTH. Anat. Anz., Erginzungsheft VIII, 1893. BaLlLowitz. Do.
clx JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
by treating Golgi preparations with chlorine water to bleach the pig-
ment. One to several medullated fibres pass toward the chromato-
phore. Small ones are innervated by a single fibre, which divides
into two or more fine varicose branches, which terminate in tuberosi-
ties on the surface of the chromatophore. Lower down these branches
anastomose. From this anastomosis are given off numerous fine fibres
which end in dendrites and constitute the specific termini of the nerves
of the chromatophores.
E. Ballowitz has investigated the same problem by the same
method, with essentially similar results but with important additions.
The chromatophores contain two kinds of pigment, usually brown
and black. It isa common belief that the pigment cells possess
amceboid motions by which they are able to contract or expand the
pigment diffused through their bodies, the latter being effected by
thrusting out protoplasmic processes into adjacent intercellular spaces.
It has, however, been recently shown that these protoplasmic
processes are permanently expanded and that the pigment granules
migrate within the cell. These granules are radially arranged about a
central ‘‘attraction sphere.” All chromatophores are in nervous con-
nections with each other and with their nerves by anastomoses, very
much as described above. The anastomosing, varicose branchlets of
the terminal dendrites, however, from an extensive nerve-complex
both upon and within the cells.
In cells with extended pigment masses nerve fibrillae can be seen
spread out on both upper and lower walls of the cell, with some
branches passing clear through the cells to join the reticulum of the
opposite side, sometimes branching within the cells and _ terminating
in tuberosities. These inter-cellular termini are very numerous in all
parts of the cell. They, however, are in no way related to the ‘‘at-
traction sphere” nor to the nucleus of the cell. The cell protoplasm,
then, is the medium of innervation of the pigment granules.
In the ‘‘contracted” pigment cells the pigment granules are all
massed at the centre of the cell, obscuring the nerve termini in that
region but leaving those in the other parts of the cell very clear and
unobstructed.
Ganglion Cells and Nerve Termini in the Ventricle of the Heart.!
Dr. Berkley has been applying the rapid Golgi and _picric-acid-
osmium-bichromate methods to the study of the nervous structures of
1 BERKLEY, A. J. On Complex Nerve Terminations and Ganglion Cells in
the Muscular Tissue of the Heart Ventricle. Anat. Anzeiger 1X 1, 2.
Literary Notices. clxi
the ventricle in the mouse and white rat with results of a brilliancy
characteristic of his recent work.
A fine interlamellar net-work is spread through the whole thick-
ness of the heart muscle and extends from the auriculo-ventricular
groove to the extreme apex of the ventricle with fibres of medium and
very small size. The main fibres extend generally in the direction of
the axis of the muscular bundles, spreading out and giving off branches
dichotomously as they proceed. These branches either join other
fibrillz or send out terminal filaments with knob-like extremities either
between the muscle fibres or on the bundle. In addition to the above
are fibres of a larger calibre without varicosities or connections with
the net-work. They follow undulating courses between the muscular
spindles and end in large and intricate figures. In the path of these
fibres, not far from the termination, is a ganglion cell of ovoid form.
The author inclines to regard these as sensory termini. Between the
sarcous elements are bipolar nerve cells. Their rami ramify between
the muscular elements, in some cases with curious arborescent termini.
Axis cylinders were notseen. These are regarded as sympathetic ele-
ments.
A large plexus of coarse ganglionic thickenings occurs among the
nerve fibres between the muscular bundles of the ventricle, compara-
ble to the plexus of the Auerbach in the intestine.
The Primer of Philosophy.'
Among the results of scientific progress during the last decade or
two has been the dawning of the idea that everything is not explained
by a few natural laws, an indefinite quantum of matter and time ad
libitum. Thus we enter upon a period of reconciliation of philasophy
and physical science, of religion and evolution. Whatever we may
think of the early stages of the process, it is satisfactory to realize that
monism is the recognition of the supremacy of the metaphysical and a
proof that the human mind will not long remain content with a God-less
or disarticulated universe. In the book before us we have an attempt to
prepare the way for a reconciliation. Without sharing altogether in the
author’s optimism respecting the immediate future of philosophy, or
more particularly this philosophy, we do find much to commend, espec-
ially in the vigorous disillusioning respecting sundry bits of hoary
nonsense which are bruskly kicked out of the way. Translating the
1CaRus, PAUL. Primer of Philosophy, Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago,
$1.00.
clxii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Kantian Anschauung by ‘at sight”? (that which we receive directly
by sensation, our meaning-endowed feelings) the author has no use
for intuition in the conventional sense. The data of experience ex-
hibit three elements (1) the feelings—the element of awareness simply,
(2) the forms of feeling—the various sensations, etc., (3) the meaning
of feelings—representations and the objective world.
The influence of Lotze may be seen in such a statement as ‘‘ The
peculiarity of existences, consists in affecting other existen-
ces and this constitutes its objectivity.” The thinking sub-
ject appears to other thinking subjects as an object in an
objective world. We are feelings, but we appear to other subjects as
material bodies moving about in space. Admitting that it is difficult
to conceive what the subjectivity of a flame or stone amounts to, he
claims that ‘‘we know that in inorganic nature there must be some-
thing analogous to our feelings on a lower scale.’’ While this is the
basis of positivistic monism it is just this for which the critic seeks
in vain for proof.
Truth is defined as the adequateness of a mental relation—an
agreement of a representation with the object representation.
It is of the nature of mind to attempt to satisfy the con-
ditions of relation and the mind therefore yearns after truth,
which is the deepest impulse of the mind, for truth is the fulfilment of
the mind.
We are glad to agree with the author in his summary dismission
of the axiom, than which a more abused word can scarcely be found,
Very reasonably the childish quibble of some modern mathematicians
as to the possibility that the sum of the angles in a triangle should be
greater or less than 180 degrees is dismissed with the remark that this
class of necessary formal truth rests on construction, i. e. definition.
Defining space as the possibility of motion, he proceeds to lay the
foundation for a new system of geometry as to the success of which
there will be a variety of opinion. [More logical to us isa method
which defines a point as the negation of motion i.e. as zero; all mo-
tions therefore become plus quantities and #-dimentional space is pos-
sible until zero is given a value, 0”. ‘This is done by defining the
position of zero with respect to some other zero, o’, when o’o or o'
becomes a line. Any given motion or direction once postulated be-
comes a line-of reference and 7-dimentional space 1s then excluded.
This empirical element in human geometry is gravitation. |
The three-dimentional space we, like the author, regard as in-
volved in the system by definition and not an arbitrary necessity of
Literary Notices. cl xiii
thought or nature. Upon the basis above suggested it would be easy
to construct a geometry ignoring the tridimentional element.
Reason originates by a differentiation of the formal and the sen-
sory in experience; it is the method of our experience. Human rea-
son is the reflection of the world reason, the former is rational only in
so far as it agrees with the latter; it is a mental picture of certain qual-
ities of reality. We do not find the treatment of reason wholly intel-
ligible.
The distinction insisted on between cause and reason on one
hand and effect and consequent on the other is one which might well
be more carefully observed. Causes are motions or happenings.
Cause is not equal to the effect but the total amount of matter and
energy is not altered. Cause is not mere succession it is the transfor-
mation of energy from one form into another, it is another statement
of the law of conservation of energy.
‘¢ A world of which all events are factors of causation is necessarily
a teleological world—a world of law, an orderly arranged universe, a
cosmos. ‘The actions of a free man are the immediate expressions of
his character. The actions of a man that is not free are not the ex-
pressions of his character. The ultimate springs of reality are spon.
taneous forces and their manifestations are a true exhibit of the nature
of his being. The spontaneity of nature is analogous to the action of
a free will. Free will,then,is the uncoerced natural output of a man’s
being under the given conditions. To the last section, that on psy-
chology, we shall not, at present, refer. Enough has been quoted to
show that there is much suggestive and some really valuable matter in
the book, which, like others from the same pen, is characterized by an
earnestness and directness which convince us of sincerity back of it.
With the ultimate applications we cannot agree but trust that the sys-
tem may serve to hasten the total collapse of that which passes for
metaphysics in many of our colleges. [Ce is Te
Injuries of the Temporal Lobe.’
‘¢Tt has been shown by clinical and experimental investigations
that deaf-mutism may be caused not only by lesion of the peripheral
organs either before or after the birth of the individual, but also by
disease of the cerebrum, i. e. of the regions of the temporal lobe.
ISEPPILLI, GUISEPPI. Affections of the Temporal Lobe, (1) a case of deaf-
mutism, (2) of lesion of the left temporal lobe without verbal deafness in a left-
handed man. Alenzst and Neurologist, X1V, 2.
clxiv JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.
Anatomical researches on the central nervous system seem also
to support this theory, an internal course for the auditory roots, sim-
ilar to that of the optic nerves being demonstrated by the observations
of such investigators as Flechsig, Bechtereu, Monakow, Zacher, &c.
Ferrier cites two cases which confirm these researches, the con-
clusion being that the acoustic nerves have their terminations in the
temporal lobes and that bilateral lesions of these same lobes cause
complete deafness.”
Seppilli then reviews these observations and presents a new case
which came under his direct observation—a case of a woman who
was a deaf-mute from infancy. Lesion and atrophy were discovered
upon autopsy, the medullary substance of the temporal lobes being
almost entirely transformed into cicatricial tissue. Other adjacent
parts were normal. The patient showed evidences of having been
the victim of an encephalitic process from birth. In such cases the
relation of deaf-mutism to lesions of the temporal lobes is evident.
Now it is natural that when the temporal lobes which preside over
the acoustic functions of language undergo a destructive lesion in
early infancy, the formation of verbal acoustic ideas is entirely pre-
vented, and in consequence of thus lacking the elements which serve
for the development and elaboration of motor verbal ideas, mutism is
necessarily produced.
It has been affirmed with regard to motor aphasia that spoken
language is a function of the left cerebral hemisphere, that is, a man
in the act of speaking, as far as his brain is concerned, is left-handed.
This theory is justified by the results of the investigation into
several cases which can not be here detailed. Two sets of facts have
been thus established :
first, that a lesion of the right temporal lobe gives origin in left-
handed people to verbal deafness, and that this is not caused in right-
handed individuals.
Second, that left-handed people are not the subjects of verbal deaf-
ness unless the right temporal lobe is affected.
From all which observations we may conclude that in left-handed
people the acoustic center of language has its seat, not in the left, but
in the right hemisphere.
Nerve-endings in the Auditory Organ’
Professor Lenhossék has applied Golgi’s method to the Maculz
1M. v. LENHOSSEK. Die Nervendigungen im Gehérorgan. Azat. Anz.
Lrgdnzungsheft, VIII, 1893.
Literary Notices. clxv
and cristz acustice of the mouse with results which confirm those of
Retzius, that the nerves end free upon the hair-cells without entering
their substance. The histogenetic, as well as the trophic centre of the
acoustic fibres lies in the auditory ganglion, from whose bipolar
nerve-cells one process passes mesally to break.up in a terminal den-
drite within the so-called acusticus nidulus, another passes peripherally
and ends similarly in intimate contact with the hair-cells.
Spinal Ganglia in Amphibia.'
The discovery of His that in the spinal ganglia the sensory nerves
pass both centrally and peripherally from the neave-cell in the gang-
lion and the motor nerves originate within the cord and effect no con-
nections in the ganglion accounts for the fact that in the adult gangha
no cells are found with more than two processes. Yet cells of the
sympathic ganglia, which originate from the spinal ganglia, possess
well-developed dendrites. This fact has led to the study of frog-larvee.
In young stages, before the hind legs have appeared, numerous cells
are found which possess several proceses, some provided with small
but typical terminal dendrites. Further investigations are promised
in the near future.
Notes Upon Hysteria.
From a series of important articles in the Archives de Neurologie
we abstract such portions as may be of service to the theory and prac-
-tical treatment of these too frequent maladies of an over differentiated
society. We owe the greater part of these abstracts to Mr. Charles
B. White. First, then, definitions, as supplied by M. Pierre Janet in
an article On some Recent Definitions of Hysteria.”
Laségue says: Under the name of hysteria is designated provi-
sionally a uniform number of nervous manifestations preferredly in
young women, encountered very rarely in young men, and not de-
pendent upon any known lesion of nervous centers.
M. Babinski shows that it is possible to make this diagnonsis in
studying hysteria :
1.—Symptomatic aspect. _2.—Evolution. 3 —Aetiology. 4.—
The influence of various treatments. 5.—The insight furnished by
experimentation upon the hypnotics.
‘DissE J. Ueber die Spinal-ganglien der Amphibien.
*
>
$959
*
>
one
oe
“
ee
_«
tate! =!
ike
ie
°
aes aohe
nat pte les:
*
¥
re
tet