i SORBET + eat ese oranda or ~ > A . eo . na a D8 ele ale Pr ay : * stasis eite ea o6 hes che * * RS es ove te "rw r= AD oe Yue wee ewe eaevtive tes Vea oe! Se De Sees ee * “+ tae - « oS - +e oe ewe MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. ———______» « ~<_____ RECEIVE Ci aks ae es Accession NoO.................. Given by.. Place,. *,* No book or pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab-~ oratory without the permission of the Trustees. By ey 4d ee Cae. SAS oem ies by THE JOURNAL OF Comparative Neurology AS OUARTERLY PERIODICAL DEVOTED TO THE Comparative Study of the Nervous System. EDITED BY Cri, la eRe. Ke, Professor of Biology tn Denison University. VOLUME III. PUBLISHED BY THE EDiTor. GRANVILLE, OHIO, U.: S. A. k. Friedlinder & Son, Berlin, European Agents. nae (i it } ? at ) The Journal of Comparative Neurology. Contents of Vol. III, 1893. MARCH, 1895. Pages 1-34, i—xlii. Plates I-II. NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES, II. NEUuRO- LOGICAL WoRK AT ZuRICH. By Ad. Meyer, M.D., Ph. D.----- THE INSULA OF THE Pic, By 7. £. Clark, M.S., Professor in Clin- ton blains liberaliinstitutes, sWith) Plates 2s] see THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDULLATED NERVE Fipres. By C. Z. wierricky” NVathY Plate DL .225 3232 eee ee EpIToRIAL. The Scientific Utility of Dreams IGUTEERARY (NOTICES = 2! 3002 he ee ee ee eo ee Bissures ol¢the:Cerebrumass sees ee ee ee eee AnimallExtractsras Nerve, Stummllanitc pee een ees Treatment of Insanity of Myxcedema by Thyroid Grafts_._ ithe Lumbar Nerves of ithe Apesiand) Mans222=s2"=s2 === The Nerves of the Arm and Hand in Apes and Man_____- Changes due to Functional Activity in Nerve Cells__..___- The Brain of Mud Fishes hes Vittall No desk se 2 ee See ee ere eee Studies upon the Head of Craniate Vertebrates____._____- Open Pharyngeal Ciefts in the Human Embryo..___-_____ Peripheral Distribution of the Fibres of the Posterior Nerve RNG oY HS = fg Me ieee eR AR LE a ge ee ir a Muscles and Nerves in Mermis and Amphioxus The Cerebrum of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus Goltziand)the Cerebral Hemispheres: == - 025200 Application of (GolgijProcess tosWorms22-- =o — = Development of the Ear of Amblystoma Skin Sensations of Central Origin Nerve Terminations in Taste-buds Ih TAPAS OU A ATES Ot Woe Wriobavey ye ee ee ie Nervous Endings in the Mucous Layer of the Hleum Circulatory Changes in Hypnosis Mirror Writing IRMA SIN RE Coy Coyer ae A ee ak eS The Universal Medical Journal RECENT LITERATURE XXV XXV1 XXVl XXVli XXvil XXVIli XXVill XXVill XxXix xxix Xxx XXX XXXi XXxl XXXil 4 JUNE, 1893. Pages 35—106, xliii—lxxxii. Plates III-VIII, X—XIII. PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE GENUS CypP- ris. By C. H. Turner, M.S., Professor of Natural Sciences in Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. With Plates III-IV____ .--_-- NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES. III. NEURO- LOGICAL WorK AT ZuRICH. By Adolf Meyer, M.D., Ph.D., Path- ologist of the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Kankakee, NEUROLOGICAL NOTES FROM THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES OF DENISON UNIVERSITY. I. SELENKA’s ‘‘ PHARYNGEAL SAC”? IN THE Duck. By #. H. Bawden, A.B., Fellow in Biology, Denison University. With PR) a tea aaa ee Il. THE PINEAL AND PARIETAL ORGAN IN PHRYNOSOMA COR- ONATA. By A. D. Sorensen, A.B., Fellow in Biology, DenisonsWniversity. Within ate exe e ee III. THE Roor oF THE DIENCEPHALON. By A. D. Sorensen_- IV. REVERSION OF THE CEREBELLUM IN AMERICAN LIZARDS. By Pele Evens o= so Se es ee oe ee Vie) AMIE SELIPPOCAMPUS-) \By (Gn. FLer7tChee a ene THE INDUSIUM OF THE CALLOSUM. By P. A. Fash, B.S., Instructor in Physiology, Vertebrate Zoology and Neurology, Cornell Uni- versity. Wath Plates xa Soe ee oe eee ee ee ee ee THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORTEX CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH A REPORT UPON A DoG FROM WHICH THE WHOLE CERE- BRUM HAD BEEN REMOVED BY PROFESSOR GOLTZ. By Dr. Lud- Wire Lancer An kfort-O1= Neal eee en ee CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE CEN- TRAL NERVOUS SysTEM. II.. ToPOGRAPHY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE BRAIN OF CERTAIN REPTILES. Continued. With Plates Vie Wily) Valu, WALI Sern dl eX By, |G. e7, 7:70 p ae EASTER AIR VIN @ Ta CS ee a oe et eae a, REL SN a Oe Simultaneous Tactile dimpressions= == ee ee M@he' CerebellariCortexsmitheWWopean a= sae eee eae AY New Method! ofiColoring Neuroglian ss e2== sees Anatomical "Nomenclature. 2 {tt eS ie eee ee ee ‘© Sense.of Boundary 7s 228 2eees 2 ee toe oop ee ee ee Influence of the Nervous System on the Skin----.--.----- Distance and Color Perception in Infants-_______-_-_---- Origin of the Electric Nerves in the Torpedo__________-- ihesSuprarenaly Capsules sss eee eee a dhephunctronsiofsthe ronal loo bem ee EXpPression™ inthe pln Sam eos es ee aes ee ihe Limits of Animal Intelligences=s55 5-5. ae Whhe*Senstbilitives: ine Womens) o> oe eee Asitationtonr baraliysis eNoitanse ssa =e eee een Oniginwof, “thes. Wille SLA Ses Tee ee em 45 50 54 61 69 77 xliii xliii xliv xl vi xlv xl viii xlix 5 DhewVisualsPabhyand Visual) Centres i= so oeeeseacees ae ana Natunaliselection: andiNiusice Saas o sas aera eee The, General’ Morphology of the Brains 2=-2=522-22-----..- The Development of Human and Animal Physiognomy--_-_- The Functions of the Temporal Cerebral Lobes_---__----- Causecloti Epilepsy eee ana = ae a ee Se ce eee The Activity of the Cortex in Reproduction and Hallucina- LEK ae SS es Ee te eee ee Ss ee A ee BadiMedicaliAdvices2 2s 22 So ee ee ee eee ane - Notes (oni Spidersiabits oe eee ee eee eee aa ee dihey Diseaseszofathe) Nervous (oyStemiee eae es = ae ihe: Soullkof (Mantas se. .2 2. 25 Soe eee aa ee CannabalismeAmono insects ===2— =e ee The Sense Organs of the San Diego Blind Fish___--__-__- Cerebral Wocallizalts omnes ee ete eye eee ee ANE wslheonryaoty Golo Vilsio mses ee ee ee ease Experimental Investigation of the Relation Between Res- [MERLOLE Aeenael VaNinyerat Oya ee Mis cullaty Sens evoty ities 5) tim clea eee eee ae een diherWawrofis Perce petro mse a cue ee ee en ee ee The Olfactory Apparatus and Hippocampus-__-_--_----. Therapeutic Value of Nerve Stretching in Mixed Neuralgia The Objective Symptoms of Neurasthenia._____-__.__-___ The Early Development of the Pineal Eye_-~-_-____-_____ SEPTEMBER, 18938. Pages 107—162, I]xxxiii—exxvi. Plates XIV—XXV. THE INTRINSIC PULMONARY NERVES BY THE SILVER METHOD. By Henry J. Berkley, M.D., Johns Hopkins Hospital, Balti- mores Waithy Plate px Vik see eee ee es a Aaa CEL AN INTERESTING NEuRITIS. By /. D. Barker, M.D., Dayton, O. NEUROLOGISTS: AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES. IV. NEUROLO- GICAL WoRK AT ZuRICH. By Adolf Meyer, M.D., Ph.D., Mi- ) ROS Deasionn Isletas Ievalienes CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE CEN- TRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. IIl.—ToroGRAPHY AND HIsTOLOGY OF THE BRAIN OF CERTAIN REPTILES. By C. L. Herrick, Den- israel WWhoryeritiayg — \Wiiiln Tbs. SOWe= Osc, Se Sy ee eee REPORT UPON THE PATHOLOGY OF A CASE OF GENERAL PARAL- MSIStsy, (G. We meeZrE ee sev eblates xox xoxo) (Arey Bs (Cp Dy Wea aR Re OTD aR A LN a ey HO ETE RPAIR Vi INI@ TTC BS es RU ine dae ET eR DG Te ANB SP Habits of Scorpions Habits of Warblers Mito tienCell Divisione ee ees uO ak ay eed Effects of Removal of Cerebro-Spinal Fluid Ixvi Ixvili Ixix Ixxli Ixxil Ixxili Ixxili Ixxiv Ixxv Ixxvil Ixxxi Ixxxil 107 1Iz2 114 11g I4I Ixxxiil Ixxxili Ixxxv Ixxxv Ixxxv 6 The Influence of Psychical Phenomena on Brain Tempera- RUA ase ee eee ee Ixxxvi Cerebrinelin the’ Dreatmentof Ataxiat=2") 22 eae Ixxxvii Clinical Investigations of Epilepsy, Hysteria and Idiocy __~ Ixxxvli The Peripheral Relations of the Auditory nerve ---~~- -__- Ixxxviil Shenuiowaiesy Oye IDhaephenss = 2 ee ee eee Ixxxvlil MheyBramnpoteMiy xine ee eee eee ]xxxix The Rudimentary Jacobson’s Organ of the Crocodile -____- Ixxxix Infantile INucleany: Deseneration= === naan xc Restricted Hemiatrophyioftheyhaces2—-222— oes eee xci Effects of the Pneumogastic and Sympathic Nerves on IOVReSNON 2 eee a ee oo be eoeo tooo cesses xci Porked) NervetEndingsion Hattsea== 5 s—s see eees aes xcil AME JOE Ole Wipes es eee a one eee XClil Balm SUG ET yey sce re ee as ne ree xciil Current Views of the Structure of Olfactory Organs and Maste-Bulbs. “With Blate SehV, Picss(6-8222-=—==—5—"— XCV Variations in Spinal Nerves in Amphibia_--_.....----__-- cii Nucleary Division in Regenerating Nerves_-.----_. _---- cill Influenceof Music 2222 > 222 22 Seas Seen eee eee cili ILewint onl Nicotinismess 25 22s eee eee eee nee cill AiheyRespiratony;Centrelesaaaae= eee eee eee eae cv The Cephalic Extremity of the) Brain’ Mube==2=2-==22s22 3 evi Subdivision and Nomenclature of the Brain.__.____------ cvi Symeesthesia= oe oe te oS eae eee So ae ee cviil Influence of the Cerebral Hemispheres Upon the Circulatory Apparatus/s22 ae! os Se oe ee eee ee cix Innenvationlotmtne | Ciliary body.) seen ne ae eee un ee cix The Pineal and Parietal Foramen in Recent Fish_-_-_-____- cx Pacini’s Corpuscles in the Trunk of the Tibial Nerve_____- cx The Sensory Nerves in the Skin of the External Genital Organs ea ee ow eC 6 ee ed es oe ee eee cx Regenerationyofe Newey Bib res |e eee eee ee cxi VBP IS gee] Dh soho ese co N NG eau Sk tee Te ee cxil hey Brain of Binds=====s BT OME a eter eee ene Se eee cxii Drew berkleysonithet@ ere elininm te en erate eee eee ees cxvil RECENT LITERATURE \s- coun ot ea seme eee eee eee eee cxvill DECEMBER, 1893. Pages 163—182, cxxvii—clxxxvi. Plates IX, XXVIand XXVII. NOTE ON THE STRUCTURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF NERVOUS ELEMENTS. By Paul Mitrophanow, Professor in the Univer- SUL YO Lp VATS AW eee ae AEN I Te est Se ss 163 JEAN M. Cuarcort. By £. G. Stanley, B.S.,Fellow in Comparative PNorosooh paver IDeseioye, Uhainkerdyiyys ee 168 - 7 LABORATORY NOTES FROM DENISON UNIVERSITY. VI. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN OF CERTAIN Birps. By C. Judson Herrick, B.S., Fellow in Neurology in Denison University. With Plate XXVI__-_- 171 VII. THE CALLOSUM AND HIPPOCAMPAL REGION IN MARSUPIAL AND LOWER Brains. By C. ZL. Herrick, With Plates IX and NORV Ee eee oon see BE A ee 176 [PERE RAR Via NOTICES 2a soot ae occa oh oe eae oe Le CXxvli Alcoholuinebriety ya. ose ws ois =) em ay pe A Te Cxxvii HRSuanatra ator Art cy Sit 0 CXXxiil inSanitysin\iGreecesan sae 2. 2s LL ee Pee CXXXiV Colors DependentyonisHoods.ss == a> eee eee eae CXXXI1V The Spanish Inquisition as an Alienienist-----..--------- CXXXIiV The Origin and Distribution of the Nerves of the Lower SIGGTY (0 ofan RE a eR AEN Noe Na ee CXXXV GlasciModelsiof gBrains mies =) amano ay ea ee CXXXV Methodstof brain! Presenvationa sea= 4 see e ee CXXXV Myxcedema and Cretinism Treated by Thyroid Grafts and Extracts (sooo eee ee (ee Se ee CXXXV1 An Instrument for Reaction-Time Determination ._-_-__- CXXXVI11 Arrangement of the Sympathic Nervous System__-------. CXXXViil RecordiotmBrainy E xaminationseses= ose ea aetna Diane CXXXVIiii Subdural Membranes and Intercranial Pressure__-_---.-- CXXXIX iihenicnecalienks se Se re ae es eee fe Le ne ee cxl Some Suggestions Concerning Methods of Psychologic Study cxl Peripheral Neuritis Following Alcoholism...-.._---.--.-. exlil SpinallyMuscullarestroplive soa see ee a ee ee exlil Gerebrinest eee See le ee bere ee Le Le eee are exlil iihesFunctronsjomuner eiturtanya bodiment exlill Am ericanmlbamiprey siesta ae eae eee ee oe saa ene exlili dihe-Brainy ofsthey spotted yNewtseeese seo e eee eke ee exlili Edinger’s Lectures upon the Structure of the Central Nerv- OUST SY Sterne te ee ee eee ul eh umes ber exlvil Kolliker’s! Histology; Sixth) Editions. 2252222225222" soe exlvili Mibhe: Superstition of Necessity ema se ae a en cl ewe um bo-sackale Plexus meses eer eo a eee Se cli AY News Hypothesis Concerning) Visione o2ss eee ce ee eee chi ANGI OSISH HD OLONOS aera meee eee ae es 2 Nea Ls cliii Wood’s Reference Hand-Book Supplement. -_-.--..------- cliv Articles on the Brain in the Reference Hand-Book_______- cliv ‘umorsvof ther brain eee es see sad wee, eal see erate Pa clv Acromepaly) Secs meee arms wees Bee lh ee ee aan ikea eG clv ati © perations ete sere ite cee i MA Ste Ee een eae Ed . elvi The Emotions, The Physiological and Psychophysical Basis of clvi ihes Gare of pile p tics meee mele yee le eon irae eae t Seder clvi leved lives 22S Se ee eee entree oa ea oe See a clvi Blood: Vessels of the Brainy = so 202s sto sae ioe clvii Cranial and Spinal Nerves.....------- ae ape aS ee elvii Histological) Formutze 222 soe eee ee eeeeee ee ee The Meninges: 222222222 22 ee esses econ eee eae eee e eee The’ Physical Expression ‘of Insanity: 2225. Sscee eee eee The Innervation of the Chromatophores_-_-_------2---=: Ganglion Cells and Nerve Termini in the Ventricle of the Heart 222322) a tose oes be ee eee ThevErimerof@ Philosophy sesso s-eae a eee injuniestotmthemliemporalm open eens. a= = aaa ieee ee Nenve-ndinigssinithe AuditonyeOrngane == see ee sen =e SpinaliGansliaginyAumphilbiaaeee sa e= eee ee ee INotes/Upon Elysterta-=_ 22a Se ee os een eee The Hypoaria, or Lobi Inferiores of Pishes=-2-22-=2----=- dihes@erebrumyors Ornithorhynchus=s=eee==—— ee eee dhe Hippocampus == =o eee Sales ee eee Diseases vofyPersonality=-2- 225 == 22 eee ee RECENT EVTERATURE 222205 2s 22 sew 2 ee ee eee clvii clvil clvili clix clx clxi clxili clxiv clxv clxv cl xxiii clxxv clxxv clxxvil clxxvili NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL LABORATORIES. II. NeEvuRoLocicAL Work AT ZURICH. By Ap. Meyer, Pu.D. The names of F. Arnold, Henle, v. Gudden, Huguenin, Forel, v. Monakow, T. Martin and Honegger prove that Zirich is connected with a good amount of first class neuro- logical work. It is, I think, well worth giving a short account of the men working there at present and of the opportunities for students in the laboratories of the different institutions. Zurich is a town of about 100,000 inhabitants, wonderfully situated at the end of a fine lake. This relatively small town has at present the following men working in anatomy of the nervous system: Prof. Aug. Forel, the director of the Lunatic Asylum, Burgholzli; Privatdocent, Dr. C., v. Monakow, lec- turing on neurology at the University; Paul Martin, Professor of physiology at the Veterinary School; Dr. S. S. Honneger, specialist for nervous diseases; Huguenin, formerly professor of internal medicine, doing little neurological work at present ; the physiologist, Prof. Gaule, and his assistant, Dr. Wlassak, in the physiological institution of the University. It is very inter- esting that all these men work independently from each other ; they form, so to say, so many schools or independent work shops. Professor Forel holds no doubt one of the most prominent positions among the anatomists of the brain. A pupil of Meynert and of v. Gudden, and besides an expert entomolo- gist, he unites a great number of faculties which must be con- sidered as the essential condition for successful work in anatomy of the brain. His first original contribution was made under the auspices 2 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. of Meynert, in 1872,! and accepted as an inaugural discussion by the University of Zurich. I wish to give here a short sketch of the ground which this paper covers, as it is not easy to get it in the original. The optic thalamus of the lower mammals differs from that of man and of the monkey by a gradual de- crease of the pulvinar, which is very short in the carnivora and can be considered to be absent in the ungulata and rodents. The thalamus is however even shorter in the lower mammals than it seems to be, as what appears to be its posterior part, is formed by an unproportionately large external geniculate body, which reaches the upper surface of the thalamus. The small cuneiform external geniculate body of man is much more inde- pendent from the thalamus, and it is easy to see why it was not recognized in the lower mammals, although it is much larger: it is too little marked off from the thalamus. In the carnivores the external geniculate body is right above the internal one; in the rodents, in which the thalamus is even shorter than in the carni- vora, the internal geniculate body is situated caudad of the exter- nal geniculate body. The fibres of the optic tract which pass through the external geniculate body to the corpus guadrigemi- num anterius are covered in man by the pulvinar thalami, but are superficial in the lower mammals, where the pulvinar is not developed. The stratum zonale thalami of man is therefore different from what might be called stratum zonale thalami in lower mammals, where the superficial layer in the posterior part of the thalamus is formed by fibres of the optic tract passing through the superficial corpus geniculatum externum.—There are other points which help to explain the difference in the in- ternal structure of the optic thalamus in man and in lower mammals. In the latter the hemispheres are small; the corona radiata is correspondingly small and covers only the anterior part of the optic thalamus leaving the posterior part free. This is why the fibries of the corona radiata do not show as a 1. Beitrige zur Kenntniss des Thalamus opticus und der ihn umgebenden Gebilde bei den Séugetieren, von August Forel aus Waadt. Kaiserl. Academie der Wissenschaften in Wien, 1872. No. XVI. Math-naturwiss. Classe. 6 Juni, Ueberreicht von Prof. Dr. Th. Meynert. Meyer, Neurologists and Neurological Laboratories. 3 radiation, but have a longitudinal course in the posterior part of the optic thalamus, which is itself covered posteriosly by the large external geniculate body. The difference in the form of the laminae medullares is explained in a simular way. The fornix, before it ends in the corpus mammnillare, sends fibres into the pedunculus glandulae pinealis. The part of the fornix situated above the thalamus opticus (corpus fornicis) becomes thicker than the corpus callosum in lower mammals, — be- cause the commissural fibres corresponding to the Lyra Davidis in man are much more numerous, in proportion to the greater area of the origin of the fornix in these animals. The latter part of the paper is very often quoted. I can not help thinking however that many of those who quoted it did not know it but from quotations; a perusal of the paper would have made many mistakes evitable. In 1874 Forel’s splendid work on the ants of Switzerland! appeared, a wonderful testimony of his talent of observation and of classification, and this was followed by a number of myrme- cological studies.” In the same time he worked out the classical paper on the anatomy of the tegmentum and its connections with the cephalad portions of the brain.* There is no doubt that v. Gudden who was psychiatrist at Zurich when Forel was a student made a deep impression on on him. Huguenin was at that time working in Meynert’s sense and ways and_ published his anatomy of the brain 1873.4 Forel too become a pupil of Meynert, but his independent mind, trained so well by his ento- mological studies, led him another way. Whereas Huguenin furnished a translation of Meynert’s work into intelligible Ger- 1. Les fourmis de la Suisse: Nouveaux mémoires de la Société helvétique des sciences naturelles, 1874. 2. Etudes myrmécologigues, Bull. Soc. vaud. sc. nat. xvi, 81 etc. 3. Untersuchungen iiber die Haubenregion und ihre oberen Verkniipfun- gen im Gehirne des Menschen und einiger Saéugethiere, mit Beitragen zu den Methoden der Gehirnuntersuchung. Von Dr. August Forel, Assistentarzt an der Kreis Irrenanstalt Miinchen. Arch. f. Psychiatrie, Bd. vii. 1877. 4. Allgemeine Pathologie der krankheiten des Nervensystems. 1. Theil. Amatomische Einleitung. Ziirich, 1873. 4 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. man, as Forel remarks very wittily, with figures still more schematized than Meynet’s, Forel made an attempt to leave the ground of speculation and to study attentively what serial sections of the brain show and what they don’t show. The scientific training which he has shown in his dissertation and afterwards in his work on the ants, found congenial encourage- ment with von Gudden, whose assistant he had become in the Lunatic Asylum of Munich. I am perhaps too enthusiastic about Forel’s paper on the tegmentum. Yet I believe it is to this paper that I owe nearly all my education for anatomical studies. Edinger’s classical lectures as an introduction, then Forel’s papers and Burdack’s famous work ought to form the first school for the study of the numerous monographs and for original work. The writer of the present sketch had the chance of getting the late Prof. Meynert’s copy of Forel’s paper. The numerous remarks by ‘Meynert’s own hand show with what attention the famous mast- er studied the work of his critical pupil. It is impossible to give here a fair review of the paper on the tegmentum. I hope that the reader of this paper is already familiar with it or, if not, he will be sufficiently rewarded by reading it in the original. Forel has a great advantage over most writers on anatomy of the brains French being his native and I might say natural language, his education and mental tendancies being German, he handles the difficult subject with an astonishing simplicity of stile without becoming inexact and superficial. Let me mention the characteristic features of Forel’s paper. The speculative anatomy of Meynert and especially of Luys are entirely abandoned and purely anatomical methods are used. The defective nomenclature which has been and for a long time will be a great impediment for the progress of our science, is examined and careful definitions are put in the place of vaguely used terms. It seems that too often names were created first and then applied to fibres and nuclei which would best suit the hypothesis, whereas we should try to analyze the elements first and give them a name when we have recog-. Meyer, Veurologists and Neurological Laboratortes. 5 nized them sufficiently well as independent elements. Forel follows the rule of adopting the term which has been used first; he adheres to historical principals. This requirers a knowledge of the definition of a term used by the various authors; as there is no dictionary of synonyms of anatomical terms which would give all the various uses and misuses, it is advisable that we should say what definition of the term we assume, by quoting the name of the author. Where new terms have to be created, we had best avoid the so-called rational nomenclature, because experience shows that the most irrational and confusing nomen- clature has been created in this way. This is all the more true now, where the brains of lower vertebrates are studied and we have to adopt the oddest names. In 1881, Forel was called to Zurich for the chair of psy- chology, which is connected with the position as director of the lunatic asylum of the Canton Zurich. In this position he lec- tured for several years on anatomy of the brain, until he gave this branch to Privatdocent v. Monakow. The enormous work connected with the direction of the institution, the active interest which Prof. Forel began to take in the anti-alcoholic movement, and his continued work in the study of ants, did not paralyze him. Through the hands of several pupils he pub- lished important observations,! in 1886 he wrote the most im- portant contribution to neurology,” in which he shows again his great talent for classification and assimilation. This paper even more so than the papers on the tegmetum, defies every at- tempt of making an abstract. _It is itself an abstract of an im- mense field work, a great numner of observations of various au- thors and of Forel himself, brought under one new head: the theory of the neuron, of the element of the nervous apparatus. Had not Veja’s work on the spinal ganglions misled Forel some- what, he would have given us the complete plan of the nervous 1. Br. Onufrowicz. Ursprung des N. acusticus. Arch. f. Psych. Bd. XVI, Heft 3. Wl. Onufrowicz. Das microcephale Gehirn Hofmann. Arch. f. Psych. Bd. XVII. 2. Einige hirnanatomische Betrachtungen und Ergebnisse. von Prof. Au- gust Forel in Ziirich. Arch. f. Psych. XVIII. Heft 1. 6 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. system which we know now. The numerous facts which he had observed when using v. Gudden’s degeneration method com- bined with the new discoveries of Golgi, brought him to the conclusion that the nerve-cells and their prolongations (fibres) form one entity, ending free, without anastomosis. The same idea based on embryological facts was published independently and in the same month (August, 1886,) by His. This paper of Forel is so classical that I do not make an attempt of giving a review of it; it is absolutely necessary to know it in the original. It contains many details on von Gudden’s, v. Monakow’s and Forel’s work, which are as a rule omitted in the current text books. Forel’s last contribution for neurological literature is a short communication of results obtained with v. Gudden’s method with regard to the IX, X, and XII nerves.’ In the introduction he gives a general review of the methods for anatomical research on the brain. The chief result of this work is that it proves that there is no crossed root in the motor part of these nerves, such as Obersteiner maintains in his work. To complete the review of the work published by Forel and his school, I should like to mention here a short communi- cation of Dr. Schiller,? who tried to compare the numerical dif- ference between the elements of the new-born and of the adult cat. He chose as a typical object the third nerve and he found the average number of fibres 3,000. The new-born cat had about 50-75 fibres less than the adult one, a difference which may be caused by the very small size of the fibres in the young cat—some may have escaped the eye of the observer ; we may however quite as well think of the individual differences. Whereas in the new-born animal the fibre measures between 1.5 and 5m, the fibre of the adult measures between 6 and 20m. Prof. Forel has in his laboratory a fine collection of serial sections made by himself and by his assistants. Of late years, he appears rarely in those two rooms; Dr. Mercier has the whole under his care at present. Those who wish to work in the laboratory will however always find a hearty welcome. 1. Kdlliker’s Festschrift. Albert Miiller, Ziirich, 1891. 2. Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Sciences de Paris. Sept. 30, 1889. thks INSURE A OF THB rei. By ah); Bi Grane With Plate I. The insula (island of Reil) of the pig (Svs scrofa) is located between the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes and the olfac- tory tract.1 A small portion of this area is included in the Syl- vian fissure, but by far the greater part, as in the sheep, lies in what some authors call the vallicula or Sylvian fossa (rhinal_fis- sure, Turner), cephalad of the temporal lobe and dorsad of the enormously developed olfactory tract. The operculums are not well developed and if present at all are very rudimentary. Lus- sana and Limoigin say they are wanting in the pig.! Inat least three-fourths of the 20 brains examined, a fissure was found at P. (see Figs. 2 and 4,) and I have assumed it to be constant in- asmuch as the brains in which it was wanting were those of pigs under one year old. This fissure, although rudimentary, is well defined and may be the rudiment of the presylvian. The insula is entirely overlapped dorsally and, when con- cealed, is also covered laterally by the area in figs. 2 and 4. Its cephalic portion is somewhat concealed by the area N (fig. 2). Accordingly I have concluded that the operculum (m) and the prae-or sub-operculum (n) are sometimes present though rudimentary. Professor Sir Wm. Turner? names the fissure dorsad of the olfactory crus (ex, fig. 1) the rhinal fissure (r). This fissure may be no other than the rhinal fissure if the frontal and par- ietal lobes are so developed as to completely overlap the insula laterally, as the Sylvan fossa will then be closed up and the rhinal fissure would extend to the surface as in fig. 1. How- I. Fisiologia der Centri Nervosi Encefalici, Vol. I, p. 150. 3. The Convolutions of the Brain, p. 35, Fig. 29. [7] 8 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ever, in fig. 2, it will be noted that the lateral surface of the insula is exposed in two areas which although connected are quite distinct. The intervening space in which the insula is exposed can be no less than the Sylvian fossa. In brains hav- ing more highly developed frontal lobes, this fossa is limited, in the adult, by the development of the pre-and sub-operculums, to a small portion cephalad of the temporal lobe. The width of the fissure which Turner calls rhinal, cephalad of its junction with the Sylvian fissure, is always greater than its width caudad of the Sylvian or cephalad of the fissure P. (fig. 2) where it is the true rhinal fissure. This increase in width is probably due in most cases to the entering of numerous blood-vessels which transverse the insular area and these go mainly to its dorsal sur- face. I think therefore that Professor Turner erred in naming this the rhinal fissure instead of Sylvian fossa, as the rhinal fis- sure extends ventrad of the insula and the crus is not connected with the insula at its lateral surface. Huxley (Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals, p. 61, Fig. 21) figures (see Fig. 3) the left half-brain of a pig and rep- resents the insula as normally exposed in the Sylvian fossa. Krueg! says ‘‘the so-called insula, as in the, carnivora as well as in the pig (presumably all Suillidae), lies concealed in the depth of a fissure, while in the remaining ungulates it is exposed.” In sixteen brains of pigs ranging one year and under, nearly three-fifths of the insulas were entirely concealed, while in the remaining two-fifths the areas of exposure differed greatly, the extreme being shown in Fig. 2. In five brains of pigs be- tween one and two anda half years, all insulas were entirely concealed and the conclusion reached was that the insula is not normally exposed in the pig. There is considerable variation in the insulas of the same brain. In No. 9, Left exposed, Right concealed. In No. 13, Left scarcely exposed (?) Right exposed in two places, Fig. 2. In No. 17, Left exposed, Right concealed. 1. Ueber die Furchung der Grosshirnrinde der Ungulaten, in Zeitschrift fiir Wissenchaftliche Zoologie, Vol. 31, p. 313. Crark, The Insula of the Pig. 9 The plane of the insula is perpendicular to the lateral as- pect of the brain, as is the case in the sheep and calf. This position of the plane, as well as the location of the insula in the Sylvian fossa, is probably due to the undeveloped state of the frontal lobes and the unusual development of the olfactory crus. For in the horse, whose frontal lobes are more highly developed and whose crus is much smaller, the insula stands at an angle of about 45° to the lateral surface and the larger part of the insula is located in the Sylvian fissure. Moreover in one brain (pig) (No. 4) this plane makes an angle of not more than 60°-65° with the lateral aspect. This being the case in but one brain, it naturally suggests an individual peculiarity. The area which represents the insula in the pig is quite large and generally well defined except at its junction with the tem- poral lobe. In but three instances was there any distinct line ot demarcation. In one of these the depression was slight, about like the average fissure upon the insular area and might _ have been caused by pressure of an artery. In the second insula this depression was at least twice as deep as the first and easily recognizable as a true fissure. In still another, Fig. 7, this depression reached a depth of nearly four mm. completely separating the insular area from the temporal lobe. In the last mentioned brain the fissure in question was visible upon the lateral aspect of the brain while inthe two preceding it was not. The cephalic boundary of the insula is unusually sharply defined by the circuminsular fissure in pigs of one year and over, as shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8, g and 10, while in those of 6-10 months the insula is so narrow cephalad that it may grad- uate insensibly into the frontal lobe without the formation of a fissure. This is shown in Fig. 5. The area becomes suddenly much thicker dorso-ventrally near the temporal lobe. Upon this area one fissure (t, Fig. 5) at least, appears to be constant. It seems to originate upon the lateral surface of the insula nearly opposite the mouth of the Sylvian fissure. It sometimes extends scarcely to the dorsal surface while in others (those of one year and over) it may extend dorso-caudally almost across the insular area as in Figs. 6, 8 and Io. 10 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Other fissures are nearly always found upon this area. The cephalic portion of the insula is divided sometimes into as many as three gyres but these divisions are not believed to be constant, and in the pig, as in the sheep, owing to its compar- atively simple character, these individual differences are very striking. The fissures as a rule grow deeper as they approach the meson and the cephalic portion of the insula does not extend as far as laterad as the rest. DESCRIPTION OF PEATE I. fig.z. Lateral aspect of the Left Hemicerebrum of a Pig, (after Turner). r, rhinal fissure; s, Sylvan fissure. Fig. 2. Right Hemicerebrum of Pig. No. 13; x %. In, Imsula; Sy, Sylvian Fissure; Rh, Rhinal Fissure; Olf, Olfactory Tract. Fig. 3. Lateral aspect of Left Half Brain of Pig (after Huxley). Sy, Syl- vian Fissure; In, Insula. Fig. 4. Lateral Aspect of Right Half of Brain of Pig. No 17; x % Rh, Rhinal Fissure; Sy, Sylvian Fissure; Olf, Olfactory Tract; Op, Optie Nerve. fig. 5. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig. No. 12; x 4%. Olfactory bulb re- moved. Olf, Olfactory Tract; In, Insula. fig. 6. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig, showing Insula as seen when the Dorso- lateral overlapping portions are removed. Olfactory Bulb removed No. 133 x 2%. In. Insula; T, Union of Insula with Temporal Lobe; OIf, Olfactory Tract. fig. 7. Right Hemicerebrum of Pig. No.9; x %. In, Insula; C, Cir- cuminsular Fissure; R, Rhinal Fissure. Fig. §. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig, showing Insula as viewed from dorso- lateral aspect. No.9; x 24. In, Insula; Olf, Olfactory Tract. fig. g. Right Hemicerebrum of Brain of Pig. No.9; x 4%. In, Insula. fig. ro. Left Hemicerebrum of Pig. No. 17; x 2%. In, Insula; Olf, Olfactory Tract. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDULLATED NERVE-FIBRES. With Plate II. By SG: 1. Herrick. It is remarkable that a question apparently so simple as that respecting the development of the nerve fibre should re- main without an answer. The necessity for a clear comprehen- sion of the course of normal development of nerves is more important than it might otherwise appear because of its bearing on the vexed question ot the degeneration and regeneration of the same structures. The literature upon the latter subject has been steadily increasing without affording unambiguous evidence as to the exact method of regeneration. While several writers, like Notthaft,! claim that the regeneration proceeds from the central stump peripherad, others, like Howell and Huber, find that the new axis-cylinder originates cotemporaneously through- out the newly-formed sheath. Much obscurity still prevails as to the part played by the nuclei of Schwann’s sheath during the regeneration of the axis-cylinder though it is not doubted that the remarkable proliferation which they undergo sustains some important relations to the absorbtion of the exudates from the decomposing nerve and the regenerative processes which follow. The influence of high authority has supported the view that a nerve fibre is derived from a central neuron (cell of vent- ral cornu or spinal ganglion) and extends unbrokenly to its peripheral end-organ whether the distance thus covered be mil- limeters or meters. So long as the dogma of nervous conduc- tion by continuity prevailed this seemed to physiologists a natural if not a necessary postulate. When, however, we dis- covered that within the neuraxis the tracts of nervous conduc- tion are frequently composed of series of contiguous neurons, 1. Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Verlauf der Degenerations- und Re- generations—processe. Zeztsch. f. wiss. Zool. iv. 1. [11] 12 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the necessity, at least, of the primitive continuity of a nerve fibre no longer maintained. The outgrowth of ventral nerves from the spinal cord was first conjectured by Bidder and Kupffer who also supposed that the dorsal arose in this manner. Koelliker, Marshall, and especially His have adopted the same view. The last mentioned has given very complete descript- ions of the process of histogenesis and has showed that the sensory fibres are derived from the ganglionic ridge or spinal ganglion rudiments and send fibres in both directions, i.e. into the neuraxis and peripherad. Almost all these authors, includ- ing Sagemehl, His, and Koelliker, have assumed that the out- growing fibres are continuous processes of the central cells, which, accordingly, must attain a prodigious length in order to reach their peripheral end-organs. According to Koelliker and His, cellular elements from the mesenchyme surround the bundles, penetrate between the fibres and, at first sparingly, but afterwards at regular intervals produce the sheath of Schwann. Balfour, on the other hand, remained unshaken in his belief in moniliform adhesions of outgrowing cells which arise in the cord. In vol. II. of his Comparative Embryology he says ‘“‘The cellular, structure of embryonic nerves is a point on which I should have anticipated that a difference of opinion was impossible, had it not been for the fact that His and Koelliker, following Remak and other older embryologists, absolutely deny the fact. I feel quite sure that no one studying the develop- ment of the nerves in Elasmobranchs with well-preserved specimens could be for a moment doubtful on this point.” Dohrn at one time took the same position though we believe he has since receded from it. Hensen’s view is, at first sight, quite different. I quote from Hertwig’s Embryology as follows. ‘‘He [Hensen] opposes the doctrine of the outgrowth of nerve- fibres chiefly from physiological considerations. He can think of no motive which is capable of conducting nerves which grow out of the spinal cord to their proper terminations—which shall cause, for example, the ventral roots always to go to muscles, the dorsal to organs not muscular, and shall prevent confusion taking place between the nerves of the iris and those Herrick, Zhe Development of Nerve-Fibres. 13 of the eye-muscles, between the branches of the trigeminus and the acoustic and facialis, etc. Therefor Hensen maintains on theoretical grounds that it is necessary to assume that ‘the nerves never grow out to thew terminations, but are always in connection with them.’ According to this view, which he endeavors to support by observations, the embryonic cells are, for the most part, united with one another by means of fine connecting threads. He maintains that when a cell divides the connecting thread also splits, and in this manner there arises an endless network of fibres; Out of these the nerve-tracts are developed, while other parts of the network degenerate.” Respecting this theory it may be said that it has the obvi- ous virtue of recognizing a difficulty which has been systematic- ally underestimated or ignored. Furthermore recent discoveries in lower vertebrates and worms show that the sensory nerves primarily arise from the general epidermis which in the primi- tive state consisted of a blending of neuro- and spongio-epithe- lium. The ectoderm was homogeneous throughout. In the worms the neuroblastic cells are not concentrated as perfectly as in vertebrates and even in vertebrates the concentration varies within wide limits. In Amphioxus the spinal ganglion lies along the whole length of the dorsal root to its bifurcation. We believe that the spinal ganglia of other vertebrates are to be homologized with the disperse neuroblastic cells of the general ectoderm and that the central trunk contains homologues of one set of anastomosing branches, the peripheral trunk those of an- other. It would seem impossible to doubt that the motor roots actually arise in the cord and pass to their motor or trophic ter- mini, though it has often seemed to the writer that the evidence is that the formation of the specific muscle or gland is to be as- cribed to the influence of the migrating nerve rather than that the nerve ‘‘fundament”’ gropes. blindly toward its destination and plays a temporary game of hide and seek with the latter. Much more investigation in invertebrate neurology is needed to enable us to grasp the morphological and physiological laws which have been involved in the formation of the concentrated 14 JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. motor apparatus in the cord and its relations with muscles, etc., external to the neuraxis. It may be assumed that the principle enunciated by Hensen will be found to lie implicate in earlier conditions than those which now prevail. It is intended to give at this time a part of the evidence which led the writer to say in a previous number of this Journal (p. cxxxix), ‘‘study of the growth of nerves in embryos of ser- pents, amphibians and mammals has convinced the writer that, in some cases at least, the growth is by moniliform adhesion of neurons.” The facts and observations will be given as briefly as possi- ble without attempt to cite literature. Our thesis is the follow- ing: Medullated nerve fibres are formed from proliferating cell- masses which arise either within the neuraxis from niduli of mul- tiplying cells (centrifugal fibres) or from spinal ganglia (centripe- tal fibres.) The nerve grows by intrinsic proliferation due to karyokinetic multiplication of the neurons. Such proliferation may take place anywhere in the nerve. The nuclei of the neu- rons at first lie in the fibre thus produced and only subsequently are ‘‘side-tracked’”’ and are connected with the sheath. They . probably retain a vital connection with the fibre. The sheath is to be regarded as a peculiarly modified cell-wall of the neuron. (It is possible that the segment-forming cells of the nerve-fibre should be compared with spongioblast elements, and it is doubt- ful whether an arbitrary separation can at first be made between spongioblasts and neuroblasts, but the point here made is that they are derivations of the neuraxis. ) 1. The nuclei of the nerve fibres are derived from the neuraxis. Fig. 1, of Plate II, illustrates the origin of the ocu- lomotor nerve in a young snake embryo. In this case, as in all other motor roots at an early stage, there is a peripheral migra- tion of cells connected with the root. Other neuroblasts are crowding peripherad from within. Some may be traced to the boundary of the medulla and resemble in every respect others which lie in the peripheral part of the nerve. Throughout the entire course of the nerve it is made up of neurons of a similar sort. Fig. 3, of the same plate indicates the relations in a sala- Herrick, Zhe Development of Nerve-Fibres. 15 mander larva, where some of the nuclei are actually emerging. Fig. 11, shows the relations as seen in a horizontal section of the thoracic cord near its ventral surface. @—a indicates the position of the median line. The karyokinetic figures near the periphery belong to the sheath, but the others are undoubtedly elements of the root system. At an adjacent level very numer- ous neuroblasts in mitosis are seen near the central canal. 2. After issuing from the neuraxis the cell masses contin- ue to multiply. Fig. 2 illustrates subdivision of a neuron in the seventh nerve of a very young embryo of Eutenia near its exit from the medulla. Fig. 10 is an illustration of mitosis in the midst of a fibre of spinal nerve in the salamander larva some distance from the ganglion. Only a few of the neurons are drawn, but lines mark the width of the nerve. Fig. 12 indi- cates the subdivision of neurons in the ganglion of the eighth nerve, (here only a few cells are drawn.) 3. The nuclei thus formed are at first continuous with the embryonic fibres out of which the axis-cylinder is formed. Figs. 4, 7 and 8 are introduced to verify this point and were drawn by aid of an excellent one-twelfth immersion and Abbe illuminating apparatus. The preparations are from salamander larve fixed with chromacetic and platinic chlorid and stained with hematoxylin and acid fuchsin after sectioning in paraffin and walrath in continuous bands. Fig. 5 is a cross section of a similar nerve showing the only case observed where the fibre lay beside the nucleus (a) instead of continuous with it. In all other cases at this stage the nucleus alone occupied the walls. Fig. 6, which cuts obliquely through a spinal ganglion, illus- trates the same fact. Fig. 10 shows that the cells ot a spinal ganglion actually are converted into nuclei, 6 being regarded as an intermediate state. 4. Innone of the cases cited is there any other source visible for the nuclei, which are obviously rapidly multiplying, than that indicated. There is no evidence of the intrusion of connective elements to associate themselves with the nervous fibres. This is especially true in the salamander, where there is the most diagramatic simplicity in structure. Fig. 9 gives an 16 JoURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. idea of the extreme simplicity where the spongioblasts and neu- roblasts are clearly seen in their relation to the root and tracts. In those cases where the sheaths of nerves are forming there is no difficulty in distinguishing the elements of the latter from the nuclei of the nerve fibres. The part played by these nuclei in regeneration is most simply explained as a mere repetition of that part which they originally took in the formation of the nerve. In the optic nerve the formation of sheathes by interpolation of connective matter is very readily seen in reptilia but the sheath material cannot be compared with the neurons or their derivatives. In mammalia and birds the relations are obscure. The chick is one of the least satisfactory subjects for histogenesis in the whole realm. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II. Fig z. Root of oculo-motor nerve. Black snake embryo. fig 2. Seventh nerve near its junction with the medulla of very young Eutaenia embryo. a@.a. case of subdivision of the neuroblasts. fig. 3. Very early stage of Salamander larva, showing actual emergence of neuroblasts from the medulla (on the right.) fig 4. Isolated neurons of motor nerves in salamander larva. A double stain of hematoxylin and acid fuchsin. figs. 5, 6. Cross sections of ganglia with the emerging nerve, illustrating the fact that the nuclei as well as the fibre, are independent of the wall and that as a rule at this stage one does not encounter do¢h fibre and nucleus within the sheath but one or the other as the section may pass. At a, however, the fibre has been differentiated off from its nucleus whose protoplasm has disap- peared. fig. 7. A neuron in which the thread is being differentiated off. fig. 8. Fibres from the dorsal root crossed by others of the ventral root passing to the dorsal muscles. fig. g. Portion of a transection of the spinal cord of salamander larva showing the distinction between spongioblast and neuroblast cells in the ventral portion. fig. ro. A few neurons from a nerve at its exit from the ganglion. At a@ karyokinetic subdivision of a neuron ; at 6a ganglion cell producing a fibre and transforming into a nerve nucleus; at can unaltered ganglion cell. The width of the nerve is indicated by the outlines. fig. 1. One half of a section through the ventral part of the spinal cord of salamander at the exit of aroot. The median line is along a—a. The large karyokinetic figures doubtless belong to the sheathiu which mitosis is very easily observed. fig. 12. Eighth nerve? Several cells of the ganglion and the nidulus. EDITORIAL. TuHeE ScrentTiFic UTILity oF DREAMS. Our practical age is prone to antagonize anything which cannot be converted into substantial utility, yet the very delving after utility not infrequently discovers stern realities in the most shadowy regions. Even practical men dare not openly revile the scientific employment of the imagination and the genius which condenses the vapors of our furnaces into commercial worth may yet succeed in condensing the vaporings of the sleeping brain or distilling the mercurial humors which the school of Descartes fancied hissed through the tube-like avenues of the cerebrum. Dreams have undoubtedly had more to do with the origin and coloring of religious belief than any physical influence whatever. While the careful student will avoid the rash state- ment hazarded by Radestock that the belief in the supernatural is a direct product of dream association and disassociation, the most reverent critic will recall that in the older time the most characteristic avenue of inspiration has been ‘‘dreams and vis- ions of the night.” It is true that destructive scientific criticism has employed this fact with rude force to undermine the validity of all revelation and especially to destroy the grounds of con- fidence in the existence and immortality of the soul, neverthe- less after such attempts there must follow a period of recon- struction. Because the source of familiar ideas and beliefs is not just what we supposed or the medium of vision is of an unexpected character it does not follow that the content—be it faith or sight—is worthless or totally unreliable. Narrower inspection, sharper criticism, wider generalization—these are the correctives which doubt needs rather than the mildly soporific prescription of ignorance offered by bigotry and con- servatism. 18 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The literature of the subject is enormous but with few exceptions genuine scientific methods have been conspic- uously absent. Either the mind has been dominated by a mysticism akin to dream-life itself or the student has failed to take the subject seriously. The scientific study of dreams requires peculiar discipline and unusual conditions. First catch your dream—and this is by no means so easy as it first appears, not so much because one cannot dream at will as because the tissue of a dream deliquesces on exposure to the daylight of cortical consciousness. A dream melts in the warm hand, it is distorted by a breath, it phosphoresces and burns out in an oxygenated atmosphere, the cinder left at the ter- minus of its comet-like trajectory is very unlike the actual dream. A dream must be prepared by a special technique as essential as paraffine imbedding for sectioning the tissues of the brain which produces it. One must be conscious of two sets of physical environ- ments. The dream association is played upon a different stage and before a different audience from that of waking states. Yet the drama of the day is frequently the parody of the night. When one recalls a dream, especially to repeat it, the elements are clothed in the language of day association and uncon- sciously to ourselves we recreate the whole scene to an extent which deprives it of much of its scientific value. Even when one lies quietly with closed eyes and immediately upon waking traces hastily on a scratch book the outlines of the dream, he finds no words to express the peculiar shadowy character of his dream. I am convinced that one peculiarity of the dream which distinguishes it from presentations of waking experience is the fact that a concept is incompletely associated with its sen- suous elements. During normal states the concept of a dog involuntarily associates with itself the presentations of hairiness, size, bark, wagging of tail, warm breath, etc., etc., but the dream dog may possess only the wag of the tail and be neither hairy, warm or noisy. The image is like that of a triangle with three angles and no sides which the geomety of dreams finds no difficulty in construing. Another peculiarity of the Editorial, 19 dream is that generally some predominant feeling or general notion is the determinant which groups the scanty materials at disposition in aggregates consistent with it. The sudden open- ing of a new avenue of association, adding new elements to the complex, changes the whole setting of the dream, forming new associational groups according to definite laws, but the feeling is not altered and the change does not bring with it any sense of incongruity—its personal value remains unaltered. An illustration of the result of this one-sided association is a dream which the writer had when a student in Germany. Being seated with a friend in a garden, a small lizard-like, active animal appeared which at the same time seemed to be a Jap- anese student. The impressions were not vivid enough to be readily recalled but the effect was of some small active unfamil- iar animal associated on one hand with the concept “zard and on the other with the concept native of Japan. 1 was told that most Japanese students were good linguists and accordingly addressed the lizard in the best German I could command, politely inquiring if he was familiar with the language. He at once reqlied in fairly good German and with irreproachable suavity. There was considerable surprise that the lizard should speak German but none whatever at the fundamental marvel that he could speak at all. In general, during that period the presentations of words and phrases were uncommonly distinct as a result of a struggle with a new language. A great deal of historical matter has been collected by recent writers on dreams, for an excellent summary of which one may consult Radestock, (Schlaf and Traum, Leipzig, 1879,) to which author we are indebted for many of the facts here cited. The older Greek writers recognized dreams as of divine origin. In Homer they are represented as derived from Zeus, who, however, was not above sending delusive visions when it suited his purposes. The Pythagoreans, Socrates and Xenaphon trusted to the prophetic nature of dreams and even Plato taught that the moral man might acquire a deeper insight into truth during sleep than amid the distractions of the day. Paracelsus describes what he calls the sidereal part of the soul 20 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. which ascends to its native stars during sleep, there extend- ing its ordinary sphere of knowledge. A curious approach to the modern doctrine of hypnotic suggestion is found in the view of Von Nettesheim that through an effort of the will one may control the dreams of another person even though ignorant of the distance and position of the subject. The philosophical importance of dreams lies obviously in the belief openly expressed by Tylor, Radestock and others that the concept of the immortality and even the separate existence of the soul originally grew out of dream appearances. It is certainly the fact that in the earliest ages dreams were regarded as the most direct and important means of revelation. The office of ‘‘interpreter of dreams’ was more important far than the corresponding meterological bureau of the modern regime. The history of the Hebrew people would have been far different, as Dr. Hale has shown with no less acumen than wit in his clever tale of the yellow dog, if Providence had not watched over the career of Joseph, the dreamer of Dothan. When the Guinea negro sees his departed foe in visions upon his bed it never occurs to him to doubt the reality of the visit. When the savage dreams of the happy hunting grounds he awakes with full confidence that his spirit has left the bodily tenement and tasted the first fruits of his pious ferocity. The Tagli in Luzon believe that a dreaming person should not be awakened lest his soul should perchance be absent. An Indian in Manilla, on awakening suddenly, found only the part of the body of his companion from the middle upwards lying by his side, the rest having wandered away in the formof ‘‘Tigbalang,”’ He covered the torso with ashes, at which the missing portion returned with threatening gestures being unable to reunite with the trunk by reason of the ashes. It is not merely the savages of Africa and the Chinese who believe that the air is thick with spirits who share our food and largely control our acts. A cer- tain grade of mental development and various conditions of body and periods in life predispose to a belief in what we char- acterize, in the natives of New Zealand, as gross superstition. The most diverse and widely separated races have the com- Fiditortal. 21 mon belief that special precautions are necessary to prevent the spirit from returning to its once familiar scenes. The Green- landers, Siamese and Hottentots carry the body through a breech in the wall or a window, to prevent this unwelcome vis- itation. Many African races avoid the hut for a certain time. It is not difficult to believe that this time is an approximate measure of the vividness of the association which calls up in sleep the image of the departed one. Lower animals and even inanimate objects thus come to be animated with a being, an essence which corresponds in certain points with the corporeal object of experience. This dualism is so universal that philosophy is quite as much under its influence as popular language and thought. Some modern thinkers seem to react so far from this view as to be willing to ascribe all onto- logical concepts to the effects of visionary misconceptions—in fine, to dreams and analogous products. The monism of a modern psycho-physicist is inclined to say with Fechner, ‘‘ The soul is not an independent being within or associated with the body, but it is bound up with the corporeal substratum. Spirit and matter, soul and body are two different aspects of one and the identical essence, depending on whether it is presented to the external or internal experience.”’ Enough has been said to indicate that the phenomena of dreams have a deep interest for every thinking man and, inas- much as the scope of this article does not include the specula- tive problems just referred to, it will be sufficient to add a word of warning. Because it seems more or less probable or possi- ble that some of the very highest and most potent beliefs of the human mind may have been formulated or given conceptual ex- pression through the instrumentality of the airy touch of dreams it by no means logically follows that these same beliefs and con- cepts may be lightly rejected as a tissue of fantasy with no real foundation. It would be quite as legitimate to distrust visual impressions because they are the result of an intangible image utterly dissimilar to the real object which they present to our perception. To the psychologist dreams are of value primarily because they afford a method of analysis which serves to sepa- 22 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. rate elements which in waking experience are indissolubly con- nected by association. At the same time new applications of the laws of association themselves are afforded. The dream is generally a spontaneous abstraction which does not rise above its simplest form. The qualities thus ab- stracted are not generally associated with concrete names or, if so, are so erroneously associated that the separation may be affected by sufficient care. This abstraction is of the character of what Morgan calls an isolate rather than a general notion. It is as though the highly illuminated side of a cube were sepa- rated from the rest of its sides and presented in consciousness when the latter is too torpid to supply by associatlon the parts necessary to a perfect image. On waking one fills out the hiatus unconsciously but with a degree of uncertainty which he cannot account for in view of the great vividness of the dream. Spitta says, ‘‘the first symptoms by which sleep ordinarily an- nounces its approach a longer or shorter time in advance of its actual entrance, the feeling of stupidness, weariness, sleepiness, consists primarily in the fact that we are involuntarily forced to turn our attention to our own subjective condition.”’ He calls attention to the fact that, during the day, activities are carried out with a certain spontaneity which is gradually lost with the approach of sleep. Even the fixation of the attention upon external objects is lost. It seems to us that this analysis is uncritical in one respect. Granted that the senses become fatigued and that every attempt at giving expression to the will meets serious hinderances which force themselves upon our attention if we persist in our pur- pose, and granted that our internal sensations are not so quickly quenched, it does not follow that the latter are increased or that self-consciousness is intensified. That such an appearance is simply relative is easily seen. Every one knows that the con- centration of thought upon one’s subjective states is not a good method of conquering sleeplessness. Yet in another sense we agree with Spitta that during sleep subjectivity dominates. The wide divergence of opinion respecting the psychical Editortal. 23 nature and value of sleep is gathered from a comparison of Hegel, who said life is divided into two realms—a night life of genius, and a day life of consciousness, or of Fortlage who says, ‘only in as far as we sleep do we live, when we awake we begin to die,”” or Erdman, who said ‘‘ sleep is a regression into embry- onic life,’’ with that of Spitta, who says that in sleep the life is impoverished as though it were only present in outline. The view held by Hegel resembles more than any other the opinion prevalent among the Greenlanders that there are two souls; Ist, the breath of life which forms the psychical continuum during the entire life; 2d, the spirit or shade, which is a more etherial essence not so strictly connected with the body. The latter during dreams may entirely leave the body and pursue an independent avocation in the realm of shades. The question whether the active life of the soul is inter- rupted during dreamless sleep has a theoretical importance quite disproportionate to its practical significance. Were it true that such an interruption occurs, it would never enter consciousness, since an unfilled portion of experience like the non-visual portion of the retina never finds immediate expression. On the one hand, if the soul were simply the sum of the physical stimuli which attain a certain violence or refine- ment there could be no question of chronological continuity or integrity ; on the other, if the soul be a being distinct from the body and only incidentally connected with the latter in certain conditions of excitation, the activity of consciousness might be doubly determined by the variations of the body and en- tirely inaccessible psychical phenomena beyond conscious- ness. If we substitute the monistic interpretation and consider the conscious life as one aspect of a real being whose other side finds expression in terms of physical phenomena it would be natural to expect these two manifestations to be con- tinuously associated though with varying intensity. Strimpel, ! says, ‘‘ The activity of the soul in sleep is not limited to dreams, as it is not limited when awake to consciousness. It withdraws 1. Natur u. Entstehung der Traume; Leigzig, 1874. 24 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. inward in its unconscious forms without ceasing to be soul on that account. But this position, which is also unquestioningly accepted by Spitta, seems but a begging of the whole question. If there is a psychical activity apart from my consciousness how do I know that it is the activity of my soul? Might we not with equal reasonableness take the position of the savage that some spirit visited us in dreams ? So long as we do not know the conditions which enable the physical stimuli resulting from external and internal physiologi- cal irritation to appear in consciousness, we can only say that since these processes are uninterrupted there may be even during deep sleep some feeble and imperfect consciousness. That such is the case is rendered probable by the fact that even very vivid and painful dreams vanish on awaking in case their con- tent has no direct connection with the present. A fact which has been variously interpreted is that one can readily determiue to awaken. at a given hour and rarely fail in so doing if the im- portance is sufficiently realized. Perhaps one awakens too soon or is somewhat restless, in other cases the sleep is profound. I have observed in such cases that upon accidental awaking early in the night a certain burden is always upon the mind, 1.e. a consciousness of an obligation which may require some time to clear up sufficiently to produce a concept of that which is to be done. This is true of the early part of the night; later, as the hour approaches, the association with the purpose to rise is often more close. Many times the writer has plunged out of bed in a condition of stupor requiring some minutes to gain a concept of the reason for the act and the place in which he was. These phenomena we interpret as indicating an enduring effect exerted by the waking will on the sleeping associational processes. If one dreams, this impress is nearly always present in one form or other. It sometimes happens that in dream the obligation is fulfilled and the pressure is thus relieved and one fails to awaken at the proper time or awakes with the feeling that the purpose for which he was to rise is accomplished. It must be insisted that the fact that no dream was recalled is no proof that one has not dreamed. As an illustration of Editorial. 25 the last mentioned fact I may mention that one day as I sat in Prof. Ebbinghaus’ lecture room following a discussion, I caught sight of the back of a man’s head, who reminded me of General C., whom I had not seen for nearly a year. A second glance showed that there was no resemblance except in the position of the head and the gray hair, but I then became aware of a dream of the previous night in which I had conducted a party of children to the rooms of the general in an American city where the latter exhibited his interesting collection of microscopic ob- jects. It appeared that I had conducted the children at the in- stance of a lady who might have been the principal of a school or head of a pension and who, as it proved, had presumed to send the children without invitation. While embarassed by this information, General C. reassured me by saying that it was a pleasure to serve in this way as it was the only service he was now capable of in his failing health, The whole dream was vivid and affecting. It was a composite of which most elements were clear on reflection. The evening before I had thought of General C., had planned to write him in explanation of an ap- parent neglect. I had been to Urania, a popular Berlin scien- tific institute, and had been reminded of General C.’s collection, had seen a teacher conducting a squad of boys of say fourteen years, had recalled a social obligation respecting a certain lady at the head of a pension in Berlin and had felt some uneasiness as to my health. That a dream of this vivid sort did not remain in memory in the morning when, as was my habit, I lay with closed eyes ransacking my consciousness tor any evidence of dream activity may serve to indicate that a vast deal goes on every night the burden of which we are not forced to carry in memory during the day. This is a question which has usually been settled as Descartes settled it by deduction from the systematic stand- point: ‘‘As the light always shines, and heat always warms, so the soul constantly thinks.”’ But we pass to the nature of dreams and the lessons we may learn from it. Spitta defines dreaming as the process of unconscious out- 26 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ward projection or objectivizing of a series of conceptual images in consciousness during sleep, through which they attain an ap- pearance of reality. In other words, it is, in a sense, a dramatiza- tion of purely subjective processes of the soul during sleep. Nearly all modern authors except Wundt agree that dreams are characterized by a special development of the feelings. We may add that the most striking peculiarity of dreams is the small number of elements associated in a concept. In this re- spect the study of dreams promises much, but it must be crit- ical study, no mere collection of anecdotes. Of this sort of critical analysis we have as yet no illustration. The difficulty lies chiefly in the impossibility of preventing a completion of these incomplete concepts. Thus I dreamed of a person who was not sensuously presented at all but simply the peculiarity that he was a student of history; this ‘‘isolate’’ alone seems to have come into consciousness. Such an unclothed concept is never tolerated in waking consciousness long enough to be ob- served and when we reach the corresponding ‘‘abstraction’’ we seem to have a composite element. An attentive study of dreams will show that a certain variety of dreams consists chiefly in this promenade of isolates. Properly understood we believe that the same activity is also constantly at work in waking thought. The formation ot abstractions is not so inex- plicable as it seems if we grant that the elements of a concept are not bound up into any such essential unity as we think but first appear as concrete in every case. These isolates also exist in waking experience separated from their concrete. For example, I was walking in a careless state of mind down a street in Cincinnati and observed a par- tially finished stone foundation. I thought nothing of it and continued musing when I saw on the other side of the street an incomplete brick building. As I looked I became conscious of a peculiar recognition of a recent experience. My interest was excited and I asked myself what is it which I seem to recognize as familiar. It is not the house—that is entirely unfamiliar— ah, it is the fact that it is incomplete, a concept of incomplete- ness is in my mind. Where and what have I just seen which Editorial, 27 has left only this element? I could not tell, but, as I turned back and .the foundation came into view, I suddenly became aware of the concrete which had been the origin of my abstract —it was the foundation which bore no resemblance to the brick building. A concept of incompleteness could form an inde- pendent element in a dream and associate with itself the most heterogeneous elements. It is true that dreams often consist in simply sensuous images, but these are not dreams proper but states of visual fantasy in no way different from those which one has_ before falling asleep. Where sensuous images play a part in true dreams there is usually but one sense occupied at one time. On waking we add the associative elements from other senses unconsciously. Thus a dream ,which contained only visual sensuous elements and a series of general concepts is clothed with tactile sensa- tions and the concepts are furnished with words. How often in attempting to relate a dream which seemed perfectly clear in recollection have we been obliged to subject it to curious meta- morphoses in order to adapt it to speech in any form. Our or- dinary speech does not enable us to accurately describe the tact that we were in some way prepossessed by a feeling of danger and, looking up, saw a mountain, which was not a mountain but a painted canvas, which seemed about to fall upon us and yet, at the same time, would only fall upon us in the belief of some other people (perhaps an audience) while we knew that it was alla play and we should escape, but that nevertheless we must feel a certain fear in our capacity as players. Such a com- bination of concepts (derived from a recent dream) we would either describe as a dream of being in Pompeii or acting a part in a play representing the destruction of Pompei. The careful study of dreams shows that the interpretation of our own immediate mental states is much more complicated than psychologists are wont to admit. The idea that, by intro- spection, we reach simple and unambiguous realities of our ex- perience is founded on a fallacy which is especially obvious in the recollection of a dream. As Miinsterberg well says of will: 28 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ‘“‘The method of study of the will does not consist simply in self-observation but in a first stage of involuntary perception, and second, a stage of reproduction in memory of the percep- tion, and third, analytical dismemberment of the reproduction.” But it is well known that only a very few elements in any pre- sentation of sense are selected by attention for actual perception and the vast spaces between these characteristic elements are unconsciously filled out by fancy under the laws of association. In dreams the number of elements associated in a presentation or concept is very much reduced and the interval between the perception and act of recollection is greater. We are able to observe more accurately the process of rehabilitating the isolated elements. Often it is beyond our power to combine them by associational processes proper to waking states and they slip through our fingers. The sensorial side of dreams finds many analogies in wak- ing states. It is the belief of of the writer that the images (visual or otherwise) which have once set their seal upon the mechanism of consciousness continue to glow there for a longer or shorter period and that, while ordinary states of attention obscure them by the superior brilliancy of immediate recepts, there are physical and mental conditions which may blow them into a flame vivid even to waking consciousness. As a child, living apart from others of the same age and nervously sensitive, it was for many months an almost constant experience, when- ever tired at night, to be greeted on closing the eyes ina re- cumbent posture by a succession of involuntary images of the most varied and complicated description. These appeared in monochrome or in natural or even brilliant colors, embracing landscapes of great beauty as well as faces with the most diverse expressions. These panoramic displays were enjoyed and the attempt was made to prolong them, which was rarely successful for more than a moment. They seemed to be associated with after images which in my then condition persisted for hours. The effort to retain the visions were chiefly oculomotor. No con- scious control or immediate suggestion was recognized, though landscapes usually succeeded landscapes and faces followed faces. Edttorzal, : 209 These images were not reproductions of familiar scenes or faces, but fantasy products in which the variety was infinite. In only one or two cases have similar experiences been admitted by others. One friend occasionally hears a band of music with all the parts and claims that .it would be possible to write the score. The explanation of such phenomena seems to be that latent residua are revived and intensified by defective blood pressure and the correlations are carried out in accordance either with the varying intensity of the irritant or in obedience to laws as yet undiscovered. It is believed that there is a similar pro- cess continually going on in our subconsciousness and that the results of these phenomena make themselves felt in the b) thoughts which ‘‘pop into our heads” as we are wont to say without obvious sense or source. It has frequently been observed that it is easier to account for dreams than for sleep. Lotze vainly sought to solve the problem of the intermittent manifestation of the soul—a _ prob- lem of vital consequence to his theory of the existence of the soul—by postulating a large number of small irritants which cooperate to depress the psychical activity and finally succeed in temporarily inhibiting it. For those, on the other hand, who identify psychical pro- cesses more or less closely with their physical or rather physio- logical concomitants the more reasonable explanation is that ex- haustion of the nervous system diminishes its receptivity for external stimuli which are far the most efficient agents. The internal irritants, on the other hand, arising from the organic processes, although normally less intense during sleep, acquire a greater significance and to a certain extent take the place of cortical excitements. The seat of the soul is thus in a sense transferred from the cerebral cortex to the axial portion of the brain. Thus, the inhibitory or controling effect of cortical in- nervation being diminished, the sub-cortical processes are free to make such use as they can of the avenues of association chance leaves open to them. If the above theory be true the closer connection of dream experiences with dominent states of feeling becomes clear upon 30 JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the basis the association of somatic nervous changes with the feelings. It is needless to spend time with the earlier attempts to ex plain sleep. It has been ascribed to a sort of dropsical condi- tion and to a dessication of the brain, to a plethora and poverty of blood, to a change in the spleen and a collapse of the vetri- cles, to an accumulation of carbon dioxide and simple fatigue, to heat and electricity; sleep has even been ascribed to a peculiar explosive action in the brain. All modern authors agree that the active and quiescent ' states ot the brain are constantly associated with changes in blood pressure and composition, but there is little unanimity as to the exact chemical and physical conditions of sleep. It can- not be doubted that oxygen is a very important factor in the normal activity of the nerve cell as well as all other elements. The well known facts that in a trepaned subject the brain be- comes pale and shrunken during sleep and that ligaturing of the carotid arteries causes unconsciousness, are explained by Preyer on the assumption that the diminished quantity of oxygen is the direct cause of the depressed function. He says, ‘‘ Except the liver there is no other tissue in the body which deprives the blood corpuscles of their oxygen so rapidly as the brain.” The same effect as that produced by the ligaturing of the carotids may be produced by diminishing the oxygen content of the at- mosphere. However, it is impossible to demonstrate a suffi- cient difference in blood supply to account for the peculiar phe- nomena of sleep. It is necessary to assume that the oxygen is otherwise employed in sleep than during waking. During act- ive waking hours the muscle and nerve cells form an accumula- tion of easily oxidizable substance (lactic acid) which during sleep is oxidized, thus abstracting from the blood a large portion of its oxygen. The experimental attempts to demonstrate the availability of lactic acid and its compounds have been variously interpreted and the result must at present be considered nega- tive. Quite recently we have acquired more definite evidence of sreat histological changes in nerve cells as a result of fatigue. It Lditorzal. at is demonstrable that motor nerve-cells after prolonged activity undergo important chemical changes which results in a changed reaction toward stains and in shrinkage of the nuclei and va- cuolation and crinkling of the nucleus. Similar changes may be assumed in cortical cells and these must play an important part in producing sleep. Pfliiger has attempted a detailed chemical theory of vital phenomena in which oscillatory motions of the molecules result- ing from explosive decomposition and recomposition constitute the active agents. It does not appear necessary to associate his chemical theory with his physical ideas which, as is well known, demand a physical continuum between all parts of the neuro- muscular and glandular system—a meshwork with absolute physical continuity and physiological conductivity, but even without this physical continuity, which recent histological inves- tigation renders doubtful it might be supposed that the gradual destruction of substance, waste of oxygen and acumulation of carbon dioxide might serve to illustrate, if not entirely explain the intermittent character of sleep. The attempt is also made to apply the same principle to the explanation of hibernation and the analogous summer sleep of amphibia. The fact that hyperemia as well as anemia of the brain may produce uncon- sciousness is perhaps simply explained by the supposition that in the former case blood pressure operates mechanically, pro- ducing disturbing oscillations. The great variety of nerve stim- ulants owe their effect to changes induced in circulation, in the nutrition of the cells, or secondary effects which indirectly pro- duce these effects. Whatever view may be taken of the chem- ico-physical causes of sleep it is still important to have a clear idea of the physiological connex between these processes in va- rious parts of the nervous system. It grows out of the ana- tomical structure of the brain that nutritive and circulatory pro- cesses will not be identically effected in all parts of the organ, and it is by no means indifferent what relation and order pre- vails in the variation of these proces, as in various portions of the brain. Meynert, who has attacked this problem, as is well 32 . JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. known, symbolizes the nerve ganglia as so many colonies of inde- pendent vital beings like protozoans with common stalks. The most recent theory concerning the physiological cause of sleep is that of Meynert, which is repeated in his latest lec- ture. Hesays: ‘‘As we discover that the cell colonies of the axial portion of the brain at one movement put forth feeble ac- tivities compared to those of the cortex and again the situation is reversed, we must recollect that of the myriads of cortex cells capable of consciousness all are never simultaneously awake but the greater number are always, in the language of Fechner, immersed in partial sleep. Consciousness is never an- imated by all its images and impulses at once, but rather only those elements which are wide awake, i. e., according to Fech- ner, are attentive, are the sustainers of the momentary conscious- ness. As the animal in its hibernation sleep is ina condition of depressed nutrition and respiration, so the nutritive condition of the waking cortical cells is different from that of the sleeping. The work produced by a cerebral cell we call its state of irrita- tion. Virchow has shown that, in the case of the epithelium of the kidney, the cells expand when irritated, the muscle ex- pands when excited, and the nerve cell must, in like man- ner, through its molecular activity, exert a nutritive attraction on the protoplasmic tissues when excited and in. greater activity, as an accompaniment of which its excitement rises, according to Fechner, above the threshold of consciousness. In the most characteristic activity of the brain, such as the delicate play of association, in which state only a few out of vast numbers of cells are active and these, through the excita- tion of associational fibres, call into activity cells in a widely separate area either simultaneously or in a definite serial con- ~ nex, this selective nutrition can only be produced by an indi- vidualized suction of the elements.”’ This idea of a vital-endosmotic nutritive activity or ‘‘cell- suction” receives an anatomical support from the recent discov- eries by means of Golgi’s method which demonstrate that the nerve cell is always provided with a vast number of fine tubular fibrils which tend to collect about blood-vessels and lymph Editorial. 33 spaces and are regarded by Golgi as protoplasmic or nutritive as contrasted to nervous or excitory fibres. Van Gehuchten, it is true, feels confident that Cajal is correct in denying any such radical distinction in function, but, in any case, the absorbtive power of a cell must be greatly increased by such intimate com- munication with the .spongy neuroglia and its circulating vital sap. In a recent address, Jan. 20, 1891, before the scientific club of Vienna, Prof. Meynert takes up the subject from the same point of view. ‘‘What is sleep? Obscure as its chemism undoubtedly is, it may be compared to an intermission of the pump-like suction of the cortex—a temporary loss of the mole- cular attraction which supplies the cells, fibres and centres of consciousness with nutritive plasma and at the same time sucks away at the permeable surfaces of the fine capillaries, fills them with blood and produces a functional hyperemia, a congestion of the active organ. This loss of the functional attraction may take place very quickly, as illustrated in the falling asleep of children who seemed perhaps in the previous moment wide awake.” The author applies the same explanation to the phenomena of epi- leptic fainting, hysterical and hypnotic conditions. In the latter the cortical nutrition is sluggish while the subcortical centres, being more directly supplied with blood, and thus at a higher pressure, are still active. The possibility of suggestion lies in the fact that the influence of another supplies the subcortical ganglia with the impulses ordinarily derived from the cortex. The continual gazing at a fixed point serves to divert the blood supply, while the expectancy causes exhaustion of the cortex, facilitating the hypnotic state. It is interesting to learn that the theory proposed by Meynert of the differential nutrition of the central ganglia and the cortex gives a physiological basis, in a certain sense, to the view held by the psychology of the middle ages that the soul wanders out of the cerebrum into lower parts of the nervous system during sleep. In general, the arena upon which dreams disport them- selves is more or less completely disassociated from that of prac- 34 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. tical life. We awake with the recollection of having had a very interesting dream but not one element in it can we recall. Per- haps on the following night it is continued and some associa- tional element recalls the whole senseless panorama. As already remarked the feelings ordinarily are the starting point or centre of crystallization in dreams. Often, too, the feeling is appar- ently presented without any concrete basis and a variety of en- tirely unsuited elements are associated with the feeling. Thus a great feeling of satisfaction and amusement was associated in my mind with a pun which on awaking proved to consist in the instead of ‘‘fiend- some special witicism being supposed to lie in the’ yy” employment of the words ‘‘fiend-inszarnate incarnate, ”’ italicised letters. Again, dreaming that I was called upon to examine the exercises of a class in logic and feeling distressed by my long neglect of the subject and fearful of not compre- hending the purport of the topics, I was greatly relieved to learn that a syllogism ran ‘‘two things separately equal to the d same thing are equal to each other” with which I found myself sufficiently familiar. Illustrations. External stimuli may be exalted or over- estimated. (1) During a period of half slumber scarcely to be distinguished from sleep one becomes conscious of being annoyed by the barking of a dog. By a strong effort one rouses suff- ciently to discover that the sound is the ticking of the clock which is usually not heard at all. (2) Just as one is falling asleep he becomes conscious of standing with others before an open grate which produces a comfortable roar. A feeling of draft is associated. On rousing again the roar is identified with the sound of traffic on a distant street. Chills about the shoulder supply the draft and the com- fortable warmth which is just beginning to creep over one sup- plies the heat of the fire. Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. II]. prate 1 Sy? Journal of Comparative Neurology. PLATE Il. Vol. II. Motor neuren Ventral fascroude \e— ae PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OPStiEy GENUS CYPIRIS: [With Plates III and IV.] By C?-H., TuRNER: Some time ago I began to collect material for a study of the histology of the Ostracoda. The work is progressing, but, owing to_delays in obtaining material, it will be a year or more before the work is completed. This being the case and since, so far as I have been able to discover, no work has been published on the histological neurology of the fresh-water Os- tracoda, it is thought that a preliminary note on the nervous system of Cypris will not be an unwelcome contribution to Biology. Since it is intended, in the final paper, to give a resumé of all the histological papers that have been published on the Ostracoda, no bibliographical list is given in this note: however, comparisons will be made between the nervous sys- tem of Cyprzs and that of the other forms that have been de- scribed. For a similar reason, it is not considered necessary to give an account of the technique involved. The following remarks are based chiefly on a study of Cypris herrickt, but sections of other members of the genus have been used for comparison. The nervous system of Cyprzs agrees with that of other crustacea in being composed of a compound supra-cesophageal ganglion and a multi-ganglionic ventral chain. The supra-cesophageal ganglion [fig. 9] or brain lies much nearer the dorsal than than the ventral surface of the body and lies cephalad of the foregut. This is a compound structure, being composed of at least three sets of ganglia. These sets are: the optic ganglion, the antennulary ganglia and the cere- # 36 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. bral ganglia. The optic ganglion occupies the dorso-cephalic portion of the brain. It is a median unpaired structure, but its histology seems to indicate that the ganglion has been formed by the fusion of three ganglia. From the apex of the optic ganglion, which is also the apex of the brain, a single median nerve [fig. 10] arises. This is the optic nerve. After passing dorsad a short distance this nerve separates into three branches —one branch for each division of the tripartite median eye [fig. 2] The antennulary ganglia occupy the lateral portions of the brain. From each of these ganglia a nerve arises [fig. 10] which passes latero-cephalad to the antennule of the same side. Near the meson, but ventrad of the optic ganglion, there is a pair of ganglia. These I have considered the cerebral ganglia. There is a commissural connection between the two halves of the supra-cesophageal ganglia; but nothing has been discovered that would lead one to suppose that the nerves decussate within the brain. The brain is connected with the ventral chain by two cir- cumcesophageal commissures. These are not true commissures, for about midway between the brain and the ventral chain each commissure contains a ganglion. This is the antennary gang- lion. The antennary nerve [Fig. 3, 8] of each side leaves the corresponding circum-cesophageal commissure immediately behind the brain. A few of the fibres of this nerve arise in the brain, the remainder arise in the antennary ganglion. As far as I have been able to ascertain what is known about the ventral chain of the Ostracoda may be summarized in the following words of Professor Lang’: ‘‘The ventral cord of Cythere which follows the brain and cesophageal commissures is said to consist of an infra-cesophageal ganglion and of four sub- sequent ventral ganglia. The infra-cesophageal ganglion is said to show its composition out of two ganglia and to innervate the jaws, while the three subsequent ganglia give off nerves to the limbs, and the last ganglion nerves to the most posterior divi- sions of the body and the genital apparatus. 1Text book of Comparative Anatomy. Trans. by H. Bernard, 1891, Vol. 1, Ps 344: : TurnER, Zhe Nervous System of Cyprits. 37 In contrast with the above, the ventral chain of Halocypris appears much concentrated. It consists of an infra-cesophageal ganglion with nerves to the jaws and maxillipedes, and a small ventral ganglion. Out of the latter arise two pairs of nerves, which probably innervate the musculature of the limbs and the abdomen.’ Morphologically the ventral chain of Cypris herrtckt Turner, is intermediate between these two extremes. It is more concentrated than that of Cythere but not quite so com- pact as that of Halocypris. In this case the ventral chain con- sists of an infra-oesophageal ganglion and two subsequent ven- tral ganglia. All these ganglia are connected not only by two longitudinal commissures, [fig. 7] which extend throughout the chain, but also by straggling chains of cells [fig, g]. The infra-cesophageal ganglion is compounded out of three pairs of ganglia and innervates the jaws and maxillae. Three transverse commissures can be demonstrated in this compound ganglion corresponding to its three pairs of nerves; viz. the mandibular and the two maxillary nerves. The mandibular nerve arises in the cephalic portion of the infra-cesophageal gan- y) glion. It passes forward into the circum-cesophageal commissure for a short distance and then passes laterad to the mandible. [fig. 3] A short distance caudad of the mandibular nerve the first maxillary nerve leaves the infra-cesophageal ganglion and passes laterad to the first maxilla. [ftg. 7] Still further caudad the second maxillary nerve leaves the infra-cesophageal ganglion and passes latero-caudad to the second maxilla. [fig. 7] In ad- dition to these nerves, in some of my sections I have observed what appears to be a nerve passing to the digestive tract. If this be a nerve (which I doubt) it may bea representative of the sympathic system. The two ganglia which follow the infra-cesophageal ganglion correspond to the two pair of legs which follow the maxilla. From the lateral borders of each ganglion nerves pass to the corresponding pair of legs. In addition to this, from the last ganglion a prominent tract passes caudad to innervate the pos- terior portion of the body and the post-abdomen. Ass this tract 38 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. nears the caudal portion of the body it becomes more and more attenuated. This attenuation is probably due to the giving off of nerves to the neighborlng parts. The entrance to the mouth of these creatures is fringed with hairs. These hairs, I am inclined to think, function as sen- sory setae. This view is supported by the fact that these hairs rest upon a layer of elongated cells [fig. 4] which have, in well stained preparations, large clear nucleiand small densely colored nucleoli—cells that are innervated by the infra-cesophageal gan- glion and whose general appearance indicates that they are ner- vous in function. The most conspicuous sense organ of the genus Cyfr7s is the eye. This is a tripartite structure [fig. 2]. It consists of a median and two lateral portions. The median portion lies further ventrad than the two lateral. The space between these three portions is liberally supplied with pigment. Each of the three divisions of this so-called pigment spot is multicellular. In the lateral portions the cells are as long as the structure is wide, and they are arranged with their longitudinal axes perpen- dicular to that section of the eye. In the median portion the cells are arranged radially. The median eye of the Copepoda, according to Grenacher, is, in all essentials, similar to the eye above described. In describing that eye, Lang' considers the three divisions to be retinal cells. In that connection he says, in describing the tripartite eye of Calanella mediterranea : ‘‘FKach single eye is composed of a pigment cup and a strongly refractive transparent ‘lens’ laid inand onit. The term lens is, however, not applicable. It is composed of several cells, each of which is connected, whether at its outer or inner side is not yet certain, with a fibre of the optic nerve, and must, there- fore be considered as a retinal cell.”’ In Cypris herricki the nerve fibres are united to the outer ends of the cells. This agrees with what Dr. Claus found to be 1Op. cit., p. 352. Turner, Zhe Nervous System of Cypits. 39 the case in the median eyes of the Copepoda, Cladocera and Ostracoda investigated by him.! Since the publication of the paper® in which O. Biutschli attempts to show how the lateral eyes of the vertebrates may have been derived from the median tripartite eye of Sa/pa, this tripartite eye, which is of almost universal occurence among the entomostraca, becomes enhanced in interest. One at once be- gins to speculate on the possibility of this median tripartite eye of the entomostraca becoming transformed into the lateral eyes of the crustacea. Indeed, Dr. Claus, in his late work,? has already stated that the lateral eyes of the Corycaeidz are later- ally rotated portions of the median eyes. In this connection it may be of interest to quote a portion of Dr. Giesbrecht’s resume of Dr. Claus’ paper: ‘‘ Die Seitenaugen der Corycaei- den sind abgeriickte Theile des medianauges, diejenigen der Pontelliden entsprechen dagegen dem zusammengesetzten Arthropodenauge, wahrend ihr ventrales Auge ein dreitheiliges medianauge durfte ebenso wie die beiden frontalen Sinnesorgane der ersten anlage nach auf Zellengruppen der Scheitelplatte, von der aus wir, . . . die obern Schlundganglien der gliederthiere abzuleiten haben, zu beziehen sein; die drei Aug- entheile sind vielleicht mit den drei Punktaugen an der Scheit- elplatte von Annelidenlarven phylogenetisch in Beziehung zu bringen; die Lage ihrer Pigmentzellen und ihre inverse Form werden auf eine convergent nach einem Punkte gerichtete Drehung zuriickgefiihrt, welche mit dem Herabriicken des Or- gans in die Tiefe verbunden war: die Secret und Cornealinsen werden von Hypodermiszellen abgeschieden, ahnlich wie Krys- tallkegel und Corneafacette des zusammengestzten auges: das auge besitzt eine mesodermal Hille, die sich in das neurilemm 1C. Claus. Ueber die feineren Bau des Medianauges der Crustaceen. Anzeiger Akad. Wien. 1891, pp. 124-127. Ref. in Zool. Jahresbericht fiir 1891, Arthropoda 29. 2Einige Bemerkungen Ueber die Augen der Salpen, Zool. Anzeigcr, XV, Jahrg., 349. 3 Op cit. 40 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. des Opticus fortsetzt: Die function des medienauges war urs- priinglich, das Thier beziiglich der Richtung der Lichtquelle zu orientiren; bei complicirterem Bau, schon bei den Calaniden, hat es wahrscheinlich auch die Fahigkeit einer beschrankten Bildperception. Am medianauge der malakostrakenlarven ist der ventral Becher bisher nicht beobachtet, aber wohl auch vorhanden.”’ In a Cypris obtained at Burlington, Ohio, each of the three divisions of the median tripartite eye appears to be supplied with a lens. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES: @, antennulary nerve; a’, antennary nerve; ¢, circum-oesophageal com- missure; #d@, mandibular nerve; mx!, mx, first and second maxillary nerves; n, ventral chain; W. S., infracesophageal ganglion; O, optic nerve; S. G., su- pracesophageal ganglion, All figures were drawn with an Abbé camera from sections of Cyprds her- rickt. Fig. 1. Transverse section of body in the region of the posterior portion of the midgut. Fig. 2. Transverse section of median eye. Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of circum-cesophageal commissure. Fig. 4. Transverse section through sensory organ at margin of mouth [fig. 7 A.J]. Only the bases of the hairs appear in the section and look like teeth, but in adjoining sections the tips of the hairs can be demonstrated. Fig. 5. Transverse section of the chitinous muscular support which lies immediately dorsad of the nervous chain. ‘This is show in situ in fig. 1. Fig. 6. Transverse section of body in the region of the lateral diverticles of the midgut. Fig. 7. Longitudinal section through the infracesophageal ganglion. Fig. 8. Longitudinal section through the brain at the level of the origin of the circum-cesophageal commissures, Fig. g. Median longitudinal section of the entire body. Fig. zo. Transverse section of brain, through the origins of the optic and antennulary nerves. Fig. 1. Longitudinal section through a portion of ventral chain showing its intimate connection with the mesenteries. Seen in situ in fig. 9 B. NEUROLOGISTS AND NEURQEOGICAL DABORATORIES. III. NEuRoOLoGIcAL WorK AT ZURICH. By ApotF Meyer, M. D. Pathologist of the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Kankakee: Honorary: fellow of the University of Chicago. Dr. C. v. Monakow, private docent for anatomy, physi- ology and pathology of the nervous system at the University of Zurich, is another very active disciple of v. Gudden’s School. As assistant physician of St. Perminsberg, one of the Swiss asylums, he made numerous experiments, especially on new- born rabbits and cats, and later on, as Privatdocent of the Zurich University (1885), he had the opportunity of doing much valuable work in experimental and pathological anatomy at the University and in his private laboratory. He began with experiments on the connection of the cere- bral cortex and the subcortical ganglia. Among these experi- ments, those on the visual apparatus have been completed and combined very elaborately with the study of pathological ma- terial. The auditory apparatus comes next, but still shows a number of gaps; further, we find remarks on the fornix and its supposed connection with the optic thalamus, and finally, nu- merous remarks on the more peripheral connections of the cor- tex. .cerebri. The examination of a case of tumor of the superior pari- etal gyrus causing chiefly sensory symptoms, Munk’s discovery of sensible and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex and a com- munication of von Gudden (partial atrophy of the thalamen- cephalon after extirpation of a cerebral hemisphere of a dog) induced v. Monakow to study the course of the fibres which connect the cortex with the periphery and more especially with 42 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the infracortical ganglions.’ After the removal of a cortical area of the parietal lobe, the lateral nucleus of the thalamen- cephalon was remarkably atrophied; after the removal of a re- gion from the occipital lobe corresponding to Munk’s area A, in the dog, the external geniculate body was found atrophied, and the internal geniculate body was shown to have the same relation to Munk’s area B, (the auditory sphere). v. Monakow arrives at the following conclusions based on a great number of experiments: | 1. The extirpation of limited cortical areas in the new- born rabbit invariably causes a limited degeneration of the tracts depending on them, no matter what their physiological signifi- cance may be. 2. As arule every single cortical area is in distinct con- nection with more than one tract of fibres. 3. Every nucleus of the thalamencephalon, as well as the external and internal geniculate bodies is distinctly connected with a limited cortical area. 4. The external and internal geniculate bodies are analo- gous to the nuclei of the thalamancephalon, and ought to be classified with them. Subsequently, v. Monakow began to pay special attention to the optic apparatus. One of the papers published in 1883,” initiates a series of contributions, by which he has done so much to elucidate the anatomy of the parts concerned, and at the same time to furnish material of great theoretical and histological importance. These studies were taken up and treated in a more elaborate form later on, and have been brought to a certain conclusion in a new series of contributions Ueber einige durch Extirpation circumscripter Hirnrindenregionen be- dingte Entwicklungshemmungen der Kaninchen Gehirns. von Dr. med. C. v. Monakow, Assistentarzt in St. Pirminsberg (Schweiz). Archiv. fuer Psychiatrie, Vol. XII, pp. 141-156 and 535-549, plates II and IX. * Experimentelle und pathologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber die Bezeichungen der sogenannten Sehsphaere zu den infracorticalen Opticuscentren und zum N. opticus, von Dr. v. Monakow, II. Arzt in St. Pirminsberg (Schweiz). Arch. f. Psych. Vol. XIV, pp. 699-751, Plate IX. Meyer, Neurologists and Neurological Laboratortes. 43 last year.’ I have no right to enter here upon a complete analysis of these important testimonials of v. Monakow’s talent and activity, the chief results of the work referring more to the anatomy and physiology of the higher mammals and to the pathology of man; I restrict my present communications to those points which are of the greatest importance for the under- standing of modern views about the brain as a whole. Itis the con- dition of the external geniculate body, of the pulvinar and of the cor- pora quadrigemina ant., and the varying appearance, according as the visual areaof the cortex, or the eye, is removed by operation in new-born mammals. The external geniculate body and the pulvinar lose most of their ground substance if the eye-ball is removed, whereas the cells persist and seem to be more numer- ous, as they are in very close contact instead of being separated by ground substance. If, however, the occipital lobe, or rather part of the visual cortex of the occipital lobe is removed, the cells themselves undergo atrophy and the external geniculate body shrinks. This observation, together with others obtained by v. Gudden’s method, was one of the reasons why Golgi’s theories of nervous histology found such a ready reception and able criticism in Prof. Forel’s paper, written in 1886. Indeed, it forms one of the finest documents in favor of the ‘‘ Neuronen- thorie.”’ I do not find a satisfactory explanation for the fact that even in recent contributions on the anatomy and physiology of the optic centres, there are blunders in very elementary views, which ought to be considered as overcome once for ever by the clear and unambiguous results of v. Monakow’s work. If I am not able to do full justice to v. Monakow’s views on the subject here, I wish at least to say that they give, more than any other, a nearly complete and satisfactory exposition of the matter both from the standpoint of the anatomist and phy- -siologist and also from the standpoint of the pathologist. 1Experimentelle und pathologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber die optischen Centren und Bahnen (Neue Folge) von Dr. C. v. Monakow, Docent an der Universitat in Ziirich. Arch. f. Psych. Vol. XX. Plates XI.-XIII. Experimentelle und pathologich-anatomiche Untersuchungen iiber die optischen Centren und Bahnen nebst klinischen Beitragen zur corticalen Hemianopsie und Alexie. (Neue Folge.) Archiv fiir Prychiatrie, Vol. XXIII. 44 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Another, though less complete, seriés of experiments has the same relation to the auditory apparatus as the one mention- ed has to the optic apparatus. I have already alluded to the connection found between Munk’s area B (Horsphaere) and the posterior corpora quadrigemina. Ina most valuable paper,’ he explains the character of the striae acusticae (s. medullares) as a secondary tract of the auditory apparatus, originating from the long ganglion-cells of the tuberculum acusticum, whereas the © posterior auditory root ends in the deep layer of the tubercu- lum. It is certain that the striae acusticae form part of the lower fillet and that, most likely, part of them end in the posterior corpora quadrigemina and especially in the internal geniculate body. In an early paper’ v. Monakow had proved that the so-called external auditory nucleus, or nucleus of Dieters, as v. Monakow calls it, has nothing whatever to do with the auditory apparatus. I merely mention another of v. Monakow’s contri- butions? which deals with the fornix and the bundle of Vicq d’Azyr, showing that the latter cannot be a direct continuation of the former. The reader of these notes will see how all these works have a certain logical connection, as they concern the study of sensory paths of the brain. It is very interesting to see what a great number of facts has been produced in this field by the use of v. Gudden’s method. It is to be hoped that Dr. v. Monakow will be able to carry out his researches on the auditory centre in the same thorough and successful manner which we so ad- mire in his work on the optic centres, and that he will develop before long the deductions drawn from the numerous facts with regard to the general architecture and the physiology of the brain. Dr. v. Monakow is still in the commencement of his career. Besides a successful practice in nervous diseases, his activity in his private laboratory—which is open to students of the university, and his lectures at the university, secure to him and to us an outlook for eminent work in neurology. 1Striae acusticae und untere Schleife. Archiv f. Psychiatrie, Bd. XXII. Heft 1. *Experimenteller Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Corpus restiforme, des ‘* aussern Acusticus Kerns” und deren Beziehungen zum Riickenmark. Arch. f. Psychi- atrie Bd. XIV. Heft 1. ’Einiges iiber secundaére Degeneration im Gehirn. Schweizer 4rztl. corr. Bl. XVI. p. 398, 1886. NEUROLOGICAL. NOTES FROM THE, BIOLOGICAL DABORATORY (OF DENISON UNIVERSIDY. The following notes are derived from the memoranda taken during the preliminary studies of various members of the labor- atory corps, and are gathered at this time in the hope of calling the attention of others to points in course of elaboration. The undersigned acknowledges responsibility for the morpological generalizations involved. Co. HERRICK. I. SELENKA’S ‘‘ PHARYNGEAL SAC” IN THE DUCK. By H. H. Bawven. In his monograph on the development of the opossum [Studien ber Entwicklungsgeschicte der Thiere. Heft. 1V.1887] Selenka describes a branched diverticle of the pharynx immedi- ately back of the pharyngeal velum. In the case of embryos of five days the glandular organ has attained its maximum development. A few hours earlier a connection can be demonstrated with the chorda dorsalis which is so direct and obvious as to admit of no doubt that there is ontogenetic connection between the two structures. The pharyngeal sac is very transitory and leaves no trace behind it after the seventh day. _—It appears earlier than the hypophysis and. has all the characteristics of a rudimentary organ. The tubular portion which communicates with the pharynx is hollow while the remainder is solid and variously lobed and divided, one lobe only being in communication with the chorda. The author says:—‘‘Die morphologische Bedeutung der Gaumentasche konnte gleichwohl mit Sicherhelt festgestellt werden.” ‘‘ Damit ist der Nachweis erbracht dass die Gaumen- tasche nichts Anderes ist als das verdickte, lappig verzweigte und ausgehohlte Vorderende der Chorda dorsalis, mit anderen Worten, die vordere Chordahohl oder Chordatasche ! ”’ 46 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ‘‘Die Umgestaltung des vorderen Chordaendes zu einer driisenformigen Tasche erscheint auf den ersten Blick hochst seltsam, verliert jedoch bei naherer Betrachtung das Auffallige. Ist doch die Chorda ihrer Genese nach anfanglich ein hohler Schlauch [Nebendarm, Ehlers], welcher swar schliesslich zu einem soliden strange wird, aber wahrend der Entwickelung seine urspriingliche Gestalt nie ganz verlaugnet.”’ ‘‘ Auch die Knie oder Scheifenform des vordern Chordaendes erklart sich auf einfache Weiss. Durch die Hirnbeuge wird das unter Vor- der und Mittelhirn gelegene Mesodermgewebe sowie auch die Chorda, welche ja Anfangs bis unter den vorderen Rand des Vorderhirn erstreckte, zusammengedriickt und zuzammenge- klappt und zur vorderen Sattellehne umgemodelt.” ‘‘Sehr deutlich fallt dieser Process der Verlagerung des vorderen Chor- daendes in’s Auge, wenn man sich die Hirnbeuge wider aufge- hoben denkt: dann wiirde die Mesodermmasse der Sattellehne wider auseinandergeklappt, die geknickte Chorda miisste sich wieder gradestrecken und ihr Vorderende, d. h. die Mundung die ‘Gaumentasche’, kame ganz dicht an das vordere Ende des Korpers zu legen. Die Hypophyse ware dann dorsal iber dem vorderen Chordaende zu suchen !”’ At the date when Selenka wrote he was unable to find de- scriptions of the structure mentioned in any other type. This was explained as due to the transitory nature of the organ. In view of recent studies upon the morphogenesis of the head, notably the papers of Kupffer, which are tending to locate the cephalic extremity of the head at a point farther forward than the optic chiasm, it seems worth while to call attention to the evidence implicit in the above mentioned facts that the region of the infundibulum represents approximately the cephalic ex- tremity of the brain. [Cf, His, in Axch 7. Anat varias. Anat. Abth., 1892. | From this point of view we call attention to the existence of the structure, described by Selenka in the opossum, as it appears in the duck. The specimen figured was about six days old and was provided with both epiphysis and hypophysis ‘‘fundaments.’”’ [Fig. 1.] The former lies, as in amphibia, BawvEN, Veurological Laboratory Notes. 47 near the middle of the roof of the diencephalon. The pharyn- geal sac in this stage is situated immediately behind the hypoph- ysis, the interval between the two being filled for the most part with the same dense variety of connective tissue which occupies the site of the future basis cranii. [See also fig. 2.] There is, however, a small opening or blood sinus which extends nearly parallel to the axis of the hypophysis for the whole length of the latter. The pharyngeal velum is absent at this stage; but must have been situated immediately caudad of the hypophysis, so that the sac in question belongs to the hypoblastic tissue of the alimentary tract. The sac is simple and in this respect differs from the same organ in the opossum. Its cavity, which at first is narrow, expands dorsally and the walls rapidly thicken, giving a bulb-like configuration to the whole organ. There is a slight tendency to lobate form, but no actual diverticles at this stage. [Fig. 2.] The epithelium is single-layered, vacuolated toward the free surface, and much elongated in the deeper portions, the nuclei collecting at the ental poles of the cells. There is an indication of close connection of the dorsal part of the walls of the sac with the adjacent connective tissue, the epithelium cells being apparently in process of transformation or degeneration, losing their distinctness and becoming permeated with the sur- rounding connective tissue elements. The chorda at this stage exhibits curvatures in the lateral as well as the vertical plane. The latter curvature is obviously due to the head flexure. The unaltered part extends to within a short distance of the hypophysis, but the entire cephalic ex- tremity has suffered a peculiar degeneration and reduction in size, and is composed of closely massed nuclei bearing an un- mistakable resemblance to the nuclei of the connective elements. [Fig. 1.] The end of the chorda is not only flexed and reduced but irregular in outline. Froma ventral protuberance of the de- generated tip of the chorda a slender cord, resembling in struc- ture the chordal sheath, passes ventrad and terminates in imme- diate proximity to the sac with which, however, no direct con- nection can now be traced. 48 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. In later stages this organ seems to disappear, but a glance at Fig. 3 will show that it becomes amalgamated with the stalk of the hypophysis, In the stage figured, the pituitary has acquired its glandular form and has nearly severed its connection with the pharnyx. The chorda has become encased in the car- tilage of the future basis cranii, but there are still ill-defined rudiments of the connecting cord. [Cz. con. and x. Fig. 3.] The cause of the union of the two bodies is obviously the in- creasing of the head-flexure and development of the saddle-cleft. Fig. 4 illustrates the poorly developed pharyngeal sac of the chick at about four days. Il. THE PINEAL AND PARIETAL ORGAN IN PHRYNOSOMA CORONATA. By A. D. SORENSEN. The external appearance of the pineal organ in Phrynosoma has been so amply described that futher mention of it need not be made here. The different structures associated with the epiyhysis and their interrelations have not, I think, been fully or satisfactorily determined. In an article which appeared in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology for 1890, Mr. W. E. Ritter has given a detailed discription of the epiphysial structures of P. dou- glassii and P. coronata. Among the sections of different groups of which a comparative study of the epiphysial structures is being made, a number of sections of P. coronata have been studied and relations have been found to exist which do not appear in Mr. Ritter’s drawings. The Parietal Organ. The position of the parietal organ with reference to the parietal bones, is not the same as described by Ritter in either of the three different animals that have been studied. No pit or even depression appears below the organ. The terminal points of the parietal bones differ somewhat in their positions as related to the parietal organ. The preparietal bone lies in the normal position, while the post parietal bone appears to project backward, the parietal organ lying in a straight SORENSEN, eurological Laboratory Notes. 49 line with the terminal points. Between the post-parietal bone and just above the nerve (to be described later) is a distinct blood sinus, which was traced some distance toward the epiphy- sis. The parietal organ is spheroidal in form and consists. of three parts, a lense and an inner and outer wall. The wallsare deeply pigmented and their histology has not yet been studied. The Epiphysts. The combination of structures arising from the roof of the diencephalon, Mr. Ritter, in keeping with the former nomenclature, designated as the Epiphysis. He the gave the following parts: A proximal part with an anterior, much folded, epithelial wall, and a posterior, not folded and thiner epithelial wall; an epiphysial vesicle ; a blood sinus; and a string of connective tissue. From a study and comparison of his drawings it is quite evident that what he has termed the ‘ proxi- imal part with an anterior, much folded, epithelial wall’ is the plexus formed anteriorly to the supra-commissure and found in many groups (‘‘Polster’’ of Burckhardt.) It is evident, moreover, that no connection appeared in his sections between the “‘ epi- physial vesicle’’ and the roof of the diencephalon. In the sec- tions which I have studied, the following structures appear: Epiphysis (epiphysial vesicle); epiphysial stalk; nerve; blood sinuses; and plexus. The Epiphysis is prominent and cannot be mistaken. It is composed of columnar epithelium very different from that of the plexus and profusely pigmented and consists of a large num- ber of diverticles from the same visicle. The epiphysial stalk connects it directly with the roof of the diencephalon just back of the supra-commissure. There can be no question that the so-called vesicle, with its stalk, con- stitutes the true epiphysis which is in this case flexed cephalad at the tip. Moreover the entire structure exhibits the same rela- tions which are encountered in all other Sauropsida. ihe cpiphysial nerve was traced through different sections from its origin in the supra-commissure to its terminus just below the parietal organ. No fibers, however, were found to enter the organ. 50 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Two blood sinuses lie one on either side of the Epiphysis. The one lying posteriorly being considerably larger. The plexus, as was noted by Mr. Ritter, is an exceedingly complex and intricately folded mass. Its points of origin, how- ever, are not uncertain, as it forms the roof of the diencephalon cephalad of the supra-commissure. The plexus, as in other reptiles, consists of two parts. The posterior part, at least, is identical with Burckhardt’s ‘‘Polster.”” The caudal extremity unites with the supra-commissure and the cephalic end with the hippocampal commissure and projects laterally a short distance into the lateral ventricles. The connective tissue is also present as Mr. Ritter describes it. So far from agreeing with Ritter that ‘‘the epiphysial ’ we have seen that it alone, with its stalk, has any claim to this name. vesicle is not a portion of the epiphysis’ II]. THe Roor oF THE DIENCEPHALON. By A. D. SORENSEN. Professor V. Kupffer, in his interesting discussion of the roof the Diencephalon,’ calls attention to the fact that the posi- tion of the pineal and associated supra-commissura is not the same in amphibia as in other groups. He says: ‘‘The roof of the thalamencephalon or dien- cephalon (Zwischenhirn) in the usual sense lies in front of the superior commissure in Acipenser, while in the frog, accord- ing to Professor Osborn’s drawings, it lies behind that commissue. In Acipenser the supra-commissure and post-com- missure are closely approximated, while in the frog (fide Osborn), they are widely separated. In Acipenser the pineal lies immediately cephalad of the post-commissure as in Amni- ates and particularly in man, in the frog there is an extensive segment of the brain roof, separating the pineal from the post- 2Studien zur vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschicte des Kopfes. Heft .1. 1893. SorENSEN, Veurological Laboratory Notes. 51 commissure, which Osborn calls the thalamencephalon. It is obvious that the part of the brain since considered as dien- cephalon in ganoids, and which I have called ‘‘ Nebenhirn,”’ or parencephalon is not homologous with Osborn’s thalamen- cephalon, in the frog. In the frog larva there is a segment of the brain roof between the post-commissure and the stalk of the epiphysis.’ In another paragraph he states that these relations are peculiar to Amphibia (p. 36.) ‘‘und eine vergleichende Beleuchtung erfordern.”’ Such a comparative study is now in progress and the fol- lowing lines are intended to call attention to the topographical relations ina few cases,.with only incidental reference to the morphological problems involved. In a median longitudinal section of a duck embryo of six days the pineal appears as a knob-like evagination from the median portion of the roof of the diencephalon. Between % and % of the roof between the pineal and mesencephalon is occupied by the post-commissure. The remaining portion is precisely similar in structure to the pre-pineal portion of the roof. The pre-pineal portion, i. e., the roof of the diencephalon from the pineal to the velum transversum, describes a uniform convex curve, there being no trace of supra-commissure, ‘‘polster,”’ dorsal sac, plexus, or paraphysis. The pineal diverticle or recess exhibits the same structure as the rest of the roof of the diencephalon, with, how- ever, rather more numerous karyokinetic figures. In this stage the pineal is in almost immediate contact with the epidermis. The dorsal roofs of the mesencephalon, diencephalon and primary prosencephalon are approximately equal in extent and lie in about the same straight line. The pituitary and pharyngeal pouch are both lightly developed in this stage. The former is closely approximated to the relatively large Infundi- bulum (Hypencephalon). It therefore appears that the rela- tions, which Kupffer claims are peculiar to Amphibia, are found in the early embryo of the duck, and it becomes important to trace the subsequent modifications. In embryos of the same species, two or three days later, the relative position of the pin- 52 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. eal has evidently changed. Instead of lying midway between the terminal points of the diencephalon, the pineal is included in the caudal one-fourth. The pre-pineal portion retains ap- proximately the same thickness, but grows rapidly forward, keeping pace with the roof of the prosencephalon. While the post-pineal portion becomes depressed and thickens and is rapidly encroached upon by the fibers of the post-commissure. At this stage important changes are also taking place in the pineal itself. It becomes irregularly lobed, thickens and projects forward. Thus the conditions which are shown to be permanent in Amphibia, are transitory in the amniate vertebrates. In trout fry of nine days old, the post-pineal segment is thrust under by invagination forming the torus, in which process the post-com- missure is also sharply plicated. It would appear that the bony fishes are more closely allied, in this respect, to amphibians than are the ganoids. In duck embryos of a somewhat later stage the entire roof of the diencephalon has undergone important morphological changes. For convenience, the following nomenclature will be used: I, post-commissure; 2, pineal recess; 3, pineal; 4, su- pra-commissure; 5, post-paraphysis; 6, vellum transversum ; 7, pre-paraphyses, with a possible post-and pre-plexus. In this stage the pineal recess does not appear, having been partly encroached upon by the post-commissure, and partly absorbed into the pineal. The postparaphysis extends from the supra-commissure to the velum and is somewhat corrugated. The velum separates the post- and preparaphyses and joins the roof and base of the cephalic limit of the diencephalon. The preparaphysis unites the velum with the prosencephalon. From the cephalic side of the velum the preplexus has developed and enters the pro- sencephalic ventricles. The epiphysis at this stage projects cephalad and forms several diverticles. This process goes on as development con- tinues, until the base or undivided portion of the epiphysis be- comes almost disconnected from the third ventrical, or, in other SORENSEN, JVeurological Laboratory Notes. 53 words, resembles the so-called epiphysial vesicle of Phrynosoma. In the turtle the entire outgrowth from the roof of the Diencephalon resembles in size and the relative position of its parts the epiphysial structures of the horned toad already de- scribed. The epiphysis arising immediately behind the supra-com- missure and grows forward by a somewhat narrow stalk, which soon expands to form the vesicle of the epiphysis. This vesicle is somewhat irregular in that several lobes project from the main vesicle. The whole structure is highly vascular, the walls being permeated with numerous blood vessels. The epiphysis rests on the slender lamina of the plexus, which runs forward to the cephalic extremity of the epiphysial vesicle and there becomes intricately plicated. The infolding of the plexus at this point forms between this plicated structure and the cephalic origin of the plexus, another structure which is also found, formed in apparently the same way, in snakes, and which I have called for convenience the dorsal sac. This sac runs dorsal toward the cephalic end of the epiphysial vesicle. Just in front of the cephalic end of the plexus is a large blood sinnus which runs the whole length of the dorsal sac and joins a blood vessel above. The whole structure, including the epiphysial vesicle, plexus, and dorsal sac is extremely vascular. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. BAWDEN. Fig. z. Part of a median-longitudinal section of the head of a duck-embryo at six-days illustrating the relations between the chorda and pharyngeal sac, The relation of the commissures of the diencephalic roof to the epiphysis may also be seen. fig. 2 The pharyngeal sac and hypophysis from the preceding section. fig. 3. The same region from a much older embryo. fig. 4. A similar section from a chick of four or five days. fig. 5. Median-longitudinal section through the head of a duck embryo somewhat older than that figured in Fig. 2. 54 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII. SORENSEN. Fig. 1. Composition drawing from several longitudinal sections of Phry- nosoma coronata, showing the epiphysial structures and parietal nerve and vesicle. The nerve arises from the supra-commissure, while the pineal stalk springs from the roof immediately caudad of the commissure. fig. 2. A single section illustrating the relations of the pineal on a larger scale. The nerve is not shown. fig. 3. Median-longitudinal section of the head of a duck embryo at six days. Fig. 4. Similar section (somewhat oblique) from a later embryo, showing relative increase of the prepineal roof of the diencephalon. fig. 5. Enlarged view of the epiphysis figured in 4. fig. 6. View of the roof of the diencephalon and mesencephalon in later duck embryo. fig. 7. Epiphysis in still later stage. Refer also to Plate VI. Fig. 4. External view of the Epiphysis of Cistudo, from a model com- posed with the aid of the camera lucida from sections. fig. 5. Composite section of the same showing the relation of Epiphysis and paraphyses. IV. REVERSION OF THE CEREBELLUM IN AMERICAN LIZARDS. By P. T. Evans. In the March number of the JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE Nevuro.ocy for 1891, Prof. Herrick calls attention to a forward folding and consequent reversion of the cerebellum in the Scel- oporus undulatus. The passage in question is found on page 7, and reads as follows: ‘‘In the case of lizards we have ap- parently a completely dissimilar plan of structure. Here the gray matter is dorsal and white ventral (Plate IV, Figs. 4 and 5). This reversal of the two layers is explained, upon a more careful examination, as the product of a complete forward and median fold of the caudal and lateral margins of the cerebellum (compare Plate IV, Figs. 6-9). This is but the completion of the process indicated by the incipient retroflexion seen in the turtle. The result of this fold is the formation of an actual cavity surrounded caudad and laterad by the white (morpho- logically dorsal) zone of cerebellum. Thus the fusion of the lateral margin, or, more accurately, the union of the whole lat- ero-caudal, reflected margin due to a general cephalo-median in- crease, produces the hollow organ just described.” Evans, Veurological Laboratory Notes. 55 Dr. Ludwig Edinger, in his report’ upon the investigation of the anatomy of the central nervous system for [8g1, offers the following criticism: ‘‘ Herrick comes to the conclusion, as a result of the tracing of the various layers of the cerebellum thoughout the vertebrate series, that in the reptilia there pre- vails a forward reversion of the cerebellum in such a way that parts which before lay upon the surface come to lie ventrally. The preparations which were prepared by the carmine method do not enforce this conclusion.”’ The last statement is erroneous. The carmine method was not used. Being a student of Prof. Herrick’s, I was led to in- vestigate this point in other species since we have received more material. An examination of the brain of Phrynosoma as seen in Fig. 8, Plate VI, reveals the forward reversion very plainly. It is not possible to be mistaken in this. In noticing this figure it is to be seen that there is no plexus. This was torn away in order that this forward reversion might be seen. The tearing away of the plexus leaves the fourth ventrical uncovered. It is also noticed in Fig. 1g—c, Plate V, Vol. 55, No. 1, of the Zeitschrift fir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, that the same thing exists in Iguana, but Dr. Meyer doest not seem to have noticed it. In the study of sections of the species of which Fig. 1, Plate XU1.and- Fig. 10, Plate V; are representative, 1 find',the histology to be the same as that of all reptilia. This forward reversion of the cerebellum gives the ventral surface the dorsal position and the white upper layer is inverted over the optic lobes. In comparing the sections from which figures 4, 5 and 6, Plate IV, of the March number, Vol. I, were made, with the sections of which Figs. 10, 11 and 12, Plate V, were taken, I find that the histology agrees in every particular, and the histol- ogy of the part spoken of as the plexus in Figs. 10, 11 and 12, Plate V, agrees with the histology of the plexi. There can be no doubt that this reversion is a fact. We find the same thing in the Iguana, Sceloporus, and in Phrynosoma the same condi- tion exists, and, curiously enough, all these lizards also have the parietal eye. 1Schmidt’s Jahrbiicher der gesammten Medicin Bd. CCXXXVI, p. 20, 56 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. V. THe HIppocaMpus IN REPTILIA. By C.-L) HERRICK: In his most instructive paper on the olfactory and hippo- campal apparatus’ Dr. Edinger offers many valuable suggestions growing out of his own investigations and those of others. With these the present writer is fully in sympathy and now de- sires simply to call attention to the fact that even in his earlier papers, to which Dr. Edinger refers, there existed no such dif- ference as he supposes. Hesays ‘‘ Von spateren Untersuchern des Reptilien-gehirnes hat sich Koppen meiner Auffassung ang- eschlossen, wahrend Herrick ein ganz anders Gebeit, die Gegend caudal von stammganglion, an der Basis des Gehirnes, also nicht ein echtes mantelgebiet, als ‘‘ Occipito-basal nucleus” der Ammons formation homologisiren mochte.’’ Reference is made to the papers ‘‘ Notes on the Brain of the Alligator,’’ Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., 1890, and ‘‘ Topography and _ His- tology of the Brain of certain Reptiles,” Journ. Comp. Neurolo- gy, March, 1891. At the time when these were written (1890) Dr. Edinger’s paper was as yet inaccessible to me and any agreement found between our views may be taken as entirely independent. In both of the papers, which purported to be simply ‘‘ preliminary notes,” very slight reference was made to the literature as the comprehensive paper, now approaching completion, was then contemplated, On page 141 are the fol- lowing lines: ‘‘The olfactory fibres gather in the lower me- dian angle . . . it may be conjectured that fibres proceed to the cortex of the calloso-marginal or occipital region. It is probable that other and important parts of the tract are super- ficial on the inferior and lateral basal areas, collecting at the postero-basal margin, and sending fibres by way of the fornix to the colloso-marginal region.”” Of course the use of the word ‘‘fornix’’ was here a slip of the pen. On page 143, in describing the cell areas, this passage occurs: ‘‘A third cell- 1 Vergleichend-entwickelungsgeschichtliche und anatomische Studien im Bereiche der Hirnanatomie. Anat. Anzetger, VIII, 10, 11. Herrick, Neurological Laboratory Notes. s) clustre, which occupies a relatively small area anteriorly, but increases caudad, occupies the lower median portion of the mantle. It consists of flask-like or sensory cells with fibres which can be traced ventrad to the ventral median portion of the posterior part of the brain, i. e. the hippocampal region, and seems to embrace the continuation of the olfactory tract.” If the sentence is perhaps awkward, it would nevertheless un- mistakably indicate that the writer homologized the mesal and caudal region of cortex with the ‘‘ Ammonshorn”’ as he has continued to do up to the present time, differing from Edinger only in restricting the hippocampus to the caudal part and ex- cluding the cephalic region of the calloso-marginal mantle area. On page 145 a more explicit passage occurs. ‘‘ The remaining median part of the ventricle . . . separates a thick por- tion of the mantle, corresponding in some respects with the an- terior portion of the Ammonshorn.”’ It is really remarkable that there could be any mistake as to the view presented in the second paper referred to. On page 15 occurs the following passage: ‘‘ The base (ventral surface) of the hemispheres exhibits a slight protuberance in the latero- caudal portion, which is due to the occzpzto-basal lobe. (The use of the word lobe is a pure convention from which no escape could be found.) The latter is not a sub-division of the cortex but a well-defined portion of the axial lobe. [It is the same as +) Edinger’s ‘‘kugelformiger Kern,” which the latter now agrees with the writer in considering an implicate or masked bit of cor- tex.] This lobe can probably be distinguished in all Saurop- sida. It is partially separated from the remainder of the axial lobe by a fibre tract, and bears laterad and dorsad a film of cor- tex which projects caudad as a free occtpital lobe of cortex for a short distance and terminates in a velum cerebri. The latter ts morphologically a part of the wall of the lateral ventricle, which has lost its cellular elements and contains, at one point, the tae- nia thalami. The extent to which this lobe [i. e. the occipital not the occipito-basal, as understood by Edinger] is developed varies greatly even in reptiles. It is reduced to a minimum in birds. It contains the undoubted homologue of the hippocampus, 58 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. but in the black-snake that portion homologous with the hippo- campus is relatively highly differentiated. | Even the portions corresponding to the fornicate and uncinate gyri may be distin- guished, though there is, of course, no external indication of the distinction.”’ On page 16, it is said that ‘‘the ventro-basal protuberance of the hemispheres, which seems analogous with the pyriform lobe of Rndents, for example, contains a concentric zone or hol- low spheroid of gray matter greatly (though spurtously) resembl- ing the hippocampus,” Certainly there can be no ambiguity in this passage and we are unable to find a passage which can be construed to indicate a belief that the ‘‘occipito-basal lobe’’ corresponds to the ‘‘Am- monshorn.”’ In his first paper on the forebrain, Edinger calls attention to the existence of a distinct bundle from the median wall of the hemisphere to the diencephalon which he unhesitatingly homologizes with the fornix. The median part of the mantle contains a cortex characterized by the small size and close ar- rangement of its cells. This corresponds to the region where in mammalian embryos the arcuate fissure appears. At the point where the median wall thins to form the plexus cho- roideus the cortex is exposed. Between it and the margin of the hemisphere is a protuberant ridge, in which are fibres. This ridge Edinger identifies as the fornix ridge. The layer of closely associated cells above it in the median wall of the hemi- sphere is called Ammonsrinde or hippocampus. ‘‘Das betref- fende Rindstiick muss man als erstes Auftreten der Ammons- by rinde in der Therreithe ansehen.” ‘‘Sie enthalt also bei ihrem ersten Auftreten alle die elemente, welche spiter, wenn auch durch Windungen und dergleichen verwischet, das character- isch Ammonshorn bilden.”’ On page 20 of this Journal for March, 1892, the relations of the occipital cortex to the septum (intra-ventricular lobe) are indicated. ‘‘In the meantime the free caudal margin of the cortex has extended medianly, fusing with the intra-ventricular lobe, completing a ring or cap of cortex, which entirely en- Herrick, WVeurological Laboratory Notes. 59 closes the axial lobe, which latter, by the encroachments of the ventricle, has become separate from the wall. The cells of the occipital cortex resemble those of the fronto-median lobe.” While, therefore, the writer independently identified much the same region as that called by Edinger Ammons cortex with the hippocampus, it will be seen that it is rather the caudal than the mesal region which is thus identified; while Dr. Edinger seems to include the whole median wall as far forward as the cal- losum and does not specifically include the occipital cortex. A comparison of the hippocampus of reptiles with that of the opossum is exceedingly instructive. In the latter case, where the callosum is not developed to the extent characteristic of higher mammals, the relations are identical with those of reptiles except that the backward development of the cortex has folded the free caudal margin upon itself. (See plates A, B and C, Vol. II., Feb. 1893.) The influence of the fold is felt far for- ward and there is other evidence of the unity in structure of the whole belt of cortex thus folded. In rodents the folds are enor- mously exaggerated and carried beneath the callosum, but it is still morphologically the caudal margin—that part which lies next the tela—which is thus modified. Inspection of Fig. 5 of Plate V. will show that in Phryno- soma the evidence for our position is quite conclusive. In that genus there is a distinct fornix commissure. It is about half way between the callosum and the supracommissureand contains a number of fibers, being nearly as large as either of the others mentioned. These fibers are associated with the fornix columns which pass forward in Edinger’s Fornix-leiste and describe the ventro-caudal curvature. Both sorts of fibers pass ‘caudad and spread out in the entire caudal cap of cortex. (Fig. 6, Plate V.) Meyer,’ writing without knowledge of the writer’s paper, in 1892, makes very much the same distinctions between the small-celled (facia dentata) and large-celled lateral portion. He is convinced that there are no connections with the olfactory tract. Meyer identifies the mesal wall cephalad with the sep- 1Ueber das Vorderhirn einiger Reptilien. Zestsch. wiss Zool. VI. 1, Nov.1892 60 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. tum, as we had done the ‘‘intra-ventricular lobe,”’ although un- willing to use this term which has a_ special sense in mammals. Meyer has also noticed the fornix commissure and carefully figur- ed it (Op. cit., Figs. 33-36) in Iguana. We feel confident that this commissure is, as Ruckhard suggested, a true fornix com- missure. In serpents the same fibres lie within that part of the mesal wall which corresponds to the fornix body. The occasion for the separation of these fibers in reptiles is the folding of the brain axis which thrusts the dorsal cortex backward over the diencephalon. The statement has been made that the so-called fornix or hippocampal commissure of reptiles cannot be homologous with the organ so named in mammals, because in the former the plexus passes dorsad of it. This is, however, an illusion as the study of these fibers in Ophidia, Lacertilia and Chelonia has fully convinced the writer. In those cases where the plexus lies dorsad of the commissure, it is in the form of a diverticle of the roof cephalad or caudad of the commissure. The fibres them- selves lie zz the roof of the aula. In amphibia the callosum is very small and, if we correctly identify it, lies for cephalad so that it appears in the same _hori- zontal section with the hippocampal commissure. The latter is quite a strong band which after passing along the line of union of the cerebral hemispheres and thalamus turns ventrad and crosses immediately dorsad of the precommissure. We cannot agree with Osborn who identifies this bundle with the collosum. In the first place, its fibres are derived from the caudal part of the cortex and, in the second, they cross caudad of the porta, and, finally, there is a small band of fibres crossing in front of and dor- sad of the porta which better deserves this title. The above re- marks are based particularly upon several good series of J/enop- oma, Menobranchus, Salamandra and Rana. The larval sala- mander has the hippocampal tract well-developed while the cal- losum is not apparent at all. fae INBUSIUM OF THE CALLOSUM: By Pierre A. Fisu, B.S. Instructor in Physiology, Vertebrate Zoology and Neurology, Cornell University. The recent papers by Blumenau' and Marchand? on the de- velopment of the callosum have conduced to a much more complete morphological understanding of that important region. Simple as it may appear superficially, there are nevertheless involved questions which may be of the profoundest significance, from a physiological as well as from an anatomical standpoint. Perhaps no other part of the human body exemplifies bet- than this the importance of correlating the earlier and later con- ditions of organs and their parts, in order to obtain an adequate and true conception of their structure and function. | Embryol- ogy and morphology should go hand in hand—one should sup- plement the other. Industum griseum is the name applied by Obersteiner™ to the vestigial layer of the cerebral cortex, existing with greater or less distinctness upon the dorsal surface of the callosum, in many other mammals. It has long been known that the apparent dorsal surface of the human callosum does not present a distinct transversely straited appearance. Lancisius’ noted two mesal and two lateral striations passing longitudinally over the dorsum of the — callosum. He describes the mesal as ¢eretes nervi stmiliter medu- Hares and the lateral as non vert nervi sed limbt. Valentin’ has recognized a delicate remnant of gray sub- stance between the meson and the sézae laterales, which ap- peared to be identical with that of the fasciola. Jastrowitz‘ found that the fibers(?) do not lie freely on the dorsum of the callosum, but are imbedded ina layer of nerve cells. Stieda® observed the indusium in the dog and the rabbit. In the dog he found that the extension from each side projected far enough to meet at the meson, but at this point there were no nerve cells. In 62 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the rabbit there also existed an extremely small layer of nerve cells, connecting both hemispheres, representing extensions - of the cortex over the callosum. Blumenau finds the free dorsal surface of the rabbit’s callosum very small and covered with a thin and scarcely noticeable layer of cinerea. The same writer finds the indusium well developed in the pig. The s¢rzae later- ales are large, but caudad they recede from the meson and flat- ten out; between these striz there is a minimum layer of cin- erea. Giacomini® has also noted that the elements of the brain cortex enclose these striz, and that a thin intermediate layer of cinerea exists. This he differentiates into two layers: L. Stieda. Studien iiber das centrale Nervensystem der Wirbelthiere. Leipzig. 1870. 6 Giacomini. Giornale della r. Accad. Med. di Torino. 1883. 7B. G. Wilder. Article, Brain. Supplementary volume of the Reference Hand book of the Medical Sciences. 1893. [In Press. ] 8E. Zuckerkandl. Uber das Riechcentrum. Stuttgart. 1887. 9V. Mihalkovics. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Gehirns. Leipzig. 1877. 10, C. Spitzka. Article, Brain Histology. The Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences. Vol. VIII. 1889. 68 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. 1G, Schwalbe. Lehrbuch der Neurologie. 1881. 2C,.S. Minot. Human Embryology. 1892. 13H. Obersteiner. Central Nervous Organs. 1890. 14@T. Meynert. Psychiatry. 1885. 15C, Golgi. Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria e di Medicina Legale. 1883. 16B. G. Wilder and S. H. Gage. Article, Anatomical terminology. Refer- ence Handbook of the medical sciences. Vol. VIII., 1889. 17], M. Lancisics. Opera Omnia Lib. VII., de sede cogitantis Animae. Geneve. 1718. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. Cal. callosum ;ca/. f. callosal fissure; fas. fasciola; fm. fimbria; gen. genu , ind. indusium; zc/, nerve cell layer; frcs. precommissure; sept. hemiseptum ; sm, stria mesalis; sf/. splenium. Fig. 7. Human fetus of five months, after Marchand. The outlines of the remaining figures were drawn with the aid of Abbe’s camera lucida, using, except for figures 2 and 7, Leitz’s No. 1 ocular and No. 2 objective. The details are filled in free hand and absolute accuracy is not in- tended. fig. 2. A transection through the callosum of man. The specimen was hardened in a ¥f per cent. solution of ammonium bichromate in 50 per cent. alcohol. Stained with hematoxylin. Enlarged twenty diameters. fig3. Chimpanzee, Tvroglodytes niger. The brain was hardened by a con- tinuous injection of alcohol through the blood vessels. The section was taken from the region of the genu. Stained in hematoxylin. Enlarged forty diameters. fig.4. Macacus cynomolgus. Hardened in alcohol 20 c. c., water 80 c.c., glycerin 8 c. c., zinc chloride 4 grams. Stained in an alcoholic acid solution of © carmine. x 40. Fig. 5. Sheep, Ovzs artes. Hardened ina 5 per cent. alchoholic solution of zinc chloride. Stained in hematoxylin and eosin. x 4o. From genual region. Fig. 6. Cat, Felis domestica. Hardened in potassium bichromate 8 grams, potassium nitrate 4grams, water 600 c.c. The specimen was transferred from hardening fluid direct to ammonia carmine stain. The section was taken from the splenium. x 40. Fig. 7. Pyramidal nerve cell from the indusium of the sheep. Golgi pre- paration. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORTEX CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH A REPORD, UPON A. DOG FROM WHICH THE ENTIRE CEREBRUM HAD BEEN REMOVED BY PROF. GOLTZ.? By Dr. Lupwic EDINGER. (frankfurt-on- Main.) Thanks.to the kindness of Professor Goltz, of Strassburg, I have been placed in possession of most valuable material for cerebral anatomy—none other than the brains of a large number of dogs from which a larger or smaller portion of the cerebrum had been removed. The anatomical investigation of these brains requires a long time and it is still far from completion. Nevertheless I shall re- port at present upon a part of the results which have been ob- tained from the study of the brain of that widely known dog from which Professor Goltz succeeded, by a method hitherto un- approached, in removing the entire cerebrum. This dog, which survived the last operation more than eighteen months, was doubt- less known to many of you. The unparalleled success of the operation, the possibility of studying an animal entirely deprived of cerebrum so many months after the disappearance of all irri- tative phenomena, the valuable observations which have been made upon the animal, and which Professor Goltz has pub- lished in his Abhandlung uber die Verrichtungen des Gross- hirns, VII. (Pliger’s Archiv. Bd. LI.) all these have awakend much interest in the anatomical results. Added to this is the in- terest which such a preparation has in virtue of its manifold secondary degeneration phenomena for those who realize upon how slender footing our knowledge of the fibre tracts of the di- encephalon now stands. 1 A lecture before the Medical Congress at Weisbaden. Printed from advance proofs very kindly forwarded by the author. Translated by the editor. 70 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. I may at once remark that this ‘‘ dog without cerebrum, Goltz” actually proves, on anatomical investigation, to possess scarcely a trace of the cerebrum. This dog was able during its lifetime to employ its limbs in walking, running and standing, he perceived tactile irritation of all parts of the body and could be awakened from a deep sleep by these excitements or loud noises. He possessed a distinct sensation of the position of his members and could unquestionably be incited to adaptive activity by such sensory stimuli. Nor was he totally blind, though it could not be proven that he was so affected by visual sensations as to mod- ify the position or movements of the body. It was evident that hunger and gustatory sensations remained. The animal was pro- foundly imbicile and it was impossible to enter into any sort of personal relation to him. No expressions of joy or fear escaped him. In restless and unvarying round he ran in hiscage. With the exception of the gradual reacquirement of the power to feed himself, he never learned anything. However often an act may have been repeated, as, for example, his daily removal from his cage for feeding during eighteen months, it produced no evidence of acquired experience ; each time, no matter how hungry, he snapped and bit angrily. Every trace of methodical activity was lost. The dog was capable of a variety of vocal express- ions. His spontaneous acts, which were numerous enough, ex- hibited no trace of reflection or the slightest evidence of exper- lence. The most remarkable deficiency resulting from the removal of the cerebrum was the suppression of all expressions which be- tray understanding, memory, reflection, and intelligence in the animal. On the other hand those faculties remained intact which may be exercised without these functions, such as a cer- tain degree of motor power, sensation and general irritability. And now, gentlemen, a glance at the charts ' and prepara- tions will show that, caudad of the great injury which has re-_ moved the entire cerebrum and somewhat injured the thalamus, ! The illustrations will appear at the proper time with the extended oe tion of the results of the study of the operated dog brains. EpIncer, Zhe Significance of the Cortex. fa in the region of the corpora quadrigemina only slight divergence from the normal conditions are observable at first sight. In this section of spinal cord you will detect nothing to dis- tinguish it from a section from a normal dog, and it is only after close inspection that you will discover that a few fibres are ab- sent from dorso-lateral columns and that the whole pyramidal tract, which is not very strongly developed in the dog at best, is affected by secondary degeneration on both sides. Even in these sections of the medulla and quadrigemina no one would discover without careful study that farther forward such an enormous region of the ventral nervous system had been in- jured. From these observations we might conclude that the spinal cord and the ganglia and fibres in the medulla and mid- brain are distinct centres which possess a high degree of ana- tomical independence of those parts of the brain lying farther cephalad. The functions which they subserve, motor co-ordi- nation, receptivity to sense impressions, were not so ser- iously affected in this dog. The opinion which might be formed on anatomical grounds, that an animal which retains only these centres intact could, in case of necessity, get on with them alone, has become certainty through the evidence afforded by eighteen months’ observation of this dog. I shall discuss this point more in detail later. Glance, in the next place, at the illustrations of sections through the forebrain. These were prepared by drawing the outline of the sections through the fragments of brain of the op- erated dog and projecting sections from the same level of normal dog brains. The projection distance was so adjusted that the two outlines were made to correspond and thus articial figures of two equal brains were produced. It appears that almost the entire forebrain has been re- moved in an extraordinarily skiltul and complete manner. Cephalad both the frontal lobes are absent, together with a part of the striatum and the callosum and corpus fornicis. On the right side a part of the internal capsule is retained with the body of the striatum but on the left side only traces of these re- 72 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. main. The precommissure, the olfactory fibres of which should be visible at this point, has completely disappeared. Notice that the inner capsule, even in the first section, con- tains quite a number of medullated fibres. These, there- fore, must have their origin not in cells of the cortex but in structures lying farther caudad. The next section shows that the caudatus is relatively well preserved on the right side while on the left only insignicant fragments remain. A trace of the cortex belonging to the trigonum olfactorium lies ventrad of the head of the striatum on the brain base. The lentiformis is al- most completely removed with the hemispheres. Farther caudad, in region of the commissura media, the thalamus is present on both sides but all its niduli are atrophied to a marked extent. Only a much atrophied internal capsule, not a trace of hemis- pheres, no fornix and only the fragments of an ammonshorn of one side remained. The uncus of the parietal lobe is retained because the operator wished to pseserve the optic nerve. In this he was successful on the right side but on the left side the section passed a little too far mesad and also removed the corpus geniculatum laterale. Thus the optic nerve of that side is atro- phied although intact on the other side. Behind the sections here figured all the thalamus ganglia are present and send their fibres caudad quite like those of a normal brain. In spite of the enormous injury in the forebrain region, the tegmental region and mesencephalon gradually appear, sections passing through which are but slightly distinguishable from those of a normal midbrain. The farther caudad one goes the fewer tracts are af- fected till, as already remarked, in the cord the only defect is the absence of the pyramidal tracts. I have thus far scarcely taken into consideration tracts sec- onarily degenerated, in part because these relations lie outside the range of this lecture, and in part because the investigation is as yet incomplete. Our present purpose is to indicate the ex- tent of the destruction due to the operation. I again summarize the results. Of the entire cerebrum, aside from the remnants of the right Ammonshorn, there remains not a trace except a strongly atrophied uncus of the parietal EpIncER, The Significance of the Cortex. 7.3 lobe, which is reduced to a mere membrane. The incision on the right side passes laterad of the capsule leaving the thalamus ganglia and opticus intact, while on the left side the genicula- lum externum, optic nerve, the gangalon of the lattice layer, and a part of the ventral thalamus nidulus were also removed. The left optic nerve remains visible only in the form of atread of nonmedullated fibres. Of the ganglia of the mesencephalon, cerebellum, etc. all are intact. This dog which, as you see, had lost almost the entire cere- brum, possessed the greater part of those faculties which for a time we have been led to believe eminated essentially from the cere- brum. The experiments of Goltz, which have removed so large a mass of brain substance, have always produced great interest. But the results of these operations, which he described in his usual masterly manner, seemed to many to contradict the results of the majority of the physiologists who have employed stimu- lation and exterpation. In other words, a distinct contradiction was thought to exist between the results of localization and those produced by Goltz. Here, however, we must be content with the facts. It is possible to explain that, on one hand, a slight injury of cortex in man or the ape produces evident symptoms or lameness, motor insufficiency, etc., that we may diagnose the spot and treat it successfully, and that, on the other hand, this dog, and many others operated upon by Goltz, gave evidence of no marked motor disturbances. I am convinced that the facts which comparative anatomy has taught us are well adapted to thro w a strong light upon the significance of the cortex and cerebrum and to explan the con- tradictions which so many find between the results of stimula- tion of the cortex and its total extripation. There is a large class of animals which are totally devoid of a cortex and the fibres originating there. Itis the gronp of bony fishes [Teleostei.] In this group the brain ‘‘ begins’, szt venza verbo, with the axial ganglon, corpus striatum, as indicated in the drawing. The thalamus ganglia are relatively insignificant, it is only when we reach the mesencephalon that great cell and fibre masses appear. I may add that these do not differ in es- 74 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. sentials of arrangement from those with which we are familiar in the mammals and man. No one would assume that the cortex- less fish is lame or without sensation or blind, yet it lacks those tracts which in higher animals conduct from the first termini of the motor, sensory and cranial nerves to the cortex. The sole conclusion which is warranted is that the first stations of these nerves suffice to exert those functions which we recognize as characteristic of the central organs. As one ascends the scale there is added (I use the word ‘‘added”” purposely) to the structures already existing a cortex. We are able to clearly distinguish the cortex from all other parts of the brain (by the form and arrangements of the cells) since we possess the Golgi method. Such cells appear first in an irreg- ular and sporadic manner in the amphibia. In the reptilia we find a well-defined, regularly arranged cortex clothing the mantle. From it arise a few fibres which connect the mantle with the deeper centres. Even among the mammals the cortex is, as well known, exceedingly variable in its extent. Its amount in rodents and many other mammals seems quite small when com- pared with that of the thalamus and mid-brain ganglia. It is not until the higher mammals are reached that the cortical layer of the cerebrum gradually acquires its extensive development which, through the magnitude of the connections which it con- tains and especially the radiations which pass to the thalamus, produces the familiar convolutions. The cortex is, therefore, not a necessary element in the concept of a vertebrate brain, it is of gradual development and continues to increase in size in the grqup of mammals itself. The latest to develop is that part of the cortex which, with its radiations, is called the frontal lobe. In the carnivora it is still very small, and even in the ape it has relatively slight devel- opment, while in the anthropoids, those apes which most nearly approach man, there are remarkable differences between the frontal lobe and that of the lowest races of men. The rate of development is not the same for all parts of the cortex. Those parts of the cortex pertaining to the olfactory sense, the mar- ginal gyre and ammonshorn, may attain an enormous develop- Epincer, The Significance of the Cortex. 75 ment in those animals which depend much on this sense, while in the case of the apes and man these parts occupy a subordi- nate place. It is not necessary to rehearse in this circle the evidence that the cortex with its numerous cells and fibre tracts is essen- tially the bearer of the psychical functions. Comparative anat- omy and Goltz’s experiments show that its existence is not necessary for the so-called lower functions which take place without constant intervention of the intelligence and were formerly called instinctive. Schrader, by his experiments on doves and lizards has obtained results like those I reached onan anatomical basis and the experiments of Steiner have not offered any contradiction. If the cortex is non-essential for the above functions, it by no means follows that it has no influence upon them, and at this point the results obtained by experimenters who have em- ployed localization, offer a valuable supplement. It must be assumed that, in fact, a chart of the surface of the brain may be constructed, a chart which indicates at which points stimuli may be applied to produce a specific motor or sensory reaction upon the deeper centres. There is no contradiction between the two experimental tendencies, but one supplements the other. Goltz, however, shows that the removal of the cortex and its connec- tions deprives the animal of the organ for all those functions which make possible the higher psychical manifestations, such as intelligence and reflection. _ In progressive paralysis of insanity we meet clinically and anatomically a disease from focal beginnings which gradually destroys the cortex. The final result is just what Goltz obtained operatively, the patient becomes deeply imbecile. Naturally the symptomatic complex is greatly modified in man, who has become accustomed in his activities to permit the codperation of memory and and reflection to a very great extent. Thus man bears cortical injuries much worse than animals and reacts from _ injuries which would hardly permanently affect a dog at all, to the extent of complete obliteration of function. Moreover the clinical symptoms of paralysis, so far as these questions are 76 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. concerned, are much complicated by the fact that, in the course of the disease, spinal cord symptoms usually appear. The new-born child has but few connections of the first centres with the cortex. The optic radiations do not develop until weeks after birth. In spite of this, however, it may be easily proven that the child sees well, but there appears for a time no evidence of comprehension of what is seen, as in the de- corticated dog, nor of the power to practically apply what is seen. These appear only after the development of the optic ra- diation permits the cooperation of the cortex. But aman who in later life loses the occipital lobe of both sides no longer has the capacity to see, like the dog or the child, with the deeper centres. I have the record of a man who suddenly became completely blind. He lived for years without being able to see in the slightest degree. In the autopsy I found bilateral soften- ing of the two occipital lobes, probably as a result of embolism. The cortex plays a more important part and becomes more indispensable the higher we ascend in the animal scale. This is the explanation of the divergent results of the experimenters. It is not only possible but very probable that the destruction of the occipital lobes would have a very different effect on vision in the ape than in the dog or rabbit. Since we have discovered that the cortex is something which has gradually been added to the rest of the brain in the animal series and that it serves the higher faculties of psychical life, such as intelligence, experience, and reflection, it is not of slight moment to enquire what sensations are localized in the small cortex which first appears in amphibians, or still better, in reptiles. It is only within the last months that I have reached a solution of this problem. It proves that the cortex of these animals is connected by a strong system of fibers almost exclu- sively with the olfactory apparatus. The phylogenetically old- est cortex serves the olfactory sense and has, even thus early, certain peculiarities which permit us to consider it closely re- lated to the Ammonshorn. The conclusion which is self-evi- dently to be drawn is that the first of the higher psychological functions which makes its appearance in the animal kingdom is Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. ii that which has to do with the memory and evolution of olfac- tory sensations (For particulars see Anatomischer Anzeiger, 1893, 10.) I present not only the preparations from the dog operated on by Goltz but also a series from a normal dog and finally a number of sections of the brain of the giant turtle, Chelone midas, which clearly show the connection of the oldest cortex with the olfactory lobes. CONTRIBUTIONS) TO: THE COMPARATIVE? (MOR: RHOLOGY OF THE CENTRAL (NERVOUS /SYS- TEM. II.—Topography and Histology of the Brain of Certain Reptiles. (Continued from Vol. I. p. 37.) By € 1) HERRICK: Additional remarks upon the cerebrum. The olfactory tuber is large in nearly all reptiles. In some cases, as we have shown elsewhere, the tuber is carried forward by the growth of the skull and separated from the cerebrum, as in fishes. This is true in the alligator, giving rise to the mistaken idea that the peduncles are the olfaclory nerves (Rabl-Rickard and Wieder- sheim). In serpents the tuber retains its direct connection with the hemisphere but it is greatly expanded, with a laterally di- vergent terminal bulb. The ventricle extends nearly to the end. It would appear that there are two distinct portions of the pero. The longitudinal sections of black snake brain ( Plate VII., Figs. 1-3.) show that at the very tip there is a mass of is- olated pero which is the source of the olfactory nerve proper, while the nerve to the large Jacobson’s organ is derived from fibres from the mesal olfactory fossa. The real configuration of the tuber is best seen from the horizontal section (Plate VIL., Fig. 4.) It will be seen that serpents have developed to an enormous extent the structure we have described as the olfac- 78 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. tory fossa in the rhinencephalon of the alligator and opossum.! This structure consists of an excavation of the mesal aspect of the organ which is filled out by the fibres which enter there. The whole pero is greatly thickened and the rhinenccel is thus diverted laterad and describes an arch in both the horizontal and vertical plane. The ventricle is not only thus reduced to a half- moon shaped slit but the lateral walls of the tuber are thinned to such an extent that they contain little but the epithelium of the pes. A longitudinal section (Figs. 1-3, Plate VII.) is very in- structive in showing that the attenuation extends ventrad and dorsad so that the radix fibres emerge through these thin walls of the lateral aspect. It is this delicate and one-sided structure of the tuber which, taken in connection with the flinty brittleness of the skull, makes the mutilation of the tuber almost a constant oc- currence, explaining the incompleteness of earlier descriptions. This configuration is established before birth. The local- ized development of the pero on the ventral aspect is perhaps correlated with the isolated course of the highly developed tract of Jacobson’s organ. The structure of the tuber offers nothing peculiar other- wise. The ganglion cells surround the cup-shaped fossa and send their slender apex processes into the glomerule layer where they enter into association with the olfactory fibre. The cen- tral end of the nerve cells sends out short processes which break up into dichotomous branches. The granules adjacent to the ventricle are, as usual, of two sorts; larger pale nuclei with slight protoplasm and which may be regarded as immature nerve cells, and small dark nuclei which are perhaps migra- tory corpuscles. In transections of the olfactory tuber of serpents ( Zxopzdon- otus, Coluber, Eutenia) the fibres from the mesal aspect arch | dorso-laterad and collect with those of the lateral aspect and 1 Journ. Comp. Neurol. Vol. II. Feb. 1892. Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 79 form the radix lateralis, which is soon covered by a cap of cor- tex. On the mesal aspect a few fibres of uncertain origin col- lect and pass caudad into the post-rhinal lobe where they are closely enveloped with dense cell-clusters of that lobe. Into the same clustre the fibres of the olfactory branch of the pre- commisure may be traced, though it may be that the continuity is broken here. The olfactory tuber in Pkhrynosoma is very small and slender and might very readily be mistaken for a nerve. It is cylindrical rather than bulb-like and passes well forward to the narrow space left for its reception in the frontal portion of the skull. The glomerulary structure occupies its terminal portion. Material now at disposal does not permit a careful histological examination. It would appear that the rela- tively slight olfactory development may be correlated with the small development of the occipito-basal lobe and hippocampus. In the turtles the olfactory tuber is much simpler than in the serpents. The uniform oval form, absence of olfactory fossa and the symmetrical arrangement of the several layers about the ventricle all indicate a more primitive condition. The ventricle or rhinenccel is large and expanded. The pedunc- les are applied obliquely to the ventro-mesal aspect of the hemi- spheres. The preparations at present at disposal throw but little light upon the course of the radices, which are disperse, rather compact and resemble the similar structures in Amphibia. It appears, however, that the lateral radix passes along the lateral aspect of the hemisphere and occupies a distinct fissura radicis, as in higher vertebrates. It enters the inverted convo- lution homologous with the ‘‘nucleus sphzericus”’ of serpents and thus connects with the hippocampus. More distinct than these fibres are those of the supracommissure, which pass ectad of the peduncles and cephalad of the optic tract and, entering the cerebrum, arch rapidly dorso-cephalad to connect with the above-mentioned lateral radix bundle, though with present ma- terial it is imposible to determine actual continuity. The olfactory radices have been very carefully studied by 80 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the writer in fishes and the opossum and by Professor C. Jud- son Herrick in rodents and we have agreed in tracing the lateral radix along the fissura radicis to the pyriform lobe where’ the tract either splits or is met by fibres from the supra-commissure tract. The fibres remaining in the cerebrum spread out over the pyriform and can be traced more or less directly to the hip- pocampus. In fishes where the hippocampus is not differenti- ated from the ‘‘occipito-basal lobe’’ (homologue of the pyri- form) the fibres pass, in a continuous sweep, from the olfactory tuber to the point where the hippocampus would appear. Dr. Edinger agrees with our suggestion that the latter body may be looked upon as an outgrowth from the occipito-basal lobe. In reptiles we have found a similar arrangement. Dr. Ed- inger’s recent paper follows the radix lateralis in the turtle through the occipito-basal lobe (‘‘nucleus spheericus’’) to the cortex of the Ammonshorn. Dr. Meyer, in his discussion of the olfactory radices', says that the great majority of the fibres of the olfactory tract assem- ble laterad of the ventricle and thence pass to the nucleus sphericus, where, apparently, the fibres, after losing their sheaths, break up into fine terminal brushes and are distributed to the inner portion which is poor in cells but is surrounded by a dense layer of cells, like a cap. According to our observation, however, this which has been regarded as a core of the organ is really but an invaginated portion of the caudo-ventral surface. It is so folded that the olfactory radix is included within the groove-like entrance and conducted into the central (morpho- logically ectal) space, where they spread out just as in other reptiles, If Dr. Edinger is correct and the nucleus sphericus belongs specifically to the hippocampus then the fact that the radix lateralis fibres cannot be as distinctly traced to the free cortex as in other reptiles need produce no surprise. However, in suitable sections fibres can be traced from the nucleus spheer- icus to the caudal cortex or hippocampus proper. Dr. Meyer adds: ‘‘It is indubitable that other olfactory 1Zettsch. f. wiss. Zool., LV, 1. Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 8I radices exist; (1) the fine layer of the fibres forming dorsal remnant of the coronal fibres and (2) the basal [ventral] rem- nant of the same fibres. [This so-called ‘‘ Randfaserkranz”’ includes the fibres which clothe the ventral and mesal surface of the hemispheres immediately caudad of the olfactory peduncle.] As to the ental olfactory radix, or pars olfactorii of the precommissure fibres, Dr. Meyer is in doubt as to the identification (/. ¢. p. 81), but figures them as we have done. Dr. Meyer describes the relations of the nucleus sphaericus to the remainder of the brain base and remarks that the olfac- tory radix passes through a groove of the lateral ganglion and then is separated from the surface. The way in which the nucleus sphzericus is formed accounts for both facts. In turtles the relations are simpler, as the xacleus sphaericus can hardly be said to exist, but the occipito-basal lobe is simply forced into the caudal cornu of the ventricle by a direct invagi- nation the nature of which is very plain. The connection of the hippocampal cortex is very close and distinct with the spur- ious cortex of this region and there seems to be no reason why it should not be recognized as a masked convolution. The radix lateralis enters this closed fissure as described by Edinger. We have verified these points in three species of Chelonia and find them constant. The lizard Scoleporus affords an illustration of an intermedi- ate condition. The ‘‘nucleus sphzricus"” is scarcely devel- oped and is in obvious connection with the hippocampus. The radix: lateralis is somewhat submerged and enters a small blind sac formed on the same plan as the corresponding organ in serpents. In Phrynosoma our sections are very unambiguous and one can easily trace the radix into the inner space of the sphzricus which here lies far latero-ventrad and which is plainly an invagi- nation. In the alligator no true ‘‘nucleus sphericus”’ is formed, but there is a large massive occipito-basal lobe projecting into the caudal cornu of the ventricle. The transition of its super- 82 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ficial cortex into the hippocampus is direct and the fibres of the olfactory radix seem to be superficial. The occipito-basal lobe, which is so largely developed in snakes, requires a more particular study. Though, as previous- ly described, it is embraced within the axial lobe, it has many characteristics of a cortical area. In the bird brain Mr. Turner found a submerged convolu- tion or masked bit of cortex in the occipital region. Dr. Ed- inger in 1893 has explained the less highly developed organ in —as a continuation of the ” Chelonia—his ‘‘ nucleus sphericus Ammon’s horn, while the writer in 1890 and again in 1891 had contented himself with suggesting that the occipital cortex may have sprung from this lobe through the active proliferation there taking place. It is obvious enough how the nucleus sphzricus may have been formed, but the corresponding organ of serpents is so un- like it, so deeply imbedded in the axial lobe, and so complicated that it is difficult to understand its origin. An attentive study of sections, however, shows that as above indicated, it is in- verted cortex from a caudo-ventral region which has been thrust cephalo-dorsal and pushed bodily into the ventricle and axial lobe. (Really, of course, the process is incident to the com- pactness of the organ and the above expressions are to be taken as illustrative rather than literal.) The core of the lobe is there- fore, morphologically ectal surface and its peripheral margin is morphologically ventricular. In some cases, where the brain had _ been slightly macerated and then rapidly hardened, the core became shrunken and revealed this connection with the surface. It is notable that the place where this invasion origin- ates is just beneath the limb of the hippocampus where it joins the axial lobe, so that it would be possible to adopt Dr. Eding- er’s view and include it with the hippocampus. This homology, however, we hesitate to adopt unconditionally, because the ele- ments of the hippocampus seem adequately represented other- wise and, besides, this body has its apparent homologue in the pyriform lobe of mammals which may therefore be regarded as a part of the basal portion of the pallium which has been thick- Herrick, Bratz of Certain Reptiles. 83 ened by conduplication. The cellular structure of this body in reptilia is nearer that of the axial lobe than that of the cortex. Fibres pass from this body, at its mouth on the ventro-caudal aspect, into the hippocampus. From the ventricular aspect (ental aspect of the cells) a strong bundle of large dark fibres passes to the precommissure. A part of these fibres do not en- ter the commissuré but pass at once to the thalamus. These fibres the writer has compared to a separated tract from the for- nix which took a more direct route than the rest whose position was described as like that in mammals. We find similar fibres in fishes and think it is a mistake to compare them to any part of the fornix. Edinger is probably in error in thinking these fibres (f' Fig. 4, Plate VII,) the bundles from the habena, for the latter, if our observations are correct, pass to the lateral as- pect of the brain base and arch caudo-dorsad upon the convex- ity of the caudo-lateral cortex (parietal lobe ?) or connect with the radix lateralis. The fornix fibres appear at fin the same figure. Inasmuch as the spheroidal structure which is so conspicu- . ous in serpents is not developed in all reptiles even, it seems to us that the term nucleus sphericus can hardly be adopted as a general term, but may be restricted to that organ where de- veloped, while the occipito-basal lobe may include the whole re- gion however developed. In the snake it would include more than the spheericus. THE HISTOLOGY OF THE CORTEX. In conformity with our determination to postpone a discus- sion of the literature to a later period in this series, we only consider the recent papers which have a direct bearing upon the topics in hand. Dr. Adolf Meyer has contributed an extended paper! upon the fore brain which covers much the ground of our own previ- ous work in a thorough and painstaking manner. Although he has unwittingly repeated many of our own observations they are none the less welcome. \Zettsch. f. wiss. Zool., LN, 1. 84 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The greater part of the paper deals with the brain of the adder, Callopeltis esculapit. The histological elements are so grouped that a number of fields are rather sharply distinguishable. The cells may be dis- tinguished by their pasition as well as their form in several classes which are mentioned rather for convenience than as_hts- tologically distinct types. (1) Cells with multiangular, often pyramidal nuclei surrounded by a relatively small protoplasmic body, more or less parallel to the nucleus. These form the mantle layers. (Figured by Edinger, Plate 1V, Fig. 36.) - (2) Cells with round nuclei situated either centrally or near the wall in a clear space. These may be isolated or grouped in nests of from two to six cells somewhat resembling cartilage cells. The present writer has already discussed these differences at length in several papers and has laid off the cortex into areas or ‘‘lobes”’ with their respective niduli each distinguished by the form of the cells. If any thing is needed to complete the evidence that these distinctions have physiological significance, it is found in the fact that the pyramidal cells lie in areas which are tributary to the ventral peduncles. The suggestion of Brill that the greater part of cortex is homologous with the subicu- lum cornu ammonis may be regarded as gratuitous assumption. The ‘‘fronto-median lobe’’ seems to be homologous with the limbic region of higher vertebrates and is of the flask-shaped type (sensory). As in mammals, the motor areas are mingled with sensory cells, so there is no exclusive seggregation in rep- tilia. The statement of Meyer that the processes of these cells can only be detected by Golgi impregnation requires modifica- tion. The cell-nests of the axial lobe which Meyer compares to cartilage cells, have been described by the writer in the alligator, lizards, serpents and fishes, and by C. H. Turner in birds, and constitute a remarkable structural modification, for which the theory of proliferation has been proposed—a theory which adds probability to the view of Edinger and the writer that the hippocampus and other parts of the cortex are progressively thrust out from the axial lobe. Meyer follows Edinger in call- Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 85 ing the median cortex cephalad of the callosum ‘‘cortex am- monis.’’ This region the writer termed fronto-median lobe and cannot see how it is possible to so modify homologies as to com- pare it with the Ammonshorn. It seems clear that it is the limbic region—the sensory cortex of the mesal hemisphere wall. Again the ‘‘intra-ventricular lobe”’ of the present writer is called septum pellucidum or ‘‘ fornix ridge” of Edinger. To this usage we can only say that, if the term septum pellucidum is used in the restricted sense as employed in mammals, where it is limited to that part of the intra-ventricular walls which co- alesce, it does not exist in reptiles. If the usage is extended to embrace the entire intra-ventricular wall, it includes too much and is liable to combine cortex and basal regions in one unnat- ural assemblage. We cannot assent to Edinger’s employment of the term Fornix Leiste for the ventral median wall cephalad of the callosum. Its use, if restricted to that part containing the fornix fibres, makes it sufficiently identical with the corpus fornicis to deserve that term. For a discussion of the septum, see Mihalcovics, p. 122, especially these words: ‘‘Durch die Verwachsung der Hemsi- phareninnenwande entstand vor dem 3. ventrikel eine solide Masse, die durchsichtige Scheidewand (septum pellucidum) des Saugethiergehirn.”’ The real nature of the cortex is well illustrated by a com- parison of the embryonic condition of higher vertebrates with that of Amphibia and Chelonia. (As Meyer well observes, there are many points of resemblance between the amphibian and turtle brain. ) A comparison of Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XIX of Vol. II of this Journal will illustrate the early condition of the cortex in the snake and dog. It will be seen that the cortex proper is derived from wandering neuroblasts whose points of develop- ment were at the ventricular surface. The extent to which the free neurons separate from the less differentiated cells near the ventricle varies with age and with the group, as well as with the region of cortex. It would seem that the simplest form of pal- 86 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. lium is that seen in nearly all regions of the amphibian brain where there is no sharp distinction of region, and where the ventricular and cortical layers are not yet distinguished. The number of fibres is, as yet, insufficient to develop a white layer. The pallium, therefore, consists, at that stage, solely of (1) outer neurolgia and fiber layer, (2) cellular layer, and (3) epithelial layer (i. e., layer of the nuclei of the spongioblasts. ) Two ele- ments introduce the differentiation; first, the increase of cellular elements adjacent to the ventricle through the process of pro- liferation of neurons to serve as reserves (as well as possibly for nutritive purposes) and, second, the increase of fibres forming distinct tracts and a more or less continuous white layer. In many turtles the whole pallium retains much of its primitive simplicity. The pallium is relatively large and of a nearly uniform structure, and its cellular elements are in a com- mon stratum, or at least, there is no marked line of separation. We believe that it may prove expedient to distinguish two varieties of cortex. ‘The first or more primitive type is produced by a migration of the whole cellular area to a belt some distance from the ventricle. This is found in almost the entire cortex of turtles and characteristic of the occipital and dorsal regions of serpents and lizards, and is retained in the hippocampal cortex of higher vertebrates. The second type is that which is found in other regions of the pallium where the ventricular belt is re- tained and a second band of cortex is differentiated. Both these forms are derivable from the embryonic structure where both are united in a common stratum about the ventricle. The latter condition is that which is, with slight modification, the perma- nent one in amphibians. The complicated cortex of mammals is a modification of the second type above mentioned. We conceive that we are warranted in insisting upon the essential uniformity of the neuron, whether it takes part in the formation of a nerve or of a tract or of a cortical area. It is essentially a cell with processes which form associations, if not anastomoses, with like elements, and thus produces chains of progressive association and translation. The neuroblasts, which arise from the ventricle, migrate from it to a suitable position, Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. 87 and there produce their nerve-fibres which connect at suitable levels with others. The fibres which spring from one end may be many times longer than those from the other (for the neuron is primarily bi-polar), but it is indubitable that both may convey stimuli. Transeciton of the cerebrum of the Phrynosoma. (Plate V.) Topographically considered there are few points of especial in- terest in this brain that have not already been alluded to. /%g. Zz cuts the right olfactory tuber near its base. The tuber has already been described.' Its ventricle is very small. The left hemisphere is cut where it joins the rhinencephalon. The fibres of the radix lateralis accumulate laterally. In /“g. 2 the rhinenccel has expanded into the ventro-ce- phalic cornu of the ventricle and the latter communicates with a large sickle-shaped dorsal cornu. It will be observed that in this and other sections a sharply marked fissure on the mesal aspect, corresponding to a furrow of the ventricle opposite it, nearly separates the cortical from the basal part of the mesal wall. In Fig. 3 the projection of the central lobe (striatum sensu strictu) forms a large part ofthe section. The cortex is differen- tiated as already described in the lizard. That portion which lies dorsad of the fissure of the mesal cortex above referred to ’) was called by me ‘‘fronto-median lobe”’ and its structure is fully described on p. 18 of this Journal for March, 1891. See a, fig. 5. Laterad from this lobe there is a smaller portion of cortex which caps the front of the brain and is occupied, like the parieto-frontal lobe which clothes the lateral parts of the free cortex, by pyramidal cells or at least a variety distinctly different from the remaining regions. These two areas may be located upon /zg. 5, the one mesad, the other laterad of the ref- erence line passing to the hippocampal commissure. We still unhesitatingly adhere to our belief that these cen- tres along the frontal and fronto-parietal aspects of the cortex 1Tt should have been added that the tuber is exceedingly produced in the adult, being, in fact, as long as the entire prosencephalon and cylindrical and slender throughout. 88 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. are motor. This belief, being founded not simply upon an anal- ogy in appearance but upon the fact that the ventral peduncu- lar bundle distributes its fibres to these regions; we cannot agree with those writers who claim the whole cortex for sensory apparatus, still less with those who appropriate it tothe olfactory sense alone. There is a rudimentary rhinalis fissure separating a ventral region devoid of cortex from one which although flanked by the central lobe still has a cortical differentiation. We have noth- ing to add to the description of the intra-ventricular lobe, or that part of the mesal walls which lies ventrad of the fissure. This is not cortical in structure and is wonderfully similar to the corresponding part in the opossum (we are not prepared to use the term septum pellucidum for this structure. ) As we pass caudad the peduncular fibres accumulate on the mesi-basal aspects and the occipito-basal lobes appear along the latero-basal aspects (/7gs. 4-5. Fibres from the fronto-median lobe gather near the mesal fissure and accumulate dorsad of the intra-ventricular lobe, which now is forming a transition into what must be called corpus fornicis. The callosal fibres (in ac- cordance with the usage of Osborn) pass from the fronto-median lobe of one side to the other, not without decussations but in just the same sense as in higher vertebrates. Before one can unhesitatingly commit himself to a term as much mooted as this one it is desirable to secure a unambiguous definition of it. This we evidently cannot soon expect. We propose for the. present to consider as a callosum any bundle of nerve fibres passing from the dorsal cortex of one side to the dorsal cortex of the opposite side cephalad of the fornix. It shall not be obligatory to determine whether the parts connected are homologous or otherwise for the latest admissions of Meynert left us in doubt whether such fibres are characteristic of the human callosum. The above definition excludes the commissure described — by the the writer in fishes though recent studies have added ev- idence in favor of the hypothesis that homologues of cortical niduli may remain in the axial lobes. What was intended by the employment of the term callosum in that connection was to Herrick, rain of Certain Repiiles. 89 emphasize to the utmost the functional homologies believed to exist. Back of the callosum the roof of the aula is a thin tela which is plexiform and gives rise at its lateral portions to the preplexus, which enters the lateral ventricles a short distance. Lying some distance caudad is the hippocampal commisure. This does not differ in any morphological respect from the cor- responding body in mammals. The statement that it is pecu- liar in being situate beneath a plexus, i. e. that it perforates the ventricle instead of lying in the dorsal wall has been very care- fully investigated in many families of reptiles and in birds. It is an error, or rather a misinterpretation. Above the commis- sure of Fig. 5, a part of the plexus may be seen but it is a vet- roflexed diverticle of the plexiform roof in front of it. Ina section immediately following, the commissure lies plainly in the roof without connection with the plexus. Fig. 6. reveals the interesting fact that the fornix fibres and those of the com- missure pass to the caudal cortex, i. e. to the exact locus which in the March number was identified with the hippocampus. We differ from Edinger only in that he seems to include the whole mesal and dorsal region with our occipital lobe as hip- pocampus. This question, however, we discuss in full else- where. The callosum. Dr. Meyer’ regards the indentification of the callosum in lower vertebrates as unwarranted. He says: ‘‘In ungulates it is easy to see how the callosum stretches be- tween the outer acuate gyre and the septum pellucidum or for- nix fibres of the two sides in the form of a secondary bridge—a completely discrete organ. This locus corresponds to the groove which forms the mesal limit of the mantle—and such a structure is [in reptiles] entirely lacking.’’ To this it must be said that embryology shows that the callosum develops within the lamina and never normally lies free upon the surface. The indusium, which is carefully described by Mr. Fish in this num- ber, is the remnant of the supracallosal cortex which has be- Dive. py 77 and Lrs: go JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. come reduced proportionally to the development of that organ. Moreover in those cases where the callosum lies superposed up- on the fornix there is always a remnant of the plicated roof of the aula between them. The amount of gray matter covering the callosal fibres is a matter of no morphological importance. In Phrynosoma and other lizards the callosum is in quite a different frontal plane from the precommissure and is quite dis- tinct. Its fibres are derived from the ventricular aspect of the fronto-median cortex. | In his paper upon the callosum Osborn said, ‘‘the evidence regarding the fornix in Ophidia is not as yet sufficiently clear to be conclusive, but I believe that turther evidence will soon be forthcoming to show that there are true fornix tracts in the rep- tilian brain.”’ We think there can no longer be any doubt as to the constancy of the fornix and the hippocampal commissure in all vertebrates above the fishes at least. | We subscribe fully to the view that the whole mesal mantle is united with its fellow of the opposite side by a common commissure which is divided in- to a cephalic and a caudal portion, the latter developing earlier because of its relation to the olfactory cortex which is first to become functional. It is not a little strange that Osborn should have failed to find the hippocampal commissure of snakes while recognizing the few and doubtful fibres of the callosum which Meyer thinks simply decussate. It is certain that what Osborn called posterior bundle of the callosum is, as he thought probable, ‘‘ the commissural por- tion of the ‘‘Cornu Ammonis.” In Chelydra we encounter a peculiar development of the commissures which is instructive as to the range of variation. The sections embracing the precommissure show that just dor- sad of it and apparently connecting the two sides of the axial lobe, like the precommissure, is a strong bundle of fibres which turns sharply cephalad and then gradually enters the median cortex. In short, it is the (so-called) callosum, which is dis- placed ventrad and placed in juxtaposition with the precommis- Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. gI sure. Its fibres pass to the ventricular aspect of the limbic cor- tex, as in other reptiles. The course of the commissures of the mesal cortex can be well traced in Czstudo. The hippocampal fibres pursue the us- ual course but they are accompanied by cortex for nearly all their extent and the fimbria thus becomes small and incomplete. The fibres pass to the mesal side of the callosal tract without de- cussation and there turn abruptly ventrad and caudad. Such commissural fibres as there are are clesely associated with the callosum immediately dorsad of the precommissure. The callo- sum itself, after crossing in a large compact bundle extends for some distance on either side in the ‘‘septum’”’ directly cephalo- dorsad and afterwards divides into scattered fascicles which pass to the ventricular aspect of the intraventricular wall of the pal- lium. In perpendicular sections it can be seen that these fibres include the whole extent of the fronto-median lobe and continue upon the dorsal surface at least as far as this lobe extends. It might be questioned how far we are authorized to go, in following these commissures in their fluctuations with the fa- miliar names “of mammalian anatomy, but, for our part, we think our nomenclature should express our morphological point of view as far as consistent with clearness. The explanation of the modifications here exhibited is found in the relatively great distension of the ventricles in tur- tles, which elevates the median wall disproportionately. The terma drops very abruptly and the course of all the commissures _of the median wall below the arcuate fissure is lengthened. Thus the perpendicular length of the fronto-median cortex in a snake might form less than one third of the entire height of the cere- brum, while in a corresponding region of the turtle the fronto- median cortex is two thirds the entire height. In Amphibia we are inclined to differ from Osborn in his identification of the callosum. He does not identify the fornix and hippocampal commissure, but classes all fibres connecting the mantle and crossing dorsad of the precommissure as callo- sum. The position and course of these fibres makes the identi- fication of these fibres unsatisfactory for, as he indicates, the po- g2 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. sition is caudad of the porta and most of the fibres, so far as we can see, are derived trom the caudal cortex, in other words, it resembles the hippocampus commissure and fornix and connects with a descending fornix tract. The early period at which these fibres develop is against their recognition as the callosum. In horizontal sections of Menopoma one may trace the fibres from the caudo-median cortex ventrad immediately cau- dad of the porta till a level is reached slightly dorsad of the pre- commissure, here the fibres cross, as described by Osborn. These fibres however, can hardly be compared to the callo- sum. Cephalad of the porta and just where one might expect it is a small bundle of fibres which crosses by a strongly curved course from one intraventricular lobe to the other. Study of the embryos of salamanders shows that the tract first above mentiontioned appears early, while the callosum was not found . at all. All analogy would lead us to expect that the hippo- campal commissure and fornix would be first to appear and most highly developed in the lower forms. This discovery is in harmony with our view that the cortex is derived from the axial lobes and the commissures with it. (The figures illustrat- ing these statements are prepared but cannot be printed until a succeeding number. ) The epiphysis in serpents consists of a more or less balloon shaped modification of the original tube and a short stalk which communicates with a spot just caudad of the supracommissure. There are fibres which resemble the connective elements of a parietal nerve arising from the commissure itself but there is no special evidence of nervous function. The terminal bulb itself is contained within a special chamber formed by the adherent meninges and is directed cephalad between the hemispheres. A portion of the pigmented roof above the brain enters the in- tercerebral fissure and is closely associated with the tip of the epiphysis to such an extent that this portion of the organ be- comes invested with chromatophores. No traces of a true par- ietal organ have thus far been noticed. In late embryos of Eutzenia and the black snake the whole region of the dorson of the brain is enveloped in an enormous blood sinus. The epi- Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 93 physis is slung by its membranes in such a way that it is at- tached ventrad to the region of the supracommisure and dorsad to the cranium. Even at the earliest stage observed it has the adult characters and is accompanied by a special blood vessel. The spaces occupied by the sinuses are subsequently encroached on by the hemispherses and the epiphysis comes to lie between the former. The histological structure of the globular part of the epiphy- sis is peculiar. At first glance it seems to be a solid mass of deep- ly stained corpuscles, but inspection proves that it is formed of a ramosely branched tube which is closely packed within the space alloted to it. Each branch is enveloped by a delicate sheath of connective tissue and the interspaces in some species contain blood vessels and pigment while in others they are almost devoid of foreign elements. Say y Ties + Ay Pe Miho s ‘ Pg RG ro No id ve f if Ny AAs ~ a ud Pay ; , ty f 7. Pact te EEO AE Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. III. SS an BLE lp ip pf U/fifly Wy hee gl UY, YP Vie SASK PINTRO CRE DIR MANO ARR WAY ef) =a . W// “ot Von Gy 7! { 7 ees mm tHE INTRINSIC PULMONARY NERVES BY THE SIEVE METHOD: [ ABSTRACT PAPER. | (With Plate XIV.) From the Patholgical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity and Hospital. By Henry J. Berxiey, M.D., BALTIMORE. Little information, from either histological text books or recent monographs, is to be found concerning the final distribu- tion of pulmonary nerves. Krause’ apparently gives the entire knowledge on the subject in the following words: ‘‘ The pul- monary nerves course with the bronchi, and contain many pale nucleated as well as double contoured fibres, and have clusters of ganglion cells among the filaments. The first named fibres are distributed to the smooth muscular cells, the dark contoured to the mucous membrane of the bronchi. Their terminations are not known.” By the older methods of preparation with osmic, acetic, or chromic acids, it was more than difficult to obtain positive re- sults beyond those already stated by Krause; even in prepara- tions of the lung treated according to the Weigert hematoxylin methods little can be determined concerning the double con- toured fibres (and of course nothing of the sympathetic ones), owing to the lung tissues decolorizing very slowly in the borax and ferricyanide of potassium solution. For the purpose of this experiment the gray rat was al- most entirely used, the fibres staining better in it than in other animals, and the methods of fixation and staining were the same as used in our recent investigation on the hepatic nerves, namely, the rapid Golgi, and its modification the picric- acid-osmium-bichromate method. The latter gave incomparably finer results. The pulmonary nerves in general present some slight dif- 1 Allg. Anatomie, 1876. 108 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ferences in appearance from those distributed to the viscera of the abdominal cavity in a tendency to a more general fascicular arrangement of the nerves, and also to a greater inclination than is usually seen in glands to a racemiferous development of the bronchial terminations, both in the mucous membrane and non- striated muscular layers. The likeness to the nerve distribution of the layers of the small intestine is superficially striking, but close analogies are not apparent. The nerves themselves are of two varieties, an extremely fine fibre accompanying both the vessels and air-channels; and a much coarser thread, usually in pairs or bundles, also following the vessels and bronchi, but at times departing from them, and wandering off among the sur- rounding tissues. As the Golgi method does not allow of a distinction being made between medullated and non-medullated fibres, no conclusions can be drawn as to whether the coarse fibres are medullated, and the finer, especially the arterial plex- uses, non-medullated, nevertheless it is reasonable to suppose that some of the coarser fibres are provided with a myeline sheath, as like fibres have been frequently seen by the older observers running with the air-tubes. Ganglion cells are stained somewhat sparingly by the silver, a few bipolar cells situated near the bronchi have been found, but they bear no proportion to those made apparent by other methods. Generally speak- ing, nerves are most numerously stained near the root of the lung, and gradually diminish in numbers toward the free mar- gins. Nerves of the Broncht.—In the external fibrous layer of each bronchus is situated a considerable plexus of fine nerve fibres, with at the outer margin an occasional coarser tube, or small bundle; all connected together by frequent ramuscules. From this peri-bronchial plexus very numerous stems come off that have a two-fold destination: [1], they are distributed upon the cells of the smooth muscular layer, and show at many points simple end-knob terminations, usually in rounded, less frequently elongated shape. More rarely a fibre will come off from the parent marginal plexus, and after giving off a few side branches, will end in a very complex figure [Fig. 1], but all the BERKLEY, Jutrinsic Pulmonary Nerves. 109 final terminations are simple bulbs. All the end-knobs are, ap- parently situated between the muscular fibres without especial relation to their nuclei, so far as we have been able to determ- ine. [2]. Numbers of fibres, branched and unbranched, pass through and beyond the muscular zone, and form a sub-epithe- lial plexus, in the mucous layer. This plexus is quite distinct and well developed, not only in the larger bronchi, but also in divisions of the second and third order; and forms a circular network of interlacing and connecting filaments around the bases of the epithelial infoldings. From this meshwork nerve fibres ascend upon the fibrous tissue in the centre of the epithelial folds, some nearly to the apices, others only half way, and there terminate in knob-form [Fig. 2]. No trace of any ending is to be seen entering the cement substance between the columnar epithelial cells. On the smallest bronchi, when the surrounding muscular cells have become very greatly diminished in numbers, the nerve arrangement is somewhat different, there is now only one plexus or network, and from its fibres new twigs penetrate quite numerously into the epithelial layer, where they terminate in end-knobs, after the development of curious arborescent figures with many thickenings and nodosities [Fig. 3]. These end terminations seem distinctly to lie between the outermost margins of the flattened epithelial cells surrounding the lumen of the tube, quite close to the fibrous layer. In all the fibres of the networks, both peri-bronchial and mucous, are developed local thickenings and varicosities, but true ganglionic cells within the muscular layer have not been seen. That the ganglionic developments found in the paths of the fibres coming from the terminal arborizations in the epithelium of the bronchioles act the part of intermediate trans- mitters of nerve impressions from the epithelial surface of the air tubes, as is the case with some of the organs of special sense, in particular the cutaneous surfaces [see the studies of Retzius' and Lenhossék? on Lumbricus] to nerve cells in more 1Biol. Untersuch. Neue Folge IV, 1892, Stockholm. 2Arch, f. Mik. Anat. Bd. 39, 1892. 110 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. distant localities is possible, as they bear the same relation to the nerve terminations of the bronchi as the endings of tactile sensation do to their intermediate ganglionic cells, but their structure is so hidden by the dense silver precipitate that it is extremely difficult to decide if they are simply large varicosities of the fibre, or actual ganglionic enlargements provided with a nucleus and nucleolus. Neither of the methods of preparation give a distinct clue if there are endings to the nerves upon the epithelium of the alveoli. It is true that near some of the bronchi, fibres depart from the main network surrounding the tube and artery, and for short distances give off branches to the air cells lying just along the edge of the tube, terminating near the pavement epithelium in a small bulb; but scattered muscular fibres cannot be definitely excluded from such situations, and it is quite pos- sible that these endings are distributed to them. Inter-alveolar fibres. Nerve fibres pass off from the broncho-arterial network in the form of bundles or single fibres and wander quite long distances in the septa between the air cells. Many of them give off dichotomously numbers of side branches, and all of them may either join the extensions of other bronchial plexuses or may be distributed to the inter- alveolar tissues, and also are occasionally seen supplying the surfaces of the smallest bronchioles. Near the root and in the mid-regions of the lung these inter-alveolar nerves are quite frequent and from striking pictures [ Fig. 4], from their coarse- ness and prominence. Their final ending in the septa is ina simple bulb like arrangement. Anterial Supply. The nerve supply to the bronchial arter- ies is an exceedingly rich one, and is more extensively developed than in any of the glandular organs, the ovary perhaps excepted. Quite often, as in Fig. 5, the peri-arterial spaces are marked out by lines of thicker nerve bundles, whose side branches anasto- mose with the fibres of the arterial networks proper. End- terminations are not so numerous as one would expect from the extreme closeness of the network, yet they are quite frequent, always arising as short branches from the plexus and ending as BERKLEY, Jutrinsic Pulmonary Nerves. III simple knobs, seemingly between the smooth muscular cells of the middle coat of the vessel. Few ganglion cells are to be found at the margin of the plexus, but local enlargements of the fibres are common. The nerve distribution to the artery and bronchial tubes are intimately connected, nerve fibres not only wander off from the main bundles that follow the vessels, but from the vascular plexus itself come off quite numerous rami that are distributed to the smooth muscle, and to the epithelial lining of the air tubes, perhaps after the formation of numerous anastomoses and peculiar figures upon them. Nerve plexuses also accompany the pulmonary arteries, but are not so well developed as those about the bronchial, still traces of them are rather frequently met with in the form of single fibres and portions of anastomosing networks following the direction of the artery, and here and there an occasional end-knob may be found bearing the same relation to the mus- cular layer as it does in the bronchial arteries. Nerve fibres in sparce numbers may also be found on the walls of the larger veins, but upon the smaller as well as upon the walls of the capillaries they are not to be seen. June 24, ’93. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIV. Fig, 1.—Intricate nerve termination from the muscular layer of a medium sized bronchus. ‘The dotted line indicates the internal margin of the muscular zone. Fig. 2,—Two adjacent infoldings of the mucous membrane of a larger bronchus, showing the relation of the nerve fibres to the epithelial cells. Fig. 3.—Complex termination of anerve fibre from from the epithelial lining of a bronchiole. The dotted line indicates the internal margin of the epithelium. A, marks what is apparently asmall ganglion cell interposed in the path of the transmitting fibre. Fig. 4.—Nerve bundles and single fibres in the septa between the air cells. From the mid-region of the lung. Fig. 5.—Drawing from a arterio-bronchial plexus showing the intimate re- lation between the two. A, A, fibres arising from the plexus distributed to the layers of the bronchus. The x indicates the margin of the peri-bronchial spaces. All the drawings are from picric-acid-osmium-bichromate hardened speci- mens, stained with silver nitrate. Zeiss, ocular 4, objective DD. AN INTERESTING NEURITIS, By ED, BARKER, BH MyM. D). Dayton. ©: The patient, Dr. G., is a dentist, 48 years old. For sev- eral years prior to 1890, there was slight twitching of the mus- cles on right side of neck. General health was good. He was a moderate though regular drinker. In 1889 the twitching (chorea) increased till it became quite annoying. In January, 1890, he had a severe attack of La Grippe. The chorea increased under the best treatment attain- able. Later the Doctor’s general health improved, but a con- dition of ‘‘spasmodic wry-neck”’ developed with considerable deformity and great pain. Any attempt to maintain an erect posture was accompanied by powerful contractions of the right cervical muscles, drawing the head downward and to the side. These spasms were accompanied by most excruciating pain. In June, 1890, two operations were performed by a Co- lumbus, Ohio, surgeon, first making simple section and then excising the Spinal Accessory nerve. Neither operation was of any benefit. The skill of this surgeon is such that it is unlikely that he failed to reach the Spinal Accessory. The patient's condition remained unchanged till in April, 1892, when he came to me for operation. May 5th, a subcu- taneous tenotomy was done, cutting off the Sterno-cleido-mast- oid at its insertion into the collar bone. The antiseptic dress- ings were removed on the fifth day, when the wound was healed. From this operation the Sterno-mastoid ceased to draw the head forward. It was, however, still drawn hard and strong to the side and somewhat backward. On June 5th, I excised the posterior branches of the cer- vical nerves supplying the powerful group of muscles on right side and back of neck, including the Trapezius, Levator Anguli Scapulae, Trachelo-mastoid and Complexus. This necessarily was a long and tedious operation. The patient was anesthetized face down. AQ free incision was made BARKER, Ax Interesting Neuritis. 113 about five inches long from the occipital protuberance down- ward, about one inch to right of median line and parallel with the spine. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae were layed bare. Free hemorrhages greatly obscured the field of operation. A peculiar condition of the nerves existed. All were en- larged and there was great hyperesthesia. The Great Occipi- tal nerve was probably twice its natural size and gave evidence of long continued inflammation. Although the patient was profoundly anesthetized, when- ever a nerve was touched there was marked muscular contrac- tion. Sections of the Great Occipital and all the posterior branches of the cervical nerves were exercised at their points of exit from the spinal column. Using the index finger as dissector, all the muscles were raised to the line of the ear and nerves freely excised wherever found. Notwithstanding the very extensive wound and free bleeding the patient made a rapid and uneventful recovery. When he sat up, to the intense disappointment of the patient and operator we found the head drawn over and a narrow bun- dle of the anterior fibres of the Trapezius stood out above its atrophied and paralyzed neighbors like a small rope. For the third time under my direction the patient was an- aestetized and a section over an inch in length was cut from the centres of the offending group of muscles. The ends retracted and I allowed a mass of blood to accumulate, hoping that the clot would prevent reunion of the muscles. This probably unique operation was successful. Rapid recovery ‘followed. After several weeks we found the head feebly drawn to the right. An apparatus was then made with a supporting mast at the back of the neck and passing around beneath the chin and occiput. Formerly no form of apparatus would control the spasms and the patient was compelled to lie down every half hour to avoid the terrible paroxysms of pain. He left the hospital wearing the brace and able to sit or walk for an indefinite time, only growing weary sooner than usual. There was undoubtedly a low form of inflammation in 114 JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the nerves that controlled the affected muscles. The patient seems to have been carefully and skilfully handled, both by phy- sicians and surgeons. Medical and surgical skill have exhausted themselves in the effort to cure him. He is by no means well and sound. There are many similar cases and their disorders belong to that long list of neuroses that, alas, must be classed in our present knowledge as incurable. Will not the neurolo- gists come to the rescue and tell us the nature and cause of the disease? Then let us hope a remedy may be found. NEUROLOGISTS AND NEUROLOGICAL TARCRS TORTES: IV. NEvUROLOGICAL WoRK AT ZURICH. By ApotpH Meyer, M.D., Pathologist of the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane. Kankakee. Honorary Fellow of the University of Chicago. J. J. Honegger works quite independently of the other neu- rologists of Zurich. He is the representative of the old school of anatomical research, restricting himself as much as possible to the descriptive anatomy of the adult brain. Although a pu- pil of Huguenin and Meynert, unlike them, he never left the ground of anatomy proper and therefore never exposed himself to the criticism of belonging to the speculative school. This is certainly meritorious. Wild speculation has been so demoral- izing that anatomy is, in the hands of many, little more than a yielding and practical source of apparent proof of preconceived ideas and is no longer the exact description of what the eye sees. Our great biologists have shown us what anatomy has to be in order to be a creditable science. They had the advantage of finding a great amount of apparently dead material in the ana- tomical descriptions of former times; they brought it back to Meyer, LVeurologists and Neurological Laboratories. 115 life by utilizing it for the problems of physiology and they con- tinued its study so as to make it both profitable and trustworthy. The problems of physiology and of evolution take more of the interest of the present generation than the dry and often unsat- isfactory humiliating study of descriptive anatomy. Yet, it is better that the anatomist should say: Here I am at the limit of my present knowledge—than that he should make the uncrit- ical reader believe that his speculations belong to the category of proved facts. JI admire Honegger for limiting his discussions to what belongs to his field, giving all that he could obtain, but with severe criticism, from a strictly anatomical standpoint. In this way he offers all the information which anatomy can give him; he leaves the solution of the physiological problems to the physiologist and is not misled, like Meynert, to be too ready to see in his preparations what his speculations made him presup- pose. Honegger began his anatomical research in 1876 under Huguenin’s direction. In 1879 he worked in Meynert’s labora- tory and since that time he devoted much of his leisure adding to his splendid collection of serial sections. He was first work- ing on the selachian brain, but was finally led to a question of more special interest which he treats so fully in the only publi- aation he has so far produced, in the paper on the Fornix.’ In order to understand Honegger, it is absolutely necessary to be familiar with Ganser’s excellent monograph on the brain of the mole, and with most of the literature on the parts in question. He, who studied all this, will not fail to admire the learning and earnest research of Honegger, although it will be difficult to excuse him for giving the reader so much trouble, the style and the absence of more instructive drawings making the reading exceedingly difficult. After a very elaborate review of the literature on the for- nix, he starts with a discussion of the histological and morpho- 1 Vergleihend-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber den Fornix und die zu ihm in Beziehung gebrachten Gebilde im Gehirn des Menschen und der Saugethiere. Mit 10 Lichtdruck-Tafeln. von J. J. Honnegger. Recueil Zoologique Suisse, t. V. Geneva, 18g0. 116 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. logical relations of the cornu ammonis. He shows clearly that the knowledge of this region is still limited and that we are not justified in making too many assertions before the method of Golgi has satisfactorily shown the histological connections of all the various elements. After the cornu ammonis, Honegger treats the following parts: stria Lancisii; psalterium, fornix longus and fimbria; septum pellucidum and pedunculus septi pellucidi ; columnae fornicis; tuber cinereum and corpus mamil- lare ; decussatio subthalamica posterior and pedunculus corporis mamillaris; Vicq d’ Azyr’s and Gudden’s bundles; fasciculus longitudinalis posterior; tania thalami optici; ganglion hab- enulae, pedunculi conarii; Meynert’s bundle, teenia semicircu- laris, nucleus amygdale. As I hope to enter very fully on Honegger’s work in a future paper, I give merely these out- lines here. The results of Honegger’s very intricate studies are rather unsatisfactory, inasmuch as they are to a great extent negative, telling us that we have no right to use many dogmatic views of authorities before they have found fuller proof. A comparison with Alexander Hill’s speculative method shows, however, the value of such ‘‘negative’’ and critical work and numerous re- marks, especially those relating to the anatomy of lower verte- brates, make us feel hopeful that the strictly objective study will finally triumph over apparently ingenious but often badly founded speculations. Honegger's collection is worth seeing because it contains the finest carmine and gold series, such as are becoming very rare since the carmine of today is so bad that haematoxylin governs the field entirely. Prof. Paul Martin, whose paper on the embryology of the cranial nerves! is not accessible to us, cannot devote as much time to neurology as the above mentioned scholars. His col- lection, however, is very interesting on account of the fine Gol- gi preparations and the embryological material. There is no 1MarTIN, P. Die erste Entwickelung der Kopfnerven bei der Katze. © ds- ter. Mon. Schr. f. Thierheilkunde. 15. Jahrgang; Sept., 1890- Meyer, Weurologists and Neurological Laboratories. 117 doubt that we are going to obtain many valuable contributions from this author. Prof. I. Gaule’ has written several interesting neurological papers. His work is, of course, largely dealing with physiology but hasso many original features that I wish to mention one paper on the numerical relations of the medullated fibres of the spinal cord of the frog. Gaule compares the number of the fibres of the cross-section with the corresponding number of the entering perpherial nerve-fibres. He starts from the following supposi- tions: I. Every fibre of the white substance is in functional coordination with the central ends of the root-fibres. 2. The fibres of the white substance form connections among the central ends of the root-fibres themselves and with the brain. 3. The white fibres may be divided into the following groups: a. tracts which go beyond the spinal cord into the oblon- gata and other parts of the brain,—the long tracts; | b. connections within the spinal cord among its various segments—intermediate tracts; c. connections of all the single elements within the same area—short tracts. 4. The central end of every root-fibre corresponds to a certain number of fibres of the white substance, the number be- ing constant for every one. 5. The central ends of the root-fibres and consequently the starting-points of the corresponding fibres are not far from the entrance of the roots into the spinal cord. 6. The length of the fibres of the white substance depends on their function, 1. e., on the distance of the segments united. 7. The central end of every root-fibre contributes two fi- bres for the long tracts, the one’for the same side, the other for 1Gaule, J. Zahl und Vertheilung der markhaltigen Fasern im Froschriick- enmark, Mit 9 Tafeln. Abhandlg. d. mathemat. phys. Klasse der kgl. sachs. Ges. Wiss. XV. 9. p. 739. 1889. and Edinger Jahresbericht f. d. Jahr 1890; p. 31-33. 118 JOURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the opposite, the intermediate tracts receive one fibre, the short tracts eight fibres (two ascending and two descending ones on each side). According to Birge, the brachial enlargement of the spinal cord receives about 4000 root-fibres, the dorsal ‘‘region 1500, and the lumbar enlargement about 4500,” making altogether 10000 root-fibres. Gaule counted the fibres of five sections, and compared the actual number with the number obtained on ground of his hypothesis. For the first section (from the upper end of the cervical cord) he makes the following calcula- tion: 1. Fibres of the long tracts, 2 for each of the root- fibres entering the spinal cord. 10,000 x 2 20,000 2. Fibres of the intermediate tracts: none; as they don’t reach this segment. 3. Fibres of the short tracts. 4 to each fibre of the half of the brachial enlargement — xX 4 8,000 Fibres of one half of the section 28,000 Fibres of the whole section 56,000 The results of the hypothesis and of the actual number obtained in the 5 sections compare very favorably: Section I. Hypothesis 56000 actual number 56674 es i; ee 74000 om oa 74699 of VOL, i 45500 a 41825 Hy Ve a 60500 vi ie 61058 “Ss V. As 18000 ee us 16313 Conclusive as this proof of the hypothesis seems to be, there is no doubt that it has to be accepted with due reserve for reasons too numerous and too obvious to be mentioned here. I put this abstract before the reader, because this instance is a fair example of the speculative character of Gaule’s work. Dr. Wlassak, Gaule’s assistant, has so far published an ana- tomy of the cerebellum of the frog and is now preparing a num- ber of interesting studies on other parts of the amphibian brain. In this short review I have not been able to do full justice to any one of the Zurich scholars; but if I have succeeded in induc- ing some of my readers to take up a careful study of the works mentioned, I feel confident that they will agree with me in call- ing Zurich a remarkably productive neurological center. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE” COMPARATIVE “MOR= PHOLOGY Or SHE. ‘CENTRAL NERVOUS 7S¥S- TEM. II.—Topography and Histology of the Brain of Certain Reptiles. (Continued from Vol. III. p. 106. With Plates XV-XX.) By C. L. Herrick. In seems desirable to supplement the previous instalment by a few data derived from a comparison with Amphibia and from an application of the Golgi method. The turtle and Anura have much in common in the structure of the fore-brain. while the Urodela displays a still greater simplicity of structure. In general, it may be said that a comparison of the two types of amphibian brain affords very strong evidence in favor of the view that all nervous elements are modifications of a single typical neuroblast. In Menopoma, for example, all of the brain regions retain very much of the embryonic simplicity. The structure of the optic lobes does not appreciably differ from that of the cerebrum or olfactory tuber. The connections via the various tracts, however, remain practically as in higher forms. In the Anura the optic lobe acquires the stratified structure found in turtles and fishes, and other regions are equally com- plicated. Suitable methods show that the idea that the Am- phibian brain is chiefly composed of disconnected granules is erroneous, for the size and ramification of the processes of the cells is marvelous. Application of the Golgi method to the turtle brain. In con- nection with the data by the hematoxylin method, which is certainly most reliable, we have employed the method of silver impregnation. It is possible to use it readily in connection with the familiar process of paraffin imbedding. The fragments are passed into go per cent. alcohol from the nitrate of silver and then into absolute. They are then imbedded in paraffiin in the ordinary way and mounted in benzole balsam, covering at once, 120 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. after gently heating to stiffen the balsam. The latter process, recommended by Huber, seems non-essential if the paraffin im- bedding is used. We have not experimented a sufficiently long time to be sure that no change will be affected, but sections prepared without any more heating than that necessary to coagulate the fixative have remained unchanged for over three years. The results obtained compare favorably with anything we have seen and it is quite possible to cut serially or by a rib- bon process if desired. Naturally the specimen must be small if thorough permeation is to take place. In the olfactory tuber a fair number of the cells are perme- ated. There seems to be no essential difference between the more superficial and the deeper ganglion cells. The peripheral processes pass to the glomerules and there subdivide into»a close brush which is in close contact with similar fibres from the olfactory fibres. From the base a long practically un- branched fibre (presumably the axis cylinder) can be traced toward the cerebrum. The protoplasmic processes of the deeper cells pass between the peripheral cells and subdivide similarly. The relations described are illustrated by /“gs. 1-3 of Plate XIX. /ig. 7. is a section from the ventricle to the glomerule layer showing the general distribution of cells and processes. Fig. 2. shows two of the peripheral ganglion cells on a larger scale with their protoplasmic processes entering a glomerule. Fig. 3. shows the minute subdivision of the protoplasmic pro- cesses in the glomerules. The structure of the cerebrum is not greatly simplified by a resort to the Golgi method. Everywhere evidence is afforded that the cells are abundantly supplied with processes but the clear and unambiguous distinction claimed by many writers be- tween protoplasmic and axis cylinders is not obvious to the writer in all or even the majority of cases. The appearances seem to favor the interpretation of an obliquely peripheral pro- cess as the axis cylinder in the mid-dorsal cortex (/zg. 4. Plate XIX.) This is certainly not the case in the hippocampal region, however, where the unambiguous evidence of the haematoxylin Herrick, Bram of Certain Reptiles. 121 prepararions agrees with that of the Golgi method in showing the axis cylinders extending entad toward the tract leading to the fimbria. The direction which the processes take is, how- ever, obviously a secondary matter, for in the amphibia, where the embryonic type of cortex is persistent, i. e. the cells do not migrate from the ventricle, the same fibres have a_ peripheral course and yet.can be traced via the homologue of the fimbria to the hippocampal commissure. /7zgs. 5-6 illustrate the im- pregnated cells of the hippocampal region; the former being less highly magnified. In the axial lobe a very complicated structure is revealed where it is difficult to get a sufficiently deep stain to bring out the processes in their full extent. /7zg. 8-9. show that these cells (see a, /zg. ro.) are abundantly provided with processes. The appearance seems to warrant the assumption that we have an invaginated cortex as claimed by Edinger. It is interesting that it is the lateral part which has the fibres brought out; whether this is solely due to the greater accessibility to the reagents remains to be seen. The region for transfer of impulse or switch-station seems to be on the basal aspect, a, /zg. zo, and corresponding regions farther cephalad. /2zg. 7. illustrates the cells of the ventro- mesal angle of the cerebrum cephalad. The cells seem to be of a kind suitable to facilitate the transfer. Two axis cylinders appear to emerge from each cell, as in the niger, ruber, etc. fig. ro. is a transection near the supra-commissure, the tract of which is seen at * The figure gives a fair idea of the fickleness of the silver impregnation. The interpretation of the relations in the region where the transition into the diencephalon is affected is peculiarly difficult. The whole ventro-lateral region is clothed with large pyramidal cells which seem (perhaps spuriously ) to connect with the peduncular fibres. If one could trust appearances it would seem that the supracommissure tract blends with olfactory radix fibres and passes to the occipito-basal lobe (spheericus.) A smaller tract leaves the supracommissure tract and passes mesad and caudad into the diencephalon. The peduncles (basal fore-brain 122 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. bundles) break up into small fascicles and lie parallel to the ventro-lateral margin. They seem to receive fibres from the large pyramidal cells of that region and to continue to the cephalo-dorsal region. zg. 72. illustrates a few cells from the optic lobe, from the deeper tectum layers. The arrowsyv and d indicate the directions ventrad and dorsad respectingly. /zg. 13. is part of the dorso-median region at the level of the front of the optic lobes. 4 is a cell in the optic tract which is shown more highly magnified in /z7g. rz, No attempt is here made to dis- cuss the arrangement of tracts in the mesencephalon. The olfactory tuber ‘in the frog has been studied by deeply staining with hematoxylin with results which closely correspond with those of Retzius and others by use of the Golgi method. The hematoxylin method has the advantage of permitting com- plete orientation. The elements of the rhinencephalon are very simple. About the ventricle we have the same relations which prevail in other regions of the fore brain. The elements of the olfactory ganglionic layer, or specific cells of the tuber, vary greatly in size but consist of a more or less bipolar cell body enclosing a nucleus nearly occupying its transverse diameter. Two processes of considerable size are developed, one from the peripheral or cephalic extremity, the other from the ental end. The former in many cases can be traced into a glomerule where it breaks up by dichotomous branching to intermingle with sim- ilar branches from the olfactory nerve. The other processes ex- tends caudad beyond the limits of the tuber, beyond which we have thus far not succeeded in tracing the isolated fibre. In other cases the cell, while it has the form just described, seems to have its relations only within the pero and cannot be proven to give rise to an axis cylinder. Fig. 3, Plate XX, illustrates the typical olfactory neuron in the frog. Often the axis cylinder can be traced farther than in the case figured. While it has not proven possible to trace separately the various fibres of the olfactory neurons, it is easy to follow their combined course. Collecting on the caudo-lateral aspect of the pero these fibres form a strong radix which passes, by a strong lateral sweep, caudad and dorsad to a point behind the entrance of the ped- Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 123 uncles. The tract there breaks up but part of it may be traced caudo-mesad to the hippocampal lobe. This tract for some time evaded us because it is not superficial but lies near the ventricle. There seem to be two main branches in the pero, one arising from the dorsal and the other from the ventral as- pects, both curving to a common point on the lateral aspect. It may perhaps be doubted whether this single strong band represents the precommissural radix or the radix lateralis, or both. Some fibres from it do, in fact, seem to enter the pre- commissure but, if our observation is correct, a larger part pass- es to the hippocampal region, (Plate XVI, Fig. 9.) There is a smaller tract passing from the region of the precommissure ceph- alad, which may correspond to the olfactory branch of the com- missure but, inasmuch as the radix obviously branches about half-way from the ruber to the commissure and one portion passes dorso-mesad to the hippocampal region, it is better to think of the two radices as fused until more definite evidence is at hand. The region where the compound radix enters the cere- brum is differentiated from the adjoining cortex by the presence of certain deeply staining cells whose axes lie in the plane of transverse section, while the remaining cells are less susceptible to stain, less shrunken and with clear granular nuclei. Whether the peculiar dark cells which are locally distributed in the cortex should be regarded as motor or simply such cells as for any rea- son have been recently active, is yet a question. There is, of course, a possibility that the difference is wholly accidental, but this seems improbable. Fig. 12, Plate XVI, illustrated a por- tion of the transverse section with the olfactory radix. At a point farther caudad the course of the above olfactory tract is in- terupted by nuclei in the course of the fibres, These are evidently the second neurons in the course of the tract if the fibres to this point are supposed to be derived from the specific olfactory ganglia. In longitudinal sections it is seen that the region where the disperse olfactory fibres converge to form the radix is at a point near the peculiar lateral olfactory lobule which lies adjacent to the post-rhinal lobe or ventral tuberosity of the cerebrum. (Fig. 124 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. 9, lat. tub., Plate XVI). In Necturus there are a few scattered fibres on the very ventral surface which run directly caudad to beyond the chiasm—probably to themammillary region. These fibres have not been elsewhere encountered. The hippocampal region of Necturus has proven susceptible to a stain which brings out the cellular relations with all desira- ble completeness. It is possible to trace the axis cylinder fibres from the scattering cells of this lobe into the tracts which’ col- lect to unite in the fornix commissure. It will be noted that in the figure the protoplasmic processes spring from the same end or the opposite end of the cell depending on the position of the cell’ (hig 11; (Plate xox: The above connection is precisely that which we have de- termined in reptilia except that in the latter case the hippocamp- al cells have assumed the secondary relation, i. e., have retreated from the ventricle in a body and, as a consequence, the axis cylinder processes have gathered entad of the cells while in am- phibia the cells have departed little from their embryonic condi- tion and the fibres remain ectad of the mass of cells. If these tracts are, as appears, homologous with the fimbria we have in the conditions prevailing in lower vertebrates a strong presumpt- ive evidence in favor of the writer’s position that fimbria fibres arise from the cortical cells of the hippocampus. Compare Fig. 13, Plate XX, which is a portion of the hippocampus of the black snake. The white matter and tracts of the fore-brain and dienceph- alon of amphibians has received an exhaustive treatment at the hands of Dr. Edinger, which resulted in the statements sum- marized below.’ Connections with the prosencephalon. 1. The basal pros- encephalic bundle (so also Osborn, Koppen’s ‘‘ round bundle,’’) Schulgin’s ‘‘Tract P.” or analogue of the pyramids. Osborn speaks of a branch to the thalamus as ‘‘ infundibular tract,”’ which Koppen terms ‘‘ Thalamus Tuber cinereum Bahn.” 2. Tenia thalami, or tractus ganglii habenule ad prosen- 1 Untersuchungen u. d. vergl. Anatomie des Gehirns, 2. 1892. Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. 125 cephalon—a fine bundle which passes from the mesal wall of the prosencephalon to the supracommissure. 3. Diencephalic radix of the olfactory (our tract of the supracommissure). It is described by Edinger (following Bel- lonci) as arising in the tuber and extending to the supracommis- sure. This is constant in all the vertebrates we have examined though its absolute continuity with the olfactory radix is not so clear. 4. Edinger thinks it very probable (influenced by studies in Selachii) that fibres arise in the lateral part of the mantle which pass caudo-ventrad, passing ectad of the chiasm and cross to the other side behind the latter. After decussation these fibres pass to the roof of the mesencephalon. In other words the course is the same as that of the ‘‘mantle bundle.” He says ‘‘Bei den von mir untersuchten Arten war nur das Stiick des Zuges, welches hinter dem chiasma liegt, gang sicher zu stellen, das frontale ende, der zug aus der Decussatio postoptica uber den Sehnerv hinweg in das Vorderhirn liess sich aus einzel- nen Befunde vermuten, aber nicht durch solche beweisen.’’ Os- born described a tract from the optic nerve into the hemisphere which the author supposes to be the missing part of the mantle bundle. The decussatio postoptica has been identified with the com- missura transversa, but another decussation lying dorsad of it deriving its fibres from the caudad part of the mid-brain, Eding- er considers equivalent to this or v. Gudden’s commissure. (There is some confusion due to the fact that on the same plate the three names are used, viz: ‘‘ Decussatio postoptica,”’ de- cussation of the mantle bundle, and ‘‘ decussatio transversa,”’ and seem to apply to different tracts. ) From the diencephalon Edinger derives the following tracts : 1. Tractus thalami frontalis springing from the dorsal region of the thalamus and passing cephalo-ventrad and then suddenly caudad (its terminus caudad was not made out). 2. Tractus thalami caudalis, which springs from the ganglion caudale thal- ami and passes in the same direction as the preceeding but, be- cause non-medullated, its fibres cannot be traced beyond the 126 JouRNAL oF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. mesencephalon. Both the above lie in the ectal regions and seem to constitute Osborn’s direct diencephalic tract. 3. Mey- nert’s bundle. 4. Tractus ganglii habenule ad mesencephalon, fibres passing directly caudad. 5. Tractus descendens ganglii habenulz, with no determinate end caudad. Edinger does not recognize Osborn’s commissura infundibularis. From the mes- encephalon, besides the optic tracts, no fibre tracts are recog- nized beside those of the commissura transversa. There re- mains only the processus cerebelli ad diencephalon which is said to arise in the caudal region of the gray matter of the diencepha- lon and pass caudo-dorsad to decussate ventrad of the fourth nerve decussation. The following observations may be hazarded: First, as to the basal prosencephalic tract, we do not find all the fibres con- tinuous into the medulla but in Anura sundry connections are formed with the cerebellum via the niger cells. There is also a fine-fibred tract from the thalamic niduli to the mesal or meso- ventral part of the cerebrum. Some of its fibres seem to de- cussate beneath the precommissure, while others pass directly the caudo-dorsal parts of the hemispheres. This mass we homol- ogize with the dorsal or sensory peduncles. The tracti thalami, which Edinger derives from the frontal and caudal (or, on the plates, anterior and posterior) niduli of the thalamus we regard as part of the dorsal peduncle system which is continued cephalad as indicated. The tractus ganglii habenulz ad mesencephalon we fail to recognize as fully distinct from the optic brachia which follow the course indicated, though arising laterad of the habenz in the geniculata and passing to the inner fibre layer of the tectum. It is important to determine whether the present suggestion can be erroneous ; it is against it certainly that so thorough a mor- phologist as Dr. Edinger could find no cephalic tract from the tectum, although the frog is well supplied with eyes. Yet the brachia exist in fishes and reptiles. (See note at end.) The course of the supra-commissure tract in the toad is clearly shown by the transverse section figured, (Plate XVI, Fig. 1), The tract passes cephalo-ventrad and laterad from the Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 127 lareral aspect of the hemisphere where its fibres may be traced cephalad for some distance. Other fibres pass into the thalamus but they seem to be derived from the infra-habena or habena rather than the supra-commissure. The results of the Golgi method as applied to the turtle are in harmony with this case. Plate XIX, Fig. Lo. The Ventral Commuissure System is diffuse and much less easily studied than in fishes. One element, the commuissura horizontalts is sufficiently separable but consists of several bund- les which keep approximately parallel. The fibres are first detected in the cells immediately cephalad of the post commis- sure, the ‘‘nidulus corticalis” of fishes or nidulus aqueductus (mihi) of reptiles’. The fibres collect into two or three distinct bundles which pass ventrad, traversing the whole extent of the nidulus ruber (as this term was used by me in fishes and reptiles) to near the ventral surface of the tuber. Its fibres pierce the peduncles caudad of the post-commissural tract and cross upon the ventral aspect of the tuber somé distance behind the chiasm. It is not a little gratifying that the agreement between the course of these fibres in the Amphibia and the fishes should prove so close. It seems to warrant the hope that we shall ultimately determine homologies in detail from lowest to high- est. The ventralis and transversa are not easily separable and consist of disperse fibres arising from the cephalo-lateral aspects of the diencephalon and decussate or cross from one side to the other dorsad of the chiasm. We are forced to admit our inabil- ity to find the mantle-bundle of Edinger which should connect with our com. transversa. The peduncles in Anura sustain the same relations as in fishes, complicated by the presence of the cortex. The ventral peduncles enter the cerebrum far ventrad and pass into a strong _ nidulus corresponding toa part of the striatum, many of the fibres here affect union with cells whose opposite end is contin- ued as a fibre extending cephalo-dorsad. The ultimate destina- tion in the cortex seems to be the ventro-lateral region and the Vourn. Neurol, Vol. III. p. 98. 128 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. cephalo-dorsal parts of the cortex. There is no apparent reason why this tract should not be homologized with the motor pedun- cles of higher brains. It is not clear to the writer that the fibres terminating in the striatum should be distinguished as basal fore-brain bundle in lower animals unless the same kinds of fibres in higher brains be distinguished within the motor pedun- cle. This Edinger has, in fact, done. In the present instance the fibres do not all emerge from cells at the same level. The dorsal or sensory peduncles enter a dorsal and mesal region and are more disperse and less easily followed. They pass chiefly into the mesal portion of the axial lobe and come into more or less direct connection with cortical regions which for other reasons might be regarded as sensory. In Urodela the apparent position of the ventral peduncles is rather farther dorsad relatively by reason of the fact that much of the axial lobe, which in frogs, etc., becomes crowded dorsad by the preoptic structures is, in the urodela, left upon the ventral surface and the base of the prosencephalon in the former is in part the lateral aspect in Urodela. It would even seem possible that the dorsal peduncle to a certain extent changes places with the ventral. At any rate the precommissure seems to cross ventrad of the ventral peduncle. The commuissures of the fore-brain are \eft out of account in the present discussion. The whole question as to the relation of the calloso-fornix structurs requires special considerations on the widest possible comparative grounds. The fornix, at any rate, is fully represented. The fibres collecting from the hip- pocampal region collect in a strong tract which crosses dorsad of the precommissure, but there is a tract in Anura, at any rate, which passes near the ventricle obliquely caudad to the mammil- lary region. They may be followed in a single perpendicular section of the toad brain for most of their course. There is, therefore, close harmony with the conditions in the Reptilia. The Gray Matter of the Thalamus. Edinger treats the gray matter of the diencephalon less extensively than the tracts. The geniculatum is recognized as usual but includes the whole mass of cells in the superficial portion of the region beneath the Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 129 optic tract. The ganglion habenule and the gray matter of the tuber are distinguished and, in addition, a frontal and caudal ganglion or, as he elsewhere terms them, nucleus anterior and posterior occupying the median and lateral aspects of the thala- mus. These masses constitute the subthalamus and ruber of our papers. We have been able to locate several other niduli and especially the homologues of the mammillaria just caudad of the infundibulum. Where the thalamus adjoins the cerebrum the gray matter is not segregated from the ventricular layer. The peduncles pass into the striata in which are numerous scattered cells in a dense stroma. (Plate XVI. Fig. 2.) In the midst of this gray matter surrounding the preoptic recess of the third ventricle a nidulus of larger cells—the preoptic nidulus which lies a short distance caudad of the precommissure and extends from about the level of that commissure to a point well ventrad. The large fibres from these cells arch latero-ventrad and do not collect into a definite tract. It seems most probable that they form a part of the optic or infra-commissural system. Farther dorsad there is a gap in the gray matter about the ventricle in which the for- nix tracts lie. Dorsad of this region is a clustre of similar cells which lie in the cephalo-caudal plane and give off processes which may be traced in the clear space enclosing the descend- ing fornix tracts. These cells seem to be intercalated in the tracts. In longitudinal sections (Plate XVII. Figs. 2, 3.) a clear space containing fibres from the preoptic nidulus separates the gray matter of the preoptic recess into a cephalic and candal portion fre. 0. c. r and pre. o. c. 2. A transection somewhat caudad of the region just described reveals the fact that the gray matter has considerable gained in complexity. The habena lies dorsad and beneath it a strong stratified nidulus which may be vaguely compared with the sub- thalamicus of fishes. Immediately ectad and rather dorsad of this group is what may be confidently homologized with the ex- ternal geniculatum of fishes and, strangely enough, it shares with the latter group the striking peculiarity of having a pseudo- 130 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. epithelium or radial superficial layer of cells with entally directed processes. The geniculatum (Fig. 3, Plate XVI, gez.) lies dorsad of the ventral peduncles and receives fibres from the dorsal pedun- cle which are less compact than those of the ventral. Caudad of the level where the geniculatum occupies the surface a scat- tered infra-habena nidulus appears dorsad of the subthalamicus. The infrahabenaria and Meynerts’ nidulus are separable from the habena proper. The respective positions may be gathered from Plate XVI, Fig. 3, and the figures on Plate xv: The nidulus ruber has hitherto not been identified in am- phibians. Reissner figures the bundles of the commissura hori- zontalis' and indicated them as ‘‘herabsteigende Bundeln von Nervenfasern,”’ the figure is from a section somewhat too far cephalad to show the nidulus very well—its real site is in the most protuberant region dorsad and laterad of C in the fig- ure. The structure of the nidulus is less close than in the fishes but it is obviously like the latter, a terminus of many of the dorsal peduncular fibres. Under a high power the cells resolve themselves into those with long processes extending into axis cylinders in different directions and those with less evident pro- cesses lying clustered as in fishes. The whole area is filled out with fibres from various directions. The recognition of this ele- in the thalamus is a useful step in construing the difficult region. The homology is made more complete by the fact that the tract of the commissura horizontalis traverses the nidulus ventro-dor- sad and leaves it on its way to the post-commissure region. In the tailed amphibians I was unable to detect the ruber in 1892. (Vol. II, p. 67). (The fullest account of this nidulus yet re- corded respecting fishes, etc., is that on pages 58-67 of the Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. II.) Although there is no distinct ruber in Urodela yet it is possible to trace fibres of the commissura horizontalis dorsad to a point a little cephal- 1 Bau des Centralnervensystem der ungeschwdnzten Batrachien, Plate XII, Fig. XI. Herrick, Lrain of Certain Reptiles. 131 ad of the post-commissure. The niduli in this case simply re- main undifferentiated from the ventricular gray, though potential- ly and functionally present. (Plate XVIII.) The diencephalon and mesencephalon of Urodela constitute one continuous segment interrupted only by the post-commis- sure. It is probable that the most diagrammatic representation of the segments in question could be secured by generalizing the relations as they exist in Menopoma or Necturus, which are essentially similar. The drawings and descriptions of Osborn have made us sufficiently familiar with the external form and general relations. It will be desirable, however, to examine a series of horizontal sections beginning from the dorson in order to get a comprehensive view of the structures. The most dorsal section shows three structures; 1. The preparaphysis (often mistaken for the epiphysis) consisting of an enormous expansion of the preplexus dorsad of the aula. It is composed of a large irregular central chamber with complicated peripheral diverticles of a tubular or irregular character around which blood vessels anastomose. The form is, in general, nearly spherical. 2. The post-paraphysis or ‘‘ polster’’—a dorsal ex- pansion of the third ventricle with irregular projections ectad and entad. The diplexus is a derivative of this system. 3. Immediately caudad of this, but separated from it by the supra- and habena-commissures is the epiphysis, which consists of an irregular aggregate of vesicles connected with the third ventricle by anarrow opening. The supra-commissure system consists of two distinct bundles, a small cephalic and dorsal and a larger caudal and ventral bundle, a small branch to the epiphysis from the former was doubtfully identified (parietal nerve.) The ven- tro-caudal bundle passes laterad of the smaller commissure and comes to lie ectad and cephalad of it, forming the main body of the commissure, while the supra-commissure proper continues directly ventrad, forming (?) a part of the optic system. (?) /7g. z, Plate XVIII, illustrates these conditions. /7g. 2 is the re- gion of the supra-commissure, showing the several tracts. From the habena as well as what seems to be the locality of Meynert’s 132 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. nidulus fibres arise from the cells and collect into Meynert’s bundle with the usual course. At a section farther ventrad (/zg. 3,) the dorsal part of the tectum appears. The optic tract enters laterad. The structure of the tectum is exceedingly simple, consisting of ganglion cells arranged about the ventricle with long bifurcating processes of great length and delicacy. There is no stratification into zones as in the higher forms but, nevertheless, the essential elements are present. The optic nerves are small and hollow (i. e., the old cavity of the primary optic ventricle is not wholly obliter- ated) and the small number of fibres in the optic tract calls out relatively few neurons from the second layer to the first. These few cells are scattered irregularly somewhat above the level of the general gray matter. A second layer of fibres approxim- ately parallel to the ventricle is the brachial system. These fibres are smaller than those of the optic tract. They arise from cells in the region where in other vertebrates the genicu- lata occur and pass caudad to constitute the inner horizontal fibre zone. In the caudal aspect of the tectum bundles enter from obliquely ventro-laterad and caudad and penetrate the tec- tum between the meshes of and nearly at right angles to the preceeding. This tract can be none other than the lemniscus. Its course is obliquely latero-caudad to near the region of exit of the trigeminus. In the middle region of the tectum occur a few giant ganglion cells—the mesencephalic nidulus of the tri- geminus. Each of these cells gives off a large dark fibre which passes entad of the lemniscus to the exit of the trigeminus, There are several bundles of such fibres in each side. The fibres are larger than those of the 4th nerve. The optic tectum in the frog is exactly similar to that of the fishes in all essential particulars. It, therefore, differs from that in Urodela much as the cortex of reptiles differ from that in the embryo. It is very curious that none of the writers on the am- phibian diencephalon seem to have systematically sought for the optic brachia or Sylvian commissure, The latter is a very evi dent band crossing from one tectum to the other and lying be- neath the ectal ganglion layer. The cephalic brachia extend Herrick, brain of Certain Reptiles. 133 from the deeper portions of the tectum and run parallel to the optic tracts cephalad and penetrate the geniculata. The caudal brachium is difficult to make out certainly but seems to run par- allel with the caudal optic tract and to be associated with the infracommissure tract, thence with the cerebrum. It is ob- scured by its association with the numerous other tracts of the base of the mesencephalon. The caudal optic tract is wholly distinct from the cephalic and, as in fishes, lies in a groove beneath the tectum, whence it arches over the caudal as- pect of the lobe. The lemniscus tracts, which seem always to have been overlooked, have the usual course, springing from the deeper layers of the tectum and accumulating, after a sep- arate course caudo-ventrad, into a loose bundle which follow the course of the caudal peduncle of the cerebellum. It would ap- pear that Edinger’s tractus ganglii habenula ad mesencephalon runs with or includes the cephalic brachium. Longitudinal sections, however, clearly show that a fine-fibred tract arising from the inner fibre layer of the tectum passes cephalad at some distance from the median and enters the geniculatum. The re- semblance between the optic tectum in Anura and turtles and fishes may be seen by comparing Plate X, Fig. 10, Vol. III, smirnubiate Vil ric. 1; andwPlate ey Rio i2,.or Vol, ak! ahis structure is strikingly contrasted with that in Urodela. In Urodela the zone surrounding the common ventricle is clothed with neurons whose processes extent peripherad and in- terblend with the transversely or irregularly disposed neurons which send axis cylinders into the optic tracts. The conditions are much like those prevailing in very young fish [see Plate IX, Bisse) 2, 3: Vol. Ty The tracts to the leminscus blend with the optic nerve tracts and brachia, while in the frog these several fibre layers are differentiated as in reptiles and fishes. In higher reptilia the relations are obscured by the complication of the tectum, as is also the case in mammals. The fish, turtle or frog is there- fore an incomparably better subject for study of the tectum than the other groups, while the salamander is instructive as showing how this complicated mechanism is derived from the 134 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. common type in which at first cells are everywhere collected about the ventricles. Respecting the cerebellum, Osborn, in 1883, described in the Amphiuma, (1) a continuous band of fibres arching from side to side of the medulla, (2) a fine layer of fibres which have an antero-posterior direction, (3) an investing layer of cells one or two rows deep. The transverse band wes homologized with the inferior peduncles and restiformia. The fine layer termi- nates in the lateral portions of the cerebellum and optic lobe and is morphologically ventrad of the preceeding. The cells are thought to be of a nervous character but no processes were discovered. Ina later paper’ he states that in Cryptobranchus the ‘‘cerebellum is chiefly composed of decussating tracts, pass- ing on the one side into the lateral regions of the medulla and into the mesencephalon. It may even be questioned whether we have here the essential elements of the cerebellum, the structure is so extremely simple.’’ He withdraws from the homology of the tract to the mesencephalon with the prepedun- cles of the cerebellum and states that it is really the mesenceph- alic or descending trigeminal tract. The cerebellum of Am- phiuma contains no cells except the ependyma, while in Cryptobranchus there is a small mass of round cell similar to those of the central substance of the optic lobes. The fine fibres of the first sort above described are derived chiefly from the eighth nerve though some come from the seventh. Alborn considers that the fibres entering the cerebellum are commissural between the auditory niduli of opposite sides while Koppen and Osborn think they are decussating tracts from the nerve. The middle peduncle of the cerebellum is fairly well devel- oped in Anura but instead of tracing it unbrokenly into the in- fundibulum with Dr. Edinger it seems to us that most of its fibres either mingle with those of the ventral peduncles or come into relations with them through the scattered ‘‘niger”’ cells of the pes region. The decussation of these bundles (‘‘Bindearme’’) VJourn. Morph. I1., 1. 1888. Herrick, rain of Certain Reptiles. 135 is high up and the fibres then come into close relations with the corpora posterioria. The number of cells scattered in this region of interblending (niger locus) is not large but much greater than at first appears by reason of the dispersness of the mduluso; 1( Plate XOVI., Fig..7; Plate XV1),) Fis. 10} z2ger-.) The cephalic peduncle of the cerebellum was not definitely located. A few dark fibres coming from the base of the cere- bellum can be traced in a lateral arch cephalad to the region of the ruber, where they seem to turn dorsad but their actual course is simple surmised to correspond with that in fishes. It thus appears that, ifthe above surmise is correct, the amphibian cerebellum has the same major connections as other groups. The cerebellum is ventro-laterally supported by a dense nidulus which Osborn figures and mentions; this ‘‘dentatum”’ (see Plate XVII., Figs. 2-3.) contains numerous spindle cells from which arise fibres constituting a tract which arches cephalad and penetrates the cell-clustre lying laterad of the nid- - ulus posterior (‘‘mucleus magnus’). The ultimate destination of the fibres is not easy to demonstrate but they can be traced to beneath the ‘‘colliculi’’ and apparently terminate in the sensory niduli of the thalamus. The tract arising from the central or axis cylinder processes of the cells of Purkinje pass directly caudo-lateral and form the restiformia on the dorso-lateral aspects of the medulla. The fibres are thick and uniform. The corpus posterior consists of a more or less spheroidal body with a dense peripheral zone of cells whose apex process- es project into the core of the organ. This is one of the num- erous illustrations of a pseudo-epithelial arrangements of cells, reminding one of the rodundus of fishes. In the caudal aspect the cells, which have deeply staining muclei, are as closely ar- ranged as possible; elsewhere less compactly. The core is less close in structure than the periphery. The middle peduncle of the cerebellum comes into very close relations with it though the nature of the connection is not clear. ( Plate XVIII, Fig.g.) While not here especially concerned with the homologies of the cranial nerves we may note in passing that the three eye- 136 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. muscle nerves seem to be derived from one common band of ventricular gray on either side the median line. In the am- phibia the primitive relations are little altered. The oculomotor- trochlearis nidulus is very large and lies very near the ventral aspect driving the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus almost into con- tact with the ventral surface. The cells resemble those of rep- tiles closely. The third nerve emerges a little distance caudad of the mammillaria and lie in the groove laterad of the tuber. Between the niduli of these nerves and the ventricle is a consid- erable mass of ventricular gray of the ordinary sort with small cells consisting almost wholly of the spherical nuclei. There are two clusters of smaller cells lying laterad of the oculomotor tracts which seem to correspond with the peduncu- lar niduli of other groups. Caudad of the trochlearis nidulus the dorsal longitudinal fascicle turns rather abruptly dorsad and soon attains its usual position along the floor of the ventricle. In conclusion it remains to summarize a few general results of these studies hitherto. 1. The theory of neurons is clearly seen to be the sole ad- equate means of construing the concordant facts of comparative anatomy and histology and of embryology. All the nervous elements of the central nervous system arise as neuroblasts from the ventricle and undergo more or less extensive modification. 2. There is great difference in the degree of modification of the neurons. They may become functional when in an al- most embryonic condition morphologically. 3. A considerable but variable number of the neurons are held back in their development to form reserves or accessory structures. | 4. The nerve tube is originally similar in the arrangement of the neurons from end to end. In the Urodela this simplicity is largely retained. Their brain warrants us in the belief that they are permanent larve. They are not to be regarded as illus- trations of the precursor of amphibia but as a form of modifica- tion which is due to the persistence of a larval state. They must be used in phylogenetic speculation with considerable cau- tion and only ina general way. They cannot be fairly expected Herrick, ram of Certain Reptiles. 137 to stand a rigid test in detail for such a purpose. A compari- son of the structure of Anura and Urodeles must always take this into account. 5. In spite of these great differences and allowing for the practical absence of the cerebellum in Urodela there is remark- able correspondence not only with each other but with Reptilia in the actual fibre-connections. 6. The study of the fish brain is a good preparation for making out the amphibian problem. 7. The ‘‘projection system’ theory of Meynert should be expanded. A more general theory of neural concatenation (no simpler term suggests itself) is nearer the truth. Chains of nervous translation may be affected between appropriate centres by the intercalation of as many neurons as may be necessary. There is no necessity for a physical continuum but a series of reciprocating elements is sufficient. The last stage in such a transformation is a perfect nerve fibre with shunted nuclei and continuous fibre. This is an expedient for rapid transit over long distances. ‘The first stage in the series may be a slight re- ciprocal influence of parallel neurons through their processes. (See article page 11 of this volume.) 8. A physiological concomitant of this anatomical theory’ is that of zygomorphism which may be succinctly defined as the theory that when adjacent elements are brought into relations of mutual influence or one becomes a discharging agent for the other there is a tendency for the cells concerned to adjust them: selves to each other. At first the result is interstitial change, later a closer connection is affected, and, still later, a polarity or actual rearrangement of the cell axes and, finally, a fusion and insulation may be developed by the transferring of the influence of the nuclei to the periphery and a change in the nutritive pro- cesses of the latter. g. So far as our histological results are concerned we must confess their incompleteness but trust that enough has been suggested to indicate that the same structures (however obscured) exist in the frog as in higher vertebrates and that the gray mat- ter is by no means so homogeneous as usually regarded. The 138 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. connection of the sensory niduli of the thalamus is on the one hand, with the cerebrum and, on the other, with the met- encephalon. The following summary of tracts to and from the tectum in reptiles should have appeared with the preceeding instalment. 1. Cephalic optic tract, covering the cephalo-lateral aspect of the tectum and passing to its superficial layers. 2. Caudal op- tic tract, passing along the caudal aspect, in a groove between the optic lobe and thalamus, to spread out upon the caudo-lat- eral and dorsal regions. 3. The cephalic optic brachium, col- lecting from the deeper layers and passing toward the cerebrum through the geniculata. 4. Caudal brachium, with a similar course. 5. Fibres of the Sylvian commissure, connecting the superficial layers of the two sides. 6. The lemniscus fibres, passing from the middle of the tectum to the lateral region of the medulla of the same side. 7. The descending mesenceph- alic tract, from the middle portions of the tectum directly cau- dad into the medulla. 8. The mesencephalic root of the tri- geminal. g. The coordinating oculomotor tract, which rises from the deepest regions of the cortex and passes in a slight curve through the raphe into close connection with the oculo- motor nidulus. All of these are clear and unambiguous in rep- tiles as in fishes. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XV. Figs. 1-3. Transections of the cerebrum of Menopoma, injected with gel- atin through the heart. Figs. 4-6. Three horizontal sections from the same species fig. 7. Perpendicular section of the cerebellum of a frog larva. figs. 8-9. Two horizontal sections of frog brain. RIGA Exava: fig. 1. Transection of toad brain cephalad of chiasm. prepar. preparaphy- Sis; s4#f7, c. SUpracommissure tract on its way to rhinalis sinus in cerebrum; x, thalamic branch of commissure of habena? tract; v. ped. ventral or motor ped- uncle, fg. 2. Section of same brain at precommissure. Hzfp. c. hippocampal commissure tract; ca//. callosal fibres; s¢rzatum, portion only of this body ; off. radix, fibres from the olfactory radix at point of division. Herrick, Brain of Certain Reptiles. 139 Fig. 3. Section of same brain in chiasm region; Z. epiphysis; A. hab- ena; /nf. H, infra-habena; Meynrt.n. Meynert’s nidulus; ge. geniculatum ex- ternum, that portion forming a pseudo-epithelium at surface cephalad of optic tracts; suéth. probably homologue of internal geniculata grouped with others as subthalamicus niduli; 7: ventral peduncles; zzf. infracommissural fibres ; x, ventricular gray. Figs. 4-7. Sections from frog brain at different levels ; sz¢. V. mesenceph- alic nidulus of trigeminus; fed. md. peduncular nidulus or accessory nidulus of the third nerve; corp. ~. eorpus posterior; Med. ped. cer. middle peduncle of cerebellum which decussates after exit from the outer layer of the cerebel- lum and passes through and about the corpus posterior and, passing cephalo- ventrad, enters the ventral peduncular region, losing itself in tbe locus niger; Lem, lemniscus tract, fibres which pass from the inner fibre layer of the tectum to a region near the exit of the fifth nerve. fig. 8. Cells from the nidulus ruber. The fibres seen are from the com- missura horizontalis. Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of frog brain. Compare Plate XVII; Jat. tud. lateral expansion or lobe of the olfactory tuber, near which the radix originates ; corp. dent. the dentate nidulus. | Fig. ro. A similar section well mesad; ¢#/fh: infra-habena nidulus; Afeyn. n. Meynert’s nidulus; Br. brachium; 7#/. infundibulum region or tuber ciner- eum; x, thalamic nidulus in the peduncle bundle. Fig. zr. Cell from the intra-ventricular lobe of frog. Fig. 12. Portion of the gray matter of the cerebrum of a toad about the cephalic end of the olfactory radix. Fig. 73. Result of injection of Menopoma brain, fine meshwork of the gelatin emerging from blood-vessles. Are the cavities pre-existant or is this structure simply due to the peculiar texture ? PLATE XVII. A series of longitudinal sections of the brain of the frog. 4.2.g. Basal peduncular ganglion or part of striatum with fibres of the ventral peduncles; Olf.n olfactory nerve; g/. glomerulary layer; gang. ol. specific ganglia of olfac- tory tuber; Chéas,chiasm; Mamm. mammillary body; Sufr. c. supracommis- sure M. 2. Meynert’s nidulus; Ge. geniculatum; #. 0. g. nidulus of the post optic region in the course of the ventral peduncles; Corp. forn. corpus fornicis; Br. brachial tracts; ¢r. oft. ceph. cephalic optic tract; tr. oft. caud. caudal optic tract; P. c., Post. ¢. postcommissure; Sy/v. c. Sylvian commissure or tectum commissure; @. /. f. dorsal longitudinal fasciculus; Ayph. hypophysis; Dors. . ped. sensory or dorsal peduncles; Pre. o. c.1, and Pre.o.c. 2 Preoptic cinerea in two portions separated by atract or space; Pre.o.m. preoptic nidulus. The series is from a lateral level to the centre. PLATE XVIII. Figs. 1-8. A series of horizontal sections through the brain of Necturus. Hematoxylin preparations. Fig.1. Section at the level of the supracommissure. Prepar. preparaphy- 140 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. sis; Postpar. postparaphysis; Com. hab. commissure of the habena; £fzph. epiphysis. fig. 2. Portion of a section, somewhat farther ventrad, enlarged, showing the two commissures of the habena. Fig. 3. Meyn. B. Meynert’s bundle; Plex. auliplexus; Post. ¢. postcom- missure; 4r. brachial tract. fig. 4. Section still ventrad. Fig. 5. com, horiz. commissura horizontalis; Afes. x. v. mesencephalic nidulus of the trigeminus; fié. fimbria. Fig. 6. Corp. forn. Corpus fornicis; Supra. tr. supracommissure tract passing to cerebrum; C. ¢rvamsv. commissura transversa; Zen. lemniscus. fig. 7. Section near ventral part of hippocampal lobe. Fig. 8. Cells from region of ventricle adjoining the nidulus niger. : Fig. 9. Corpus posterior (left side) in frog. The arrow indicates cephalic direction. PEATE XEXe Details of Histology of Reptiles and Amphibians. fig.1. A portion of the hippocampal region of Necturus. Horizontal section (5-1), right hemisphere. The arrow indicates the direction of the fornix commissure. Fig. 2. Olfactory cells from perpendicular section of olfactory tuber of the frog. Fig. 3. Olfactory neuron and connection with glomerule (g/o7.) fig. 4. Hippocampal region of frog from a perpendicular section (7-6). fig. 5. Mid-cortex region of frog from perpendicular section (4). Fig. 6. Perpendicular section of cerebellum of the turtle ( Cstzdo). Fig. 7. Cells from a perpendicular section of cerebellum of frog Fig. 8. Similar cells from horizontal section showing dissimilarity of adja- cent cells. Due probably to differential functioning. Fig. g. Longitudinal section of cerebellum of black snake (13). fig. ro. Cells from the nidulus niger of frog. Arrow indicates ventral direction. From a perpendicular section. fig. ri. Cells of same region (3) Fig. a. fig. r2. Cells from thalamic niduli of frog from which arise infracommis- sure fibres. Fig. 13. Cells from hippocampus of black snake (13-14. REPORT (UPON fie PATHOLOGY ORVA CASE: OF GENERAL PARALYSIS: By C. L. Herrick, Professor of Biology at Denison University. Nore oF TRANSMISSAL.* Dr. A. B. Richardson, Superintendent of the State Hospital for the Insane, Columbus, Ohzo, DEAR Sir: In pursuance of your suggestion, a microscopi- cal examination has been made of the specimens placed in my hands with results which are detailed beyond. While the his- tory of the case, as you informed me, warranted us in expect- ing only the usual lesions of general paralysis incident upon al- coholism it was thought worth while to not simply make such examination as should detect the expected lesions but to make the study extended enough to afford a somewhat complete pic- ture of the diseased brain as a whole. Circumstances have pre- vented the completion of the task in the way at first contem- plated. The employment of the slow and tedious fibre-stain methods was rendered impossible by pressure of work immedi- ately upon reception of the specimen. The present paper is devoted almost exclusively to the cells of the various portions of the brain. It is thought that what we now need is the col- lection of minute, detailed data presenting the facies of a path- ological state in its entirety and we have accordingly presented illustrations of the various regions even where involving some repetition and, in order to make the account more generally useful, some historical and physiological suggestions are added. Unexpectedly the distribution of the degenerated structures has thrown incidental light upon an important morphological prob- lem, reenforcing generalizations derived from the comparative realm. Hoping that the paper, imperfect as it is, may serve its purpose in preparing the way for more systematic and useful work in the same direction. I am yours respectfully, C2 HERRICK: *Simultaneously appearing as Pathological Bulletin, No. 1, of the Columbus State dospital for the Insane. 142 JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. HISTORY. Supplied by the Medical Corps of the Columbus Hospital for the Insane. J Wes was admitted to this institution June 20th, 1891. He wasa native of Ohio, forty years of age, a merchant and a man of good education. He had been ad- dicted to the use of intoxicants for several years but was more temperate within the two or three previous to his admission. There was no history of specific disease and he had been a man of good character in his community and of active business habits. The mental symptoms began about six months previous to admission. When admitted he had delusions of grandeur and was-becoming somewhat demented. He imagined he was quite wealthy and was anxious to run for the office of Governor or of President of the United States. His pupils were unequal, there was incoordination in gait and he had the characteristic defect in speech that marks the paretic. There was no history of insanity or nervous disease in his family and the cause as- signed was financial trouble, of which he had had considerable. His intemperance was also in my opinion a cause. He contin- ued an inmate of the institution until his a which occurred Jan. 8th, 1893. He became rapidly more demented and the paresis in- creased. His digestion was good during nearly all of the time and only failed him within the last month or two before his death. There was no evidence of focal lesion in a local paralysis and the disease pursued the characteristic history of general paralysis. I regret that the history is so meager, but while we could add illustrations of his delusions they would be cf no value in a Pathological Bulletin. The previous history is diffi- cult to secure, but there was nothing very characteristic in his life as far as we can discover. He was a man of active business habits and at one time was worth considerable property, but he lost it all, his reverses, in part at least, being due to his dissipation. It is further stated that the first symptoms os motor en- "HERRICK, Pathology of General Paralysis. 143 feeblement were a slight speech disturbance, in the nature of a blurring of the articulation, and awkwarkness in the gait that de- noted slight incoordination. These facts are significant inas- much as it will be shown that the most seriously affected corti- cal areas are those in Broca’s region and in adjacent parts, while still more serious lesions are located in the coordinating centers of the thalamus nnd mesencephalon. No sensory aura nor other disturbances, nor any visual, auditory, or olfactory hallu- cinations were detected. As it was not expected that a careful pathological investigation would be possible, no dynometric or aesthometric tests were made nor were systematic registrations of temperature or urine analyses attempted. * NATURE OF THE DISEASE. Mendel says .of the etiology of progressive paralysis: ‘‘From the results there can remain no doubt that the es- sential thing is interstitial inflamation. The cell-multiplica- tion, development of spider cells, the increased excretion of intercellular substance, these leave no doubt in this connection, and at the acme of the disease, according to my observation, the evidences of this inflamation are never absent.”’ ‘‘In acute paralysis the nucleary proliferation and the de- *The following extract from a letter from Dr. Richardson re- ceived too late to be inserted in the proper place will be of interest: ‘‘T have just learned a few facts in the history of J. S., whose case you are investigating, which may be of interest in case it is not too late to include them in the record. He was a man of more than usual business activity and conducted a mercantile business in a small town. He was always good hearted and indulgent and inclined for years to the use of intoxicants in moderate amount when with his friends. ‘Through his indulgence to his friends his business became complicated’ during the years 1888 and 1889, and he was compelled to make an assignment about the close of the latter year. In the spring of 1890 he had an attack of La Grippe and after that never seemed as well as before, and was somewhat despondent. He grew worse that Fall and his disease began to change to a state of exalta- tion. He became talkative and excitable and enthusiastic over busi- ness, until finally, during the winter of 1890 and 1891, his actions 144 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. velopment of spider cells is not great while they are replaced by the phenomena of hyperemia of the vessels or stasis through the collection of blood corpuscles in the adventiva. In the very aged the preceding processes of irritation are only here and there to be noticed, or not at all; the general atrophy extends ’ The changeringieme cell bodies is, so far as our methods show, a secondary process, to include spider cells and granules.’ which in many cases can only be made out by microscopic ob- servation, in a very limited extent, while in other cases, as above shown, producing a very remarkable alteration.” ‘«Changes in the membranes are likewise, in the rule, sec- ondary. : : . The pia as well as the dura, in most cases, is implicated through the disturbances in the circulation in the brain itself which react upon it, as well as through the progressive diseased condition of the vessels, From all these considerations I conclude that progressive paralysis is a diffuse interstitial cortical encephalitis resulting in brain atrophy. ‘‘The beginning of the process is a transmigration of leuco- cytes and it is accompanied by an increase of the connective elements. The compression of the capillaries and of the small arteries through the accumulations in the adventitious sheath disturbs the regularity of the nutrition of the nervous elements, became so unreasonable that he was adjudged insane and sent to the asylum. He remained there until about May of 1891, during which time he became more quiet and was finally taken home on a visit. In June of ’g1 while at home he hada sudden epileptiform seizure with hemiplegia on the right side, which, though not complete, lasted for about three weeks. His speech was much worse after this than before, andin August of the same year he had an attack of speech- lessness lasting for a day or two, during which time he was entirely unable to talk. Soon after this he was returned to the asylum where he remained until his death and did not afterwards have any sudden attack nor any symptons of local paralysis. The history during this time we have heretofore narrated. Thereis no history of insanity in the family. During the four years previous to his death he did not drink any. In 1888 his only child became lost and the excitement and worry in the search for him was a severe shock to him and his friends were afraid at that time it would cause some mental trouble.” Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. — 145 producing degeneration of the latter and finally leads to atrophy and shriveling.”’ Mendel suggests that the great diversity in the symptom- ology of general paralysis may be due to the existence of varie- ties with an interstitial and a parenchymatic origin. The present case shows sufficiently well that the intensity of the degenerative process varies greatly in various regions. This is sufficient to account for great diversity in the facies of the disease. It would seem that there could be no limit to the range of variation where the slightest change in the seat of dis- turbance might interrupt a different set of channels of commun- ication. ‘Historically the opinions of the cause of the malady have varied between wide extremes. Meschede, in 1865, con- sidered the alteration in the ganglion cells of primary impor- tance and considered the disease a parenchymatous inflamation. Mangan, in 1866, described it as an interstitial encephalitis, while Rokitansky and, finally, Luys referred the trouble to the neuroglia; the latter called it diffuse interstitial sclerosis of the neuroglia. It is not unnatural that vaso-motor changes should be ap- pealed to as fundamentally important, as has been done by Obersteiner, Thompson and others, in fact it is difficult to see how the undoubted connection between mental strain. on the one hand, and vaso-motor disturbance of alcoholism on the other, with the degenerations of general paralysis is to be explained without admitting, via functional hyperemia and temporary vaso-moter incordination, the graver and more permanent changes which should make way for morbid nutritive changes in the cells. If metabolism is altered by altered blood pressure it would be natural that other cellular elements besides the cortical cells should be modified. It would seem more rational to sup- pose that all the cellular structures in the region affected should feel the effects of vascular disturbance and react, each after its kind, while reciprocally modifying each other and thus the course of the disease. Instead then of drawing a distinction between interstitial and parenchymatous phases we may restrict ourselves to such practical classification in accordance 146 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. with predisposing cause and the sequence of symptoms as shall most nearly correspond with the requirements of treatment. The prevailing unwillingness to recognize the great influence of alcoholism may account for the failure adequately to construe the influence of slight vascular disturbances if sufficiently long continued. It will be gathered from our own observations that the facts seem hardly to bear out the statements of Hirt: ‘‘This view, according to which the atrophy is the primary process, is in all probability correct, though it is still combatted by many authorities (Mendel), who look upon the death of the nerve fibres as the secondary, upon the increase of the connective tis- sue, the thickening of the vessel walls and the appearance of spider cells as the primary process (‘encephalitis interstitialis’).”’ In the present case, however, the development of the spider cells, upon which Bevan Lewis, Mendel and others lay so much weight, is a very insignificant factor. The most important one seeming to be the involvement of the blood-vascular system and the greatest cellular modifications are seen in the motor co-ordi- nating centres of the axial lobe. Our case supports the view of Zeigler’ that the phemomena of general paralysis are not uniformly inflamatory ‘‘but not rarely simply degenerative processes in the meninges and the cortex.’’ He says: ‘‘Es ers- cheint danach die gestorte Ernahrung und die Degeneration der Ganglienzellen und Nervenfasern als die wesentliche, und die entztindliche Infiltration und die Zunahme der fibrillaren Stitz- substanz sind zwar flr die anatomische Beurtheilung des Pro- cesses, nicht aber fiir die Krankheitssymptome von wesentlicher Bedeutung.” Mierzejewski and Voisin regard these spider cells and fibrous aggregates, which are not noticeable in some cases, as coagula of fibrin derived from homogeneous masses which may contain nuclei. It may be that diverse structures have been combined under this name. The ‘‘spider cells’? which were 'Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Pathologische Anatomie und Pathogenese, 4th Edit. 1885, p. 591. Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. 147 sparingly present in this case may be of the character of a dif- fuse stroma. Ziegler says that the spider cells are frequently not increased in number but simply more conspicuous because ofthe atrophy of other parts of the cortex. The fact referred to by Lewis that representativeness is a function early lost in the course of general paralysis may have its anatomical explana- tion in the fact that slight sporadic changes would interfere with associational tracts (association being intimately connected with representation) before becoming sufficiently pronounced to in- terfere with the direct presentational processes of perception, etc. In fact, according to Tuczek, there is a marked primary atrophy of the fine medullated nerve fibres, particularly in the outer layers of the cortex, in the tangential ‘‘associational”’ fibres which run parallel to the surface. Friedmann describes four varieties of atrophy of the white matter and others have dis- covered secondary degeneration in the dorsal columns of the the cord. Our methods were selected with reference to the cells and, whether for this reason or because no genuine degen- eration of the fibres had set in, only sparing and unimportant degenerations of white matter were encountered. In determining the cause and nature of the circulatory changes preceding cerebral degeneration a thorough knowledge of the nature and reactions of the blood and lymph which fill the delicate cerebral organ as fluid fills a sponge is necessary. The brain is almost as really an erectile tissue as the pan- creas and we already know enough to be convinced that slight changes in pressure may become the occasion for the rapid pro- liferation of the corpuscles and that the presence of small quan- tities of certain substances may greatly change the balance of the fluids in the capillaries, lymphatics and tissues. R. Heid- enhain has conducted very elaborate investigations upon the lymph! and finds that there are lymphagogues or substances which increase the formation of the lymph. Various extracts of invertebrate muscles, egg albumen, peptone, etc., are 1Versuche und Fragen zur Lehreivon der Lymphbilding. Pflagers Archiv f. d. ges. Physiologie XLIX, p. 209. 148 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. among the lymphagogues.' It is shown by experiment that in this case, as when sugar is injected into the veins, the capillaries exert a genuine secretory influence. In the latter case the blood is extracted from the tissues by the dehydrating action of the sugar. It seems probable that alcohol would operate in a similar way. There are many things which suggest that a sort of protoplasm poisoning is an early incident to the devel- opment of the circulatory changes preceding paralysis. One must remember that even in the normal state the va- riations in metabolism find other expressions than in the form and reaction of the cells. Carazzoni? has shown that the ratio of solids in the cerebro-spinal fluids is greater in the morning than in the evening in the percentage of 135 to 100 and is more alkaline in the morning also. Substances injected into the ab- dominal cavity make their way into this fluid after half an hour or more which is, however, more slowly than their entrance into the blood or even the aqueous humor, as would be expected. The theory that prevails to some extent in this country that the moderate use of alchohol serves to substitute to some extent for proteids in the diet has apparantly been exploded by Minra’s researches.* A slight increase of albumen is regarded as evidence that alcohol acts like chloroform as a protoplasm pois- oning which may be expected as one of the incidents of early stages of the pathological condition now under consideration. (Cf. Heymans. Sur l’action toxique et antiseptique du chloro- form etc., Azn. Soc. med. Gand. 1892. ) EXTERNAL CHANGES. Macroscopically there was less alteration than might have been legitimately expected. Plate A. illustrates the appearance of the brain after the removal of the membranes. The mem- branes were slightly adherent but not closely enough to pro- duce decortication upon their removal. The characteristic lCentralblatt f. Phys. 816. 3Centralblatt f. Phys. VI. 14. 3Ueber die Bedeutung des Alkohols als Eweisssparer in der Ernahrung des gesunden Menschen. Zeztsch. f. Klin. Med. XX, 112. Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. 149 opalescence was noticed on the surface of the fresh brain and some hemorrhagic patches along the sulci. The cerebellum was superficially injected but section shows nothing abnormal in its deeper portions. The membranes themselves were thickened but there was no evidence of acute inflamation. The cortex itself appeared nearly normal but the sulci were more conspic- uous than would be expected from the age of the subject. The atrophy was especially marked about the insula, fissure of Ro- lando and the tip of the temporal lobe and not noticeable in the occipital. A wax model made by the method of impregnation of the right hemisphere with Japan wax brought out the atro- phy more clearly as the shrinkage incident to the method was more marked in the regions mentioned. The surface of the brain was minutely pitted throughout its extent. The figure sufficiently represents the configuration of the right hemisphere. The weight of the entire brain was about 58 oz., and there seemed to be an abnormal amount of ventricular fluid. THE MEMBRANES Circumstances have thus far prevented giving special atten- tion to the meninges but, while somewhat thickened and ad- herent and while the surface of the brain when removed had the peculiar opalescent character so often described, the most notice- able changes are connected with the vessels. In the sinuses lying in the sulci great accumulation of leucocytes has taken place and the leucocytes fill the considerable space about the vessels and may be readily seen entering the brain and collecting at various levels below the surface. These changes are simply analogous to those which are taking place in the vessels within the cortex and, like the latter, point to an inflammatory condi- tion. In those regions in which the morbid changes are most marked the blood vessels are also greatly affected. The first characteristic of change is the increased number of white corpus- cles and their transmigration into the surrounding tissue. There can be no doubt that normally this transmigration is continually taking place. The large pyramidal ganglion cells almost invari- I50 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ably have a certain number about their bases or active pole. They present a great variety of stages between the full, plump nuclei which have recently reached the cell and the dark, shriv- eled, exhausted cells which seem to have yielded their nourish- ment to the nerve cell. Whether as cause or effect, the condi- tion of general paralysis is accompanied by an abnormal collection of leucocytes. These gather in great numbers in the — space between the intima and adventiva of the vascular walls and thus narrow the lumen until a partial stasis of the red cor- puscles results. Masses of yellow pigment accumulate in the adventitious sheath among the the leucocytes, sometimes in con- siderable quantities. These hamatoid granules have been frequently noticed. This yellow pigment which collects in the adventitious sheaths of the blood vessels and elsewhere is doubt- less derived from the red corpuscles, which are colorless in these cases. We are reminded of Mihlman’s studies on the pigment- ary metamorphosis of red corpuscles in the Arachnoid.’ The yellow grains are found in the walls of the arachnoid vessels. They are not soluble in chlorform but, unlike fat, partially dis- solve in sulphuric and nitric acids. Tests with sulphide of ammonia and potassium ferrocyanide demonstrate iron. The author supposes that the pigment formation is due to a state of irritation caused by pressure. They accumulate in the arachnoid because there the texture is so slight as to submit them to pres- sure. It might be supposed therefore, that the granules found so generally in the clogged capillaries of paralysis are due to a similar irritative cause. | THE CORTEX. We may begin our examination by glancing at sections from the tip of the temporal lobe (middle convolution). The outer neuroglia layer differs little from that of the normal brain. A careful study shows, however, numerous so-called spider cells or scavengers, which here appear as multipolar bodies staining faintly and lying closely involved in the mesh-work of the neu- 1Zur Pigmentmetamorphose der rothen Blutkérperchen. Beobachtungen von der Arachnoides cerebralis. Virchow’s Arch. (12) VJ, 1s. p~. 160. Herrick, Pathology of General Paralysis. I51 roglia (Fig. 9, Plate B). Opinion differs greatly as to the nature of these bodies, but from the sections before us one might con- clude that they are essentially.amceboid and their form depends upon that of the interstices in which they may happen to lie. In the next succeding layer, that of small pyramids, the changes are not such as to attract the eye but we soon notice that a great number of the small pyramids have undergone more or less pigmentary degeneration. While their processes and form have altered little if any, small areas of degeneration are present in the protoplasm. Sometimes these areas are appar- ently but an extension of the normal pigmentation near the base and adjacent to the nucleus, but it quite as often happens that the area forms a rather sharply limited cyst im other parts of the cell. The pigmented areas refuse the stain and are recognized by their own brownish yellow color. Fig. 5, Plate B. is a cell from this region. In some cases the degenerated area causes a bulbous protrusion of the cell, yet the nucleus is not at all affected. In the third layer or region of medium pyramids the conditions are not much different but before one reaches the layer of large pyramids it appears that there has been a dispersion of granules which fill the whole field. It is the region of the ram- ification of small vessels. The larger radial vessels at this point give evidence of important morbid changes; the walls at first seem thickened but we soon see that the inner membrane or intima seems normal, but the outer or adventitious layer is gorged with leucocytes so that it occupies more space than the lumen. One frequent result is that the cavity is more or less occluded and the red corpuscles hence undergo degeneration. Their coloring matter collects among the white corpuscles form- ing hematoid masses. It seems improbable that this leaching is due to the reagents—in fact, this is a well-recognized pathologi- cal phenomenon. The smaller vessels are usually empty, as though by the cutting off of the source of supply. Fig. 8, Plate D, illustrates such a vessel as above described. Seealso Plate E. It will be remembered that Flemming’ has shown that in the 1Ueber Theilung und Kernformen bei Leukocyten, etc. 'P) ke Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. PLATE XIX, Any PLATE XxX. Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. %; we ae: Sew 7 i Ee. (alan = re Ta RRS yas Cy SS ie ie \ AN PARR << S44, ournal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. pate a. ] Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. PLATE B. sf t f ‘ “ ‘ x i n | { ry zE / 1 j | 1 \ \ \ 4 . * U 7 Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. II]. PLATE C. x A Ss ‘a (oA - NN HN ed 1,5 ‘el Ny x A Va a Late a Ss “i = 7 5 We CF CLES RR CT SERAPH Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. III. PLATE D. Barf t nb I oY (F t= ™ = ~_ « “ . y ps ; a ’ - 6 Bow . 2 \ ' ' : .* i ‘ — - > . Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. II]. pate Ee. NOTE ON THEYSTRUCTURE AND) DHE) DEVELOP: MENT OF NERVOUS ELEMENTS. By Paut MITROPHANOW, Professor in the University of Warsaw. The question of the origin of the nerves, of their structure, and the character of the nervous endings in the sense organs was studied during the last year with special assiduity. Ina recent session of the biological section of the Society of Natur- alists in Warsaw I took occasion to indicate the investigations of Lenhossek' and Dohrn,” which seemed to alter essentially the opinions respecting the peripheral nervous system. A very important fact in these investigations is the part taken in the formation of the elements of the nervous system by the cutane- ous integument—embryonic in vertebrates, but even in adults of invertebrates. But while Lenhossek sought simply to regard the cutaneous integument as the birth place of the sensory nervous cells and fibres, Dohrn attempted a revision of the doctrine of the nervous elements by demonstrating that the nervous fibre is a formation of many cells, that it is composed of a row of ectodermic cells, every one of which gives to the fibre its constituent parts: the axis cylinder, the envelops and the nucleus. He calls these cells nervous, wishing to distin- guish them from the ganglionic ones which, according to his opinion, do not take any part in the formation of the nervous fibre, that is to say, of the axis cylinder, and are in connection with it only by contaet. Sometime since* I exposed the weak sides of Dohrn’s po- sition and the possible explanation of the facts from which he developed it. It was natural that I should expect a more par- 1M. LenHOossEK. Ursprung, Verlauf und Endigung der Sensibeln Nerven - fasern bei Lumbricus. Arch. f. mtkr. Anat. XXXIX. 1892. . 7A. Dourn. Nervenfaser und Ganglienzelle. Jittheclungen aus d. Zool. Station zu Neapel. X, 1891. 3P, MITROPHANOW. Suggestions on the development of vertebrates. 1892. 164 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ticular critique of this doctrine in the recent investigations, though it is scarcely to be expected on the part of Dohrn himself. However the new investigations of the embryos of Scyllium catulus of 13 mm. have revealed to him* the mistakes in his most essential observations and cast doubt upon the justness of his elaborately formulated theses. Opportunity did not afford for Kolliker to reply to the doctrine expressed in Dohrn’s note, of which I speak, at the session of the Anatomical Society in Vienna for 1893.° Nevertheless, Kolliker has presented a refu- tation of the same doctrine on the part of Beard, and I am glad to say that his arguments are in many respects identical with which oblige me to differ from Maurer.’ This observer employing my observations on the origin of the lateral organs in the Selachia and Amphibia as a basis, con- siders the thickenings of the ectoderm, indicated by me, as germs of the nerves, which, in his opinion, are differentiated 2 6 those of my thesis, situ from the elements of the ectoderm instead of entering it - secondarily from the brain. He returns therefore to the stand- point of Dohrn. I have already shown whether it is well founded. He was not acquainted with my last work on the origin of the nerves and the formation of the lateral organs. The contradiction pointed out by Maurer between his opin- ions and mine, relative to the development of the nervous lat- eral sense organs of the Amphibia, is due to the fact that he did not observe the difference which I established between the first origin of the nervous lateral sense organs and their new formation. : In the first case, as I have presented it (..c. T: I fi *A,. DoHRN. Die Schwann’sche Kerne der Selachierembryonen. Anat. Anzeiger, 12, 1892. 5A. KOLLIKER Ueber die Entwicklung der Elemente des Nervensystems contra Beard und Dohrn. ELyrgaenzungsheft d. Anatom. Anz. 1892. 6P. MIrROPHANOW. (a) On the Organs of the Sixth Sense of Amphibians. (b) On the Nature of the Peripheral Nerve Endings. (c) On the Question of Peripheral Nerve Endings. 1887. 7F. Maurer. Hautsinnesorgane, Feder und Haaranlagen. Morpholog. Jahrbuch, XVIII, 1892. MitropHanow, Development of Nervous Elements. 165 T. III, f. 33, 34,) the elements of the lateral sense organ are more or less homogeneous, and Maurer insists on this; in the second, the difference between the central (sensory) and exter- nal (investing) cells becomes manifest (I. c. T. I, f. 2, 5, 6). Some cells, which form, according to my descriptions, the ner- vous lateral sense organs, have an entirely different significance from that attributed to them by Maurer ; his opinion contradicts completely my conclusions as to the origin of the nervous lat- eral sense organs of the Amphibians. I have already had oc- sion to give my standpoint concerning the nature of the sensory cells which Kolliker describes in the skin of the tadpole of the frog.® The above mentioned investigations of Lenhossék do not change essentially the doctrine of the peripheral nervous system. His generalizations are not confirmed by his own later observa- tions. In an article which appeared recently,’ he concludes that the relations which he and Retzius have indicated in the skin of the earth-worm, do not exist in vertebrates in any other than the olfactory region. But even as to the last mentioned point, one of the most accurate investigators concludes very re- cently that the question of the connection of the olfactory cells with the nerves must be considered as open, although many ob- servers make out this connection, relying on the method of Golgi.” A very original explanation is given by Gorono- witsch,' for the processes which, until now, have been described as the beginnings of the formation of the cranial nerves. According to him, the outgrowths of the neural (ganglionic) ridge do not have any relation to the development of the nerves and ganglia, but simply take part in the development of the mesoderm (mesenchym). His opinion is the same 8P. MITROPHANOW, Die Nervenendigungen und die Stiftchenzellen. Zool. Anzeiger, 1886, 232. 3M. v. LENHOsSEK. Der feinere Bau und die Nervenendigungen der Geschmaksknospen. Anat. Anzeziger, 1893, No. 4. 10K, ARNSTEIN. The End-apparatus of the Gustatory Organ. 1893. 11N, Goronow!tscH. Die Rolle der sog. ‘‘Ganglienleisten’’ im Auf- baue der Nervenstimme. Azat. Anzeiger. 1892. No. 15. 166 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. respecting the branchial sense organs, which appear later. The mesoderm, therefore, has its source in the ectoderm in the region of the central nervous system, and in other places. The formation of the cranial nerves begins, according to Gorono- witsch, ‘‘in the early stages of the mesencephalic curvature” by differentiation from the mesoderm of the trunks of the mesh- work [web] enveloping the nerve. The trigeminus is formed only by the mesoderm, and has no relation to the derivatives of the ganglionic outgrowths. In the formation of the supraor- bital branch, however, the ectoderm of the supraorbital region also takes part. The facialis, that is to say, the trunk of the web enveloping the nerve, is equally composed of the out- growths (the ganglionic one, secondare Leiste) and also of the elements of the adjacent mesoderm. The glossopharyngeus, so far as I am able to understand him, is formed by the participa- tion of the second lateral metamer—the derivate of the third outgrowth. In this way, the formation of the above-mentioned nerves occurs in the region of the ganglionic outgrowths, though not from them, but rather from the mesoderm which has been derived from these outgrowths. It is evident that in this case Goronowitsch simply gives an original explanation of facts al- ready stated and, as he himself says, unites the opinions of Gotte and His. How these opinions can be compatible is an- other question. It seems to me that Goronowitsch has not sufficiently ex- plained the exclusive participation of mesoderm in the forma- tion of the nerves. It is also not clear how he presents the origin of the nerve from the neuroblasts and the appearance of the latter. If he defines the neuroblasts in the same sense as His, he does not add anything new to the development of the nerve; but if he admits the mesodermic origin of the ganglion cells (independently of the outgrowths) it changes the composi- tion of the cranial nerves essentially. The suffusion and loss of determinate contours in the ganglion outgrowths is not necessarily an indication of the trans- formation of their elements in the mesenchyme. In the Sela- chians these outgrowths always preserve the character which MirropHanow, Development of Nervous Elements. 167 distingushes them from the mesodermic elements ; the histolog- ical difference between the embryonic elements in the chick is less considerable. All our knowledge of the development of the nerves obliges us to think that the ganglionic outgrowths preserve their individuality till the formation of the nerves, though by the ordinary methods, this is inconspicuous, as we see it, for example, in the region of the trigemini. We know from the study of the Selachia that the embryonic group of this nerve (the first outgrowth of Goronowitsch) presents compli- cated and well determined modifications; probably identical facts may occur in the chick. If the nerve (or the ganglion) is formed at the point where the ganglionic outgrowth was at first clearly seen, it is natural to think that the elements of the latter have been used for the formation of the nerve (or ganglion) and not the elements of the mesoderm, which is formed from the same outgrowth. The late formation of the mesodermic elements (mesenchyme) of vertebrates from the ectoderm is a point to which much study must yet be given, and it awaits further elucidation. That the embryonic elements which form the germ of the nerve are exclusively used for the tissue enveloping the nerve is also a question to be developed. A part of these elements which have in every case been formed through the ganglionic out- growths, or as I have presented it, through the embryonic groups, is certainly used for the formation of the ganglion cells; others perhaps form the sheath of Schwann and, through its agency, the medullary sheath, and the purely mesodermic cells, penetrating later into the nervous germ (fundament), are used for the formation of the connective tissue which combines the nervous elements into a single whole.' 1 The editor has in a few instances taken some liberties with the phrase- ology in the interests of the conventional English idiom, but trusts that he has in no case departed from the meaning of the learned author’s original. It is to be regretted that the typography of an American printing office make it impos- sible to give the titles of the Russian papers quoted in the course of this article. The editor ventures to express his gratification in the substantial identity of results attained by the author and those reached by other methods by himself. JEAN) MEY CHARCOT. By E. G. STANLEY, Fellow tn Comparative Anatomy in Denison University. In the person of Prof. J. M. Charcot, we mourn the loss of one of the brightest lights in the realm of neurology, espec- ially of neuro-pathology, and neuro-psychology. Born, in the year 1825, of humble parentage, his career will remain as an example of what almost unaided native genius and perseverence can accomplish. In 1853 he was graduated from the medical school, and soon after accompained a wealthy parent on a foreign journey. During these months he was able to save the money needed for further study. In 1862 he was made physician to the Sal- petriere, which became and remained renowned through the name and the reputation of Charcot. A fact that might have proved dangerous to his success was that he gained a fortune through marriage, but he seems to have loved science for its own sake; and indeed it is owing to the encouragement and ef- forts of his wife that much of the material used in his lectures, was made accessible to the public. He was so wrapped up in his investigations and in the preparation of new lectures, that he could only with difficulty be urged to prepare anything for the press. He became a member of the Academy of Medicine in 1873, and in 1883 he received the honor of election to member- ship in the French Institute. It was during a vacation trip with two of his friends, that, on the night of the 16th of last August, he quietly slept from life to death. Among his numerous works, those of most lasting value and especially to the medico-psychologists are his ‘‘ Maladies des Viellards et les Maladies Chroniques,’’ his ‘‘ Maladies du Systeme Nerveux,” and his ‘‘Lectures on the Localizations of ‘Cerebral and Spinal Diseases.” The ‘‘ Archives de Neurologie,”’ STANLEY, Jean M. Charcot. 169 commenced in 1880, and published under Prof. Charcot’s direc- tion, contain his first articles on hypnotism. For the past fif- teen vears, Prof. Charcot has done nearly all that has been done to develop hypnotism on a purely scientific basis, clearly recog- nizing its importance in the clinical study of neuro-pathology, but not seeming to attribute to it much therapeutic value. A short time before his death he himself says that he had found hypnotism ‘‘a rich field” for his studies in neurology. In his work in hypnotism, he held that the condition induced by artifi- cial means is a neurosis, and a neurosis allied to hysteria. Charcot was by no means willing to accept the extreme maxim of the school at Nancy ‘‘no suggestion, no hypnosis,” for while allowing the great value of suggestion in producing the hypnotic state he was able to adduce the highly interesting phenomenon of neuro-muscular hyperexcitability, one of the most certain char- acteristics, he used to say, of hypnosis. Delicate pressure on a point ina limb or on the face, which in the normal state pro- duces no effect on the muscle, was found by him to be followed by its proper physiological action when the subject was in a cer- tain.stage of hypnotism. He used this incontestable fact in a two-fold manner, first to refute the explanation offered by the upholders of ‘‘suggestion’’ as a universal solvent, and second to confute opponents who had recourse to ‘‘imposture’’ as the correct explanation, for he was accustomed to say that both ob- jectors must believe an ignorant woman to preserve as minute a knowledge of the action of each muscle as Duchenne himself. In thinking of Prof. Charcot’s doctrine, that artificial sleep is a neurosis allied to hysteria, the fact must be borne in mind, that his experiments were conducted almost entirely upon hys- terical patients. This undoubtedly served to color the symp- toms he observed, and consequently the inference he drew as to the close alliance between hypnotism and hysteria. Indeed, his lucid article in the ‘‘ Dictionary of Psychological Medicine,” bears as title the significant words, ‘‘ Hypnotism in the Hyster- ical.’ While Charcot himself without doubt kept this fact in mind, it has been overlooked by many other experimenters, who, failing to find the phenomenaas he sets forth, have blamed 170 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. his descriptions as imaginary or possibly manufactured. Hys- teria was the soil on which Charcot experimented, and when experiments are made upon another soil, the results may be very different frem those recorded by him, being no longer stamped with the hysteric seal. No man was more opposed to quackery, and to him is due the credit of helping to rescue artificial somnambulism from the illegitimate embrace of the charlatan. His scorn of the frauds and follies which sprang up ina credulous circle outside his own school, was only equalled by that which he manifested for the incredulous ignoramuses of his own profession who sneered at phenomena which they could not understand, but in which he recognized a rich source of neurological and psychological knowledge. Although the illustrious Professor has gone from us, he has left able successors imbued with his teaching and familiar with the nature and signs of. hypnosis. More than this, he has left behind the solid and lasting results of his investigations in not only confirming, but extending, the conclusions at which Braid arrived; in reducing to something like order the multi- form phenomena of artificial sleep, and in bringing within the range of medical science and the laws of physiology, abnormal states of the nervous system, regarded by the vulgar as miracu- lous, and formerly by many medical men as fraudulent. * *The following letter from the Nestor of Cincinnati physicians, explains itself. CiIncINNATI, Nov. 13, 1893. My Dear Pror. HERRICK: You have reminded me that in past conversations with you I have frequently alluded to the late Prof. J. M. Charcot as one of my instructors in clinical medicine in’ La Charité Hospital, Paris, and now you ask me to write briefly my no- tions of him. Forty-two years ago M. Charcot was kind enough to receive me as a private pupil in his service in La Charité, where he was Chef de Clinique and therefore,able to offer very large facilities to foreign stu- dents who went to Paris for clinical study. Herrick, Surface Anatomy of the Brains of Bids. 17% He held a high position in that early period of his career as clinician and his instruction was very much sought for. His deliber- ate and careful manner of procedure at the bedside aroused the atten- tion of his pupils, who soon were made to feel that the methodic in- vestigation of disease requires the highest intellectual effort. It was not difficult at that time even to foresee for the young teacher a dis- tinguished future. What he did to develop the advance in the medical sciences dur- ing the past forty years, I shall not attempt to detail. That he has en- riched and enlarged the pathological and clinical field to as great an ex- tent as any man of the age, is generaliy conceded. More especially has he done his full share of the work that has brought again French medi- cine to the front line of modern progress. I believe that his genius, culture, and special researches entitle him to be ranked with the cele- brated men of modern times. I had the inexpressible pleasure of spending a short time in his house two years ago. He was then 68 years of age, as he said. In an interval of forty years he had changed in appearance much less than I had anticipated. His warm greeting touched me very much ; he was no longer the clinician of La Charité, but a member of the Institute of France! I was merely passing through Paris, so our in- terview was brief. It seemed to me that he was good for several years still of important work. Sincerely, . C. G. ComeEcys. LABORATORY NOTES FROM DENISON UNIVERSITY. VI. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN OF CERTAIN BirRps. WITH PLATE XxXVI. By C. Jupson Herrick. fellow in Neurology. These notes refer mainly to the brains of the following birds: the wood-cock, Philohela minor; the black tern, Hy- drochelidon nigra ; the white pelican, Pelicanus erythorhynchos; the golden eagle, Aquila chrysztos. Of these, the one presenting the most striking peculiarities of form is the wood-cock, Phzlohela minor. This brain is flexed upon itself to a surprising degree (see Plate xxvi, Figs 1-3), forming a sigmoid curve, each limb of which forms nearly a 172 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. complete semi-circle. The cephalic, ventrally concave curva- ture is strongest at the Sylvian region ; the caudal, ventrally con- vex curvature is strongest in the pons region and is much shorter cephalo-caudad than the other curvature. Asa result of these flexures the olfactory bulbs are directed ventrad, or even a little caudad, instead of cephalad and the spinal cord seems to be directed at first almost dorsad. The prosencephalic flexure, then, is longer than the pons flexure and so extreme as to bring the olfactory bulbs into close proximity to the chiasm. The chiasm itself is crowded caudad so as to appear in ventral view almost as if superposed upon the pons. This flexure of the brain is but an extreme application of the general compactness of the avian brain and is due to the unusual curvature of the whole head, which in turn is correlated with the feeding habits of this bird. Although the prosencephalic flexure occurs mainly in the Sylvian region, yet the Sylvian fissure proper is not so deep as in many other birds. The dorsal fissure also is shallow and wide and disappears entirely caudad. It originates in the median line about one-third of the length of the prosencephalon behind the front of the latter, passes obliquely caudo-laterad and fuses with the wide Sylvian fissure. In this latter respect it differs from any of the brains figured by Professor Turner in his monograph. * The crebrum is not only shorter, but narrower and _ shal- lower than that of the snipe, Gallinago wilsoni. The relative mass of the prosencephalon, estimated by Turner’s method (i. e., the cube root of the product of length, breadth and depth —see Vol. I, pp. 58-61) gives 69.9 as compared with 75.2 for the snipe. The front part of the cerebrum is narrow and unu- sually shallow. All things considered, this is one of the most difficult of the American birds to which to apply any system of linear measurements. Any conclusions of taxonomic value which might be drawn from the measurements of this brain, as given in the appended table, must be interpreted with caution, in view of the extreme flexion and of the other peculiarities presented. 1C. H. Turner, ‘“‘ Morphology of the Avian Brain,’’ this Journal, Vol. I. Herrick, Surface Anatomy of the Brain of Birds. 173 The olfactory lobes are not fused and project freely and are large, even for a bird so low in the taxonomic series. The optic lobes are exposed, as is usual in the lower orders of birds. The cerebellum is well developed, with strongly projecting flocculi. The medulla presents, in connection with the extreme curvature referred to above, an apparent enlargement of the pons region. This, however, is due to a spreading of the ele- ments rather than to an actual increase in the volume of the medulla. Pelicanus erythorhynchos, the white pelican. This brain resembles, as would be expected, the goose brain in its general features. This specimen, taken from a bird with an expanse of wing of 2.5 meters, has a total length of 49 mm., a total breadth of 41 mm. The mass of the prosencephalon, as shown 3 by 11. 3p. is less than that of any of the birds given in Profes- sor Turner’s tables except the Ardezde and the Cuculide, being 64.4, as compared to 69.3 for the domestic duck. This is in harmony with the inferior position given to the Pelicanide in the systematic works. The olfactory lobes were unfortunately mutilated, but seem to have been small, though quite distinct from each other. The dorsal fisure of the cerebrum is very deep in front, but un- like that of the goose brain it disappears entirely behind. Its cephalic end is considerably farther cephalad than in the goose. The optic lobes are much smaller than usual and arealmost entirely covered by the cerebrum. The cerebellum, too, is smaller than usual. As is well known, this bird is avery clumsy flier. In order to discover whether the size of the cerebellum is corre- lated with powers of flight, a few comparative measurements have been taken. The comparative volumes of the cerebellum were obtained by the same method used by Professor Turner for the cerebrum. The ratios of the length, breadth and depth of the cerebellum to the total length of the brain, expressed in hundredths, were multiplied and the cube root of the product taken. This gives approximately the ratio of the cube root of the volume of the cerebellum to the total length of the brain. 174 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. This ratio for the black tern, Hydrochelidon, is 55.6; for the domestic duck, 33.3; for the white pelican, 36.9; for the wood cock, 42.8; for the great horned owl, Bubo virginianus, 39.7 ; for the golden eagle, 47.2. The eagle and the owl, both belonging to the Raptores yet with conspicuous differences in powers of flight, differ by 7.5 per cent. in size of the cerebellum. There is a difference of 8.2 per cent. in the volumes of the cerebrum in the opposite direction, i. e. in favor of the owl. The domestic duck and the pelican each possesses a very small cerebellum, while the tern which is also a low type, but which has remarkable pow- ers of flight, has a larger cerebellum than any of the birds tab- ulated by Professor Turner. Upon inspection of his table (Journal Com. Neurology, Vol. I, p. 84-85), it is apparent that the swallow and other birds of strong wing-power have as a rule large cerebella, as compared with the more inactive birds. Such measurements, however, must be used with some caution, as a highly developed flocculus, for example, may greatly exag- gerate the apparent volume of the cerebellum. Yet it would seem that the size of the cerebellum is to a large extent regu- lated by the habits of flight of the bird independently of tax- onomic relations, though much more extensive observations would be necessary to establish the generalization for the Aves as a whole. Hydrochelidon nigra, the black tern, is remarkable for the large dimensions of the brain. As above noted, the cerebellum is relatively larger in this bird than in any other whose measure- ments are recorded. The cerebrum, too, is larger than that of many birds which are placed far above it in the taxonomic series. The ; ‘L.B. bp. iS 77.9, which is not equaled by any cere- brum below the Rapéores in Professor Turner’s tables. It will, how- ever, be noticed that the large cerebellum is crowded forward so as to divaricate the cerebral lobes behind and thus to increase the apparent width of the cerebrum. This introduces a source of error which must be taken into account in making compari- sons with other birds. The low rank of this bird is clearly indi- Herrick, Surface Anatomy of the Brain of Birds. 175 cated by the free, projecting olfactory lobes. The other fea- tures of this brain may be gathered from the illustration and the measurements presented elsewhere. Aquila chrysetos, the golden eagie. The specimen from which this brain was taken measured 2.6 meters from tip to tip of wings. The total length of the brain is 4 cm. The olfac- tory lobes are not fused and do not project. The cerebrum is is small, the i ans B.D. being 70, as compared with 78.2 for Bubo virginianus. The surface is smooth and uniform, even the dor- sal fissure being shallow and very broad. The dorsal fissure is frontal, but not so much so as in Bubo. (Compare Plate exVvin Figs. 5 and.7 with Vol. I, Plate vig.) 1. a phe op- tic lobes are almost wholly exposed, thus again differing from Bubo. TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS. =| S) ~ od 2 a bs o a 9 mi ie) s 5 5 = = oC S c oO ‘ * } , - » \ o ' . ea - = * , « ‘- 25s - S : mt, 4 ~ , re 2 u 4 ' LIPERARY NOTICES: Fissures of the Cerebrum. Dr. D. J. Cunningham,! in the memoirs of the Irish Academy of Science bearing his name, gives an extended account of the com- parative development of the surface anatomy of the cerebral hemis- pheres. We condense from this work the following statements. _ I. Complete fissures [‘‘Total falten”.] The transitory fissures which appear in an early period of the development of the hemis- pheres are distinguished by the fact that they are a result of a series of deep infoldings of the thin cerebral wall and form shelf-like pro jections into the ventricles. Under normal conditions none of the fissures which appear on the lateral aspects of the hemispheres persist in the adult though, in the ape, two, at least, are persistent. Upon the mesal aspect, on the contrary, the choroid, a portion of the arcuate, and sometimes the parieto-occipital with part of the calcarine fissures persist. The choroid and arcuate appear as early as the fifth week. The choroid fissure occupies the lowest limit of the mesal wall, reaching the porta, cephalad, and extending caudad nearly to the extremity of the temporal lobe. Though not at first occupied by blood vessels and, therefore, not formed by them, its walls do not develop into nervous tissue but remain epithelial and are occupied by this preplexus. The fissura arcuata | Ammonsfurche of Mihalkovics] makes its appearance on the mesal face of the hemisphere at a higher level than the choroid fissure and while it extends, like the preceding, into the temporal lobe it also passes cephalad into the frontal region. That portion of the hemisphere lying between the two fissures mentioned is termed the arcus marginalts, in connection with which are formed the callosum, the gyrus dentatus and the fornix. The caudal part of the fissura arcuata is retained in adults as the hippocampal fissure and gives rise to the elevation in the floor of the descending cornu known as the hippocampus major. 1Contribution to the Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres, J. D. CUNNINGHAM. Cunningham Memoirs of Royal Irish Academy, vii. ii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Dr. Cunningham does not agree with Mihalkovics and other writers that the cephalic part of this fissure produces the callosal fissure but regards this portion as transitory. The remainder of the complete fissures are transitory. The mesal wall of the hemispheres being thicker than the outer the tran- sitory fissures there first appear. They may appear as early as the eighth week and reach a high degree of development only after the tenth week. Their maximum development is reached between the periods when the fornix and callosum appear, i.e. near the beginning of the fifth month. On the mesal aspect of the hemispheres the transitory fissures, which vary in number, radiate from the arcuate fissure toward the free border of the hemisphere and others, lying between them but not connecting with the arcuate fissure, appear near the margin. The usual number on each hemisphere appears to be eight. The primitive fissures which bound the cuneus are the pre- cursors of the calcarine and parieto-occipital fissures. As the wall of the cerebral vesicle thickens, and the hemisphere elongates, the stellate fissures become detached from the arcuate fissure and gradu- ally disappear. Upon the outer aspect the arrangement of the fissures is also radial, with the Sylvian fossa as the centre, but these fissures usually do not reach the fossa. There is frequently an additional fissure oc- cupying the place of the future Sylvian. In some cases the pre- cursor of the calcarine is carried horizontally around the occipital pole, appearing on the lateral surface as an external calcarine fissure. It is regarded probable that under abnormal conditions, as when the callosum fails to develop, the transitory fissures may persist to a certain extent. The fact emphasized by Sir William Turner that in Macropus, where the callosum is rudimentary, the radiating fissures resemble those of an immature human brain is at least suggestive that the development of the callosum has some effect on the disap- pearance of these fissures. Dr. Cunningham fully agrees with His and Koelliker that the occipital lobe is due to a general growth and not a local out-pouching of the hemisphere, its peculiar form is due to the transformations pro- duced by axial flexures—especially the pons flexure. This backward thrusting of the posterior part of the hemisphere is chiefly responsi- ble for the preservation of the precursory calcarine and _parieto- occipital fissures. The temporary fissures are in all probability Literary Notices. ili peculiar to primates and appear prior to the appearance of a distinct occipital lobe. The parieto-occipital and calcarine fissures form upon the mesal aspect of a posterior part of the adult hemisphere a >— shaped figure. The stem is directed obliquely ventrad and intersects the gyrus fornicatus. The parieto-occiptal fissure forms the more direct contin- uation of the stem and continues on the ectal surface as the external parieto-occipital fissure. The calcarine branch passes toward the occipital pole. The stem is called the anterior calcarine fissure. The apex of the cuneus gives off two deep annectant gyri—the gyrus cunei and anterior cuneo lingual gyrus. The gyrus cunei forms a bar- rier between the parieto-occipital fissure and the stem, while the gyrus cuneo-lingualis anterior separates the stem and the posterior part of the calcarine fissure. The calcar (hippocampus minor) is formed wholly by the stem or anterior calcarine fissure. In apes the calcarine fissure is deep and much more stable than the parieto-occipital. In the chimpanzee the gyrus cuneus is on the surface (a condition found in 3-9 per cent. of human brains) while in the orang and gibbon the cunei may be on the surface or at the bot- tom of the fissure. The gyrus cunei is never absent. Cunningham believes that the whole calcarine fissure of anthropoids corresponds to the ‘‘stem” of the human calcarine or rather the whole length of the precursor of the human calcarine is the equivalent of the ape calcarine. The posterior calcarine of man is of later origin and takes the place of an abolished portion of the original fissure. The cuneus of the ape does not have the same morphological value as that of man. Only the cephalic part is present in the ape, the caudal part is absent or blended with the gyrus lingualis. In the ape the entire length of the calcarine fissure is on the tentorial face of the hemisphere. The posterior calcarine fissure is distinct from the ‘‘stem” in origin, the latter being a ‘‘complete fissure” and having unbroken continuity of existence with the fore-part precursor. The occipital and parietal indices are the distances along the mesal margin of the hemisphere intercepted by the intersection of the ex- ternal parieto-occipital fissure and the fissure of Rolando respectively, in the firsc case measuring from the occipital pole, in the second, from the parieto-occipitai intersection, both these distances in terms of hundredths of the entire length along the dorsal margin of the hemisphere. iv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. For the human brain the following averages are given : 5% to 6% months—O. idex, 18.8; P. index, 28.5. 6% to 7% months— * ‘* 18.6; * OG Me Wig to 832 months— ioe) 2007/5) 6° ce 24.1. Rall timesfcs tus ess) — acces Oyrce 25 e712 Pins tarz monthse | ——ert cme 22. giacc cc 25-0" 4 to 5 years See Ores Zags “6 24.2. II to 15 years = ERE ZOLS FE COR E274" Adults CU Te An a) (ry eae Sey 25-5. For apes the following table is given: Orang —O. idex, 23.2; P. index, 21.3. Chimpanzee 6 eae ss 19.9. lomadnyas: © $= ES zones Oe 2085; Cynocephalus — “* “ 29.7; ‘ 522.0% Mangaby —— 66 6-30.55 < 2 ate Macaque aes OCS TER THO msc “6 19.0. Cexcopithecws—— BREMER, L. Itching of Central Origin. Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease. Dec. 1892. ° 3 Der feinere Bau und die Nervenendigung der Geschmaksknospen. Anat. Anzeiger VIIL, 4. Literary Notices. xxi Intrinsic Nerves of the Kidney.' The following conclusions were reached: ‘‘ That the renal nerves enter with the vessels at the hilum, and that with their multi- farious ramifications and ganglionic enlargements they form a not in considerable portion of the kidney’s entire substance. From the vas- cular nerves-—which we may call the primary ones—come secondary- divisions, distributed throughout all the cortical and medullary-cortical regions in the form of a vast open network. That the glomerules are surrounded by a wide meshed plexus of fibres having terminal and end-knobs approximated closely to the Bowman capsule, but that no finer nerves can be seen penetrating that membrane; and end-termin- ations within the capsule upon the convoluted vessels, either in the form of knobs, or in the finer pointed terminations cannot be discov- ered. That fibres piss off singly and separately from the vascular nerves, and are distributed on the convoluted tubules, not only with end-terminations in the form of the well-known globular ending, but also in fine, delicate threads that penetrate the membrana propria of the tube and presumably enter the cement substance between the ep1- thelial cells, and that the function of these divisions to the tubuli con- torti is probably one concerning the urinary secretion. Lastly, that ganglionic enlargements occur widely, but that, strictly speaking, no nerve cells provided with nucleus, body, and protoplasmic areas are to be found; and that all renal nerves belong to the sympathetic system. The work was done by a modification of the rapid process of Gogli which has not been made public. Nervous Endings in the Mucous Layer of the Hleum. Dr. Henry J. Berkley’ has applied the rapid Golgi method to the ileum with good result within the musoca, while the plexi of Auerbach and Meissner were not well differentiated. From the ganglionic masses of Meissner’s plexus numerous non-medulated nerve fibres run in groups to the mucous layer. Many of the bundles encircle the arterioles and branch upon them. The other branches pass more directly to the mucosa where they branch and with the others form a subplexus in the muscularis mucose. Some of the branches supply curious globular masses which are regarded as homo logous with the motor end plates. Four or more fibres enter each 1BerKLEY, H. J. Bul. Johns Hopkins Hospital. 1V. 28. 2 Anat. Anzezger, Vol. I11, 7. xxx JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY, bulb which consists of a capsule filled with deeply staining particles in a highly refracting substance. A second form of end organ has the terminal knobs of the fibres more separately disposed among the fibres. The granular zone at the base of the follicles of Lieberkiihn is devoid of nervous structures while the bundles passing through it divide into those destined to the plexuses of the villous and Lieber- kiithn portions. The latter ramify in the adenoid tissue between the follicles forming an open plexus. The fibres to the villus are usually distinct in origin and pursue a zigzag course, often twisting about each other and terminate in end bulbs. The author does not regard these bulbs as cells but as homologues of the tactile corpuscles of the skin. The nervous supply of the mucosa is wholly derived from the plexus of Meissner. Free aborescent terminations were not found. Circulatory Changes in Hypnosis.' Dr. Kraup has shown that in hypnotic states the portions of the brain which have their function reduced are those which are supplied by the internal carotic arteries, while those parts which are function- ally more excitable are§jsupplied by the vertebral arteries. He be- lreves that the carotid arteries are contracted and the vertebral arteries dilated during deep hypnotic sleep and finds the symptoms—such as the flushed face and changes in masseters, glands, eyes, etc. in har- mony with the hypothesis. Hyperzemia of the pons and cord may account for the cataleptic state of the muscles. Mirror Writing.’ t is shown that among left-handed imbeciles there is a more or less apparent tendency to write backward in such a way that it can only be read when reversed by reflection in a mirror. Those who have practiced mirror writing find it easier with the left hand. An experiment was tried with a class of sixty children who were told to write their names with their left hands. Out of the number five wrote in mirror writing and these were the only left- handed pupils in the school. The Ms. codex Atlanticus of Leonardo da Vinci, which is in mirror writing, is supposed to be the result of paralysis of the right side, which forced him to write with the left hand. The author be- lieves that the image or localized changes is inverted in these cases. 1 Hospitals-Fidende. 1892, p._777. 2TRELAND, W. W. Alientst and Neurologist, X1V, 1, Jan., 1893. Literary Notices. XXXi Dr. Bianchi concludes that in hemiplegia of the right side the image not calling forfh, on the left hemisphere, any centrifugal motion of the muscles of the right hand, will oblige the extensor cellular groups of the sound right hemisphere to write from the left, because of the preserved remembrance of the muscular combination associated with the image of the word. Hence there will be an identical centrifugal motion and the reversed lithographic writing. Revue Neurologique. A new journal which comes to our table, published under the direction of Wm. E. Bressaud and P. Marie and bearing the above title, is intended to offer synopses of the important articles in neurol- ogy as well as some original matter. The journal, which is printed on thick opaque paper and _ illus- trated with process cuts, is to appear on the 15th and 3oth of each month and contains summaries of the recent papers on anatomy, pa- thology, physiology, psychiatry and therapeutics of the nervous sys- tem. Society reports and programs are included and the first number gives promise of usefulness. j Each number contains 24 pages and the supscription is 22 francs. The original article of the first number is entitled Sept cas di polyneu- rite, by Dr. Dutil, being derived from the clinics of Professor Charcot. An index of current literature is devoted chiefly to the pathology and therapeutics of the nervous system. The Universal Medical Journal, This is the name under which the ‘‘ Satellite” which has re- volved so usefully about the annual of the Universal Medical Sciences for six years or more, now appears. It promises to become even more representative and useful under its new name than it has been hitherto. The corps of editors contains widely known specialists from most European countries. RECENT LITERATURE. ADAMKIEWICcz, A. Tafeln zur Orienterung an der Gehirnoberfliche des lebenden Menschen bei chirurgischen Operationen. 4 plates. Text in English, French and German. Vienna and Leipzig. W. Braunmiiller. ADOLPHI, H. Ueber Variationen der Spinalnerven und der Wirbelsaule anurer Amphibien. Morpholog. Jahrb., XIX, 3, 1893. ANTONINI, A. La corteccia cerebrale nei mammiferi domestici. Seconda nota preventiva. Jon. Zool. ital., III, 11, 12. ASSHETON, R. On the Development of the Optic Nerve of Vertebrates and the choroidal Fissure of embryonic life. Qwzart. Journ. Microsc. Sctence, XXXIV, 2, 1892. Bay.iss, W. M. On some points in the innervation of the mammalian heart. Journ. of Phys., XIII, 5, 1892. BayLiss, W. M., and STARLING, E. H. On some Points in the Innervation of the Mammalian Heart. BECHTEREW. Ueber die Rindcentra sphincteris ani et vesice. Meurolog. Centralblatt, Feb., 1893. BERTELLI, D. Sulla membrana timpanica della Rana esculenta. Mon. zool. ttal., IXI, 10. Brans, H. Die Rami ventrales der vorderen spinalnerven einiger Selach- ier. Jena, H. Pohle. Med. Inaug. Diss. BuRCHARDT, R. Ueber des Centralnervensystem der Dipnoer. Verhandieg. d. Deutsch. zool. ges. auf. 2. Jahresvers. zu Berlin, 1892. BuRCKHARDT, R. Das Centralnervensystem von Protopterus annectens. Eine vergleichend-anatomische Studie. Berlin, Friedlander u. Sohn, 1892. CajJAL, S. R. El nuevo concepto de la histologia de los centros nerviosos. Revista de ctenc. med. de Barcelona, XVIII, 1892. CAPOBIANCO, F. Ulteriori ricerche sulle alterazioni istologiche del midollo spinale sequite alla tiroidectomia. Bol. della socteta de naturaliste in Napolt, Ser, Ly Vij 18925 1. Cu1AruGl, G. Sullo sviluppo del nervo olfattivo nella Lacerta muralia, Mon. zool. ttal., Anno 3, N. to. [xxx1l] Recent Literature. XXXiii DARKSCHEWITSCH, L. Ueber die Verinderungen in dem centralen Abschnitt eines motorischen Nerven bei Verletzung des peripheren Nerven. Jahrb. f. Psychiatrie, X1. D’Evant, T. Sopra un ganglio sfenopalatino accessorio nell’ uomo. Gorn. @ Assoc. napolit. di med. e natural, III, 1, 1892. Dona.pson, J. W. Involuntary Recollection. Sczence, X XI, 528, March 17, 1893. EBNER, V. VON. Ueber die Beziehungen der Wirbel zu den Urwirbeln. Sttzungsberichte Akad. d. Wassensch., CI, 1-2. Vienna, 1892. EBERTH, C. J., und BunGE, R. Die Endigungen der Nerven in der Haut des Frosches. Bus. Hoim, H. Die Anatomie u. Pathologie des dorsalen Vaguskerns. Arch, jf. path. Anat. u. Phys., CXXXI, 1. Horsey, V. The Structure and Functions of the Brain and Spinal Cord. Being the Fullenan Lectures for 1891, Philadelphia, Blakiston, Son & Co. Horstey, V. The Structure and Functions of the Brain and Spinal Cord. Lonxdon, 1892. Recent Literature. XXXV HokseE1, O. Die Centralwindungen ein Centralorgan der Hinterstringe und des Trigeminus. 4. Psychiatrie, XXIV, 2. KATZENSTEIN, J. Ueber die Innervation des M. crico-thyreoideus. Archiv. path. Anat., CXXX, 2. KEssEL, G. Die Histologie der Ohrmuschel, des duszeren gehérganges Trommelfells und mittleren Ohrs. Hand. der Ohrenhetlkunde. KIRILZEW, S. Zur Lehre vom Ursprung und centralen Verlauf des Gehéo- rnerven. Veurol. Centralb., XI, 21. KRONTHAL, P. Von der Heterotypie der grauen Substanz im Riicken- mark. Nach ein Vortrag geh. im psych. Ver., Berlin. Neurol Centralblatt EXO 2 3. KuuHN, A. Vergleichende Anatomie des Ohres. Handb. der Ohrenheil- kunde. KupFFER, C. v. Studien zur vergleichenden Entwickelungsgeschicte des Kopfes der Kranioten. Munich and Leipzig, J. F. Lehmann. LANGLEY, J. N. On the larger medullated Fibres of the Sympathetic System. /ourn. of Physiology, XIII, Suppl., 1892. LENHOSSEK, M. v. Die Nervenurspriinge und Endigungim Jacobson’schen Organ des Kaninchens. Mosso, A. Les Phenomenes Psychiques et la Temperature des Cerveau. Turin. 1892. Literary Notices. Ixxxvii rent. The author believes that consciousness involves active metabol- ism in the cells. These results were embodied in the Croonian Lec- ture, March, 1892. (Philos. Trans., CLXXXIII1.) Cerebrine in the Treatment of Ataxia. Dr. G. M. Hammond reported before the New York Medical Society a case of locomotor ataxia which had been treated with hypo- dermic injections of cerebrine prepared by Dr. W. A. Hammond. The symptomatic complex was apparently unmistakable and after ten weeks’ treatment almost complete restoration resulted. Clineal Investigations of Epilepsy, Hysteria, and Idiocy.! This volume by the physicians of the Bicetre Asylum is largely devoted to idiocy and related phenomena. The cases are classified under (a), Idiocy with traumatism or malformation ; (b), Idiocy with arrested development of convolutions and cerebral atrophic sclerosis ; (c), Idiocy due to simple atrophic sclerosis of the convolutions ; (d), Idiocy associated with cerebellar tumor; (e), Idiocy with meningo- encephalitis ; (f), Idiocy with epilepsy. The reports of cases are very full and clear. The author states that the pathology of meningo-encephalitis dif- fers from that of general paralysis of the insane, which it greatly re- sembles, in that the cortical vessels are degenerated and the degenera- tion of the nerve cells is secondary to that of the vessels, while in general paralysis the reverse is the case. It would appear from numerous examples that the heredity of cerebral malformations is total; like that of the color of the eyes, for example. Thus Dr. Bourneville says that he has never observed any attenuation in the course of degeneration in families by well-selected alliance or intermarriage with the normal; in such cases the children are healthy or degenerate, but, if degenerate, rarely less so than the diseased parent. In microcephalic idiocy the antecedents are usually pathological on one side or the other and frequently there are convulsions in in- fancy. The patients are not necessarily undersized or deficient in sexuality. The theory that the premature ossification of the cranium is the cause of restricted brain development is certainly not universal- ly applicable. The work is comprehensive and conservative. 1 Recherches Clinique et Therapeutiques sur l’epilepsie, l’hysterie, et l’idi- otie. Par M. Bourneville. Paris: Vve Babe et Cie., 1891. Ixxxviii © JouRNAL OF ComPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The Peripheral Relations of the Auditory Nerve.' The author is continuing his studies on the Morphology of the Vertebrate Ear,? using the method of Golgi. This method in the hands of Retzius and Van Gehuchten lead to the conclusion that the nerve-endings in the Organ of Corti are intercellular. This author, however, considers that these results were derived from preparations which had been imperfectly colored. His own preparations show unmistakable instances of direct continuity of nerve fibres and hair cells. His conclusions are summoned up as follows: A. The hair cells and the ganglion cells in connection with them constitute a single morphological unit—an acoustic element— which effects connection between superficial and central points. B. No fundamental distinction exists between acoustic and olfactory elements. C. The so-called ‘‘spiral fibres” are only short portions of radial fibres which reach their destination by a circuitous path. D. All fibres of the eighth nerve, so far as is definately established, originate in the hair cells. E In the embryos of all mammals the eighth nerve is made up at one stage of nerve fibres which arise from the Sauropsida-organ, and at the disappearance of this and the simultaneous formation of the Organ of Corti the acusticus passes over to the latter, thus altering its connections. Statistics of Dreams. Under this title Mary W. Calkins? records the results of ex- tended observations upon dream phenomena and makes interesting observations upon their psychological significance. ‘Tables are given of the number of recorded dreams in which representations of the various senses are included and, as would be expected, the visual greatly exceed all others; thus in 298 dreams there were 240 visual, 157 auditory, 21 dermal, 4 olfactory, and r general representations of sense. The psychological analysis might have been closer but the statistics cannot fail to be useful. 1Avers, H. Ueber das peripherische Verhalten der Haarzellen des Gehoérorganes. Anat. Anzeiger, VIII, 1893, No. 12 and 13. 2Journal of Morphology, Vol. VI, 1 and 2, 1892. 3 Am. Journ. Psychology. v. 3. Literary Notices. Iscxxcisx The Brain of Myxine.' The brain was exposed by direct preparation of the hardened subject or by teasing specimens macerated in 20 per cent. nitric acid, a method which often affords beautiful views of the entire brain and connected fibres in minute detail. The olfactory organ is so enclosed by annular cartilages that the whole structure is inseparably connected with the brain and is_pre- served in the author’s figures. The detailed histology is not described while the external features are very carefully and minutely recorded. From the absence of histological data several points are left undecided by the author which could otherwise be readily determined. Thus the author doubttully identifies a segment of what seems like the mes- encephalon as the cerebellum and is uncertain as to the homologies of the parts of the forebrain. No trace of the mantle of the cere- brum was encountered, which gives the author occasion to express much surprise. If we were to attempt an explanation upon the basis of Professor Retzius’ figures it would seem to be furnished by the rel- atively enormous extent of the olfactory tuber and the compactness of the brain and its obvious conduplication through shortness of the cavity of the cranium. It would appear that the whole free portion of the hemispheres, so far as present at all, is covered by the glomer- ules. In Fig. 7, Plate XXIV, Av seems to be the recessus przopti- cus, the habena and Meynerts’ bundle are very large and the infund- ibulum and hypophysis are in the usual relations. It is not a little remarkable that, although the habenz are all well developed, no trace of the epiphysis was discovered in the dissections or slides. The aqueduct is closed anteriorly apparently by the obliteration of its connecton with the third ventricle, which is also closed, with the exception of the infundibulum and recessus preeopticus. The structure of the glomerules was studied by the Golgi method and found to correspond with that in vertebrates at large. The Rudimentary Jacobson’s Organ of the Crocodile.! Dr. Rose describes the development of the common nasal am- pulla by the closing of the gum processes and the subsequent separa- ration into two chambers by the union of these processes with each 1Retzius, G. Das Gehirn und das Auge vohn Myxine; 3 plates, Bzolog. Unters., v. 9, 1893. 1RoseE, C. Ueber das rudimentrare Jacobsonscche Organ der Crocodile und des Memschen. Anxat. Anz., VIII, 14, 15, June, 1893. ade JouRNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. other and the septum. ‘Asa result of the slight development of Jacobson’s organ Stetson’s ducts do not develop. These develop elsewhere through separation of an epithelial duct during the closing of the gum processes and almost uniformly le about at the place where the primitive choana open into the mouth cavity.” As a re- sult of the peculiar formation of the nasal passages it is natural that in crocodiles they should stand in close relations to the rudimentary fundaments of Jacobson’s organ. The organ after assuming the form of a considerable sac-like appendage to the passage occupying an ex- cavation in the vomer, it undergoes retrogression. The highest stage of development is reached when the embryo is 9% mm. long in Crocodilus porosus. The author thinks it, on the whole, improbable that the predecessors of Crocodilia had a completely developed Jacob- son organ. The old idea that Jacobson’s organ and Jacobson’s cartilage are to be correlated is an error. This cartilage (Luschka’s or Jacob- son’s) is simply the basal part of the primitively simple cartilaginous nasal capsule. It correspond’s apparently to what Gaup called solum nasale in the frog. The Jacobson’s organ of man lies high up, far above the basales narium cartilage, which has its usual positton. Infantile Nucleary Degeneration. In this paper a series of observations are collected bearing on the perplexing problem involved in paralysis of the eye-muscles of central origin. The first section embraces opthalmoplegia exterior with or without paralysis of the facialis. ‘The second section relates to bilat- eral abducens-facialis paralysis, the third with congenital bilateral ab- ducens paralysis, the fourth with bilateral oculomotor paralysis, the fifth with bilateral ptosis, and the sixth and seventh with unilateral abducens paralysis and ptosis. Curiously enough no cases are known of congenital bilateral facialis paralysis unaccompanied by abducens paralysis. The development of the degeneration may be gradual but the result is persistent and beyond amelioration. The differential diagno- sis especially as against tertiary syphilitic and labitic ophthalmoplegia is discussed, but the confession is made that nothing is known of the pathological anatomy. 1Mosrus, P. J. Ueber infantilen Kernschwund. Jiinchener Med. Ab- handlungen, VI, 4. Literary Notices. xci Restricted Hemiatrophy of the Face.! A case of limited atrophy of the face in a child of seven years who had no family history of neuritis or other nerve lesion is reported by Dr. Gulland. No assignable cause could be found and the gener- al health was good. The atrophy is confined to the left side of the face, beginning in the middle of the forehead by a well-defined ridge gradually disappearing in the region of the coronal suture. On the side of the face the atrophy extends to the outer canthus and upper border of the zygoma. The skin and subcutaneous tissue as well as the bones are affected. The skin is slightly reddened and glossy and the hair of the scalp is thinned. ‘The sensation and motions of the face, tongue, etc. are unimpaired, an occassional pain running down the affected side of the nose is the only subjective symptom. The author regards the cause as peripheral rather than central. Effects of the Pneumogastric and Sympathic Nerves on Disgestion.? The vagus nerve of the batrachia supplies motor fibres to the stomach, especially to the longitudinal fibres and sphincters, also in- hibitory fibres for reflex motions. Under the influence of curare after double vagotomy, the fluids of the mouth can not be swallowed on account of the contraction of the cardiac sphincter which contin- ues for hours to pulsate rhythmically. The stomach continues for days its peristaltic motions. ‘These motions are due to the loss of the inhibitory influence of the vagus leaving the muscles hyperexcitable. If not curarized the loss of motor function is most prominent. The air cannot pass the glottis during inspiration by reason of paraly- sis of the extensors of the glottis and thus is swallowed. The sympathic fibres affect chiefly the circular muscle fibres. Irrita- tion of the sympathic,the ganglion cceliacum or the lumbar cord when separated from the higher regions have the same effect. The con- traction begins at the pylorus. Removal of the celiac ganglion in the toad causes the stomach to perform diastole and systole. Besides vasoconstrictor fibres the vagus supplies to the stomach vaso-dilators while the sympathic is chiefly vaso-constrictor in function. The secretion of the stomach is directly dependent on the vagus 1GULLAND, G. L. A Case of Hemiatrophy of the Face, Confined to the Area of Distribution of the first Division of the Fifth Nerve. dinburgh Hosp. Rep., vol. 1, 1893. 2CONTEJEAN, C. Action des nerfs pneumogastrique et grand sympathique sur l’estomas chez les batraciens. Arch. de phys. [5] IV, 4. xcii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. and sympathic, the former being excitory the latter antagonistic. There is, however, an intrinsic plexus, so that the vagus and sympa- thic are simply regulators. Forked Nerve Endings on Hairs.! The authors have contributed a number of extended papers on the nerve termini in the skin? and Mrs. Hoggan now collects data from their combined labors. In 1872 Jobert discovered the coil about the hair follicle which bears his name. Sch6n, in 1871, had founda medullated nerve pass- ing to each hair follicle and forming a nerve ring about it and also de- scribes a nerve coil below the bulb which is not reidentified by later writers. Arnstein? finds, in the mouse ear, a terminal nerve brush subdividing in the skin about the follicle. Bonnet, in 1878, (Adorph. Jahrbuch.) describes the tactile hairs in various animals, and figures, in a vibrissa from the dog muzzle, a large forked fibre. Ruichardi, in 1884, describes, in similar hairs of the ox, medullated nerves passing into non-medullated tortuous fibres which again divide, forming ovoid or fusiform irregular nerve tufts extending to about the middle of the follicle. Mrs. Hoggan states that Joberts’ coils exist in all hairs and are the most superficial of the nerve structures of the follicle and are found just below the openings of the sebaceous glands, external to the forked terminations, between them and the basement membrane. These coils receive nerves horizontally from the side of the follicle, and a connection was traced between some of these fibres and the branched cells lying perpendicularly below them. The forked terminations lying between the lower layer of epider- mic cells lining the follicle and the basement membrane are not very easily seen on large vibrissze, but they are found on the smaller feel- ers, where they show, as Bonnet has shown, a row of short, broad, spade-like bodies, just above the end bulbs or the branched nerve 1 HoccAn, G. AND Mrs. F. F. E. Journal of Anatomy and Phystology XXVII, 2, Jan., 1893. 2 On some Cutaneous Nerve Terminations in Mammals. Lzzzean Soc. Journ. XVI, 1893. Des Formes nouvelles de Terminaisons nerveuses dans la Peau des Mammiferes, XX, 1884. Neue Formen von Endigungen in der Haut von Saugethieren, 1884. New Forms of Nerve Terminations in Mammalian Skin. Journ. Anat. Phys., XVIII, 1884. 3 Die Nerven der behaarten Haut. Sttzungsb. a. hk. k. Ahad., 1876. 4 : Literary Notices. xciii cells. On the ordinary hair follicles the branched processes are the most prominent of all the nervous elements. The author regards this fact as favoring the belief that these divided endings are organs of general tactile sensibility. Various modifications of these forks are said to occur in all known kinds of tactile bodies from the two or three-pronged fork, through the Browne and Hoggan bodies, the Pa- cinian and Meissner corpuscles, etc. ‘‘The complicated organ of Eimer is but the survival of the nerve elements belonging to an origin- al clustre of hairs, dragged out, in the course of evolution, by the digging habits of the mole, and in this organ the homologies of the forked endings may be distinctly traced.”” The peripheral endings of the forks varies from spade- or hoof-shaped (horse) to lance-shape (mouse) or club-shaped (seal). The variations do not appear, how- ever, to be significant. The Eye of Myxine.! The careful descriptions of Miiller and Krause are summarized and compared with data derived by the author from his own chromic- acid and Golgi preparations. The homologies suggested by those earlier writers are for the most part sustained, though the structure of the retina is found to be considerably simpler than that described by either. He concludes: ‘‘ The eye of Myxine, as I look at it, is far more rudimentary than those investigators supposed. The prevailing ir- regularity of form, as well as its alterations, bespeak a degenerate structure. That no traces of cornea and lense are present, Johannes Miiller has already recognized. I then agree with W. Krause—con- trary to W. Miiller—that ‘the rudimentary retina therefore cannot be used in construing the phylogenetically complete retina.’ This is much to be regretted because the lowest stages of the development of the sense-organs are of the highest significance for Biology and for Mor- phogenesis.”’ Brain Surgery. An interesting series of operations is reported by Dr. F. C. Schaefer in the Journal of the American Medical Association (xxi, 5.) These cases emphasize the importance of surgical action and minute attention to aseptic proceedure. In the same number Dr. Emory Lanpeear reports a number of 1 RETziIus, GusTAF. Das Auge von Myxine. Bvologische Untersuchungen, V. Band, No. 9, pp. 64-68, with one plate. Stockholm, 1893. xciv JOURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. cases of brain surgery from which the following suggestions are copied : 1. When there has been a blow upon the head and hemiplegia, aphasia, or hemianopsia follows, there is nearly always a hemorrhage which may be cured by opening the cranium at the point indicated by the cerebral localization. . 2. Paralysis of the third, fourth or sixth pairs of nerves indicates a lesion in the pons and contraindicates operation. 3. A slight premonitory attack, affecting speech temporarity, or producing a heaviness of hand or foot for a few moments, if followed by hemiplegia, may be taken as a good point in favor of operation, as the bleeding vessel is probably on the surface or very superficial. 4. Paralyses of very limited extent, especially if complete, are not often due to hemorrhages—being local palsies rather than the peripheral indicatives of cerebral desease. 5. A very severe headache, followed by gradually but rapidly deepening coma and hemiplegia becoming more and more complete, means a hemorrhage into the great basal ganglia—probably beyond surgical help. 6. When the case presents a history of moderate loss of power or complete hemiplegia without unconsciousness, followed in a few hours by sudden appearance of coma, marked fall of temperature suc- ceeded by some fever, a hemorrhage has broken into the ventricles or beneath the membranes, is still progressing, and indicates immediate trephining. 7. Very sudden and complete hemiplegia and coma usually means embolism; heart lesions, endoarteritis and syphilis enhances the probability. 8. Bilateral hemianopsia appearing suddenly probably indicates hemorrhage in the occipital lobe of the oposite side and justifies ex- ploratory operation, g. Profound coma and relaxation without any hemiplegia usual- ly depend upon injury to the pons and decide against operation. 10. Vomiting, severe occipital headache and vertigo, with or without a distinct paralysis render a cerebellar hemorrhage probable ; ocular symptoms, like nystagmus and strabismus are apt to accompany these symptons of cerebellar lesion. Exploratory operation is justi- fiable. 11. According to Hughlings Jackson, convulsions, early rigidity and conjugate deviation of the eyes of asplastic form are conclusive Literary Notices. XCV evidence of hemorrhage. Convulsions always accompany hemorrhage in young persons. An interesting portion of the paper deals with results of cranio- tomy for psychical improvement in idiocy. The results on some of the cases are exceedingly promising. Current Views of the Structure of Olfactory Organs and Taste-bulbs.! (With Plate XIV, Figs. 6, 7, and 8.) The application of Golgi’s method to the peripheral nervous sys- tem, especially to the sense-organs, has proven of late a very product- ive field of investigation. The uncertainty formerly existing in the minds of many investigators as to the exact nature of the termini of the olfactory nerve in the nazal cavity and in Jacobson’s organ seems now to be quite satisfactorily removed. The concurrent testimony of so skillful investigators as Cajal, Van Gehuchten, Lenhossék, Brunn, | and Retzius, leaves but little doubt that the so-called olfactory cells of the olfactory epithelium and of Jacobson’s organ are real nerve cells and that there is actual nervous continuity between the cilia at one pole and the fibre of the olfactory nerve springing from the other pole of these cells. In fact the relations here are very like those commonly described for the organs of the lateral line of the lower vertebrates and more recently for the skin of some of the worms. When we come to the nerve-termini in the taste-bulbs, the recent authorities are by no means so harmonious. Whether the taste-cells are really connected with the adjacent nerve-fibres may fairly be con- sidered an open question, in spite of the recent striking results of Retzius? and of Lenhossék.* I quote from the latter paper: ‘‘ The results of Fusari and Panasci, so often quoted recently, that they [the taste-cells] pass directly into nerve-fibres at the basal pole, are incor- rect. On the contrary they all end obtusely. This is not a case then of typical, well-developed nerve-cells, which give rise to peripheral nerve-fibres, as is the case with the olfactory cells and the sensory cells of the epidermis of Lumbricus, but of sensory epithelial cells which are related to the nerve-fibres by contact only.” In this author’s preparations from the rabbit the nerve-termini are of two kinds: 1. Intergemmal fibres previously described (by Ser- 1 Abstract by C. Judson Herrick. 2 Biologische Untersuchungen, N. F., Bd. IV and V. SAnat. Anzeiger, VIII, No. 4. xcvi JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. toli, in 1876, and others) which pass up between the taste-bulbs and end free at the surface. They probably are not concerned with the sense of taste. 2. Perigemmal fibres (one to three in number) pass to the base of the bulb and rise up, branching freely and enveloping the bulb completely. ‘They do not anastomose but each branchlet ends free in a little tuberosity. These relations are shown in the fig- ure (Plate XIV, Fig. 7) copied from Lenhossék’s. In the fish (Barbus) intergemmal fibres cannot be demonstrated and the perigem- mal fibres are much more regularly arranged, all ending in a ring at the apex of the bulb (Plate XIV, Fig. 8.) In this fish to a slight ex- tent (Plate XIV, Fig. 8, c) and much more conspicuously in Conger vulgaris, these fibres give off, just as they separate at the base of the bulb, numerous short, exceedingly varicose fibrils which form a cup- shaped body (‘‘cupula”’) enveloping the base of the bulb. In the latter type, too, there are fibres loosely enveloping the neck of the taste-bulb which are probably homologous with the intergemmal fibres ot the rabbit. As to the morphological significance of the taste-cells, the author continues: ‘‘ By their characteristic reactions with stains, their form, their cilia, and above, all their functional significance, they ally them- selves directly with nerve-cells, from which they are distinguished only by the lack of a nervous process. They represent as it were short nerve-cells without processes, nerve-bodies in which the function of the process has been supplanted by projections which pass to them from other distant cells. ‘From the results recently brought out as to nerve-termini in the auditory organ! (Retzius), in the skin of vertebrates (Fr. Eilh. Schulze, van Gehuchten, Retzius), in addition to the present contri- butions, we are in a position to assert that /Aat relation which the au- thor and Retztus have shown tn the skin of the earthworm prevatls in the vertebrates in no place except in the olfactory mucous membrane.” Retzius, in the work cited above, agrees perfectly with the re- sults of Lenhossék, except that in his earlier paper (Vol. IV) he found branches of the perigemmal fibres penetrating into the taste-bulbs be- tween the taste-cells. This however he does not find in the fish. In his later paper (Vol. V) he says: ‘‘I have recently in Golgi prepara- tions of the mucous membrane of the mouth of Salmo salar been 1Tt will be noticed that this does not agree with the recent results of Ayers on the connections of the hair-cells of the auditory organ, as noticed elsewhere in this number (p. ]xxxviil.) =, Literary Notices. XCvii able to examine many hundred end-bulbs and affirm that I have never certainly seen one nerve-fibre penetrating into the interior of these structures, but only the arrangement described by Lenhossék.”’ If these results can be relied upon, the organs of taste must mor- phologically be more widely separated from those of smell than has hitherto been customary. The familiar fact that sapid substances must be present in fluid solution in order to be perceived and that odorous substances, in air-breathing animals at least, must be present in gaseous media, may point to physiological differences in the end-or- gans involving profound structural modifications. But it is more probable that the difference, if difference there be, finds its basis in Organogeny rather than in Physiology. Thus, the processes of the olfactory cells do not connect with any other cells centrally. Prepar- ations recently made by my brother, both by Golgi’s method and by the hematoxylin process and figured in this number (Plate XIX, Figs. I, 2, and 3; plate XX, Fig. 3) prove conclusively, if additional proof were necessary, that the fibres of the olfactory nerve as they pass into the olfactory tuber break up into terminal brushes (‘‘ end- baumchen ”) in the glomerules without coming into relations with any cells at this end of their course. In accordance, then, with the cur- - rent morphological ideas of nervous structure,! the peripheral neuron of the olfactory system would consist of the olfactory ganglion cell in the nasal membrane, its axis-cylinder process which forms one of the constituent parts of the olfactory nerve,? and its terminal brush in the glomerule. The nerves supplying the taste-bulbs, on the other hand, unques- tionably spring from nerve-cells in the ganglion at the root of their proper nerve-trunk. Since, then, the ganglion cell is at the central end of the fibre, the terminal brush must be sought at the peripheral end; viz. in the ‘‘ perigemmal fibres.”’ It is obvious that the neuron is complete without the taste-cell; in fact, the latter would be an in- explicable structure if it were found in direct continuity with the nerve-fibre. The views of Lenhossék and Retzius, though concordant with each other and with the most recent morphological ideas of nervous structure, are so different from those commonly held that it is not sur- 1Compare Obersteiner in Jour. Comp. Neurol., May, 1892, pp. 73-84. * According to views current in some quarters the fibre of the olfactory nerve does not run continuously from the nasal epithelium to the glomerule, but consists of several nerve-units in moniliform connection. This, however, if true, would not materially affect the question now in hand. XCViil JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. prising that they should not find ready acceptance in all quarters. Frederick Tuckerman, in a note recently contributed to the Anatom- ischer Anzeiger, commenting on these views, calls attention to the fact that he had in 1889 discovered the ‘‘ intragemmal” fibres de- scribed in Retzius’ earlier account of the taste-bulbs of Mammals. He, however, seems unwilling to admit that the question as to the nervous connections of the taste-cells is closed. Further investiga- tion in this interesting field promises much of value and it may be confidently expected that corroborative evidence will soon be forth- coming. As an aid to such investigations the following bibliograph- ical notes are appended. Only the more recent titles are included. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. The figures here presented are copied from Lenhossék’s Der feinere Bau und die Nervenendigungen der Geschmachsknospen, Anatomischer Anzeiger, VIII, No. 4. PLATE XIV. fig. 6. Taste-bulb from the papilla foliata of the rabbit. Impregnated taste-cells and a single supporting cell. Under the bulb a ‘‘subgemmal cell.” fig. 7. Taste-bulb from the papilla foliata of the rabbit. The nerve- termini on and between the bulbs, #, perigemmal fibres ; 7, intergemmal fibres. fig. 8. Taste-bulbs from the epithelium of the palate of Baréus vulgaris. a, taste-cells and one supporting cell; 4, and c, the termini of the nerve-fibres interwoven about the bulbs; at the base of ¢ are traces of a ‘‘cupula.” BIBLIOGRAPHY. OLFACTORY END-ORGANS. BARTH, A. Bericht iiber die Leistungen und Fortschritte im Gebiete der normalen und pathologischen Anatomie und Histologie sowie der Physiologie die GehGrorganes und Nasenrachenraumes in der ersten HAlfte des Jahres 1891. Zeitschrift f. Ohrenheilkunde, Bd. XXII, 1892, Heft 3-4, pp. 323-335. Von Brunn, A. Ueber die Ausbreitung der menschlichen Riechschleim- haut. Naturforsch. Geselleschaft zu Rostock, 26 June, 1891. Also, Rostocker Zettung, No. 317, 1891. Von Brunn, A. Die Nervenendigung im Riechepithel. Maturforsch. Gesell- schaft zu Rostock, 30 July, 1891. Von Brunn, A. Zwei Mikroskopische Praparate vom Riechepithel eines Hingerichteten. (Demonstration). Verhandl. der Anatom. Gesellschaft, auf der 3. Versammlung, 1889, pp. 133-134. Von Brunn, A. Beitrage zur Mikr. Anat. der menschlichen Nasenhéhle. I plate and 2 figures. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat, Bd. 39, 1892. Heft 4, pp. 632-651. Literary Notices. xcix BURCKHARDT, Rup. Untersuchungen am Hirn und Geruchsorgan von Triton und Ichthyophis. 2 plates. Zeztsch. f. wiss. Zool, 52 Bd. 3, Heft, pp. 369-403. CAJAL, R. y. Terminaciones del nervio olfactorio en la mucosa nasal. Bar- celona, 1889. CAJAL, R. y. Origen y terminacion de las fibras nerviosas olfatorias. Gace- ta Med. Catalona, 1890. GRASSI, BATTISTA and CAsTRONoVA, A. Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Geruchs- organs des Hundes. 1 plate. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. XXXIV, 1889. Heft 3, PP- 385-390. VAN GEHUCHTEN, A. Contributions 4 1’étude de la muqueuse olfactive chez les Mammiféres. Za Cellule, T. VI, 1890, pp. 393-407. v. LENHOsSEK, M. Die Nerven-urspruenge und endigungen im Jacob- son’schen Organ des Kaninchens. 1 fig. Amat. Anzeiger, VII, No. rg and 20, pp. 628-635, Sept., 1892. PREOBRASCHENSKY, S.S. 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Die Nasengegend von Menopoma alleghaniense und Am- phiuma tridactylum nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Morphologie des Ramus oph- thalmicus profundus trigemini. 2 plates. Zool. Jahrbiicher Abtheilung f, Anat. und Ontogenie der Tiere, Bd. V, 1892, Heft 2, pp. 155-176. TASTE-BULBS. i ARNSTEIN, C. Die Nervenendigungen in den Schmeckbechern der Sauge- thiere. 1 plate. 4. Mikr. Anat., Bd. 41, Heft 2, pp. 195-218. Bruns, L. Erwiderung an Herrn Dr. Ziehl in Liibeck, die Innervation des Geschmachs betreffend. Virchow’s Archiv, Bd. 119, Folge XI, Bd. IX, pp. 185-191. e JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. FusArI, R. and Panasct, A. Sulla terminazione dei nervi nella mucosa della lingua dei mammiferi. Aé¢z della reale Accad. det Lincez, Vol VI, p. 266. Also Atti della R. Accad. della science di Torino, Vol. XXV, pp. 835-857. 1 plate, cf. also Zstr. d. Monitore Zoolog. Italiano, Anno I, No. 4, 30 April, 1890, 4 p. GoTTscHAU, M. Ueber Geschmacksorgane der Wirbelthiere. Szol. Cen- tralbl., 1882, pp. 240-248. GUITEL, FreD. Sur les organes gustatifs de la Baudroie (Lophius piscator- ius). Revue Sctentifigue, Tome 47, 1891, No. 18, p, 569. GUITEL, FrEp. Recherches sur les boutons nerveux bucco-pharyngiens de la Baudroie (Lophius piscatorins.) Arch. de Zool. Expér., UX, 4, p. 671. Hintze, K. Ueber die Entwickelung der Zungenpapillen beim Menschen. Inaug.-Disc. Strassburg, 1890. Howe Lt, W. H. and KastLe, J. H. Notes on the Specific Energy of the Nerves of Taste. Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies from Biol. Lab., Vol. 4, No. 1, pp- 13-19, June, 1887. KokELLIKER, A. Zur Entwickl. d. Auges u. Geruchsorganes menschl. Em- bryonen. Grat.-Schrift f. die Ziiricher Universitat, 1883. v. LENHOSSEK, M. Die Nervenendigungen in den Endknospen der Mund- schleimhaut der Fische. Vhdlg. d. Naturf. Ges. zu Basel, Bd. 10, 1892, Heft Lp l7APP-olwlate: v. LENHOSSEK, M. Der Feinere Bau und die Nervenendigung der Gesch- macksknospen. Preliminary contribution. Amat. 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Aft della societa det naturlisti di Modena, Memorie originalt, Serie III, Vol. X, Modena, 1891, 16 pages, with one plate. TUCKERMAN, FREDERICK. On the Gustatory Organs of Sciurus Carolinen- sis. The Microscope, Vol. 1X, No. 7, July, 1889, pp. 193-196. 1 plate. TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Organs of the Mammalia. Zhe Pro- ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. XXIV, 1890, pp. 470-482. Literary Notices. ci TUCKERMAN, F. The Development of the Gustatory Organs in man. American Jour. of Psychology, Vol. II1, No. 2, 1890. TUCKERMAN, F. Gustatory Organs of Procyon lotor. 1 plate. Journal of Anatomy, Vol. XXIV, New Series, Vol. IV, Part 11, Jan. 1890, pp. 156-160. TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Buds of some of the Mammalia. Journal of Morphology, Vol. 1V., No. 2, Oct., 1890. TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Organs of Some Edentata. Jnternat. Monatsschrift f. Anat, u. Phys. Bd. VII, 1890. Heft 9, pp. 335-339: TUCKERMAN, F. On the Gustatory Organs of Sciurus hudsonius. 1 plate. Internat. Monatsschrift f. Anatomieund Physiologie, Bd. VIII, 1891. Heft 4, pp. 137-139. TUCKERMAN, F. Observations on some Mammalian Taste-Organs. Zhe Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XXV, New Series, Vol. V, Part IV, Pp- 505-508, 1891. ; TUCKERMAN, F. The Gustatory Organs of Belideus ariel. 1 plate. /our. of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XXIV, P. 1., pp. 85-88. TUCKERMAN, F. Further observations on the Gustatory Organs of the Mammalia, /our. of Morphology, V. 7, Part 1, pp. 69-94. TUCKERMAN, F. An Undescribed Taste Area in Perameles nasuta. 1 fig. Anat. Anzetger, 4 Jahrg., No. 13, pp. 411-412. TUCKERMAN, F. The Gustatory Organs of Ateles ater. Zhe Journal of Anat. and Phys., Vol. XXVI, New Series, Vol. VI, Part III, 1892, pp. 391-393, TUCKERMAN, F. On the Terminations of the Nerves in the Lingual Papil- lz of the Chelonia. With 1 plate. Jternationale Monatsschrift f. Anatomie und Physiologie, Bd. IX, 1892, Heft 1, pp. 1-4. TUCKERMAN, F. Note on the Structure of the Mammalian Taste-Bulb. Anat. Anzeiger. VIII, No. to and 11, Apr., 1893, pp. 366-367. ZIEHL, F. Einige Bemerkungen zur der Erwiderung des Herrn Dr. L. Bruns in Hannover, meinen aufsatz tiber die Innervation des Geschmacks betref- fend. Virchow’s Archw f. patholog. Anatomie, Bd. 120, Folge XI, Bd. X, 1890, PPp- 192-194. Postscript.—While these pages are going through the press the paper by Professor Arnstein, mentioned in the preceding bibliog- raphy, on the nerve-termini in the taste-bulbs of Mammals has come to hand. He applies a modification of Ehrlich’s methyl blue to the papilla foliata of the rabbit. After injection with methyl blue the papilla is cut into thin sections with a razor. ‘The color is fixed in ammonium picrate and the preparation may then be mounted in glycerine. But preparations thus made are not conclusive as to the terminal relations of the nerve-fibres. Ammonium picrate is an ex- cellent macerating fluid and herein lies the great advantage of this cil JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. method over the chrome-silver method, which so often pro- duces deceptive appearances. By the addition of a suitable proportion of picro-carmine to the ammonium picrate a solution is obtained which at the same time fixes the methyl blue, giving the nerve-fibres a brown-violet color, macerates the epithelium, stains the cells light yellow and their nuclei bright red. After treatment with this fluid and mounting in glycerine, light pressure on the cover-glass is sufficient to separate the elments. Preparations in which the cells have not been isolated after maceration show varicose nerve-fibres ramifying over the surface of the taste-bulbs and ending in little tuber- osities around the pore, very much as in Lenhossék’s figures (cf. Plate XIV, fig. 7.) After isolation of the elements these fibres are seen to envelop the supporting cells, branching freely and apparently anastomosing, though the latter is not certain. The axial cells or ‘*taste-cells” are similarly enveloped throughout their whole length by varicose fibres which end free at the distal end of the cells. The fibres are plainly strictly superficial and do not enter the cells or their nu- clet. The cell-bodies are not usually colored by the methyl blue so that the course of the fibres can be followed with great distinctness. The cilium of the taste-cell is not colored nor do the free ends of the nerve-fibres extend out beyond the wall of the pore. The fibres en- veloping the axial cells probably come from the N. glossopharyngeus, those belonging to the superficial cells and the indifferent epithelium from the trigeminus. Prof. Arnstein considers his preparations absolutely conclusive as to the nature of the nervous termini in mammalian taste-bulbs and ap- pends to the record of his own observations an excellent historical sketch and critical review of the whole subject. Variations in Spinal Nerves in Amphibia. Dr. Adolph! has studied the variations in the spinal nerves of amphibia, comparing especially Bufo variabilis, Rana esculenta, and Pelobates fuscus. It appears that there is a definite tendency toward cephalization in the sacral and brachial plexus. Pelobates is more primitive in some respects than the others, for in 20 per cent of the cases the fifth spinal retains its "connection with the brachial plexus, which is the case in no other anura yet studied. The ninth vertebra is the sacral in all anura but in the above cases of Pelobates the tenth also frequently participated in the sacrum. 1 Sitzungsb. Naturf.-Gesellschaft Dorpat., 1892, p. 45. Literary Nottces. Ciil Nucleary Division in Regenerating Nerves. Professor G. Bizzozero calls attention to the fact that the priority of the discovery of the karyokinetic division of the nuclei of Schwann’s sheath during regeneration of nerves belongs neither to Huber nor Biingner, but to Dr. A. A. Torre who, while working in Bizzozero’s laboratory, described the mitotic division not only in cases of degeneration, but during normal growth.! Influence of Music. Professor Dogiel has studied the effect of music upon man and animals. The arm of the subject was enclosed in a glass cylinder filled with water which communicated with a delicate manometer and registering apparatus. The frequency of the pulse and the variations in blood pressure are thus registered at the same time. In the experiments with animals the manometer is applied direct- ly to the vessels. In dogs and rabbits a remarkable increase in pulse rate and pressure is shown in each case during whistling. Strychnia and other poisons increase the irritability of the audi- tory nerve, while spirituous liquors and opium decrease the effect of music upon the circulation. It might seem probable that these changes are due to contractions of the voluntary muscles, but it was found that even after curare poisoning, by which the voluntary mus- cles are paralyzed, the reaction continued. It is a fact familiar to all that dogs and, to a less extent, cats are very susceptible to musical sounds. Many dogs are strongly affected by the ringing of bells. Lewin on Nicotinism.’ The functional disturbances caused by the excessive use of tobac- co, have been fully studied in appreciation of their social importance. The deleterious influence of tobacco may be observed after its use in any form; smoking, chewing, snuffing. Typical nicotinism occurs, as a rule, after a long continued abuse of tobacco, sometimes not until after twenty years and more. The human organism is capable of a certain degree of accommodation to the tobacco poison, 1 Giornale della R. Accad. di med. di Torino., Nov. 28, 1884. BizzozERO. Ueber die Regeneration der Elemente der Gewebe unter path- ologischen Bedingungen. Centralblt. f.d med. wissenchaft, 1886, 5. Archiv. f. mtk, Anatomie, XLI, 2, p. 338, 2Internationale Klintsche Rundschau, No, 24. Civ JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. but it can never be perfectly immunized—no period of tolerance is long enough to exclude the final appearance of intoxication. It is a fact that many smokers reach old age, but it is probably equally true that many people do not live to old age because they are smokers. The disturbances of nicotinism may be observed in almost all or- gans of the body. On the skin we see itching and erythema; the nerves of taste are blunted; in the throat an angina granulosa devel- ops; leukoplakia is probably a consequence of the abuse of tobacco; loss of appetite, fullness and pain in the epigastrium are quite com- mon, as is matutinal vomiting and disturbed function of the intestine ; the secretion of urine is usually increased; in smoking women dis- turbances of menstruation are the rule ; in female cigar-makers abor- tion appears to be frequent ; diminished sexual appetite and power, even impotency, have been observed. The most frequent pathological effect of nicotine is a disturb- ance of the action of the heart, palpitations, rapid heart-beat, inter- missions, preecordial anxiety, weakness, fainting spells and collapse. Sclerosis of the coronary arteries, hypertrophy of the left ventricle, perhaps myocarditis and fatty degeneration of the heart seems to be favored by the abuse of tobacco. The smoking of cigars, and more so of cigarettes, produces an irritation of the nasal mucous membrane (the so-called vasomotor catarrh) and diminishes olfactory sensibility. There usually is chronic hyperemia of the epiglottis and larynx, some- times even of the trachea and bronchi. The use of tobacco in any form may produce disturbances of the sight. This may be favored by general debility, excessive heat, men- tal overwork, etc. The most common form of optic disturbance is bilateral nicotine amblyopia. There usually is central disturbance of the field of vision, a central horizontal elliptic scotoma for red and green, sometimes also for blue, in a lesser degree; the external limits of the field of vision are normal, as a rule. In the auditory organ a swelling of the tubes and congestion of the tympanum is often observed in higher degrees of nicotinism; also paresis of the auditory nerves or the disturbances consequent upon this, such as noises in the ears, etc. The functions of the central nervous system may be affected too. It has been observed that in higher schools the non-smokers get along better than the smokers, and that children from nine to fifteen years that were addicted to smoking, showed dimished intelligence, laziness and a craving for spirits. Adult persons given to excess in smoking ‘ ee Literary Notices. cv often complain of cephalic pressure, sleeplessness, in some cases sleepiness, melancholic disposition, aversions to labor and d¢zziness. The latter is most disagreeable ; the patient has a peculiar sensation of emptiness, is afraid of losing consciousness, is unable to concen- centrate his attention, in spite of all efforts; his movements get inco- herent, and everything seems to be in motion. In those smoking ex- cessively there have also been observed symptoms of ataxia, paretic weakness of the sphincters, trembling and spasms. The nicotine-psychoses that have lately been reported, are said rarely to affect smokers and to be more common in those that snuff, and most so in chewers. The prodromal stage, which lasts about three months, shows general uneasiness, restlessness, anxiety, sleep- lessness, depression of mind, often of a religious character ; after this follows precordial anxiety, and finally the psychoses proper, consist- ing of three stages: 1, hallucinations of all senses, tendency to sui- cide, depression of spirits, attacks of fright with a tendency to vio- lent acts, sleeplessness; 2, exhilaration, slight maniacal exaltation, agreeable hallucinations: after from two or four weeks’ relaxation, again followed by a maniacal condition; 3, the intervals between exaltation and depression get shorter, the patient becomes irritable, but other- wise does not pay much attention to his surroundings; perception and attention are diminished. It is claimed that the patient is curable in five or six months if he stops the use of tobacco during the first stage ; if he does so during the second stage, he may be cured in a year or so; after the third stage 1s reached, the disease seems to be incurable. Of the therapeutic measures against nicotinism, withdrawal of the tobacco is the most important. lLodide of potassium, laxatives, warm baths, are said to hasten the elimination of the poison that accumu- lated in the system. Against the dizziness, subcutaneous injections of ether have been recommended; against the disturbances of hear- ing, pilocarpin; against the amblyopia, strychnine, hyoscyamus, bin- iodide of mercury, pilocarpin, etc. The Respiratory Centre. In the case of a child whose head was crushed during parturition, destroying the whole cerebrum and cerebellum, Dr. Kehrn reported that respiration continued rythmically six to the minute. Hand and foot reflexes were also present. All spontaneous movement was of course absent. The medulla was cut across one centimeter above the calamus but no change in respiration or reflexes followed. A section cvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. made at the apex of the calamus caused both to be permamently des- troyed. This observation offers support to the older view as to the respiratory centre. The Cephalic Extremity of the Brain Tube.' Professor His discusses at length the relation between the views presented by Kupffer in his ‘‘ Studien zur vergleichenden Entwick- lungsgeschicte des Kopfes der Kranioten? and his own summarized in the Archiv in 1892.3 His objects to the term /obus olfactorius impar proposed by Kupffer for the point where the lamina terminalis closes last, claiming, as we have done, that it has nothing to do with the olfactory, and substitut- ing the term angu/us terminalis. The difference between the two po- sitions is, in a word, that Professor His considers the whole terma from olfactory recess to angulus terminalis the neuropore (Hirnnabel) while Professor Kupffer includes only the angulus. Professor Kupffer has called in question the existence of a frontal suture line upon which the theory of His is founded while the latter claims to have demonstrated its existence in Selachians and’ the rabbit. The figures given by Professor His seem to us to favor our own view in accord- ance with which the recessus infundibuli should be considered the primitive cephalic extremity of the tube. The point where the brain tube closes last will sustained no necessary relation to the morphologi- cal front but will be determin by the rate of growth and index of curvature. Subdivision and Nomenclature of the Brain. In the same periodical and in connection with the above topic Professor His offers suggestions as to the subdivisions of the brain tube.4 We are permitted to become slightly accustomed to the use of one set of terms when we have our equinimity destroyed by seeing the familiar names replaced by others more formidable in polysylabic and barbaric splendor than the preceeding, or, what is still worse, we see the familiar terms doing duty for an entirely different segment of the brain with no more reason than to form a pleasantly alliterative 1H1s, WILHELM, Ueber das frontale Ende des Gehirnrohres. Archiv f. Anat, u. Physiologie p. 157, 1893. *See March number of this Journal p. xxiii. 3See review in June number of this Journal p. ivi. *Vorschlage zur Eintheilung des Gehirns. l.c. p. 172. Vi tet ae | ee ae Literary Nottces. cvii background for the newly invented ones. Thus it is difficult to speak patiently of Professor Kupffer’s application of the term epencephalon to cerebral hemispheres. In the paper before us Professor His has stated his reasons for adopting the system suggested which combines much that is familiar with a number of new usages. As would be expected, these sug- gestions are based on embryological data and are free from the am- biguity of purely topographical terminology. They have much to recommend them. The following table indicates the system: if Medulla oblongata AZyelencephalon (1) It ite 5 a Z a ae \ Metencephalon (2) + Rhombencephalon(Rautenhirn). III. Lsthmus-rhombencephali (3) IV 1. Pedunc. cerebri IV 2. Corp. quadrig. \ Aesencephaton (4) 7} V_ 1. Parsmamillaris hypothalami 7 = y 2. Thalamus ; Diencephaton (5) | 3 3. Metathalamus Thalamencephalon SU Gerahy V 4. Epithalamus | Bs Peso VI 1. Pars optici hypothalami ) t = | VI 2. Striatum | PA VI 3. Rhinencephalon } Hemstspherium ERAT 2 VI 4. Pallium ae One might feel disposed to critcise the system as making too large concessions to anthropotomy in the use of such major groups as trhombencephalon and cerebrum, for, however convenient this may be in the superficial description of the mammalian brain, it expresses false morphology. On the other hand the six prominent divisions are morphological. Even here it may be questioned whether the older terms Prosencephalon, Mesencephalon and Metencephalon are not more nearly in accord with morphology and embryology. The recognition of a separate segment known as the isthmus has its advan- tages but,on the other hand,serves to separate the niduli of eye-muscle nerves whose close connection scarcely admits of doubt. The separation of the pars mamillaris and pars optica hypothalami in two different major divisions causes some inconvenience. While this system certainly recognizes the close relationship of the diencephalon and the hemispheres one could wish that the genetic subordination of the latter to the former could be made more promi- nent. It is by repeated attempts that we shall secure a system com- mensurate to the needs of descriptive as well as theoretical anatomy. cviii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Synesthesia. This peculiar form of association which consists in the spontan- eous application of the data of one sense or group of sensations to another without appreciable cause has recently received considerable attention. When President Jordan described the fact that he discov- ered that he was in the habit of associating certain colors with the concepts of various letters or symbols probably few outside the tech- nical students were aware of the existence of pseudo-chromeesthesia or “photism.” Sometime since, M. Claparede sent out 3600 circulars of inquiry respecting this phenomenon and received 694 answers-over half of which were positive. The results’ have been studied by: Flournoy.! Associate Professor Mary Calkins, of Wellesley College, has recently given the subject a statistical study.2 Curiously enough : the possession of such associations is regarded by these subjects as of | assistance in various ways. One says ‘‘If I hear an opera I can come home and play it by colors; I know what chords make a certain combination of colors.” One subject, in speaking of the way the arbitrary form came to be: associated with number, said ‘‘the other forms have arisen from the ways that I have used to remember.” The present writer is aware of a faint instance of such association. which grew out of the arrangement of the spots on dominoes—a mental. trick to assist in keeping a few numbers, particularly 5, in mind. Doubtless many of the mental forms have grown up in the same. way. and are simply ideographs. One of Miss Calkin’s” students said: ‘‘Colors do not look right unless a word is spelled. right... For instance I spelled permanent, the other day, with two a’s, and it did not look pale enough, It appears that the statistics do not prove that the color associa- tions can be shown to have arisen from primitive associations of col- ored objects though this is inherently most probable for almost all color associations date back to childhood The color may be associated with the sound or sight of a word or letter but more frequently with both. Some uniformity was noted, thus: # was black-or blackish in 15 cases out of 21 and positively colored in only one instance, 0 was ° white or whitish in 18 cases out of 22. But otherwise very little. constancy is observed. 1Des Phenomenes de Synopsie, Paris, 1893. 2Am. Journ, Psychology v.i. Literary Notices. ci.x Influence of the Cerebral Hemispheres upon the Circulatory Apparatus. Tsherevhoff! conducted experiments on dogs to determine the nature of this influence and states that: 1. The maximum effect (in- crease of blood-pressure and modification in the heart’s action) was obtained by stimulation of the gyrus sigmoideus and sulcus cruciatus region were of three kinds, (a) increase of blood pressure without ac- celeration of the heart’s action, (b) increase of pressure and accelera- tion of cardiac action, lasting, however, but a short time, (c) consid- erably accelerated action and increase of pressure. All changes in the action of the heart and vessels are obtained in animals through the spasm induced by the current. He showed that the spasmogenic portion of the cortex may be removed in case of epilepsy. Inneryation of the Ciliary Body. Dr. Agababou, working under the direction of Professor Arnstein of Kasan, has studied the nerves of the ciliary body of the eye in the rabbit, cat and man. An albino cat is killed with chloroform and a three percent solu- tion.of methyl] blue is injected into the carotid, after quarter or half an hour the blued eye ball is excised and, removing the retina and _teas- ing away the tapetum from the tractus uvealis, the ciliary body may be studied with a low power. The circular course of the nerve stems of the orbiculus gangliosus is easily seen. These stems divide and form a nerve mat with scat- tered ganglion cells chiefly of nonmedullated fibres and form the vaso- motor tracts for the vessels of the ciliary body. The medullated bundles form free ‘‘end-brushes” of a peculiar form. The terminal fibres are varicose and relatively thick and end with a knob. The fibres lie at various depths. There is also a superficial ‘nerve -lattice’” of anastomosing fibres. This lies upon the serous surface of the ciliary body. It could not be determined whether this reticulum isin continuity with that described by Meyer on the front of the iris or not. On the bundles of the ciliary muscles fine varicose fibres appear with the usual! arrangement of nerves of involuntary muscles. Thus four, kinds of nerves are represented: 1. vaso-motor, 2. motor end organs of the ciliary muscle, 3. a diffuse lattice on the scleral surface of the ciliary body, 4. terminal tufts in the intermuscu- lar connective tissue. l~naug. Dis. Harkoff. 1892. cx JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. No. 3, is obviously sensory, the terminal tufts of No. 4, are sup- posed by the author to serve to supply muscular sensation and thus to play an important part in accommodation. (Anatomischer Anzeiger, VIL, 37, p.555: July, 2893: The Pineal and Parietal Foramen in Recent Fish. Professor Klinckowstrém of Stockolm embraced the opportunity afforded by a visit to Surinam to study the parietal foramen in the curious armored fishes Callichthys asper and Uittoralis. The foramen had already been described in the genera Dorcas, Clarias, Loricaria and others by Bashford Dean. The resemblance between these struc- tures and those found in the Paleozoic placoderms is startling. The author succeeded in sectioning the whole head in young specimens which were completely decalcified and stained i tofo with borax carmin. The epiphysis consists of three parts: 1. a proximal tubular part communicating with the third ventricle, 2. a middle thread-like portion connecting with 3.and spheroidal mass which gener- ally looses its cavity. No true parietal nerve was found. The termi- nal organ may be compared with the frontal fleck of Anura.! (Anatomischer Anzeiger. VIII. 17.) Pacini’s Corpuscles in the Trunk of the Tibial Nerve. It has been known for some time that these bodies occur not only in the superficial regions but also in the nerves in the bones and joints, in sympathic nerve plexi and in the arterial walls. Dr. Askanzy? now describes them from the upper part of the tibial region of an am- putated human limb. They lie in the epineureum, either superficially or in a deeper part of the stem. The Sensory Nerves in the Skin of the External Genital Organs.’ This author, who is continually adding to the remarkable evi- dences of his skill and industry, has given us a beautifully illustrated and detailed description of the marvelous nerve-endings in the ex- 1Compare also Bashford Dean. The Pineal Fontanelle of Placodermata and Catfish. 19. Rep. Comm. of Fish, New York. HEcCKSHER, W. Bidrag til Kundskapen om Epiphysis cerebri udvikings historie. Kopenhagen, 1890. 2Vater-Pacini’sche Kérperchen im Stamme des menschlichen Nervus- tibialis. Axat. Anz. VIII. 12, 13. 3DoGIEL, A. S. Die Nervenendigungen in der Haut der duseren Genitalor- gane des Menschen. Archiv. f. mikr. Anat., XLI, 4. Literary Notices. cxi citory areas of the skin. His method is that which he has used so successfully in other areas. The mucous membrane in pieces 2x3 cm. or less, were treated on the slide with one-sixteenth per cent methyl blue solution and fixed with a saturated solution of ammonium picrate or mixture of ammoni- um picrate and osmium. In most cases the epithelium was removed carefully from the surface, which latter was arranged on the slide and imbedded in glycerin. After a few days the preparation became per- fectly transparent. Sections from the glans penis were stained and embedded between pith and cut with the freezing microtome. Three sorts of end-organs were recognized: 1, genital nerve bodies; 2, nervous end organs, (end kolben); and, 3, Meissner’s tac- tile. bodies. The differences between these bodies is not an essential one. In all cases the axis cylinder enters the cavity of the bulb and divides into a certain number of varicose branches and threads which, during their course, form a number of spiral turns and anastomose and interblend in the most various manner, and finally form a complicated system of loops and meshwork. The differences between the several varieties consists chiefly in the details of combination and ramification of these fibres in the cavity of the bulb, The genital bodies are the most complicated of these structures. The Meissner’s bodies are next in complexity. All these terminal bodies have this in common that from the nervous apparatus of the body in each type a certain number of fibres are separated, which penetrate the epithelium and end free with knob-like tuberosities. The non-medullated fibres pass to the blood vessels about which they form a close network. Separate nerve bulbs are connected by fine fibres with each other, though each end bulb receives several branches. It would appear that the genital bulbs particularly are combined into a close system. Regeneration of Nerve Fibres.! This paper adds to the long list of ambiguous data and does not include references to the latest literature. We fail to find any recog- nition of the paper by Howell and Huber and other important con- tributions to this difficult subject. The nuclei of Schwann’s sheath could not be discovered to have any part in the regeneration process. New growths spring from the central tips of the severed fibres and gradually become encased in a 2KousTER, R. Zur Kenntniss der Regeneration durchschnittener Ner- ven. Archiv. f. mikr. Anat,, XLI, 4. exii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. new sheath. When the nuclei begin mitotic multiplication a strong connective tissue sheath is formed about the persistent axis cylinder. A protoplasmic sheath appears inside the sheath of Schwann, this be- gins to grow peripherally about, the axis cylinder. This process is supposed to introduce the formation of the sheath. In the vicinity of the regenerating axis cylinders granulation tissue appears, in which the nuclei arrange themselves in longitudinal series. These. nuclei are not only products of the neurilemma nuclei recognized. by their long torm, but oval and spherical nuclei also occur. The nuclei are not found to have any part in the restoration of the fibre. The fibre ° bundle finally reaches the peripheral stump which, at this period, con- sists only of decomposed clumps of myelin within the shrunken sheath. No traces of axis cylinders are found in it. A New Fixing Fluid. Gustav Man deseribes a fluid composed of Absolute alcohol 100 -cem. picric acid 4 grm. corrosive sublimate 15 grm. Pieces should not exceed 1 cm. in thicknessand are left 12-24 hours. Then wash in running. water and place in 30 per cent. alcohol with tincture .of iodine sufficient to produce a brown color, for 12 hours, after. which the tissue is hardened gradatim in alcohol and imbedden in paraffin. A shorter method is to wash in absolute alchohol for 10 hours, changing the fluid at least once and then, after sectioning, treat the sections with iodine and iodide of potash solution. It is stated the plasma and nuclei are well fixed with slight. shrinkage and the cell outlines are well brought out. Amat. Anzeiger. VIL, 12-23. The Brain of Birds.! The two installments of Dr. Brandis’ investigations which have thus far appeared are characterized by a painstaking thoroughness which wins for them a very high place in the literature of this difh- cult field. The brains were hardened in Miiller’s fluid and imbedded in celloidin. Sections were stained by Weigerts’ haematoxylin method and Wolter’s modification of Kultschitzky’s method, together with carmine and nigrosin. The results secured seem to surpass by far any illustrations of bird brains hitherto published. IBRANDIS, F, Untersuchungen iiber das Gehirn der Végel. I. Theil: Uebergangsgebiet vom Riickenmark zur Medulla oblongata. 1 plate 4rchiv f. Mtkroskopische Anatomie, Bd. XLI, Heft 2, April, 1893, pp. 168-195. Il. Theil: Ursprung der Nerven der Medulla oblongata. 1 plate. Do. Heft 4, July 1893, pp- 623-649. Literary Notices. CXili The first part deals with the transition between the cord and the medulla and opens with a detailed description of the histological structure of the cervical cord. Asthe cord passes into the medulla, the first significant alteration is the presence of more numerous medullated fibres in the grey matter. The ventral commissure in- creases In size, more fibres passing to the lateral columns and some even to the dorsal columns. The dorsal commisure also becomes stronger, sending part of its fibres laterally and dorsally in-such a way as to isolate the dorsal cornu from the rest of the grey matter. Other fibres of the dorsal commissure pass further ventrad to the later- al columns. The alterations in the white substance appear first laterad of the dorsal cornu and dorsad of the lateral cerebellar tracts, where the longitudinal fibres begin to turn ventro-laterad. Gradually the lateral columns begin to assume the same direction, until finally they reach the ventral surface and cross’'the median line under the ventral col- umns, thus closing the ventral fissure. Some of these fibres enter the ventral columns and there assume a longitudinal direction again. Meanwhile the dorsal columns have diminished in size and in density and part of their fibres have gradually turned laterad and pursued the: course followed by the fibres of the lateral columns. At’ this level the ganglion cells of the ventral cornu begin to send their fibres to the hypoglossus instead of to the first cervical nerve, and the: nidulus of the vagus appears. The lateral columns receive contributions from almost all of the other columns and present a very complicated aggregation of fibres. After crossing either in the ventral commissure or beneath the ven- tral columns, they take up their former axial direction somewhat ven- trad of the position occupied by the uncrossed fibres. Some of these crossed fibres, however, pass farther dorsad and enter the restiform tracts. The latter also receive some fibres from the uncrossed portion of the lateral columns of the same side. The lateral columns supply the optic lobes; from them also pass at least a part of the fibres of the pedunculi cerebri. The exact course of the pyramidal bundles in birds is still an open question. The dorsal columns send a great part of their fibres either cross- ed through the ventral commissure or directly to the lateral columns. Of the remainder which retain their dorsal position, the lateral part enters into relations with the ascending trigemimus’ root’ and, after crossing, apparently with the fasciculus solitarius; the median’ part is cqnnected with the cerebellum and the-acusticus group. Cxiv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The lateral cerebellar columns pursue a very simple course up to the outer part of the cerebellar crus. The ventral columns are made up largely of the dorso-median fasciculus. The second part presents detailed descriptions of the internal origins of the cranial nerves. I. Hypoglossus. The first cervical nerve sends its fibres chiefly to the ventral cornu of the same side, but that some fibres cross to the opposite side in the ventral commissure is shown by degeneration effects after section of the first cervical in the dove. Farther cephal- ad the fibres of the hypoglossus take a similar course, the crossed fibres entering the raphe. Recent methods of investigation have neg- atived the tract formerly described as descending along the raphe from the cerebrum. The cells of the nidulus of the hypoglossus are connected with the higher centres by fine fibre tracts, which passing mesad enter the ventral bundles. Only rarely could they be traced to the neighbor- hood of the raphe and commissural fibres passing transversely through the raphe between the two niduli could not be demonstrated. This relation was found chiefly in the gallinaceous birds and is regarded as primitive, because here the resemblance is closer to a mo- tor root of the cord. In most other birds there is also a second nidu- lus for the hypoglossus, composed of large multipolar cells lying dors- ad and cephalad of the first. When both niduli are present the ventral is smaller in proportion as the dorsal is larger. Fibres of the hypoglossus cannot be traced to the cephalic end of the dorsal nidu- lus. This end lies beneath the dorsal vagus nidulus and appears to serve also the ventral vagus root. No crossed fibres from the dorsal niduli were observed. Both niduli correspond to cells of the ventral cornu of the cord, and in all cases the hpyoglossus is to be compared with the motor root of the spinal nerves. TT. Vagus Group. (a) Accessorius. Emerging fibres of the accessorius lie just dorsad of the dorsal cornu in the cervical region of the cord, cephalad of the exit of the dorsal roots of the first cervical nerve. They are directed mesad, then ventrad to a cell-cluster lying at the base of the dorsal cornu near its lateral border. Scattered cells apparently belonging to this cluster are found farther cephalad in the medulla, though the nerve fibres cannot be followed to them. Farther cephalad, these cells become more numerous and constitute the ventral nidulus of the vagus, which, as above mentioned, is so closely related to the dorsal nidulus of the hypoglossus. Literary Notices. CXV (b) Vagus. The large dorsal nidulus of the vagus lies close to the ventricle on each side, extending for a considerable distance from the end of the cord cephalad. _ Its cells are-of two kinds, large, blad- dery cells, deeply staining with carmine, and small, faint multipolar cells. ‘The fibres passing from this nidulus, emerge in a line which passes from a point just cephalad of the emergence of the dorsal root of the first cervical ventro-cephalad to the lateral aspect of the medul- la, just caudad of the emergence of the glossopharyngeal. In addition to this dorsal nidulus there is the ventral nidulus al- ready mentioned in connection with the accessorius. The fibres of the vagus upon entering the medulla pass to the dorsal nidulus, and divide into two tracts. One terminates in this nidulus, the other con- tributes some fibres to the ventral nidulus, while others pass farther mesad to the dorsal part of the raphe in which they cross and pass ventrad until they reach the ventral bundles of the opposite slde. None of these crossed fibres could be traced to cells. There is a small but distinct bundle of fibres which passes ventrad from the dorsal nidulus, part to join the dorsal end of the raphe, part however, crossing the dorsal fibres of the latter and going over into the formatio reticularis. The connection of the dorsal nidulus of the vagus with the higher centres is to be sought in these fibres. Thus the vagus proper consists of three parts, the largest of which arises from the dorsal nidulus. The origin from this nidulus was demonstrated experimentally by two methods. (1) In two doves just hatched the vagus was cut on one side in such a way as to leave the ganglion. After six and eight weeks respectively, the vagus root was found in both cases to be thinner, and the dorsal nidulus much smaller than on the other side. Moreover, the cells were less sharply defined, were less susceptible to carmine, their nuclei were smaller and the intervening fibres were more sparse and presented a pale and varicose appearance. (2) The coloring of degeneration products by Marchi’s method was applied to the crow. Two adult specimens were deprived of the nerve on one side without destroying the gang- lion. After six weeks they were killed and the medulla, together with the vagus ganglion, was cut into serial sections and stained. Peripher- ally from the ganglion the fibres were degenerated and filled with black lumps. OIG 2% SENSORY ORGANS. ADELUNG, N. von. Tibial Auditory Apparatus of Locustide. Abs. in Jour. Royal Micro. Soc. April, 1893, p. 177. AGABABOW, (ARNSTEIN). Die Innervation des Ciliarkérpers. Anat. Anz. NADU 76 ARNSTEIN, C. Die Nervenendigungen in den Schmeckbechern der Sduge- tiere. Arch. f. Mikrosk. Anat. XLI. 2. ASKANAZY, M. Vater- Pacini’sche Kérperchen im Stamme des mensch- lichen Nervus tibialis. Avat. Anz. VIII. 12. BAUMGARTEN. Development of Auditory Ossicles. Abs. in Journ. Royac Micro. Soc. April 1893. p. 154. BEAUREGARD, H. Recherches sur l'appareil auditif chez les mammiferes. (Prise Bondin) Jour. Anat. Phys. XXIX, 2. Sensory Organs. Cxxiii BERANECK, Ep. Etude sur l’embryogenie et sur l’histologie de 1’oeil des Alciopides. &. Suzsse de Zool. I. 1893. BERTELLI, D. Sur la membrane tympanique de la Rana esculenta. Arch. ttal. d. Brol., XVXII, 13. CajaL, R. S. La retine des Vertebres. La Cellule. IX, 1. CHIARUGI, G. Surle developpement du nerf olfactif chez la Lacerta muralis. Arch. ttal. Biol. XVIII. 3. Dreyruss. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschicte des Mittelohres und des Trommelfeldes des Menschen und der Saugetiere. Morph. Arbeit. II. 3. EycLEsHYMER, A. C. The Development of the Optic Vesicles in Amphibia. Jour. Morph, VIII, 1. FRIEDENWALD, H. Congenital Cranial Deformity and Optic Nerve Atro- phy. Am. J. Med. Sct. CV. 5. FROMAGET, C. Recherches sur l’histologie de la retine. Arch. a’ ophth., X11 1892, Paris. GAHAN, C. J. Sensory Nature of ‘‘Appendix of Antenne of Coleopterous larve. Abs. in Jour. Royal Micro, Soc. April, 1893, p. 176. GANIN, M. A Few Facts on the Question as to Jacobson’s Organ in Birds. (Russian), Charkow. GAUBERT. Nerve-ganglion in Legs of Phalangium opilio. Abs. in Journal Royal Micro, Soc. April, 1993, p. 181. GEHUCHTEN, A. VON. Les terminaisons nerveuses intra-epidermiques chez quelques mammiferes. Ce//ule, IX. 2 GépPERT, E. Optic Organ of Salpa. Abs. in Jour Royal Micro, Soc. April 1893, p. 168. Hoccan, G. Forked Nerve Endings on Hairs. Journal Anat. Phys. XXVII. 2, 1893. KLINcKosTRe@M, A. de. Le primier developpment de l’oeil pineal, lepi- physe et le nerf parietal chez Iguana tuberculata. Anat. Anzeiger, VIII, 8, 9. Koiurr, C. Remarks Accompanying the Demonstration of Corneal Nerves. TZyvans. Am. Ophth. Assoc. VI. Hartford, 1892. Krause, W. Die Retina, IV. Die Retina der Reptilien. Jnternat. Monatsch. f. Anat. u. Phys., X, 2. Leypic, F. Besteht eine Beziehung zwischen Hautsinnesorganen und Haaren. Stol. Central6. XVII, 11, 12. MeETcALF, M M. Eyes and Central Nervous System of Salpa. Abs. in Journal Royal Mtcro. Soc. April, 1893, p. 167. MusGrRewE, J. The Blood vessels and Lymphatics of the Retina. Sit. Assoc. Adv. Sct. 1892. Onop!, A. Die Nasenhéhle und ihre Nebeshdhlen. Vienna. J. Holder. CXXIV JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. PURCELL, F. Eye of Phalangiide. Abs. in Jour. Royal Micro. Soc. April, 1893, p. 181. RITTER, W. E. On the Eyes, the Integumentary Sense Papillae, and the Integument of the San Diego Blind Fish (Typhlogobius Californiensis, Stein- dachner). Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoilogy at Harvard College, Vol. XXIV, No. 3, 101 pages and q plates. ScHAPER, A. Zur Histologie der menschlichen Retina. A. mzkr. Anat., MEMS De, WAG). STUDNICKA, F. CH. Sur les organes parietaux de Petromyzon planeri. Vestrel Kral. del Ceskl. Spol. Nauk. Tr. math .prir, 1893. Vall, E. Untersuchungen an Verbrechern iiber die morphologischen Veranderungen der Ohrmuschel. Arch. f Okrenhetlk. XXXIV, 4. VIALLANES, H. Compound Eye of Arthropods, Abs. in /ourmal Royal Micro. Soc. April, 1893, p 170. VILLANES, H. Ganglionic Lamina of Palinurus. Abs. in /ournal Royal Micro. Soc, April, 1893, p 182. WASMANN, E. Sounds made by Ants. Abs. in /ournal Royal Micro. Soc. April, 1893, p 177. PATHOLOGY. ALEXANDER, H.C. B. Insanity in Children, Akemtst and Neurologist, eV BABINSKI, H, Association of Hysteria with Organic Diseases of the Ner- vous System, Neuroses, and other Affections. Universal Medical Monthly Jour- nal, VII, March, 1893. ; Bastian, H. C. Various Forms of Hysterical or Functional Paralysis. Lon- don, 1893, DESARLO, Psychology of Queen Christina of Sweden. Alenist and Neurol- ogest, XIV, 3. FERE. CH. La Pathologie des Emotions, Paris, 1892. FLournoy, T. Des Phenomenes de Synopsie. Paris, Alcan, 1893. FRIEDMANN, M, Ueber die neurasthenische Melancholie. Deutsche Med. Wochenschrift, XIX, 3%. Fry, F. R. The Sensory Symptoms in three Cases of Syphilitic Spinal Cord Disease, Alzenzst and Neurologist, XIV, 3. HALLEY, Gro. Some Effects of the taking off of the Cerebrospinal pressure. Anemia of the Brain and Wounds of the Sinuses, Journal Am. Med. Assoc. XXI, 3, July, 1893. Physiological Psychology. CXXV Lanecpon, F. W. Surgical Anatomy of the Brain, Cemcinnati Med. Journal July, 1893. LANGDON, F. W. Applied Anatomy of the Brain. Cimcinnat2 Med. Journal, August 15, ae Mann, E. C. Medico-Legal and Psychological Aspect of the Trial of Jo- sephine pes Smith. Alentst and Neurologist, XIV, 3. MARIE, PIERRE. Lecons sur les Malades dela Moelle. Paris, 1892. Moi, A. Der Rapport in der Hypnose, Untersuchungen iiber Thier- ischen Magnetismus. Leipzig, 1892. NorpDan, Max. Entartung, Berlin, 1892. PACE and MiraGiia, Contribution to the Study of Transitory Mania. Alientst and Neurologist, “XIV, 3. RANDOLPH, R. L. A Clinical Study of Forty Cases of Cerebro-spinal Men- ingitis, with reference to the Eye Symptoms. Bul. Johns Hopkins Hospital, IV, 32, July, 1893. RILEY, W. H. Three Cases of Multiple Neuritis, Modern Medicine. HY, 6: Rosinson, W. F. Electro-therapeutics of Neurasthenia, G. G. ip Detroit, 1893, 25 cents. SCHANZ, F. Ueber das Zusammenvorkommen von Neuritis optica und Myelitis acuta. STARR, M. A. Brain Surgery, Wm. Wood & Co, N. Y. $3.00. STEARNS, H. P. Lectures on Mental Diseases. Philadelphia, 1882. STEFANOWSKI, D. Morbid Jealousy, Alienist and Neurologist, XIV, 3. TOURTETTE, GILLES DELA. Traite Clinique et Therapeutique de l’Hys- terie. Paris, 1891. Tutti, A. H. Report of Cases of Trephining and Cerebral Injury. /our- nal Amer. Med. Assoc. XX, 13. WILLIAMSon, R. T. and M. R. C. P. The changes in the Optic Tracts of Unilateral Optic Atrophy. Srazz LVIII, 1892. Wotra, S. Pachy meningitis- Myxedema. American Therapist, 1, 11 May, 1893. PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. BALDWIN, J. MARK. A New Method of Child Study. Sctemce, XXI, 533. CALKINS, Mary W. Statistics of Dreams. American Journal of Psychology. Vs; (3. CALKINS, Mary W. A Statistical Study of Pseudochromesthesia and Mental Forms. Am. Journal Phychology. V. 1. CxXxvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. HeErRIcK, C. L. The Evolution of Consciousness. Sctence, X XI, 543, June, 1893. KREIDL, A. Weitere Beitrige zur Physiologie des Ohr Labyrinthes. Sttzb. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien., CII, III, also CII, III. MUELLER, G. E. Berichtigung zu Professor Miinsterberg’s Beitragen zur experimentellen Psychologie, Heft 4. Zeztsch. f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Stunesorgane, IV. MuELtEr, F. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Seelenblindheit. Arch. f. Psychiatrie, XXIV, 3. PETREN, K. Untersuchungen iiber den Lichtsinn. Skand, Arch. f. Phys. IV. SANFORD, E. C. Some Practical Suggestions on the Equipment of a Psy- chological Laboratory, Am. Journal Psychology, V,X. WALLIAM, S. S. Sound and Color. Scéence, XXI, 543, June, 1892. , SUPPLEMENTARY. FaGAN, P. J. Report upon the Communication between the Ulnar and Median Nerves in the Forearm. 77. R. Acad. Med. Ireland, X, 1892. Feist, B. Ein Fall von Heterotopie und aufsteigender Degeneration sen- sibler Lumbarnervenwiirzeln im Riickenmark eines Paralytikers. Arch. f. path. Anat., CXXXI, 3. JABOVLAY and VILLARD. Sur un de l’anatomie des nerfs dentaires poster- eures. Lyon med., 1892. Kars, T. Ueber den Faserreichtum der II, und III, Meynert’schen Schict sowie iiber vergleichende Messungen der gesamten Hirnrinde und deren einzelner Schicten. Neurol. Centrald., XII, q. Ko.isko, A. Beitrage zur kenntnis der Blutversorgung der Grosshirngang- lien. Waener klin. Wochensch, V1, 11, 1893. Lronowa, O. v. Zur pathologischen Entwickelung des Centralnervesys- tems. Ein Fall von Anencephalie, combinirt mit totaler Amyelie. ezrol. Centralb., X11, 7. MorpurGo, B. and TIRELLI, V. Sur le dcveloppement des ganglions in- tervertebraux du lapin. Arch. ztal. Biol., XVIII, 3. BECHTEREW, W. V. Ueber die Geschwindigkeitsverinderungen der psychischen Processe zu verschiedenen Tageszeiten. MVeurol. Centrald., XII, 9. Bourbon, B. Recherches sur la succession des phenomenes psychologi- ques. ev. Philos., XVII, 3. FERE, Ch. La pathologie des emotions. Etudes physiologques et cliniques, Paris, Alcan. EIFERARY NOTICES: Alcohol Inebriety. The marked interest recently awakened in scientific circles re- specting the pathology of alcoholism and particularly its hereditary le- sions of the nervous system warrant us in quoting quite fully from a recent leader in the Universal Medical Journal, by NoRMAN KERR, MD: *¢ Prominence has been given to it in medical journals, and I have already had occasion to call the attention of our readers to it in this journal. In a series of articles! the question has been moderately and dispassionately considered. ‘Twenty years ago it was rare to see a woman drinking at the bar of a public-house in Britain. Now it is a common sight. At an inquest held recently in London on the body of a woman who had died suddenly on the threshhold of her home, © after returning from a public-house where she had gone for liquor by 6 o’clock in the morning, I had occasion to testify that I had never seen so much female drunkenness before. Morning, noon, and night such houses had been thronged, largely by women; many with infants at the breast, who were treated by the wretched mothers to sips of rum or gin. On the streets were groups of from three to six women (many of them young), going about from public-house to public-house to expend in liquor all the money they could jointly provide for their weekly dissipation. The coroner, Dr. Danford Thomas, in confirm- ing this evidence, said that he had lately held an increased number of inquests on intemperate females. In London, during 1891, there had been an increase of 500 apprehensions of females for drunkenness. In Glasgow? there were to,500 women arrested for drunkenness and allied offenses in one year. Four thousand women were responsible for this long tale of convictions, no fewer than 450 of whom having been sent to jail for from six to thirty-four separate terms. Of some female inebriates in England and Ireland there have been hundreds of drunken commitments. Of criminals convicted over ten times (these are 1 Brit, Med. Jour., Oct. 1 and 8, 1892, and other journals. 2 Totd, Oct. 1, 1892. CXXVili JouRNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. chiefly habitual drunkards) the women in England and Wales were, in 1884, three times as many as the men. In other ranks of life drunkenness (often secret among the cultured and and the wealthy) has also markedly increased. In many other countries, though Eng- land surpasses all other lands in this shocking pre-eminence, there has also been a similar increase. T. D. Crothers, of Hartford,! does not think that indulgence among women has progressed in America, but this 1s notin accord with my own experience. For one drunken woman in the United States whom I knew thirty years ago, I know at least twenty; and of later years women in some parts of America have broken fresh inebriating ground in the cultivation of inordinate consumption of strongly-spirituous preparations of ginger. Apart, however, from the mere number of drunken jwomen, there can be lit- tle doubt that the proportion of intemperate females, who may fairly be regarded as diseased individuals, has largely grown. ‘This is a more serious matter. The inhibitory power of such sufferers has been practically lost, and compulsory seclusion with appropriate treatment is essential to a cure in the majority of cases. T. D. Crothers, of Hartford,’ holds that the women charged in American _police-courts with drunkenness and associated offenses are profoundly degenerate in body as well as in mind. The same may truly be said of only about one-sixth of the corresponding class of offenders in England, Englishwomen being, in the main, much more robust than their Amer- ican sisters. Lawson Tait? asserts that an intelligent and educated woman never becomes a drunkard but from some deep-rooted and often carefully-concealed cause. The indulgence may be from phys- ical suffering or mental distress, but there is always a reason for it. Scores of his cases of suffering from inflammatory affections of the appendages have been cured of their drunkenness by the same _pro- ceedings as have cured their physical misery. M. Lancereaux, of Paris, holds that in alcoholic delirium the real chance of recovery lies in sleep. He isolates the alcoholic delir- iate in a quiet, dark, and, if necessary, padded room, no physical re- straint being employed. To procure sleep the patient receives 1 to 1% drachms of chloral hydrate, with % grain of hydrochlorate of mor- phine, in an infusion of limes. If sleep does not come on in about ten 1 Brit. Med. Jour., December 11, 1892. 2 Jbtd., December 31, 1892. 3 Jbtd, October 15, 1892. 4 Bulletin general de therapeutique, Feb, 15, 1893. Literary Notices. CxS minutes, from % to ™% grain of morphine is injected hypodermatic- ally. After the alcoholic disturbance has subsided, strychnine or nux vomica is given, followed by hydro-therapeutic measures. If there should be gastric complication an antacid such as sodium bicarbonate is administered. The heroic doses of these narcotics, with the cardiac depression apt to follow their exhibition, call for deliberation in their administration to aged and infirm inebriates, and I prefer as a _ hyp- notic a simple febrifuge frequently repeated, such as liq. ammon. acet. Sleep, thus quietly and safely induced, has proved much more cura- tive than the sleep for which I formerly resorted to narcotics. M. J. Arnaud, of Marseilles,! describes various forms of alcoholic paralysis. There are attenuated alcoholic paralyses, evidenced by tremors on awaking from a drunken sleep. The inebriate has re- course to alcohol to dissipate for the moment these tremblings, a re- petition of which injurious habit tends to induce a graver form of par- esis. The matutinal tremors are permanent though highly-curable forms, with but slight local loss of power. Then there are paralyses affecting the extensors of the upper and lower limbs; still very amen- able to treatment. Contrary to general experience, the author finds the upper limbs not less disturbed than the lower, and, indeed, the. disease is frequently confined to the former. In addition to these fleeting paralyses, there.is a group of permanent chronic paralyses which may be classified as progressive and non-progressive. Both forms creep on slowly, with prodromata of some weeks’ or months’ persistence. The progressive is the most intense and fatal variety, and is often complicated with agonizing pain, insomnia, maniacal par- oxysms, and other highly-intensified symptoms. M. J. Arnaud cites the case of a female domestic, aged 27, who suffered from the gravest form of alcoholic paresis complicated with albuminuria, and yet made a complete recovery. The explanation of this unexpected recovery, advanced by the author, is that the lesions were peripheral, the axis- cylinder remaining intact or nearly so, while there was wanting that degeneration so frequently found in the more acute and aggravated forms. Dr. Lardier, of Rambervillers,? states that the children of al- coholic inebriates present from their birth a particular degeneration. Alcoholism does not cease with the individual, but continues in the progeny in various degrees, and forms, from a slight tendency to drinking to complete physical degeneration. In the Vosges he has 1 Gazette des hopitaux, March 2, 1893. 2 Bulletin médical des Vosges, January, 1893. CXXx JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. seen families beginning with wine and going on to brandy, the chil- dren from 2 years of age receiving it from their parents. ‘The father, mother, and children dip their bread in brandy, and absorb in this fashion notable quantities of the poison. By imitation the young tread in the footsteps of their progenitors. The offspring of inebri- ates ought to be taken from them. In the case of such children, who are the subjects of the inebriate inheritance, there should be firm in- culcation of the dangers of drinking, with hygienic training and de- velopment. Hydrotherapy is strongly recommended as a_prophy- lactic. By the withdrawal of the privilege des bouilleurs de cru the French government hope to restrict drunkenness. In Sweden, after a similar step, the distilleries decreased from 170,001 to 300, with a diminu- tion in the consumption of liquor. Formerly drunkenness in France! existed principally in cities and large factory and commer- cial towns, the rural population being comparatively temperate. Now there is an alarming increase of intemperance in country towns and villages. From the Atlas by M. Tarquau, drawn up under the direc- tion of M. Claude, reporter on the Commission of Enquiry of Con- sumption of Alcohol in France,” the average consumption of alcohol in 1850 was 1 litre 60 centilitres for each person, which increased in 1870 to 2 litres 81 centilitres, and in 1885 to 3 litres 85 centilitres. The varieties as well as the quantities of strong liquors have increased. Less alcohol has been distilled from fruits, more from _ beet-root, molasses, and seeds, these latter being dangerously toxic. The Com- mission procured samples of alcoholic drinks from the most luxurious and most squalid wine-shops and restaurants in Paris. All the sam- ples analyzed were labeled ‘‘bad,” ‘‘ dangerous,” and were reported to have been imperfectly rectified.* The liquors supplied in dining- rooms frequented by workmen were declared to be three-sixths im- pure, and containing aurylic acid. In haunts of ill-fame, among the noxious adulterants was methylene, though these beverages were not more so chemically than certain brandies sold at 744d and tod the glass in several first-class restaurants. Legislative measures have been urged to check the falsification of fermented drinks. T. D. Crothers, of Hartford,4 computes that there are 1,600,000 1 British Medical Journal, February 4, 1893. *La normandie médicale, Rouen, March 15, 1893. 3 British Medical Journal, February 25, 193. ‘Journal of the American Medical Association, October 8, 1892. EE SS Se ee ee a Literary Notices. CXxxi excessive drinkers in the United States, in addition to the victims to morphine, chloral, and other narcotic drugs,—all centres of degener- ation and the most unsanitary physiological and psychical conditions. There are over a million unrecognized inebriates who are the most defective, dangerous, and degenerate classes. The superstition of personal freedom permits this army of inebriates to go on increasing the burden of their families and building up centres of physical and mental degeneration. Public sentiment should not permit one to be- come an inebriate, or tolerate him after that stage, unless under legal guardianship and restriction until he recovers. M. Feéré! describes as mechanical drunkenness a state, corre- sponding in its symptoms to alcoholic drunkenness, developed in cer- tain subjects under the influence of forced movements and muscular exertions. He observed this in a person who had since died from general paralysis, and that prior to any other psychical or motor phe- nomena. The individual was taken for the first time with this apparent drunkenness in an accession of excitement after hunting. Afterward, consequent on every fresh day with the hounds, the drunken symp- toms reappeared. Are these motory intoxications important in the early diagnosis of general paralysis ? Morphinomania and Cocatnomania.—J. L. Maxwell, of London,? recalls the conclusions of Dr. Valentine, after thirty-one years of practice in India, that to opium is due a large per centage of mortality among children, crime, murder, and disease. More than three- fourths of between 800 and goo prisoners in Jeypore Central Prison, fully twenty-five years ago, used opium, quite one-half of them to excess. Maxwell says 100,000 persons commit suicide by opium every year in China. McReddie, of Hardoi,* states that, in that limited district, of the 180 suicides in three years, 97 were from opium, 80 per cent. of these being women. Opium inquests are com- mon in Calcutta now;! there is one almost every day. W. B. Brooks, of Dallas, Tex.,® argues that the morphine habit is sometimes the only cause of some severe forms of hysteria, neuralgia, chorea, asthma and other nerve disorders; that morphinists, however confident of 1 Le Bulletin-médical, October 8, 1892. 2 London Lancet, January 28, 1893. 3 Indian Medical Gazette, June, 1891. 4 London Lancet, January 28, 1893. 5 Texas Courier-Record, September, 1892. CXXXil JouRNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. cure, are liable to relapse; that physicians are more prone to relapse than other morphinomaniacs, from generally having morphine in their possession and administering it, as well as from the despondency and excitement of their irregular life; that cured morphinomaniacs are less apt to relapse the second than the first time. One physician patient, who became addicted to morphine through having recourse to opiates for the relief of cough, returning home too soon (on the eighth day), relapsed, but made, on a second trial, a permanent cure, after then remaining twenty-seven days. J. H. de Wolff, of Baltimore,! gives 20 grains of sulphonal for sleep, with auri et sodu chlor. Stephen Lett, of Guelph,” narrates a case of double addiction (morphine and cocaine) whose daily ration-was 60 grains morphin. sulph. and 7o grains cocain. hydrochlor. hypodermatically; and one of laudanum, 16 fluid ounces being taken daily. Amenorrhoea and sterility are generally present, these functions resuming vigor on discontinuance of the opiate. J..B. Mattison® relates the case of a physician’s wife, aged 34, who, after 4o grains hypodermatically and one or two 5-grain doses daily by the mouth, advanced to 60 to 75 grains daily of mor- phine by the mouth only, and at one dose. Afterward she resumed the hypodermatic injection of 40 to 50 grains a day. ‘Three women, dismissed cured, each took 30 grains daily for years Two were sisters; one had indulged for ten, the other for seventeen years. Ad- ministered by the skin, the narcotic action is double of that by mouth. He has generally found female morphinomaniacs neat and tidy. One laudanum-taker of twenty-two years’ standing had reached. nearly a pint a day. J. B. Mattison, of Brooklyn,‘ attributes nearly all his cases of narcotic inebriety to the medical prescription of the drug, in the first instance; though he recognizes the peculiar narcotic status, ancestral and acquired. It should be made felony for retail druggists to sell morphine, chloral, or cocaine, or to repeat a prescription con- taining either drug, except on order of a physician. Tobacco.—¥rancis Dowling, of Cincinnati,® dwells on the influ- ence of tobacco in causing amaurosis. He found in 3,000 tobacco workers in ‘Cincinnati, 150 with impaired vision. A woman of 4o0_ 1 Medical Brief, March, 1893. 2 Times and Register, October 18, 1893. 3 To¢td, October 22, 1892. 4 Weekly Med. Review, St. Louis, February 11, 1893. ® Medical and Surgical Reporter, Octobér 22, 1892. Literary Notices. CXXNili had amblyopia. She had not used tobacco, but had been working in it from five to six years. Few of the men drank. The men were mostly flabby and anemic. The majority of the 150 had both pupils contracted ; 45 showed amblyopia, 30 being well-marked; 30 had gradual failure of vision. Some smoked 20 cigars a day. Three- fourths were over 35, the oldest being 61. Those affected had dis- turbed sleep, their muscles were easily tired, and their hands trembled on holding a book or pen. One young man of 19 was 2ffected. Noyes has recorded the case of a boy of 15 who exhibited similar symptoms from cigarette-ssmoking. With chewing the effects were more intense. On ophthalmoscopic examination the papille of the optic nerve were seen to be abnormally reddened at first, later aneemic, ending finally in atrophy of the disc. Running Amuck.! A Malay who runs amok 1s always in a state of furious homicidal passion, and runs armed through the most crowded street or village stabbing rmght and left at man, woman, or child, relation, friend, or stranger. So common was this habit or mania that sixty years ago long poles with prong-like ends were kept in al! villazes, with which the amoker should be pinned to the ground when the dread cry, ‘« Amok ” was raised. When caught the amoker was either ruthlesely slaughtered, like a mad dog, or judicially executed, or, if wealthy and not sold into’slavery, he was sometimes ransomed and set at lib- erty. The author shows that an idea, in some quarters prevalent, that the amok is an institution of the Mohamedan religion, is false.- It is confined to the Malay and must be regarded as a race perversion. The diseased condition is essentially a depressed state of vitality, giving rise to a species of emotional exaltation comparable to that which in other races gives rise to suicide. The religious beliefs and traditions of the Malay oppose suicide and his passion leads him to seek death at the hands of others. After the amok the person is con- fused and describes the period as a blank preceded by deep depres- sion. Very often everything turns black or red and memory ceases. The author believes the amok to be a genuine impulsive insanity-—a ‘¢fulminating neurosis,’’ with its predisposing cause in racial idiosyn- crasies. Malays are disposed to a form of melancholia called ‘‘ sakit LEiiis, W. G. The Amok of the Malays. Zhe Journ. of Mental Science, XXXIX, 166, July, 1893. \ ce CXXXiV JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. hati,” which is often a premonitory symptom of the. amok. The analogies are with various forms of masked epilepsy though, as a race, the Malays are not subjects of epilepsy, neither are they prone to alcoholism. Insanity in Greece. Dr. F. B. Sanborn, late Inspector of Health, Lunacy and Char- ity of the Massachusetts Board of Health, contributes to the Journal of Mental Science a suggestive article on the comparative frequency of mental diseases in Greece and America. He shows that while the population of Greece is about that of Massachusetts, the estimated number of insane in the former is 2,000, while in the latter there are over 7,500. The proportion of those under treatment in the two countries is as rt to I5. As one reason for this difference Dr. Sanborn assigns the much less alcoholic insanity in Greece. Something must doubtless be at- tributed also the less density of population and the genius of the race. While the Greeks are prone to shocking crimes there is less of vice than in northern Europe or the United States. Vice is a fre- quent cause of insanity. General paralysis is terribly prevaient in America and is much less common in Greece. ‘‘ General paralysis almost always proceeds from vice and most generally from debauch.” Colors Dependent on Food. E. B. Poulton, in Proceedings of the Royal Academy for June 8, 1893, offers facts to substantiate his theory that colors of certain Lepidopterous larve are made up of modified chlorophyll derived from the food plant. Larve from one batch of eggs of Zryphena pronuba were divided into three lots fed (in darkness) throughout their whole life upon (rt) green leaves, (2) yellow etiolated leaves and (3) white mid-ribs of cabbage. The larvee of (1) and (2) acquired their normal green or brown colors as in nature, while those feed on white plant tissue, containing neither chlorophyll or etiolin were unable to produce the green or brown ground color, though the production of dark superficial pigment was unchecked. The Spanish Inquisition as an Alienist.- Mr. H.C. Lea presents several characteristic pictures of religious monomania during the Fifteenth Century, and the action taken in the matter by the church, (Popular Science Monthly, XLIII, 3.) It isa question whether future generations will find our treatment of alien- Literary Nottces. CXXXV ism much more reasonable than the lurid procedure which blackens the records of the Roman Church. The Origin and Distribution of the Nerves of the Lower Limb. Under the above title, Dr. A. M. Paterson begins an exhaustive study of the sacral plexus and the peripheral distribution, in the Jour- nal of Anatomy and Physiology, XXVIII [N. S. VII] 1, Oct. 1893. Although notice of the paper 1s deferred until it is completed, we ob- serve that the author found much assistance in dissecting the nerves from the use of 5-10 per cent. of nitric acid solutions, which dissolve the connective tissue and harden the nerves. He regards it as doubt- ful whether any spot of the skin or muscle in the mb is supplied by but a single nerve. Glass Models of Brains. Professor His exhibited! at the meeting of the Anatomical Society at Gottingen, May, 1893, a model of the brain of a human embryo, made up of about 50 separable glass plates. The sections were pho- tographed and drawn upon rectangular glass plates of equal size, with an amplification corresponding to the thickness of the plates (1.2 mm).- If all of the plates are put together it produces a solid model of the object, which renders all the inner details visible at once. To inves- tigate separate parts, the corresponding part of the system of plates can be detached; thus, for instance, the passage of the Nervus In- termedius from the Ganglion Geniculi to the Medulla and its annexa- tion to the tractus solitarius can be very plainly demonstrated. Methods of Brain Preservation.’ This useful paper contains a full compendium of methods for preparing dried or wet preparation and impregnation models. All of the methods result in considerable shrinkage but have their place in the technology of neurology. Any one who has seen Dr. Blackburn’s preparations must admit that with the exception of shrinkage they leave little to be desired. Our own experience proves that great pains must be taken to dehyd- rate carefully in absolute alcohol before using the Japan wax asa ‘filler’ and a rather long time in the wax at a temperature of 50° C. 14nat. Anz. Erginzungsheft. VIII, 1893. 2Fisu, P. A Brain Preservation, with a resume of some old and new methods. The Wilder Quarter-Century Book. CxXxxvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. is required. We have also seen good preparations by the paraffin method made by Dr. Burckhardt of Berlin but one would always fear lest when exposed to unusual heat they would deform. Mr. Fish himself recommends a mixture of water 400 cc., 95 percent alcohol : : pe i 400 CC., ’ glycerin . 6 : : : j_s 250eGx zinc chlorid : : : - . 20 grams, and sodium chlorid . , 20 grams. Afterwards the brain is Achydrated in Aeonol aac is passed into tur- pentin, 3. parts, with castor oil, 1 part, for gne or two weeks. After drying on absorbent cotton it is varnished with bleached shellac. Another process substitiites for the last mentioned a mixture of glycerin 100 cc., castor oil, 100 cc., gum arabic or tragacanth, 50 grams. The specimen may be shellaced. Attention may be called to a series of papers by Professor J. Frenzel of Berlin who has made some very permanent and Heel pliable preparations of entire bodies of fish and reptiles.! Myxedema and Cretinism Treated by Thyroid Grafts and Extracts.’ The extended article mentioned gives a comprehensive view of the efforts to apply the thyroid gland and its extracts to the treatment of the obscure diseases of that gland. In February of 1890 Professor Horsley suggested the possibility of grafting upon the human body the thyroid of a sheep with the view of arresting the progress of the disease. M. Lannelongue of Paris is thought to have been the first to carry out the operation in 1890. The effects were prompt—too prompt perhaps to be attributed to the slow changes of nutrition incident to a new generation of the se- cretion and suggest that the improvement is due to the absorbtion by the system of the secretion at the time in the gland. 'Dr. George Mur- ray, accordingly, prepared a fluid extract of the fresh thyroid of the sheep with glycerine and injected subcutaneously. The result has in almost every case proven satisfactory. Passing from the complex to 1Verfahren zur Einbalsamirung von Fischen iind ahnlichen Objecten. Naturw. Wochenschrift. V1, 12, 14, et. seq. 1892. Verfahren zur Herstellung von zoolog. und anatomischen Preparaten mittelst der Glycerindurchtrankung. Zool. Jahrbiicher 1, 1, 1886. 2BEADLES, C. F. The Treatment of Myxcedema and Cretinism, being a Review of the Treatment of these Diseases with the thyroid gland, with a table of 100 published cases. Zhe Journal of Mental Science, XXXIX, 166, [N.S., 130-131.] Literary Notices. CXXXvVil the simple, the next step was reached when Dr. Mackenzie adopted the plan of feeding patients suffering with myxcedema with the thyriod itself. In order to be made more easy of administration Dr. Arthur Davies employed a powdered extract of the active principle with glycerin which was dried by heat and administered by way of the mouth. ; Thus far the cures have not been permanent, though a relatively small dose may be necessary to continue the improvement. The disease is more common in females but both sexes are benefited, nor is there an age limitation. Chronic cases seem quite as amenable as others. The treatment is invariably followed by marked improvement in bodily condition, the general puffy swelling subsides, the coarse dry skin becomes smooth and moist, the thick, blunted features become natural, hair begins to grow on scalp and eyebrows, the special senses improve. Body and mind become more active, the temperature rises. The majority of cases of myxcedema are accompanied by grave mental disturbance, often acute melancholia. It seems certain that the treatment serves to improve mental as well as bodily conditions and if employed eariy enough should forestall the insanity of myxced- ema. Even in the congenital cases (Cretinism) much improvement has been noted. The numerous cases enumerated and the table re- ferred to make the article a very useful one. An Instrument for Reaction-Time Determination.! On a square standard of pine supported by a tripod with leveling screws is screwed a rectangular piece of hard wood 3 feet above the floor at a convenient height to permit the registration of falling rods, which serve to indicate the time. The hand of the subject rests on a table while powerful electro-magnets in the circuit opened by the finger serves to clamp in position the falling rods. At the summit of the vertical standard is a device for releasing the rods, which in the improved instrument are four in number and made of box-wood grad- uated into hundreds of a second. The complete fall of a rod occu- pies 3-10 of a second. After falling a short distance a brass plate which rides astride the top of the rod encounters a diaphragm so pro- ducing a sound signal, an electric bell being rung by a current broken at the same time. A visual signal is given by a slit and diaphragm 1Lewis, BEVAN. An Improved Reaction-time instrument. Journ. Mental Science. Oct., 1893. XXXIX, 167. [N.5S. No. 131.] exxxvili JOURNAL OF CoMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. device by which a beam of light is obscured at a proper moment in the fall of the rod. The observer sits with his finger on the key which opens the current, clamping the rod as it falls, and presses the key when the signal selected is made by the falling rod. It is only neces- sary to read off the time upon the rod, for the figure at the clamp gives it directly. In the improved instrument the release of the rods is silently accomplished by electro-magnets. The rods fall on sand bags and each rod in its fall strikes a key, releasing the next, and thus contin- ues the record for a length of time, greater than could be conven- iently be recorded by the fall of a single rod. The mechanism de- pends upon the familiar laws of falling bodies. It is not stated what degree of accuracy may be expected. Arrangement of the Sympathic Nervous System.! Using the cat as a subject, the author traces the pilo-motor nerves. The spinal nerves containing pilo-motor nerve fibres in their roots are usually the fourth thoracic to the third lumbar inclusive. The spinal pilo-motor fibres run into the sympathic trunk, there they become connected with nerve cells; on leaving the sympathic chain they run to their peripheral endings. In the body they accompany those dorsal cutaneous branches of the spinal nerves which supply the skin near the vertebre. In general, the fibres issuing from any gang- lion are connected with nerve cells in that ganglion and with no other sympathic nerve cell. Each ganglion supplies in any individual a definite area of skin. The areas supplied by the ganglia from above downward are successive with some overlapping. The details must be sought in the paper, which is illustrated. The author thinks it probable that the fibres of the gray ramus of a nerve (viz. the postganglionic sympathic fibres of a spinal nerve) have in the main the same distribution as the sensory fibres of the nerve. He finds less overlapping than Sherrington did in the sensory fibres. Record of Brain Examinations. Dr. Goodall of West Riding Asylum has composed a table for guidance in the superficial examination of the brain which seems well- adapted for use in autopsies where brain lesion is expected. See Journ. Mental Sctence, CLXIV, N. S. 130, p. 437. ILANGLEY, J. N. Preliminary account of the arrangement of the sympathic nervous system, based chiefly on observations upon pilo-motor nerves. voc. Rey. Soc. LII, 320. Literary Notices. Cxxxix Subdural Membranes and Intereranial Pressure.) Cerebral atrophy is of common occurrence with membrane for- mation, and the loss of support thus caused is given by many as the occasion of the engorgement and rupture of the vessels. The com- pensating hypertrophy of the skull in chronic insanity is another re- sult. In cases of cerebral atrophy the cerebrospinal fluid tends to increase in a compensating manner. On account of being contained in rigid walls the brain needs special arrangements to permit of shrinkage and expansion. The brain is essentially erectile tissue and the adjustment is affected by the cerebro-spinal fluid which exists normally in the meshes of the pia- arachnoid.and the ventricles and does not exceed four ounces in the healthy adult. The source of the fluid is the plexuses. From the fourth ventricle ‘‘it passes by the foramen of Magendie to the inferior cerebellar lake, and round the cerebellum and crura cerebri to the superior cerebellar lake. This communicates along the peripeduncu- lar and basilar canals with the great central lake at the base of the brain. From the sides of the central lakes there arise the two Sylvian lakes, which are extended into the Sylvian and Rolandic rivers. From these rivers tributaries extend along the minor sulci and by these means, though somewhat circuitous, cerebro-spinal fluid is car- ried to every part of the surface of the brain.” The fluid is absorbed by the Pacchionian glands and is secreted into the veins and sinuses. The rate of absorbtion is more rapid than that of secretion and seems to depend on the pressure of the fluid. The blood and not this fluid plays the active part in regulating intercranial pressure. It is found that the size of a blood vessel varies greatly within a brief time in paralytics. Now with atrophied brain and increased fluid it would appear reasonable that a sudden engorgement followed by constriction of the vessels might produce a demand for increase of cerebro-spinal fluid greater than could be met and the vessels of the dura would become gorged and ruptured. The seat of ‘‘ false-mem- branes” is limited to the parietal bone; this the author explains as due to the habitual position which leads the brain to tend to fall away from the vault by gravitation, enhancing the tendency to tear in this region. 1ROBERTSON, G. M. The Formation of Subdural Membranes or Pachy- meningitis hemorrhagica. Journ. Mental Science, XXXIX, N.S. 130, July. 1893. cxl JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The middle meningial artery is most liable to disease and its superficial distribution is in this same area. Pachymeningitis hemorrhagica, then, is due, according to the author, to passive engorgement of a compensatory nature, caused by a process analogous to dry-cupping. This is brought about by a shrinkage of the brain, which, owing to its suddenness, and to a de- ficiency of cerebro-spinal fluid, has not been compensated for. The Knee Jerk.! The knee-jerk is largely produced by reflex contractions of the vastus internus and crureus muscles. The centre was located in the 4th and sth lumbar segments of the cord in the Rhesus monkey (3d and 4th of man). The efferent path is in the anterior roots of the 4th and 5th lumbar nerves and was traced along the anterior crural nerve to the muscles mentioned. The afferent path was found in the pos- terior root of the 5th lumbar of Rhesus (4th of man, 6th of ‘cat). The afferent fibres arise within those muscles to which the efferent fibres concerned with the ‘‘jerk” belong. It was found easy to abolish the conductivity of the afferent root by cold, cocain, carbon dioxid, etc. for the ‘‘jerk”’ while reflex stimuli from the skin were still transmitted. Perhaps the fibres for the former are more delicate. The knee jerk is exaggerated by section of afferent branches be- low those producing the jerk, which is explained as due, not simply to the resulting relaxation of the muscles but to the interrupting of a stream of afferent stimuli that passes from the ham-string muscles which would exert an inhibitory influence. Excitation of the afferent fibres coming from one set of antagonistic muscles induces reflex tonic con- traction of the opposite set very readily. Some Suggestions Concerning Methods of Psychological Study. An interesting paper under the above caption appears in the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy IX, 1, from the pen of Pro- fessor J. J. Blaisdell. The suggestions are good and new, and whether one shall say, as in another case, ‘‘ what is good is not new, and what is new is not good,” or otherwise will depend very largely upon one’s prepossessions or prejudices or, as we say more euphemis- tically, one’s point of view. ISHERRINGTON, C.S, Note on the Knee-Jerk and the correlation of An. tagonistic Muscles. Proceed. Roy. Soc. LIL. 32 a. Literary Nottces. exli The first suggestion is that psychology should be a science and a science of observation. But he insists that physiological psychology is but physiology masking behind a high-sounding name. He well says, ‘‘ Certainly any possible science of physiological psychology is conditioned upon the authenticity of consciousness, for its ‘ cortical irritations’ are only disjecta membra, to whose disclosure conscious- ness holds the key of witness.” ‘There is no apparent justice in arrogating to physiological psy- chology exclusively the designation empirical psychology, as has been strangely done of late. It seems like the forwardness of unripe intel- legence, the crudity of alate arrival in the realm of metropolitan science.” What physiological psychology may claim to be is the elementary instructor whose work is essential to a proper approach to the study of mind as such. If empirical psychology is to sit in judgment upon the sanity of this mind of ours it at least ought to learn to understand the elements of the language the mind speaks. In the teaching of psychol- ogy the author depreciates the restriction of the term laboratory practice to practice in a laboratory, but wishes to enlarge it to include experi- ments where consciousness only is employed. But the present writer. fails to see that the fact that Garfield and a certain college president ona log constitutes a college compels us to convert a Plato plus Socrates into a laboratory, unless, indeed, an older method weli loaded with honor is jealous of the untested laurels green on the brow of experi- mental science. Again Professor Blaisdell objects to the conventional order of presentations—intellect, sensibilities, will. He says: ‘‘ The prelimi- nary question ought to be fairly discussed, which one of the two con- ceptions ought to rule the teaching of science. Mr. Hebert Spencer would, no doubt, answer that the various sciences ought to be taught entirely in the interests of one comprehen- sive natural procedure of the universal. . . . There is but one science in this view, that of evolution. Some others of us believe in the reality of final causes, and that man’s being is determined by ref- erance to that moral final cause. . . . We think him disengaged from the tyrannic current of natural processes, and that he has in himself, and not in nature, the law by which he is to be studied and held responsible.” With more of this sort the author ignorantly or disingenuously seeks to array in hostile ranks the laws of nature as expressed in evo- lution and the laws of God as expressed in human freedom. One 1s exlii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. oppressed by a feeling of hopelessness that such a view can still be seriously presented as the only alternative to the reign of chance, How one can fail to see in the course of evolutionr evealed by science, with its wonderful coincidences touching human nature at every point, any less of final cause than that which we are forced to postulate in the destiny of man is a problem too great for the writer. From such a standpoint one must deny the validity of natural law or the evi- dence of his own consciousness—how much better to combine them with the same divinity immanent in both. The question as to order of treatment may then be left to convenience. Will the author re- gards as the main constituent of personality and to it, therefore, the first place should be given. After a discussion of the proper order of presentation, the paper closes with a plea for a psychology of social personality—‘‘ the empirical psychology of the social mind.” Peripheral Neuritis Following Alcoholism. Arthur Maude in the British Medical Journal, Feb. 18, 1893, describes a case of peripheral neuritis resulting from alcoholism in which a prominent symptom was the exaggeration of the patellar re- flexes. After a period of abstinence these symptoms disappeared. Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Thompson and Bruce (Edinb. Hospit. Reports, 1893) report the case of a child in which at the age of two years a weakness of the legs became apparent and continued until all the muscles of the body became involved in the weakness and atrophy. After death at six years autopsy revealed simple idiopathic dystrophy. The nerve-cen- tres contained degenerated fibres and the cells of the ventral cornua of the cord particularly in the lumbar region exhibited signs of simple, non inflammatory atrophy. Cerebrine. The curious dispute respecting the virtue of the cerebral extracts continues. Dr. G. Hammond reports cases where subcutaneous in- jection has produced marked improvement in tabes. The patient in one case regained control over bowels, bladder and sexual organs, and was able to run up and down stairs. The knee jerk, however, had not returned. J. Collins has used Gibier’s preparation in locomotor ataxia with similar results. , Literary Notices. exliii The Functions of the Pituitary Body. Vassale and Sacchi! have published the results of experimental extirpation of hypophysis. They were able to destroy that body with- out grave operative complications. ‘The complete destruction of the organ is fatal in dog or cat, but partial injury may exist for a long time though it is impossible to say whether regeneration follows. Though the symptoms of injury to the pituitary are similar to those arising from extirpation of the thyroid the authors do not admit that the interrelations are such that one may substitute for the other. These functions show that the hypophysis belongs to the class of glands destruction of which occasions the accumulation of toxic sub- stances. American Lampreys. Neurologists will be grateful for the descriptive information on the habits and specific characters given by Professor S. H. Gage in the Wilder Quarter Century Book, published in September, 1893. The paper is fully illustrated and is provided with map and bibliography. The Brain of the Spotted Newt.’ The author is already well known as a skillful scientific artist and by reason of several anatomical papers. The present contribution is a bulky monograph fully illustrated and dealing with the topograph- ical rather than histological relations. The incitation to the study seems to have been the suggestion that striking structural changes might accompany the remarkable change in habit which has already formed the subject of an interesting paper by Professor S. H. Gage. The descriptions of the regional anatomy is painstaking and shows familiarity with the literature. While admitting that in the finer structure of the nerve cells, in the path of nerve tracts, and their exact processes of growth, determined by finer methods, a more com- plete correlation of brain structure with the crises of the life history may be found, there are no marked changes in morphology revealed by methods employed corresponding to these crises. ‘There is, however, 1Rev. Sperimentale, XVIII, 3, 4, Dec., 1892. 2GAGE, SUSANNA PHELPS. The Brain of Diemyctyus viridescens from Larval to adult Life and comparisons with the Brain Amia and Petromyzon. Wilder Quarter Century Book. Sept., 1893. ’Life History of the Vermillion-spotted Newt. Amer. Naturalist, XXV, 1891. cxliv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. a marked general growth at about the time of final transformation so that the brain much more nearly fills the skull than in the late red forms. The morphological suggestions about which questions would nat- urally be raised are those associated with the callosal commissure and the hippocampal structures. While apparently recognizing a hippo- campal lobe by implication the whole mass of the commissure is called callosum and no fornix or hippocampal commissure is recognized. We have already suggested a question as to this homology and think it most probable that the highly osmatic brain would have a structure comparable to the hippocampal or fornix commissure of reptiles. A brief preliminary discussion of the structure has appeared in the Sep- tember number of this journal, p. 124-128. From the illustrations accompanying this article reasons may be gathered for comparing at least a greater part of the so-called callosum with the fornix commis- sure. If analogies with other groups can be employed, it is hard to see how one can neglect the obvious necessity for limiting the region of origin of the callosum to parts lying far cephalad in an osmatic brain. The second part of the paper institutes comparison with Amia and the lamprey. Among the interesting observations may be men- tioned the existence in Diemyctylus of a metapore—an opening through the metaplexus into the subarachnoid space. Morphologic- ally considered, the improbability is so great that repeated investiga- tion is well worth making. The section on the cerebral commissures is interesting, especially in the discovery of two commissural bands for the fore brainin Amia. We, however, would regard the ventral one (cm Fig. 103) if actually a commissure, as a homologue of the pre-com- missure and the so-called pre-commissure the representative of the dorsal system (callosum, etc.) Fig. 104 strongly re-enforces this con- jecture, for in that figure fem cannot be tortured into an homology with the precommissure of other vertebrates. Lying in the ‘‘crista,” Mrs. Gage finds suggestions of fibres such as the writer has figured on Plate XV, Fig. 5 ca//, in Menopoma and which might from their position prove a part of the fibres of the callosum or the homologue of the fibres, so-called in fishes. The summary given at the close is repeated here. 1. A true metapore exists in adult Diemyctylus and indications of it appear in the larve. In the lamprey and Amia at a correspond- ing part of the metaplexus a sac communicating with the metaccel pro- trudes over the myel. Literary Notices. cxlv 2. The callosum and callosal eminence [intra-ventricular lobe] are only beginning to develop in early larve of Diemyctylus, and the position of the cerebral commissures differs in early stages more from the anurous type than does the adult, the aula being much larger pro- portionally. The type in urodeles and fishes may be one of an ar- rested embryonic development. [Cf. Journ. Comp. Neurol., p. 136, Sec. 4.] In the Diemyctylus there is evidence, in the adult, of a caudal growth of the terma which if continued would bring the com- missures in the same relation to the terma as in the frog and higher forms. 3. The crista in Diemyctylus and Amia is shown to be a defi- nite structure beyond which the cerebrum develops cephalad and from over which the auliplexus is reflected, and thus is a landmark in dis- cussing the relations of the aula and cerebral commissures. [These considerations might seem to suggest that the callosum might be ceph- alad to the reflected plexus as in Opossum. | 4. The paraphysis of Diemyctylus is traced through different stages of development and homologies discussed in Amia and the lamprey, and a possible use in the nourishment of the brain is sug- gested. 5. Sulcus is proposed as a general term for the furrows on the endymal surface, which have a morphological significance and lophius for the ridges between sulci. [If anatomists would agree to thus apply a term which is certainly as much used as ‘‘ fissure” for cortical grooves, it might be well, but meanwhile the ambiguity which is charged to the descriptive terminology introduced by the writer is not removed. Moreover those fissures which are due to the deformation of the cerebrum as a whole (1. e. to flexures of its axis, etc.) may im- press themselves upon the axial lobe and, if the view suggested by the writer that the axial lobe of fishes is but the undeveloped ‘‘ proton ” of the whole cerebrum and not, as often represented, homologous with the hemispheres minus the cortex, there might still be a sort of reasonableness in a terminology which should suggest the homology, however distant. These remarks apply particularly to the sylvian and rhinalic depressions of the fish. | 6. In the discussion of the geminums it is shown that homolo- gies are not dependent upon the membranous or solid condition of the roof nor the angle at which parts unite. 7. The morphological relations of the pallium are considered in Amia and its homolog in amphibia and the lamprey suggested. 8. The cerebrum of Amia and other fishes is not to be consid- exlvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. ered from its recurved position as different from other types. The sulci upon its endymal surface are compared with those of Diemycty- lus. The pallium is considered as a plexus much stretched, not as an undeveloped part representing the dorsal and mesal walls of other brains. [This is in effect a restatement of a theory frequently stated and implied by the writer in several papers during the past four or five years. Ina paper in the Festschrift zum siebenzigsten Geburtstage Ru- dolf Leuckart’s, p. 279, occurs the following passage: ‘‘In those portions of the primary nerve tube which are to form plexiform struc- tures the spongioblasts retain their primitive structure. In cases where the development is delayed the original simplicity is retained long after other regions have acquired a complicated neurologia. Thus in very young Ambiystoma (Plate XX VII, Fig. 1) the temporary pallium which ultimately becomes the median walls of the prosenceph- alon remains single-layered and exhibits only an occasional neuro- blast.”’ In other places it has been clearly stated that the axial lobe of teleosts and ganoids is supposed to contain the elements which other- wise would enter the cortex; thus the pallium would correspond in position and nature to the thin median walls of the ventricle. The author of the paper before us takes a step farther in seeking to definitely homologize the pallium with a specially modified part of this wall—the plexus. This is probably a form of statement unsus- ceptible to proof or disproof, because of the lack of means to deter- mine whether a tela-form membrane might not be directly converted into plexus. | g. Arguments and facts are given for considering the rhinencephal as equal to other segments having a tripartite arrangement. [From a strictly morphological point of view it would seem necessary to settle the preliminary question as to the front of the brain tube be- fore one could venture to ascribe regional independence to the olfactory lobe. ‘The term rhinencephalon is now so generally used for the whole limbic region as to seriously compromise its availabilty. | We venture to express regret at the increasing custom of spelling generic names without capitals, which seems an offense only second to the capitalizing of specific names. In the present paper Diemyc- tylus is uniformly spelled without capitals, while other genera referred ~ to are capitalized (viz. Cryptobranchus, p. 264). The paper is a welcome addition to the anatomy of the brain and affords evidence of the hold morphology is taking in America. The Literary Notices. cxlvii compliment to Professor Wilder implied in the volume dedicated to him is augmented by the character of the work by his students and collaborators. : Edinger’s Lectures upon the Structure of the Central Nervous System.! No better testimony to the value of the book before us is needed than the repeated necessity for new editions. It is but a year since ' the appearance of the third edition in Germany and not a much longer time since the second edition was made available to the American public through the excellent translation of Vittum and Riggs. The present edition is considerably extended and has been in some parts rewritten. To those who are acquainted only with the second or the English edition the volumn is now practically new. There have been many good works on the anatomy of the brain but among them this lhttle book of Edinger’s stands preeminent in virtue of two excellencies, clearness and a comparative method. We can be no longer blind to the fact that the way to study the human brain successfully is to spend the first moiety of time at disposal upon that of lower animals and a good share of the remaining time upon the embryonic stages. Dr. Edinger enjoys the great advantage of basing his descriptions very largely upon personal investigation of a wide range of subjects. We notice that considerable use has been made of the results of the methyl blue and Golgi methods and the rather meager statements upon the histogenesis of the nervous system have been considerably augmented by reference to the recent work of Retzius, VanGehuchten and Cajal. Colored plates of excellent workmanship enrich this sec- tion. The embryological portion is still insufficient to give a clear idea of the instructive correspondences between ontogeny and phylog- eny. — The interpolation of new matter has, we think, disturbed the unity of presentation in several cases. One would think that it would now be safe to admit a reference to the parietal nerve in connection with the parietal vesicle. The writer is not yet prepared to admit the as- sociation of the habenulee with the olfactory function, in spite of the admitted close connection of the teenia with the lateral radix. The account of the regional anatomy of the mammalian cerebrum TEDINGER, L. Vorlesungen iiber den Bau der Nervésen Centralorgane. Fiir Aerzte und Studirende. (Fourth Revised Edition) Leipzig, F. C. W. Vogel, Price 7 marks. cxlviii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. is as before clear and usually satisfactory. The statement on page 58 that all marsupials so far studied lack a callosum ignores the de- scription of it by Osborn and the writer. | See elsewhere in this num- ber.] The treatment of the olfactory apparatus and limbic lobe is a decided advance over any anatomical discussion so far. The new portions on the thalamus are especially valuable and are elucidated by the new figures 66, 67, 69, 70 very satisfactorily. The author has seen no reason to admit a recently advocated idea that the cerebellar functions are chiefly sensory. The discussion of the medulla has been completely remodeled and the result of the phenominal activity in the study of this region are largely included. YVhe last chapter is devoted toa very brief discription of the technical methods of studying the nervous system. While the exigencies of publication do not permit as careful a re- view as the work deserves we can give it the warmest praise and con- sider that it will prove a necessity to every neurologist whether he has access to the earlier editions or not. Kolliker’s Histology, Sixth Edition.’ The part of this well known work relating to the nervous system has been awaited with a degree of impatience, for it has been evident from numerous occasional papers that the distinguished author has been giving himself to the cultivation of this special fleld by the re- cent technological methods with marked diligence and his usual suc- cess. The papers in the Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zoologie during the last few years have been among the most beautiful illustrations of the pos- sibilities of the Golgi method. The present instalment of 372 pages includes but half of the nervous system, including a discussion of the medullated and non-medullated fibres, nerve cells in general, the spinal cord, medulla and cerebellum. The work begins by presenting the neuron theory, thus revealing on its first page the tendency of the whole. Professor Kélliker, how- ever, discards the word neuron from linguistic reasons and substitutes ‘*neuro-dendridien’”’ (neuro-dendrits), which is open to a still greater objection that not al! neurons are provided permanently with den- dritic processes. The sympathetic system is not seperated from the ‘‘ animal” 1KOELLIKER. A. Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen. Wilh. Engelmann, Leipsig, 1893. Literary Nottces. cxlix nervous system, but forms a peculiarly modified portion of the peri- pheral system. The section on the structure of the nerve fibre is quite full and the author retains the old position, that the Schwann’s sheath with its corpuscles is derived from connective tissue and has no direct relation with, the formation of the nerve. To the writer, it seems that the evidence from experimental and pathological, as well as histological sources, is overwhelmingly opposed to this view, which rests on un- supported assumption. ‘The above position is the more remarkable in view of the description of the olfactory which follows. The latter, however, simply retains a structure much like that of the earlier stages of all nerves. The section on the spinal cord is practically exhaust- ive. Following the general description of the spinal cord is a com- parative section from which the following data are collected : In Amphioxus the cord consists of a folded plate with the edges approximated in such a manner that the ventricle is a mere slit which is clothed witha layer of gray matter composed of epyndyma cells with a few nerve cells. The cell walls of the epyndyma pass from ventri- cle to surface in the form of thin tubes and frequently collect in clus- tres. Aside from these fibres the stroma of the cord is composed of nerve fibres only, there being no neuroglia. In this as well as other respects the cord of Amphioxus resembles the nerve-axis of worms. The nerve fibres are all non-medullated. Those of the dorsal region are smaller than those of the ventral region and in various regions there appear colossal fibres whose origin can be traced to enormous nerve cells of the dorsal part of the tube. ‘The smallest nerve cells he with the epyndyma along the ventricle, the intermediate type of cells occurs in a row along either sidethe ventricle and are bipolar or multi- polar. The colossal cells lie across the ventricle one third its height from the dorsal su:face. The cephalic cell of this series lies immedi- ately behind the sixth left sensory root and gives rise to an enormous fibre which lies ventrad of the canal and sends another fibre into the seventh sensory root. ‘Then follow eleven others each of which sends a fibre caudad. From the last of these and the 39th sensory root there are none of the colossal cells, but from that point they reappear and the 14 caudal cells send fibres cephalad. In all cases the colossal fibres cross ventrally to the opposite side before assuming their defini- tive position. The small nerve cells, according to Retzius, send fibres into the sensory roots., Of general interest is the suggestion afforded by the relations of the nerve cells that all the nerve cells arise form the epyndyma. cl JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. KOlliker remarks respecting the origin of the dorsal nerves from cells within the cord and the absence of ganglia on the roots that if these -nerve cells are found to be the most dorsal in the cord there would be a correspondence with the ganglionic ridge of higher vertebrates which would make it still more probable that this ridge pertains to the neu- ral tube rather than the adjacent ectoderm. No reference is made to the fact that while there are no ganglia yet the dorsal root contains ganglion cells to a point lying near the skin, as shown by Hatschek, a fact which suggests a very different interpretation of the spinal ganglia. Professor K6lliker compares the caudal colossal fibres to com- missural fibres and those of the cephalic cells with the pyramids, (p.159.) In the later sections the discussion 1s limited more strictly to the hu- man subject and we cannot select from the vast amount of carefully elaborated material special portions for notice at this time. The work will serve as the neurologist’s vade mecum for years to come. The Superstition of Necessity.' . The author uses the term in the way indicated by its etymology : as a standing-still on the part of thought; a clinging to old ideas after those ideas have lost their use. He endeavors to show that the doc- trine of necessity is a survival which holds over from an earlier and undeveloped period of knowledge; that as a means of getting out of and beyond that stage it had a certain value, but having done its work, loses its significance. That judgment uses the idea of necessity as acrutch by means of which it steps up out of uncertainty upon solid ground of fact, and then discards it as unnecessary and only a hindrance to further progress. As he says: ‘‘ We learn (but only at the end) that instead of discovering and then connecting together a number of separate realities, we have been engaged in the progressive definition of one fact.” ‘* The progress of judgment is equivalent to a change in the value of objects—that objects as they are for us, as known, change with the development of our judgments ” ‘‘ It is the necessary influence which one exerts upon the other that finally rubs away the separateness and leaves them revealed as elements of one unified whole. This done, the determining influence —necessity—has " gone too.” ‘* Contingent and necessary are thus the correlative aspects of one and the same fact.” 1DEwy, JOHN. ‘* Zhe Monist,’’ April, 1892, Vol. III, No. 3. Literary Notices. cli *¢ Chance stands for the irrelevancy as the matter at first presents itself to consciousness ; necessity is the required, but partial negation of this irrelevancy.” Our separation of one side from the other, for instance, of cause from effect, of means from end, gives rise to the superstition of ne- cessity. We have committed the error of taking a part for the whole. The idea of necessity marks only a certain stage in the development of judgment. Its whole value consists in the impulse which it gives toward the ‘is’ in contradistinction from the ‘ must.’ The Lumbo-Saecral Plexus.! The above paper is a very detailed and elaborate account of the root bundles and distribution of the nerves entering the plexus. Most of the anatomical facts brought out are in confirmation of similar work by Professor Sherrington. The plates are very clear. In the experimental part, the peripheral stump of a cut root was first excited, then the integral fibres were separated as far as pos- sible and each irritated by a minimal current. The tendons of the muscles then moved being cut, the experiment was repeated to deter- mine whether others remained in connection with the nerve. As a control experiment, a nerve root was divided and general epilepsy was induced by intravenous injection of the essential oil of absinthe, and the resulting deficient participation in the fit of the limb in rela- tion with the divided root or roots carefully observed. The first two lumbar roots did not produce movement of the limb. The third produced slight flexion of the hip. General excitation of the 4th lumbar produced flexion of the hip, adduction of the thigh and extension of the knee. The three parts isolated, each produced one of the above motions. Stimulation of the whole 5th root caused extension of the whole limb with adduction and internal rotation of the thigh and dorsiflexion of the foot. The separated fascicles reacted as follows: (1) adduc- tion of the limb, (2) extension at the knee, (3) dorsiflexion of the foot, (4) extension of the digits, (5) extension of the hallux. The 6th lumbar caused extension of the hip, and adduction and outward rotation ; flexion at the knee with the foot at right angles and everted at the ankle, the digits and hallux being flexed at the distal phalangeal joints. The several fascicles reacted as follows: (1) ex- 1RussELL, J. S. R. An Experimental Investigation of the Nerve Roots of the Lumbo-Sacral Plexus of Macacus rhesus. Proc. Roy. Soc., LIV, 327. clii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. tension at the hip, (2) flexion at the knee, (3) dorsi-flexion at the ankle, (5) eversion of the foot, (6) extension of the digits, (7) flex- ion of the digits, (8) flexion of the hallux, (9) extension of the hallux. The 7th lumbar caused extension at the hip, flexion at the knee, with the plantar surface of foot looking inwards, flexion of the digits at their metacarpo-phalangeal joints, flexion of the hallux and its ad- duction into the sole of the foot beneath the flexed digits. The several fascicles reacted as follows: (1) extension at hip, (2) flexion at knee, (3) extension at ankle, (4) flexion of digits, (5) flexion of hallux, (6) adduction of hallux. The rst sacral produces interossal flexion of the digits with flexion and adduction of the hal- lux and three parts were isolated, each having one of the functions named. The muscles were exposed during life and the nervous connec- tion established directly, as follows: 2d /wmbar, psoas magnus; jd lumbar, psoas parvus, psoas magnus, sartorius; gth lumbar, psoas magnus, iliacus, sartorius, adductor longus, quadriceps extensor, gra- cilis; 5¢h dumbar, iliacus, gluteus minimus, adductor magnus, adduc- tor longus, quadriceps extensor, gracilis, tibialis anticus, tibialis post- icus, extensor long. digitorum, flexor long. digit., peroneous longus, p- brevis, ext. long. hallucis, gluteus medius, pyriformis, obturator externus, 0. internus, gemellus superior, g. inferior, quadratus femor- is, propliteus, plantaris; 7¢h /wmbar, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, soleus, flexor long. digitorum, peroneus longus, p. brevis, flexor long. hallucis, adductor hallucis, interossei, and the last ten of the list un- der the 6th lumbar ; 7 sacra/, intrinsic muscles of the foot. The author concludes that a single bundle of nerve fibres, repre- senting a single simple movement may remain distinct during its course to the muscle it supplies, without inosculation with other motor nerve fibres, and that where more than one nerve supplies a given muscle, any given muscle fibre is suppled from but one nerve. The advantage of the anastomoses of the nerve fibres is shown by the observation that the section of no single nerve root was suffi- cient to produce a visible alteration in the climbing or running move- ment. ‘ The paper closes with a comparison with the results of the exper- iments of Sherrington, and Ferrier and Yeo. A New Hypothesis Concerning Vision. In the Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. LIV, No. 827, Dr. Haycraft offers a new theory of color vision based on evolutionary data. He Literary Notices. cliii regards the fact that colored surfaces, when highly illuminated, ap- pear white as a special case of the law of maximal stimulation that, when a stimulus is increased beyond a certain amount, it is not fol- lowed by any increased sensory effect. The upper limit of retinal ex- citation, however, corresponds to the sensation white. When common natural pigments are observed spectroscopically, they are seen to transmit broad bands of spectral rays, generally ex- tending to parts of the spectrum other than that part which corre- sponds in color to that of the pigment. Thus a yellow natural pig- ment transmits a flood of red, yellow and green spectral rays. When mixed with red and green, yellow spectral rays do not produce a sensa- tion of their own proper color, but intensify the yellow sensation, which would be produced to a less extent by the intermediate yellow ray, when acting alone. Itis a fact, beyond which we cannot go that the combination, red plus green spectral ray, stimulating the eye when- ever we regard a yellow pigment, produces the sensation we call yellow ; an artificial mixture of such spectral rays gives rise to the same sensation. In color mixing experiments, as when you mix a blue and yellow on the discs and produce grey, the blue paper transmits to the eye one-half the spectrum, viz., violet, blue, and some green, and the yellow paper transmits the other half, viz., some green, yellow and red. You are, therefore, looking at what is physically the same stimulus as that given by a piece of white paper seen in half light. The statement of the theory is, in its present form, too obscure for criticism, and manifestly brings us no nearer a solution of the physological problems involved. Adiposis Dolorosa.! This was reported as a new disease in June, 1892, at the meeting of the American Neurological Association. In many respects it simu- lates myxcedema, from which it would seem’premature to differentiate it until the pathology has been more fully studied. While presenting the appearance of ordinary obesity, it was found that the enlargement was very unequally distributed. Shooting pains were present in all cases at some time. There was diminished cutaneous sensibility in some regions and soreness over nerve trunks in some stages. The connective tissue is largely increased and of an embryonic character, and interfiltrated with fat. The most significant change seems to have 1DercuM, F. X. in Supplement to Wood's Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences. cliv JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. been an induration of the thyroid gland. The author speaks of the disease as a connective-tissue dystrophy, a fatty metamorphosis of various stages of completeness, occurring in separate regions, with symptoms suggestive of an irregular and fugitive irritation of the nervous trunks—possibly a neuritis. ; Wood’s Reference Hand-book Supplement. The Supplement embraces 1076 quarto pages of closely printed matter which, on the whole, is of excellent quality and will serve to bring the work down to date. Several neurological articles have already been noticed. It is obviously impossible to offer even a sum- mary of all. The following jottings may, however, prove useful : Articles on the Brain in the Reference Hand-Book. Among the many useful articles in the supplement to Wood’s Reference Hand-book of the Medical Sciences are two by Professor B. G. Wilder, on the brain. ‘The first of these is a supplement to his paper in the eighth volume of that work. After illustrating the prin- ciple enforced in his article in an earlier volume of this journal, that it is each author’s duty to correct his own mistakes as soon as discov- ered, he enters upon questions of nomenclature. Among other sug- gestions are these: Neuron might better be associated with axon and enteron as a name for the whole neural axis and neuraxis would be appropriate instead of axis cylinder. Professor Wilder suggests that the bulbs, their crura, the olfactory portion of the precommissure and a part of the aula might be recog- nized as constituting a sixth definitive segment (Rhinencephalon); but—unless the word encephalon in composition is to be shorn altogether of segmental significance—it should no more be used for a ventral portion of a region than for a dorsal portion, e¢. g. the cerebellum, without the supporting preoblongata. Very nat- urally he objects to the use of the term ‘‘ Rhinencephalon,” by Sir William Turner in a third sense. We may add that the confusion in nomenclature is here absolutely intolerable. One who is indisposed to apply a term of his own coinage for all parts of the olfactory apparatus may have a choice and varied assortment of names for every part. The German usage seems to embrace under the term olfactory lobe, a projecting bulbus, a connecting peduncle and an eminence on the cerebrum, the tuber. Others use lobe as restricted to the tuber, which is also termed the tract. In other cases the word tuber is applied to the bulb. Literary Notices. clv An instructive summary of the gray masses of the cerebellum follows. It seems strange that it should still be necessary to insist that the thalamus does not forma part of the wall of the lateralventricle. If this remains necessary it simply illustrates the crying need for some element- ary work in embryology on the part of our descriptive anatomists. The paper closes with an extended abstract of recent work on the sur- face topography of the cerebrum. The second article referred to deals with methods of removing, preserving, dissecting and drawing the brain. It would be impossible to compile from this article, which we would gladly reproduce entire. We must content ourselves with recommending it to all practically concerned with neurological manipulation and teaching and an espe- cial emphasis on the well-deserved strictures upon the book-makers who insert diagrams with now the dorsal and now the ventral aspects uppermost. Tumors of the Brain. This subject is presented with a full tabulation of the eighty-five operations attempted since 1884 by Dr. Mary Putnam-Jacobi. The - percentage of success is not large enough to be very flattering, yet it affords data under the guidance of which the indications for operation may be made out. The cases of recovery include only one of operation on the cere- bellum. The great majority of successful cases have been where the tumor exists in the motor convolutions (29 out of 39 cases.) A conservative position is taken with reference to trephining for non-traumatic epilepsy. Acromegaly.! Dr. O. T. Osborn gives a full and interesting account of this rare disease which is characterized as a chronic affection evidenced by an abnormal increase in the extremities due to hypertrophy of the bones and soft parts in these regions. ‘The disease was first noticed by P. Marie in 1886. Pain in the head is the first subjective symptom and is often exceedingly intense and may be accompanied by joint pains and tingling in the extremities. The reflexes and special senses are not necessarily involved. The 1Article under this head in Supplement to Wood’s Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences. p. 2. clvi JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. intelligence, particularly memory, is frequently lowered. One of the most constant symptoms is hypertrophy of the pituitary body. There is often some abnoxmal enlargement of the sympathic nervous system. The disease is obviously closely related with Myxcedema from which it is distinguished by the following points: Both sexes are about equally affected; it begins most frequently between the ages of twenty and forty; bones are always enlarged; the face is oval or elliptical; the ends of the fingers are of the same size as the base (not club-shaped); the skin is yellowish, wrinkled, and hairy (not puffy and shiny.) Up to the present time the disease remains incurable. A full bibliography accompanies the article. Ear Operations. The report on this subject by Dr. E. B. Dench is unusually full and contains admirable digests of the recent work. The Emotions, The Physiological and Psychophysical Basis of. A rather abstruse paper by C. L. Herrick, editor of this Journal. The Care of Epilepties. A very interesting paper by Dr. Frederick Peterson, an sation on the subject, who makes a plea for a more rational attempt to provide for such unfortunates conditions suitable to their peculiar state. The proportion of epileptics who are insane is shown to be small (less than ten per cent.), and very many are entirely able to fill positions of use- fulness, except for the occasional seizures. Epileptic colonies have proven efficient in providing for the adjustment to these conditions, and association, so far from increasing, rather diminishes the number of seizures. Out of door employment and all manner of trades and avocations are provided, as also means of amusement. We failed to notice any allusion to the effect such social seggregation might be ex- pected to have upon the hereditary propagation of the disease—a point worthy of careful attention. Embracing, by implication at least, among the epileptics such names as Handel, Moliere, Petrarch, Czesar, Napoleon, Mahomet and St. Paul, it is little wonder that the author finds a place for the class. Heredity. The article on this subject by Professor H. F. Osborn is essen- tially a revision of the third Cartwright Lecture before the Alumni of Literary Notices. clvii the College of Surgeons, and has largely appeared in papers in the American Naturalist. It goes without saying that the interesting modern theories are accurately and graphically stated. In fact, the article is one of the most convenient compends within reach, and con- tains valuable hints as to the lines along which research should be prosecuted. The physician, more than any other professional man, is in a position toanswer the questions which Weismann has addressed to science. Blood Vessels of the Brain. The paper under this caption is by Dr. William Browning and is in the form of critical notes rather than a connected description. The illustrations—one a beautiful lithograph after Adamkiewicz—are very useful. Cranial and Spinal Nerves. Dr. Frank Baker gives an interesting summary of recent results respecting the nerve roots. Considerable attention is given to the histogenetic problems. In the discussion of the internal relations of the roots the old and new views are stated and illustrated for compar-_ ison. We regret that the ingenious theory of Gaskell (if mentioned at all) should have been so briefly put as to be quite unintelligible even with the figures, to one not already familiar with it. Cajal, Lenhossék and Kolliker are laid under contribution and the material is well though too briefly used. We think the article would have been of vastly more value if it could have been doubly as extended. An excellent bibliography accompanies. (See also an excellent sum- mary of modern histological results by the same author in a recent number of the Alienist and Neurologist.) Histological Formule. Prof. Fish’s article is a very useful compilation of the recent methods and is particularly valuable for its formulee for the nervous system. In this connection we may add that Herrick’s permanent hema- toxylin, as described in 1891, proves not only permanent in the slide but the solution is unalterable so far as observed. It is essentially Delafield’s, with the addition of a small amount of the antiseptic (one tablet to a pint) and the solution may be used at once if diluted with alum water, which is all that is necessary to ‘‘ripen” it. Acid in the section is of course fatal. elviii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The Meninges. Dr. Wilder described with numerous illustrations the mem- branous envelopes of the brain and card. We are struck with a con- servativeness of statement and reservation of judgement upon many points upon which those who have given the subject less study are prone to positiveness. The present writer must admit that it seems impossible to expect the same uniformity or consistency in the devel- opment of the connective envelopes as one must logically postulate of a morphologically primitive wall like that of the brain tube. Collect- ed by a process of accretion around the brain, these envelopes will obey mechanical rather than morphological principles and the exist- ence of one or more layers in a given case is a matter to be settled in that case by itself without reference to any canon of interpretation. A perforation through the tela requires explanation and may justly be viewed with suspicion until its origin is discovered; a perforation through the meninges is a fact of observation. We fail accordingly to understand the significance of the analogy suggested between the — fontanels and the tela (p. 609.) Professor Wilder carefully reviews the evidence for the existence of the metapore (foramen of Legendie) with new material and form- ulates the following: ‘‘ In the normal adult human brain there is a considerable orifice in the roof of the metaccele whereby the liquid of of the encephalic cavities may escape into the post-cisterna.” In re- ply to the obvious morphological inconsistency he refers to the solu- tion of membranous integrity in the case of the septum between the stomodeum and cesophagus (the oral plate.) Figure 422 seems to make the matter very clear from the standpoint of gross dissection though the writer must admit that he puzzled a long time as to the sig- nificance of a curious unnamed body near the base of the figure before it dawned upon him that it represented the thumb of a manipulator and still longer before he felt sure that an outline above indicated a finger tip. A label or reference in the description would make all clear. Though probably a valueless suggestion, it would be interesting to make sure that there is not in man az elaborate eversion of tela from the edges of this and other openings far beneath the dura. The degree of modifica- tion to which the tela is susceptible is in some cases very remarkable. No final decision is reached as to the lunulate foramina described by Dr. Langdon. The Physical Expression of Insanity. Dr. Charles P. Bancroft whose article in the Handbook is char- Literary Notices. clix acterized throughout by scientific thoroughness, very truly says that, while it is true that the expression of the emotions receives its most perfect and frequent demonstration in the facial region, it must not be forgotten that the entire periphery is likewise a participant. Three factors enter into the mechanism of expression: I. The storage and discharge of nerve-force from the central nervous system. II. The power of inhibition possessed by the cerebral cortex. III. The trophic changes consequent upon the processes of waste and repair that are constantly occurring in the cerebral cells. As the chief in- hibitory centres seem to lie within the cortex so cortical disturbance or insufficiency is especially likely to produce uncontrolled and spas- modic reflexes. The author gives a careful analysis of the manifestations accom- panying different forms of mental disease with numerous half-tone por- traits and closes by recommending that a suitable photographic outfit be made a part of the equipment of every insane hospital. Other articles of neurological interest in the Hand-Book are on Meningitis, by Dr. James T. Whittaker; Myelitis, by Dr. Leopold Putzel; Regeneration of Nerves, by E. T. Reichert; Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System, by C. L. Herrick; Histogenesis of the Elements of the Nervous System, by C. L. Herrick; Recupera- tive Power of Old Age. The last mentioned paper by T. L. Sted- man gives interesting evidence of the great vitality and resisting power of the aged which, however is not to be explained as due toa measure of independence of the several organs so that local trouble does not affect the system at large but to the fact that the aged have undergone a process of natural selection and therefore have unusual vitality and recuperative power. Pott’s paralysis in children, by J. H. Huddleston; Surgery of the Spinal Cord, by W. W. Keen (a very useful and interesting summary of recent progress in operations on the brain is given;) Sympathetic Nervous System, by Dr. Hand Baker; De- velopment of the Organs of Taste, Frederick Tuckerman ; Thought Transference; Richard Hodgson ; Development of the Thymus Gland, by F. P. Mall ; Development of the Thyroid Gland, by F. P. Mall; Pathology of the Thyroid Gland, by Wyatt Johnston ; Waller’s Law, by C. L. Herrick. The Innervation of the Chromatophores.! The difficulties attending the investigation of the innervation of the chromatophores have been partially overcome by Professor Eberth 1EBERTH. Anat. Anz., Erginzungsheft VIII, 1893. BaLlLowitz. Do. clx JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. by treating Golgi preparations with chlorine water to bleach the pig- ment. One to several medullated fibres pass toward the chromato- phore. Small ones are innervated by a single fibre, which divides into two or more fine varicose branches, which terminate in tuberosi- ties on the surface of the chromatophore. Lower down these branches anastomose. From this anastomosis are given off numerous fine fibres which end in dendrites and constitute the specific termini of the nerves of the chromatophores. E. Ballowitz has investigated the same problem by the same method, with essentially similar results but with important additions. The chromatophores contain two kinds of pigment, usually brown and black. It isa common belief that the pigment cells possess amceboid motions by which they are able to contract or expand the pigment diffused through their bodies, the latter being effected by thrusting out protoplasmic processes into adjacent intercellular spaces. It has, however, been recently shown that these protoplasmic processes are permanently expanded and that the pigment granules migrate within the cell. These granules are radially arranged about a central ‘‘attraction sphere.” All chromatophores are in nervous con- nections with each other and with their nerves by anastomoses, very much as described above. The anastomosing, varicose branchlets of the terminal dendrites, however, from an extensive nerve-complex both upon and within the cells. In cells with extended pigment masses nerve fibrillae can be seen spread out on both upper and lower walls of the cell, with some branches passing clear through the cells to join the reticulum of the opposite side, sometimes branching within the cells and _ terminating in tuberosities. These inter-cellular termini are very numerous in all parts of the cell. They, however, are in no way related to the ‘‘at- traction sphere” nor to the nucleus of the cell. The cell protoplasm, then, is the medium of innervation of the pigment granules. In the ‘‘contracted” pigment cells the pigment granules are all massed at the centre of the cell, obscuring the nerve termini in that region but leaving those in the other parts of the cell very clear and unobstructed. Ganglion Cells and Nerve Termini in the Ventricle of the Heart.! Dr. Berkley has been applying the rapid Golgi and _picric-acid- osmium-bichromate methods to the study of the nervous structures of 1 BERKLEY, A. J. On Complex Nerve Terminations and Ganglion Cells in the Muscular Tissue of the Heart Ventricle. Anat. Anzeiger 1X 1, 2. Literary Notices. clxi the ventricle in the mouse and white rat with results of a brilliancy characteristic of his recent work. A fine interlamellar net-work is spread through the whole thick- ness of the heart muscle and extends from the auriculo-ventricular groove to the extreme apex of the ventricle with fibres of medium and very small size. The main fibres extend generally in the direction of the axis of the muscular bundles, spreading out and giving off branches dichotomously as they proceed. These branches either join other fibrillz or send out terminal filaments with knob-like extremities either between the muscle fibres or on the bundle. In addition to the above are fibres of a larger calibre without varicosities or connections with the net-work. They follow undulating courses between the muscular spindles and end in large and intricate figures. In the path of these fibres, not far from the termination, is a ganglion cell of ovoid form. The author inclines to regard these as sensory termini. Between the sarcous elements are bipolar nerve cells. Their rami ramify between the muscular elements, in some cases with curious arborescent termini. Axis cylinders were notseen. These are regarded as sympathetic ele- ments. A large plexus of coarse ganglionic thickenings occurs among the nerve fibres between the muscular bundles of the ventricle, compara- ble to the plexus of the Auerbach in the intestine. The Primer of Philosophy.' Among the results of scientific progress during the last decade or two has been the dawning of the idea that everything is not explained by a few natural laws, an indefinite quantum of matter and time ad libitum. Thus we enter upon a period of reconciliation of philasophy and physical science, of religion and evolution. Whatever we may think of the early stages of the process, it is satisfactory to realize that monism is the recognition of the supremacy of the metaphysical and a proof that the human mind will not long remain content with a God-less or disarticulated universe. In the book before us we have an attempt to prepare the way for a reconciliation. Without sharing altogether in the author’s optimism respecting the immediate future of philosophy, or more particularly this philosophy, we do find much to commend, espec- ially in the vigorous disillusioning respecting sundry bits of hoary nonsense which are bruskly kicked out of the way. Translating the 1CaRus, PAUL. Primer of Philosophy, Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago, $1.00. clxii JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Kantian Anschauung by ‘at sight”? (that which we receive directly by sensation, our meaning-endowed feelings) the author has no use for intuition in the conventional sense. The data of experience ex- hibit three elements (1) the feelings—the element of awareness simply, (2) the forms of feeling—the various sensations, etc., (3) the meaning of feelings—representations and the objective world. The influence of Lotze may be seen in such a statement as ‘‘ The peculiarity of existences, consists in affecting other existen- ces and this constitutes its objectivity.” The thinking sub- ject appears to other thinking subjects as an object in an objective world. We are feelings, but we appear to other subjects as material bodies moving about in space. Admitting that it is difficult to conceive what the subjectivity of a flame or stone amounts to, he claims that ‘‘we know that in inorganic nature there must be some- thing analogous to our feelings on a lower scale.’’ While this is the basis of positivistic monism it is just this for which the critic seeks in vain for proof. Truth is defined as the adequateness of a mental relation—an agreement of a representation with the object representation. It is of the nature of mind to attempt to satisfy the con- ditions of relation and the mind therefore yearns after truth, which is the deepest impulse of the mind, for truth is the fulfilment of the mind. We are glad to agree with the author in his summary dismission of the axiom, than which a more abused word can scarcely be found, Very reasonably the childish quibble of some modern mathematicians as to the possibility that the sum of the angles in a triangle should be greater or less than 180 degrees is dismissed with the remark that this class of necessary formal truth rests on construction, i. e. definition. Defining space as the possibility of motion, he proceeds to lay the foundation for a new system of geometry as to the success of which there will be a variety of opinion. [More logical to us isa method which defines a point as the negation of motion i.e. as zero; all mo- tions therefore become plus quantities and #-dimentional space is pos- sible until zero is given a value, 0”. ‘This is done by defining the position of zero with respect to some other zero, o’, when o’o or o' becomes a line. Any given motion or direction once postulated be- comes a line-of reference and 7-dimentional space 1s then excluded. This empirical element in human geometry is gravitation. | The three-dimentional space we, like the author, regard as in- volved in the system by definition and not an arbitrary necessity of Literary Notices. cl xiii thought or nature. Upon the basis above suggested it would be easy to construct a geometry ignoring the tridimentional element. Reason originates by a differentiation of the formal and the sen- sory in experience; it is the method of our experience. Human rea- son is the reflection of the world reason, the former is rational only in so far as it agrees with the latter; it is a mental picture of certain qual- ities of reality. We do not find the treatment of reason wholly intel- ligible. The distinction insisted on between cause and reason on one hand and effect and consequent on the other is one which might well be more carefully observed. Causes are motions or happenings. Cause is not equal to the effect but the total amount of matter and energy is not altered. Cause is not mere succession it is the transfor- mation of energy from one form into another, it is another statement of the law of conservation of energy. ‘¢ A world of which all events are factors of causation is necessarily a teleological world—a world of law, an orderly arranged universe, a cosmos. ‘The actions of a free man are the immediate expressions of his character. The actions of a man that is not free are not the ex- pressions of his character. The ultimate springs of reality are spon. taneous forces and their manifestations are a true exhibit of the nature of his being. The spontaneity of nature is analogous to the action of a free will. Free will,then,is the uncoerced natural output of a man’s being under the given conditions. To the last section, that on psy- chology, we shall not, at present, refer. Enough has been quoted to show that there is much suggestive and some really valuable matter in the book, which, like others from the same pen, is characterized by an earnestness and directness which convince us of sincerity back of it. With the ultimate applications we cannot agree but trust that the sys- tem may serve to hasten the total collapse of that which passes for metaphysics in many of our colleges. [Ce is Te Injuries of the Temporal Lobe.’ ‘¢Tt has been shown by clinical and experimental investigations that deaf-mutism may be caused not only by lesion of the peripheral organs either before or after the birth of the individual, but also by disease of the cerebrum, i. e. of the regions of the temporal lobe. ISEPPILLI, GUISEPPI. Affections of the Temporal Lobe, (1) a case of deaf- mutism, (2) of lesion of the left temporal lobe without verbal deafness in a left- handed man. Alenzst and Neurologist, X1V, 2. clxiv JoURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Anatomical researches on the central nervous system seem also to support this theory, an internal course for the auditory roots, sim- ilar to that of the optic nerves being demonstrated by the observations of such investigators as Flechsig, Bechtereu, Monakow, Zacher, &c. Ferrier cites two cases which confirm these researches, the con- clusion being that the acoustic nerves have their terminations in the temporal lobes and that bilateral lesions of these same lobes cause complete deafness.” Seppilli then reviews these observations and presents a new case which came under his direct observation—a case of a woman who was a deaf-mute from infancy. Lesion and atrophy were discovered upon autopsy, the medullary substance of the temporal lobes being almost entirely transformed into cicatricial tissue. Other adjacent parts were normal. The patient showed evidences of having been the victim of an encephalitic process from birth. In such cases the relation of deaf-mutism to lesions of the temporal lobes is evident. Now it is natural that when the temporal lobes which preside over the acoustic functions of language undergo a destructive lesion in early infancy, the formation of verbal acoustic ideas is entirely pre- vented, and in consequence of thus lacking the elements which serve for the development and elaboration of motor verbal ideas, mutism is necessarily produced. It has been affirmed with regard to motor aphasia that spoken language is a function of the left cerebral hemisphere, that is, a man in the act of speaking, as far as his brain is concerned, is left-handed. This theory is justified by the results of the investigation into several cases which can not be here detailed. Two sets of facts have been thus established : first, that a lesion of the right temporal lobe gives origin in left- handed people to verbal deafness, and that this is not caused in right- handed individuals. Second, that left-handed people are not the subjects of verbal deaf- ness unless the right temporal lobe is affected. From all which observations we may conclude that in left-handed people the acoustic center of language has its seat, not in the left, but in the right hemisphere. Nerve-endings in the Auditory Organ’ Professor Lenhossék has applied Golgi’s method to the Maculz 1M. v. LENHOSSEK. Die Nervendigungen im Gehérorgan. Azat. Anz. Lrgdnzungsheft, VIII, 1893. Literary Notices. clxv and cristz acustice of the mouse with results which confirm those of Retzius, that the nerves end free upon the hair-cells without entering their substance. The histogenetic, as well as the trophic centre of the acoustic fibres lies in the auditory ganglion, from whose bipolar nerve-cells one process passes mesally to break.up in a terminal den- drite within the so-called acusticus nidulus, another passes peripherally and ends similarly in intimate contact with the hair-cells. Spinal Ganglia in Amphibia.' The discovery of His that in the spinal ganglia the sensory nerves pass both centrally and peripherally from the neave-cell in the gang- lion and the motor nerves originate within the cord and effect no con- nections in the ganglion accounts for the fact that in the adult gangha no cells are found with more than two processes. Yet cells of the sympathic ganglia, which originate from the spinal ganglia, possess well-developed dendrites. This fact has led to the study of frog-larvee. In young stages, before the hind legs have appeared, numerous cells are found which possess several proceses, some provided with small but typical terminal dendrites. Further investigations are promised in the near future. Notes Upon Hysteria. From a series of important articles in the Archives de Neurologie we abstract such portions as may be of service to the theory and prac- -tical treatment of these too frequent maladies of an over differentiated society. We owe the greater part of these abstracts to Mr. Charles B. White. First, then, definitions, as supplied by M. Pierre Janet in an article On some Recent Definitions of Hysteria.” Laségue says: Under the name of hysteria is designated provi- sionally a uniform number of nervous manifestations preferredly in young women, encountered very rarely in young men, and not de- pendent upon any known lesion of nervous centers. M. Babinski shows that it is possible to make this diagnonsis in studying hysteria : 1.—Symptomatic aspect. _2.—Evolution. 3 —Aetiology. 4.— The influence of various treatments. 5.—The insight furnished by experimentation upon the hypnotics. ‘DissE J. Ueber die Spinal-ganglien der Amphibien. * > $959 * > one oe “ ee _« tate! =! ike ie ° aes aohe nat pte les: * ¥ re tet