UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Volume V.-JULY to DECEMBER, 1922 Published by the DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE PRETORIA PRETORIA The Goveknmknt Printing and Stationery Office. 1923 I'RINTICO BY THP) GOVKUNMENT PRINTER, PRETORIA. 84;{— 1/2/23— 7,000. INDEX TO THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VOLUMF, V.-JULY TO DECEMBER, 1922. [Illustrated articles are indicated by an asterisk.] PAGE Acute Tympanites or Hoven in Cattle * ... ... ... ... 292,346 Advantages of the Silatre S3 stem ... ... ... ... ... 391.422 Advertising the Union's Raw Products ... ... ... ... 13, 290 Advice, Misapplied, for Destruction of Insects... ... ... ... ... 397 Advisory Board ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 48.5 Agarious campest7-is : Mushrooms, Toadstools, etc. ... ... ... ... 343 AffcnofCfllin, spp. : Cluster Bugs in Trees ... ... ... ... ... 398 Agriculture, Training of Teachers in ... ... ... ... ... ... 314 Agricultural and Slaked Lime ... ... ... ... ... ... 470 Agricultural Crisis, The : American Investigations with Application to South Africa 317 Agricultural Economics, Division of ... ... ... ... ... ... 488 Agricultural Education : The Schools ... ... ... ... ... 487 Agricultural Education and Research : ( o-ordination ... ... ... ... 486 Agricultural Education and Teachers' Certiticates ... ... ... ... 414 Agricultural Experiment : Interpretation, etc. ... ... ... 390,457 Agricultural Inquiries and Replies ... ... ... ... 97,181,276,369,467 j^ gricvltural Journal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 504 Agricu tural Pests Act (Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union — II) ... 303, 351 Agricultural Produce Export Act (Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union — III) ... 441 Agricultural Produce Grading Act (Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union — III) 445, 485 Agricultural Societies, Grants to ... ... ... ... ... ... 504 Agroi'yrum ve/)em : Quack Grass ... ... ... ... ... ... 399 Analysis of Rock Samples from Harding ... ... ... ... ... 408 Angora Goats, Export of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 495 Ant, The House ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 109 Anthrax Dii^ease ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 491 Anthrax : Contraction by Natives ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 Anthrax Control : Important Conference ... ... ... ... ... 394 Anthrax Spore Vaccine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 376 Applebranch Blister ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 306 Aranjia upricAfera, Brot. : A Potential Weed * ... ... ... 98, 151 Argemo7i/' iiie.ricana : Mexican Poppy Seed as a Drug ... ... ... ... 207 Arsenical Spray: Experiments for the Control of Codling Moth in Pears at Elsenburg 303, 360 Artichoke, Globe ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 Artichoke, Cultivation of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 374 Artichokes for Pigs ... ... .., ... ... ... ... 316 Arund-o doTM-r: Spanish Reed ... ... ... ... ... ... 205 Axclepi'ig friiticosa : Wild Cotton ... ..-. ... ... ... ... 281 Australian Wheat Market ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 Avocados Defoliated by Thrips ... ... ... ... ... ..- 20 Bacon Curing : Recipes for Diy and Pickle ... ... ... ... ... 313 Bacon, Production of ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• "I'JS Baeterium tuinefaciewi : Crown Gall ... ... ... ... ••• 188 Bagworm, Wattle ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 20 Journal of the Department op Agriculture. PAGE Basic Slag : Altered Conipositi( in ... ... ... ... ... ...15,76 Basic Slag or Superphosphates ... ... ... ... ... ... 280 Bathurst Experiment Station ... ... ... ... ... :<(), 487 Beans. Commercial ... ... ••- ••• ••• ■•• ••• 316 Beans, Oversea Market for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 199 Beans, Weevils in ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 278 Beetles, Cantharidin, Export of ... ... ... :.. ... ... 98 Berkshire and Large Black Pigs, Weights of Pure-Bred... ... ... ... 283 Blister on Apple Branches ... ... ... ... ... ■■• ••. 30(> Blow Fly banger in Sheej) in South Africa - II * ... ... ... H'.M, 449 Blown Cheese ... ... ... -.. ••• •■■ •■• ... 371 Bonemeal, Value of ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 472 Book-keeping ... ... ... ... ... ••• •■• ••• 1^6 Books, Loan of, from Library : Hegiilations ... ... ... ... ... 99 Borer, Lily, in Natal ... ... ... ... ... .•• •■• 19 "Bothalia," Parr, II ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 Braaking and Hillside Work, Plough f?r ... ... ... ... ... 379 Bradford Technical College and South African Students ... ... ... 112 Brands, Registration of ' ... ... ... ... ... ••■ ••• ^^^ Brewers' Grains and Hominy Chop ... ... ... ... ... ... 375 Brithys paricreat'd: Lily I3orer ... ... ... ... ... •■■ 19 Broinus loUdenori and Pkalarh bnl/wKti : Winter Grasses at Grcenkloof Dry Land Experiment Station ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 400 Brown Fleck, Inte.nal, in Potatoes ... ... ... ... ... ... 399 Burdizzo Pincers, Castration of Animals with * ... ... ... 388,415 Butterfat in Milk, Substitute for ... ... ... ... ... ... 316 Butter, Preserving of, for Home use ... ... ... ... ... ... 308 Butter Production... ... ... ... ... ... ••■ ••• 497 Cabbage Diseases ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ••• 2'6 Calving and Calf Diseases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34 Cango Yellow Flint Maize ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 189 Cmning of Vegetables and Fruit in the Home * ... ... ... 390,429 Cautharadin Beetles, Expo] t of ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 ■Cape Aloes as a Tonic for Stock ... ... ... ... ... ... 474 Cape Gooseberry ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ■•. 181 Cassava ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ^^ Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers * ... ... ... 388,415 Castration of Pigs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 184 Caterpillar (Cycad Looper) in Natal ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Centrifugal Pumps ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 275 Cheese, "Blown" ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 371 Cheese Defects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 277 Cheese-making ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 497 Cheese-making. Starter for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 277 Cheese, Mildew in... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 182 Chemical Fertilizers, Toxic Effect of. on Stock ... ... ' ... ... 208 Chemistiy Division, Organization of ... ... ... ... ... 310,489 Chickens, Worms in ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 185 Chinese Lucerne *... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30,402 Chrysomp/t/jlus aurantii : Red Scale in Pears ... ... ... 292, 337 Citrus Canker Eradication ... ... ... ... 89,192,287,369,466,493 Citrus Export: Advice on many points ... ... ... ... ... 75 Citrus Export : Defects*... ... ... ... ... ... ... 206 Citrus Kxport : Regulations ... .. ... ... ... ... 40 Citrus Export : Regulations, Evasion of ... ... ... ... ... 285 Citrus Fruit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 501 Citrus Fruit, Blemishes and Fungoid Growths in, in Californial ... ... ... 27 Citrus Growing : Fruit Rot ... ... ... ... ... ... 285 Citrus Gi'owing : Lessons from California ... ... ... ... ... 24 Citrus Growing : Manurial Experiments. Kat River ... ... ... ... 214 Citrus Psylla Pest and Frosts in California ... ... ... ... ...26,27 Citrus Thrips ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 304 Citrus Trees, Bearing Life of ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 Citrus Leaves and Ring Blotch ... ... ... ... ... ... 189 Clover: Hubam * ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 321 Index to Volume V. PAGE Cluster Bugs in Trtes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 398 Coal Ash for Lands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 472 Cockchafer Beetle : A Pest ... ... ... ... ... ... 397 Codling Moth : Arsenical Spray Experiments, ElseMl:)uri: ... ... 3'.), 360 Codling Moth, Bulletin on the Control of ... ... ... ... ... 303 Codling Moth, Control of, in Fruit Sheds * ... ... ... ... 200,245 Codling Moth, Infestations and Selection of Pear Varieties for Avoidance of ...37, 38 Codling Moth in Pears : Dusting versus Spraying * ... ... 39,102,176,371 Combretum Gum (^Erythmphyllum^ (used for larger plantings) ... ... ... 22 Commercial Beans... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 316 Confectionery Trade Overseas and South African Ground Nuts ... ... ...5, 100 Comotheciuin. cliomatuKporum : Applebranch Blister (crack) ... ... ... 306 Control of Anthrax : Important Conference ... ... ... ... ... 394 Control of Red Scale in Pear Orchards ... ... ... ... 292,337 Control of the Union's Export Trade... ... ... ... "... ... 389 Con'rolling Co-operative Effort ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 Co-operative Experiments with Farmers ... ... ... ... ... 315 Co-operative Societies Act ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 485 Cooperia punctata: C. pe.ctinata (species of Wire- Worm) and Swamp Disease (Nagana Investigations) ... ... ... ... ... ... 109 Cotton Breeding and Culture ... ... ... ... ... 401,503 Cotton Exports : Assistance to Industry ... ... ... ... ... ifi Cotton Growing Competitions and British Cotton Growers" Association ... ... 401 Cotton Growing in Zululand ... ... ... ... ... 370,400 Cottun Harvesting... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 29 Cotton Insects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 398 Cotttn Planters, Advice to Prospective ... ... ... ... ... 28 Cotton Seed Cake : feeding Value ... ... ... ... ... ... 282 Cotton Seed Meal as Feed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 369 Cotton Stainers and Cotton Staining ... ... ... ... ... 19,305 Cows, Sterility in ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 474 Cracking of Surface of Soil ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 375 Cream, First Grade and "Sleepy" ... ... ... ... ... ... 182 Cream, Grading of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 472 Crisis, the Agricultural, with Application to vSouth Africa ... ... ... 317 Crop and Market Intelligence ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 Cropping System for the Small Farmer ... ... ... ... ... 112 Crop Report ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 Crops in the Transkei ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 Crown Gall ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 188 Curing of Lemons ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 475 Curing of Tobacco : Different Methods •■' ... ... ... ... 104.131 Cycad (Palm) Looper Caterpillar in Natal ... ... ... ... ... 20 :Z)«6-M« Fly in Olives and Parasites ... ... ... ... ... ... 203 Dairy Courses : Special Success of, at Shows, etc. ... ... ... 111.414 Dairy Cow, The Profitable * ... ... ... ... ... ...3,50 Dairy Herd, Sire of Gootl Milking Strain for the ... ... ... ... 200 Dam Walls, Earthen Construction of... ... ... ... ... ... '1^'i Dam Walls, Earthen, and Trees ... ... ... ... ... ... 217 Deciduous Fruit Farming ... ... ... ... ... ... 181, 502 Departmental Activities : Notes from Divisions ... ... 17,108,203,304,397 Departmental Activities : Notes from Schools ... ... 29,111,209,311,401 Deterioration of Mohair ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 495 Development in the Poultry Industry, New ... ... ... ... ... 300 Die- Back in Ptoses... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 281 Different Methods of Curing Tobacco * ... ... ... ... 104, 131 Dip, Preparation of a Sheep ... ... ... ... ... ... 207 Diseases, Cabbage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 276 Diseases in Vegetable and Fodder Crops ... ... ... ... ... 23 Diseases of Stock Act, No. 14, 1911 (Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union — I) 202, 259 Diseases, Outbreaks of Animal ... ... ... ... 79.163.244,379.456 Disposal of Manure : A New Device * ... ... ... ... ... 387 Division of Agricultural Economics ... ... ... ... ... ... 488 Division of Chemistry ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 489 Division of Extension Work ... ... ... ... ... 392. 487 Journal op the Department op Agriculture, I'AGK Dodder in Lucerne ... ... ... • ... ... ... ... 279 Dried Fruit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 602 Dried Grapes, South African, for the United States — Organization of Trade ... 462 Dried Meat as a Poultry Feed ... ... ... ... ... ... 377 Drought in South Africa, The Great Problem of ... ... ... ...8, lit* Drought Stricken Districts : Railage of Live Stock ... ... ... ... 49 Dusting versus Spraying for Codling Moth Control * ... ... 39, 102, 176, 371 Eastern Transvaal Low Veld Soils ... ... ... ... ... ... 295 East Coast Fever in the Transvaal ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 East Coast Fever, General Position of, 1922 ... ... ... ... 2 m 8, 490 Economics, Division of Agricultural ... ... ... ... ... ... 488 Education, Agiicultural ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 486 Egg Eaters (fowls) . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 276 Egg Expoit Tiaiic, Investigations into ... ... ... ... ... 198 Egg-producing Fowl, Best Strain of ... ... ... ... ... ... 185 Eggs, Export'of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 402,504 Kggs, Sioiing of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 373 Kiu-ephalartO'i : Palms and Cy*-ad Caterpillar ... ... ... ... 20 Entomology, StaflE of Division ol ... ... ... ... ... ... 489 Einlachna xiniUi.s : Grain Ladybird ... ... ... ... ... 203 Experiment, Agricultural, Its Value anti Interpretation ... ... 390,457 Experimental Results, Glen ... ... ... ... ... ... 36 h-xport of Citrus : New lletjulations ... ... ... ... ... 40 Export of Citrus : Defects* ... ... ... ... ... ... 206 Export of Dried Fruit : .\nieii(l(Ml Regulations ... ... ... ... 14 Export of Frieslands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 495 Export of Fruit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 Export of Grain ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 66 Export of Grapes : Results ot Experimental Shipments ... ... ... 231 Export of Luci-rue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 Export of Meat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 496 Exjjort of Oranges and Onions ... ... ... ... ... 117,202 Export of Pineapples ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 371 Export of South African Produce : An Essential ... ... ... ... 291 Export Tr.de of the Union, Control of ... ... ... ... ... 389 Exports and Imports of Articles of Food and Drink ... ... ... ... 480 Extending the Oversea Market ... ... ... ... ... ... 386 Extension, Division of : Departmental Development ... ... ... 392,487 Extension Work and Itinerant Activities at the Schools ... ... 113,413 Extermination and Life-History of the .Jackal * ... ... ... 194,231 Faculties of Agriculturi' and the Departmi'nt ... ... ... ... ... 486 Fallow, The Need to ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill False Packing of Wool ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 494 P"arm Buildings, Clieap Construction of : Pise-de-Terre * ... ... 201.268 Farrr.er, Pioblems of the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 Farmers' Co-operative Experiments ... ... ... ... ... ... 315 Farmers' Week : Sundays River Valley ... ... ... ... ... 114 Farniina: in the Transkeian Territories ... ... ... ... ... 31 Farm Manufacture of Skins, Raw Hide. Leather, and Riems * ... ... ...10, 5{» Fattening I'oultry for Table Purposes ... ... ... ... 386,447 Feathers, Origin of, fr.iui the Scales of Reptiles * ... ... ... ...I I, 67 Feature, A New : Agricultural Inquiries and Replies ... ... 97. 181. 276. 369, 467 Feed for Horses and Mules, Mealies as ... ... ... ... ... 377 Feeding Stuffs, New ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36 Feeding Value of Cotton Seed Cake ... ... ... ... ... ... 282 Fencing Act ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 486 Fertilizers, Continuous Maize Growing witli ... ... ... ... ... 470 Fertilizers, Mixing of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 376 Fertiliztrs : Ri-gulaiious ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 505 Fertilizing and Manuring ol Maize ... ... ... ... ... ... 408 Field Mice and Skunks ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 280 Field Operation."!, Cedara ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 316 Figtree Mcalie Bug ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Fineness and Length, Value of, in Wool ... ... ... ... ... 464 Index to Volume V. PAGE Finland, Uuion Representation in ... ... ... ... ... ... 30H Foaling Season and Joint-Ill ... ... ... ... ... ... 215 Foals, Navel III in... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 474 Fodder and Vegetable Crops, Diseases in ... ... ... ... ... 23 Fowl. Best Egg-producing Strain of ... ... .. ... ... ... 185 Fowls, Gapes in ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 468 Freight Rates to European Poits ... ... ... ... ... ... 480 Friesland.s, Sale of South African Bred ... ... ... ... ...4,495 Frost and Water Pipes ... ... ' ... ... ... ... ... 30 Frosts in Citrus Orchards in California ... ... ... ... ...26,27 Fruit Boxes, Faulty .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 414 B\'uit, Dried, Export : Amended Reguiations... ... ... ... ... 14 Fruit Export Act (Principal Agricultural Acts III) ... ... ... ... 439 Fruit Export Regulations, Evasion of ... ... ... ... ... 285 Fruit Exports ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 Fruit Farming, Deciduous ... ... ... ... ... ... 184,502 Fruit Fly, Spray for ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 372 Fruit Industry ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 501 Fiuit Levy and Inspection Fee ... ... ... ... ... ... 305 Fruit Sheds, Control of Codling Moth in '^ ... ... ... ... 200,245 Fruit, South African, Packing of ... ... ... ... ... ... 196 Fruit, South African, on the Continent : Position at Rotterdam ... ... 349 Fruit Trees and Weevils ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Fruit Trees, Moss or Lichens on ... ... ... ... ... ... 277 Fruit Trees, Spraying of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 183 Fungi, Wood Destroying, in Orchards ... ... ... ... 296, 364 Fungoid Growth (Lichens) in Citrus ... ... ... ... ... 374 Fusicladium, Spraying and Dusting for, 1921-22 Season ... ... 39, 176 Galls on Willow Trees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 473 Gallworms and Rootknot ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 Gape< in Fowls ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 468 Giizette, 'Sotes horn the ... ... ... ... ... 90, 191, 288, 38:', 478 Gelts, Mating of Young ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 378 Globe Artichoke ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 Glossina brevipalpls ; G. pallldipes : Tsetse Fly Studies, Zululand ... ... 203 Goats, Sheep and ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 489 Goats, Swiss Milk ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 Gooseberry, The Cape ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 Government Scholarships ... ... ... ... ... ... 103,488 Grain Ex|ioits ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 66 Grain Ladybirds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 203 Grants to Agricultural Societies ... ... ... ... ... ... 504 Grapes, Export of : Results of Experimental Shipments ... ... ... 231 Grapes, South African Dried, for the United States ... ... ... .., 462 Grass, Molasses, Experiments with, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 24 Grasses and Clovers : Experiments at Groenkloof Dry-fjand Experiment Station 400 Grasses, Fodder, When to Plant ... ... ... ... ... ... 475 Grazinji : Veld and Vegetation Studies ... ... ... ... ... 214 Great Drought Problem of South Africa, The ... ... ... ... ...8, 118 Green Manure ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 282 Griqualand West, Irrigation Farming in ... ... ... ... . . 315 Groot Constant'a Exi eriment Station ... ... ... ... ... 500 Ground Nu s, Market Overseas for ... ... ... ... ... ...6,100 Ground Nuts : Process of Pressing and Baling ... ... ... ... 6 Ground Nuts, South African : Oversea Confectionery Trade ... ... 100, 294 Guano ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .505 /{aematopinus suit : Lice on Pigs ... ... ... ... ... ... 216 Uaematopota : Biting Flies and Nagaua ... ... • ... ... ... HO Haemnnchiis confurtus (Wire Worm) and Swamp Disease (Nagana Investigations) ... '09 Hail, Protection against : "Parahails" ... ... ... ... ... 197 " Hajira" Seed Oats ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 189 IIp.imlntho^pi>riu,int'urcinum: Fungus Attacking Sutlan Gi-ass ... ... ... 206 Hermitage Wine-making ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Hides ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 495 Journal of the Department op Agriculture. Hvmalium : Uiidescrilted Species of Native Tree Home (^aiiniii;^ of Vegetables and Fruits * Hominy Chop and Brewers' (Jrains ... Honey Production : Bright Prospects Hoi'se-sickness Horses, Ticks on ... Horticulture, August -September House Ant, The Hoven or Acute Tympanites in Cattle : Improved Stomach Tube Hubam Clover '' ... Implements, Care uf Agricultural Imports and Exports of Articles of Food and Drink Index, The . /<'w/'?^<7/'.v Infertility of Soil around I'rees. Apjiarent Innovation at Agricultural Sho\v-^ Inoculation of Seeds Inquiries and Replies, .Vgricultural ... Insecticide, Refuse Tol>acco as Insect Pests, Inli-DiiuCtiun 3 30, 209 ... 315 1 05. 1 53 ... 113 Jackal. Life-History antl Extermination .Jersej' Bull, Selection of a ... Joiiit-IU and Foaling Journal of the Department ... 191,234 ... 46!) ... 215 ... 504 Kaffir Uivei', Lecturers' Visits to Kikuyu (Jrass Seed Killing Pigs, Methods of Lads, Maize Growing Competition for Ladybird. Grain ... Large Black and Berkshire Pure-Bred Pigs, Weights of... Leather, Raw Hide and Riems : Manufacture, Tanning, and Braying Lectures in the Kaffir River Valley ... Lecturing Tours, Grootfontein, 1922 ... Legumes, Nitrates versus Lemons, Curing of... Length and Fineness in W'ool, Value of Levy and Inspection Fee on Export Fruit Library for the Farmer and Loan of Books ... Lice on Pigs Life-History and Extermination of the Jackal * Life-History of the Wire Wtrm of Sheep Lily Borer in Natal Lime, Agricultural and Slaked Lime, Carbonate of, and Slaked for the Laud ... Lime Unnecessary for Maize or Potatoes Literature, Recent Agricultuial Live Stock in the Ti'anskei ... Loan of Books : Regulations Locust Eggs : Destroying by Ploughing Locu.st Invasion : Season 1921-22 * Looper Caterpillar on Cycad Palms in Natal ... Low Veld Soils of the Eastern Transvaal Lucerne, Dodder in Lucerne Gi'owing, Soil Conditions for Lucerne in the Karroo, Nurse Crop for ... 314 ... 188 ... 313 ... 315 ... 203 ... 283 ...10.55 ... 314 ... 113 ... 2S1 ... 475 ... 464 ... 305 99 ... 216 194.234 290. 326 19 ... I70 ... 377 ... 188 384 31 99 373 192 20 295 279 467 279 192.384 2KS. Index to Volume V. PAGE Lucerne Meal : Oversea Trade Possibilities ... ... ... ... ... 389 Lucerne: Pump for Irrigating ... ... ... ... ... ... 278 Lucerne : Spring Cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... 215 Lucrative Pig Farming— IT, III ■= ... ... ... ... ...12, 80. lUG, 164 Lungworm in Pigs ... ... ... ... ... ••. ••. 4G9 Maize ... ... ... ... ... ... .•• ••• ••■ i^^ Maize, Cango Yellow Flint ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 189 Maize, Fertilizing and Manuring of ... ... ... ... ... ... 408 Maize Growing Competition for Lads ... ... ... ... ... 31.5 Maize Growing, Continuous, with Fertilizers ... ... ... ... ... 470 Maize, Sahara Yellow Dent... ... ... ... ... ■■• ••• 20 Maize Stalk Borer, The ... ... ... ... ■ ... ... 111,412 Maize, Stored, Contiol of Moisture in ... ... ... ... ... 370 Maize, Sunflower, Sorghum, and Sudan (irass for Fodder ... ... ... 216 Maize, Wisconsin White Dent ... ... ... ... ••• ... 471 Maize, Yellow, for Cattle, etc. ... ... ... ■■• ■•• ••■ 467 Maniliot utilU-sima ; M. jmlniata : Cassava in South Africa ... ... ... 22 Manure Disposal : A New Device *... ... ... ... ■-. ••• 387 Manurial Experiments with Citrus in the Kat River Valley ... ... ... 214 Marqaropux loitkeini, Ka,r?,c\\.: Tick on Horses ... ... ... ... 470 Market Prices, Local ... ... ... ... ... ... 94,482 Market, The Local ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95 Mating of Young Gelts ... ... ... ... ... ..- ••• 378 Mealie Bug in Fig Trees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Mealies as Feed for Horses and Mules ... ... ... ... ... 377 Meat Export ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ■•. 496 Meat Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ... 9ii<, Lo.ss of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 183 Pipes, Roots getting into .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 253 Pise-de-Terre : Cheap Construction of Farm Buildings * ... ... 201,268 Pit Silo, Construction of ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 186 Plague ea ... ... ... ... ...5,100 South African Produce, Victualling Shi|)S with ... ... ... ... 342 South African Wines in Competition ... ... ... ... ... •■. 14 South African Wool, Quality of, etc. ... ... ... ... ■•■ ...9,106 Spanish Reed, Overseas demand for ... ... ... ... ... ••• 205 Spray, Arsenical, Experiments for C'ontrol of Codling Moth. Elsenbuig ... 176, 360 Spraying and Dusting for Fusicladium. 1921 22 Season... ... ... 39,102,176 ."^praying of Fruit Trees ... ... ... ... ... ••• •■• 1^^ Index to Volume V. xi PAGE Stacking of Oei-eals * ... ... ... ... ..- ••• ••• 405 Staff; Appointments, Changes, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 89,381,477 Staff, Department of Agriculture : Abridged List, and Total Number of Officers .58.5, 589 Starter for Cheese-making ... ... ... ... ... ... ••■ 277 Sterility in Cows ... ... ... ... ... ... ... •■• 474 Sterility and Overfeeding in Government Farm Stock ... ... ... ... 32 Steyn^^burg Wool Growers' Association ... ... ... ... ... 402 Stpcfe Sales, Annual, at Schools of Agriculture... ... ... ... ... 401 Stone-lined Reservoirs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 213 Storage and Sprouting of Potatoes for Karroo Crop ''' ... ... ... ... 311 Subsoil Inspection, Value of ... ... ... ... ... ... 413 Substitute for Buiter Fat in Milk ... ... ... ... ... ... 316 Sudan Grass, Diseases of ... ... ... ... ... ... ■■. 206 Sudan Grass, Mealies, Sorghuui, and Sunflower for Fodder ... ... ... 216 Sudan Grass. Sowings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 214 Suffolk Down Rams, Sale of. at Elsenl>uig ... ... ... ... ... 217 Suffolk- Persian Sheep for Muttou =■' ... ... ... ... ... ... 410 Sunflowers as Silage ... ... ... ... ... ... •.• 378 Sunscald in Tiees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35 Superphosphates or Basic Slag ... ... ... ... ... ... 280 Swamp Diseas-e (Munca) and Nagana ... ... ... ... ... 109 Swiss Milk Goats in South Afric".. ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 Synchitrium e/tdoijinlifiini, Perc; Wart Disease in Potatoes ... ... ... 23 Taianm : Biting Flies and Nagana ... ... ... ... ... ... HO Tanning and Braying of Skins and the Manufacture of Raw Hide, Leather, andRiems on the Farm * ... ... ... ... ... ... ...10,55 Taphrina deformans, Yck\.:Tvl. hQai Qnrl ... ... ... • ... ... 307 Tartar Emetic Treatment and Nagana ... ... ... ... 110,201,249 Teachers, Training of, in Agriculture ... ... ... ... ... ... 314 Technical College : Bradford and South African Students ... ... ... 112 Technical Services, Payment for ... ... ... ... ... ... 489 Thos iiipsinnela.i, The .Jackal * — Life-history and Extermination ... ... 194, 234 Thrips defoliating Avocados... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Thrips in Citrus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 304 Ticks on Horses ... ... ... ... ... ... ••. 470 Tobacco ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 503 Tobacco Curing, Different Method, of * ... ... ... 104,131 Tonic for Stock, " Cape Aloes " as ... ... ... ... ... . ••. 474 Toxic effect of Chemical Fertilizers on Stock ... ... ... ... ... 208 Training Farms ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••■ 488 Transkeian Territoiies. Farming in ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 Tree Planting and Soil Fertility ... ... ... ... ... 195,254 Trees and Earthen Dam Walls ... ... ... ... ... ... 217 Trees, Measuring Height of ... ... ... ... ... ... 280 Trees, Sunscald in ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34 Trial Shipments of South African Onions ... ... ... ... ... 4 Trypanosoma congidenKe : TV. Z»?'wcei and Nagana ... ... ... ... 110 Tsetse Fly, Studies in Zululand ... ... ... ... ... 203, 391, 492 Turkeys, To Prevent Flying of ... ... ... ... ... ... 278 Tympanites, Acute, or, Hoven in Cattle * ... ... ... ... 292,346 Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education), Retirement of ... ... ... 385 Union's Products, Raw, Advertising of the ... ... ... ... ... 290 Vegetable and Fodder Crops, Diseases in ... ... ... ... .•• 23 Vegetable Garden ... ... ... ... ... •■• .•• ••. ^^ Vegetable Seeds, Purity of ... ... ... ... ... .•• .•• 282 Vegetables and Fruits, Home Canning of * ... ... ... ... 390,429 Veterinary Services, Payment for ... ... ... ... ••. .-. 489 Veld Grazing and Vegetation Studies ... ... ... ... ••• 214 Victualling Ships with South African Produce ... ... ... ... ••• 342 Vigilance Committees and Scab Eradication ... ... ... ... ••• 208 Viticulture ... ... ... ... ... ••■ •• ••• 499 Journal of The Department op Agriculture. of ent Station Wart Disease in Potatoes Water Pipes and Frost Wattle Bag Worm, The Weather, Monthly Reports ... Weed, A Potential * Weevils and Fruit Trees WeeviiH in Beans ... Wheat and Oats ... Wheat Experiments, P>athurst Station Wheat Louse or Aphis Wheat Soils of Zeerust, Irrigated Wild Cotton Wildfire in Tobacco Willow Trees, Galls on Wine, Hermitage, Making of Wine, Maiket for ... Wine, South Afriran, in Competition... Wine, Spirits, and Vinegar Act, Administration Winkelspruit Experiment Station, Closing of .. Winter Grasses : Groenklnof Dry-land Experi Winter Ploughing ... Winter Vacation Short Courses, 1922... Wire Wnim it Sheep, Life-history of Wisconsin White Dent Maize Wood -destroying Fungi in Orchards ... Wool and Mohair ... Wool: Disinfection against Anthrax Wool Growers' Associations... Wool, South African, Oversea comment on Wool, South African, Quality of Wool, U.S.A., Tariff Wool, V.ilue of Fineness and Le-igth in World Crops Worms in Chickens Worms in Pigs Yellow Maize for Cattle, etc. Zeerust Wheat. Soils, Irrigated Zerenopsis leojjardina : Looper Caterpillar and Palms ... PA OK . 23 493 30 20 91 98 151 19 278 499 404 398 468 29.5 2«1 401 473 309 499 14 .500 487 400 187 293 290 ,326 471 296 ,364 493 491 101 9 106 494 464 93 185 277 467 295 ... 20 AUTHORS' INDEX TO Volume V of the Journal. PAGE Aird, P. B., Engineer, Cedara School of Agriculture — Pise-de-Terre * ... ... 268 Bigalke, R., M.A., Lecturer in Zoology, Glen School of Agriculture — Common Potato Pest8 * ... ... \.. ... ... ... ... ... 170 Bosman, G. J., B.Sc.Ag., Technical Assistant, Department of Agriculture — Potato Culture ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 41 Bottomley, A. M., B.A., Mycologist, Division of Botany — Mushroom Growing ... 343 Curson, H. H., M.R.C.V.S., Research Officer, Nagana Investigation, Zuluiaiid^ Nagana and the Tartar Emetic Treatment ... ... ... ... 249 Duerden, Prof. J. E., Ph.D., F.Z.S., Grootfontein School of Agriculture- The Origin of Feathers fi'om the Scales of Reptiles * ... ... ... ... ... 67 Enslin, B. G. L,, Chief, Division of Sheep and Wool — Mohair, Future Demand and How to Meet it ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 63 Ferguson, E. M., Lecturer in Domestic Science, Elsenburg Scliool of Agriculture — Canning of Vegetables and Fruit in the Home * ... ... ... ... 429 Jordaan, J. J., Poultry Instructor, Glen School of Agriculture— Intensive Poultry Keeping for Town Dwellers * ... ... ... ... ... ... 424 Juritz, Chas. F.. M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Chief, Division of Chemistry— Basic Slag : The Change in its Composition .. ... ... ... ... ... 76 Editorial, Journal of the Department of Agriculture — Principal Agricultural Acts of the Utiiou : I — Diseases of Stock Act ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.59 II — Agricultural Pests Act ... ... ... ... ... ... 351 III — The Laws Governing the Export of South African Produce ... .. 439 The Agricultural Crisis ... ... ... ... ... ... 317 Mackinnon, G. C, Field Instructor in Practical Agriculture, and W. F. Sfhlupp, Entomologist, Potchefstroom School of Agriculture — The Tanning and Braying of Skins and the Manufacture of Raw Hide, Leather, and Rienis * ... ... 55 Melle, H. A., B.A.(Ag.), N.D.A., Officer in Charge, Botanical Experiment Stations, Pretoria — Hubam Clover * ... ... ... ... ... ... 321 Mnrkel, "W. A. K., M.Sc, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, and Vice-Principal, El-en- '>urg School of Agriculture : Pig Farming in South Africa — II * Large Black ... ... ... 80 Pig Farming in South Africa — III * Berkshires... ... ... ... 164 jiunro, H. K., B.Sc, F.E.S.. Government Entomologist — The Sheep Blow Fly in South Africa— II * „. ... ... ... ... ... ... 449 Nash, S. W., Assistant in Poultry, Grootfontein School of Agriculture— Fattening Poultry for Table Purposes ... ... ... ... ... ... 447 Oosthuizen, J. du P., M.Sc.(Agr.), Manager, Experimental Farm, Rustenbm-g, and Assistant Chief, Tobacco and Cotton Division— Different Methods of Curing Tobacco * ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 131 Parish, E., B.Sc, Vice-Principal, Glen School of Agriculture- Advantages of the Silage System ... ... ... ... ••• 422 Agricultural Experiment ... ... ... ... ... ••• 467 Journal op the Department of Auriculture. I'ettey, F. W., B.A., I'li.D.. Entomologist, Elsenlnirg School of Agrk^ultiirc — The Control of Codling Moth in Penrs in South Afficu : Dusting versus Liquid Spraying* ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 176 The Control of Red Scale in Pear Orchards, 1920-21, 11)21 22 Seasons ... 337 The Control of Codling Moth — Arsenical Spniy Experiments at Elsenburg ... 361 Phillips, E. P.. M.A.. D.Sc. F.L.S , Division of Botany— A Potential Weed * ... 1.51 Futterill, V. A., M.A., Division of Botany — Plant Diseases iu the Western Province — VI — Wood -destroying Fungi in the Orchard * ... ... ... ... 36+ Rivers, 0., Officer in Charge of Sheep, Potchefstrooin School of Agriculture— Sheep Breeding for Ex|)ort ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 330 Roberts, Austin, Transvaal Museum — Life-history of the .Jackal '' ... ... 234 Rose, P. D. — The Value of Fineness and Length in Wool ... ... ... 464 Schlupp. W. F.. B.Sc. F.E.S., Entomologist, and G. C. Mackinnon. Field Instructor in Practical Agriculture, Potchefstroom School of Agriculture — The Tanning and Braying of Skins and the Manufactur.^ of Raw Hide, Leather, and Riems * ... o.'j Tui pill, H. W., B.A., Ph.D., Lecturer in Crops, Grootfontein School of Agriculture — L-rigation, its Relation to Crop Yields, Soil and Brak ... ... ... 1.53 Van Foreest, C, Live Stock Officer, Department of Agriculture — The Dairy Cow * .51 Veglia, Dr. F., Division of Veterinary Education and Research — Further Hints on the Casti'ation of Animals with the Burdizzcj Pincers * ... ... ... 415 Viljoen. P. R.. Dr. Med. Vet. (Berne), Division of Veterinary Education aud Re^earh — Acute Tympanites or Hoven in Cattle * ... ... ... ... 346 Williams, C. A., B.Sc , A.R.C.S., Chemist, CJedara School of Agriculture — Appjirent Infertility of the Soil around Trees ... ... ... ... ... 254 Williams. R. H., Officer in Charge, Locust Atlministration — Locusts : Season 1921-22 21 S PRINCIPAL CONTENTS Potato Culture. The Dairy Cow. The Tanning and Braying of Skins and the Manufacture of Raw-Hide Leather and Riems. Mohair: The Future Demand and How to Meet it. The Origin of Feathers from the Scales of Reptiles. Basic Slag : The Change in its Composition. Pig Farming — 11. Our More Important Breeds of Pigs. —The Large Black. STEWARTS AND LLOYDS (SOUTH AFRICA), LTD. TUBES AND FITTINGS P.O. Box 1195. P.O. Box 74. JOHANNESBURG. PRETORIA. P.O Box 131. P.O. Box 296. DURBAN. MARITZBURa | """"'" RRIGi National Gas Engine Co., Gas, Oil, and Petrol A M [1 W Engines. Ql DDI IT ON /ATER YOUR ILTY. AGENTS FOR : John Blake, Ltd., Hydraulic Rams. oUrrL Eagle Engineering Co., Ltd., Petrol Paraffin § ^F[j i Engines. 1 Thomas & Sons, Windmills and Pumps. Davey Paxman & Co., Stem Engines and ""^ping plants. Boilers. '^'^^ '-"^^^ AND POWER UNITS Gilbert Gilkes & Co., of every Water Turbines and description. Centrifugal Pumps. ■— Bell Bros., Ltd., Filter and Water-Softening Plants. j Glenfield & Kennedy, Hydraulic Specialities. 1 AND ADVICE ■ COST. i Mirrlees, Bickerton & estimates Day, Diesel Oil Engines. '""^^ op Clydesdale Steel Plates. u;c CONTENTS. JULY, 1922. Page N0TK8 ... ... ... ... •.. ••• ••• ^ Problems ol" the F:innrr — CcjiitroUiiig Co-operative Effort — The Profitable Dairy Cow — The Sale of South African P)rccl Frieslands — South African Onions : Trial Shipments — The Market Oversea for Ground-nuts — A Process for Pressing and I^aling Ground-nuts — Potato Culture in the Union — Rodents and Plague: A Menace to Aiiriculture— Wart Disease of Potatoes — The Great Problem of Drought in South Africa — An Oversea Comment on South African Wool — Skins, Raw-hide Leather and Riems : Farm Manufacture — Ostrich Feathers- and their Origin — Lucrative Pig Farming — Crop and Market Intelligence — Advertising the Union's I!aw Products — The Export of Dried Fruit: Amended Regulations — South African Wines in Competitiou — The Altered Composition of Basic Slag — Export of Cotton : Assistance to the Industrj' (page 16) — Citrus Export: New Regulation-^ (page 40) — Fruit Exports (page 40) — Drought-stricken Districts : Railage of Live Stock (page 49) —Plant Nirrseries in Quarantine as at Ist .June, 1922 (page54)— Exports of Grain, etc., 1921-1922 Period (page 66) — Citrus Export : Advice on many Points (page 75) — Honey Production : Bright Prospects (page 75) — Outbreaks of Animal Diseases : May, 1922 (page 79) — Citrus Canker Eradication (page 89) — Meat Statistics (page 96). Departmkntal Activities ... ... ... ... ... ... 17- Potato Cultui!k... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 The Daikv Cow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50' The Tanning anjj Braying of Skins and the Manufacture of Haw-hide Leathkr and RiEiis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55. Mohair ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6.3 The Origin of Feathers from the Scales of Reptiles... ... ... 67 Basic SLA(i : The CHAN(iE in it.s Composition ... ... ... ... 76- Pig Farming— II: Our More Important P.reeds of Pigs ... ... 80 The Vegetable Garden ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 87 The Poultry Yard Month by Month ... ... ... ... ... 88 Staff : Appointments, Changes, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 8!> Notes from the "Gazette" ... ... ... ... ... ... 90- The Weather ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91 The Oversea Market ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 92 World Crops ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... g^. Australian Wheat Market ... ... ... ... ... ... g.s. Crop Report ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ___ 93.. Local Market Prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 94 The Local Market ... ... ... ... .,, ... ... 95. DEPARTMENTAL NOTICES. STOCK SALKS. The oiumal sale of Government pedigree stock at the School of Agrieulture, Elsdibiirc; Mulders Vlei, will take place on Wednesday, lUk October, 1P22. The stock to be offered consists of — Cattle. — Frie.sland : About 6 hulls. Jersey: About 2 bulls and 1 cow. .S'/icep. ^Suffolk Down: About 10 rams. Murray Merino: About 8 rams and 25 ewes. rigs. — Large Black: About 5 boars and 15 sows. Berkshire; About 5 boars and 6 sows. Poultry, — A number of pens of ])ui('-liif(l poultry. All animals offered for sale have been sul)mitted to the; tuberculin test and have not reacted. Animals sold will not be conveyed to destination at the expense of the DejjartmtMit. No animal sold may be exported from the Uni(ui within two years frnm the 'date of purchase. For catalogue, and furthei- ])articulars, application should be made to the Principal at above address. ANNUAL SALES OF STOCK Will also be held as usual at — PoTCHEFSTROOM. : About beginning S(>pteml)er. Grootfontkin-, Middellnirg, Cape Province: About loth Septemlier. i'ull particulars of the animals to be offered at these sales are not yet avail- 3ible, but will be published later. ORANGE FREE STATE SCHOLARSHIPS KOR AGRJCULTIRAL STUDY. .Vpplications are herelty invited in respect of four scholarships being offered under Orange River Colony Act No. 34, 1909, for the following subjects: Animal Husbandry, Tobacco and Cotton, Agi-icultural Economics. These scholarships are only available for children of the inhabitants of the 'Orange Free State, and evidpnc(> of parentage should be submitted accordingly with the application. Applicants must at least have passed the University Matriculation, and should furnish certificates of conduct, health, date of birth, and educational ■qualifications, and state whether bilingual. Applications should be received not later ihan loth July, 1922, ])y tlie Secretary for Agriculture, Pretoria, from wliom further pai-ticidars may be •obtained. SPECIAL COURSK IX POULTRY. A Special Course in Poultry-keeping of five months" duration \\ ill be held at the School of Agriculture, Glen, Orange Fiee State, commencing on 24th Jidy, 1922. The course will be open to both men and women. Terms: £25 for the course (tuition, board, lodging, washing, and ordinaiy medical attendance inclusive). Further particulars mav b(> obtained from the I'lincipal :it ab(i\ i' address. GOVERNMENT IRAINING FARM, GLIL\ PARK, INDWE, CAPE PROVINCE. There are several vacancies for students at the above farm. Application for admission and particulais should be made to the Advisory Officer for Agricultui'al Settlers, 71 Parliament Street, Capetown. The course is of a purely practical nature and lasts twelve months. It is "free to inhabitants of the Union, but overseas students (if accommodation for them i.s availalile) are Charged £50, which is refunded if the student completes "the course satisfactorily and subsequently settles on the land in the Union. LIBRAK'V NEW YORK BOl ANJCAL Journal of the Department OF Agriculture. Vol. v. JULY, 1922. No. 1. Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture, Union of South Africa. Editor: C. Vi. Klcrck. Subscription: Within the Union and South-West Africa, 5s, (otherwise Gs,) per annum, post free, payable in advance. Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government Printer, Pretoria. NOTES. Problems of the Farmer. The farmer naturally looks to the Department for advice on matters concerning his crops, live stock, etc., and many letters are daily received from all parts of the Union, which reflect the problems of tiie day, and which are attended to by the various officers versed in the subjects in question. The Department welcomes correspon- dence of this nature : for the vastness of the country makes it impos- sible for the limited number of available officers to get in frequent direct touch with every farmer for the purpose of advising him on the many matters neces^sary to his progress. It does expect, however, that through the medium of its chief mouthpiece, the Journal, farmers in the earnest prosecution of their industry will accept the means thus offered of keeping in touch with the Avork of the Depart- ment charged with the furtherance of their interests. In order, therefore, to enable farmers to benefit by the advice that is given to others concerned perhaps with similar problems, a section in future issues of the Journal will be set aside for puljlishing inquiries made by farmers throughout the Union, together with the Departinent's replies thereto. These inquiries will be selected from those considered into be of the most general interest, and will cover a wide range of gSubjects. ■ Both question and answer will be given in a concise form. S^y this means it is hoped to make available seasonable advice in a r-.forni that can readily be absorbed, and the Department trusts that .farmers generally will make use of and benefit by the specially selected information that will thus be provided. : 1 2 Journal or the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. Controlling Co-operative Effort. The days of individualistic and nomadic farming are past, ar.d the progress of the years, hastened by the economic upheaval that has recently shaken the world, has brought at the present time to South Africa the recognition of the co-operative principle, that foundation of mutual trust from Avhich our future prosperity will advance with accelerated speed. Farmers have unmistakably wakened to the need of organizing their business, and anxious now to secure the benefits that co-operative effort offers them, are moving in a direction that will lead to the formation of numerous co-opera- tive bodies throughout the Union. The Government is fostering a movement fraught with so much of moment to the agricultural development of the country, and a legislative measure dfsisned to this end is now before Parliament. But co-operative effort may be hampered by a multiplicity of bodies having, indeed, similar objects but working independently. This has been seen by far-sighted leaders of the movement, and representatives of various co-operative and other agricultural bodies came together last January at De Aar with the object of reconciling the work of the various bodies and bringing about, if not an amalgama- tion, then at least a federal organization. Following this a further meeting took place at Bloemfontein in February (attended by representatives of certain sections only), after which, on the suggestion of the Secretary for Agriculture negotiations ensued between the South African Agricultural Union and other organiza- tions regarding the next steps to be taken in furtherance of this very important object. As a result a special conference under the auspices of the Union referred to met at Johannesburg last April to devise a scheme that would ensure the cohesion of the co-operative bodies already in existence and provide for those of the future. The aim was to prevent the formation of bodies with similar objects working independently : such, it was felt, could only be attained by providing at the outset a scheme of cohesion among all present bodies and of definite spheres for each, or for all to work under a central authority. The Johannesburg conference advanced the matter a stage further. At it the disability of sectional organization only, as at present, and the advantages of some foi'm of central control, were discussed at length. It was expressed that this central organi- zation should be essentially of a business nature, and its functions should include important duties concerning the oversea market, railway and sea freights, insurance, etc. Finally, it was decided that steps should be taken with all expedition to form what was termed the " Central Federal Board," which would be representa- tive of co-operative institutions, and arrangements were made for a fully representative meeting at Bloemfontein, on the 31st May, for the purpose of drafting a constitution for the proposed Board. It was also decided to request the South African Agricultural Union (the executive of which forms the South African Agricultural Advisory Board) to modify and alter its constitution in order to allow the proposed Central Federal Board to be represented, when constituted, on the Advisory Board. The meeting at Bloemfontein took place as arranged, when, according to advice received, the constitution was dulv discussed Notes. 3 and drafted for the purpose first of submitting' it for consideration to all bodies concerned ; thereafter it is to be finally deliberated upon by a conference composed of such bodies, the meeting- to be arrang-ed by the South African Agricultural Union. The Profitable Dairy Cow. To those who have not seen it Ave Avould recomme]id a perusal of the article that appeared in the May, 1922, issue of the Journal entitled " The Dairy Industry in South Africa," tog-etber with that very useful supplement, contained in the same issue, "The Feeding and Management of Dairy Cattle." At the present stage in the undovibted onward movement of dairy farming in this country, when farmers are realizing the need of business-like co-operation in reducing costs of production to a minimum and when prevailing prices call for the utinost discrimination between the profitable cow and the one that does not or has ceased to pay, it is imperative that dairy farmers should avail themselves of the advice that the Depart- ment is able to impart in the furtherance of their interests. Follow- ing, therefore, the articles referred to above, there is published in this issue one by Mr. Van Foreest, the Live Stock Officer of the Department, dealing with the points of the dairy cow and the qualities to be sought in selecting the one that is likely to give a good return. The three qualities emphasized by Mr. Van Foreest as essential in a good dairy cow are, first, constitution, the ability to thrive under her local conditions; second, the production, given a good sire, over a period of years of calves of merit; and, third, a good milk yield. The writer of the article has had considerable experience, and the various points which he sets out should be borne in mind by present and prospective dairy farmers. In this connec- tion farmers will find the keeping' of records and testing of their cows, for the purpose of ascertaining the annual production of milk and butter-fat of each cow, an invaluable practice. By this means the poor and unprofitable cow can be detected and removed from the herd, so that the future herd will be built up from the progeny of cows that give a large yield of milk rich in fat. This practice originated thirty years ago in Denmark, and has proved of such benefit that it is now carried out in all parts of the world where dairying is looked upon as an important industry. In the Union it has made gratifying progress. Inaugurated under the Friesland Cattle Breeders' Association, the milk record scheme to-day is recognized by all pure-bred herds, irrespective of any particular breed. The work of supervizing the taking of milk records of pure- bred herds in the Union is carried out by tlie Dairy Division of the Department, from which full particulars may be obtained. The need for expanding our markets for dairy produce, and in the prosecution thereof the competition that is to be encountered from other countries well versed in the art of the industry, demand the application of modern and business-like methods on the part of the Union's dairy farmers. Looking ahead also to the possibilities of an export trade in dairy cows, breeders are advised of the necessity of possessing- official records of their animals. The future holds much promise, and with the assistance that the Department is able to render, combined with the intelligent labour of dairy farmers, the dairy industry may yet become pre-eminent in South Afirca. 4 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. The Sale of South African Bred Frieslands. Since writing the above, advice has been received of the signal success of the sale of South African bred Friesland cattle in England on the 8th June. Being the first of its kind, the export of tliis con- signment of cattle from the Union is in itself an epoch, and the grati- fying result of the sale gives it added prominence. The total sum realized was £103,152, an average for the 81 lots of £1273. The highest price, £4515, was paid for a two-year-old heifer; tlie top price for a bull was £4095, and for a heifer of 5 months £1837. 10s. was paid. It is very satisfactory to know that pure-bred cattle of South Africa can command such large prices in meeting the need of English breeders for new blood, and it augurs well also for future dairy development in the Union that the country already possesses founda- tion live stock of such higli standard. South African Onions : Trial Shipments. Two trial consignments of onions were shipped early this year from the Union in order to test the London market. The larger consignment, one of 120 cases and crates, reached Covent Garden market on the 4th April and, according to a report by the 'J^iade Com- missioner, were of good ciuality and arrived in a satisfactory condi- tion. Irregulaiity in size was tlie only defect, some being fine specimens but others very small, which entailed resorting. The" principal package used was the standard orange box which appeared to be suitable and handy; the crates, however, were too bulky anTT heavy. The other shipment consisting of 20 boxes arrived on the 28th February, the package used being that usually employed for pineapples, and here also the onions were ungraded. The latter shipment arrived at a time when sujiplies were short, and realized 16s. per case of 50 lb., but the April consignment was not so fortunate as in the meantime very large supplies of Egyptian onions had come on the market and prices declined. However, small cases weighing from 50 to 56 lb. fetched from 8s. to 10s., and a few 12s., the crates making from 25s. to 30s. The future prospects for this trade, says the Trade Commissioner, are to some extent problematical and depend entirely upon tlie crop conditions of the season. For instance, during the past year there was a general shortage of onions in Europe, and supplies from Spain finished very early while the Egyptian supply was late. There was, therefore, a good market for onions during January and February last, a period when in a normal season the market would be catered for by Spanish supplies. It seems, therefore, that shipments from the Union should reach the market during the above monihs and not later, although some competition from Spanish supplies might be encountered in a normal seascm. But the season of the latter would then be closing, and the fresh South African product should be sold at remunerative prices. It is a matter where advice would be needed from oversea early in the season as to the most opportune time to send forward supplies from the Union. In making future consignments, Mr. Canham recommends that they should be graded into three grades, viz.: first, large; second, medium; and third, small. Notes. 5 The Market Oversea for Ground-nuts. Among the ao-ricultiiral indiistries of the Union that have in recent years progressed to a stage where local consumption cannot cope with the supply is the growing of ground-nuts (peanuts or monkey-nuts), and producers to-day are engaged in Avays and means for the disposal of their crop. In this connection reference was made in the February, 1922, issue of the Journal to tlie scope offered by the European market for the sale of the South African product and of the large quantities of ground-nuts imported into hhirope every year. Since then matters have progressed, railway rates have been reduced, and the value of the industry has come prominently before the community. The question of exjjort is of paramount importance, and an oversea trade has yet to be begun. We are only in the experimental and pioneer days of a possible large industry, and of our first efforts to gauge the value of our product mention must be made of two sample bags of shelled and unshelled " Virginian Bunch " ground-nuts forwarded by the Naboomspruit Farmers' Asso- ciation to the Trade Commissioner, London. A poition of these samples was sent to the Hull Oil Manufacturing Company, Limited, Hull, who made a very careful test of it, and their report, recently received, is most favourable. They state that the sample of decorticated nuts is an exceedingly fine one, and superior to any- thing that has yet been placed before them, being considered indeed superior to first-grade Chinese ground-nuts used only for edible and confectionery purposes. Tested as to oil content, the decorticated sample gave 46. OG per cent., with the free fatty acid in the oil at 0.24 per cent., it being tlie opinion of the company that the oil extracted was of a very high quality, and that though it would not fetch a higher price on the open marJcet than the ordinary oil of commerce as made from the dry Indian decorticated nuts, or the West African undecorticated and decorticated, it would, on account of its lowness in free fatty acid, sell more readily. The oil test gave 1 per cent, more than Indian dry decorticated or the Nigerian decorticated, and the value, therefore, of the South African sample for oil crushing or extraction purposes was placed at from 5s. to 7s. per ton more than Indian ground-nut kernels, which at that time were fetching £24 per ton c.i.f. United Kingdom ports in bags. The sample of undecorticated nuts was also reported to be exceed- ingly fine in appearance. The oil test showed 32.93 per cent., and the free fatty acid in the oil about normal, namely 0.46 per cent. The oil test showing 2 per cent, lower than West African undecorti- cated, it was estimated that the value of the South African article would be about 14s. to 15s. lower than that of the Gambia or Hefisque ground-nuts which were then fetching about £18 per ton to the United Kingdom and rather more to Continental ports. Commenting further on the samples sent to them, the company expressed the opinion that these ground-nuts were of such a high quality that they would readily be bought by the confectionery and fruit trade, and for this purpose would realize higher prices than for crushing or extraction. In China, it may be mentioned, the practice is to hand-pick the ground-nuts, reserving the better ones for the confectionery trade, and selling the remainder as second-grade to local mills for crushing. 6 Journal of the Bepaiitment ov Agriculture. — July, lt)22. A Process for Pressing and Baling Ground-nuts. In considering- tlie question of the export oversea of South African ground-nuts, the matter of packing- is an important one, and farmers interested are advised of a new process, the patent rig-hts of which are held by the Hull Oil Manufacturing- Company, Limited, the same company furnishing- the favourable report on the sample of South African g-round-nuts referred to elsewhere in these notes. Among the advantages of this process is, of course, the great economy in space, the volume of a bale of ground-nuts being- reduced from lOVs to 4'76 cubic feet, dependent on the origin and dryness of the nuts ; the weight of such a bale would be from 185 to 215 lb. In comparison with decorticated nuts, the baled nuts are said to have a slight advantage as regards space in relation to weight; in other words, a ton of decorticated nuts requires about 62 cubic feet, while nuts pressed under the new process would occupy only 56 cubic feet, or 6 feet greater than the space required to carry one ton weight of maize. This method of pressing, it is stated, will generally be welcomed by manufacturers. In addition to shipping and railage considera- tions the process is said to serve as a preservative by excluding air from the bale, and the presence of tlie shell itself not only accelerates, but lowers the cost of the expression or extraction of the oil. The process is arousing a good deal of interest, and the Trade Commissioner, who is keeping in touch with the owners, states that several West African firms which ship large quantities of nuts in their shells to the United Kingdom and France, are now negotiating for a supply of the presses. Potato Culture in the Union. Of the crops produced in the Union potatoes rank third in bulk, maize, according to the 1919-20 Census, being first and wheat second. Although the climate of the Union as a whole is not Avell suited to the production of potatoes, the greater portion being grown as a summer crop on dry lands, they do exceedingly well in some areas, but expansion is limited to the extent of the local market, which, together with exports to adjoining territories in Southern Africa, constitutes at present the sole outlet for the crop. Never- theless the part the vegetable plays in the daily regimen of the community provides a regular demand, and the crop is grown exten- sively in favoured localities. In view of requests for information dealing- generally Avith the cultivation of potatoes, Mr. Bosman, Technical Assistant of the Department, has contributed to this number of the Journal an article on the subject Avhich will be found useful by those engaged in, or who propose to take up, the growing of the crop. There are certain essentials, such as the quality of the seed sown and the preparation of the seed-bed, that must be properly carried out in order to ensure success, and these, based in a large measure on the results of experiments, are dealt with by the writer. The present one is to be followed in subsequent issues of the Journal by articles dealing with the insect and other pests to which potatoes are subject, so that combined they will serve as a useful guide to growers. Notes. 7 Rodents and Plague : A Menace to Agriculture. Farmers, and especially those in the districts of the Orange Free State where plague now prevails, are warned of the serious conse- quences to their farming operations that may result from a spread of the disease. In such event it may be necessary to hold up farm produce, and prevent the export of mealies, etc., from the infected areas. The disease is primarily a rat disease, and infection is carried from rat to man by fleas. There is. serious danger of spread of the disease by sick and dead rats in broken maize bags, forage, etc., and the Department of Public Health has been carrying on an active campaign against rodents, finding plague-infected rats on many farms and railway stations in the Bothaville, Kroonstad, Hoopstad, and Winburg Districts. It is very important therefore that farmers should co-operate with the Public Health Department in their efforts to prevent the spread of the disease, for depending on the success of the campaign is the question of prohibiting the movement of agricultural produce out of the infected districts. Not only as carriers of plague, but as destroyers of produce, rats and mice are a serious menace, and farmers throughout the country should keep their farms clear of them. For the information of farmers in the plague area, attention is drawn to the following regulation, a duty which should conscienti- ously be carried out : — " Fjvery person becoming aware of any sickness or mortality in rats, mice, cats, dogs, or other animals susceptible to plague, not due to poison or other obvious cause, shall forthwith report the facts to the local authority and to the magistrate or the plague medical officer or any justice of the peace or any police officer. The carcass of any such animal shall, before being moved or touched, be saturated with paraffin, and shall thereafter be kept for examina- tion." A useful pamphlet entitled "Prevention and Destruction of Eats and Mice " (TSTo. 238, Health) is obtainable on application to the Department of Public Health, Pretoria, and mention may also be made of Bulletin No. 4, 1921, "The Destruction of Rodents by Use of Poisons" (obtainable from this Office; price, 3d. prepaid). Both furnish information that will be found invaluable by the farmer in clearing his farm of a pest, the danger of which, unfortunately, is not vet sufficiently realized. Wart Disease of Potatoes, What is considered the most destructive pest of potatoes — wart disease — has been discovered in the Impendhle Division of Natal, and following the article on the subject that appeared in the May, 1922, issue of the Journal, attention is directed to Proclamation No. 90, 1922, which declares the farms " Castle Howard " and " Killaloe," in the Impendhle Division, as restricted areas from which no potato tubers or any parts of potato plants may be removed without special permission, and to the regulations published under Government Notice No. 912 of 1922, which apply to the above-restricted areas. Both are published in the Gazette of the 9th June, 1922. 8 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. The Great Problem of Drought in South Africa. It was in the October, 1920, issue of the Jmirnal that meiiiion was made of the appoiutmeut of a Commission to inquire into the best means of avoiding' losses by drought, and of the wide scope of inquiry embraced in its terms of reference. Since then the Commission has l)een steadily pursuing its investigations, and its members have tra- velled far and wide, visiting in the course of their journeys the remote areas as well as the nearer districts of the Union where the grip of drought has left a clearly discernible mark in the stretches of deterior- ated veld that are encountered. The subject does not onlj^ concern the farmer : it is of national importance, for the continuance of present conditions which give rise to the recurring droughts that afflict this country will leave a heritage of loss to the whole community disturb- ing to contemplate. To the Commission the trail of consequences leading to our present unhappy position is plainly visible. The prevailing system of kraaling sheep due cheifly to the jackal danger, and also to the inadequacy of drinking water facilities, the consequent destruction of vegetation and the resulting soil erosion, leading in turn to a serious diminution in the efficiency of the country's rainfall, constitute a chain of misfortunes that in the comparatively short space of our history has brought the country to a point where it is imperative to take steps to stay the process now graduallj" eroding the foundation of oiir material existence — the soil. The causes leading to the aridity of the country that is giving rise to so much misgiving, are told in the Interim lieport* of the Commission, and we would urge every farmer, particularly those engaged in sheep farming, to obtain a copy. It is a report of absorbing interest. To cope with the growing danger the Commission is of opinion that certa.in steps are essential. In the first place the organisation of the farming community must be advanced with all possible dispatch ; the abandonment of the present system of kraaling for one under which the sheep can live a natural life is an essential and it connotes the extermination of the jackal, that animal of ill-omen to whose continued presence must be attributed so much of our present trouble. Then it is recommended that cheap fencing- material be provided in order to enable farmers more speedily to adopt a system of paddocking the value of which cannot be enijiha sized sufficiently, and which has already been advocated in the Jovrnal (The Value of the Paddock System, August, 1921) ; with it stands the need for farmers to improve their facilities for watering stock in which the Commission recommends that the State should give every encourage- ment. One of the most important principles recommended is the adoption by the State of some system of controlling soil erosion. The prosecution of investigations into certain grazing and fodder problems the Commission finds a matter of necessity. And with it all the Com- mission advocates the inauguration of propaganda which will spread throughout the wide reaches of the country, bringing enlightenment to the farmer of the facilities already provided by the State for the purpose of assisting him in his farming pursuits, and, above all, urging the need of reformation in farming methods to combat the drought menace, and enable him to succeed where otherwise failure is certain. * "Interim Report of the Drought Investigation Commission, Aj.,ril, 1922." Obtainable from the Government Printer, Pretoria. Price 2s., post free. Notes. 9 An Oversea Comment on South African Wool. Through the medium of its Journal and its officers, the Depart- ment has constantly impressed on wool growers the need of adopting certain methods that alone can ensvire success, and it is clear that the South African pastoralist is alive to the requirements of the trade, and is striving to meet them in every possible way. It is of value therefore to know the opinion of an expert oversea, who, hav- ing spent a life-time in the wool trade, has a practical knowledge of the growth of the country's wool industry, and can view impartially our present position. Writing at the end of April last, he makes the following statement : — As one who is in a position to make impartial observations, the writer may perhaps be allowed to express his appreciation of the steps which are being taken by the slieep breeders' societies through- out the Union to further the interests of slieep breeding and wool growing in their part of the world. The Graalf-Iieinet Wool Growers' Association is acting with commendable foresight in con- sidering the most up-to-date methods of sheep breeding, and the preparation of clips for market on Australian lines. There is no doubt that the progress made in wool growing in Australia and New Zealand is largely due to the care which in a general way is exercised in preparing clips for sale, and if vSouth African wool growers wish to take the place which is rightfully theirs in the same sphere, they will have to follow out the same principles. If possible let them try to go one better. The writer saw samples of the Graalf-Reinet wool sold at Port Elizabeth at the end of last January, and a glance at the catalogue showed that sheep farmers in that district were working on right lines. It is gratifying to know that so many are alive to the needs of spinners and manufacturers, and are endeavour- ing to provide what the market needs. It is disappointing that while Europe is clamouring for good long combing wool, twelve months Capes are not available. Cape farmers will not be shearing their twelve months' clip till about next September. In the meantime the market is bare of good combing wool. The writer is fully aware of the circumstances which for many years have compelled shearing sheep twice a year in South Africa, but the country is developing and progressing, and eventually even all the small farmers should be able to afford to let the fleeces remain on their sheep until tliey have attained a twelve-months' g-rowth. Anyhow, the achievement of the Graaff-Reinet growers should be an inspiration to others. The clips grown in that district have been the object of widespread comment, largely because of their length of staple, which was three to four inches. The clips have also been excellently prepared for market, and there is no doubt that the wool growers' associations in the Union have an excellent educative opportunity before them. The majority of South African clips could do very well with an infusion of Australian blood to help to produce a somewhat better-grown staple. The only word of w^arning which needs to be uttered in this connection is about quality. This should not be sacrified entirely to length of staple. It is to be hoped that the tendency seen in Australia will not develop in South Africa. The quality of much of the wool grown in Australia is not as fine as it was twenty-five or thirty years ago. Coarse-haired rams have been used too much. Sheep men in the Graaff-Reinet District, who are using Australian 10 Journal or the JjErARXMENT of Agriculture. — July, 1922. blood need to bear this in mind. Several of their clips are just on the " bare" side. In a few cases they are no more than super 60's quality. For top-making* purposes these wools will serve admir- ablj^, but an increase of four to six points in fineness would make them all the better. Skins, Raw-Mde Leather and Riems: Farm Mannfacture. In our country of vast distances and remotely situated farms, the dwellers in outlying parts — usually, of course, the farmer — have often to turn their hand to many things that others in the ordinary course relegate to those whose special avocation in life it is to perform such classes of work. Nor is it only lack of opportunity that calls for the ingenuity of the farmer, but often the expediency that requires the many economies which alone will bring working expenses within the compass of his means. And in the Union, where game is still plentiful and which is devoted largelj'^ to pastoral pursuits, it is clear that there will be few farmers who at one time or another will not need to know something about the tanning and braying of skins, and the manufacture of raw-hide leather and riems. It is with a view therefore to assisting the farmer in this section of his home industry that an article has been prepared by Mr. Schlupp, the Entomologist, and Mr. Mackinnon, the Field Instructor in Practical Agriculture, at the School of Agriculture and Experiment Station, Potchefstroom, and is published, with illustrations, in this issue of the Journal. Many thousands of wild animals, large and small, are killed every year in South Africa, and their skins, which are used for a variety of well-known purposes, form a source of farm produc- tion of no small value. The home tanning and braying of these skins is not a very intricate business, and the advice given by the writers and directions how to proceed siiould enable Ihose who undertake this work to turn out articles of a creditable nature and of good quality. The manufacture of raw-hide leather is also carried out on many South African farms, hides of various kinds being used, but parti- cularly those from cattle and other domestic animals. The several processes in vogue are discussed by the writers, who point out the methods that will ensure the production of good leather, lliem- making, in particular, is a common practice, and there are few, if any, who have not at some time made their own riems for use on the farm. There are those who, undoubtedly, are adept in the process they have found most suitable in their own experience, but the many useful hints contained in the article referred to should contain some- thing of service to all, and enable every one to produce a good class article. Mention is made elsewhere in this issue of the Journal to the loss the country sustains annually through the bad flaying of hides. Careful methods, without anj^ appreciable expenditure of more time or labour, would soon remove the disability the country now suffers from this source. In like manner the application of the right method by the farmer in the various home uses to which he puts his skins and hides will be so much gained in the greater service and pleasure the superior article will bring him. It is a standard of work that is within the power of all to attain. Notes. . 11 Ostricli Feathers and their Origin. The ostricli feather industry of South Africa dates from the year 1865, and during the course of the half-century of its existence has g-reatly enriched our country, o'iving- it pride ot place as the world's chief producer of hig'h-class plumes. It will be understood that an industry dcToted to the production of an article or fashion is subject to fluctuations, and so with ostrich feathers there have been depres- sions and booms frojn time to time. The market boomed in the late " seventies " and early " eighties,'' collapsed a few years later, and revived again in the later "nineties." From 1905 the industry made great progress, which reached tiie zenith of its present history in 1913, when the value of ostrich feathers exported was nearly three million pounds sterli?ig. Tliou came another slump and the war : the export of feathers fell off tremendously, the number of ostriches was reduced by half, and the industry generally declined until in 1918 it reached its lowest depths, the value of teathers exported that year being actually less than it was 30 years earlier. Afterwards, in 1919, there cune a distinct revival in trade, but the volume of that year's business has not since been maintained, the trade having dwindled a good deal, and at present the demand is quiet. Tet while the industry is not nov\- occupying the high position of former years in the Union's export trade, it is confidently expected by tliose intimately connectinl with ostrich leather j^roduc- tion that the present eclipse is temporary and that the oeautiful ostrich plume is destined again to figure prominently as a source of productive wealth to the Union. Farmers would, therefore, be well advised to collect what birds they have retained and to fatten them up for the breeding season. It is not only the trade in feathers that has been a source of enrichment to the country ; the story of ostrich farming in South Africa goes hand in hand with early irrigation enterprise, which owes its inception to the necessities of lucerne cultivation induced by the needs of the ostriches. Thus both directly and through its stimulation to irrigation schemes, the ostrich has brought consider- able benefit to the country, and those who have shared in the prosperity of the past, as well as those who are sanguine of future development, will naturally take a great interest in the origin of the feather that is known far and wide as one of tlie nost beautiful of nature's products. The various factors xhat have contributed to the growth of the industry in South Africa present a story far removed from the prosaic ; and a particularly interesting aspect is discussed in this issue of the Journal in an article on " The Origin of Feathers from the Scales of Eeptiles." It is written by Professor Duerden, well known for his valuable publications, the result of original research into matters concerning 'he ostrich. He has been in residence at the Grootfontein School of Agriculture, engaged upon the comparative anatomy of the ostrich, from which study results of practical value to the farmer are expected. The present work deals with the problem of" the origin of ostrich feathers, their evolution from the scales of reptiles, and the relationship between scale and feather. It has long been accepted by zoologists that in the course of evolution birds have sprung from reptiles and that feathers have come from horny scales, but the manner in which the 12 JOLENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. JuLY, 1922. latter process has taken place has never lieeu imderstood. Professor Duerden demonstrates how certain conditions prevailing in ostrich chicks at ahout the time of hatchino- afford the true key to the problem. With the aid of diagrams he traces the process by which the feather is formed, which, as is found similarly in respect of the pigeon and the fowl, is actually an overlapping out- growth from the scale. " In the course of its development," concludes I'rofessor Duerden, " the ancient ostrich presents us with evidence showing how the horny scales derived from reptiles have become transformed into the glorious plumes of birds, by a complex system of fraying- out of scale upgrowths: and another stage in (he eA^olution of birds from reptiles is thus solved. It is manifest that ostrich plumes, of such great commercial importance to South Africa, and employed for decorative purposes the world over, are really nothing more than the highly specialized frayiiigs of scales." Lucrative Pig Farming. Among the articles of South African production that bear witness to the progress of agriculture in the Union, bacon and ham must be included, for in recent years our exports of these articles have exceeded importations, a happy reversal of conditions exivsting not so many years ago. But pig farming for the purpose of supplying the raw material to the factory is still in its infancy, and it is only recently that this lucrative form of farming has tiegun to receive proper attention. The foundations of an industry have been laid in the importations of carefully selected pedigree pigs, while greater systematic breeding and feeding, and management generally are being observed than in the past, but the majority of pigs found in the Union are still of an unsatisfactory type, and there is much scope for development. The Union has many favourable conditions for the farming of proper quality pigs in its comparative freedom of disease, abundance of feed, and equable climate. These, together with the small outlay of capital required and the quick returns obtained, offer inducements that cannot be overlooked. For with the growth of population and of closer settlement pig farming will become increasingly popular, and a sign of progress already attained is seen in the organization that has now been established in the interests of pig breeders. The matter is of importance to farmers, and will become increasingly so, and a series of articles on pig farming by Mr. Morkel, the Lecturer in Animal Husbandry at the Elsenburg School of Agriculture, has been commenced in the Journal, the first contribution appearing in the December, 1921, issue. Mr. Morkel has specially studied this subject, and his writings are of practical value to farmers interested. In this issue another contribution to the series is published, dealing with that well-known breed, the Large Black, its origin, breed, characteristics, etc. The many points of value of this breed, and the popularity it has attained in the Union for cross-breeding, are discussed, and the results given of experiments carried out at Elsenburg contain much that is of value to breeders. Notes. 13 Crop and Market Intelligence. The Department issues niontlily a ciup report based on the advice received from correspondents in the various districts of the Union. Farmers are benefited l)y the crop report both directly and indirectly : directly by ]:)eing- kept informed of crop prospects outside of their own immediate districts, and indirectly because the dis- interested reports of the (jrovernment tend to prevent the circulation of false or misleading reports calculated to depress prices. The importance of information of this nature is recognized in other countries -where, with the co-operation of the farming community, every endeavour is made to ensure the publication of reliable fore- casts. Closely allied to this information is that concerning market intelligence, for it is being increasingly borne upon farmers that in these competitive days they must be armed with the most recent advice respecting both the local and oversea market. At present, information of this nature is published in the Journal, but in future it is proposed to include it with the crop report, Avhicli will be known as the ''Crop and Market Report," so that farmers and others interested will be provided Avitli a booklet giving in a handy form intelligence of an essentially useful nature, such as crop prospects, live stock conditions, local and oversea market prices for a wide range of products, the jxjsition of certain world (^'ops, Australian wheat and flour prices, export statistics, etc. Advertising the Union's Raw Products. Prominent among Continental fairs is the one held at Leipzig in Germany, which is recognized as an outstanding medium of adver- tisement by producers and merchants. There it is that manufacturers meet from all parts of Europe for the purpose of getting into direct touch with their clients, new connections are formed and increased business engendei'ed. The great opportunity of advertising there the Union's products was fully taken advantage of this year in a very attractive exhibit that occupied a conspicuous position in the fair. It was visited by thousands and awakened considerable interest, and it is expected to have lieen the means of setting in motion new sources of trade in South African raw^ materials which, followed by the ap- pointment of a Trade Commissioner on the Continent, should hold the germ of much future expansion. From a record kept of wtdl over 30U inquiries made by manufacturers and merchants in regard to the Union's various products, and the opening of trade relations, it is found that they were not confined to German firms only, but that firms and persons in Austria, Hungary, Italy, Servia, Turkey, Por- tugal, Finland, Denmark, Bohemia, Norway, and Roumania were also interested in the matter of trade in our wool, hides, skins, maize, tobacco, cotton, mohair, ostrich feathers, wattle bark, and other raw products. Mr. Richardson, of the Trade Commissioner's office in London, was in charge of the exhibit, and sedulously fostered the interests of the Union's producers by putting many in direct touch with Continental buyers, and generally in making known through far- reaching advertising mediums the wealth of material tkis country can offer the oversea manufacturer. 14 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. The Export of Dried Fruit: Amended Regulations. The attention of those engaged in the dried fruit trade is directed to the amended regulations under the Agricultural Produce Export Act, 1917, for the export of dried fruit, published under Government Notice No. 925 of the 7th June, 1922, and which cancel those previously issued. The new regulations should ca 'e- fully be studied by all concerned, for they contain certain features that exporters need to be acquainted with. There is a rearrange- ment in the manner of packing of the various fruits; the dimensions of the boxes in respect of currants and raisins (14 lb.) have Ix^en altered; further requirements in the manner of marking boxe«: {-.re set out ; fruit must be delivered for inspection not less than 48 hours (not 72 as previously) prior to loading; in grading, sultanas are to have two grades each for bleached and unbleached, the differen(;e between the two grades to be at the discretion of the inspector, while for peaches and apricots the size of the mesh is altered. There are four new clauses regarding raisins (dried grapes) which provide foi the varieties of grapes to be manufactured, the grade that may be exported, the package (boxes of 25 lb.), and the maximum moisture content (15 per cent.). Further, the inspection fee is reduced to 4s. per 40 cubic feet or part thereof. South African Wines in Competition. To promote the production of pure wines of merit and their consequent consumption is the object of the Colonial Wine Competi- tion held in connection with the Brewers' Exbibition Avhich takes place annually in London. The exhibition will be held this year from the 28th October to the 3rd November, and South African g'rowers who intend to compete .should note that entries close on the 14th October next. Entry forms are to be addressed to Mr. Arthur T. Dale, 46 Cannon Street, London, who will furnish full particulars of the competition. A limited number of these forms are in the hands of the Government Viticulturist, Elsenburg School of Agricul- ture, Mulders Vlei, Avho w^'ll, on application, distribute them to intending competitors and furnish them with all necessary particulars regarding the various sections of the competition and the general conditions governing it. South African wines have figured prominently in these competi- tions, and it is trusted that advantage will again be taken this year of bringing our wines to the notice of the public oversea. The 1919 competition, it will be remembered, resulted in Australia annexing all the first prizes, Avhile South African wines secured only one second and four third prizes. The next year there was a reversal in favour of South Africa : out of the fourteen classes as many as eleven first, five second, and two third prizes being obtained, Australia winning in two classes only. Last year there was a more even distribution of prizes : Australia obtained more of the first prizes awarded than South Africa, but in the aggregate number of awards South Africa was first. The judges' reports on the exhibits are interesting and worthy of consideration. In making their awards in last year's competition they state thnt some of the wines should Notes. 15 compete favourably with Continental growtlis. They gave the opinion that the competition is of practical benefit to the trade, and proves that South Africa and Australia are capable of producing wines that can compare very favourably in quality and style with those of other countries. An oversea trade in our wines is a patent necessity, but it is still very much in the pioneer stage. Those engaged in the industry, therefore, should seize every opportunity of establishing a good name on the English market. A most important considera- tion in this connection is pointed out in the last report of the judges to be that of cost of production which must be at a price that will create a ready demand, and competitors, it is noted, are invited to state the stock they hold of each sample sent in for competition, and the price at which they are willing to sell the same. It may also be pointed out that in the report referred to above, the judges gave it as their opinion, on the Avines as exhibited, that those most likely to be popular in Great Britain would be of the full Claret or Burgundy type. The Altered Composition of Basic Slag. Basic slag, a by-product from the manufacture of steel, is a fertilizer rich in lime and phosphates, and large quantities are imported into the Union, as will be seen from the following table, which gives the importations in cons of 2000 lb. : — 1913 ... ... 5970 tons. 1918 ... Nil. 1914 ... ... 6832 tons. 1919 ... ... 1920 tons. 1915 ... ... 9027 tons. 1920 ... ... 5120 tons. 1916 ... ... 6231 tons. 1921 ... ... 1905 tons. 1917 ... 636 tons. These quantities, however, are still far below what it is estimated the Union requires annually of this fertilizer, the conditions set up by the war and the high prices which followed being the cause of the decreased importations. Basic slag is being' used chiefly for gram crops in the south-west districts of the Cape Province, the chief wheat-producing area of the Union, where it is a valuable fertilizer for sour soils : it is found useful also in maize growing in certain of the soils of the Transvaal, but it is not extensively employed for this purpose at present, for economic reasons. Anything concerning an article of such importance in South xifrican agriculture as basic slag (known also as Thomas' phosphate or Thomas' slag), will be of interest to farmers, and an article on the subject, written by Dr. Juritz, the Chief, Division of Chemistry, is jjublished in this issue of the J ournal. For since the war a con- siderable change has come over the composition of basic slag, owing to a new process being employed in steel manufacture, with the result. that the character of the by-product has been entirely altered, iis phosphate content having been halved. This, of course, aftects the value of basic slag, and experiments are being carried out in England with a view, among other objects, to increasing the quality and quantity of slag produced by combining with the ordinary manu- facture of steel some subsidiary process. A stage of finality has not yet been arrived at in the adjustment of the matter under the 16 JOUIINAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AgRICULTI EE.— JuLY, 1922. (■banged conditions, but the position as it appears to-day h explained b,\' Dr. Juritz, and should be studied by farmers who are using, or who are contemplating the use of, the fertilizer. In so far as the sale of basic slag in the Union is concerned, there was a regulation to the eifect that it must contain at least 12 per cent, of ])hosphoric oxide soluble in citric acid. Owing to war conditions this percent- age was reduced, as a temporary measure, to 10 per cent., but in view of the present position, this lower percentage has now been fixed by the Government, so that in future (or until such time as it may be found advisable to make other provisions) the minimum phosphoric oxide content allowed in the sale of basic slag will be 10 per cent. Students Ploughing, Cedara School of Agriculture. Export of Cotton: Assistance to the Industry. Ill our last^ issue we announced that the Union-Castle Steamship Company had reduced the freight rate for cotton to 35s. per ton of 40 cubic feet. Further assistance has since been rendered the industry by the steamship lines reducing the rate of freight on cotton seed'. Prom Union ports and Delagoa Bay to the usual direct ports of discharge in the United Kingdom the rate is now 45s. (formerly 60s.) per ton of 2240 lb., with the usual shipping charge of 2s. 6d. per ton from Delagoa Bay in addition. At the same time the Eailway Administration has agreed to convey cotton seed in 11-ton lots when consigned for export oversea at Tariff No. 8 instead of Tariff No. 7. DepartmeiVtal Activities. IT DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES. (Note. — The work of the several Divisions and Schools of Agriculture covers a wide range of agricultural industry in the Union, and we give hereunder notes and observations from certain of them treating with matters of special interest coming under their purview month by month. The object of these notes, which are not concerned with general routine work, is to inform the farmer of such matters as are calculated to be of interest and helpful to him at the present time. — Editor.; THE DIVISIONS. ENTOMOLOGY. Call worms and Root-knot. — The warts on potato tubers and the knots and galls upon tlie roots of many cultivated plants and weeds are due, in most cases, to the invasion of such underg-round parts by microscopic worms. These creatures are always so small that with the naked eye they cannot be seen either in the soil or when embedded in the tissues of the plants. Quite a powerful microscope is needed to inspect them. At the time of writing- a considerable interest has been awakened in potato diseases through- out the Union, and quite a stream of warty potatoes flows to the Division for examination. The trouble is known to be widespread, and it is remarkable how little its true nature is recognized by the majority of our correspondents. For this reason the follow-- ing- brief summary of the nature and habits of the pest is submitted for the readers of these notes. The worms in question, variously called eelworms, g-allworins, and nematodes, are not insects, but belong' to the same brancli of the animal kingdom as do the earthworms and those intestinal parasites known as pinworms, threadworms, wireworms, and tape- worms. They are in the soil, as a rule, when the crops are laid down, and enter the surface layers of roots and tubers, and there develop. The females become swollen with young' and have the appearance of minute balloons. They can be discerned as small, milk-like spots if the gall or wart is cut into particularly thin slices with the help of a razor ; a penknife is seldom equal to the task of cutting a thin enough slice. The presence of the worms in the plant tissue sets up an irritation and the characteristic swellings follow. Later on the swelling breaks down to decay, and an increased brood of worms escapes into the soil. Many plants, especially tomato, pumpkin, and melon vines may die outright as the result of gall- worm attack. These worms do not live deep in the ground, and it is for this reason that many trees thrive, although their surface roots are full of gallworms. Peach trees, fig trees, and grape vines are frequently infested, a fact which explains the numerous failures where it is attempted to grow vegetables near by or among perma- nent plants of this sort. Ordinarily, lands become infested either 18 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July. 1922. throiig'li being laid down with infested seed potatoes or tlirougli the wash over them of infested soil by storm or irrigation water. Once infested, lands will remain so as long- as plants or weeds favoured by the worms grow upon them. There is really no end to the list of plants in the roots or tubers of which gall worms may not flourish. Very few plants appear to be quite immune. The following are never, or at least very seldom, attacked: — (1) The velvet bean and several species of the genus to Avhicli it belongs. (2) Many glasses, sucli as crab, red-to]), and Johnson grass. (3) The millets. (4) Some varieties of oats and barley. (5) Maize, wheat, kaffir corn, sorghum, rye, and timothy. In dealing' with this pest, prevention is far better than cure. It should be the practice of every farmer or small holder to keep a most searching and careful watch for any indication of this trouble. Seed potatoes especially sliould be carefully looked over before planting; and only clean, smooth seed should be sown. The field into which a crop is to be planted should be inspected to see if weeds or other plants thereon are not perchance harbouring the pest. This is a most important point, and if carefully observed may save much future trouble. There is no entirely satisfactory treatment for lands bearing perennial crops. However, any cultural method that encourages deep rooting on the part of the attacked crop will help. For land infested with gallworms, and not bearing a perennial crop, the following methods may be recommended : — (1) Keeping the land free from vegetation of all kinds for two years. No crop, no Aveeds, no plant of any description must be tolerated; in other words, absolutely bare fallow must be practised. This is a most effective method, but it is not very practicable. (2) Planting the land to non-susceptible crops for at least two (perhaps better three) years, using in the winter small grains, such as wheat, rye, or oats, and in the summer the velvet bean, Florida beggar weed, the iron cowpea, or even peanuts (monkey-nuts), and scrupulously destroying all weeds that might harbour gallworms. (3) Making heavy applications of fertilizers, especially those containing potash, except where the soil already contains this in abundance. This treatment often reduces gallworm injury greatly. (4) Where possible, flooding the land for a period of some weeks. (5) Where rain is not likely to interfere, ploughing, and allow- ing the soil to dry out for several months. (6) Preventing, by the use of embankments, ditches, etc., the washing of soil from infested fields to the field which it is desired to free from the pest. The introduction of the pest by tools, wagons, farm animals, etc., should be avoided. Where it is desired to put down seed beds for tobacco, tomato, and the like, an atteinpt may always be made to free the top soil of these creatures. The soil should be loosened, and then roasted by maintaining over it for some time a vigorous fire of brushwood. Departmeistal Activities. 19 Cotton Stainers and Cotton Staining. — Cotton stainers usually get the whole blame for any staining- or discolouring- of the cotton lint. It is undoubtedly true that stainers and other sucking' bug-s of a like nature do cause some staininr?-, and this staining- may be the direct result of the insects sucking- the juices from the cotton seed oi piercing- the rind of the boll. On the other hand, the staining n- be brought about indirectly by the subsequent invasion of the boll by bacteria and fungi through the bug punctures. Any extensive, staining of the lint by the excrement from the stainers is largely discredited now; and staining by the crushing of the bodies of tht insects is relatively infreciuent, and not of much importance. Observations made in the Kustenburg District, where f weather at picking time is usually dry and sunny, show that stainers may be present in great numbers, and the percentage of stained lint very low. Again, in the eastern Transvaal, where weather condi- tions may be moister at picking time, considerable staining has been observed in fields having only a moderate number of stainers. The control of stainers by any direct method is not practicable. However, a thorough clean-up after the cotton crop is off will do much to reduce the numbers of these pests. Surroundings clean of plants related to cotton should be maintained. The stainers usually remain on their native food-plants till late in the summer, when they migrate to the cotton plants; on this nourishing supply of food they increase rapidly. But then it is too late to do much to check them. Collecting the stainers into tins, which may be easily done, as they congregate on the opening bolls, is a method employed in some countries; but it is doubtful if the method will prove practic- able in this country Avhere labour costs are higher. Weevils and Fruit Trees, — Many reports reach the Division of injury to young orchards by small, dull-coloured weevils or snout- beetles. These are always wingless forms, whose earlier stages are passed underground, where the grubs most probably feed on roots of veld plants. The beetle stage does not last long, and for the greater part of the year the creatures live a hidden existence. Since the mischief usually happens to trees nnjre or less recently set out in new lands which previously only carried native plants, it follows that the weevils emerging from the soil are compelled to attack the trees in the absence of their normal food sapply. It would be differ- ent if they could fly, as they would then mig]-ate in search of what is more natural to them. But, being compelled to crawl and pressed by hunger, they congregate upon the young fruit trees. This trouble is usually one of but a season in orchards that are kept clean, and is best met by hand-picking the insects until their numbers are suffici- ently reduced. An application of arsenate of lead to the young trees may also give them some protection. The Lily Borer. — The jVatal Ejitoinologist has found that the mischief of the crinum borer, BritJiys pancreatii, Cyr., can often successfully be checked by spraying the infested plants with arsenate of lead. This pest feeds in the interior of the leaves and stalks; but, wlien the food su])ply in one part gives out, the caterpillar migrates to fresh leaves or stalks and again eats its way in. It is due to these compulsoiy migrations that the poison acts as an effective control measure. 20 JOUIUNAL OF THE J)ErARTME.\T OF AgKICULTIRE.^ -TuiA', 1922. Wattle Bagworm. — Many Natal wattle plaiituiions have suffered seveily with bagworiu this season. Mr. J. IT. Holler, of Sandj'- mount, in a letter to the Division, states that in his locality the insect is practically confined to the trees along the outside of the plantations, and in prominent places, facing JNew Hanover, where the insect has been far more abundant. He recognizes this peculiar distribution as evidence of the spread of the insect by the wind, and revives the suggestion that screens of eucalyptus or other immune trees might be used for the protection of wattle plantations. It seems Ciuite probable that in some, if not all, seasons such screens would catch no small proportion of the wind-borne worms under the topographical conditions of some localities, but it is doubtful if they would be efficient in the generality of cases. Prom his observation when long resident at Maritzburg, Mr. C. Fuller came to the opinion that the young insects were borne largely by the warm berg winds, and commonly carried rather high in the air. These winds bloAv strongly for some hours and cease suddenly, and it was his idea that perhaps after having been carried many miles the insects fall some- what abruptly when the wind drops. Where the land rises consider- ably from a valley in which the pest is bad, it would seem that screens of immune trees on the heights might catch many of the insects being borne by the Avind, but in most places the insects prob- ably reach vegetation much more from above than from the side. The Cycad Looper. — E ncephalartos and other Cycads are subject to the attack of a looper caterpillar, Zerenopsis leojjardino, Feld. The Natal Entomologist states that these loopers have been very prevalent lately along the Natal coast. The adult moth lays her eggs in clusters of 50 to 185 on the plant, and the caterpillars confine their attention to the young tender leaves. Tliese attacks disfigure and stunt the plant, a serious matter with the slow-growing Cycads. Arsenate of lead poAvder, 2 ounces in 4 gallon of AA-ater, has proved a successful control measure. Thrips Defoliating Avocados. — During May, 1922, an outbreak of thrips (sp. undet.) came under notice on some avocados groAving near Nelspruit, in the eastern Transvaal. All stages Avere present in great numbers, and on some trees the attack had been so severe that whole branches Avere leafless. The trouble is characterized by patches of yelloAV leaAes, Avhich ,show up contrastingly against the bright green of the normal foliage. AGR'NOMY. " Sahara " Yellow Dent Maize. — A farmer in the Lichtenbuig District obtained some time ago from this DiAasion about 100 lb. of "Sahara" yellow maize for experimental purposes. In reporting he states that the mealie in his experience is the only drought- resister in his district. "I planted," he Avrites, "the 100 lb. in black turf soil, Avhere no mealie Avill thrive during periods of drought. The 100 lb. gave me a yield of one hundred bags of 206 lb. each. We had good rains up to the end of December last, but since then we had no rain, and towards the end of February the cracks in tne land Avere from 12 to IS inches deep, and not a particle of moisture is visible. EA'erybody was surprised at this. This is quite a true statement, which I can prove." Departmental Activities. 21 The Inspector of Grain of this Department recently visited a farm about 10 miles outside of Pretoria to inspect this same variety, and he reports that only 25 lb. were sown, and that the yield was 20 bags, each 203 lb., true-to-type " Sahara." It was sow^i under dry-land farming- conditions, depending* entirely on the usual rain- fall. This variety was also introduced in the high veld (Standerton and Heidelberg Districts) by the Division, and from all reports received proved to resist drought very well, and is also a good yielder. Seed can now be had (25 lb.) on application to the Govern- ment Agronomist, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, under the usual co-operative experiment system, the conditions of which are that the farmer must return to this Department double the quantity of seed after harvesting season. This variety should be sown 16 to 20 lb. per morgen. Farmers growing this variety can be assured that their maize, if properly cleaned, will pass for export under Grade No. 4, " Flat Yellow." It may be mentioned that 10 lb. seed of this variety were imported by the Government Agronomist some years ago from the Argentine. Small samples of seed were distri- buted to many farmers, and the " Sahara " is claimed to resist drought on much poorer soils than most other varieties. The con- ference of crop investigators decided that there> are two similar strains to " Sahara " Yellow in this country. BOTANY. " Bothalia." — During May there was published the serond part of Bothalia which is the official record of original research carried out in the National Herbarium. Part TI contains the following papers : — 1. " South African Ascomycetes in the National Herbarium," Part II. This consists of descriptions of 35 microscopic leaf fungi, of which 21 are new species. 2. " The Thorn Pears " (Scolopia spp.). giving the most recent information we have on the distribution of these forest trees and shrubs. A new species, S. Thorncroftii, is de- scribed. 3. " The Genus Ochna," to which belongs the well-known " Rooihout." The number of species now recorded for vSouth Africa is nine. Two new species, one from the Transkei and one from the Woodbush Forest, Transvaal, were brought to light. 4. " The Genus Olinia " to which the well-known Knysna tree " the Hard Pear " belongs. Prior to working this o'enus it was thought that only two species M'ere found in South Africa, but a third very distinct species has been separated. 5. "The Genus Cvclopia, Vent." Several species of this genus provide local bush teas, and the genus was revised as a basis for any future cultural work which mav be undertaken with these plants. Several species hitherto unrecorded have been described. 22 Journal OF the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. Combretum Guirii — As a result of the article on (^oin})ret\im f?\iTn which appeared in the Jovrnal (December, 1920, p. 834) a number of inquiries have been marie as to the possibility of collectinfi' the gum in quantity. The collection of the gum from trees in their natural habitat cannot be expected to yield sufficient quantity for its exploita- tion on a commercial scale, and more satisfactory results will be obtained when trees can be planted in large numbers in suitable locali- ties. Seeds of Covibretum erythropJiyllvm have been planted experi- mentally near Pretoria, and the seedlings are doing very well. The young- trees are about 3 feet high although they are only twelve months old. It will be a matter for experiment to determine at what age the trees will yield the maximum of gum. Cassava is a crop Avhich should do well in the sub-tropical parts of the Union, and the powdered starch extracted from its large tubers commands a ready market in Europe, and would probably find a market in South Africa. Not only are meal, flour, tapioca, and other starchy foods prepared from Cassava roots, but they are also a valu- able source of alcohol, glucose, and dextrins, and the residues are largely used as feeding stuff for live stock. The Prisons Department has been interested in the cultivation of this crop, and an experiment recently carried out on a small scale at the Reformatory at Eshowe, in Zululand, proved that the plants could be successfully reared in that district. They have also been grown successfully in Swaziland and in the Northern Transvaal. Cassava belongs to the natural order Euphorbiaceae and the genus Manihot, and is related to the Ceara rubber tree. It is a much branched shrub that, \inder cultivation, reaches a height of 6-10 feet. The leaves are large, roundish, and deeply lobed ; the flowers are borne in spreading clusters at the ends of the branches. The fruits contain the seeds about the size and shape of castor oil seed, to which it is related. The root tubers are large, and vary in size according to the age of the plant, but usually when ready for harvesting they are from lA-4 feet long, and are borne in clusters at the base of the stem. There are two kinds of Cassava groAvn, the sweet and the bitter. Authorities differ as to the exact relationship of one with the other ; by some they are considered distinct species, the bitter being known as Manihot utilissima and the sweet as Manihot palwata, while other botanists consider the latter but a cultural variety of the former. The sweet Cassnva is on the whole the better variety to cultivate. The tubers yield a greater amount of starch, and contain less of the poisonous hydrocyanic acid than the latter variet3^ The poisonous acid commonly known as prussic acdd is present only in the outer layers of the sweet Cassava, and is removed by peeling the roots, while in the bitter variety it is more evenly distributed through the roots, and can only be neutralized by heating. As Cassava roots decay very (juickly after removal from the ground they must, therefore, be dried at once, either in the sun or with artificial heat. The usual process is to wash and peel the roots, and halve them longitudinally, and cut out the more fibrous central portions ; the remainder is cut into strips, and laid in the sun till thoroughly dried, when they will keep for months. The drying must be rapid in order to preserve the colour of the material. Departmental Activities. 23 Wart Disease In Potatoes. — Attention is called to the proclama- tion published in the Govermnent Gazette of 9th June, containing quarantine regulations for areas infected with wart disease of pota- toes. A descriptive article appeared in the May, 1922, number of the Journal. The first specimens of wart disease in South Africa were found on the farm Castle Howard, in the Impendhle Division, by Mr. S. Woodrow, who had recently attended a short course at Potchefstroom, which included a study of potato diseases. He suspected that the trouble might be wart disease, and forwarded specimens for deter- mination to Mr. Puttick, the Botanist at Potchefsiruom. Mr. Puttick identified the organism in these specimens as SynchitriuTn endobioti- cum, Perc, the cause of wart disease, and immediately called the attention of the Department to the fact that this Avas the first record of its occurrence in vSouth Africa. Steps were immediately taken to trace the disease to its origin, and a thorough inspection is being carried out. Up to the present only two farms. Castle Howard and Killaloe, in the Impendhle Division, are known to be infected, but although all seed planted on these farms since 1919 has been traced to its source the origin of the disease has not yet been discovered. Diseases in Vegetable and Fodder Crops. — As is often the case in late summer crops, diseases in vegetable gardens have been fairly prevalent this season, the following crops being noticeably affected. Artichokes . — A rot in this crop caused by a fungus organism, at present unknown, has recently been brought to the notice of the Divi- sion. We have no previous record of any such trouble, and from the lack of any reference to it in literature at our disposal, it would appear to be an unrecorded disease of artichokes. The rot starts at the stem of the tuber, and works its way downwards in a regular manner, producing first a dry rot internally, later a soft black rot. It is thought that the organism originates in the leafy shoots, and thence travels into the tubers, but owing to the lack of material, this point is uncertain. Diseased tubers should not be stored, nor should they be used for seed purposes, and the soil from which they are taken should be planted with some other crop next season. Cow peas. — This crop has apparently suffered even more than other crops. At least four diseases have been recorded on it, viz., rust {Uromyces a'pyendicidattis), mildew (?Erysiphe polygoni), anthrac- nose {?Glomerella lindem.uthiajnnn) , and leaf spot {Ascochyta pisi). Of these mildew, anthracnose, and leaf spot are new to us on this host. Beans — leaf spot {Cercospora cruenta). Carrot — leaf spot (Alternaria hrassicae?). We have had no pre- vious record of this fungus on carrot, and it appears to be of rare occurrence. Beet — leaf spot {Cercospora heticola). Tomatoes. — Canker (Bact. vesicatoruini) still continues to be prevalent. At this time of the year tomatoes thus affected present an unsightly appearance, and rot very quickly. Greengrocers are finding that they are unable to keep such tomatoes for any length of time, and are compelled to discard large quantities of them. 24 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. Molasses Grass. — The repeated and unqualified praise of Molasses grass (Melitiis minutiflora) by a Eliodesiau, which has ap- peared in the Press, has resulted in this Division receiving numerous inquiries for seed and for information as to the suitability of this grass for various localities in the Union. Melinis viinutifiora is a much branched perennial with ascending- culms; the very green leaves are from A to f, or sometimes even 1 inch broad, taper to a fine point, and together with the sheath are covered with sticky tubercle based hairs, which stickiness taken in conjunction with the strong fragrant Molasses-like odour, has given the plant its popular name. The flowering head is rather long and ^larrow, and consists of numerous very small purplish florets each terminated by a long- bristle, giving the head a feathery appearance. We have very little first hand information about the behaviour of this grass in the Union as our experiments with it at Groenkloof were not at first successful. Seed sown in October, November, and December of last year all failed to germinate, but a further lot sown in January germinated well, and good rain falling soon after sowing, a satisfactory plot of the grass was obtained, which by the 7th April had reached the height of 3 feet, but showed no signs of flowering. It was frequently irrigated and looked well till the first frosts which scorched the upper leaves ; the rather heavy frost which followed soon after turned the whole plot brown to the roots. At the Botanical Laboratories two small plots of the grass were sown in November, 1920, and November, 1921 ; in both the grass is at the time of writing (7th June) about 2| feet high, and has just started to flower for the first time. Neither of the plots has been irrigated, and so far has been but little affected by the drought or frost. Molasses grass occurs naturally at Barberton, Lydenburg, and the Northern Transvaal, and would appear to be a very promising grass. It forms a mass of succulent, soft, green foliage, which, if reports speak truly, is very palatable to stock ; but until we have tested it thoroughly we cannot recommend it for the Union with any degree of assurance. HORTICULTURE. Citrus Crowing — Lessons from California. — The Chief of the Division recently requested Mr. R. J. Blatt, scholarship student in horticulture at Berkeley, California, to make certain inquiries con- cerning the citrus industry in that State. The following questions were included: — 1. What is the average age of worked Washington navels when trees cease to bear a profitable crop, and what are the main causes of early decadence? 2. What can be done to control Psylla which has been known to cause heavy falling of fruit? 3. Do sudden cold spells, say a drop of 40° F. within 24 hours, cause fruit to fall from the trees? 4. What are the main reasons of external disfigurement of fruit causing an orange to be placed in a lower grade? Departmental Activities. 25 Mr. Blatt, after an extensive inquiry, lias furnished the follow- ing interesting report: — Bearing Life of Citrus Trees. — The profitable bearing life of citrus in California is limited to 30 or 35 years — this is the common statement — whereas many trees have been known to reach 100 years. Decline of orchards are due to a combination of causes. Failure to care for trees properly; lack of attention to irrigation, fertilization, pruning, pest, and disease control, particularly tree butchery instead of pruning, and excessive irrigation have been responsible for the decline and loss of large acreage of orchards. On the other hand, there are orchards which have received the best care, and their decline cannot be attributed to any of the above causes, but is due to some specific cause or causes. Professor Hodgson, Farm Advisor of Los Angeles County, has studied this problem particularly, hence he is considered an authority on the subject. He is convinced that the two principal factors contributing to the early decline of citrus orchards are: — 1. Inability to feed tlie soil normally, occasioned through improper methods of applying fertilizers. 2. Slow but certaiii poisoning of the trees through absorp- tion of toxic compounds given o& by a variety of trunk and root disease producing fungi. The citrus tree is essentially a mat-rooted tree ; the feeder roots are in the main produced from long laterals, which parallel the ground surface at depths ranging from 4 to 24 inches. In its native habitat the citrus tree is a surface-feeding plant, the fibrous feeder roots coming very close to the surface, forming rather extensive mats and feeding uninterrupted and undisturbed just underneath the damp mulch of leaf mold. The citrus tree naturally attempts the same thing all over, but in semi-arid climates the surface foot of soil becomes too hot, hard, and dry for the health of the feeder roots. Fertilizers are applied on the surface as a rule, and are ploughed in or cultivated in little deei)er than the soil mulch. The feeder roots are also constantly receiving rebuffs, such as shearing oft' by ploughing and cultivating, and periodic baking and cooling; the result is starvation in plenty, the needs of the tree during the early years being met from the deeper soil stretches, and when these become depleted, which is the case soon after, since fertilizers are not applied deep enough, the tree begins to go back and weaker feeder roots are developed. Surface mulching with organic matter, therefore, has given surprising results in bringing" back deteriorating trees : unfortunately the recovery is only tem- porary— three years at the most — when signs of decline are again noticed, hence surface mulching does not constitute a cure for orchard decline. It does, however, furnish a valuable means of quick recovery for ailing trees. The furrow-manuring method of applying not only manures, but other organic fertilizers and all other save the most soluble forms of fertilizers, will do more to prevent the decline of citrus orchards than anything that might be done. One large furrow, 12 to 15 inches in depth, located between rows, is all that is necessary: the manure or fertilizer is placed in the furrow and covered up. A 26 JorRNAL OF Ti£i«: Department of AcRicrLTURE. — July, 1922. healthy feeder root system will be developed, leading- to the recovery of weakened trees. Early and deep fall ploug-hing- shears off the p^reater part of the older feeder roots, and encourages the growth of a new set which will g-reatly benefit the tree. Referring- to the last cause of citrus-tree decline noted, namely, absorption of ])oisons freed by trunk and root diseases, it is apparent that citrus will not stand the attack of decay-producing- org-anisnis without suffering- characteristic symptoms of poisoning- as evidenced by exudation of g-um and yellowing- and dying- of the foliage. All wounds caused either by pruning-, ploug'bing", or insect attack should be covered with asphaltum, wax, or bordeaux paste as soon as possible to prevent entry of wood-decay org-anisms. Scaly bark, foot-rot, brown rot gum disease, gray mould gum disease, and shell bark are all apt to follow if wounds are not treated. To keep the tree free from disease-causing fungi have the bud union well above the ground ; do not allow the soil to accumulate about the bud union ; irrigation water should be prevented from standing about the trunks of the trees. The two main factors, therefore, in the cure of deteriorated trees are: (1) Furrow manuring; (2) guarding against disease-causing fungi. Throughout this State it has been found that citrus trees on heavy and shallow soils with poor drainage are the first to show decadence, while severe infestations of scale attack and overbearing will bring about the decline sooner. These, however, as has been mentioned, are only minor factors in orchard decline. The Psylla Pesti — With regard to severe infestations of Psylla very little is known, mainly because it is not important in California, where Psyllids do not attack citrus fruits; in fact, there is no injurious species attacking orchards in California. Mr. Essig, one of the greatest entomologists in California, recommends for their control a miscible oil, or a light distillate emulsion or a crude carbolic acid emulsion. Devastating Frosts. — California has just experienced one of the worst frosts since the beginning of the citrus industry; in fact it was almost as bad as the 1918 freeze, when more than 60 per cent, of the crop was lost, when there was a heavy frost for five days, and the farmers were not so well equipped with frost-fighting equipment, consequently the crop was almost lost. This year, notwithstanding the advancement made in orchard heating equipment, about 50 per cent, of the crop was lost, the temperature dropped to 20° F. in many places, while the average temperature was around 24° F. Usually ii farmer will apply artificial heat to an orchard if the temperature drops below 28° F. It is evident that 28° F. is dangerous for citrus. Oranges, if fairly dormant, will stand a temperature of 25° or 26° F. for an hour or so witliout injury. Below 25° F. the fruit begins to freeze; first that on the outside near the ground, and later the inside fruit. At 20° to 22° F. the twigs begin to die back, and the leaves fall, while 17 or 18 degrees for four or five hours, unless the tree is quite dormant, will kill them back to branches two or three inches in diameter. Lemons are more tender, and the fruit will be injured at 26° or 28° F. Limes are killed back considerably at 28° or 80° F. L)epartmental Activities. 27 Blemishes of Citrus Fruits. — These may be classified under four heads : Insects, fungus, mechanical, and physiological blemishes. (1) The blemishes due to insects are : Thrips scars, tortrix worm holes, scale insects such as red, yellow, purple, and the sooty mould which follows and grows upon the excretion of the black, gray, and brown scales, mealy bugs, red s])iders, silver mites, grasshoppers, and katydids. (2) Fungus blemishes. — The fungi which produce injury to the fruit are brown rot (Phythiacystis citropJUhora) , blue mould {Peni- cillium italicum), green mould (Penicillium digitatum), grey mould {Botrytis cinerea), sooty mould {Miliola camellia), cottony mould (Sclerotinia lihertiana), wither tip {Colletotrichum rjloeosporioides) , and black rot of the navel {Alternaria citri). (3) Mechanical blemishes. — Serious losses are due to the follow- ing: Bruises, thorn stabs, cultivator scars, clipper cuts, stem punc- tures, machine injuries, and fumigation scars. These can to a large extent be prevented by carefully handling fruit and using correct equipment. The following are also responsible for bruises or blemishes, but to a much lesser degree : Hail scars, soil scars, and wind falls. (4) Physiological blemishes are due to sunburn, frost, off-bloom, mottled leaf, brown spot, and cracks and splits. Seventy-five per cent, of the culls in the citrus industry are due to six causes, which follow in order of their importance : Splits, bruises, thorn stabs, thrips scars, sunburns, and worm holes. Brown rot has not been takeii into consideration, since it does not develop until the fruit leaves the packing house. There is no effective control for splits or worm holes, but the other four main causes of blemishes may be overcome to a large extent; bruises may be controlled by careful handling of fruit, while thorn stabs are being controlled by thornless vai'ieties, careful pruning, and windbreaks ; pruning will also control sunburn to a large extent; a spray of lime sulphur water and black leaf extract is used against thrips. Frosted Citrus Fruit. — In sorting of frosted from unfrosted citrus fruit, the successful segregation is impracticable from the external appearance of the fruit. The principles of the method now successfully adopted depends on the difference of the specific gravity of frosted and unfrosted fruit, the former being consider- ably lighter. The specific gravity of a well-grown unfrosted orange is approximately .82, whilst that of one frosted is considerably less. Before this difference in specific gravity is at its maximum the fruits should remain on the trees for from 6 to 8 weeks — after the occurrence of the frosting — which means that for export pur- poses segregation should not take place for at least two months after the injury if the frosted fruits are to be separated with any degree of certainty. This time must be allowed for the changes in the fruit to take place. Various methods and devices to effect this separation have been tried, but the "Frank Chase Water Separator" is the only one retained as being efficient and not expensive. The machine is thus 2S .roiK.wi. OF TiiK J)F.r'AinMi;N T OF AciKicnLTTRE. — July, 1922. described by Coit in his " Citrus Fruits " : — " This machine consists of an oblong tank through which water may be made to circulate at definite speeds by a small propeller. The oranges roll down an incline, and drop into the moving water from the height of a foot or more. The light, frosted oranges bob up to the surface quickly, whilst the sound heavy fruit is slower to rise. Meanwhile the oranges have been carried along by the current, tlie sound fruit passing under and being caught by a horizontal wiie screen, Avhile the light fruit is carried above it. At the farther end of the tank the two grades are lifted by conveyors and delivered to separate bins. By adjusting the position of the screen and the rate of flow of the water any degree of separation desired may be secured. The device enables the grower to save whatever sound fruit he may have left. The frosted fruit, if not seriously injured, may be shipped under a special frost brand or it may be used as a fertilizer or made into various by-products." It may be said that the water separator does not work satis- factorily with lemons for the reason that they are not round and the depth to which they sink in the water will depend to an extent on the position in which they happen to strike the water surface. For the separation of lemons the denatured alcohol bath (one of the devices first tried in the separation of oranges and discon- tinued on the invention of the "Chase Water Separator") is still used. A layer of lemons is placed in a large wire tray, and sub- merged in the alcohol, which has a specific gravity of .82. The frosted lemons float and are removed by hand. Frequent tests with the hydrometer are necessary in order to keep tlie liquid at the proper density. TOBACCO AND COTTON. Advice for Prospective Cotton Planters. — Begin now to prepare your land for nexl season. I^'all niul winter fallow land is always better than spring ploughing. Sow the seed immediately after the first good spring rain; between 15th October and 15th November is the best time. Use a double-row cotton planter preferably. Sow about 25 lb. of seed to the acre in rows 3 feet (5 inches to 4 feet (i inches apart, depending on fertility: the more fertile the land, the greater the distance required. Cover the seed from 1 inch to 2 inches. Use seed of one of the long staple varieties, such as Watt's Long- Staple, Zululand Hybrid, Griffin, Improved Bancroft, and Uganda. Seed should be bought at 3d. to (kl. per lb. Begin cutlivation as soon as the rows can be followed, and continue as long as the cultivator can pass between the rows, without doing too much damage to the bushes. The crop should be cultivated about every ten days; the early cultivations may be fairly deep, say 4 inches or 5 inches, the latter ones shallow. Hand hoe in the drill between the plants when necessary. When the plants are about 8 inches to 10 inches high, thin them (pull oxit), leaving one every 12 inches to 18 inches. Departmental Ac;tivities. 29 Hafvesting Cotton. — Begin picking when the field is fairly white, when one-third to one-fourth of the bolls are open, about three weeks after the first bolls burst. Three to four pickings are necessary to clean the field, and these pickings come about ten to twenty days apart, depending on the heat. Any dirty or stained cotton should be kept separate. Do not harvest iminediately after a rain or while the dew is still on. The cotton should be dry when picked; if not, spread it. out on a bucksail for a few hours, till it is dry. Tramp the seed cotton into a wool pack, 400 to 450 lb. in each pack, sew up the end of the pack, and write your name on it before sending it to the gin. This machine separates the seed and lint. One native should harvest about one muid bag well filled (50 lb.) in a day, at a cost of Is. to 2s. per bag. Hiring labour ])y piece work for the harvest is the best method. Approximately one-third of the weight is lint and two-thirds seed. The present price of lint in England of American middling- quality is about 11.5d. per lb. ; our lint usually runs 50 to 150 points on American middlings (i.e. lA. to lid. per lb. above middling prices) . After the cotton is ginned the lint is put into compressed bales, then it is ready to be shipped to the oversea market. The seed may be used for reseeding purposes, sold to an oil mill, or ground and fed to cattle. THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS. GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG (CAPE). Sheep-feeding Experiments. — The experiments with prickly pear are being continued and extended to include the feeding ot prickly pear to small stock running on poor dry veld. A summarized account of the experiments to date Avas sent during the month to those daily papers which circulate in the present drought-stricken areas, with a view to advising farmers how to make the best of what- ever prickly pear they may have on their farms. Hamels were kept alive for about 250 days on nothing but prickly pear; but during that period they lost much weight. Another outstanding feature of the trials was found in the wonderful way in which a small dai ration of lucerne improved the availability of the nutritive consti- tuents of prickly-pear ; another feature was the rapid recovery to prime condition of prickly-pear-fed sheep when turned on to the veld after the early summer rains. Perhaps still more interesting is the fact that for over 400 days certain of the animals had no other source of water than prickly pear '" leaves." Cattle and ostriches are also being fed on rations in which prickly pear is a very important item — the sole one in some cases — but it is yet too early to report progress. oO Joru.vAL or the 1)epartmekt of A(iRicrLTURE. — July, 1922. Chinese Lucerne. — The last cutting- was made on the 17th May, certain outstandino- phints excepted, which were not cut because it was desired to see how tliey would stiuid frost. Several of them were still unharmed on the 24th May. Potatoes. — The yields of the varieties Early j^ug'get and J*]picure this season were 3040 lb. and 11,600 lb. per acre respec- tively. The seed wns obtained from Scotland. Potatoes and Tuber Moth.— It was observed in dig-g-ing potatoes this month that they were badly attacked by the " tuber moth." Potatoes from the same land, lifted in February, were practically free from this pest : this would seem to point to the necessity of very thoroughly earthing up potatoes that are to be left in the ground for some time after reaching maturity. Irrigation Plot Experiments. — The Assistant Director of Irriga- tion (Mr. Herdman) inspected the plots on the first of the month. Such good progress has been made with the work that it has been possible to give 2G0 of the plots their first irrigation, preparatory to seeding them with the " uniformity" test crop. A great feature in this experimental work will l)e the measurement of the water applied in irrigation. Water Pipes. — Wherever frost is severe, as in the Karroo, it is now desirable to protect water pipes to prevent bursts. This is very effectively done by Avrapping round the pipe a 4-inch wide strip of sacking or hessian Avherever it is exposed above ground. Burst pipes may temporarily be repaired by wrapping several layers of 1-inch linen tape, previously painted with white lead, red lead, or ordinary paint. It is also helpful to put a layer of paint on the crack — which is usually possible if the water pressure is not too great — and more paint on the tajie as it is wu-apped round. A narrow strip of linen is a good substitute for linen tape in the above- described operation. Agricultural Implements. — Mowers, reapers, and binders, and other implements which are not used during the winter months are now profitably overhauled, cleaned, and repainted, so as to be ready for next season. All bearings and moving parts should be thoroue'hly oiled so as to jirevent rusting during the period of non-use. When the weather is hot, iron can often be bent without artificial heating. It is not advisable thus to try to bend iron in tlie winter time, for breakages are very likely to occur. Bathurst Experiment Station. — Favourable rains fell between 7th and 13th — in all, 3 inches. Hows of not less than 1250 varieties, selections, and cross-bred wheats have been sown, and more than half of them are already up. Superphosphate at the rate of 300 lb. per acre was applied with the seed. Old mealie lands were fallow- ploughed for summer crops. Departmental Activities. 31 POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL. Mr. G. J. Bosiuan, Technical Assistant, who recently visited the Transkeian Territories for the purpose of furnishing advice in regard to the cultural methods employed by natives in tho e parts, especially in respect of maize, has furnished the following note for publication : — Farming in the Transkeian Territories. — A person visiting the Transkeian Territories cannot help being struck with the enormous- agricultural potentialities of the country. In topography it is undulating, and in some parts quite mountainous. Besides being fairly watered, it has a good rainfall compared with other parts of the TJnion. The average annual rainfall for Umtata was 23.5 inches for the period 1900-1921. The soil is quite productive, especially in the valleys. In some parts the country is thickly populated, e.g. Tembuland, while in other parts again it is sparsely settled, e.g. Pondoland. Live Stock. — The total number of cattle in the Territories is given as 733, 3G7 head. This figure would have run into millions if it had not been for the ravages of the East Coast fever which has been prevalent there for the last decade. By systematic compulsory dipping it is now well under control, and the number of cattle is sure to increase very fast from now on. Some areas, especially East Griqualand, Tembuland, and Fingo- land, appear to be excellent cattle countries, and contrary to what one would expect, the quality of the native cattle is quite fair. The class kept is not any different from those bred by most Europeans in South Africa to-day. In no single instance did the writer see any real Kaffir cattle of the type one comes across in Zululand and Damaraland. The Shorthorn breed does very well, and would probably be one of the best beef breeds for those parts. Some districts, e.g. Butterworth and Idutywa, seem to be admir- ably suited for the raising of Merino sheep, and numerous small flocks are seen everywhere. Goats are also fairly plentiful, and' seem to thrive best in the mountainous country along the Kei River and along the coast. While pigs remain the scavengers of the native kraals, it is not likely that tliis industry (on account of mea.sles) will make much progress. Crops. — Maize is the main crop. The variety mostly grown is a little yellow flint, which is preferred by the native to any other variety on account of its good keeping qualities when stored in pits. The total production for the Territories is not known, and it would be a most difficult undertaking to compute same, as there are hundreds of thousands of little fields of all sizes and shapes dotted all over the country. Just as impossible as it would be to survey all these little fields, likewise would it be to try and ascertain the yield each native secures, as the grain is carried unbagged straight to the pits after shelling. When the population of nearly one million is taken into consideration, it is roughly estimated that the country must produce at least a million bags of grain to keep the population alive; but it is likely that in a good season this yield is considerably higher, 32 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.- — July, 1922. It is surprising to see how little kaffir corn is grown. The reasons for this appear to be the bird menace and the lateness of the arrival of the spring rains during the last couple of years. A small Avhite trailing bean, as well as pumpkins, are sown on the same land as the maize. Hardly any kaffir beans — the staple crop of the natives in other parts — are sown. The coastal area is very well suited for the production of tobacco and cotton, and while a fair amount of the former is grown, the growing of the latter has not yet been taken up by the natives. Pea- nuts appear to thrive well along the coast, where the growing season is longer, the temperature higher, and the rainfall greater than in the more inland districts; but very little is grown at present. At Port St. Johns and along the banks of the TJmzimvubu River, tropical fruits such as citrus, bananas, papaws, pineapples, etc., are grown very successfully by some white settlers. Maize does also exceptionally well here, and yields of 20 bags per acre are nothing uncommon. To solve the maize transport difficulties, the nearest railway station being 63 miles distant, a number of farmers have started pig-raising on a lai'ge scale. These animals, after being fattened on maize, are shipped by boat to Durban or East London. While the agricultural practices in vogue by the natives are still crude and primitive, signs of improvement are in evidence everywhere, and the time is perhaps not very distant when the native territories will prove to be of great economic importance to the Union. Sterility in farm animals is widespread and of much more frequent occurrence than is commonly supposed. It occurs in both sexes, and its causes are manifold. It seems to be most common in those animals which are closely confined, and hence is more often observed in dairy and stud cattle. Failure to breed on the part of valuable animals, of course, leads to heavy financial loss. It is not intended to examine all the causes of sterility, but noAv that the show season is over and matters concerned therewith are fresh in breeders' and exhibitors' minds, certain observations on stock exhibited at the various shows relative to the subject of sterility will not be out of place. The outstanding feature of the cattle exhibited at the leading shows this year, was the splendid condition of almost all animals exhibited, males and females alike. One is often tempted to inquire what the breeding capacity of these magnificent animals is, because such high condition is not conducive to the normal functioning of the reproductive organs; in fact, it is one of tlie causes of sterility. Overfeeding and Idleness. — In order to prepare animals for show purposes, they are generally very comfortably stabled, fed heavily, and denied proper exercise. Some animals so treated take on fat readily, and often fail to show any signs of sexual desire. This tendency to loss of sexual vigour on account of overfeeding and idleness increases with age. ShoAv bulls, cows, and heifers, conti- nuously kept in a presentable show condition, invariably become sterile with a continuance of this high show condition. It is true that the tendency to loss of sexual vigour is of a purely functional nature, and can be rectified by proper management, provided that such management is applied sufficiently early. Departmental Activities. 33 The sexual vitality of many of our most richly bred animals is often temporarily impaired, and sometimes permanently destroyed in the process of fitting them for the show ring-, and keeping" them presentable for the next show. It is a great pity that some of our leading judges of both dairy and beef breeding classes are too prone to allot premiums to the fattest animals, and fail to see the merits of outstanding animals, simply because in the case of a cow the animal has suckled a calf or had a long lactation period, and is not in high condition — show condition — or in the case of a bull that had been used very profitably in the herd and is naturally not fat. Show DangerSi — The dates on which the leading shows are held also militate against the fullest use of sires and dams, because the show animals must be fattened and fitted for the show at a time when mating is to be done. Cases of- sterility which have resulted from the fact that stud stock were kept in too high a condition can, unfortunately, be instanced from the Schools of Agriculture. During the early years when several more breeds were maintained than to-day, it was neither convenient nor possible to give the proper care and exercise to the several bulls, with the result that several became sterile at an early age, when they should have been useful for several more years. Often a bull is neglected owing to his vicious nature; but this can be overcome in the case of a valuable animal by exercising him in a paddock leading from his box and surrounded by a good rail fence or wall. Much difficulty has also been experienced in breeding show heifers after a show career. One or two such heifers only bred when five years old, and others remained queens (barren) all their lives. Show cows invariably give birth to very diminutive and often weak calves. Pig-breeding Losses. — The losses incurred in pig breeding on this account are also very severe. Pigs are, as a rule, very badly neglected as regards exercise ; they are penned up too much, and very often no adequate facilities for outdoor exercise exist, viz., suitable runs, with or without grazing, to which breeding animals could have access for the greater part of each day. Such provision will minimize the losses from sterility to a great extent. Sows and boars excessively confined invariably lose fecundity at an early age. The sow begins by not showing any sex desire after the litter is weaned. She puts on fat rapidly, and the greatest difiiculty is experienced to get her in heat. A continuance of this state leads to total sterility. The overfat boar that seldom enjoys a daily outing in a suitable run, may lose all sexual inclination, and becomes impotent and rheumatic at an early age. The Remedy. — Since show animals are generally the richest bred of the respective herds, it certainly is a very important con- sideration that such animals are regular breeders. Although there is no effective method of overcoming sterility from the above causes, when once an animal has become a persistent non-breeder, much could be done to relieve the situation. In fitting breeding animals for the show it is absolutely essential that abundant exercise should go hand in hand with liberal, yet judicious, feeding. More use must be made of sunshine and fresii 9 34 JOUENAL or THE DEPARTMENT OP AgKICULTUEK. JuLY, 1922. air, and animals should he ke])t in condition on pastures, supple- mented Avith just that amount of additional feed whirli will main- tain good breeding condition. The great aim of stud breeders should he to secure continued growth rather than high condition, and this applies more, to young stock that fatten more rapidly and readily, because thej^ have only their own bodies to provide for, whereas the cow may be feeding a foetus, while she yields much milk or suckles another calf, and the bull is used in breeding; however, even these older breeding animals should always be in fit breeding condition. The judges at live stock shows can also do much to point tlie way to greater vitality and fitness in breeding animals exhibited by paying less attention to the amount of fat and more to the general form and natural vigour of the animal when ]naking awards. Calving and Calf Diseases. — Where winter calving is proceeding duiing July p]'ecautions sliould be taken against outbreaks of white scour, joint ill, and contagious calf pneumonia. As far as calves of dairy cows go, this is applicable to calving all the year round. Allow the calving to take place in the open and for some time ])revious to the act allow the dam access to soft green stuff. If a calf is seen to be presented normally, do not interfere, as the straining M-ill assist in getting rid of the calf's membranes (afterbirth). The best means of prevention of the three foiementioned diseases is good hygienic conditions, a clean pen, and clean bedding. If the floor of the calf pen is ground, lather allow the young animal to I'emain out. A pen, of which the ground is the flooi', that is ke])i solely for calving, acts as an absolute hot-bed for the causative organisms of the three calf diseases. Another method of prevention is the tying of the navel cord of the new-born calf with silk or other substance that has been soaked in tincture of iodine, and then after cutting the cord 5 inch below where it is tied, paint the stump, the cord, and round the entrance to the body cavity. Good hygienic surroundings and cleanliness for calves will go a long way in minimizing the risk of hair ball. Lice or other skin ])arasites cause the youiig animals to bite and lick themselves, with llie result that hair is taken in, and so forms a beginning for this condition. Indigestion caused by overgorging with milk also gives rise to it. Scouring may appear in young calves from overgorging. A tablespoon or two of castor oil is usually sufHcient to rectify this state. If not, powders containing bicarbonate of soda, grains 3.0 (enough to just cover a 3d. piece), and bismuth salicylate, grains 15, are very effective. For scouring that does not answer to these, dried blood, an oggspooiiful, will be found useful. Castrations can be carried out with inuch less risk from tiles at this time of the year. July in the Orchards—Planting. — This month is generally accei)ted as the correct time for planiing all deciduous fruit trees. When the trees are received from tlie nursery, especially aftei- a long journey by rail, the roots should be placed in water to enable them to swell out before planting. The holes for planting should be broad and sufficiently deep to prevent cramping of the roots. Do not mix manure in the holes unless the soil is known to be very poor. If manure is necessai-y, add a double handful of fine bone- meal or superphosphate, and mix it thoroughly with the soil. The i)EPAKTMENTAL ACTIVITIES . roots should be examined, and all broken or badly barked pieces removed to minimize the risk of fungoid disease attacking- these points. When carrying trees about prior to planting, have the roots enclosed in a wet sack to prevent drying out. Never plant too deeply, always a little higher than one would like; later on, the soil settles down and the trees go down too. Before completely filling in the holes with soil, give each tree a thorough soaking with water, at least 8 gallons, then fill in with dry soil. After the trees have been firmly planted, the stems should be cut back to the height of 15 to 18 inches above the ground to give a good shape and establish a vigorous root system. Never plant closer llian 20 feet each way, 22 feet apart is better. Pruning must be pushed on and completed as early as possible. Many of the earlier peaches will be bursting into blossom this month, and spraying must be finished to prevent blossom injury. All necessary information regarding pruning may be obtained from back numbers of the Journal or the bulletin " Pruning of Deciduous Fruit Trees," obtainable from the Department of Agriculture, Pretoria. (Price, 3d. prepaid.) Spraying. — Most fruit trees are attacked by some insect pest or fungoid disease during the year. As a general rule, these ail- ments appear when the trees are in leaf and control measui'es are difficult to apply. If after pruning is finished a good clean-up spray such as " Capex " brand lime-sulphur solution in the proportion of one part "Capex" to ten or fifteen parts of cold water is applied, most of the troubles would be considerably reduced. Spray with bordeaux mixture to control fungoid disease, but it is of no use against aphis or scale. The Department has a number of bulletins dealing with tree ailments, which may be obtained on apj)lication. GLEN. ORANGE FREE STATE. Vacation Instruction, — An arrangement has been made lor four students from the institution to spend part of their vacation in the Wargundy Orchards pruning trees, the terms being free board and lodging and rail fare in return for the work done. Some remunera- tion will be paid depending on the satisfaction given. This arrange- ment is excellent in every way, especially from the point of view of the institution providing as it does a means of the students gain- ing more extended experience. It is hoped that this feature of tlie work will extend in succeeding years, and that it may be possible for the greater proportion of the students to find work and gain experience on other farms during their vacation. Correspondence with any farmer interested will be welcomed. Sun Scald in Trees. — As sun scald is so prevalent in the Jriinge Pree State, growers who intend planting fruit trees are advised to head or prune back apple and pear trees on the main stem to about 15 inches and stone fruit, such as peaches, etc., back to 18 inches. For the following three or four years great care and attention must 2a 36 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. be paid to laying the foundation of the trees by cvitting back to form a cup or vase shaped tree with several low branches to protect the main stem from the sun. The sun shining- on the bark, especially the north and north- Avest side of the main stem, seems to heat up the sap in the cambium, layer and to cause cracking. Then the sun opens out these cracks gradually, and the whole of that side of the stem dies. The cracking spreads up to the branches on the side of the tree affected causing them to die back, leaving an unsymmetrical specimen. Growers; frequently attribute this to the work of pests of various kinds. When a tree is very bad with sun ficald very little can be done with it, and the best advice is to uproot it and plant another. If only slightly damaged, the tree can be cut back below the scalding and grafted over if the stock is suitable for this purpose. New Feeding Stuffs. — \'arious by-products useful as concen- trated feeding stuffs for live stock are now appearing on the market in increasing numbers. The more recent are cotton seed and linseed cake, and various maize by-products such as maize oil cake. South African rations in areas where lucerne is not grown to any exteni are notoriously deficient in protein, and the production of these feeding stuffs in larger qviantities is an encouraging sign that farmers are now devoting more attention to the all-important question of balanced rations. It seems necessary to emphasize, even at the risk of repetition, that if a ration is deficient in protein, the constituents present are not utilized economically, and a certain proportion of the food is then fed to waste. Experimental Results. — An experiment was carried out at Glen during the past season to determine the relative effect of various methods of treatment of giving crops, viz., cultivation, harrowing, weeding, moisture tests being taken in conjunction with the records of weight of crop harvested. Owing to the insufficiency of the rain- fall— no rain of value having fallen after the middle of January — the plants in the test plots did not properly mature, and the results therefore were not as complete as hoped. Two plots, however, gave outstanding results, viz., the fallow plots contained nearly as much" moisture as the plots under crop, and the plots neither weeded nor cultivated in any way after the seed was planted gave about 25 per cent, lower yield than the plots to which attention was given. Exhibit at Frankfort Show. — An innovation was made this season by sending a small exhibit of cereals and feeding stuffs and of demonstration experiments in soils and fertilizers and feeding stuffs to the Frankfort Show, with the chemist in charge to explain matters and answer questions. The plan was thoroughly justified, the exhibit not only attracting considerable interest, but the visitors to the show plied numerous questions, and the feature as a whole excited very favourable comment from all concerned. It is felt that an extension of this work should be made as far as circumstances permit. At the small shows the attractions are more frequently too few than too numerous, and the visitors are willing to learn and, further, have plenty of opportunity for so doing. As a feature of extension work, the exhibit at country shows deserves to be extended. Departmental Activities. The Value of Silage. — A droug-lit such as we have experienced this year should be an incentive to farmers to make provision for the lean years by having a good supply of sileage on hand. The wintei- ing- of cattle is always a matter of importance to the stock farniei . The cattle will do much better if, in addition to the veld grazing, they receive some silage. Dairy farmers especially should not alloA\- their cattle to come down much in condition, and this is of special irnportance in the case of young in calf heifers, since their growtli will be stunted considerably. Succulent food such as silage and roots will do much to stimulate milk production in the cold months when the milk flow is dropping considerably. Special Course in Poultry Farming.— During the past five or six years there has been u constant and increasing demand for special instruction in poultry farming, but shortage of stafi: and lack of facilities have hitherto made such a special course impossible. Many people are now turning their attention to poultry farming as a means of livelihood, and in many cases these people are of mature age, and the two-year diploma course is not to their liking. Moreover, the object in view in the diploma course is to impart such information as will be of value to those keeping poultry, as they are ordinarily run on the farm, viz., as a sideline. The applicants for special instruction in poultry fai-ming require special information to enable them to run poultry as a business, i.e. on commercial lines, and the equipment and method is very dilferent in this case from that of the ordinary farmer. The need for a special poultry course is therefore great, and fortunately the obstacles that hitherto stood in the way have now been removed, and it is proposed to commence the first course as advertised on the 24th July. The major part of the instruction will be given by the Lecturer in Poultry and his assistants. Lectures will, however, be given by the officers of the institution in horti- culture and botany, in field crops, in agricultural engineering, and carpentry, in anatomy of the domestic fowl and poultry parasites. in book-keeping, and in feeds and feeding in so far as these pertain to poultry farming. The course is, therefore, complete, and it is anticipated that the applications will exceed the accommodation. ELSENBURG. MULDERS VLEI. The Avoidance of Codling-moth Infestations. — Codling-moth is a much more serious pest in South Africa than in California. In the latter country by far the greatest majority of pears are of the Williams or Bartlett variety,* an early ripening fruit, which is harvested before a complete second brood of the insect develops, with the result that where the Williams crop is harvested there is in most cases no fruit left in the orchard in which codling may breed, consequently the majority of the moths die without having increased their progeny. This results in a much lighter infestation to start with the following year. But in South Africa, the great majority of fruit growers, if not all, have at least six varieties, the Williams forming at most no more than one-sixth to one-quarter of the crop, the rest mainly com- prising such varieties as Cornice, Kieffer, Louise Bonne, Winter Nelis, and Glou Morceau, all of which do not escape even a third brood of codling larvae. ;jy JOUIINAL OF THE JDeI'AKTMEM' OF AgRICULTUEE. JuLY, 1922. The Selection of Pear Varieties for the Orchards. — 1 ruit growers contemplating' the estabiisliing (jf new orcliartls would tlo well to con- sider the separation of the early ripening frorn the late maturing- varieties of pears and apples, the former to comprise one ondiard, the latter to make up another orchard, each planted preferably as far apart as possible. Such an arrangement would facilitate greatly the control of codling moth. When Williams, Clapps Favourite, Du- chesse, lieurre Hardy, and other early varieties, forming a section of the orchard, are harvested, most of the larvae that have previously left the fruit ultimately develop into moths which fly to the trees of nearby areas of the orchard that are bearing later ripening pears, thus adding to their infestation. Williams, Beurre Hardy, and Duchesse pears were harvested at Elsenburg in 1922 on 25th and -'Ust January, and 7th February respectively; in 1921, on 2Tth January, 6th and 10th February respectively. Very few larvae leaving the fruit liefore 4th Feljruary, hibernate, and the majority do not hibernate until the middle of February (see Table I) but they develop into adult moths which must deposit their eggs on trees bearing fruit if their progeny are to survive. The fruit grower, then, should see to it that early ripening fruits are picked promptly, not only to lessen the infestation the next season in such varieties, but also to prevent as many larvae as possible from leaving this fruit to develop into moths, which will concentrate on trees in the same orchard bearing later fruits. Table 1. Records <>/ HibciiuitiiKj of Codluuj Larvae collected from Tree Banda, Mulder's Vlei. No. of Larvae Date Collected. No. of Larvae Collected. No. of Larvae which Hibernate. Developed to Moths in Fruit Season. No. of Larvae which Died. 2nd December 151 1 ■ 89 {]1 2iid 645 4 381 260 Uth 1,266 17 562 687 16th 134 3 S7 44 2ith 370 5 59 306 3rd January 41'.t 16 145 258 13th :i25 s 91 226 25th 334 13 130 191 4th Februarv 690 96 170 424 10th „ ; 13S 32 22 84 22nd 1„ 450 lOi) 35 306 4th March 23 23 — — nth „ 31 31 — — 13th „ 160 160 — — 27th 63 63 — '" Literature c/Y^r^.— California Montlily Bulletin of Horticulture, V'ol. VII, May, 1918 p. 239. " Fear-growic g in California," by Weldon. Weldon states " Probably between 80- 9( rer cent of all pear trees in California are Bartletts (Williams B.C.)"" 90 Departmental Activities. 39 Spraying and Dusting for Control of Fusicladium, Season 1921-22. — The following- is a brief summary of the work carried out during" the past season in the pear orchard: — Variety: Louise Bonne. Plot I (average count of two trees). — Dusted twice with 12 lb. copper sulphate and (S8 11). lime before blossoming, and twice with the above mixture, plus lead arsenate, using 10 lb. CuSO^, 75 lb. lime, 15 lb. lead arsenate, and three times with lime and lead arsenate, viz., 85 lb. lime and 15 lb. lead arsenate. Total fruit, 1203; fusicladium, 137; codling, 030; percentage scab, 11.3; percentage wormy, 52. Plot II (Uvn trees). — Sprayed twice before blossoming and twice after (De Beers bordeaux) with usual sprays of lead arsenate. Total fruit, 2000; fusicladium, percentage scab, 3.7. Plot III (tliree trees). — Spiayed with ordinary bordeaux (4:4: 50) twice after blossom with I5 lb. lead arsenate in 40 gallons l>ordeaux of 4:4:50 strength, plus three sprays 1^ lb. lead arsenate in 40 gallons water. Total fruit, 2424; fusicladium, 109; codling, 179; percentage scab, 2.0; percentage codling, 5. Plot IV (three trees). — Sprayed twice before blossom, Capex (1:45), and twice after, Capex (1:50) with 1-h lb. lead arsenate in 50 gallons water. T^ast three sprays 1^ lb. lead arsenate in 40 gallons water. Total fruit, 4230; fusicladium, 112; codling, 214; percentage scab, 2.G; percentage codling, 5. Clieck Tree. — Uiisprayed. Total fruit, 391; fusicladium, 109; codling, 280; percentage scab, 43; percentage codling, 71. Variety : Forelle. Three plots, plus a check tree, were taken. Plot I (two trees). — Sprayed twice before blossom, bordeaux (4:4:50), twice after blossom with li lb. lead arsenate in 40 gallons bordeaux, and three later sprays 1^^ lb. lead arsenate in 40 gallons water. Total fruit, 1301; fusicladium, 76; percentage scab, 5.8. Plot II. — Sprayed twice before blossom with ('orona bordeaux ])owder, and twice after blossom \vith similar mixture. Total fruit, 1843; fusicladium, 100 ; percentage scab, 5.8. Plot III (two trees) .^ — Sprayed twice lief ore blossom with Capex (1 :50), twice after blossom with 11 lead arsenate in 45 gallons Capex. Total fruit, 1116; fusicladium, 9; percentage scab, 8. Check Tree. — Total fruit, 383; fusicladium, 83; percentage scab, 21. Conclusions. — (1) Infestations of fusicladium, in so far as Elsenburg is concerned, were not sufficiently severe to give very reliable results regarding the tests of efficiency of the different sprays, and powders. (2) De Beers bordeaux powder, made up into spray form, is as effective as ordinary home-made bordeaux. (3) Capex 40 JoruisAL OF THE IJEPAUXMEiS'T OF Agricultuee. JuLY, 1922. (1 :45 or 1 :50) is as effective as bordeaux, but causes a little burning of the foliage, altliou • 8 600 lb. 2,420 If.-l No treatment 1,81-) 12-1 400 lb. 1,694 11-2 100 „ 2,178 14-5 100 „ 2,178 1 4 • r. 400 „ "\ 100 „ 3,-388 22 -.5 1 00 „ No treatment 1,875^ 12-5 Tlie i)otato, like the tobacco plant, prefers a soil rich, in potash. Fortunately, this element is found in most soils in sufficient quanti- ties to supply the needs of the crop, hut where a farmer has ashes on his farm he can apply same with advantage to this crop. Tt is found that potatoes do well on acid soils, and for that reason llie application of lime is not considered necessary, in fact, potato will make the gfroAvino' of same almost impossible. The potato does well after a o-reen manuring- crop, as the latter leaves the soil in a loose state — ideal for tuber pioduction. On drv-land 1he following four-year rotation mav prove use- ful :— First year. — Maize. Second year. — Tefi', afterwards ])]oug-hed under. Third year. — Beans fertilized. Fourth year. — Potatoes, heavily mnnured as recommended above. (h- First year. — Maize. Second year. — Maize fertilized. Third year. — Cowpeas or kaffirbeans ploughed under. k'ourth vear, — Potatoes fertilized. I*OTATO CULTURU. 47 In tiie potato belt in tlie liig-li veld, this crop alternates witii either maize aiid teff in the rotation, but no attempt whatsoever is made at green manuring- with a legume. In the eastern Grange Free State beans, wheat, and rye are often included in the rotation. Under irrigation the following two-year rotation may ])rove useful : — First year : — AVinter crop. — Winter cereal, fertilized with superphosphate or bone dust. Summer crop. — Beans for seed production or cowpcas plouglied under. Second year : — AVinler crop. — Winter cereal, fertilized. Summer crop. — Potatoes with kraal nmnure at tlie rale ol' 10 iuiis per acre. Seed. The amount of seed required to plant an acre will vary with tlie size of the sets, and the distances of planting. About 1000 lb. or from 6 to 7 bags of tubers, the size of a hen's egg (2 to 2^ oz. in weight), is the average quantity planted. On the quality of the seed planted, depends very much the failure or success of the crop. The seed should be sound, free from any disease, sprouted or ready to sprout. Provided the soil at the time of planting contains a fair amount of moisture, large tubers may be cut into halves, or, if very large, into quarters, leaving two or three eyes to each piece. It is advisable to cover the cut surfaces with ordinary lime, which will form a crust and thus prevent too much moisture from escaping. Cut seed should be put in soon after (tutting, and should under no circumstances be planted in dry ground. On a whole very small tubers give disappointing results, especially if the season is unfavourable. Seed potatoes are generally stored in pits, pyramid heaps, or in sheds. Where dry winters are exi)e- rienced the tubers are best left in the ground over winter, and lifted before they start sprouting in spring. They can then be spread open about 4 inches deep on the floor of a shed, and be turned over from lime to time until required for planting. The most practicable method, though, for storing a large quantity of seed is to put it into mound or pyramid heaps. A cool, well drained spot is selected, and slightly excavated before the tubers are thrown into long heaps and well covered over with grass and straw to prevent them from being- injured by frost, sun, etc. The pile should be examined now and then to see whether the tubers are not decaying. In the Bethal and Thaba 'Nchu areas most farmers store their seed very successfully in this way. It is an undisputed fact that immature tubers give better results than those fully matured. Some farmers, therefore, lift their crop intended for seed before maturing, or if grown under irrigation they do not irrigate the crop towards the end, and thus cause it to ripen prematurely, which seems to have the same desirable effect as lifting the crop when still immature. Farmers often experience difficulty in getting potatoes from the crop planted in August to sprout in . 48 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. time for January and February planting. Some growers are fairly successful by bagging their seed, and placing it in a warm moist situation, often lightly covering it with stable manure which will raise the temperature and cause the tubers to sprout. Care, how- ever, should be exercised not to raise the temperature too high as the tubers are likely to decay. Potatoes grown in the low veld and lifted in October could be profitably used by the farmers for January and I'ebruary planting. Improvement of the Crop. It is the experience of many growers that potatoes degenerate if planted in the same locality, especially in a warm climate, for a numlaer of years. The chief causes of this degeneracy or decreased productivity appear to be : — 1. Failure to select the right seed. Most farmers select their seed at the heap with the result that small tubers from low-yielding stools or hills are mostly selected. As like has a tendency to beget like, these small tubers will generally be responsible for low yields in the succeeding crop. This goes on from year to year, until the farmers find that their variety has " run out " or deteriorated. To remedy this, hill selection is recommended. The grower should select his seed in the field from the hills that yield most. If this is done for a number of years — always selecting the best from among the best — a highly productive strain which is not likely to degenerate could be developed. Where experiments have been conducted with the progeny from high and low yielding strains it has been unmistakably proved that this character of the potato plant breeds true, hence the necessity of using tubers from productive hills. 2. Some investigators attribute degeneracy in potatoes largely to diseases carried in the tuber. The organisms causing the diseases have as yet not been isolated. Typical diseases of this character are: spindling sprouts, curly leaf, and mosaic disease. As remarked above this so-called degeneracy can largely be counteracted by hill selection and by the use of sound, well grown tubers. There is always the tendency for the potato to revert back to its ancestors or to become " wild," and for this reason seed selec- tion should be rigidly carried out and continued from year to year. In selecting seed in the field it is well that the grower should keep the following points in mind and breed for same : — 1. High yield, ascertained by weighing, measuring, or count- ing the progeny from each hill. 2. Disease resistance; some plants easily succumb to diseases while others resist them. 8. Good keeping qualities; some potatoes keep well for a long time while others cannot be stored or kept for too long a period. 4. Good colour of flesh and skin ; this depends on public fancy- 5. Skin of a desirable texture. 6. Tubers of good shape. 7. Shallow eyes and few in number. 8. Upright vigorous plants, showing constitution. 9. Trueness to type which varies with the variety. 10. Maturity. Potato CvltU-r^. 49 Harvesting. The crop, unless intended for the very early market or for seed purposes, should not be dug until fully mature, i.e. after the skin is firm, and the tops have died down. It is usually lifted by hand, ridging plough, or potato digger. The last-mentioned implement is being used more and more. Grading, preferably into five classes, namely, large, medium large, medium, medium small, and small should be practised. The medium size potatoes are preferred to very larg-e and very small ones for culinary as well as for seed purposes. On dry lands where the winter climate is a dry one the crop is best left in the ground, and lifted duiing the winter months when required for the market. The months of August, September, and October are generally the time of the year when potatoes are scarce, and fetch the best prices on the market. !»*.'afcb«,^-Jii' I'lf — — ^s? ^A?^ (joiiuial View from Vineyard, Elsenburg School of Agriculture. Stables on right, Classrooms and Laboratories on left. Drought-stricken Districts; Railage of Live Stock, Eeference was made in the May, 1922, Journal to the facilities given by the Railway Administration for the removal of cattle and sheep from drought-stricken districts for fresh pasturage, when full ordinary rates would be charged for the forward journey but one- half be refunded on the return of the stock to the original forward- ing station, the return journey being free of charge. Certain condi- tions are laid down by the Administration in connection with this facility, and it is imperative that every farmer taking advantage thereof should strictly carry out his obligations. In the matter of whether the refund will be made where certain stock is sold and a portion only returned, it is pointed out that it will be paid in respect of the portion returned provided that the stipulated condi- tions of the promissory note are complied with whereby, before any stock is disposed of, arrangements are to be made to pay the Rail- way Administration the amount of the promissory note. 52 Journal or the Department or Agriculture. — July, 1928. with a deficient heart-girth, high tliough her production may be, is alwaj^s objectionable. We have mentioned the broad, strong muzzle as being an indication of feeding capacity. In that muzzle we look also for two big, open nostrils, which are an indication of breathing capacity, and as such of strong \vell-developed lungs. The Points of the Dairy Cow. The whole of a dairy cow should have a refined, feminine appearance, long and wedge-shaped. In order to get this, the points to look for are : — Head. — Rather long, not too wide between the horns, but widen- ing out between the eyes, narrowing down again from the eyes towards the muzzle. i^/?^^^Ze.— Broad and strong with big, open nostrils. Eyes. — Big, clear, and with soft expression. Neck. — Long, thin, and practically free of dew-lap and joining iui equally thin and bare shoulder. Shoulder Blades. — Coming nicely to a point on the withers, but sufficiently apart at the base, giving plenty of room through the heart girth. Back. — Strong, straight, with vertebrae well apart. Hindquarter. — Broad and square in order to give room for the reproductive organs. Ribs. — Long, wide apart, and well sprung. Legs. — Of sufficient strength to carry the animal, placed squarely, and a square walk when in motion. Udder. — High and full behind, and extending well forward under the belly, divided in four even quarters, free from fleshiness. When empty, it should nearly lose its form and consist of folds of soft pliable skin. The udder that is not extending under the belly, but is placed in a sharp angle under it often points to the cow that may be a flush milker just after calving, but very seldom a persistent one. The cow of which the udder is not attached high behind very seldom is a good producer at all. Teats. — Nicely shaped, medium size. The pointed teat, as a rule, indicates a cow that is hard to milk. Milk Veins. — These should be thick, tortuous, and long, while the milk wells, through which the veins pass into the body of the cow, should be large. The artery that feeds the udder M-ith blood from the heart is not noticeable, but runs under the spinal column; the milk veins — those that run from the udder forward under the belly — are important, as the size indicates the amount of blood that has passed through the udder. The milk well should be taken spe- cially into consideration when the cow is dry, for at that time the milk veins are not so much in evidence, and a big well will indicate a good vein. The Dairy Cow. 53 Hair and. Skin. — The skin should he soft and comparatively thin, while it must be thickly planted with short, silky hair. Such hair and skin indicate the fineness of the dairy cow. Escutcheon. — Must be hig'h, wide, and spreading. Viewing the animal from behind, the escutcheon is indicated by the hair on the thighs and the region of the cow above the udder, which runs up instead of down. It is supposed that the hair growing like that on those parts is due to the artery which passes there. Though a well- developed escutcheon is not a sure indication of a good milker, it certainly is some indication, and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred it will be found that the cow with the good escutcheon will also possess most of the points M^e are looking for in a dairy cow. [Photo Med. Nederl. Rvrulvee. Fig. II. — A good type of Dairy Cow. The Dairy Bull. The points to look for in the bull are more or less the same as in the cow, only the animal should have a stronger appearance. A bull must have a manly appearance. Occasionally bulls are found, bred out of very high producing stock, that at a distance it is difficult to see whether it is a bull or not. Such a bull is too feminine in appearance as a sire. He may be of a good milking strain, but it is very dubious whether he will have the strength to stamp his progeny with his good qualities. A thing to look for in the bull is the rudimentary teats, placed just in front of the scrotum. These should be well developed and squarely placed, being an indication that his heifers will have 54 JOURNAI, OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — JuLY, 1922. niceh- placed udders. Many farmers look for the row with black or mottled teats, and for that reason for a bull with a black scrotum. iS'ow the scrotum of the bull has nothing' to do witli the teats of his prog-eny. If cows with black or mottled teats are required look for the bull with the black or mottled rudimentaries. Of course, for the farmer wlio wants to improve and who Avants lo be certain of what he is breeding, the only animal he can use is the pure-bred dairy bull. It is a recognized fact in breeding that the older and truer the blood, the more able is the animal to give his progeny the good qualities he possesses. Now the cross-bred or grade bull cannot have that strength, and the farmer using such an aniinal may, instead of improving, go backwards in the dairy quali- ties of his stock. The Need of the Daip.y Cow. The great difference betAveen the beef and the dairy type cow is that in the days of plenty the beef-type animal lays up a store of fat, and during the bad season when there is little to eat in the veld vshe is able to live a long time on her stored-up fat. Not so the dairy type. In the days of plenty she converts her food into milk, and Avhen the bad times come she has nothing to fall back upon, and, of course, is bound to get in a poor conditio]). For that reason, and also because she wants a considerable amount of food to convert into milk, the dairy cow is an animal that has to be fed. The saying " the better you feed your cow, the better she feeds you " is a true one. Besides having a very highly developed nervous system, she requires good care and attention and kind treatment, and will react very quickly on anything to the contrary. Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st June, 1922. Name. Address. Cause of Quarantine. Extent of Quarantine. Mrs. A. W. Godwin Hugh Horn ... A. E. Todd W. Flynn N. S. van dor Merwc... J. S. Rossouw... C. F. Marais Badcock& Cunningham Lovedale Institute ... F. P. Long S. B. Bart lot t F. N. Tarr E. Krohn D. A. English & Co. R. Mason & Son Durban Parys Pietermaritzburg Somerset West .., Wellington Wellington Wellington Qitenhage Alice Clumber ... Clumber ... Bathurst ... Pretoria ... Pietermaritzburg Pietermaritzburg Spanish Red Scale Red Scale Araucaria Scale ... Pernicious Scale... Red Scale Woolly Aphis ... Red Scale Red Scale Red Scale Red Scale Red Scale Red ScaU; Red Scale Red Scale Pernicious Scale White Peach Scale Ross Scale Red Scale Red Scale Palms. Roses. Araucarias. All deciduous stock. All citrus. All apple trees. All citrus. All citrus. All citrus. Whole Nursery (citrus). Lemon stocks. Whole Nursery (citrus). Whole Nursery (citrus). All citrus. Part Nursery. Lemon stocks. Lemon stocks. The Tanning and Beaying of Skins. 55 THE TANNING AND BRAYING OF SKINS AND THE MANUFACTURE OF RAW-HIDE LEATHER AND RIEMS. My W. ¥. ScHLUPP, B.Sc, F.E.S., Entomoloo'ist, and G. C. MACKINNON, Field Instructor in Practical Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Experiment Station, Potchefstrooni, Transvaal. The skins from the thousands of wild animals, large and small, that are killed each year in South Africa constitute, when taken in the aggregate, an agricultural item of no mean value. The pelts of practically all animals are useful for one purpose or another — stoles, muffs, collars, coats, karosses, rug^s, etc., l)eing among the articles prepared from them. The most valualile skins are some- times handed over to furriers hy people living close to large towns. People living in remote districts often find this inconvenient; many others do not care to pay the difference in cost between the raw skin and the finished product. The home-tanning and braying of skins is not a very intricate matter — it requires merely a little care and a certain amount of work. Farmers often make their own karosses and rugs, and, for that matter, occasionally very creditable stoles and muffs are produced on the farm. Natives are generally quite adept at braying^ skins by the simple method used by all aboriginals, viz., by stretching, scraping, twisting, and rubbing the hide, together with the use of fat. This method often produces a good article ; nevertheless, the employment of a good curing mixture or solution minimizes the chance of failure, and is considered to g^ive a better finished product, there being less danger of the hair being lost. It should be borne in mind, however, that the use of such artificial aids does not eliminate the necessity for good hand-work; the latter is equal in importance to tlie tanning mixturt; used. Skinning Small Animals. In skinning a snmll animal, proceed as follows: — From each hind foot make a cut along the inside of the leg to the anus, and from there along the underside of the tail. Cut only the skin, not the muscles. Avoid rupturing* the scent-glands, which, when present, are located near the anus. Skin the hind legs ; the claws may be left attached to the hide if desired. jNText skin the tail. The skin may be si)lit for a short distance along the tail, the rest worked loose with the fingers, and the tail vertebrae pulled out without splitting the lemainder of the tail-skin. However, for the beginner at least, it is better to split the skin nearly to the end of the tail, as it often happens that, with the unsplit skin, the hair falls out, especially near the end. This is probably due larg-ely to the fact that it is difficult to dry and cure properly the unsplit tail, xlfter the tail has been skinned, suspend the animal by its liind legs and pull the skin down over the body (inside out), using* the fingers as much as possible and avoiding the use of the knife except when necessary. 56 JOURNAL or THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — JuLT, 1922. When the front legs are reached, work the fingers under them, between the hide and the flesh, and pull the legs out of the skin. When being pulled over the head the skin will stick fast when the ears are reached. If it is desired to remove the ears with the hide, make a cut an inch or more behind the point where the skin appears to stick. This will cut the ears loose at their bases. Similarly, when the eyes are reached, also make the cut a short distance behind the point where the skin appears to stick fast. After removal, the hide is split down the middle line of the belly. In skinning largo animals the skin is split down the belly as soon as operations are started, i.e. before it is removed from the carcass. Skins from animals killed in winter are, as a general rule, more valuable than from those killed in summer. Not only is the fur and hair better, but it is less likely to fall out after the curing process is completed. To avoid deterioration of the hide it should be removed from the body as soon as possible after an animal is killed, especially in summer. Pelts from animals that have been poisoned are of less value than those of animals killed by other methods. The poison appears to have some deleterious effect on the hide, and, in addition, the animal generally lies for a comparatively long period before it is picked up and skinned. Green skins must not be allowed to lie undried too long or the hair will fall out. They should be either tanned at once or they may be salted and dried, and the tanning and braying done at a later date. Before the tanning mixture is apolied, dry skin should be softened with warm water. If the hide is covered with blood and dirt it should be given a good washing with soap and water, especially if it is to be dry cured. Tanning and Curing Mixtures. Tanning ageats of various sorts are in use. The simjilest is a mixture of common salt and alum. Some farmers make use of wild plants. Others rely on proprietary preparations. Of the recipes which follow, the second is one which has been recommended by the United States Bureau of Biological Survey. The first and last are also of American origin, but have been slightly modified. The third is one which appeared several years ago in the Union Agricultural Journal. For Very Small Skins. — This is one of the simplest kinds of curing mixtures. Take 2 parts of saltpetre and 1 part of alum and reduce to a powder. Saltpetre is best, but if none is on hand use salt as a substitute. Eub well the flesh side of the skin with the powder, taking care that every part is covered with the mixture. Lay the skin away in a cool place for several hours. In cold, winter weather it may be rolled up and left for a fairly long time. Next, stretch it and allow it to dry a little, then scrape it, and before it is entirely dry rub and twist it until it is soft. _ For Small to Medium Sized Skins. — This is also a fairly simple recipe. It is recommended for small to medium sized skins, but it could be used for fairly large ones also. A solution has an advantage over a dry-curing mixture in that there is little chance of any part of the skin escaping its effects. The Tanning and Braying of Skins, 57 Dissolve 1 quart of common salt and 1 ounce of sulphuric acid iu 1 g'allon of water, preferably soft. Keep the solution in a glass, glazed earthenware, or enameled vessel, Ordinary metal vessels may not be used. The writers have made use of a cleau, new, unrusted, and unscratched paraffin tin. At the end of tw^enty-four hours a con- siderable amount of chemical action between the solution and the tin had taken place. This might be very injurious to the skin, although in the writers' work no definite damage was noted. At any rate a paraffin tin should not be used except in a case of necessity. The sulphuric acid and the salt each have an effect of their own, and, in addition, they react to form a certain amount of glauber salts, which sometimes can be seen crystalized on the hair of the skin which has l)een soaked in the solution. Soak the skin in the liquid for one day. No harm is done if the period is longer. Then wash the skin thoroughly with soap and hot water, rinse, wring out the water, rub "^he flesh side with a cake of soap, hang the hide over a cord, rope, or riem with the flesh sides in and leave until nearly dry. When the hair is dry, but the skin itself still slightly moist, scrape the flesh side well with a blunt instrument. This removes fat, bits of muscle, and other tissue, and leaves the skin nearly white. It is surprising the amount of fat that can be removed from some hides. Stretch the skin, but before it becomes dry rub, twist, and roll it until it is soft and pliable. If any part remains hard repeat the soaping and rubbing. Another Method for Medium. Sized Shins. — Make a strong lather with hot water and soap, wash the skin thoroughly in this, then soak for twelve hours or more (depending on the size of the skin) in a solution of 1 pound of salt and 1 pound of alum in 2 gallons of hot water. Hang the skin out to drain, with the flesh side inward. Then stretch tlie hide with the fur inward, and so that the air can pass beneath it. Before it is quite dry sprinkle the flesh side with a mixture composed of equal parts of powdered alum and saltpetre. When thoroughly dry scrape the flesh side Nvith a blunt knife and I'ub it with pumice stone or fine sandpaper. Mr. E. S. Buttermer, who published the above recipe, stated that he had always found it most excellent for the skins of sheep, goats, !>uck, and foals. When tanning larger skins the soaking in the salt and alum should be continued for a period longer than twelve hours. To Tan Large Skins. — The following method requires a great deal of work, but it is a very good one for large skins. It is, of course, good for small ones also : — Soak the skin in warm water, stretch, and thoroughly scrape the flesh side. Then apply a paste made of equal parts of saltpetre, borax, and glauber salts moistened with water; fold the skin, flesh side in, allow it to lie for twenty-four hours, then wash in warm water. Next apply to the flesh side a mixture made by melting together 2 ounces of good soap, 1 ounce of washing soda, and h ounce of borax. Fold up the skin and allow it to lie for twenty-four hoiirs. In warm weather watch should be kept on the skin when it is lying folded. Make up a solution by dissolving 1 pound of alum and 2 pounds of salt in a paraffin tin full (4 gallons) of hot rain water or other soft water. When the solution has cooled to the point that it does not burn the hands put in the skin and allow it to soak for twelve hours; 58 JOUBNAL OF THE DePAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — JuLY, 1922. then take it out, wring it, and lian.s;- it on a rope or rieni for another twelve hours. This last soakino- and dryinii' should be repeated until the desired degree of softness is obi a i nod. Tlio usual stretching, lubbing-, and twisting' completes the work. Braying the Skins. — Eeference has already l)een made to l)raying', which follows the taniiin,!>- process. Braying consists of stretching, twisting, rubbing, and rolling the skin to make it soft and pliable. It also makes the skin much lighter in colour. In the case of skins of ordinary size the work is done with the liands. Large skins may be folded and trampling with the feet added to the braying procedure. Some of the tanning agents used tent to make the skin soft, but a certain amount of braying>is necessary. In the case of large thick skins a great deal is required. Althougli during the tanning process fat is scraped from tlie liide, fat is added during the braying process. It is, of course, api)lied only to the flesh side, none to the fur side. Its function is to soften the skin, which sliould be well rubbed so tliat the fat is absorbed. Fat is absohitely necessary in the case of large hides. Skins of moderate size require only a moderate amount; small ones require little or none. We have used a good grade of d\ibbin as a substitute for fat with satisfactory restilts. The Home Manufacture of Raw-hide Leather. Tlie manufacture of raw-hide leather, and especially of riems, is a very common practice on many South African farms. Hides of various lands are used, those from cattle and other domestic animals predominating. The worlv is done in summer, and also in winter if weather conditions permit, (1) Loosening the Hair on the Hides. Hair on the hides may be loosened by several different processes. One method consists of painting the hair side with a 30 per cent, solution of sodium sulphide, thickened with lime. The skin is then folded up, hair side in, and left to lie for a few hours, when the hair can be removed by scraping. In another process (a clieaner one) the skin is immersed in a vessel containing milk of lime. The liquid is stirred daily, and after a few days tiie hair on the skin becomes loose. Many farmers, however, prefer the old-fashioned process, as they believe that lime has a tendency to cause brittleness in the hide, an undesirable quality, especially if the leather is to be used for voor- slags. If a skin has been treated with lime it should be washed after- wards and then well soaked in a mixture of wheat bran and water to remove the lime. The methods described hereunder are those in vogue in the Western Proviiice of the Cape, a region well known for the good quality of its raw leather. The latter is produced without the aid of chemicals. Tlie processes for loosening the hair are quite simple, and depend on the setting uj) of decom])osition in the hide, which causes the hair to become loose. Tliere is an element of danger in the procedure, as, unless the decomposition is checked at just the right stage, the hide is injured. It has been noted that the strongest leather is obtained froni those skins from which the hair is removed with the greatest difficulty; h, other words, from the skins whicli have undergone the least decomposition, The Tanning and Bkaying of Skins. 59 Several decomposition methods are in use. The time required for each is from one to two days in summer ; longer in winter. A dried skin, which must be thorouodily soaked in water as a preliminary treatment, requires long^er than a oi^gPS 57 and 60 of the ])ani])hlet issued by me on lli" wool industrv.' Exports of Grain, Etc., 1921-1922 Period. The following were the exports of grain, etc., in hags during the juonth of May, 1922: — Maize, 103,736; maize meal, 13,787; maize grit (rice). 2657; lioiiiiiiy chop, 3154: oats, 8158; lucerne seed, 952; total for the month, 132,471 bags. Exports for the period 1st July, 1921, to 31st May, 1922: — Maize, 3,210,779; maize meal, 1,271,824; maize grit (rice), 784~ ; hominy chop, 39,167: maize flour, 357; kaffir corn, 13,971; oats, 32,589; beans, 109; lucerne seed, 4392: bran, 2870; manna seed, 10; total, 4,574,915 bags. Stocks on hand at all ports on 31st Mav, 1922, were as follows: — Maize, 56,528: maize meal. 10,110; oats, 4338; lucerne seed, 1; hominy chop, 640; maize grit (rice), 11; total 71,628 bags. *"Tlie Wool Industry,"' Bulletin No. 4, 1920, obtainable from this office : price Is. prepaid. xHE UrIc.In of Feathers from the Scales of Eeptiles. (>" THE ORIGIN OF FEATHERS FROM THE SCALES OF REPTILES. By Professor J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Pli.l)., P.Z.S., (xiootfonteiii School of Aii'viculture. South Africa takes a special interest in tlie pluniag-e of birds. In pre-war days the annual income to the Union from the exportation of ostrich feathers overseas amounted to almost three million pounds sterling, derived from nearly one million domesticated ostriches. During the years of the war and of the economic depression which have followed the value of the plumes exported has been greatly reduced, reaching only about half a million pounds last year (1921). There is every indication, however, that with the restoration of settled economic conditions, the ostrich will be restored once more to the proud position which it formerly occupied among the agricultural efforts of the country. One of the many problems confronting zoologists is that con- cerned with the origin of feathers, as a covering of birds, and as a means of flight. No structure at all resembling them is to be found in any other animal to show the course along which they have evolved. Since the days of Huxley, however, very little doubt has remained that in some manner feathers have been derived from the scales of reptiles, the group of animals which, includes the living lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and tortoises, and numerous extinct forms. Professor Huxley proved conclusively that in many ways the scale-covered, cold-blooded reptile is closely related to the plumage- covered, hot-blooded bird, and subsequent investigations have served to support the relationship. From this the view naturally followed that the feathers of birds, hoAvever different they may at first sight appear, have in all probability originated from the scales of reptiles. It Avas known that scales and feathers are much alike during the early stages of their development, both being formed as upgroAvtlis of the outer layer of the skin or epidermis, followed by the ujuler layer or dermis, which supplies the nutritive blood plasrjia; and it has been generall}^ assumed that in some manner the scales of reptiles, such as those of the lizard, had become frayed out until thej^ took on the character of feathers. Yery little real evidence in support of the theory has, however, been forthcoming, nor of Iioav the fraying-out first took place. One of the latest contributions is that by Professor Cossar Ewart, Edinburgh University, who, in the September number (1921) of the " Proceedings of the Zoological Society," London, contends that while feathers Avere associated Avith scales in their origin, they yet arose independently of them from the skin. Since birds are held to have sprung from reptiles, it folloAvs that the ancestors of birds must have been entirely covered Avith scales, as are all reptiles at the present day. This scaly covering has largely 3a 68 JOUK-NAT. OF THE 1)eI'AHTMK> i Ol- A(.KJ( UJ.l I K h. 1 UJA', 1922. disappeared and been replaced by feathers in all modern birds, but relics of the scales frequently persist on the leg's and toes of birds. It would tlierefore be reasonable to expect that these surviviiig scales niig'ht in some instances indicate hoAv the passage from scale to feather has been made. As a matter of fact, we find many birds Math feathers as well as scales on their legs and toes, and these should provide the clue. Feathered legs are known in many breeds of poultry, such as Cochins, Brahmas, Langshans, Bantams, Silkies, and Sultans, while they sometimes appear in Leghorns, Minorcas, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons. They also occur on the legs of domesti- cated pigeons, owls, and niany other birds. Although some study Fui. 1. — Part of skin froiu foreleg of ostrich chick, about the time of hatching. The skin is here covered with small fl ^ \ Nv 'V 'rY^ J / # 7>i\ wk /N/ \X > r v.^ Vr^ .i? \j/ ^ Vy< s^ jyi l"-^ k j/\y \.jj[ 1 "^*^y^ *v.), now distinct from one another, and in three of them a feather papilla is included The featiaer at this early stage is seen to be a definite upgrowth from the hind part of a scale, and can be compared with the overIa[) in scales which imbricate. iroiii eticJi, ;iiid tlie limits of each scale become defined. Fig. 4 repre- sents a microscopic section through three of tliese earliest feather- scale germs, while Fig. 5 gives a somewJiat later stage where the upgrowths have begun to form. Fig. 6 represents a section through several scales, at about the same stage as those shown in surface view in Fig. 1, from three of which very definite feather upgroAvths arise; while Fig. 7 shows an older feather filament, which has already begun to grow downwards into the skin to form the feather socket. All these stages leave no doubt Mliatever that a scale and a feather are one and the same formation. They both originate from the same germ. From its hind surface the scale sends out a small upgrowth which elongates into a filament, and within the filament changes go on which ultimately produce a feather, lii its origin, therefore, a feather is nothing more than the modified overlcvp of a scale. The internal changes in the filament, which ultimately result in the formation of the feather, are vei-y complex, but the details are beyond the scope of the present paper. Some conception of the process can, however, be gained from a study of Fig. 8. This repre- sents a transverse section through a developing feather filament, 74 JOUIINAL OF TUK DEPARTMENT OF AgRICULTUKE.- -TuLY, 1922. The conditions prevailing in osiiicli eliicks Mi'ongly suggest that the earliest birds in geological times were, completely covered with small, simple, tuft-like, downy feathers, all of the same size and very densely crowded, each groM'ing out of a small scale. The general surface appearance of the whole body, and also of the wings and tail, was probably much like that of the neck of the ostrich at the present lime wliich, as every farmer knows, is covered with small, tuft-like feathers, all alike and closely crowded. It is manifest that feathers 'ic. 9. — Part ot the tarsus of a pigeon with feathered legs, showing the feathers growing out of the small scales which cover the side of the leg. The feathers have been cut short in order to show more clearly their connection with the scales. The scales liave disappeared above, and only the feathers remain. Via. 10. — Part of the tarsus of a common fowl with feathered-legs. A number of feathers are seen to be growing out of scales, as in the pigeon and ostrich chick, while down the middle the scales have disajipeared, and only the feathers remain. of this kind would be altogether useless for purposes of liiglit; and it is most likely that at first feathers had nothing whatever to do with flying any more than they have in the ostrich at the present time. Later, in the course of evolution, certain of the small scale feathers assumed a dominance over the others, and grew larger and The ORKa^ of Featheks from the Scales of Reptit.es. 75 more complex in structure, and ultiniately a compact web or vane was formed wlien fli(>'ht became possilde. The under covering- of small down feathers found in most birds, but only around the large wing' and tail feathei's of the ostricli, represents the persistent prirni- five covering of birds, though the feathers have become structurally more complex, and the scales have disappeared. The outer covering- of large contour feathers, specially developed as remiges on the wings and as rectrices on the tail, is a secondary acquirement of birds, but it has not displaced the first covering, though almost so in the ostrich . In the course of its development therefore the ancient ostrich presents us with evidence showing how the horny scales derived from reptiles have become transformed into the glorious plumes of birds by a complex process of fraying-out of scale upgrowths ; and another stage in the evolution of birds from reptiles is thus solved. It is manifest that ostrich plumes, of such great commercial importance to South Africa, and employed for decorative purposes the world over, are really nothing more than the highly sjiecialized frayings of scales. j I am under obligation to Mr. F. C. Smith, Lecturer iu Ostriches, for most of the material required for the investigation, and Mr. J. AValker has assisted me with some of the draAvings.] Citrus Export: Advice on many Points. Under the above caption in last month's issue of the Journal, reference was made to the literature issued by the Department for the guidance of citrus growers. A quotation Avas made from one of our bulletins that "the markets of Europe and Xorth America are open to the South African fruitgroAver.'' It must be remembered, however, that so far as the United States are concerned there exists to-day an embargo on the importation of South African citrus fruits oAving to the presence of citrus canker in the Union. As is Avell knoAvn, how- ever, the Department has this disease Avell in hand : it is confined to limited areas in the Pretoria and Rustenburg Districts, the danger of recurrence is small, and it is hoped soon entirely to eradicate it. Honey Production: Bright Prospects. In a letter to the Trade Commissioner, London, the Secretary of the Apis Club. Port Hill House, Benson, Oxon, England, writes : " In view of our international activities Ave shall be publishing notes encouraging the development of the bee-keeping industry in the Union. We learn from several of our members that the condi- tions are so favourable for developing bee-keeping on commercial lines that there is every prospect of making South Africa, from a honey production point of view, a second California. If m any way we could be of service to South African bee-keepers we Avould be glad to hear from you." x. i • ii It is interesting to hear from outside sources of me favourable light in which the Union's honey-producing possibilities are viewed. Nor is the prospect too optimistic, for, aided by the South African Association of Bee-keepers (P.O. Box 6057, Johannesburg), there i> BA^ery reason to expect rapid development in the industry in this country. JOUKNAL or THE DePARTMEIST OF AgKICULTUKE. — J ULY, 1922. BASIC SLAG. The Change in its Composition. Report by Chas. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.J.C. Chief, Division of CheiiiistiA'. A CONSIDERABLE change has come over the composition of basic slag- since the war, whereby its grade has been lowered. The subject has been given serious attention in England, and the Imperial Minister of Agriculture in July, 1920, appointed a committee to study the basic slag problem, with Dr. E. J. Russell, the Director of the Rothamsted Experimental Station, as chairman. Towards the close of 1921 this committee submitted an interim report, which has not yet been published. The change of composition is due to the fact that in the steel industry the basic Bessemer process, of which basic slag was a by- product, has now been superseded by the basic open-hearth process, and the character of the by-product has been entirely altered, its phosphate content having been halved. Investigations in England. The terms of reference placed before the Departmental Com- mittee, which comprised steelmakers, fertilizer manufacturers, and farmers, were " to consider the development and improvement of the manufacture of basic slag and the extension of its use." The committee has up to the present discussed such questions as these : (1) the quantity of slag producable under present conditions ; (2) how much slag can be advantageously utilized by farmers in Britain ; (3) how the quantity or quality of the slag may be increased by combining with the ordinary manufacture of steel some subsidiary process; (4) what the agricultural value of the present quality of slag is. (1) Before the war the annual output of high-grade slag in Britain was 260,000 tons. In 1920 it was only 46,000 tons. It may be of interest to tabulate the whole of the 1920 output a<'cording to grade : — Over 15 per cent, phosphoric oxide 46,000 tons. 12 per cent, and under 15 per cent 121,000 tons. 10 per cent, and under 12 per cent 91,000 tons. 7 per cent, and under 10 per cent 302,000 tons. 5 per cent, and under 7 per cent 118,000 tons. Under 5 per cent 23,000 tons. Total 701,000 tons. Basic Slag. 7T 111 addition to the 46,000 tons of liigli -grade slag' — and it will be remembered tliat, according- to our own definition, liig*li-grade slag must contain not 15 but 16 per cent, of citric- soluble phosphoric; oxide, and in the above table not only the citric-soluble but all the phosphoric oxide is included — there w^as only 212,000 tons of lower- g-rade slag that would have been allowed on our market at all even under our relaxed war-time regulation No. 11. This (quantity would not even suffice the British farme'-, and precludes all idea of export. As for the 28,000 tons l)elow 5 per cent., it would not be worth grinding. (2) As far as the second point discussed by the committee went, it was estimated that (he farmers of the United Kingdom ought to have been using 890,000 tons of basic slag annually, even before the war. (3) Regarding the augmentation of the phosphate in the slag from subsidiary sources («) some experiments were carried on by adding rock phosphates in the proportion of h cwt. per ton of the slag in the fused state, but there was not sufficient alteration of the rock phosphate to justify the process, and the committee decided that such an addition could only be justified if it improved the character of the rock pliosi)hate added. \ b) The use of iron ore containing more phosphorus or the addition of phosphates in the blast furnace Avas considered, but from the steel manufacturer's point of view this would add to the cost of production of the steel, and could, therefore, be adopted only if the price of the resulting slag were sufficiently attractive. The matter is still under consideration. (c) Another point remaining under consideration is the reintroduction of the two lowest grades of slag into the blast furnace so as to increase the phosphatic character of the pig-iron, and thus produce a higher- grade slag. (4) The committee arranged for experiments to be carried out at Rothainsted to elucidate — {a) Whether the soluble and insoluble open-hearth slags differ in agricultural value, aiid, if so, whethei' some method of evaluation can be devised better than the present citric acid method ; (J)) whether the present oj)en-hearth slags are inferior to (lie pre-war Bessemer slags -.vhen applied in (juantities of e((ual phosphatic content ; (<■;) whether finely ground mineral phosphates differ greatly in value from basic slag; {d) whether the manurial effect of basic slag is wholly dependent on its phosphate content, oi whether other constituents (manganese, etc.) should be considered of value. Up to six months ago no conclusion had been arrived at on the first three of these points, and on the fourth the results lent no support to the idea that manganese is of value. The Question uf Solubility. In the January, 1922, issue of the Journal of the Ministiij of Agriculture " Dr. E. J. Russell says that " in days before the war 78 JoiTENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OJF AgHICULTURE. J ULY, 1922. fanners were always iirg-ed to purchase only liigh soluble slag-, and the grades sold by the best firms Lad a solubility of 80 per cent, and upwards. During- the war the process of manufacture changed, and it is an open secret that the experts are no longer so much in agree- ment as they were in regard to the desirabiltiy of a high soluble slag. Experiments have been initiated to obtain more definite infor- mation, and until these are completed it is not possible to lay down precise rules for the farniers' gui(hince. In the meantime it is wise to assume that a high soluble slag will usually come into action more quickly than one of low solubility, and that a larger return ma> therefore be expected in the first season. It is possible, however, that in later seasons the low soluble slag may grow in effectiveness, and at the expiration of five years there may be little difference l)etween the two ; in some experiments, e.g. in Essex, this is clearly demonstrated. Until more definite evidence is forthcoming perhaps the safest assumption the farmer can make is that high-soluble slag may pay him interest on his outlay almost from the beginning, while the returns from low-soluble slag may be deferred." By high-solubility and low-solubility in this quotation, it may be explained, is meant the proportion of citric-soluble to total phosphoiic (jxide in a slag, and not necessarily the high or low ])ro- portion of soluble phosphoric oxide to llie slag as a whole. In the Essex experiments (•())iij)tivative tests were made of the foUoAving two fertilizers: — Pruliui-tidii of Citric- Soluble ( 'lass of Fertilizer. in Total Phosphoric Oxide. < )pen-lieurth basic slag 'JO ])er cent. High-grade basic slag 01 per cent. The produce of two types of soil sowji with clover resulted as follows : — Soil 1 !Jo 1. Open-hearth H ig'h-oracli Slag. Slag. Per Cent. P (M- Cent. ... 27 50 ... 45 33 ... 16 14 ... 12 3 Soil > .0. -2. Open -hearth High-eradu Slag. Slag. Per Cent. Per Cent. 44 46 32 4T 13 1 11 ;) Clover ... Grass Weeds . . . Bare Dr. Russell's comment on this was that " the crop returns show that high-grade slag is, as a matter of fact, rather better than low- grade, especially in improving the quality of the herbage. The diSerence is not so great as would be expected from the difference in solubility, and it seems clear that present-day analvtical methods do not deal satisfactorily with present-day slags." Such then is the position to-day. We have not yet come to the stage of finality in the matter. It is tiue that general buying condi- tions on the basis of 16.1 per cent, citric-soluble phosphoric oxide cannot now be reached, but then we do not ask for such a basis, even in our existing unrelaxed regulations — " 12 per cent, of phosphoric oxide soluble in citric acid " is the minimum limit laid down hv Regulation No. 11. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind Basic Slag. 79 that not only has the total percentage of pho.sphoric oxide in slag diminished, but even of that reduced total a much smaller propor- fion than before is soluble in citric acid. Although, therefore, I think that the regulations need umeiid- ment*, it will never do to relax them to an extent that will permit of the unrestricted sale in this country of material which may later oil be shown to possess but the scantiest agricultural value. The Temptation oi- AD^rixiiVG. There is another consequence of the altered quality of basic slags to which T wish to draw attention. The temptation to admix other phosphates has obviously become greater than it used to be, and quite recently the term " slag phosphate " has been a implied in l^higland to a mixture of basic slag and mineral phosphate which has appeared on ihe British market. Dr. Russell has issued a warning to farmers to be careful to realize exactly what these words stand for when they are used. Mixtures such as these have not yet, as far as I know, made their appearance in South Africa, but doubtless they will not be long in coming, and in the meanwhile I may also draw attention to a note published in the New Zealand Jourtial of Agriculture about three months ago by the New Zealand Agricultural Chemist to the effect that phosphate rock from Nauro and Ocean Islands has been sold to a Welsh basic slag company for the purpose of grading up their slag, and that the British Ministry of Agriculture has recom- mended farmers to try this mixture of slag and phosphate rock on their grass lands, and to lay thereby a good foundation for arable land. Regarding this mixture, too. experiments are in progress, both in Great Britain and in New Zealand, and for the present it only lies with us to dih'erentiate between it and true basic slag'. Outbreaks of Animal Diseases : May, 1922. Orange Free State. (N Disease. 1 cidedly curly, and as a rule they were rather wasty along the underline. Their great length was in keeping with their rather long faces. They have been described as being cabbage- like in ears, over which they had invariably little, if any, command. The tail was inclined to be very low-set, coarse, long, and ending in a heavy switch. Pig Farming 81 During- the twenty-three years that its Society has been in existence, the Large Black breed has undoubtedly made remarkable progress both in so far as improvement in tj^pe and increase in num- bers are concerned. According to the Census figures issued by the Minister of Agriculture, there were no less than 10,854 pure-bred registered Large Black pigs in the United Kingdom in 1919, or in other words approximately twice as many registered pigs as that of any other pure breed of swine. In the Union we have also experienced increases of a somewhat similar nature. During- 1916 for example, only about 200 pure-bred Large Blacks were registered in the S.A. Stud Book, whereas during the 8i months — 1st July, 1921, to 15th Aprill, 1922 — this number has soaired to 705. Improvement in type has also been brought about in many im- portant respects, without in any way sacrificing prolificacy and ^a>zing ability, for which characteristics the breed has long been held in high repute. During the past decade particular attention has been paid to early maturity and quality, in both of which respects the breed has improved out of all recognition. 'Suduuuiuij j\.mb"' (imported), at the age of eight years. This sire was for many years the herd boar at Elsenbirrg, whose Large Blacks are to-day linebred to him. (6) Breed Characteristics. — The head should be medium in length, and the snout ordinarily straight. Certain strains have been developed for a moderate dish in the forehead, wdiich is highly desirable, as it allows the ears to fold over well, and carry down to the tip of the snout. Where the entire face is particularly straight one frequently finds that the ears have a tendency to hang wide and short in comparison with the length of the snout. The dishing should be the result of a distinct drop from the poll to between the eyes, from which point the snout should extend straight. Anything in the nature of a snub-nose is highly undesirable, for the reason that it cannot fail to make one suspicious of the presence of Berkshire or other foreign blood. The ears should be long, thin, soft, and shapely, with good width between them at the poll ; short, pricked, or cabbage- like ears are to be descriminated against. The jowl should be of 82 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. medium size, and the neck muscular and of good length. A pendulous jowl is equally as objectionable as a short stocky neck. The chest" should le deep, and of medium width, and ihe shoulders obliquely placed, blouling- well Avith the chine and fore-ribs, to form a neat -iuiooth shoulder-top. Excessive width of chest is correlated with wide heavy shoulders, giving- an open shoiilder-top, none of which is desirable. The crops should be full, the ribs well sprung — not exces- sively wide — and well let doAvn to give the required heart-girth, indicating constitutional vigour. The back should be of good length, medium width, and as a lule slightly arched at the loin and fore part of the rump. Openness in the crops is associated mostly with coarse shoulders, while levelness of top-line is not so desirable as a slightly arched back, as may frequently be noted in matured sows that have produced a number of litters. The sides should be long and mediumly deep, being well let down in both fore and rear flank, and the ribs well sprung. Good depth and spring of rib are very desirable, though they should not be obtained at the expense of good length — one of the outstanding characteristics of the Large Black breed. The loin should be of jnedium width, strongly muscled, and appreciably arched. The rump should be equally well muscled, of medium width, and rounding out well, not sharply dubbed oif. The hams should be firm, plump, and h't down well into the hocks. The twist should be deep and devoid of prominent fat pockets, especially in the case of gelts and sows, as these are often found in poor milkers, and equally poor breeders. The tail should be large, prominently set, and moderately ]\igh placed, in order to allow of as large a development of ham as possible. Many breeders consider a large prominent tail as indicative of constitutional vigour. In the great majority of cases this is true, but it should also be remembered that a large and prominent tail is invariably correlated with coarseness. The legs should be Avell set under the body, strong, and show plenty- of bone. Bow-legs, knock-knees, crooked or deformed legs, also excessively fine or heavy bone, are all undesirable features. The pasterns should be medium in length, and strong to ensure the animal standing well upon his feet, and the two cloves of each foot should be closely knit. Long heavy pasterns and open spreading cloves are objectionable, since they reduce the height of the animal, impair his grazing ability, and detract from his style and character in general. Wrinkles, if pronounced, are undesirable, especially in young hoars and gelts, as they are undoubtedly indications of coarseness. However in the case of matured boars and sows, particularly in the former, one sliould not necessarily descriminate against a reasonable amount of wrinkling, as this condition is to be expected with age. The underline should be comparatively trim, as any (U^cided tendency to flabbiness is a sign of coarseness, and is most undesirable from a slaughter point of view. In the case of sows there .should be at least half a dozen pairs of well-developed teats. It not infrequently happens that seven pairs of teats are found, particularly in sows that come from prolific families, and is therefore a most desirable featiire. The number of teats as well as their fullness in development, are undoubtedly indications that sows having these characteristics are not only likely to farrow large litters, but also regular breeders. Sows or gelts having less than six pairs of teats, and particularly if thdso are poorly developed — sometimes called buttons— are to be Pig Farming. 83 strongly descriminated against as l)reeders. In the case of both gelts and sows, they shoukl always be distinctly feminine. Any tendency to masculinity is undesiiable. as females of this type are more often tliau not lacking- in either prolificacy or fecundity, or both. In the case of boars it is equally important to have them decidedly masculine, as practical experience has shown that boars of this type are far more prepotent than those showing effeminacy. Boars should, in addition to other necessary qualifications such as g-ood size for age, trueness to breed type, constitution, etc., be rugged, and show a well-developed ])air of testicles. If anything, it is wiser to err on the side of ruggedness than that of over refinement. This does not mean that they should not show qiiality. (Quality should be sought for in both male and female breeding stock, but to a greate]' extent in gelts and sows, for the reason that females of this type are as a rule not only more fecund, but are also better mothers. They invariably have more milk, and are not as clumsy in rearing their •' Honingsberg Maiden.' a typical Large Black matron. In seven years she produced li litters, or a total of IB.'i pigs. litters as the big rugged sow, particularly if her ]uggedness is sufficient to consider her as being decidedly coarse. A medium coat of soft, straight hair is most desirable. Some strains of Large Blacks may be found to be comparatively hairless, whilst yet in other strains we find that the coat of hair is either distinctly curly or ginger-tinted, in all of which cases they should be descriminated against. A curlj'-coated condition is usually correlated with coarseness, whilst the ginger-tinted condition is particularly objectionable, because in breeding from individuals having this characteristic, there is no doubt that one is likely to increase the patches of ginger hair, and so get away from tlie true Fiarge Black type in respect of colour. Yet another undesirable feature in so far as the coat and hair is concerned, is that commonly known as a " Rose." " Swirl," or *' Cow- lick," the objection being largely due to the fact that it detracts from the general appearance of the animal, and practical experience has sliown that it is apparently hereditary. In certain strains one finds 84 JOUICV.VL OP THE DErAltTME-M OF AgKICULTUHE. JuLY, 1922. a kind of jet-black skin, Avliicli is not liked by bacon curers, because of the fact that the black pigment is likely to appear in the belly bacon, and so reduce the value of a bacon. side considerably. On the other hand, a distinct lack of pigment is perhaps even more undesir- able, especially under South African conditions, as it is the intensity of pigment that affords ])rotection from sunscald and sunburn. It is my experience that imported Large Blacks are invariably heavier coated, and liave more intense pigmentation, than Large Blacks bred in the Union; moreover, that the imported stock in the course of time l)ecomes noticeably thinner coated, whilst the pigmentation also becomes less intense. These are changes no doubt caused by our climatic conditions. In size the Large Black may be considered to be among the biggest of the breed. " Sudbourne Arab," an imported boar, used in the Elsenburg herd for no less than seven years, scaled 730 lb. at maturity. Mature sows will ordinarily weigh, depending upon their condition, from 400-550 lb. Boar pigs and gelts at 87} months of age, have averaged just over 200 lb. in live weight. In the case of weaners, which are ordinarily taken from their mother at 8 weeks of age, the average weight i)er pig of a number of litters during the l)ast five years, has been approximately 30 lb. The comparative early maturing character of the Large Jilack is evident from the fact that with average good care and management it is possible to have them ready for the bacon factory, i.e. about 180 lb. in live weight at just on 8 months. Naturally there is considerable difference in the early maturing of different strains. Individuals belonging to those strains that are comparatively short in body and consequently very deep, are more early maturing than those from strains, whose outstanding characteristic is great length of body witji correspondingly less depth. As baconers, the piue-hred Large Black has not as yet found much favour in South Africa, though in England where they have> won some of the highest honours in recent years, pure-bred Large Blacks have been very favourably commented upon in respect of their bacon qualities. It would appear that it is primarily a matter of selection to produce the type of pure-bred Large Black that will meet the requirements of the bacon factories. It is common knowledge that (juitc. a number of noted breeders of pure-bred Large Blacks claim that they are dual purpose pigs, and not strictly baconers. My own experienc<' is that both statements can be made to be true, as botli conditions can be satisfied to an appreciable extent by selection and breeding for the type required. For cross-breeding purposes the Large Black breed has undoub- tedly proved itself eminently suited to conditions in most parts of the Union. In the great majority of cases cross-breeding has been practised by the use of a pure-bred Berkshire boar on Large Black sows, mostly of pure breeding. This undoubtedly has proved to be, and is still to-day, the most popular cross throughout the country to meet the requirements of our bacon factories, which for the most part are well satisfied with the class of baconer so producetl. To a lesser extent Middle White boars, and also Tamworth boars have been put to Large Black sows in the production of baconers. Where the Middle White boar is used a good proportion of the off-spring is ordinarily white in colour, and, therefore, objectionable on account of the liabilitv to sun-scald. Pig Farming. 85 The use of the Large Black boar on Kolbroek sows, which are ordinarily of a spotty colour similar to the Gloucester Old Spots, has proved fairly successful. The progeny are usually solid black in colour, and have developed into quite fair bacouers. Large Blacb boars have also been crossed with Taniworth and Berkshire sows. In the former cross all the progeny are black, as has been proved at this Institution, and although they develop into first-class baconers, they usually take an appreciably longer time — a matter of 2-3 weeks — to reach marketable age, than the Berkshire (boar)-Large Black (sow) cross. In the case of the Large Black (boar)-Berkshire (sow) cross, this practice has not proved as profitable as the reciprocal, for the reason that the Berkshire sow on the average is not as prolific nor as successful a mother as the Large Black sow. Experiments at Elsenhurg. — During the past oh years experi- ments have been carried on at this Institution, which have proved A vigorous youns boar of t^-ood length, but a tritie leggy and somewhat tuo short of ear. conclusively the profitableness to the producer of the Berkshire (boar )- Large Black (sow) cross, as well as their suitability in meeting the requirements of the bacon factory. The progeny of this cross at 85 months have scaled over 200 lb. in live weight. The reports from the bacon factories on this cross have been of a most encouraging nature. They consider that the sides have good length, that the bellies are nice and thick, and that the meat is comparatively streaky. In the experimental work above referred to, these Berkshire Large Black cross-breds averaged 79.9 per cent, of dressed weight to carcass, which may be looked upon as quite creditable, especially when it is remembered that they were subject to merely good average treat- ment in respect of feeding and housing. It was a noticeable fact that these cross-breds were particularly good feeders, despite the fact that in most cases the litters were large in number. In conclusion, reference must be made to the wonderful docility of Large Blacks, a characteristic which is no doubt due to some extent 80 JotH^AL OF THE Departmejvt oe Agricultuke. JuLY, 1922. to the large ears they carry. Among other noted features of the breed mention must also be made of their prolificacy, size, hardiness, rapid growth, and foraging ability. Large Black sows will not infrequently average 18 or 14 pigs to the litter during 4 or 5 fan-ows, whilst litters of 19 and 20 have been recorded on many occasions. Although a very big litter is perhaps not the most desirahh;, yet litters of a dozen or so at least give the l)ieeder an opportunity of culling out the runts and reducing the proportion of boar pigs for the sow to raise. In this way a breeder has the opi)ortnnity of having a proportionately large number of gelts, wliich are on the average of yreater value than his boa^: pigs. IS'o matter how good the sow may l>e, she cannot be expected to rear to weaning age more than ten pigs. The Large JMack sow is particularly noted for her excellent motherly ([ualities, which may be accounted for by the fact that she is usually in command of a plentiful supply of milk, and is most docile at all times, even in the hands of comparative strangers. Among the more important strains or family lines of breeding, mention may be made of: — Arran, Dockini;'. Lyiichmere, Treversquite, Bassingbouni, Drayton, Sudbourne, Ti-elucky, Brent, (xreystones, Streetley, Treveglos, Burwell, ' Henham, Swardeston. A' alley, Bywcll, Hasketon, Tiptree, Vahan, Bixley, Iford, Tartar, Wivetou,' Cleave, Lustleigh, Testertou, Willirahaui. Larue Black Pedigree Pigs — Reviseu Scale of Poinis. Jlcad. — Medium length and wide between the ears 5 Kaii^. — Long, thin, inclined Avell over face, nose medium lengtli 4 Jowl. — Medium size 8 Neck. — Fairlv long, muscular 3 Chest. ~Wide, deep 8 SJioulde/'s. — Well developed in line with ribs 8 Back. — Long and level 15 Ribs. — Well sprung 5 Lom. — Broad 5 Sides. — Yery deep 8 Belly and Flank. — Thick, well-developed 7 Quarters. — Long, wide, not drooping 8 Hams. — Large, well-filled hocks 10 Tail. — Set high, moderate size ■) Legs. — Short, straight, flat, strong 5 Skin and Coat. — Fine and soft, moderate (piantity of straight silky hair 8 100 Objection s . - — ~ Head. — Narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears. — Thick, coarse or pricked. Coat. — Coarse or curly, with rose: })ristly mane. Skin. — Wrinkled. DlSQUALlFirATlON. Colour. — Any other than pure black. The Vegp^taulb Gtaeden. THE VEGETABLE aARDEN. July. liv H. B. Terhy. Coit. K.H.S., Lecturer in Horiicnltuif. Selinnl ol Agrifiiltiire, Potchefstrooin. This is the coldest month ot: ilie year, and frosts may be expected every night, especially on the high veld. It will be practically impossible to rai-^c peedlings in the open except in sheltered positions. Frames or pits should be used for raisi,ng a few early plants of cabbage, tomato, marrow, and cucumber. In tropical districts where frost is rare, French beans, marrows, cucuinher, sweet corn, tomato, etc., are sown or transplanted for early or succession crops. Abtictiokbs. — Jerusalem artichokes may be planted now. The tubers should ho planted as soon after lifting as possible as they do not keep well out of the giound. Asparagus. — New crowns should be planted thiK month; established bed^ should be well forked over and given a top dressing of well-rotted stable manure or kraal manure if not already done. Rhubarb. — Winter (Topp's Crimson) will continue to give a supply of stalks if kept watered; crowns of the summer var-eties should be planted now. Established crowns may be forced by placing old cement barrels or paraffin tins with tops and bottoms knocked out over the crowns; pack s+able manure around the coAcrs and loosely cover over the tops. Give plenty of water. Seakale and CnicORY may be forced in a similar manner to rhubarb. Herbs such as thyme, marjoram, sage, and mint, should be divided and replanted. Broad Beans may stijl bo sown. If the earlier sown plants become frosted do not despair; they will break out again. In warm localities where growth is rapid, it is often necessary to nip out the growing point to cause the pods to set. Cabbage. — Sow a little seed of such early sorts as Surehead, Webbs' Emperor, Enfield Market, St. John's Day, Winningstad. Give a little protec- tion until germinated. Lettuce. — Continue to sciw Cos varieties. in warmer districts cabbage varieties may be sown again: Curled Neapolitan, Boston, Icelierg. Peas. — Sow Stratagem, American Wonder, ared, the sets obtained, and placed in shallow boxes to begin sprouting. 88 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — July, 1922. THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH. July. By .1. .J JonDAAN. I'oulliy iiistruLtor, School oi Ajiiiciiltiiii', Cilcn. Orange Free State. Oigaiiizdtion. — At tlic present time, co'-operative organ zation engages wide attention. All sections are combining to wafbh that their interests do not suffer, hut the real spirit shoald be to get an honest and square deal for the labour and capital one has invested. To keep up with the march of progress poultrymen must also organize, and the questions thus arise as to v/here, how, and when. When to Organize. — This month a start must be made. Eggs are still a fair price, and the need may iiot be pressiug, but what about September, October, November, and December next? They Avill then be a glut on the market, due to heavy product'on, competition, lack of control, over output, and various such cau,ses ; with low prices ruling and bills to meet, producers undersell each other. If organization were undertaken now when the supply does not meet the demand, producers would learn to know each other better by then (and it is hoped as a result to trust each other also), the sources of demand would be more known, the good marks and so on. This would all tend to make for continued business during the " glut " period, and at prices ruling higher than would probably otherwise then be obtained. If action in organization is delayed until then, no increased price can be (xpected, as the consumer has a large supply to draw fi'om, and the eggs frou the organized mark still being comparatively unknown, would not get anything more than the ordinary price, while the overhead charges of the organization would still have to be deducted from the members, so that many might become discouraged and drop out. How to Organize. — One of the main reasons why co-operation has not proved so successful in South Africa in the past is on account of " big starts." This has brought about downfalls in more directions than one, but principally because mutual trust through personal knowledge of each other was difficult to attain. Start therefore in a small way. Half a dozen producers, say, might combine, each doing his share of the work entailed; eliminate overhead charges, but, above all, at the outset firmly implant the principle of loyalty. Poultry clubs, farmers' associations, agricultural societies, should all ass'st ill the formation of egg circles, egg depots, and so on. To get the best advice on such matters address the Poultry Instructor of the School of Agriculture nearest the district concerned, as local conditions, facilities, markets, supply, etc., must all be taken into consideration. It will be necessary to form a small committee, as it generally does the most and best work. It would be an advantage iff one of the members v.ould undertake the necessary testing, grading, marketing, etc., of the eggs. A set of rules, that must be carried out without fear or favour, must be drawn up. Some central receiving place to Avhich producers must bring or send their eggs should be decided upon, each supplier to have proper egg boxes for sending eggs to the depot and a rubber stamp to stamp his eggs with a distinctive number or mark, so that doubtful or bad eggs may be traced. There must be kept a proper recording system of quantities sent in, forwarded, disposed of, and amount realized. P^ach egg must be tested, so a proper testing lamp is essentiial. A supply must be obtained of commercial egg boxes to send all eggs to market from the depot. Methods. — Eggs must be gathered daily and regularly sent in to depot, stamped with the producer's number: all' doubtful eggs to be returned or destroyed. Careless or deliberate suppliers must be severely dealt with. This is vital. Eggs should be bought on a weight basis to encourage the production of a first-class article. Disposal of the eggs must be at the d.scretion of the com- mittee; payment to be made to members monthlv. The Poultky Yard Month by Mox\th. 89 Buymc]. — The same body or association may act in buying stock birds, eggs for hatching, foodstufF>s, and appliances for the members. It is suggested that each member might list his requirements for the month, these to be tabulated, and tenders called for the combined large order, each member taking his monthly turn at this woi'k if necessary, if found too small to warrant the engagement of an assistant for the purpose. Payment might be made by debiting purchasers' egg supply account. On arrival distribution might be made at once and no storage need thus be needed. Through joint security advantage might be taken of favourable markets to buy the season's foodstuffs. As an example of success from such joint action cniginafcing in a small beginning, the Cape Egg C'rcle at Claremont, Capetown, is worthy of imitation. Orqanizdtion Widelii Nece.'t.tiiry. — It is hoped that organization will take place throughout the Union. There is not a centre that does not need it, or is not calling for it, and only when there are large numbers of such small suc- cessful organizations throughout the countrj^ will Central and Federal organiza- tion prove the success they should be, for only then will " Loyalty '' be the watchword of our co-operative movement. STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, CHANGES, ETC. 10/5/22 .-1. M. Diesel, M.B.C.V.S.. appointed Government Veterinary Officci- at Bloemfontein. 1/5/22 C. E. McCrea. M. B.C. VS., appointed Temporary Government Veterinary Officer at Middelburg, Cape. 1/5/22 *S'. Groot, appointed Cheese Grader to the Division of Dairying and stationed at Queenstown. 1/6/22 G. C. Hobsnn, appointed Chief Inspector and Field Officer to the Division of Botanv. MOVEMENTS OF OFFICERvS A. G. Michaelian, Principal Sheep and Wool Expert, and G. J. Schuurman. Lecturer in Sheep and Wool, School of Agriculture, Grootfontein, Middelburg. Cape, will, as Inspectors of the South African Stud Book, connnence tours of insnection of stud sheep for I'egistration in the South African Stud Book. Mr. Michaelian, after visiting the Bloemfontein area towards the end of June, will proceed to East Griqualand, and from there to Natal, and probably later on to the Transvaal, while Mr. Schuurman will visit the sheep districts in the Cape Province. CITRUS CANKER ERADICATION. INSPKCTION WORK. M.\Y. 1922. /''ar;/!.s Lnsvected — Bustenburg District (Rex Biver Ward). — Buffeisjioort No. 668. Butfelshoek No. 900, Bokfontein No. 647. Pretoria District (Crocodile Biver Weird). — De Kroon No. 420. Marico District (Groot Marico Ward.). — Woinderfontein No. H. Fresh Infection — Nil. Fresh Outbreaks — Nil. Total Number Inspected — Nursery trees, 564; trees other than nurserv, 10, old. 'I'rees found infected, nil. Number of inspectoirs engaged. 20. 90 Jouif.vAL OF THE Depautmekt or Agriculture. — Juj.y, 1922. NOTES FROM THE ' GAZETTE." Attention is drawn to the following mutters of interest which appeared in the Union Government Gazette: — (Abbreviation: " Proc. " — Proohvmation ; "G.N." — Government Notice.) Gazette. No. Date. Item. 1234 19/5/22 The general disiniection and dipping of cattle as prescribed by the Stock Disease Eegnlations have been ordered: — (a) Every \2Hc 26/5/22 three days in the three-day dip for portions of Pietersburg; 1238 2/6/22 {b) every five days in the' five-day dip for portions of Port Shepstone, Carolina, Piet Retief, Umzinto, Camperdown, New Hanover, Umvoti, Helpmakaar, Dundee, and Ndwan- dwe; (c) every seven days in the se\en-dav dip for portions of Lydenburg' (G.N. Nos. 787, 788, 826, 866.) 1234 19/5/22 Dr. Ethel M. Doidge, of the Division of Botany, has been appointed Acting Chief to the Division during the al)sence on duty of Dr. I. B. Pole Evans. (G.N. No. 802.) I'he Distiict of Albert (Burghersdoip and Venterstad), the western portion of Prieska and a portion of Kenhardt, the District of Queeustow^n and the town of Fort Beaufort, have been declared Protected Areas against Scab. (G.N. Nos. 8C3, 812.) Brands registered under the various Cape Brands Registration Acts are notified in G.N. No. 804. At Klapmuts on 3rd August, 1922, various piece« of Crown Land in the Field Cornetcy of Achter Paarl will be offered for dispO'sal by public aucttion (G.N. No. 805); on 5th AiUgust, 1922, Crown Lands will be similarly disjiosed of in front of the Magistrate's Office, Bredasdorp. and on the 9th August, 1922, Crown Lands in Mosselbanks River Field Cornetcy will be offered for auction in front of the Magistrate's Office, Malniesbury. (G.N. No. 806.) I2MS 2/6/22 An addition to the Fruit Export Regulations requires all exporters of citrus fruit, during the export season 1922, to pay an additional inspection fee at the rate of 5s. per 40 cubic feet. (G.N. No. 854.) 1211 9/6/22 Owing to an outbreak of wart di.sease in potatoes in certain areas in the Impendhle Division, the removal of potatoes, potato plants or parts of potato plants from such areas are restricted by regulations as provided for in Proclamation No. 90. In terms of the abo\ e Pioclamation, regulations governing the handling, planting, and otherwise of using potatoes, as also for the destruction of infected tubers and plants, are in force. (G.N. No. 912.) Regulations for the export of dried fruit, controlling packing, weight of fruit, boxes, inspection, grading, etc., are p^jb- lished under G.N. No, 925, " The Weatheji. 91 THE WEATHER Extracts from the Monthly Weather Report of the Chief Meteorologist for the Union. May, 1922. Mean pressure above normal over the western half of the Union ; temperature aboxit two degrees lower than usual, the deficit being equally divided between the days and nights; frosts principally during the first week and the middle of the month; an excess of rainfall over the greater part of the Transvaal, the north and north-east of the Free State, Natal, and the south and south-east coastal areas of the Cape Province — a deficiency elsewhere; an unusual number of hailstorms of light intensity; snow in parts of the Orange Free State, Natal, Kaffraria, portions of the north-east, and the Karroo, most widely from 14th- 16th; a numbei' of thunderstorms over the centre and east; such were the leading features of the weather of May, 1922. The moJith presented certain peculiarities : The Cape Peninsula was mostly under fine summer conditions with a few days of unsettled showery weather, there was a failure of the usual rains in Namaqualand as well as a general shortage over the winter rainfall area, whilst a good portion of the summer rainfall area experienced an excess of iirecipitation. Except in the south-west find north-east, the rainfall was in excess over the Transvaal by amounts vary- ing ))etween a few hundredths and IJ inch (1.31 inch at Pretoria). A small surplus occurred in the north and east of the Orange Free State, whilst at !51oemfontein the rainfall was equal to the average; in the west and south, precipitation was sub-normal by quantities between 0.10 inch and 0.60 inch. An excess was general in Natal, ranging from half an inch to about 2i inches. There was, however, a small deficit in Zululand. In the Cape Province a supra- normal rainfall was confined to a comparatively narrow belt parallel with the south and south-east coasts from Mossel Bay to Kokstad, portion of the south- west, and to a few stations over the northern border, e.g. Upington and Kuru- man! I'hese excesses were mostly small in the south and over the northern border, but exceeded one inch over the south-east and Kaffraria. Elsewhere there were deficits increasing from a few hundredths of an inch over parts of the northern border and the northern Karroo to over an inch in the south- west, increasing to over 2 inches over the Cape Peninsula. The rainfall was mostlv light, and occurred chiefly between the 10th and 15th over the greatei" part of the western half of the Cape Province, but exceeding 2 inches in places along the south coast, and 5 inches in Kafltraria on the 14th. Showers of rain or snow also occurred towards the end of the month between the 29th and 81st, being heaviest in Natal on the 30th, where quantities of 2-4 inches were recorded in some areas. Similar quantities were registered, but more generally in that Province on the 15th. Over the Transvaal rain fell over limited areas between the 1st and 3rd, but more widely on the 11th, 30th, and 31st. These latter rains on the 11th, 30th, and 31st also affected the Orange Free State, and were accompanied bv wide-spread thunderstorms with frequent falls of hail, whilst snow covered the" ground at Caledonia (District Harrismith) to a depth of 6 inches on the 31st. Snow also fell over parts of the eastern section of the Cape Province, Kaffraria, and at some stations in the south of Natal on the 15th The snow attained a depth of 6 inches in the town of Kokstad itself, but was reported as 3-5 feet deep (probably in drifts) on surrounding farms; it was also 12 inches deep at Kilcullen (Barkly East), and 5 feet on the Drakens- berg Mountains; the subsequent cold caused serious losses in stock, which were in poor condition as a result of drought. Hills to the south-west of Cradock were topped with snow from 17th to 22ud. Hail (apparently mostly soft hail ■ of medium size with occasional larger stones) was a common accompaniment ot the thunderstorms of this month, particularly those of the 31st. In Durban the rain was peculiarlv local— on tho 31st, 1.74 inch was registered at '^ Hie Point " and 4 inches at one part of the town. Taken as a whole, although temperature has been lower tlian usual, there wns n marked nbsence of extremely low temperatures. 92 .JollR^ALOF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. JuLl", 1922. THE OVERSEA MARKET. MARKET PRICES OP SOUTH AFRICAN AND OTHER PRODUCE CABLED BY THE TRADE COMMISSIONER, LONDON, ON THE 17th JUNE, 1922. [Note. — Unless otherwise stated, (1) prices quoted are c.i.f. London ; (2) continental prices are c.i.f. Hamburg ; (H) e.r store means in London ; (4) Cotton shows closiug prices Liverpool ; (.5) wool, mohair, and feather prices are at the auctions mentioned or in London : (6) butter, bacon, and cheese quotations are " spot " prices.] Wool. — Fifteen hundred bales of South African privately-owned wool were offered during the week : prices showed a decline of 5 per cent, for greasies as compared with May auction. Four thousand four hundred bales of Government-owned South African wools were offered on 15th May, and practically all sold. Gi-easy combing wool is 5 per cent, to 10 per cent, cheaper. The tendency of the market is slightlj'^ lower for all classes of wool. The Continent is buying well, but the home trade is rather quieter. Mohaif. — The trade outlook continues healthy at prices ruling last week ; the demand is still for fine quality supers, winter hair showing no material improvement. Hides. — The market is quiet, but the tone firm : there is no business of special interest to report. Wet salted Johannesburg 7d. to 7^d. Natal : wet salted 6^d.. dry salted best heavy 8^J., dry best heavy QJd., seconds l|d. less. Skhi.s. —Sheepskins are firm at last sales prices : Angoras and goat skins are un- changed. Wattle Bark. — July- August-September shipment"? to Hamburg for chopped are quoted at £9. lis. 3d., and September-December shipments i;9. 1.5s. to £10, but little busitiess is passing at these prices. A small lot of chopped June-July shipments sold this week to Hamburg at £9. 2s. 6d. Extract is quoted at £25 to £26 per ton c.i.f. United Kingdom 01 continental ports, according to the quality, but the market is quiet. Maize. — The market is very quiet. Buyers show little interest, except in American and La Plata maize. American maize is quoted at 29s. 6d. (12s. 3^d. per 200 lb.) for June- July shipments, and La Plata maize 33s. (13s. 9d. per 200 lb.) for the same position. Round yell )W No. 6 was sold to Hamburg early in the week at 32s. 6d. (13s. 6^d. per 200 lb.) and on the 1.5 h, 32s. 3d. (13s. h\d. per 200* lb.) was accepted for both Flat White No. 2 and Round Yellow No. tJ, August-September shipments. These are about to-day"s value. Maize 3feal.— 'So business is reported. There are sellers at £7. li)s. per ton, but the value is not more than £7. 2s. 6d. for July-August shipments. 6froiin(l-nut,s., Irish £7. 16s. to £8, Dutch £6. 16s. to £7, Swedish £7. 4s. to £7. 14s., South African £4. 8s. to £5. East African 808. to 85s., per cwt. ; all green Wiltshire sides. Sugar. — America is quoting 21s. 9d. to 22s. per cwt. c.i.f. United Kingdom for granu- lated. , 20th June, advises that the wheat crop of the United States this year is estimated at 23,242,000 metric tons (1 metric ton = 11 bags of 200 lb.), which is placed at 7 per cent, greater than last year's crop and also 7 per cent, greater than the average crop of the pievious five years. The wheat crop of India this year is estimated to be as much as 48 per cent, in excess of last year's crop, and 6 per cent, greater than the average crop of the previous five years, being returned at 9,976,000 metric tons. The cablegram states further that it is expected that the wheat crop in Canada, Japan, and Western Europe will be an average one this year, but that in Central Europe it will be poor. AUSTRALIAN WHEAT MARKET. Quotations for South Africa. Mid-June, 1922. [Note. — The Union does not produce its full wheat requirements, and the shortage is imported, both in grain and flour, mostly from Aiistralia. The price of the Australian product influences largely the price of South African wheat, which, however, receives a measure of protection in that imported wheat and flour are subject to an import duty and differential railway rates. In addition, a dumping duty is in force at present. It is important that wheat growers of the Union should know the ruling price of Australian wheat and Hour, and the Department has arranged to publish it monthly. Prices fluctuate, and it must be noted, therefore, that new quotations may be ruling by the time this is published. — Editor.] Wheat (fair average quality), 12s. Id. per 100 \U. Flour, 14s. per 100 lb. The alinve quotations include cost, insurance, fieight (15tli .June. 1922). CROP REPORT. CONDITION OF THE MAIZE CROP. According to reports received from Crop Correspondents, it is estimated thai this season's maize crop (European grown), as at the beginning of June, will produce 20 per cent, less than last year's harvest. A decrease is reported in all Provinces, the Transvaal being 15 per cent, less, Orange Free State 20 per cent, less. Cape Province 35 per cent, less, and Natal 25 per cent. less. D4 JOUKXAI. OF TIIK r)F,rARTMENT OF AgRICV I.TUKK.— J ULY, 1922. The Local Market. 95 THE LOCAL MARKET. Position at Mid-June, 1922. (Note. — The local market prices of certain agricultural produce and of live stock arc published elsewhere in this issue.) WOOL. I'HK demand is still very good for most types but the market is now practically bare of stocks, and it is not expected that any further big consignments will arrive at the coast before September. Any odd lots now received at the ports are immediately bought up at satisfactory prices. Although prices are still firm, there are indications of an easier market in England, and if this continues there is every likelihood of the next wool season com- mencing on a much lower basis than has been experienced during the last few months. The market values to-day are on a jiar with those quoted last month. MOHAIR. The market is very active for super summer firsts and the prospects for the immediate future appear to be quite good. With regard to summer kids, there has been a slight easing off in prices lately owing to the decrease in the demand. A fortnight ago up to 50d. per lb. was paid for super summer kids, but to-day the highest price obtainable is 48d. The market for other classes of mohair is firm and the prospects for the near future seem good. In regard to the Turkish trade, it is reported that business in mohair has been brisk and, wiih the exception of a few hundred bales which the owners refused to sell at any price, practi- cally all the remaining old stocks of good or fairly good hair were cleared out at the end of March last. For the first time for many months past, arrivals had exceeded salf s, most of the accumulation at shipping ports in Asia Minor having been rushed to the capital in the face of the increased demand and higher prices. A fair proportion of tlie new arrivals was eagerly bought up in many cases before being landed, but towards the end of the month demand commenced to slacken, and one cargo of about 2000 bales had to be taken into warehouse Buying was not genera), being almost entirely confined to two or three exporting houses, indicating that most of the purchases were for manufacturers' account, and they will con-^equently not come for sale on the Bradford open market. Some of the purchases are believed to be for American account. A sudden drop in the rate of exchange, however, coming about the beginning of April, made business very difficult, and it was not expected that- much mohair would change hands in the near future. Present local quotations are as follows : — per lb. ■ per lb. Super summer kids ... ... Itid. to48d. Average summer firsts ... ... 12d.tol3d. Average summer kids ... ... 86d. tii4.5d. I Winter mohair ... ... ... 6|d. to7|d. Mixed kids 18d.to2id. First winter kids... ... ... NTo stock." Average winter kids ... ... „ Super summer firsts ... ... l.">rl.ti) 16d. j Superfine Long Blue O.F.S. Hair itd.tol2d. Kids 20d.to28d. Basuto 10d.tol3d. SKINS AND HIDES. Competition still remains firm for all classes of sheepskins and of hides, but the niarkct for goatskins is easier. The following prices were realized at the last sales . — Sheepskins. per lb. ! Sheepskins — sound 9^d. | Capes — salted each, 4s. 3d. Sheepskins— damaged S^d. I Capes — damaged Is. Pelts— sound ... 6d. 1 per lb. Pelts — damaged 3Jd. j Coarse and coloured skins — sound ... o^d. Capes— sun-clried ... .,. each, 3s. 2d. ; Coarse and coloured skins— damaged 2|d, l)(j JoUKAALOl" THE UePARTM K.N 1 ()!• AoKlC ULl UKE. J ULY, id22. Angora — light ... Angora— heavy Bastards — sound Bastards — dam age( 1 Goatskins per lb. , Hd. 2Jd. . 9d. . Ud. (ioatskins — light Goatskins — 8un-diie«l (loatskins — heavy per lb . Hid. lid. 7fd. Sun-dried — sound Sun-dried — damaged Sun-dried — fourths Hides. per lb. 8 id. 7id. :?id. Salted — sound ... Salted — damaged Salted —fourths per lb. 7|d. 6id. Md. OSTRICH FEATHERS. Sales were held weekly at Port Elizabeth, the weight of feathers >old at thi.' past live sales being 26,7-13 lb., which realized £3:i,353. There has been very little change in the prices during the past month, and at times competition was extremely dull. Atlvices from oversea show no indication of any imorovement in the near future. Meat Statistics. Beef (quarters) Bacon and Ham (lb.) Bacon (sides) Pigs (carcasses) EXPOKT) May, Total lor Period 1st Jan., 1922, 1922. to 31st May, 1922. 926 2,091 ... ;il,050 128.678 — 740 <"ATTLE IMPOUTKI) FROM AIJJOINI.NG I'KKRII URl KS For Slaughter For Breeding . ... .^.68(1 921 ai.oii.T .5.363 SUMMARy. Cattle Imported from Adjoining (.,'alendar Year. Beef Exported. Territories for Slaughter and Breeding. Quarters. No. 1917 ... 309,214 53,410 1918 ... 123,354 50,053 1919 ... 285,867 57,267 1920 ... 69,885 89,135 1921 ... 13,326 60,857 w ssued by authority of the Minister of Agriculture. PRINCIPAL CONTENTS The Great Drought Problem of South Africa. Different "Methods of Curing Tobacco. A Potential Weed. Irrigation : its Relation to Crop Yields, Soil, and "Brak" /Alkali). Pig- Farming in South Africa — III. Common Potato Pests. The Control of Codling- Moth in Pears in South Africa. 1 STEWARTS AND LLOYDS (SOUTH AFRICA), LTD. TUBES AND FITTINGS. P.O. Box 1195. JOHANNESBURG. P.O. Box 74, PRETORIA. P,0 Box 131. DURBAN. P.O. Box 296, MARITZBURG. AGENTS FOR : 'Ol RRIGAT ON AND WATER SUPPLY OUR SPEC AL TY. AGENTS FOR : John Blake, Ltd., Hydraulic Rams. National Gas Engine C( Gas, Oil, and Petr Engines. Eagle Engineering Co., Ltd., Petrol Paraffin Engines. Thomas & Sons, Windmills and Pumps. Davey Paxman & Co., Steam Engines and Boilers. PUMPING PLANTS. PIPE LINES AND POWER UNITS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. Bell Bros., Ltd., Filter and Water-Softening Plants. Gilbert Gilkes & Co., Water Turbines and Centrifugal Pumps. Glenfield & Kennedy, Hydraulic Specialities. Mirrlees, Bickerton & Day, Diesel Oil Engines. ESTIMATES AND ADVICE FREE OF COST. Clydesdale Steel Plates. u;c 2: 7 to 18. -J CONTENTS. AUGUST, 1922. Pagk Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 A New Featuie — Commoa I'or.ato Pests — A Potential Weed — -An Export Trarle in Cantharidin Beetles A Library for the Farmer — The Regiihttions Govern- ing the Loan of Books frum the Library — South African Ground-nuts : Oversea Confectionery Trade — 'I'he Mohair Traile : A Reprehensible Practice — Wool Growers" Associations— Codling-Moth in Pears: Dusting Experiments— Pear . Scab in the Western Province— Government Scholarships — Different Methods of Curing Tobacco — Irrigation Dangers and their Avoidance — The (Quality of South African Wool— Lucrative Pig- Farming — Anthrax: Contraction by Natives — -East Coast Fever in the Transvaal- Export Oranges and Quinces (page 117) — Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st July, 1922 (page IHO) — Outbreaks of Animal Diseases : .June, 1922 (p.ige 163) — Citrus Canker Eradi- cation (page 192 ). Departmental Activities ... ... ... ... ... ... 1U8 The Great Drought Problem of South Africa ... ... ... IIK Different Methods of Curin<; To]'.A(H'o ... ... ... ... ... 131 A Pt'TENTTAL WEED ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 1">1 Irrigation : Its Relation to Cr<»v Vik[>ds, Soil, and -'Brak' (Aijas(>d to supply full particulnis. SPECIAL COURSE IN FACTORY DAIRYING At School of Agriculture, Glen, Orange Free State, from 11th October, 1922, to 30th September, 1923. This course is designed to equip men for I'esponsible positions in Creameries and Cheese Factories. Fees (including tuition, hoard, lodging, laundry, and ordinary medical attendance), £50. For full particulars apply £o the Principal. GOVERNMENT TRAINING FARM, GUBA PARK, INDWE, CAPE PROVINCE. Ihero are several vacancies for students at the above farm. Application for admission and particulars should be made to the Advisory Ofiicer for Agricultural Settlers, 71 Parliament Street, Capetown. The course is of a purely practical nature and lasts twelve months. It is free to inhabitants of the Union, but overseas students (if accommodation for them is available) are charged £50, which is refunded if the student completes the course satisfactoiily and subsequentlv settles on the land in the Union C/3 Hi a z < o Hi > < z Journal of the Department - OF Agriculture. Vol. v. august, ]922. No. 2. Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture Union of South Africa. Editofi G. W. Klerck. Subscription : Within the Union and South-West Africa, 5s, (otherwise 6Sm) per annum, post free, payable in advance. Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government Printer, Pretoria. NOTES. A New Feature. Readers of the Journal will find in this issue the commence- ment of a new feature under the head of "Agricultural Inquiries and Replies." In announcing- this addition in last month's issue it was pointed out that many letters are daily received by the Department from all parts of the Union which are attended to by the various officers qualified to deal with the problems they contain. These letters reflect in larg-e measure current matters of farm practice that concern farmers as a whole, and it is considered that by selecting' those of g-eneral interest and applicability much useful information may be imparted. In order to make room for the above, the statistical matter and market intellig-ence hitherto contained in the Jovrnnl will in future appear with the crop report published monthly by the Department. The enlarged publication will be entitled " Crop and Market Report," and will be issued towards the close of every month. Conimon Potato Pests. Following an article by Mr. Gr. J. Bosnian on " Potato Culture in the Union " that was published in the July, 1922, number of the Journal, there appears in the present issue one by Mr. Big'alke, of the (xlen School of Agriculture, Avho has compiled a useful number of notes on the root gall-worm, the potato tuber moth, and the potato ladybird beetle, pests that are responsible for much diminution in the returns of potato growers. The main features of these pests are given and how they may best be controlled, and for the information of those desirous of obtaining fuller particulars, reference is made to the literature on the subject. In regard to the latter it is pointed out that such as are published by the Department are obtainable oij application to this office. 4 98 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. A Potential Weed. South Africa, like other countries, has to contend with many weeds, and information on their occurrence and eradication has heen widely disseminated by the Department. In recent years there has been a rapid increase of weeds to the detriment of our pasturafire, and it is important that their spread should be stayed. While the question of eradicating: the well-known weeds is, of course, of first consideration, it is well to be warned of plants that may develop into weeds unless their further spread is suppressed at once. Dr. Phillips, of the Division of Botany, draws attention in this number of the Journal to the dang-erous presence of a plant {Araujia sericifera) introduced into South Africa many years ag-o and that is now spreading over the Union, It is a creeper and a prolific seeder, and as the seeds are well adapted for wind dissemination they are being- scattered far and wide. While there is not much danger of the plant invading the natural veld, it has already become a nuisance in gardens and is likely to be one in plantations as well where, if allowed to grow unchecked, it has the power to smother tree growth. The article, which is illustrated, describes the plant, and Dr. Phillips advises that where these plants are found growing in gardens and elsewhere it is advisable to destroy them in view of their potential danger. An Export Trade in Cantharidin Beetles. In the November, 1920, issue of the Journal there was published an aiticlo on mylabris beetles, a large group of which are generally known as " blister beetles," and which have a commercial value. These beetles are dried and reduced to a powder, from which is obtained a crystalline substance known as cantharidin. This is occa- sionally used internally in minute doses as a stimulant and diuretic, but its principal use is in solutions, tinctures, plasters, etc., where a strong irritant is required. The Journal article (which is illustrated) deals with the life-history of these beetles, their food habits, uses, methods of killing, collection and preparation, etc. An effort is now being made by the Department of Mines and Industries (Industries Division) to establish a local industry in con- nection with Mylahris ocuJat-a beetles ("Spanish fly" or " Boontje Keever "), which are a source of cantharidin and are found in many parts of the Union. Technical reports obtained from London on a sample of South African mylabris beetles indicate that there is a likelihood of finding a market in the United Kingdom for them, but before anything more definite can be said on this point it will be necessary to forward a commercial sample to London. For this purpose, Mr. E. D. Punter, P.O. Lead Mine, Koster, Transvaal, is acting in co-operation with the Industries Division, and will be pre- pared to receive collections of mylabris beetles from anyone in a position to supply, and prepare them for shipment to England. Persons willing to assist in this matter should communicate direct with Mr. Punter, who will give them full particulars of the proper method of killing and packing the insects. He will also make pay- ment for the beetles at the rate of 2s. 6d. per pound. Notes. 99 A Library for the Farmer. The public generally, and in particular the farming community, do not realize sufficiently the mine of information that is at their disposal in the library of the Department in the Union Buildings, Pretoria. Housed in a noble room, its spacious bookshelves of teak contain thousands of volumes of works on every branch of agriculture and other allied subjects. These cover a wide range of subjects, and among them will be found books of interest to every one, whether he be the scientific investigator or the farmer desirous of reaping the carefully considered advice of the world's foremost experts. The reading tables also are laden with current agricultural literature from all parts of the world, some 2000 periodicals and publications of that nature being received every month. The library is open to the general public during official office hours, but its usefulness is extended to the remotest farmstead of the country by the scheme under which ordinary books are lent out. At present there are only some 300 people who have availed themselves of this facility, possibly due to the fact that its existence is not generally known. In order, therefore, to acquaint farmers of the scheme, we publish hereunder the twelve regulations governing it. Any one desirous of becoming a subscriber should send to the Librarian, Department of Agriculture, Union Buildings, Pretoria, the required deposit of £1, together with 6s. for the annual subscription, who will furnish the applicant with the necessary forms for completion and advice regarding the list of books available. The Regulations Governing the Loan of Books from the Library. Deposits. 1. Books may be borrowed on payment of a deposit of £1 or such higher amount as the Department may require in special cases, and of an annual subscription of 6s. 2. No one shall be entitled to borrow more than one book at a time. 3. The amount deposited will be applied in payment of any financial liability to the library of the person borrowing books. The deposit, or such portion thereof as remains after deducting any loss to the library by the action of the borrower, will be returned to the borrower on his request, but not while he has any book of the library in his possession. 4. Whenever a deduction is made from any deposit, the borrower shall pay to the. Department the amount of the deduction before he will be entitled to the loan of another book. 5. Deposits are made for a period of not less than three months. 6. Books taken out of the library shall not be retained for longer than 30 days, but may on request be renewed for a further period not exceeding fourteen days at the discretion of the Department. Postage, 7. Books sent by post to applicants should be returned by post to the library under cover of the wrapper provided and forwarded for that purpose. No postage will be payable in that case. 4a 100 Journal oi the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. 8. The cardboards in which books are packed should be utilized when returiiiug the books to the library, and care should be taken that the works are properly wrapped up. 9. Applicants will be advised of the dispatch of any books, and should at once inquire at their post office regarding any non-receipts, at the same time informing the librarian. Fines. 10. Any one who tails to return a work within the specified time may be fined Id. for each day that he keeps the book beyond the time appointed, providing the whole amount of the fine does not exceed tne value of the book. Such defaulter can be refused the loan of another book from the library until the missing work has been returned and the fine paid. AVithm six weeks the deiaulter must eitner provide a copy of equal value or pay the value of the book. 11. Any one returning a book to the library in any way damaged or destroyed is liable for the damage done, the amount of which sfiall be determined by the librarian unless the damage is due to ordinary wear and tear. Any one scribbling in or defacing a book may be fined by the Department not less than Is. for each book so defaced or written in. 12. Any one who does not do so after receiving notification from the librarian to return a work shall be liable to a fine of 2s. 6d. The well-known agricultural scientist, Professor L. H. Bailey, of America, states in one of his books that as far as he can ascertain not one farmer in four reads an agricultural book, bulletin, or news- paper. "It is all well enough," he writes, " that the farmer thinks in terms of experience rather than in terms of books, but a sound reading habit is essential to his progress and his success." So far as the Union is concerned, every endeavour is made to place before the farmer sound and timely literature in the form of the Journal and the various bulletins published by the Department from time to time. In addition, the wealth of the Department's library is avail- able to him, and it is trusted that increasing numbers will seize the opportunity thus offered. South African Grround-nnts : Oversea Confectionery Trade. In last month's issue of the Journal reference was made to the satisfactory report received from the Trade Commissioner on two samples of shelled and unshelled ground-nuts from South Africa. In the course of the report it was pointed out that the quality of the samples was of such an order that they would readily be bought by the confectionery and fruit trade, for which purpose they would command higher prices than if bought for crushing or extraction. Further information on the subject has come to hand from the Trade Commissioner, who states that the sample of undecorticated nuts in question is considered to be equal in quality to the Chinese nut, but not in colour. When known to the trade, it is expected that the price our nuts of this quality would obtain would be about that ruling for the Chinese nut, which is 24s. to 26s. per cwt., although at present from Is. to 2s. less per cwt. may be expected. In China, it may again be mentioned, the practice is to hand-pick the ground-nuts, reserving the better ones for the confectionery trade, and selling the remainder as second-grade to local mills for crushing. Notes. 101 The Mohair Trade: A Reprehensible Practice. A well-knowu firm of wool and mohair buyers has written as follows to the Department, which wishes to associate itself with the firm in discountenancing the improper practice disclosed: — " Eeverting to summer firsts, we deprecate the practice, which has recently been in vogue, of speculators buying average firsts in certain districts and railing them to Graaff-Eeinet and from thence to Port Elizabeth. This has been done in many instances, and, no doubt in order to have the Graaff-Eeinet Station mark shown on the bales. We suppose that this has been done with the intention of endeavour- ing to delude the buyer at the coast, but instead of having the desired effect, we fear that it is only getting the Graaff-Eeinet District a bad name. This practice does no good to the mohair trade in general and to Graaff-Eeinet in particular. Personally, we have inspected many clips that are supposed to have been grown in the Graaff- Eeinet District, but which bear a very strong resemblance to Jansen- ville mohair, which is generally looked upon as average summer firsts." Wool Growers' Associations. A movement of much importance to the wool industry of South Africa, initiated by the Grootfontein School of Agriculture, has recently resulted in the successful inauguration of wool growers' asso- ciations in the Graaff-Eeinet and Middelburg Districts of the Cape Province. The wool growers of these two districts have decided to institute a system of careful classing and of particular attention to the breeding and care of sheep, so as to improve their wool produc- tion, and by means of inspection of sorting and packing of wools by qualified classers, ensure the sale of their wool under circumstances giving a guarantee of its standard. Wool which has not been so classed will not be permitted to bear the brand of the association. The objects are (a) to gain the confidence of wool buyers at the coast and other marketing centres, not only by means of produc- ing the right type of wool, but also by getting up clips in the most efficient, honest and attractive manner; (b) to sell as many clips as possible on the same date in order to attract the competition of buyers; and (c) to assist members, if required, to classify their wool clips and flocks of sheep, and to select suitable rams. There are other wool growers' associations that have been in existence for some years, but the present movement is expected to lead to increased activity in this direction. It has already been wel- comed by the trade oversea, and the Principal of the Grootfontein School of Agriculture is assured of the hearty co-operation of the Principal of the Technical College at Bradford, the centre of the \Yorld's wool trade, m furthering the objects of the recently formed associations, the members of which realize that the secret of their success is the study of markets; the wool grower who thoroughly understands and meets the requirements of the manufacturer is the one who will make sheep farming a first-class proposition. The enter- prise of those engaged in the movement is to be highly commended, and there is every reason to believe that their action will redound in credit and profit to themselves. 102 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Codling-Motli in Pears. Dusting Experiments. One of the most difficult and the most important phases in the farm economy of the fruit grower is the proper treatment of his trees in the control of insect pests and fungous diseases, and those who read the Journal will have learned from the frequent references to the subject that the Department is engaged in much experiment designed to ascertain for the guidance of growers the right materials of the correct strength, and the proper time of application, to be used in the suppression of these pests. In the September, 1921, issue of the Journal there was published a useful spray programme for pear and apple orchards in the coastal districts of the Western Province in connection with the control of codling-moth, red spiders, fusi- cladium, and red scale. Elsewhere in the present number of the Journal there appears a further article by the same officer, Dr. Pettey, Entomologist at the Elsenburg School of Agriculture, who deals with another aspect of the subject, that of power dusting. Experi- ments in this connection have been carried out at Elsenburg for some years, for the successful substitution of power dusting in place of spraying as at present would bring several advantages to the grower. Dr. Pettey relates the testing of the method at Elsenburg, and has come to the conclusion that under South African conditions dusting will not satisfactorily control codling-moth and fusicladium on pears. While in this respect it does not appear to hold any ad^'antage, it is pointed out that dusting is destined to play an inij)ortant part in the future control of insect pests, and is already being used with much success in the control of tobacco, cotton, potato, and other pests. It is a subject, therefore, of general interest to South African farmers, and the improvement of the method in regard to dusting machinery and materials will closely be followed with a view to its introduction on a wider scale in this country. Pear Scab in the Western Province. While Dr. Pettey has been engaged in various experiments con- nected with the insect pests, Mr. Putterill, of the Division of Botany, has been carrying on investigations in regard to the several plant diseases that are found in the Western Province, and his publications on the subject that have appeared in the Journal from time to *.ime have been of considerable benefit to fruit growers. The Department has now published a bulletin* written by Mr. Putterill on " Pear Scab in the Western Province." It is attractively illustrated and explains the experiments carried out and discloses certain facts relating to the control of the disease. A study of this bulletin reveals the minute and thorough nature of the experiments which prove, among other things, the importance and necessity of spraying fruit trees four or five times, at least, during the season, either with bordeaux mixture or with lime sulphur. They demonstrate also the need of spraying at the right time if it is to be effective. * " Pear Scab in the Western Province," by V. A. Pntteiill, M.A., Bulletin No. 2, 1922. Obtainable from this office. Price 3d. prepaid. Notes. 103 The following sprayings, Mr. Putterill emphasizes, are essential, and should on no account be omitted : — 1. When the buds are breaking and the leaves just showing. 2. When the blossom buds have opened, but while the individual blossoms are still closed ; that is about ten days later than 1. 3. When the last petals are falling; about ten days later than 2. 4. Ten days to two weeks after 3. 5. Five weeks later. The practical side of the question in respect of the cost of spray- ing is also dealt with in the bulletin, both in the control of pear scab or fusicladium and of codling-moth, it being estimated that the sprayed tree will give a net return of 4s. over the unsprayed one, in addition to the improved vitality of the tree as a result of the spraying. Government Scholarships. In pursuance of the practice that has been carried out for several years past, ten scholarships were granted last year by the Government for the purpose of enabling promising South Africans to proceed over- seas for a continuation of study of an agricultural nature. The names of the students receiving these scholarships and the subjects they, proposed to qualify in were published in the November, 1921, issue of the Journal. This year six scholarships have been granted, but not for oversea study. The establishment at Onderstepoort of the first veterinary col- lege in South Africa was indicative of the progress of the country and of the importance of its pastoral industries. The farming community now recognize the outstanding services rendered by veteiinarians in greatly extending the possibilities of South Africa in the raising of live stock, and are alive also to the need of ensuring our future develop- ment by making adequate provision for obtaining officers qualified to cope with the peculiar problems met with in the live stock industry of this country. The college at Onderstepoort is designed to meet this need both in men qualified to take up duties in Government service and to act as private practitioners, and it was, in view of the former, therefore, that this year the Government has granted six scholarships (£50 per annum for three years) for the assistance of students taking their course for the degree of Bachelor of Veterinary Science at Onderstepoort. A condition of the grant is that the recipient, on the satisfactory completion of his studies, shall be at the disposal of the Department for three years' service. The students selected are Messrs. M. Bergh, W. J. Green, C. Mare, J. Quin, Ph. Snyman, and J. G. Williams. Mention may be made of the sdiolarships that are provided under the Orange River Colony Act, No. 34, 1909, but which are available only for children of the inhabitants of the Orange Free State. Four such were offered this year for study in animal husbandry, tobacco and cotton, and agricultural economics. 104 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Different Methods of Curing Tobacco. There has recently been a rapid increase in the world's consump- tion of cigarettes, therefore tobacco growers in the, Union have less to fear from overproduction of this type of leaf than fiom the pipe and roll tobacco, for under existing conditions there is always the jjossi- bility of a profitable export trade in the light leaf which would be more difficult to establish for our surplus of dark leaf tobacco. In the Union during recent years there has generally existed a good demand for the various types of tobacco produced locally, and pro- duction consequently has developed until last year approximately 18,000,000 lb. weight of leaf was produced, a large proportion of which consisted of inferior or low grade leaf tobacco due in great measure to the present metliods in vogue in the growing, curing, and handling of the crop. This large crop was in excess of the Union's requirements, not only m respect of inferior leaf, but also of the better grades of dark tobacco, though, on the other hand, the demand continued to be good for leaf suitable for the manufacture of cigar- ettes. It is clear, therefore, that the light type of tobacco offers the best market for the grower; correspondingly the ro'turii is also the highest, and it is the aim of most growers to produce? this class of tobacco. Affecting very considerably the result of the season's crop, whether it will give a high percentage of light or of dark tobacco, are the conditions of soil and climate. Yet while some of our larger tobacco producing districts are favourably situated in so far rs these two factors are concerned, they do not reap any advantage therefrom for their present methods of curing render the crop unfit for cigarette manufacture. It is estimated that, apart from the Turkish tobacco crop, the quantity of cigarette leaf obtained fror": th.e Union's ^rop is from 15 to 18 per cent, in the large producing dishicts of the Traiis- vaal and 10 to 12 pei cent, in Oudtslniorn, wliihi in some other parts only 5 per cent, is obtained, the b-ilance resulting in the various grades of pipe and roll tobacco. With a view, therefore, to assisting growers desirous of ])]'oduc- ing a higher percentage of cigarette leaf, and also of showing how they may improve the quality of their tobacco generally, Mr. Oosthuizen, the Assistant Chief, Tobacco and Cotton Division, and Manager of the Experiment Station at Rustenburg, has written an article, published in full elsewhere in this issue of the Journal, explaining the various changes that take place in the leaf in the process of curing and the different methods that are employed in curing tobacco. Heat and moisture are the chief agencies that operate in the change of the green leaf to the cured one possessing all the desired qualities, and it is in the control of these two factors that a high percentage of cigarette leaf can be produced : for such a purpose a building is necessary. In the Union tobacco is cured either by air, flue, sun, or fire. But for the Turkish tobacco produced in the western districts of the Cape Province for cigarette manufacture which is all sun-cured, practically all the Union's tobacco is air-cured. The air-curing, indeed, is the oldest method in vogue, and the greatest portion of the world's production is still treated in this manner. And in the Union, in parts where the soil is suitable, high percentages of yellow leaf can be obtained from this method in most seasons; more- over, hitherto the few that have practised flue-curing (which is more Notes. 105 expensive than air-curing) have not met with a sufficiently encourag- ing response from the buyer to compensate them for their effort's. Therefore air-curing continues. But at the best it is speculative, for the grower is at the mercy of the elements, while with flue-curing he can control them and cure his crop successfully notwitlistaudmg the state of the weather. In his article Mr. Oosthuizen explains the various methods of curing, and how they may best be employed. The tobacco crop calls for skill throughout its various stages and is subject to so many vicissitudes, that of all farm crops it is entitled perhaps to the greatest margin of profit. Not the least of its exactions is met with after the crop is harvested, for then the leaf must be prepared for market, and however successful the grower may have been up to that point, bad management may render his product prac- tically worthless. Mr. Oosthuizen deals also with this phase of the industry, and shows how success is to be met in the very important part of preparing the leaf for market. Irrigation Dangers and their Avoidance. It may be unnecessary, perhaps, to lay emphasis on the all- important part that irrigation must perform in the future develop- ment of the country, but its success lies in the hands of those who will depend on irrigation-water in their farming operations; and they have much to learn. To the casual onlooker it may appear that grow- ing crops under permanent irrigation is much simpler than under a good rainfall. History shows, however, that the production of crops unaer irrigation demands much more skill and knowledge than their production under rainfall only. Vast sums of money have been lost through the ruination of land as a result of faulty irrigation. To those concerned it is a matter of supreme importance that they should be advised at the outset of the dangers that surround a practice that if wisely applied provides the most enduring kind of farming, but that otherwise is a danger with far-reaching results. An articJe brim- ful of irrigation truths is publislied in this number of the Journal. It is written by Dr. Turpm, the Lecturer on Crops at the Grootfontem School of Agriculture, and deals with irrigation in its relation to crop yields, soil, and brak. It is not proposed to particularize any of the many points so clearly made by the author; suffice to say that the farming public as a whole has yet to realize that it is not quantity of water that counts. Its injudicious application, indeed, leads to evils that may bring disaster both to the guilty and innocent. " If all farmers," writes Dr. Turpin, " will use their witer sparingly, and will see to it that their lands are well drained naturally or artificially, I feel sure that most of our irrigation problems will disappear." This is surely an appealing fact in a country where water and not land is the limiting factor in plant growth. And as the crowning feature of irrigation, mention is made of its need for that spirit of co-operation which enables the farmer unflinchingly to consider his neighbour's interests with his own, and leads to the advancement of the national character. lUG Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. The Quality of South African Wool. Commenting on the prices obtained at Port Elizabeth for wool at the beginning of the year, a well-known Bradford authority states that it may be interesting to learn that the prices paid were so much above the market level in London or Bradford that one of the principal buyers has not yet been able to get back his own on what he purchased. The sentiments of buyers are being voiced when it is said that several of the clips sold at the sale showed unmistakable signs of being a little low in quality. Strictly speaking, several of them showed no more than super GO's quality, which is too low for South African produce. One of the largest buyers in Bradford states that samples of the wool bought at Port Elizabeth had been shown throughout the trade, and several parcels were described by all who saw them as being deficient in quality. This cannot go on indefinitely without strong complaints being heard. Some of the stud samples are just a little on the "strong" side, and breeders should certainly not lower their quality one single count below its present standard. If these rams were carrying fleeces three to four counts finer, they would be just about perfect when viewed from a manufacturing standpoint, which is the one which needs to be kept in mind. Several Australian ram breeders are breeding so-called merino sheep whose wool is no more than 58's quality, but no South African breeder should follow on such lines. No ram should be allowed to go out whose fleece is anything lower than super GO's. It is known that the wool of stud sheep is always of a lower quality than that of average flocks, and breeders maintain that the use of such rams is necessary to impart stamina to the rank and file of the flocks. This may be so, but there is no need to go to the other extreme. Quality is always an important factor in determining the value of merino wool. This, combined with length, determines its spinning capacity. Lucrative Pig Farming. Pig farming in the Union is still in its infancy, but its great possibilities of development in this country, which is well adapted for that class of farming, are being recognized and the industry has entered a stage of progress from which much is expected. A valuable series of articles designed to assist those who are engaged in pig farming, or who contemplate doing so, is being published in the Journal, the first of which appeared in the December, 1921, issue. The articles are written by Mr. Morkel, the Lecturer in Animal Husbandry at the Elsenburg School of Agriculture, who has made a special study of the subject, and is able to furnish practical advice on the up-to-date methods t'hat are required to make the industry a success. A further contribution is contained in this issue of the Journal in which the origin and breed characteristics of the Berk- shire, to-day the best known and most w^idely distributed of all British breeds of pigs, are described. This breed possesses charac- teristics that are well suited to South African conditions, and Berk- shire boars have already done much in raising the standard of excellence of our grade herds. As a cross with the Large Black (sow) highly satisfactory results have been obtained in the produc- tion of baconers. Notes. 107 Anthrax: Contraction by Natives. The Department has constantly warned iarmers of the great danger to themselves, their live stock, and, indeed, to the well-being of South Africa, that exists in the presence of anthrax. Every farmer should now realize the danger and be well acquainted with the part he should carry out in staying the progress of the disease. He should view the present situation of the country with grave con- cern, for anthrax is very prevalent in parts of the Union, and is spreading with alarming rapidity. As an instance of how the disease is spread, the Secretary for Public Health draws attention to three cases of anthrax in natives due to the consumption of portions of the carcass of an ox which had died of anthrax on a farm in the Orange Free State. It is a pernicious and dangerous action to give dead carcasses of any kind to natives, and farmers are urged in the general interest to desist from such a practice in future. East Coast Fever in the Transvaal. When East Coast fever made its appearance in the Pretoria Dis- trict about two and a half years ago there were hardly any dipping tanks in the infected area, with the result tliat the Department was unable to check the spread of the disease, and a large number of farms became infected before additional tanks could be erected. To- day nearly 600 dipping tanks are in commission in the district (which consists of about 620 farms), and the Department is thus able to deal satisfactorily with the disease : it is gratifying to report that no further cases of the disease have occurred in tlie district during the past month or two. Unfortunately the disease has recently made its appearance in Solomon Marabas' location, Waterberg District, some 10 miles north- east of Potgietersrust and about 80 miles from the nearest infection in the Pretoria District, due undoubtedly to an illegal movement of stock or some other illegal act which the Department has not been able to discover; there are, however, several tanks in the location men- tioned and also on farms in its vicinity, and as dipping is being carried out in that locality. Minister's orders for the erection of tanks on all farms therein having been issued, it is hoped that the disease will be arrested and stamped out. Owing to illegal movements the disease has also spread to three farms in the Witbank area, Middclburg District, but as dipping is now in progress on these farms it is hoped that the disease will not spread any further. It is feared, however, that by illegal movements of stock the disease may spread from the lower lying infected parts of the Pretoria District to the adjoining low veld parts of the Middelburg District, and in order to afford more protection for the cattle in those parts, the existing compulsory dipping area therein will be extended so as to include all farms situate between the Olifants Piver in wards Selons Piver and Secocoeni, and approximately the main road from Middelburg town to Pokwane location, etc. Minister's orders for the construction of tanks in this area have been issued, and Mr. Melt van Niekerk, of the Department, has recently held several meetings there with a view to explaining to the farmers ■the necessity for extending the compulsory dipping area and for the construction of the required tanks, also the assistance available to farmers in the shape of the supply of cement at cost price and the " granting of loans by the Land Bank in terms of the Dipping Tanks Advances Act, No. 20 of 1911. 108 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES. (Note. — The work of the several Divisions and Schools of Agriculture covers a wide range of agricnltuial industry in the Union, and we give hereunder notes and observations from certain of them treating with matters of special interest coming under their put view month by month. The object of these notes, which are nor concerneil with gem^ral routine work, is to inform the farmer of such matters as are calculated to be of interest and helpful to him at the present time. — Editor.^ THE DIVISIONS. ENTOMOLOGY. Figtree Mealy Bug. — This mealy bupr, Pseudococcus filamentosnx, is quite cotnmoiilv mistaken for Australian Bug (Icerya ptircliasi), and is an insect which, in Pretoria at least, has proved a gojd revenue- earner, since it is the subject of innumerable telephone calls upon the Division from midsummer to frost. It is a considerable nuisance, because it wastes official time to no useful purpose whatever. In the winter and sprinc;' months the bup; is out of siffht, and therefore out of mind. It is on the trees, but reduced to small colonies, more like masses of spider's e,Q"o's than any other familiar object. These are to be found in sheltered parts, in wounds, in crotches, and against knots of the limbs and main stem. All the colonies on a tree can be got rid of in a few minutes search by dabbing each with a oaint brush wet with linseed oil or other oily insecticide. When the fig tree comes into leaf the bugs begin to multiply and migrate to the foliage and fruit, so that a tree may, as the season progresses, become filthy with white blobs of filaments. Bad as this pest may become, it has nj lasting nor pernicious effect on the trees, and its zenith generally corresponds with the time when the leaves naturally begin to fall. The Introduction of Pests.— The Natal Entomologist recently made an examination of a box of soil arriving at Durban from India with a view to ascertaining what life was in the soil and demon- strating the dangers attendant upon the importation of plants growing in^ soil. The soil yielded two venomous-looking centipedes, nine millepedes, three earthworms, one snail, two earwigs, five wire-worms, and several cockchafer beetle grubs. All of these, with the possible exception of the ear+hworms. were undesirable creatures, and their discovery vividly illustrates what a source of danger lies in the harmless-looking soil around a growing plant froro oversea, Departmental Activities. 109 The House Ant. — Experiments on the control of the common and \"ery troublesome lioiise ant, Pheidole panctulata, are being carried out by the Natal Entomologist at Durban. Sodium cyanide appears to be giving" very favourable results, bat because of the extremely dangerous nature of this poison it is not at present recommended as a control measure. Sodium arsenite, sodium hyposulphite (hypo.), and vaporite were alsj tried, but so far the results with these are not encouraging. VETERINARY EDUCATION AND RESEARCH. Investigations into Nagana in Zululand. — Mr. H. H. Cuison, Veterinary Research Officer, in this Division, was sent to Zululand in April, 1921, to investigate Nagana in cattle and other domestic animals. A short summary of his work during the ensuing year is given below, divided into three periods of four months each: — Preliminary Inquiries. — May, 1921 — August, 1921. — As the site selected for the Nagana Research Laborator;^^ — Farm No. 273 in the Ntambanana Settlement, about 15 miles from Empangeni — was quite undevoloped, it was expected that buildings would be con- structed, fences erected, and a bore-hole sunk during this period. Since, however, there were delays, I considered it would be an advan- tage to take a trip through the northern districts of the country, where Nagana has been a scourge for generations, and to make obser- vations with regard to the history, geographicnl distribution and topo- graphy of the disease ; and to note the association between the geo- logy, zoology, and botany of the country, and the ])revalence of Nagana. An opportunity was also taken at the same time to make inquiries into a disease of cattle along ihe coastal belt of Inarwavuma and TJbombo Districts. It was held by some that the malady was identical with Nao^ana, but as no veterinarian had visited the area, the matter required investigation, especially as the mortality had been severe in 1917, 1919, and 1920. (3n examination of diseased animals, all evidence pointed to the affection — known locally as "Swamp Disease" or " Munca " — being a parasitic gastro-enteriris, and worms sent to the Director of Veterinary Education and Research were later identified as Haemonchvs contnrtus (wireworm) and two less common species, Cooperia punctata and Cooperia pectinata. As a result of my trip I came to the following conclusions: — Conditions under which Swamp Disease and Nagana Occur. — (1) The coastal belt is characterized by sandveld (except in the vicin- ity of rivers), which supT)orts a vegetation giving but little sbade, e.g. palms and grasses. This area has a warm and humid climate, is exceedingly swampy, more so as one approaches the sea, and is a hotbed of parasitic infection. In such places, sheep and goats cannot live and cattle in some seasons die to the extent of 25 per cent. Further west, however, between the Mbaswana and Mosi Swamps, where the country is well drained, cattle thrive, and in the middle of winter are fat and sleek, whereas at the same time of the year in Natal, Karroo, Free State, or Transvaal Highveld, animals are in poor condition, being walking skeletons. 110 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. (2) Further inland, varying from twenty to thirty miles from the coast, the veld is less sandy, consists in fact, in some places of alluvial soil washed down from the Lebombo Mountains. The veg"e- tation here is of quite a different nature to that described in the previous paragraph, for instead of a minimum of shade, one sees bushveld varying from scrub with numerous glades to thickets or even vast areas of dense bush, e.g. Ipapa Bush in an angle formed by confluence of Usutu and Pongolo llivers. I may mention that fossils collected by me in this area have ueen identified as being of marine origin by the Director of the Geological Survey. In this type of country, i.e. bushveld, Nagana is the disease most frequently encountered, being enzootic in the areas where tsetse flies are found, and epizootic , around the enzootic areas. This state of affairs was noted not only in the Lower Umfolosi District, but also throughout the country. In enzootic centres, it would seem that wild mammals act as reservoirs and that tsetse flies are the chief transmitting agents. but in epizootic areas, domesticated animals take the place of wild mammals and biting flies, other than tsetse, are responsible for pro- pagation of the disease. From observations made at Ntambanana, it would appear that there is good reason to incriminate species of Haeviatojjota, Pangonia, and Tahanvs. And »3) it also seemed clear (there are a few exceptions) that natural transmission coald not take place on high veld, by which I mean elevations exceeding 1500 feet. As high veld is open grass veld, the importance of shade as a factor in natural transmission is obvious. Erecting the Laboratory and Other Buildings. — September, 1921 — December, 1921. — As the building material had now arrived, active progress was made in construction of laboratory, store rooms, sheds, and quarters for staff. Apart from three native handymen sent down from Onderstepoort, all buildings were erected by my lay assist- ant and stockman, to whose energy and untiring efforts, I am much indebted. The fencing of the station was also taken in hand, and water -boi'ing operations carried out, the latter, unfortunately, with no success. During this period, routine work such as the examina- tion of blood slides was commenced, and after Ihe inspection of some hundreds of smears, it was recognized that the inost frequent cause of Nagana was a small trypanosome known as Trypanosoma congolcnse, and that Trypanosoma briicei, hitherto considered to be the cause of Nagana in Zululand, was present on only rare occasions. Tartar Emetic Treatment. — January, 1922 — April, 1922. Ai^ facilities now existed for the proper carrying out of investigation work, efforts were made to obtain some agent that would prove useful in cases where Nagana infection had taken place. It was realized that a specific was not available, and all that could be hoped for was some form of palliative treatment. After preliminary tests, it was decided to carry out on a large scale under field conditions, the tartar enieiic treatment used in Portugiiese East Africa by Jones in 1912, and later adopted by Hornby in North-East Rhodesia the following year. My policy has been to impress upon all farmers the importance of early diagnosis. If blood smears are negative, and yet the first manifesta- tions of Nagana are observed, then no time should be lost in com- mencing treatment with tartar emetic. Departmental Activities. Ill THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS. GLEN, ORANuE FREE STATE. The Need to Fallow. — Exceptional rains were registered during June, and farm work is in full swing. As this rain has been fairly general throughout the Province it is hoped farmers will take advantage of it and fallow the greater part of their maize lands for next year. The natural tendency, when it rains at this time of the year, is to sow as much wheat as possible. This practice cannot be deprecated too strongly. To expect any measure of success all land should be fallowed for some time before a crop is sown. As the latter part of the summer was too dry for ploughing, the bulk of the wheat will be sown on land as fast as it can be ploughed. This method is only courting failure. The Maize Stalk-borer. — During the past season numerous complaints were made of the ravages of this insect, and a note at the present juncture may therefore be of interest. The important point in the life-history of the insect is that during winter the caterpillars rest within the stumps, generally at the base just below the surface of the soil ; they do not change into pupae until about the end of September or the beginning of October, and it is the moths derived from these over-wintered caterpillars that form the nucleus of the infestation in the following sesi.tton. It is, there- fore, of the utmost importance that measures be taken to destroy as many of the caterpillars as possible. The ideal method of accomplish- ing this is either to remove the plants, roots and all, at the time of harvesting, or to remove all stumps later in the season. Maize plants can be uprooted by means of a small plough set to draw a sb allow furrow, or by means of the so-called maize-stump grubber. Maize stumps should be pulled by hand some time during August and burned in heaps. If the nature of the soil or a lack of labour does not permit of pulling by hand, a maize-stump grubber may be used. The ques- tion of maize stalk-borer control is discussed in detail in a publication entitled " The Maize Stalk-borer," by C. W. Mally, and maize farmers are urged to make a study of this. It may be procured from the Department at a cost of Is. 6d. Special Dairy Course Successes at the Maritzburg Show. — Under the supervision of the dairy staff the students attending the above course manufactured butter and cheese for competition at the show recently held in Maritzburg. Altogether two first prizes, two seconds, and two thirds (tie in one class) were awarded to the Glen exhibits. At the Johannesburg Show a special dairy course Glen student won the students' buttermaking competition, and also the open championship (gold medal). An exhibit of dairy produce was also staged at the Johannesburg Show (not for competition), the experts remarking very favourably on the " finish " of the produce. The special dairy course at Glen offers suitable training for men who desire to qualify for responsible positions in factory dairies. The staff are fully qualified, the practical men having had considerable experience in their respective subjects both in South Africa and over- seas. The next dairy course will commence about the 11th October, 1922. For full particulars write to the Principal. 112 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Short Courses. — The number of applications received for the short courses has been very gratifying. . The sheep and wool and domestic science courses were fully booked up two weeks be tore the commencement of the course. Applications for the cattle and maize and poultry courses are still coming in, and, although these are not yet fully booked, the results so far exceed all expectations. Experimental Results. — It is regretted that an error was dis- covered in last month's notes too late for rectification. It was stated that " the fallow plots contained nearly as much moisture as the plots under crop." The paragraph should read as follows: " An experi- ment was carried out at Glen during the past season to determine the relative effect of various methods of treatment of growing crops, viz., cultivation, harrowing, and weeding, moisture tests being taken in conjunction with the records of weight of crop harvested. Owing to the insufficiency of the rainfall — no rain of value having fallen after the middle of January — the plants in the test plots did not properly mature, and the results, therefore, were not as complete as hoped. Two points, however, were outstanding, viz., that the fallow plots contained more moisture than the plots under crop, and that the plots neither weeded nor cultivated in any way after the seed was planted gave about 25 per cent, lower yield than the plots to which attention was given." GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG (CAPE). Short Courses. — It has, unfortunately, been necessary to refuse many applicants for the short courses of instruction in sheep and wool that are being held this month, notwithstanding that more students have been accepted than can perhaps conveniently be handled. These courses consist of a five-day general course devoted to classing, judging, and care of sheep, followed by a second devoted entirely to the sorting, packing, and marketing of wool. To meet the demand, it has been arranged that a course similar to this second course will be held in September for the benefit of the members and their employees of the two Wool Growers' Associations recently formed in the Graaff-Reinet and Middelburg (Cape) Districts. The success of this movement, which marks an important step in the wool industry of South Africa, largely depends on training the members to sort and pack wool in such a manner as to readily pass inspection, which, in the interests of all, must be maintained at a high standard. Bradford Technical College. — Four ex-students of this iastitu- tion are now undergoing training at the Bradford Technical College, and it is hoped at a later stage to obtain the services of some or all of them for the Department of Agriculture. One of these students, Mr. S. Mare, B.Sc, who gained an Honours Diploma in the Special Sheep and Wool Course at Grootfontein last year, and is now under- going a course at Bradford, writes to say that in his opinion the South African student could not do better than attend the Technical College there, as it is the world centre of the textile industry. The college authorities are in close touch with the leading mill owners, and the students have every facility to follow up their training by a close study of actual processes carried out in the mills. Depaktmental Activities. 113 Lecturing Tour. — It has been arranged to devote a portion of the winter vacation to a comprehensive tour of the Eastern Province, during which the undermentioned towns will be visited and lectures delivered by the officers mentioned. Farmers will thus meet the various technical officers on the staff of the school, who will be avail- able to satisfy inquiries on various subjects of interest, including dairy- ing, crops, and diseases in stock : Cradock and Somerset East, Lectures in Sheep and Wool and Veterinary Science ; TJitenhage, Lectures in Botany (diseases in crops); Willowmore and Oudtshoorn, Lectures in Ostriches and Entomology (parasitic disenses); and Graaff-Reinet, Lectures in Botany (diseases in crops). This innova- tion has received encouraging and enthusiastic support, which indicates that there is a growing appreciation of the services which schools of agriculture render to the community and an increasing need for co-operation between schools and farmers' associations. A word of thanks is due to the secretaries of those associations who, in spite of difficulties of communication, have succeeded in organizing successful meeting's at comparatively ishort notice. Extension Work. — The Research Chemist (Mr. A. Stead) has visited various farmers in the Graaff-Reinet District in the course of an inquiry as to the extent to which the aloe may prove possible as a food for stock in times of drought, and has collected interesting data. It is proposed to carry out experiments with aloes similar to those with the prickly pear which have been carried out at Grootfon- tein. Other officers of the school have been engaged in lectures and demonstrations embracing a large range of subjects and including the following: " The Blow-fly," " Nodular Worm," and " Ear Tick," "Construction of Pit Silos," "Sheep and Wool." The Lecturer in Poultry, Mr. A. Owen John, attended shows at Queenstown, Aliwal North, and the challenge show at Port Elizabeth in the capacity of judge. At Queenstown there were 800 entries, while the Aliwal North show indicates that considerable progress is being made by breeders in that area. There were 830 entries at Port Elizabeth, including some very fine exhibits, notably in the Utility White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red classes. Mr. John also visited various settlers in the Sundays River Valley. Greater Itinerant Activity. — The value of meetings with members of farmers' associations both to the farmers and the lecturers is fully realized, and it is a matter of regret that, owing to time occupied in the instruction of some 80 students at the school, the opportunities ofiered for this work are not as frequent as could be desired. Applications for assistance in this connection are always welcomed by the school, and every endeavour is made to meet them, but this is not always possible owing to difficulties in the train service and long distances involved, especially in cases where prolonged absence from Grootfontein is involved. It is confidently anticipated, however, that next year will see a marked improvement in facilities for extension work as a result of contemplated changes in the syllabus of the school designed with the object of releasing lecturers to a greater extent for research and itinerant work in the area served by the school. 114 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Farmers' Week in Sundays River Valley. — Mr. A. Owen John, Lecturer in Poultry, has been largely responsible for arrangements in connection with a farmers' week in the Sundays River area during the latter part of September, when a number of officers of the Depart- ment will visit Addo and the surrounding district for the purpose of conducting a series of lectures aad practical demonstrations on feed- ing, housing, selection mating, and breeding of poultry, incubation and chicken rearing, handling and marketing of eggs; laying-out of orcbards, tree-planting, pruning, thinning, and gathering of fruit, spraying orchard trees; dairying, including butter and cheesemaking, and domestic science. ELSENBURG, MULDERS VLEI. Pig Management — Winter Litters. — As a general rule, it is not a good practice to have sows and gelts litter down during the winter months, particularly if the winters are severe in the district. It is a wiser policy to regulate the bulk, if not all, of the farrowings to take place in the spring and in the autumn, if breeding on commercial lines, and in the early or late spring only if breeding on pure-bred lines and primarily for show purposes. Winter farrowing requires closer care and attention to detail if it is to prove successful. In parts of Natal and the Cape it is not, as a rule, required to warm the feed and drinking water, whereas in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal this will often be necessary. Work of this kind is all extra, and adds considerably to the cost of rearing a litter, although it must be admitted that it is often compensated for in the spring when the weaners should ordinarily be growthy enough to go ahead and make rapid and cheap daily gains, provided plenty of green succulent feed is available. In the Orange Free State and Transvaal very little, if any, green feed can ordinarily be expected in the spring, but in the Cape, April and May sown rape, kale, etc., will usually be sufficiently well advanced to warrant pigs being allowed to commence foraging it down as early as the end of June. To ensure success in winter litters, the following important details require careful attention, and will be found useful in the management of brood sows at farrowing time generally : — 1. See that the sow is comfortably housed in a warm, well- lighted, and properly ventilated stye. 2. Keep the stye clean and dry, and add fresh bedding at least once, but preferably twice, a week. Do not use a lot of long dry grass or straw for bedding, especially when the youngsters are under 3-4 weeks old, as they will instinctively hide away under it, and so be lain on. It is best to use sawdust, particularly on a cold cement floor, whilst chaff is also preferable to long grass. A wooden sleeping-board, 5 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 6 in., placed in the cosy corner of the pen^ can be used where sawdust, chaff, or other suitable bedding is not available. 3. See that the farrowing rails are in order. They should be about 9 in. high, and 9-10 in. from the wall of the pen. Fir spars. Departmental Activities. 115 old piping, or any other suitable rods can be used. These rails are of considerable help in protecting the litters of big- clumsy old sows whose eyesight and hearing are seldom of the best. 4. Feed three times a day. It is better to feed in small amounts and often than in large quantities and at long intervals apart. The feed should be of a good sloppy consistency, and, if possible, separated milk should be used, together with some meal mixture, such as mealie meal, pollard, and wheaten bran in equal parts. During cold weather the feed should be heated to about bloodheat. On no account bring the mass to the boil, as this will render the feed less digestible, particularly the protein part of it. 5. In addition, some succulent feed such as rape, kale, cabbage, kaffir watermelons, makatans, green barley, and rye should, where possible, be fed. It is not advisable to use silage, except if of very good quality, and then not more than 3-4 lb. per sow per day. 6. Be on the lookout for scours in the youngsters. If found, the cause of the trouble can usually be attributed to the dam's milk. As a rule, it is the result of over-feeding the sow or of feeding too large a proportion of rich feeds, in both of which cases her milk is likely to become physiologically deranged. It is far better to slightly under- feed than slightly overfeed the sow. Immediately the youngsters are noticed scouring, cut down the sow's feed considerably. This is best done by thinning the slop to almost half the normal consistency. Scours in both the dam and her litter may sometimes be due to a dirty trough, especially if the concentrated feed is allowed to turn sour. It is a good practice, therefore, to clean the trough thoroughly each time before feeding, and also to sprinkle it with a little lime once or twice a week in order to neutralize the acidity. 7. " Black teeth " is occasionally met with and can easily be remedied. One or more pigs in a litter will be found to have an abnormally developed pair of central incisor teeth, which are black in colour. When such pigs attempt to suckle their dams, these teeth cut the teats, as a result of which the sow will refuse to let the litter suckle. Attention is drawn to this particular trouble when the sow's teats show distinct 'cuts and scratches, and the litter appears rather hollow in the flanks. The noise that the litter will make is usually the best proof of their perilous plight. The trouble may easily be remedied by the use of a pair of pliers for snapping off the elongated black teeth. The sow's udder and teats should be rubbed with a little sweet oil or raw linseed oil containing a dash of disinfectant, such as Hycol. If the udder is inflamed, it may be necessary to apply hot fomentations for a day or two. 8. Wherever possible, let the sow and her litter have the run of a small camp, so that they can take sufficient exercise to keep healthy. When the youngsters are about three weeks of age they will commence nibbling at their dam's feed, and extra feed should therefore be provided for them. Although satisfactory results may sometimes be obtained by giving the extra feed along with that of the sow, better results can be counted upon if a separate feeding-place is provided for the youngsters. A creep about 2 ft. 6 in. high and 5 or 6 feet long, with the spars placed about 5 in. apart, should be put at one corner of the stye, and shallow feeding troughs not more than 8 in. 116 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. deep should be put inside. This will allow the young-sters to obtain part of their requirements undisturbed, and- they will therefore be less of a drain upon the sow. Especially is this true as the time of weaning- approaches. In this way there is little likelihood of the sow overfeeding, whilst sufficient trough space is allowed the youngsters, and they should make maximum gains. The most suitable feeds for the little pigs at this time are the by-products of the dairy, fed in conjunction with some finely-ground meal. Separated milk slightly heated and mixed with pollard and mealie meal, or the meal sifted out from crushed oats and fed in equal amounts, and in the propor- tion of 1 meal mixture to 4 of milk, has given very satisfactory results. Butter-milk, whey, wheaten bran, etc., may also be used, but will not give quite such good results. The practice of scattering- soaked grain, such as mealies, barley, etc., is recommended, as it not only teaches the young pigs to search for their feed, but is also conducive to their taking sufficient exercise. 9. If the number of pigs in the litter is above ten, those that are decidedly runty should be knocked on the head and buried. On no account should the sow be allowed to rear more than ten pigs. The remainder, if not too bad to destroy, should, if possible, be given to another sow. As a rule it does not pay to attempt to rear these by hand. 10. If breeding on commercial lines, the litters should be weaned at about eight weeks of age, but if breeding on pure-bred lines, and especially if the litter is fairly small, say, seven or eight, they can be left with the sow for another two or three weeks. 11. If some of the boar pigs in the litter are decidedly lacking either in type, constitution, or size for age, they should be castrated at six weeks of age. This will allow them to get over the operation by the time they are weaned. The doubtful boar pigs can be left over until they are about three to four months of age. 12. As a general rule it is not absolutely essential to ear-mark the litter before weaning in the case of winter litters, which should ordinarily be few in number, and therefore allow little possibility of a mistake being made. To be on the safe side, it is a good thing to mark your litters at this time, but one must be careful not to make the cuts too big or too small. The tendency is, as a rule, to make them too small, in which case it is extremely difficult to read the numbers when the pigs are matured. It is purely a matter of practice to know exactly how to mark them. Use the system of marking recommended by the Pig Breeders' Society. 13. It is a good practice, especially when the youngsters are warmly bedded, to rouse them up late in the afternoon, when they have settled down for the night. The object is to let them empty their bladders, for pigs have a tendency to keep to their warm nests and so do themselves a great deal of harm. A pig is different from other kinds of live stock, which will ordinarily excrete and urinate when they are lying down. A pig will not do this, except in a particu- lar part of his pen, usually the corner farthest from his nest. This may seem a small point, but it is one of the many minor points that count in getting optimum results. Departmental Activities, 117 POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL. Horticulture in August. — The pruning of stone fruits and grape vines should be finished as quickly as possible, having regard to efficiency. Where trees are to be planted for orchard extension, no time should be lost in completing this work, as nothing except dis- appointment can be gained by delaying any longer. This month, too, will offer the last chance of applying any winter spraying solutions as many trees will be in blossom or leaf ere the month ends. Where any doubt exists as to the correct mixture to use as a " clean up " spray, the best results are to be obtained from " Capex " Lime Sulphur Solution, 1 part to 10 or 15 of water. After the blossoms open and green fly appears on the peaches and nectarines, the only safe remedj^ is tobacco wash applied regularly. August will be found the most suitable month for grafting over any unsatisfactory trees to more desirable varieties. Where it is intended to apply fertilizers around orchard trees, an early applica- tion of finely ground bonemeal or superphosphate at the rate of 400 to 600 lb. per acre should be made, and harrowed or forked in. Students Loading Oats, Putchefstroom School of Agriculture. Export Oranges and Quinces. Commenting on a recent shipment of fruit from the Union, the Trade Commissioner, London, referred to a number of cnses of oranges with counts of 288. These oranges were far too small, and it is strongly recommended that fruit of this kind, especially navels, should not be shipped as they are most difficult to dispose of. A small parcel of quinces that had been received were stijl on hand and were practically unsaleable, a few trays only having been sold at 5s., notwithstanding that the condition of the fruit was excellent. 118 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. THE GREAT DROUGHT PROBLEM OF SOUTH AFRICA. An Outline of the Interim Report of the Commission of Inquiry. In September, 1920, the Government appointed a Commission to inquire into the best means of avoiflinty losses by drous'lii, and as a result of considerable investigation during- the ensuing month?', which necessitated travelling over a large area of the country, the Commis- sion has presented an Interim Report* on its findings which, owing to the outstanding evidence that small stock farmers suflereil i;iost from drought, are concerned chiefly with that feature. The final report will deal with all branches of farming. This interim report is of the utmost moment to small stock farmers and, indeed, to every inhabit- ant of the country, for it discloses conditions that gravely concern the welfare of all and are a serious menace to posterity. It is proposed, therefore, to publish hereunder the findings of the Commission as disclosed in the Heport, together with brief references to the argu- ments on which they are based, so as to assist in bringing to the notice of the public the problem that faces tlie country and how it is recom- mended to overcome it. In introducing its Eeport, the Commission states that two points seem firmly established ; firstly, that a large portion of South Africa was dry long before the white man arrived, as evidenced by tlie name Karroo " and by the highly specialized drought-resisting flora of that region; and secondly, that since the white man has been in South Africa enormous tracts of country have been entirely or partially denuded of their original vegetation, with the lesult that rivers, vleis, and water holes described by old travellers have dried up or dis- appeared. This drying out is still proceeding with alarming rapidity, and the following extract from the Report, written by the Commissioners deliberately and in full knowledge of its significance, reveals, as nothing else can, the fate that awaits the country with a continuance of present conditions : " It is unnecessary for your Commission to vie with the several writers who have, at various times, with facile pen depicted the gloomy and ghastly future which lies before our country. . . . The simple unadorned truth is sufficiently terrify- ing without the assistance of rhetoric. The logical outcovie of it all is ■' The Great South African Desert ' univJinhitahle by man.'" The Commission finds that the main causes of drought losses and the cumulative evils that they entail are the kraaling of stock, occa- sioned mainly by the jackal, inadequacy of the drinking water facili- ties, the destruction of vegetation and the resulting soil erosion, which. * Interim Report of the Drought Investigation Commission. Obtainable from the Government Printer, Pretoria. Price 2s. The Great Drought Problem of South Africa. 119 in turn leads to a diminisliing efficiency of the rainfall. These factors are discussed in the report in the order given hereunder. Rainfall. When seeking the cause of the ever recurring droughts, periods when natural veld grazing has become so scarce, and the supply of water at the drinking places so diminished, that loss of stock results, the question of rainfall is of first consideration. This still engages the attention of the Commission, but no evidence has been brought forward to prove that tlie average rainfall in South Africa has changed during recent historic times. Variations occur and there are good and bad years, but there is no definite tendency traceable of eitber an upward or downward direction. Personal reminiscence is misleading : there are many people who assert that the nature oi the rainfall has altered and that the gentle, soakiug and regular rains of yore are giving way to innumerable small and useless showers or to violent and devastating thunderstorms. Be this as it may, it must be conceded that the rains of last generation fell on unbroken, under- stocked grazing lands, and were more lasting in their beneficial results than rains of equal magnitude falling to-day on veld overstocked, tramped out, semi-waterproof, hard-baked by sun and veld fires. Herein, indeed, lies the kernel of the drought problem: while the quantity of rainfall received shows little variation, its utility has certainly diminished for the quantity that is absorbed by the soil is continuously decreasing. The Commission outlines the position briefly as follows: — 1. No proof was submitted that the mean annual rainfall of the Union has altered appreciably within recent historic times. Nor is it considered likely that such a change has taken place. 2. According to the evidence of many witnesses there has been an alteration in the nature of our rainfall within the last few decades. No measurements have as yet been submitted either supporting or rebutting this statement; but it is well within the bounds of possi- bility. There is nothing to show whether this alteration, if it exists, is a permanent or only a temporary change. 3. While the mean annual rainfall remains constant its economic value has to a very great extent been reduced by the alteration in the properties of the surface of the country for which man is responsible. In this reduced utility of rainfall must be sought the secret of our " droughts." Kraaling of Stock. South Africa is essentially a pastoral country, the greatest portion of it being devoted to animal husbandry, and as a general rule all live stock are dependent for their sustenance on the natural veld herbage. And it is over the areas where small stock farming is prac- tised that the effects of drought are most severe, so that it is from this quarter the causes are to be sought. Most farmers kraal or concentrate their small stock at night at certain fixed places, due largely as a protection against the depredations of the jackal. But 120 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. the auimal that is kraaled leads an UDnatural life. Lett to itself the sheep grazes during the early morniug and late afternoon, rests during tlie heat of the day, and sleeps through the night. To-day he is driven to and from his kraal to pasturage at a time wlien he should be browsing, and os good pasturage recedes further and further from f c vicinity of the kraal, particularly as the winter jjrogreb.ses, so his the unfortunate sheep to spend more and move of his proper feeding time in journeying to the 'distant veld. Then the exeition entailed by these journeys increases the animal's food requirements, and this extra need during seasons of scarcity is often just the decid- ing factor that results in death ; for the free ranging sheep is better able to sustain life (by drawing on the reserves of fat avd flesh of its own body), being able to live several weeks without food, provided it has sufficient water and also the proper rest that the driven sheep is denied. Thus the kraaled sheep has not the same chance to acquire robustness (which affects the value of the wool as do also other kraal induced evils, such as scab) as the free one. Evidence shows that where sheep run day and night in suitable paddocks, losses are rare, for they are able to find whatever fodder remains on the veld and so postpone the call on their body reserves to the latest moment, whereas the kraaled sheep, denied the opportunity of foraging at will, succumbs. The Commission finds : — 1. The kraaling of small stock, which forces the animal to lead an unnatural life, is the prevalent practice among farmers through- out the Union. 2. The kraaling system necessitates much driving of stock and an increased food requirement, which is particularly disadvantageous in time of drought. 3. Driving is detrimental to the condition of the animal, and seriously endangers life when, through the effects of a bad season, it is in a weakened state. 4. Apart from its action on the sheep during times of drought, kraaling, as a general practice, is at all times detrimental to the health of the animal and the value of its wool. 5. Experience has shown that the system of running sheep day and night in suitable paddocks is attended by very small drought losses. 6. The abandonment of the kraaling system is a necessary step in the reduction of drought losses. Overstocking. It is extremely difficult to decide \ipon the number of stock a farm can carry from year to year, for the rainfall which determines the amount of grazing produced varies tremendously from season to season. There are other factors also that have to be considered, ^nd taken together they present such variations that a paiticular farm may carrv double the number of stock in some seasons that it can in others. Stocking a farm is, therefore, speculative, especially as (which is, unfortunately, the practice), no provision is made for feed- ing stuffs in the event of a bad season. It is naturally the intention 1 The Great Drought Problem of South Africa. 121 of the farmer to make tlie most use of his veld, and as a result it is frequently overstocked. This leads to overgrazing, which compels an increased movement of stock, as they have to forage over a wider area to obtain their food requirements ; this again tends to the tramp- ling out the veld, and demands the extra energy and thus the greater food requirement of the animal. Animals on such a farm are not in the same condition to meet a drought as are those on farms carrying less stock. But above all, overgrazing results iii the denu- dation of the vegetal covering of the veld, and is the source of many ever-increasing evils. The Commission finds: — 1. The practice of overstocking farms is very prevalent through- out the Union. 2. Several causes are responsible therefor, among which are extreme seasonal variations and the optimism of the farmer. 3. Animals on overstocked farms go into drought handicapped by a low condition, as well as little food in prospect, which circumstances lessen their chance of coming through the drought. 4. The reserving of fodder for use in times of scarcity is a very unusual practice. 5. Overstocking leads to overgrazing and all its attendant evils. 6. Largely responsible for drought losses is the almost universal practice of overstocking the farm, and a failure to make any sort of provision for the drought, which the farmer knows will come on him sooner or later. Water Supply. It is found that on many farms the )iumber of watering places is insufficient, and further, that, generally, watering places are not kept sufficiently clean, and thereby impair the health of the aninwis using them. Moreover, the consequent need to drive stock long dis- tances to watering places has the same evil consequences as sending them from the kraal to the distant veld for pasturage. An animal can live for several weeks without food by drawing on the leserves of food stored in its body, but it has practically no reserve of water. For the functioning of its body water is essential, and, moreover, as the drought proceeds, the animal reqirres an increased supply of water to enable it to digest and dispose of the dry, fibrous matter obtained from the veld at such times. But at such time M'ater is scarce and many animals die, while the stock are congregated around the watejii.g places, regardless of the food supply surrounding Ihem, The Commission finds : — 1. Water is the essential of life, and the provision of adequate supplies of it is a prime necessity in fighting droughts; that Govern- ment should encourage farmers in every way possible to improve the water resources of the farm, and that improvement in this direction will act very materially in fighting drought. Deterioration of the Veld. It is of vital importance that the vegetal covering of the country should not be impaired, for from it not only does the animal obtain 122 Journal or the Department of Agricultuke. — Aug., 1922. its sustenance, but in its absence the rainfall runs off easily, its efficiency is diminished, and the soil is eroded. The congregating of stock, as practised at present, leads to much destruction of the vegeta- tion by trampling and overgrazing. A characteristic of areas of low or intermittent rainfall is the high proportion of perennials in its vegetation, a provision of nature in that having established a well- developed root system they are able to make the fullest use of the rain when it comes, and are in vigorous growth before the annuals have had time to germinate. Perennials under natural conditions are thus able to thrive with a scanty rainfall and also to repress and mask the existence of the annuals. Destroy the perennials and the annuals will have all the rainfall and become increasingly prominent, but will more readily die, for, unlike the former which are able to go into a resting condition between rains, annuals need a sufficiently moist soil to make growth continuous. Veld composed of annuals, therefore, is less certain of being able to carry its quota of stock throughout the year. Yet on an overgrazed veld perennials, which spring into edible growth first, are eaten down before they are able to manufacture their full reserve food requirements, and if this process is continued the plant dies. Palatability also plays its part, so that the perennials the animal most likes are first eaten, and gradu- ally they disappear from the veld until in overgrazed parts the sur- viving plants are those of an undesirable and uncertain type. Overgrazing is most detrimental to the veld when growth is most active, for instance after a drought breaks, for this rapid growth after plenteous rain determines, not only how much fodder there will be for the coming dry period, but also the amount of storage of rootstock, bud and seed, and through this the yield of fodder in the coming year. Thorough grazing subsequent to this period is not so exhaustive; investigations in America show that by reducing the number of stock during the main grazing season (which is not possible on the over- stocked, unpaddocked farm) to about half the average number the range can carry for the year, thereafter grazing fully for the remain- der of the year (eight months), the range so treated improved as much as similar ranges protected for the whole year. So with the valuable Karroo fodder plant, the " skaap bos," it is evident that resting is necessary, and that nothing is more harmful than overgrazing at its period of active growth. When a farm is divided into camps and the grazing can be regu- lated, the animals will be compelled to eat all the veld growths, not- withstanding their degree of palatability, that are not harmful, so that all useful plants get an equal chance when the camp, in the course of rotation, is rested. Where this is not practised, the stock naturally confine their choice to the most palatable shrubs, leading to their destruction and the spread of the less palatable ones. The chief causes, therefore, of the daily deterioration of the veld are kraaling, scarcity of suitable watering places, and overgrazing. And this deterioration in itself induces accelerated speed in its career of damage by resulting in the ever-growing need for greater move- ment of stock to find food and water, leading to overgrazing and the mechanical destruction of the veld, first the palatable perennial and finally the remaining herbage. Then comes the culminating evil — the diminishing efficiency of the rainfall. As the vegetal covering becomes scanty, so is the run-off of the rainfall accelerated, and lei5s The Great Drought Problem of South Africa. 123 water becomes available for plant requirements, a serious matter when water is the limiting factor in such plant growth. Just as serious also is the increased evaporation that ensues, clue to lack of the protection the otherwise closely growing herbage would have afforded, and which also robs the plant of the moisture it recpiires. And so as the veld is denuded of its covering, the loss of moisture due to increasing run-off and evaporation may become so rapid that in time the total amount of rainfall that is made available is so scanty as to be insufficient to support the original vegetation. When that time arrives rapid deterioration sets in. The Commission finds : — 1. The kraaling and herding of stock lends to a mechanical destruction of the vegetal covering due to trampling. 2. The lack of a sufficient number of drinking places gives rise to a similar result. 3. Overstocking not 0]ily leads to trampling, but also to over- grazing. 4. Overgrazing tends to destroy perennial fodder plants and encourages the growth of annuals and plants useless for grazing pur- poses. In this way the grazing yield of a season is diminished and depends more and more on frequent rains. 5. The effect of overgrazing is very serious when it occurs during the main growing season. 6. The farmer should therefore endeavour to reduce intensive grazing at this period. 7. This he can do if his farm is divided into paddocks, for such a sub-division permits of the best possible distribution of the stock over the farm, and allows of absolute rest for paddocks that require it. 8. Complete grazing control is the first essential of a system of stock farming that will prevent deterioration of the vegetal covering. 9. Animals in poor condition graze more destructively than if in good condition. 10. Reserves of fodder for use, when grazing is scarce, are very valuable, not only for keeping stock alive, but also for preventing overgrazing at the critical time when vegetal growth is very active. 11. Even if no permanent damage is done, overgrazing at the period of active growth seriously diminishes the following yield of fodder. 12. Deterioration in the vegetal covering of the driei- parts of the Union has been brought about, mainly through the practices of kraal- ing, herding, and overstocking, together with an insufficient number of drinking places, and overgrazing. Soil Erosion, The processes outlined above that are leading to the destruction of the country's natural herbage and to periodic drought losses, also lead to soil erosion. There is erosion of cultivated lands, a matter of extreme importance, as well as of the veld soil, but the Commission confines itself to the latter, pointing out that the soil of South Africa 124 J0URN.1L OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AuG., 1922. is being rapidly eroded, (a) by surface erosion by wind, (h) by suiface erosion by water, and (c) by donga or sloot formation. The surface erosion is the most dangerous, insidiously eating away the soil of the Union, which is a definitely limited and irreplaceable quantity. This being so we are morally and economically bound to conserve it. Erosion by slooting is always evident, while surface erosion frequently takes place without being easily noticed, but by removing great layers of the country's most valuable soil and plant food, it is causing enormous loss. The wind is similar in its action, removing first the rich surface soil which has taken centuries to form. Sometimes it bodily removes ploughed fields, but the greatest damage is caused by the strong dust-bearing winds that sweep the country. AVhile water carries the eroded material direct to the sea, the wind may carry it in all directions, yet its ultimate destination is in the direction of the prevailing wind of the dry season. In addition to surface erosion, and greatly assisted by it, pro- ceeds the slooting of the country, that is, the cutting up of the veld by runlets and gulleys, which eventually form the deep water courses known as sloots or dongas, and which remove both soil and water. The gradual deepening of these sloots increases the gradient of the surface water on its banks, and innumerable branch sloots eat their way back from the banks, and in this manner all the surface soil is eventually removed in the vicinity of sloots, and the resultant bareness produces an increased run-off. The latter running into the sloots aids in the undercutting of their banks, increasing the size and multiplying the number of the sloots. Thus the damage is accumula- tive, and so it proceeds each year. Water which should have soaked into the ground to feed plants and replenish the underground supply, is carried to the sea, and in eroded areas, badly slooted, the level of the water table is continually receding, constituting an economic loss, as the sinking of the water table connotes greater labour in making available underground sup- plies. The ever-increasing sloots with their accelerating ruu-ofi, result in river floods, which may be exnected to increase in severity with the years, but decrease in time of Bow, wbile periods of no flow will naturally become proportionately longer. In this way irrigation enterprise, on which the country so greatly depends, is hampered, frequently being made uneconomic owing to tlie costly protective and other works needed to cope with high and low floods, and as a consequence increasing the cost of producing food- stuffs in this country. The remedial measure recommended is to build reservoirs for the purpose of regulating the flow, but the silt brought down reduces the useful life of the reservoir, and adds to the cost of the scheme. There are parts where the silt carried down by rivers is useful, but this is not always the case, as in some instances the very fine silt chokes or suffocates plant growth, so that its presence in water renders it unfit for irrigation, while in many other cases coarse material brought down kills off all vegetation. But the greater portion of the silt finds its way, unused, to the sea. The erosive power of water is enormously increased by concen- tration and increased ^-elocity which are brought about by such factors as climate, temperature, humidity of the air, the annual rainfall and its intensity, composition of the soil, its situation, prevailing winds, The Great Drought Problem of South Africa. 125 etc. A big controlling' factor is the anioant of vegetable covering by which the soil is protected. When left to herself Nature arranges a state of balance between the various factors. When Man arrives and upsets the balance by destruction of the vegetation, trouble results. And in the latter respect the small stock farmer by his wasteful system of veld management is an outstanding cause of erosion, for his present system of grazing is detrimental to stock, vegetation, and veld. Happily, the interdependence of the factors that lead to the present position, enables the employment of one remedy, viz., im- proved methods of veld management, by which the evil effects of all can simultaneously be remedied. This is as necessary for the welfare of future generations of the Union, as for the saving of the Hocks and herds now grazing on our veld. The Commission finds: — 1. That soil erosion is extending rapidly over many parts of the Union. 2. That, besides slooting, there is a great deal of surface erosion, both by water and wind, taking place. 3. That the soil of the Union, our most valuable asset, irrepiace- ably and definitely limited in amount, is being removed in enormous quantities annually. 4. That the greater part of this soil and valuable plant food is lost for ever, and while the remainder of the eroded material may do good in some instances, it does much harm in others. 5. That one great damage done by the eroded material is in silt- ing up of reservoirs, and that soil erosion causes a greater irregularity in the flow of our rivers, thereby increasing the cost of irrigation works and the cost of producing feeding stuffs. 6. That soil erosion is causing a marked decrease in the under- ground water supply of the Union, and thereby increases the difficulty of watering stock. 7. Soil erosion is caused by reduction of the vegetal cover. 8. That soil erosion has a cumulative character which, by virtue of the similarity between its cause and effect, always accelerates its rate of growth, in all except a few favoured portions of the Union. 9. That prompt action is therefore imperative. 10. That soil erosion is caused, mainly, by deterioration of the vegetal cover, brought about by incorrect veld management, and that all efforts to improve the latter will have a beneficial result on the former. Improvement of Farming Methods and Conditions. While the present system of small stock farming is leading to such serious damage, evidence shows that by the adoption of the principle of free ranging an increase of 75 per cent, was carried on a certain farm without damage to the veld, and which, on the contrary, actually improved. Other farmers have had similar experience, let the present system is continued because of : The presence of the jackal, which necessitates kraaling; the scarcity of natural water supply for the drinking places which must be provided m every camp 126 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. if paddocking is adopted ; the want of capital required to erect the necessary jackal proof and other fencing, and to provide water for the paddocks ; the presence of roads — many of them unnecessary — which make the lay-out of a suitable scheme of paddocking- extremely diffi- cult, or indeed impossible; and custom and the lack of a full realiza- tion, on the one hand, of the evil results of the veld deterioration and soil erosion caused by present methods and, on the other, of the advan- tages of the new system. In order to rectify the present position, many have advocated direct legislation, stringently administered. The Commission, states that first and foremost the State is bound to take action in connection with soil erosion which, if persisted in, will lead to national suicide. But the individual also, who has brought the damage, has bis responsibilities, and without his co-operation the damage cannot te repaired, for prevention and sustained vigilance are essential, and r.o State organization can ever supply the minute watchfulness needed. Therefore the Commission does not consider the time ripe for direct legislation ; education of public opinion is first required, and there- after direct legislation if necessary. To awaken the community to it.» danger sustained propaganda is necessary, particularly that class of instruction natural to the sheep and wool experts of the Department of Agriculture, while instruction on soil conservation should occupy a place in the curriculum of every educational institution in the country. The Commission finds: — 1. The retention of the old wasteful and destructive metliod of kraaling and herding small stock is due to several reasons, the chief of which is the presence of the jackal. 2. Other reasons are scarcity of water, want of capital, and the presence of roads. 3. Lack of fvill realization of the advantages and disadvantages of the two methods of small stock farming also plays an important part. 4. Educative work is now highly necessary to induce the indi- vidual to do his share. 5. The State has grave responsibilities in preventing the waste of natural resources; but direct legislation cannot now be recommended. Indigency Arising out of Drought Losses. Among the duties of the Commission was that of inquiring into the methods by which indigency arising among the farming com- munity in consequence of drought losses could best be dealt with. The increasing number of indigents drifting to the cities, the Commis- sion finds, is the final picture of a sequence of misfortunes, nor is it due to economic reasons only, but is brought about by such causes as unfit parents, inbreeding, underfeeding, disease, and climatic condi- tions. Among other reasons for the failure of farn.ers to retain possession of their land are (a) droughts, hailstorms, and excessive frosts; (b) jackals; (c) stock and plant diseases, and insect pests work- ing separately or in conjunction with droughts; (d) cataclysms, such as war, etc. ; (e) too minute sub-division of farms; (/) inflated prices of The Great Drought Problem or South Africa. 127 ground; (g) want of agricultural education and training; (h) inability to dispose of farm produce at reasonable rates. Many of these causes reach their climax through drought. What- ever may be done to mitigate the above causes would result in a i-educ- tion of the failures at all times, and the Commission considers that increased facilities for marketing would undoubtedly reduce poverty on farms and that factories for treating perishable produce are desir- able. But of fundamental importance is the need for better agricul- tural education and training; a closer touch with the Department of Agriculture and the technical advice it can furnish is necessary, and in the organization of the farmer is to be found the link that will draw the farmer and the Department together. The Commission finds : — 1. That the frequent failure of the farmer in South Africa is due to many causes, which so frequently work simultaneously, that it is difficult to separate them. Periods of sudden strain, such as drought or economic cataclysms, accelerate and magnify losses due, in the first place, to other causes. 2. That, if the pressure from any of these causes be reduced, losses due to drought will also be diminished. 3. That organization of the farming community will tend to im- prove the marketing facilities for all sorts of produce, and will irrm a link between the Department and the farmer, which will be particd- larly useful in spreading information. 4. That this will result in increased production and fewer failurey among the farming community. Recommendations . Having arrived at the above conclusions, founded on the solid support of practical experience corroborated by scientific analysis, the Commission recommends the Government to do its utmost to abolish the kraaling system and make it as easy as possible for the farmer to put the paddock system into practice. To effect this the jackal must be exterminated, provision must be made for the supply of cheap feucing material, and the water supply for stock mun be developed. In dealing with these matters, organization of the iarnier is the first essential, while the State has to assume certain responsiMIities in the control of soil erosion, and the Department of Agriculture has to investigate certain grazing and fodder problems. Organization or the Farming Community. It is in the interests of the State and of the individual to have farmers organized. Organized farmers are easier to deal with, as their wants and desires are more readily ascertained ; moreover, the Department of Agriculture is greatly assisted in treating with such organizations, tending to its increased usefulness and at decreased cost than is possible when dealing with individuals. In this manner the knowledge and experience of the expert can be put to more extended use, resulting in a higher standard of agriculture, while the organized farmer becomes more independent and self-reliant. By combining they gain in strength and eliminate the possibility of many 128 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. malpractices to which the individual is now subject. Capital lor the purpose of manufacturing raw materials is enticed into the country, and local prices are stift'ened up; organization, indeed, resulting from the propaganda work carried out by the Commission in the course of its inve-5tigations, has already been successful in staying financial panics which would otherwise have resulted in bankruptcy to some. It is a recommendation of the Commission, therefore, that the Department of Agriculture immediately proceed with the organiza- tion of the farming community. Extermination of the Jackal. The train of consequences following the system of farming now in vogue due to the presence of the jackal has been described. The animal is a dangerous menace to the State and must be exterminated. This is necessary in order to enable the adoption of the new system of farming needful to stay the processes that now operate to the detri- ment of all. To the farmer extermination of the jackal means large savings in the cost of herding his flocks, more and better wool, greater fj'eedom from stock disease and insect pests, greater protection against scab, and an increased capacity of the farm to carry stock. To the whole community it will lead to the recovery of the country's vegetal covering and the staying of soil erosion. The Commission is of opinion that nothing is more calculated to lead to the ultimate extermination of the jackal than jackal oroof fencing, and recommends that the law which now applies to ordinary fencing only, should be amended so as to include jackal fencing in any district wh(;re the majority of owners so decides; also that a law be made that will compel three or more farmers to combine for jackal- proof fencing of the boundary of their block farms if the owners of, say, two-thirds of the area or block desire the same. It considers that in regard to hunting clubs the law is not carried out with sufficient stringency with reference to compulsory hunting, and since dogs are bound to play an important part in exterminating the jackal within the fenced areas (and it is the opinion that the jackal should be pot rid of by pinning him down to an area which will enable complete eradication rather than by driving him away) the Comiuissio)! recom- mends inquiries as to what type or types of dog are best for hunting pujposes. Provision of Cheap Fencing Mateimal. To put into practice the system of paddocking and to erect ordi- nary and jackal-proof fencing will entail considerable outlay, but the need is so imi)erative that the Commission recommends tliat fencing loans be granted by the State to farmers on the best possible terms, and that under such loans farmers be permitted to put up both boundary and paddock fences, whether jackal proof or not, and even to convert an existing stock-proof into a jackal-proof fence; and, generally to utilize fencing for any purpose calculated to improve the drought-resisting capacity of farms. It is pointed out that, among its many advantages, fencing will, by protection during initial growth, lead to the planting of trees on the veld so useful for the shelter and well-being of stock, and will also permit more extensive planting of spineless cactus, a valuable standby in times of drought. The Geeat Deought Peoblem of South Afeica. 129 ])eveloi'ment of Watee Supply foe Stock. Too little attention is given to the adequacy oi watering places and to tlieir cleanliness, and stock have generally to be driven long distances to obtain water, the disadvantages of which have already been mentioned. The Commission recommends, therefore, that the vState should encourage farmers in every way possible to improve their facilities for watering stock. The State axd Soil Conservation. The culminating result of the system of larming practiseil all these years has taken a firm hold in many districts where the soil is rapidly being eroded, and even with a general adoption of the paddock system, soil erosion will continue for many years to come. Therefore, while better methods are being put into practice and the danger is gradually being overcome, the Commission recommends, as one of the most important principles, that the State should adopt its responsibili- ties in connection with the control of soil erosion. i\.s a first step it recommends the immediate appointment of a Eeclamation Ofl&cer who will be attached to the Department of Agriculture, and be entiusted with the duties pertaining to State control of scnl erosion. The first duty of such an officer would be educative, assisting by lecturing, by writing pamphlets, and by personal visits to farms. He would intro- duce co-operati\e experiments in controlling erosion, adjudicate in disputes arising out of matters of soil erosion, assist in questions of roads where they affect paddocking, etc. Propacanda and Investigation by the I^epaetment of Agricfltuee. The Commission found that farmers in general were unaware of existing loan facilities for fencing ajid othei' purposes, and recom- mends that the Department of Agriculture take steps to bring this knowledge to the door of every farmhouse in the country, and that a sustained propaganda in favour of a natural lite for small stock and against overstocking be undertaken at once. The many problems connected with the grazing of stock, the Commission recommends, should form the subject of thorough investi- gation by the Department of Agriculture,- for it is only by such investigation that the best methods of management for the various types of veld can be determined. In this connection many farmers told the Commission how valuable they had found prickly pear in times of drought, while experiments carried out at the Grootfontein School of Agriculture have showed that sheep could be kept alive for 260 days on a diet of priclcly pear only. This plant is very abuiidant in many of the drier parts of the Union, ])ut is not generally used, as no cheap, simple method of dealing with the spines with which the " leaves " are covered has yet been evolved. The Commission, there- fore, strongly recommends that the Government should investigate the singeing and other methods which are in use in Mexico and 'J'exas with a view to introducing them into South Africa, for, not only is the prickly pear a source of food but also of water. The sheep mentioned above, for example, drank no Avater during the time oi the experiment and four of them, which were subsequently put on 5 130 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. a diet of prickly pear and hicerne hay, were over a year without drinkino' water, the water requirements ot the animals having- been fully met by that contained in the prickly pear. Conclusion. The report outlined above is signed by Messrs. Heinrich S. du Toit (chairman), S. M. Gadd, G. A. Kolbe, Arthur Stead, R. J. van Reenen, and R. A. B. Mussman (secretary). The Commis- sion is still pursuing its investigations. In the meantime it has disclosed a state of affairs that should arrest the attention of every South African, for it calls for immediate action in removing the causes that threaten the extinction of the land which we have received from our forefathers and i)redecessors, and must deliver to our children and successors. The soil belongs to the nation, not the indi- vidual, and its dissipation through erosion is a national calamity that demands tlie aid of everv one to (•(»mba+ it. iJ-'/into hy (t. L. Jmiicc, Onderxteduorns Wheat Giio\viN(4 on the Zak IIivee, Cape Province. I'hotograph showing thrashiug operations — steam driven — and in the background a chaff stack of over 52 feet in height, from about 3500 bags of wheat. Plant Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st July, 1922. Name. Address. Cause of Quarantine. Extent of Quarantine. A. E. Todd Pietermaritzburg Red Scale All citrus. N. S. van der Mcrwe... Wellington Red Scale All citrus. .J. S. Rossouw... Wellington Re i Scale All citrus. C. F. Marais Wellington Red Scale All citrus. Badcof-k &; Cunningham Uitenhage Red Scale Whole Nursery (citrus). liovedale Institute ... Alice Red Scale Lemon stocks. V. P. Long Clumber ... Red Scale Whole Nursery (citrus). .S. B. Bartlett Clumber ... Red Scale Whole Nursery (citrus). F. N. Tarr Bathurst Red Scale All citrus. E. Krohn Pretoria Pernicious Scale | White Peach Scale - Part Nursery. Ross Scale ) D. A. English & Co. ... Pietermaritzburg Red Scale Lemon stocks. R. Mason & Son Pietermaritzburg Red Scale Lemon stocks. Different Methods gf Curing Tobacco. 131 DIFFERENT METHODS OF CURING TOBACCO. By J. DU P. OosTHUiZEN, M.Sc. (Agr.), Assistant Chief, Tobacco and Cotton Division, and Manager, Experiment Station, Rustenburg. At the present time tobacco growers find themselves confronted with an over production, not only of inferior grades of leaf, but also of certain types, such as tobacco suitable for pipe and roll. For a number of years there existed a good demand and, consequently, a ready market for all these types, and even the inferior grades found a quick sale. This demand stimulated production to such an extent i'hoto Inl J. du P. <). Variety Plots. that last year approximately 18,000,000 lb. of leaf were produced in the Union. This quantity is considerably more than our local consumption, and naturally affected the demand. In addition to an over production, a large percentage, unfortunately, of that year's crop consisted of inferior or low-grade leaf. This poor quality was partly due to the unfavourable weather conditions experienced during the season and partly to the present methods adopted in the growing, curing, and handling of the crop. Thus, with an over production, and the imposition of an excise duty, there has been no demand for inferior grades, and only a fair demand for the darker types of tobacco. It must be emphasized that there has been an over production not alone of inferior leaf, as has been rather frequently stated recently, but also of the better grades of dark tobacco. The best grades of pipe and roll tobacco in their respective classes, and for their particular 5a 132 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. purposes, may be just as good as the best grades of cigarette leaf for its particular use; tlicrefore those types suitable for pipe and roll cannot under any circumstances be considered as inferior or low-grade leaf. Up to the present we have nearly always found a good demand for leaf suitable for tlie manufacture of cigarettes ; even to-day this demand exists. Soil and climatic conditions affect the quality of leaf very considerably, and in most cases the type of tobacco produced is decided by these two factors. Now, in a number of our larg-er tobacco- producing districts we have suitable soil and climatic conditions for the production of cigarette leaf, but with the present methods employed during the curing, a very large percentage of the crop becomes unfit for this jiurpose. Given more attention to the manuring and fertilizing of tobacco lands, suitable varieties, better and more improved methods of curing the leaf, a much higher percentage of this type of leaf could be ]n'odu('od in tliose districts. Firld (,f Piet Rctic'E Swazio. I'hotv Inj ,/. (h, i: O. Further, statistics show that there is a tremendous increase in tlie world's consumption of cigarettes, consequently an over production of this type of leaf will stand a much better chance of being profitably sold on exportation than in the case of a surplus of dark leaf. It would, therefore, seem advisable to encourage tlie production of leaf suitable for the manufacture of cigarettes. By thoroughly uJiderstanding the different changes which actually take place in the leaf during the curing process, and carefully study- ing the different methods of curing tobacco, the grower will be able to produce a better quality of leaf and also a higher percentage of cigarette leaf. Curing. The term " curing " implies something- more than the mere drying out of tlie leaf. During the curing process a number of changes take place in the coiupositiou and properties of the leaf. These changes are both ]ihysiological and chemical. DiFFEKEM Methods of Curing Tobacco. The cllemical chang-es are biouglit about by highly complex protein forms called enzymes, the resultant activities of which give changes responsible for the texture, aroma, and colour of tlie finished product. Yet all these changes can easily be stopped by subjecting the tobacco to unfavourable conditions. For instance, if the ripe leaves are quickly dried out with heat they will become worthless, and will not possess any of the properties characteristic of cured tobacco, or should the tobacco leaves be bruised or subjected to extremely cold temperatures, none of these changes will, nor can, take place. Thus the grower must su regulate tlie curing of his tobacco that the leaf must go tbrough a process of gradual starvation. When the leaf is thoroughly ripe, it will have accumulated a certain amount of surplus food and will continue to \i\e until all this food is used up. It is during the starvation period, if the conditions under which this takes place are favourable, that a considerable Cfuantity of the starch so accumulated will he broken \i\) into sugtirs by one Variety Plots. l/'/H>i0 //// J. (hi P. 0. type of these enzymes called diastase. The protein-content of the leaf and the nitrates also decrease during the curing of the leaf. The former is accomplished by the proteolytic enzymes, and the latter may be due to the reductases. Another notable change during this period is the disappearance of the green colouring matter, chlorophyll. The tobacco leaf when harvested contains from 70 to 80 per cent, of moisture, most of which is lost during the curing. The rate of drying must be so regulated that this moisture is given oft gradually, otherwise the results will not be satisfactory. The two chief factors which control the rate of curing in such a way as to change the undesirable properties of the green leaf into the desirable forms so much sought after in the cured leaf, are heat and moisture. It is for this reason, if a suitable building is used for <;uring tobacco where these two factors can he artificially controlled, that such a high percentage of cigarette leaf can be produced. 134 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. MkTHODS of d'HING. As has been staled above, the conditions of soil and climate affect the quality of leaf to such an extent that in most cases they decide for which purpose the tohacco is to be used, and also determine the niethod of curing. With our wide differences of soil and climatic conditions thoughout the areas where tobacco is grown, and also the different tastes and demands for the different types of tobacco produced under these varying conditions, four different metliods of curing tobacco are in vogue. These are : Air-curing, flue-curing, sun-curing, and fire-curing. The following table shows the largest tobacco- producing districts in the Union, the methods used for curing, the types of tobacco, and the percentage of cigarette leaf produced. Production in lb. Types of Tobacco Est. Average Percentage of Method Area. of 191!) 20. 1920 21. + Produced. Cigarette Leaf. Curing. Magaliesberg, including Rus- r),:-}9.'),2(»o 8,. 500,000 Pipe, roll. 1.5 18 per cent. Air-cured. tenburg, Kruaeisdorp, and Brits, Groot Marico. and cigarette Scheerpoort Oudtshooin 1,S3(5,!»0(> 3,000,00(1 Roll, pipe. and cigarette 10 12 Do. Vaal River Area, Vredefoit, 850,000 1,000,000 Do. 8-10 ■ Dn. and Potchcfstroom Pietfietiefand Hlatii^uln 600,000 800,00(1 Roll and pipe ■"' Do. Stockenstrom 440,000 600,00(1 Pipe and cigaietic 15-20 !'... . Western Province: Stellen- 3'.)(;,!)00 (;oo,oo() Turkish 100 Sun-cured. bosch, Paarl, Ceres, Cale- ciiiaretie don, Tulbagh The above tabulation is not given for (•(ini])arative i)urposes between the air and sun curing methods, as obviously all Turkish tobacco is manufactured into cigarettes, but to give an tipproximate idea of the percentage of cigarette leaf produced in the Union. Air-curing. This method of curing tobacco will be discussed first, as it is the oldest, and by far the greatest portion of the tobacco crop of the world is air-cured. Practically all the tobacco produced in the Union is so cured. By air-curing is meant the curing of the tobacco without the use of artificial heat, or, in other Avords, the tobacco is allowed to go through a natural process of curing. There are really two stages to be observed in this method. The first stage commences after the matured leaf is harvested and hung in the shed, and ends at the disappearance of the green colour, which is replaced by a lemon- yellow colour. During this stage of curing it is essential that the rate of drying be .so regulated that the leaf will not cure out too quickly nor too slowly. If the leaf is dried out too quickly, it will remaiii green, be lifeless and chaft'y, and practically useless to the trade. Ou Census returns, 1920. t Departmental estimate Different Methods of Cuki.nc; Toii.vcco. 135 the other hand, if tlie rate of drying is too slow, the curing will be carried too far, which will affect the colour, and may even cause *' house-burn." It is during- this stage that most of the starches are converted into sugars by diastase. The most favourable temperatures for the first stage of curing, that is the gradual starvation of the leaf, are between 80° and 100° F., with a relative humidity of about 85 per cent. The most important and noticeable change during the second stage of curing is in the colour of the leaf. In most cases the leaf will lose its yellow colour, and a red or even dark colour will take its place, caused by certain enzymes called oxidases. If the atmos- phere is very moist, as is very often experienced during a continuous rainy spell, the leaf will lose its red colour and the tobacco will cure out dark, which will reduce the value of tlie leaf. If the moisture Field of South. [Photo Inj ./. dii r 0. is excessive, house-burn will follow, further reducing the value of the crop. In order to get the best results, the moisture should be reduced during the second stage of curing and the rate of drying hastened. A careful study of the underlying principles of curing tobacco, as outlined above, explains the varying results obtained in different seasons. If the season is a very wet one, only a very small percentage of leaf suitalde for the numufacture of cigarettes is produced, and if the rains continue for any length of time, the crop is seriously damaged. On the other hand, if the season is very dry, the tobacco just dries out, retaining its original green colour, and is more like hay than tobacco. The grower is at the mercy of the elements. In a good season, a fairly high percentage of bright and light red tobacco is produced in the Transvaal by means of this method, but. unfortunately, ideal seasons for curing do not come very often. The result is that every year the grower suffers serious damage and great 136 Journal or the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. loss financially in beiug unable to maintain proper conditions during the curing- of his crop. By making use of heat and moisture, some of these losses can be avoided, even where the tobacco is air-cured. A great percentage of the cigarette leaf which turns dark can be saved by building small charcoal or coke fires, at the critical stage of curing, in the barn below the tobacco during a long wet spell. The heat Avill have the effect of drying off the surplus moisture, which will prevent the curing from going too far with an excess of moisture, and will thus save the colour and, moreover, will reduce the dangers of house-burn. In a favourable season proper ventilation without these fires will have the desired effect. Here the moisture evaporating from the surface of the leaves will saturate the air in the shed, but by ventilation the moist air is removed owing- to the circulation of air. During' wet , J'hoto hij J. dii P. O. Tobacco Field, showing seedheads covered with paper baus. weather the air will become saturated in the shed and outside, and ventilation alone will not be suificiently effective. The beneficial u.se of the artificial heat is now apparent. By raising the temperature in the barn by 20° F., the moisture-holding rapacity of the shed is doubled, and by keeping the temperature inside the shed about 20*-' F. higher than outside, together with just sufficient ventilation, the elements can l)e controlled and the curing of the barn will be successful. Again, in a very dry season, moisture, mIucIi will })reveut the leaf from drying out too quickly, should be applied on the floors of the sheds during the first stages of curing. Then the leaf will not simply dry out into a green colour, but will be properly cured. The green colour will be changed into a lemon-yellow colour, w^hich may be fixed or may cure into a light red or red, depending on how the moisture is drawn off. Different Methods of Curing Tobacco. 137 Different Kinds of Sheds Used in Air-curing. — There are three different types of sheds in use in the Union. Each type is named after the kind of material used in buikling, e.g-. brick, corrugated iron, and grass sheds. These sheds are usually cheaply and simply constructed, and are certainly not as elaborate as the air-curing sheds found in the Burley section of Kentucky, The results obtained in these three different sheds over a period of five years are given below. It will be seen that, if anything, there is a slight advantage in favour of the grass slied. At the same time it must be pointed out that, in wet weather, the tobacco will be apt to cure out a dark colour in the grass shed. In very dry weather the tobacco generally cures out too rapidly in the corrugated iron shed, and the leaf retains too much of the green colour. In a wet season the corrugated iron shed usually gives better results, as no surplus moisture is absorbed by the roof. [Phofo hn J. du P. O. Nicotiana rwstica and Piet Retief Swazie. Thus, when the weather becomes more favourable, the rate of drying out, which is very essential after or during such a spell, is faster than in the grass shed. On certain types of soil the tobacco yellows on the land, as, for instance, the turf soils in the Rustenburg District. Tobacco from these soils will usually cure out a better colour in the corrugated iron shed than in the grass shed, as in this case the curing must not be delayed but hastened. The results from the brick barn were very good in favourable seasons. If this barn was smaller, so that the whole barn could be filled in one or two days, much better results would have been obtained by proper ventilation, and during a wet spell the use of artificial heat would help tremendously. 138 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Shed. Percentage Percentage Percentage Bottfim Leaf. Dark Leaf. Cigarette Leaf. I'.llfi 1917 IJrick IS- 8 3-7 72-9 I ron 1 5 • S 14-3 ■ (59 -8 Grass H-:{ .s-7 7()-9 l'.>17 I91S Brick 19-S 4 5-4 34-0 Iron 19-5 rt'>- rt 2r.-o Grass 17-4 4 4-3 38-0 1918 HH9 Brick 21-() 24-3 51-0 Iron 13-n oS-4 2S • 4 Grass 22-1 35 • 1 42-7 1919-1920 Brick 22-8 30-4 40-8 In 111 13-0 31 •(> 56-0 Grass 13-5 30 • 9 55 •« 1920 1921 Biick 15-7 71-9 12-4 Iron 23-4 (;o • 1 ir..5 Grass 14-7 7?i-3 ID-d For air-curing, Joiner, Sterling-, Yellow Prj'or, and Piet Retief Swazie are to be recommended. Tennessee Red nlsfi gives a high l)ercentage of cigarette leaf, but it has a veiy thick midrib which, in a wet season, retains some of its original sap, and wlien packed in bulk will cause the bidk to go mouldy. The following table gives the percentages of cigarette leaf obtained from six varieties over a period of three years : — Variety. 1918-1919. I 1919-1920. [ I'.H'O 1921. Average for Three Years. Joiner .■) M 60-0 14-7 42-93 Sterling... 47-7 .-2-0 10-H 36 • 7fi Tennessee IJeil ... 49-/ 58-8 15-8 41-43 Yellow Prvnr ... 40-.-) «l-2 5-(l 35-5(1 Bullion 21 -S 28-0 9-0 19-6(1 Improved Ciarksville ... 28-2 3G-2 12-3 2.=i-5(; The method of harvesting tobacco also influences the rate of curing and, consequently, the percentage of cigarette leaf obtained. The three difterent methods practised are whole-stalk, split-stalk. and priming or jjicking the individual leaves. For air-cnring, tlie first method is commonly practised in the Union. The following table gives the results obtained at the Rusteiihurg Experiment Station for two seasons : — M( ^thod. Season. Total Wei gbt. Perceutage Cigarette Leaf. Split-stalk 1918 1919 492 lb 41 -(W Whole-stnik 1918-1".(19 471 „ 4(;-49 Primed ... 1918 1919 302 „ .-.1-49 Split-stalk 1919 1920 128 ,. 40-1 Whole-staik 1919-1920 134 ,. (;3-i Primed ... 1919-1920 ISC) ,. 71-1 S()!it-stalk 1921 1922 69 „ 30-4 Whole-stalk 1921 1922 49 ,. ()9-.S Primed ... 1921 1922 49 .. 89 - 7 Different Methods of Curing Tobacco. 139 Sun-curing. This method of ciiiiug has been practised iu a few counties in V^irg'iuia, and the type of tobacco produced is known as " Virginia sun-cured." There is not a great deal of difference between sun- curing and air-curing. In neither system is artificial heat used to hasten the curing. In the Union all the Turkish tobacco is sun-cured, although the system adopted here is slightly diff'eient from the one in Virginia. Formerly the tobacco known as Virginia sun-cured was exposed to the sun for several days immediately after harvesting, and w^hen the leaf had readied the proper stage of curing, it was taken to a barn more or less similar to the air-curing sheds used in the Burley section of Kentucky, in which the curing was completed without the use of artificial heat. When the tobacco was harvested, the plnnts were [Photo Inj J. (Itl P. (). Brick Shed. hung on sticks which were placed rather closely together on the scaf- folds in the open for u period of from three to four days. As soon as the proper stage of yellowing was reached, the sticks of tobacco were moved farther apart for a day or so, then removed to the barn, where curing was completed. The. barns were so ventilated that they could be closed during wet weather, or at night-time, and opened during dry weather or day-time. These scaffolds were usually built ch se to the barns so that the tobacco could be easily moved into the shed during rainy weather. Although this method is still practised by some growers in the sun-cured belt, air-curing as described above is the more common method at the present time. The method of sun-curing Turkish tobacco in the Western Province is slightly different. In the first place, the leaves are primed (picked separately) as they mature from the bottom upwards. The 140 JouKXAL oi- THE DE^ARTME^■T OF Agkicllture. — AuG., 1922. leaves are then strung" on reeds by means of long" steel needles, and the string containing the leaves is tied on to the reeds at several inter- vals to prevent sagging. The reeds of tobarro are then hung in a wilting room until the leaf assumes the proper yellow colour, taking from two to four days. It is very essential to have the right amount of moisture in the barn in order to get the best results. The relative humidity must be about 85 per cent. The hygrometer is used for this purpose, and the dift'erenre between the dry and wet bidbs should be 3.5 degrees. If more moisture is needed, wet grass can be placed on the floors, the walls sprayed with water, or the wilting room can be opened during nights and closed during day-time. As soon as the tobacco has yellowed properly in the wilting room, it is removed to the drying camp, where it is hung in scaffolds exposed to the sun and open air. For the first day or two during very hot weather the leaf should be covered bv means of hessian or crass. [Photo h;i J. ,hi P. O. CdiTii'/ated Iron Shed. i>fter which the covering is removed, and the leaf left until it is thoroughly cured. J)uriiig rainy weather the tobacco must be covered. When thoroughly cured the tobacco is brought into case and bulked. Sun-curing improves the flavour and aroma of tobacco. The Virginian sun-cured tobacco is chiefly used for chewing, and the Turkish sun-cured for the manufacture of cigarettes. FlRE-( UEI>G. This metlujd of curing is practised almost exclusively in Western Kentucky, Tennessee, and Central Virginia. It differs from the two previous methods in that artificial heat is used during the process. Small open fires are built of logs beneath the tobacco on the floor of the barn. The smoke from these fires gives the tobacco a peculiar and distinctive aroma. As this type of tobacco is mostly produced on a DiFFEREXT Methods of Curi?s*g Tobacco. 141 heavy soil, containing a higli percentage of clay, it usually cures out a dark colour, altliougii most growers attempt to get a good, rich cherry-red colour. The cured leaf has good body and is heavy. Most of this type is exported to Germany, England, Spain, Italy, and Austria. The tobacco plant must be topped low so as to force the growth of the remaining leaves, causing all the leaves to grow larger and thicker, and the tobacco will take on a dark colour on the land. The chief varieties grown for fire-curing are the Pryors, Yellow Mammoth, and the Orinocos. The barn or shed used for fire-curing is usually about twenty feet square. They were first built of logs, but recently they have been replaced by more up-to-date frame buildings of fairly large size. For the first fcM- days after the sheds are filled no artificial heat is used. If the atmosphere is dry, the tobacco should be crowded closely together during the first period of curing. On the other hand, if the Grass Shed. [ I'luifd hij J. (In P. (K weather is cool and damp, crowding the tobacco is not to be recom- mended. Building a few small fires in the barn to maintain the temperatures at from 85° to 90° F. would help materially to bring about the colour changes. As soon as the tobacco has taken on the proper yellow colour, a number of small open fires are built at various places on the floor of the barn, and the temperature gradually increased and maintained at about 95° F. until the tips of the leaf begin to turn a brown colour or dry. Too much heat at this stage of curing will scald the tobacco^ thus reducing the valvie. The fires are increased and the temperature- gradually raised to 125° F. It is very seldom necessary to keep the fires going for longer than from four to five days. This method of curing tobacco has also changed somewhat. Formerly it was the custom to stop the fires after the surplus moisture was driven off, and as soon as the leaf began to drj-. When the barn- 142 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. was fool the sap from the stems aud midribs became uniformly dis- tributed throughout the leaf, and after a few days the fires were restarted, and this practice of stopping- and restarting the fire was' repeated until the leaf was thoroughly cured. Flue-curing. As in fire-curing, artificial heat is also used in this niethcid. Instead of open fires, however, the artificial heat is distributed in the barn by means of flues or large pipes which also carry off' all the fuel gases, so that the smoke cannot come in contact with the tobacco. Log or wood fires are built in one or two fairly large furnaces, built in the wall of the barn, and extending both to the outside and inside of the barn. The heat generated passes through the system of flues placed in the barn. I'hofii hti P. Kor/i. Mill -curing Turkish 'I'obiicoo. This type of tobacco is produced on a large scale in the eastern districts of South Carolina, in the northern and eastern districts of North Carolina, and in Southern Virginia. This method of curing has recently been introduced into Georgia, where it has met with great success. In South Africa practically all the flue-cured tobacco is produced in Ilhodesia. In the Union the tobacco farmers have not yet taken to this system of curing their leaf, althougli from results obtained at the Rustenburg Tobacco aud Cotton Experiment Sta- tion as far back as 1911, it was clearly shown that it can be done successfully in that district. Below is given the results of three barns cured during the present season. The tobacco was grown on norite turf, and the total acreage from which the tobacco was picked con- sisted of just under one acre of Joiner and one acre of Sterling. BiFrKRENT ]MkTHOUS OF CuRING TOBACCO. 143 „ . Weight Weitiht variety. Bottoms. , Dark Lwif. Weight Cigarette Leaf. Total Weight. Percentage Cigarette Leaf. Joiner Sterling Joiner k; 7 1 1 (5(5 '. 408 91 ' 878 62 538 490 IC.9 -.95 83-2 jjer cent, 80-C) 89-0 In curing tobacco by this method, the chief aim of the grower is to obtain a yellow colour, which, generally speaking, controls the value of the leaf so cured. There are several conditions necessary for the successful curing. The principal of these are: — (1) The right type of soil, and (2) proper management of the curing. In addition to these, careful attention must also be given to the kind and quality of manure or fertilizer applied to the land, and [I'holii Inj l\ Kork. Sun-curing Turl^isli Tobacco. harvesting the tobacco at the proper stage of ripeness; moreover, the acreage of tobacco must be large enough to provide sufficient leaf of more or less the same texture and ripeness for filling each harn. The most typical soils are light sandy soils and sandy loams with subsoils containing small proportions of clay. Norite turf, which is distinctly clayey, is an exception. This type of soil, although black and clayey, also gives good colour under air-curing conditions. The varieties found most suitable for flue-curing in the States are the different strains of Orinocos such as Big Orinoco, Little Orinoco, Gooch, and the Pryor group such as Yellow Pryor. In Rhodesia, Goldfinder, South, and Hester give good results, while at the Expe- riment Station, Rustenburg, Joiner, South, and Yellow Pryor have proved very suitalde. There are two ways of harvesting tobacco for flue-curing. The first system consists of splitting the stalk from the apex, cutting it 144 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. off a few inches below the split, and laying- it astride a lath. In the other method the leaves are picked as fast as they ripen. The bottom leaves will ripen before the others, and these are picked first. Gene- rally from three to four leaves are removed from each plant at each picking^. The leaves are taken to the barn, where they are tied on to the sticks, by means of twine, in bunches of from three to five leaves, alternately on opposite sides until the stick is full. [Photo hij ./. ,ln l>. (). P'lue-curins); Barn. It is very important that the tobacco should be thoroughly ripe at the time of harvesting. Such tobacco is usually very rich in starch, but lacks colouring matter, due to the nature of the soil selected for the production of this type. Hence the tobacco usually takes on a yellowish colour on the land. If the soil were too heavily fertilized with a nitrogenous fertilizer, the tobacco would have a dark green appearance on the land, and it would be almost impossible to cure it into a lemon-vellow colour. Different Methods of Curing Tobacco. W: In flue-curing the aim of the grower must be to hasten the yel- h>wing of the leaf under conditions so favourable that all the desir- able changes in the leaf will take place in as short a time as possible. ]Jut when all these necessary changes have occurred, and the leaf has taken on the proper yellow colour, the curing must be so regulated that the second stage in air-curing, that is, when the leaf begins to dry, the red colour must be prevented. The barns used in flue-curing are generally small. The inside dimensions are from 16 to 24 feet square, and from 16 to 20 feet in height. No deflnite formula can be given for flue-curing, as so much depends on the type of tobacco grown, the nature of the soils on which they are grown, and the prevailing weather conditions during the curing of the tobacco. The most important factors in controlling the rate of curing are heat and moisture, and with these of course ventilation, and in order to cure a barn successfully these factors must lie so regulated that the leaf can take on its proper yellow colour, after which the colour must be fixed so that no further change in colour can take place. It shoidd not be very difficult to flue-cure a barn successfully if the different stages which are to be observed in this method of curing tobacco are carefully explained. If the whole plant is harvested, there are four such stages, namely : (1) yellowing ; (2) fixing the colour; (3) drying the leaf; and (4) drying the stalk. If only the leaf is harvested, then only the first three stages are to be icckoned with. Although the split-stalk method of harvesting tobacco is still preferred in the western portion of the flue-curing belt in the States, the general tendency is to harvest the individual leaves as they ripen. Yellowing. — It is very essential to have the barn filled in one day, otherwise the tobacco may not all yellow at the same time. As soon as the barn is filled with tobacco, a thermometer and an hygro- meter are hung on the lower tier near the centre of the barn, and the door and ventilators closed. A small fire is then started in the furnace. The fire must be gradually increased, as it is essential to maintain a moderate temperature during the yellowing of the leaf. During this stage of curing the temperature must not be allowed to exceed 120° F., for at that temperature the leaf is quickly killed, and no further change in the colour or properties of the leaf can take place. It usually takes from 30 to 48 hours before the leaf is properly yellow. It is therefore advisable to raise the temperature gradually uj) to 90° F., where it is kept until the tips and edges of the leaf show signs of yellowing. The fire is again increased until the thermometer registers 95° F., where the temperature is maintained until the green colour disappears and the leaf takes on a pronounced yellow colour. From 9 to 12 hours after the fire is started the hygrometer will begin to show its utility by indicating that there is not sufficient moisture in the barn for successful curing. If no artificial moisture is supplied, the tobacco will dry out a green colour. If the moisture is insufficient, the difference in temperature between the dry and wet bulbs of the hygrometer will be more than four degrees. Artificial moisture must at once be furnished. Water is usually sprayed on the floor and walls below the tobacco, and sometimes wet bags are placed over the flues. 146 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Sonietiiiies the tobacco lumping immediately above these wet bath 5 a.m. S2 84 84 80 29 K.P. and J.v.H. Clear and calm. 6 a.m. 83 85 84 SO 29 J, „ 7 a.m. 8.5 S6 86 83 30 . I.S.N. ,, 8 a.m. 8.V5 86-5 87 83-5 30 „ 9 a m. 84 86 S7 83 30 ,, ,, 10 a.m. 84-5 86-5 88 84-5 30 A.V.H. 11 am. S.5 87 S8 84 30 jj 1, 12 a.m. 8G 88 88 85 30 „ 1 p.m. 87 89 90 87 31 „ 2 p.iii. 89 91 91 88 32 „ „ 3 p.m. 90 92 92 89 33 ,j 4 p.m. 91 93 95 91-5 34 )' 5 p.m. 92 94 95 92 34 j^ B p.m. 94 95 97 93-5 35 G.M.L. „ 7 p.m. 94 95 96 93 35 ,, „ " 8 p.m. 94 95 96 • 93 35 „ „ 9 p.m. 94 95 96 93 35 „ „ ,. 10 p.m. 94 95 96 92-5 35 „ lip m. 94 95 96 93 . 35 „ „ 12 p.m. 94 95 95 91-5 35 „ 30tli 1 a.m. 94 95 96 92-5 35 „ „ „ 2 a.m. 94 95 96 92-5 35 „ ,, 3 a.m. 94 95 94 90-5 35 „ ,, 4 a.m. 94 '.15 95 91-5 35 ., „ 5 a.m. 94 95 95 91-5 35 „ ,. tj a.m. 94 95 95 - 5 92 35 „ „ 7 a.m. 94 95 96 92 35 „ 8 a.m. 94 96-5 98 95 36 „ „ 9 a.m. 97 99-5 101 97 38 „ ,, 10 a.m. 98 100-5 103 99 38 „ 11 a.m. loo 102 105 101 39 „ „ 12 a.m. 100 102 105 101 40 „ !> 1 I'.n). 103 105 105 101 40 J. „ ]] 2 p.m. 108 no 113 108 42 P.K..J.V.N. „ ,, 3 p.m. 108 no 113 107-5 45 „ „ ,j 4 p.m. 108 no 110 119 45 „ ,j h p.m. 113 115 115 107 45 ,, 6 p.m. 114 115-5 115-5 104 45 ,, Moisture withd i a wn . 7 p.m. ll.T 116 45 W.B.E.S. Clear, slight breeze 8 p.m. 11.5 116 45 „ Began ventilating. "^ y p.m. 116 118 — — 46 ,, Clear, slight breezi-. 10 p.m. 114 116 — — 45 „ „ 11 p.m. 114 116 — — 45 ,, ,, „ 12 p.m. 119 120 — — 47 „ 31st 1 a.m. 119 120 — — 47 „ ,, 2 a.m. 119 120 — — 47 „ „ ,, 3 a.m. 119-5 120-5 — — 47 jj „ ,, 4 a.m. 119 120 — — 47 „ „ ,j .5 a. ID. 119 120 — — 47 „ „ ij a.m. 119 120 47 J, ,, " 7 a.m. 119 120 — — 47 G.L. and S.W. Clear and calm. 8 am. 119 120-5 — 47 „ „ ,j 9 a.m. 124 125 — 50 „ .. ,, 10 a.m. 125 126 — — 50-5 ,j 11 a.m. 124 125 __, — 50 „ „ J, 12 a.m. 124 125 — — 50 „ .J 1 p.m. 126 127-5 — — 51 • 5 „ „ ,, 2 p.m. 128 130 — — 52 ') ., 3 p.m. 128 130 — — 52-5 „ „ !) 4 p.m. 131 132 — — 54 » 50 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Thermometer. Hygrometer. ' • Date. Hour. tx ,_1^ Signed. Kemarks. *>/L:iit. .Max Min Dry. . Wet. -list ') p.m. 130 132 54 G L. and S.W. Clear and calm. „ (> p m. 133 134 - 55 ,, , ^j 7 p.m 133-5 135 -- -- r,6 K.i'..).v.H. J ^. 8 p.m. 133 135 -- .__ 56 , ,, 9 i).m. 134 135 — — 56 J J, 10 p.m. 133 135 — -- 56 ,. 1 1 p.m. 133 135 — — 56 " „ 12 p.m. 134 136 — — ilO 1st 1 a.m. 138 140 — — 57 .• , ,j 2 a.m. 144 145 59 ,. 3 a.m. 147 149 01 ('losed hott. vcuc. ,. 4 a.m. 1 53 155 — 03 1 'lear and eahn. .T fi.m. 158 160 — — 70 ^. Uediice top vent. ,, G n.m. 1.58 !60 — -- 71 ,, < 'aim and clear. „ 7 a.m. 1.58 160 — 71 I'.K.A.K. „ , 8 a.m. 1.58 160 — 71 ,, ^, ,, i) a.m. 158 160 — - 71 „ 10 a.m. 159 161 — 71-5 Clear, sligl.'t breeze. ,, 11 a.m. 1.58-5 100-5 — — 7' -5 „ „ „ 1 2 a.m. 158 160 — — 71-; „ I p.m 157 1.59 - - 70-5 ,. 2 p.m. 158 100 -- -— 71 E.S.dul". Windy and clear. „ 3 p.m. 158-5 160-5 — 71 J, „ 4 p.m. 157-5 159-5 — — 70-5 „ ,, .5 p.m. 1.58 160 — ,. _ 71 „ ase ; they are more or less oblong in outline, square at the base, and ending in a pointed apex, quite devoid of hairs, dark green above, and a paler green beneath. The flowers which are borne in the axils of the leaves are a creamy white and sweet smelling. The seed pod is a large green egg-shaped fleshy body up to 6 inches long, and over 2 inches in diameter at the base, with a deep grove on one side. The seeds, which are about ^/^ inch long, end in a long tuft of silky hairs. When the fruit is ripe it splits down one side, and the seeds may be carried by the wind long distances from the parent plant. There is no record as to when this plant was first introduced into South Africa, but from reports received from time to time by the Division of Botany, it has undoubtedly spread over most of the Union, and has also been recorded from Swaziland. The plant is a very prolific seeder, and as the seeds are so well adapted for wind distribution, it is no wonder that it is spreading so rapidly. As the plant is a climber there appears to be little danger of it invading the natural veld, but there is every possibility of it becoming a nuisance in plantations, and it certainly is a nuisance in gardens. The writer has seen poplar trees in Pretoria covered with Araujia sericifera, and if it is allowed to grow un(diecked will probably smother them. This article is merely to sound a note of warning as to the poten- tial danger of the plant as a weed. It certainly should not be delilier- ately cultivated as an ornamental plant, and Avhere plants are grow- ing' it will be advisable to destroy them. 153 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. Readers who know this plant in their areas, are requested to for- ward specimens O.H.M.S. to The Chief, Division of Botany, Box 994, Pretoria, so that the present area of distiibnlion may he carefully mapped for future reference. Araujiii scrh-ifcrti. Brot. Irrigation. 153 IRRIGATION— ITS RELATION TO CROP YIELDS. SOIL, AND "BRAK" (ALKALI). By H. W. Turpin, B.A., M.Sc, Ph.D., Lecturer on Crops, Groot- foutein School of Agriculture and Experiment Station, Middel- burg, Cape. By irrigation is understood the artificial application of water in order to ensure steady and profitable yields where the natural precipitation is deficient in total quantity or is unfavourably distributed. The \eed fqr Irrigation. — If we study the rainfall of the world, it will be noted that about 25 per cent, of the earth's surface has an average precipitation of less than 10 inches, while some 30 per cent, receives from 10 to 20 inches. In other words, about 6-lOths of the earth's surface has less than 20 inches of rainfall. In the classification of areas according to the precipitation, those receiving less than 10 inches are said to be " arid," while the parts getting 10 to 20 inches are spoken of as " semi-arid." It is in the arid and semi-arid regions that irrigation is primarily required, although there are some humid areas whose yields may be improved by the application of water on account of the unfavourable distribution of the rain. Water Requirements of Crops. — The question may be asked why it is that an area having an average annual precipitation of, say. 10 to 20 inches requires the artificial application of water in order to produce annually a profitable crop. The answer is simply this : On an average a crop, say, of mealies requires about 600 lb. of water to be transpired (passed out through the leaves) for every pound of dry matter produced. Now, of the rain that falls on any particular piece of land, a certain amount is lost by evaporation, some by '' run off," some by percolation through the soil, and what remains in, or is retained by, the soil alone is useful to the crop in the production of dry matter. We may safely assume, for experiments have proved it, that under certain conditions 50 per cent, to 60 per cent, of the rainfall is lost in one or the other of the ways mentioned above, so that out of a 15-inch rainfall we can only reckon on about 6 inches or less on which to mature a crop. (The principles of dry farming make for the retention in the soil of the greatest quantity of two seasons' rainfall for the use of one crop. In other words, the soil l)ecomes the reservoir of the dry farmer, just as dams are the reservoirs of the irrigation farmer.) The equivalent of 6 inches in terms of tons of water per acre is roughly 680 tons, which is a quantity of water just about sufficient to give approximately one ton of dry matter per acre. In the case of the mealie crop, this will mean about 5 bag> of grain and 12 cwt. of stover per acre, which can scarcely be regarded as a paying proposition, seeing that it will cost around £2 per acre to produce this crop. This illustration shows why, in arid and semi- arid regions, it is necessary to supplement the natural precipitation with artificially applied water. It has been estimated that, when all 154 JOUKNAL 01- THE DEPARTMENT OF A(iKI( L i/1 UltE. AlG., 1922. irrigation scbcnies have been perfected, only 1-lOtli to l-otli (jf the arid and semi-arid lands will be under inioation. showinji that it is not the available surface of land that will restrict the further extension of irrigatJon, but the lack of water itself. Tliis means that every effort should be made to obtain the biggest possible yield per unit of water used. This point will be referred to later. Since so large an amount of the earth's surface can never be brought under irrigation, it will remain for the dry farmer where possilde to render productive the rest of the arid and semi-arid lands. Irrigation mul Drjj Fan/iuig. — Irrigation and diy farjiiing must go hand in hand in bringing the thirsty desertlauds to productivity, for by applying the principles of dry farming to irrigation practice the biggest total yield per unit of water will be obtained and the best and .safest utilization of the available water supply will be made. Plant Grou'tli and Irrigation. — There are some five essential factors in the growth of plants, namely, oxygen (from air), water, food, temperature, and light. There must, of course, also be no injurious or harmful substances. In order to get the best response to irrigation water, it is necessary always to study the factors given above. Perhaps some of us have wondered at the nuuvellous response of our crops and the veld to a shower of rain, whereas a similai quantity of water applied artificially in the normal way may result in hardly any response at all. The words of the late Professor F. H. King will be read with interest in this connection. He says: " The ideal application of water to a field is realized completelj- in the gentle, continuous rain which falls at just the rate which permits each drop to enter the soil where it falls without ever saturating completely any portion of the root zone above its caj)illary capacity, but carrying all parts of it up to that limit. If any method of apply- ing- water to the field is devised which can approach this ideal in all its effects upon the soil, a vast increase in yield will be possible and a large increase in the duty of water will be secured. With such a method of distributing water expeditiously and economically, many more acres of land in the arid regions could be reclaimed and most ■of the losses from seepage and alkalis would be avoided." The reason then why the rainfall results in such a I'csponse would seem to lie in the fact that the soil does not become saturated, which means that the air (containing oxygen) is not all driven out of the soil, thereby ■depriving the roots for a time of one of the essential factors in their growth. The rain also contains, as a rule, a larger quantity of oxygen dissolved in it than does irrigation water. This oxygen will help to take the place of that driven out of the soil by the water. Another explanation is found in the effect of a large quantity of water applied at one time to the surface of the soil. Effect of Water on the Soil. {a} Un the size of the soil particles : Soils formed under arid and semi-arid conditions are largely only slightly altered rock-powder containing varying quantities of organic material. When irrigation waters are led on to such soils certain changes take place, due largely, to the action of water and carbon- dioxide on the feldspars. As a result, the particles become partly Irrigation. 155 broken down into clay (hydiated aUiminium silicate), lime, and sodium carbonate (especially where the soils are of doleritic origin). The action of irrigation water is partly then to fine down the soil, making it more clayey, and frequently to cause the production of carbonate of soda, a substance that tends to deflocculate the soil granules, making the soil more or less impervious to both air and water. (b) On soil granules or aggregates of soil particles : A normal soil has its particles aggregated into little crumbs composed of fine and coarse particles. These crumbs are porous, and capable of holding a large amount of water in the capillary (useful to plants) state. When water is allowed to stand on such granulated soils, the tendency is for the crumbs to break down into separate particles, so that when the water dries up the soil no longer has its desirable crumb structure and, as a result, tends to become cloddy and difficult to work. This condition will be made worse if sodium carbonate he present, for this substance also tends to break down the crumbs. It will be noticed, then, that the application of a large quantity of water tends to bring- about a condition of the soil in which the soil particles become more closely packed together, not in aggregates or crumbs, but as individuals. The soil having the granular or crumb structure will have more space (pore space) than the soil in which the particles function as individuals, for in the former not only is there space between the crumbs, but the crumbs themselves are porous. This means that water will penetrate more readily into such a soil, for the pores in this case are large between the crumbs, and every one knows that water will enter and replace the air in a bottle more quickly when the bottle has a wider mouth. This fact is of importance in irrigation practice, as water standing on the surface for some time tends to bring about the injurious effects on the soil in the manner previously described. A method that permits of water standing for some time on the land during irrigation is very far removed from the ideal principle laid dowu by Professor King. One should not over- look the fact, too, that just as it takes longer for water to penetrate into soils having their physical make-up injured by excessive applica- tions of water, so will the entrance of air into such a soil be slower. The air in the soil becomes charged with carbon-dioxide, due largely to the action of soil organisms. This accumulation of carbon- dioxide is at the expense of the oxygen in the soil, so that unless a rapid exchange can take place between the soil and the atmospheric air, the plant is likely to become unthrifty owang to the lack of the essential oxygen. Virgin soils, as a rule, have a fairly good structure, so that the irrigator must see to it that he does not ruin the physical condition of the soil by the improper use of water and thereby render the soil impervious, and so cut off the oxygen supply of the soil. This brings us to the methods of applying water to the soil and the kinds of natural waters. Kinds of Irrigation Water. — The waters available for irrigation purposes may be classified roughly into (a) non-brak or non-alkaline, and (6) alkaline or brak waters. Non-alkaline waters may be further divided as follows : (1) Those carrying matter in suspension, (2) those free from suspended matter; while the alkaline or brak waters may be divided up thus : (1) Those containing sodium carbonate, (2) those 156 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. ^ — Aug.. 1IJ22. not containing' sodium carbonate. Wafers containing/ Jar;jc (imounts of i^oluhJc salts, not sodium carbonate : These waters can be used with safety only in lands which are naturally or artificially well drained, and when used in such quantities as to cause drainage throupfh the soil so that free water does not accumulate in the soil to be evaporated at the surface, there to deposit the salts dissolved in the water. These waters are only safe when the concentration of the salts in the water used is not such as to be injurious to the plant. The use of such water also requires that surface cultivation be practised largely in order to reduce surface evaporation to a minimum. The salts usually present in such waters are the sulphates and chlorides of sodium, calcium, and sometimes magnesium. These salts do not injure the physical condition of the soil when present in the concentrations usimlly found in natural waters. Waters no't very aUxtiliue : Waters containing' small amounts of salts iu solution can be used on most >oils, but care should be taken not to use large quantities, particularly on soils having poor natural drainag'e, for where the drainage is poor, and larg'e quantities of water are used, the water accumulates in the soil, and having no other means of escape than by surface evaporation or by being' used by the plant, a large quantity is lost in the former way. with the result that the salts contained in this water become de- posited at the surface and there accumulate until the soil becomes so brak as to injure plants. The irrigator who uses saline water must be most careful to see that the natural drainage of the soil is good. If the drainage is poor, he should improve it artificially by means of tiles or open furrows. Surface evaporation must be checked as far as pos- sible by cultivation or by growing a perennial crop, such as lucerne, which retards evaporation by shading the soil. If slightly alkaline waters are used reasonably so as not to accumulate in the soil, and if surface evaporation is largely checked, then there is no great danger. Most people use more than enough water and do not trouble about surface evaporation. Waters containing sodimn carbonate : If an analysis of the irrigation water shows the presence of carbonate of soda — even in small quantities — it should be used with the utmost precaution, and then only on the more sandy soils, for on heavy soils the deflocculation due to the sodium carbonate will, in a few years, bring about such a breaking down of the physical condition of the soil as to preclude the growth of crops at profit. The injurious action of sodium carbonate is not confined alone to the breaking down of the soil granules and thereby retarding the rate at which water and air penetrate the soil — it also corrodes the plant-stem when in high concentration, and dissolves the organic matter in the soil. N012- alkaline icaters containing suspended matter : These are largely flood waters. Flood waters, whether stored in dams or turned at once on to the land, usually contain a fairly large amount of suspended matter made up largely of silt and clay. When such waters soak into the soil they leave as a surface crust a deposit of this fine material. This crust when dry is frequently almost impervious to air and water, and unless stirred may smother the plants, as it were, or prevent penetra- tion of water later on. This fine silt is undoubtedly beneficial to sandy soils; on heavy soils the silt may tend to clog up the pores of the soil, so that muddy waters must be used with discretion on such soils. At any rate, harrowing or cultivation will be essential to break Irrigation. 15T the crust so soon as this silt has Ijecome dry enough to \y()rh. A'ou- muddy, non-alkaline waters: ]3y these are meant fiesh waters, incliid- ing- those that contain calcium carbonate and bicarbonate in solution. These waters can be used on all soils without injury, provided they are not applied in such quantities as to l)ring about secondary injurious effects. No matter how " fresh " a water may be. it cannot be used excessively without risk, as will be seen later. MetJiods of Applijinfj Water. — The two chief methods of apply- ing water to the soil are (a) by flooding and (/>) by furrows, with various modifications of these. In choosing the method to use in applying water one should consider the soil, the quantity and quality of the water, and of course the crop. In the case of a perennial forage crop such as lucerne, the flooding method has most of the advantages, for the crop shades the soil most of the time, thereby preventing surface e\aporation. Then, again, the lucerne crop can stand very severe cultivation without injury, so that deposits left by muddj- waters on the land can be broken up. Cultivated crops such as mealies, mangels, potatoes, sugar-beets, etc., could with advantage be irrigated by the furrow method, for this method has the following advantages: — Less water required: As a rule, less water will be required to irrigate a certain area liy means of the furrow method. The ideal principle in furrow irrigation is to apply a stream of just sufficient strength to reach the end of the furrow without any over- flow. Less 7cork once the land is furrowed: After the irrigation fur- rows have been drawn (this can be done as a rule with a doubie-mould- board plough), it is a simple matter to control the water distribution. Less loss of water by evaporation : Since only about one-third of the surface of the soil is actually wetted, it is obvious that the evaporation must be less in the furrow method. Then, again, it is much easier to establish a mulch over the wetted portion of the soil by cultivation where furrows are used. Water penetrates wore readily into the sod : We all know that if we wish water to enter readily into an empty tin through a hole in the top, the Ciuickest way to accomplish this is to punch a second hole in the top of the tin and to keep one hole above, while the other is placed under the surface of the w'ater. The former allows the air that is being replaced by water to escape readily. If there were only one lioie, then the air escaping would have to bubble up thrcmgh the water entering the tin. The same principle holds when irrigating by the furrow method : the air being replaced passes out through the ridge between the furrow. This means also that as the water in the soil is used up by the plant roots atmospheric aii- can readily enter to replace the water. In other words, furrow irriga- tion facilitates the movement of air and water in the soil. This is a very important consideration where, as in heavy soils, the supply of oxygen in the soil often sets a limit to plant growth. Less danger that hrak or alkali will accwmidate at the surface : Since furrow irri- gation retards surface evaporation, there is less likelihood of an accumulation of brak at the surface. Largely prevents formation of crusts on surface : Some soils clod and cake badly after being irri- gated. When only a small part of the surface is wetted as in furrow irrigation this crusting is largely overcome. Better growth of crops : On heavy soils, particularly, it will frequently be noticed that the most vigorous plants are those grown on the edge of the bed. This 158 Journal or the Department or Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. can l)e explained partly by the fact that the plant has more space in which to develop and also by the fact that the soil does not become so compacted by irrigation waters on the outside of the beds so that air containing oxygen can enter the soil more readily and a better root system can be developed. In the furrow method the soil is kept more or less loose and friable all the time. The t.i/pe of soil is of importance in choosing the method of applying water to the lands. Sandij soils : Sandy soils should preferably be irrigated by the flood- ing method unless the water is very scarce, for in such soils the idea should be to retard the rate at which the water enters the soil. By Hooding tliis water quickly over the surface the air cannot escape very readily, and therefore prevents the water from entering too rapidly. If the furrow method is used on sandy soils, the water will soak away at the upper end of the furrow unless the slope be very steep or unless a very strong stream of water be turned into the furrow. In either case there will be considerable danger of washing and forming " sloots." Ilie nature of the water: Waters that will not Xif'netrate into the soil readily can best be applied by the furrow method, for if such waters are applied by flooding they will tend to stand over the whole surface of soil and thereby In-ing about injurious effects on the soil and the crop. Water and Crop EELATiONsriiP. In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to point out the physical relationships between soil and irrigation waters. A few notes will now be given on the relationship between the crop and irrigation waters. (1) Optimum Moisture for Plant Growth. — It has been found that most crops grow best in a soil containing 40 to 60 per cent, of the maximum capacity of the soil to hold water against gravity. This maximum capacity is attained when the soil has about 90 per cent, of its pore or air space filled with water. This pore space makes up about 30 to 40 per cent, as a rule of the volume of the soil in situ, so that the volume of the soil occupied by water at maximum capacity will be 90 per cent, of 35 equals 31.5 per cent, filled with water. Now 40 to 60 per cent, of 31.5, say 50 per cent, of 31.5, equals 15.75 per cent, of the volume of the soil in situ, should be filled with water in order to get optimum water-content for plant growth. In a foot section of soil we shall, therefore, need 15.75 per cent, of 12 inches equals 1.98 inch of water. In other words, in order to raise a perfectly dry soil to optimum moisture, where the pore space is 35 per cent., we should have to apply the equivalent of 1.98 inch per foot depth of soil. Soils normally contain moisture in them at the time that it becomes necessary to irrigate so that we can reckon on about the equivalent of an inch or more in each foot of soil at the time of irrigation. In order, therefore, to bring the soil to optimum moisture for plant growth about .75 inch will probably have to be applied for each foot (in depth) of soil that it is desired to moisten. To wet a soil six feet in depth we shall require ,75 x 6 = 4.5 in. at each irrigation, whereas to wet a soil that is only two feet deep will require 1.5 Inch. Obviously a deep soil can receive heavier irriga- tions at longer intervals than a shallow one in order to raise the soil to optimum moisture-content. This means that the water will be Irrigatiox. 159 iised more economically in the deep soil, for it has been deiinitely proved that the loss of water from the soil by evaporation is much ■greater than from a free water surface where the surface is kept more or less constantly moist by too frequent irrigations. For example, Fortier, working in America, found that, where the surface of the soil was kept constantly moist, 4.75 inches of water were lost per week as against 1.88 inch from a free water surface. This only goes to show how desirable it is to choose a deep soil so that the lands may be irrigated at longer intervals, thereby reducing surface evaporation to a minimum. Let us consider now the cjuantity of water used per season and the crop yield. (2) Quantity of Water and Yield. — Those familiar with irriga- tion practice know it is an established fact that the crop yield is not proportional to the quantity of water applied, decrease in yield jnay often accompany further increase in water supplied above a certain point. This point where decrease in yield is first observed will depend largely on the type of soil, for crops are mucli better able to stand heavy applications of water on deep porous soils than on heavy imper- vious clays. In the accompanying tables are given some data which bear out the point mentioned. Tliese data are taken from certain of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station publications. A study of Table I will make clear the fact that the yield of a crop is not proportional to the quantity of water applied. At first the increase in water results in a fairly large increase in yield. Later on, however, when the water is increased from, say, 30 to 50 inches per acre, the addition of twenty extra inches results in only a Aery small increase, and in some cases, e.g. in the mealie. we have a decrease in yield. A glance at the yield of crop per inch of water applied makes the point even more clear, for the table shows that there is a very rapid decrease in the yield of crop per inch of water as the applications become greater. This means that the crop uses the water less economically when it is heavily irrigated. Besides this, there are the dangers, already enumerated, to the physical conditions of the soil, and to these we must add the extra danger of " brak." In Table II we see that a given quantity of water applied to a small area of land produces about one-third the total yield of dry matter that is produced by the same quantity of water spread over four times the area of land at the rate of a quarter the quantity of water per acre. This is undoubtedly a point worthy of consideration in the arid and semi-arid sections, where water and not land is the limiting factor in plant growth. The available land is much greater than the available water, so that yield per inch of water should always be the first consideration. It is not to be assumed that on all farms results similar to those given in the tables will be obtained. The results there reported were obtained on a very deep well-drained soil. On shallow or impervious soils the decrease in yield following large applications of water would be even more pronounced. The decrease is to be accounted for, probably, owing to the fact that the larger quantities of water tend to replace and exclude air to a great extent so that one of the essential factors in plant growth, namely, oxygen, becomes deficient and limits or restricts further increase in yield. Again, the lack of oxygen results in an increase in the activities or reduction of anaerobic bacteria, with the result that a substance 160 JoiHXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AuG., 1922. such as the nitrate essential to plants is reduced to injurious nitrite, and others such as ferrous compounds are formed from the non-injuri- ous ferric compounds. It is no wonder then that excessive quanti- ties of water frequently result in a falling off in yield. Table I . Vield uf Crops icith Different Quantities of Water. Wheat Yield. Maize Yield. Lucerne Yield. Quantity of Water n Inches. Applied 1 I'er Acre. Per Inch of "Water. Per Acre. Per Inch of Water. Per Acre. Per Inch of Water. );ushels Grain. Bushels Giain. Lb. Hay. 5 :S7-5(i 7-56 -- — — — 7 -.5 4) -54 (> • 89 79-14 6-1 — — 10 43-5.^ 4-:55 89 ■ 52 5-8 9884 988 L5 45-71 3-().o 93-93 4-6 7546 503 2.5 46-46 1 • 8() 99- 1« 8-3 9354 374 30 — 97-12 2-7 8840 295 ■So 48-55 1-39 — — — — 50 49-38 •99 — 10,813 216 55 — — 96-78 1-4 — — Table II. Yield of Crop in Dry Matter from 30 ineltes of Water applied to ONE ACRE and from 30 inches applied to FOUR ACRES at the rate of 7.5 inches per acre in latter. Kinrl (if Crop. Thirty Indies spread over One Acre. P'our Acres. Ratio. Lb. Lb. Wheat fi.'.i51 22, ISO 3-19 Mealies ... 1.5,294 43,028 2-81 Lucerne S,133 32.072 3 94 Sugar- Beet 10,271 28,264 2-7o Potatoes 3,660 10,920 2-98 Quantity of Water and Crop Composition. — It has heen found that the quantity of water used has an ajjpreciable eft'ect on the crop composition, and may be summarized as follows: — Large quantities of water bring about an increase generally in the ash, carbohydrate, and fibre. With smaller quantities of water protein percentage in- creases and there is a greater proportion of grain to straw, while the flavour and cooking qualities of crops like potatoes are improved. When we reflect on the many advantages to be derived from a judicious use of irrigation water it is hard to believe that the farming public is so poorly informed that the use of large quantities of water in irrigation is the rule and not the exception. I have yet made no special reference to the damage done to land by alkali or brak formed because of the improper use of water. Irrigation. 161 Brak and Irrigation Relationships. Wlieii rocks become weathered into soil a certaiu amount of soluble substance is formed. Part of this soluble material is useful to plants. jNTow in regions of abundant rainfall most of these soluble materials are washed out of the soil and carried by percolating waters into the natural drainage channels (the rivers), and thence to the sea. In the arid and semiarid regions the natural precipitation is not sufficient to bring about this leaching- out of soluble substances. There the water passes down ;i short distance into the soil, where part of it is taken up by plant Kxjts, while a small amount rises to the surface and is evaporated. Soluble substances tend to accumulate, therel^'ore, iu soils of jjry ipg-ions, with the result that man finds these soils very productive when first he starts to irrig-ate. Frequently the yields start to decrease ;ifter a few years. Let us inquire into the reason why this decrease lakes jdace on irrigated lands. We shall find usually that the diop is due either to the deterioration of the physical condition of the soil, due largely to the use of excessive quantities of water, or to the accumulation of brak or to both. AVhen the farmer applies only medium quantities of fresh water to an arid soil containing the usual amount of soluble material, he cannot run much risk of causing the soil to become brak, provided he cultivates the surface or grows a crop like lucerne, both of which will tend to reduce evaporation. Usi; of large quantities of fresh water : What usually happens, though, is that the farmer, believing that yield will be proportional to the quan- tity of water applied, uses excessive amounts of water at frequent intervals and pays no heed to the drainage nor does he troal)le much about surface evaporation, (a) Where drainage is poor: If ihe water ill excess of that sufficient to satisfy the maximum capilbny capariiy of the soil is unable to escape into some natural drainage channel, it accumulates as free water in the soil and rises into the root zone, with Ihe result that deep-rooted"" plants like lucerne are drowned out, as it were. Also, on account of the surface soil being more or less kept con- stantly moist, a large quantity of water is evaporated at the surface, leaving behind the soluble materials that have been dissolved out of the soil. As time passes this accumulation of sails at the suiface becomes so great that the plants are injured. The water-table rises close up to the surface, and as a result of these two the soil is more or less ruined. Use of large quantities of allmline or hrak water : If under the above conditions brak water be used, then the time taken to injure the soil will be much shorter, because the salts already contained in the water are added to those dissolved out of the soil, so that brak accumulates more quickly. If the brak water contains carbonate of soda, not only do we "et accumulations of brak, but also the rapid destruction of the desirable crumb structure of the soil, with the result that the soil becomes moie or less puddled, so that even air and water can penetrate only with extreme difficulty into the soil. Here the complete ruin of the soil would be brought about, (h) Excessive use of fresli water where the sail lias good vnderdrainage : The danger in this case is that associ- ated with the Ineaking down of the desirable crumb structure of the soil and the leading out of solulile [ilant food materials. But while the injury to the farmer using ex<-essive quantities of water i.i:i\ not I(i2 JOUII.NAJ- Ol' TllK Dlil'AjriMKNT OF AcrUICU LTUKE.— AuG., 1922. l)e so great in this case, there is no knowing Mhat untold daniage niay he done to the farm lower down where, perhai)s, the water that drains from the upper farm appears as seepage water — there to deposit on evaporation the soluble materials leached out of the soil and to cause waterlogging. E.vcesaive use of aJlahne irafei-s icJiere the sod is iccll drahied : It is essential when using " hraTc '' water that suffi- ciently large quantities he used to cause underdrainage, and one must check surface evaporation ])y cidtivating. In this way a coucentia- iion of soluble material in the soil will be prevented. It is to be noted that the water used must never have sufficient soluble matter in it to injure plant growth. The danger, of course, in this case is to tin; farmer below on whose farm the salt-charged waters may appear. When alkaline waters are iised in quantities not su^citmt to '-ause drainaije, it stands to reason that the soluble materials not taken up by the plant must accumulate in the soil and later on injure plant growth. Excessive use of water in soil having a high vater- table : If we apply large quantities of water to the soil and the free water drains through the soil to the natural water-table, the table must rise, unless there is a means whereby the rise is prevented, say ^ome natural drainage channel. The rise of the ground-water may result in the water reaching the root zone, especially of deep-rooted plants, with the result that the plants are drowned. If the ground water be brak, then accumulations of brak will result at the surface, due to the evaporation of water that has risen to the surface capil- larily from the ground water. Brak may also be the outcome of the following: (a) Leaky furrou-s: The canals that lead from the reser- voir always lie at some distance above the land to be irrigated. Should these furrows be leaky, then the water seeping through the soil and dissolving soluble material may strike an imper\ious layer, say of clay, and flow along this layer to appear lower down at the surface, there to evaporate and deposit salts, and so ruin valuable irrigable land. (6) Leaky dams and reservoirs : The same thing happens when the dams are not water-tight. I have seen a salt-mine below a storage reservoir! The salt was deposited where the percolat- ing waters appeared at the surface below the dam after passing through salt-charged shales. This land was once used for the produc- tion of crops. It is to-day, as stated above, a salt-mine ! The farmer who owns low-lying land in an irrigable valhy must always run the risk of having his land rendered useless by neighboui's who use exces- sive quantities of water higher up in the valley. Here again I can say that I have seen thousands of acres of low-lying rich valley land ruined because the farmers immediately under the irrigation canals, higher up, used water to such an extent that their drainage water appeared on the farms below, which became brak and waterlogged. 1 am not going to make recommendations regarding the reclaiming of alkaline lands, for that is beyond the scope of this paper, and besides I consider that prevention is better than cure. If all farmers will use their water sparingly, and will see to it that their lands are well drained naturally or artificially, I feel sure that most of our irrigation problems will disappear. We have seen how the misuse of water by one fai-mer may be tlie ruin of his neighbour. It is essential, therefore, for irrigation farmers to work togetlit'r. I have seen ht, therefore, to close this article with the f ollo\\ ing (|Uotati(iii : " The nature of irrigation is such as to bving itjto cjose lUKtliATlO.N, Mvi social relatiuiisliii) iLe peui)le liviiijj;' under the same canal. A common interest binds tliem tooether. ... If the canal breaks or water is misused, the dangler is to all. In the distribution of the water in the hot summer months when ihe flow is small and the need g'real, the neig-hbour and his rights loom large, and men must gird themselves with the golden rule. The intensive culture which must prevail under irrig-ation makes possible close settlements, often with the village as centre, (^ut of the desert, as the canals are dug, Avill come great results of successful experiments in intimate rural life; and out of the cohununities reared under irrigation will come men who, conlident that it is best, can unflintdiingly consider their neighbours' interests with their own ; and who, therefore, can assume 'eadership in advanc- ing a civilization based upon order and equal lights. The environ- ment of wise inigation farming compels the belief that of all kinds of fainiing it may be the most enduring." (J. A. Widtsoe in "Principles of rrrigatioii i'ractice." ptige 47(1.) li" I'ippicrles, flleii School a 3 y- 0) IJ 0) cS ^ cS H cQ V3 03 -Z H ^ ^ H ;?; 0 0 H H-. Ht^ Bast Coast Fevur 2 13 4 1!) 212 Mange (> — •> — -_ 8 272 Anthrax ... .06 4 11 22 28 121 l.'^oT Dourine ... _ — 3 — 3 oO Glanders ... ... — 1 — 1 2 s Tuberculosis — — 4 — — 4 10 Epizootic Lymphanjiitis — — — — ~~ 1; 6 a 154 JOL'KNAL Ul' THE J )i:r AKTMKM 0¥ A(^V:)^.^'i;'" ^y^i^' Hrrkshiie Boar -'liittle John," No. 18U57. (Jhampion nt tlir Society of England Show, 1915. il A'ji-ii-iiltiii'al smaller grains, such as barley, rye, etc., are more avaihihh', ami consequently more extensively used. (h) Breed Characteristics. — The head is of medium size and the face broad, open and gracefully, but not excessively, dished. The jawfs should be stout and prominent. A crooked or badly formed jaw is an imperfection. The neck is short, with a well-developed crest in the case of boars. The ears should be erect, of medium size, and ii'inged with soft silky hair. Distinctly drooping- ears, or ears hanging wide apart are undesirable. However, a slight inclination forward of the ears is not objected to. The shoulders should be obliquely placed, and should not show up too prominently. There is a tendency in Berkshires for the shoulders to be rather wide and coarse, a characteristic which is g-radually being bred out. However, in the U'A) .)(»( HAAi, oi' Till-; J)b;i'.\KTMi;N'i oi- xiuujcii/ruKE.- — ^Ai (;., 191:^2. case of Aged hoar8, a strongly devolopcci shield should not be
  • rriini- iiated ag-ainst. The back should b(> of f?ood length, showing a strong level top line. The ribs should bo well sprung and Avel] let down in order to give g'ood width and depth of body. The bjin should be wide, level, and stiongly muscled, and the nunp t'(|ually well develoi)e(l in these characteristics, and, in addition, should be well lounded off. The hams should be i)lump, broad, and well let down into the hocks. This is one of the noted characteristics of Berkshires, as is also their compactness, which is the result of excel lent deptii and width combined with good length of body. The flanks, both fore and lear, slionld be deep and well let down, so as to make a c/iini)aratively straight and trim underline running pai-allel to the top line. The legs and feet should be short, straight, and set not only well under the body, bnt also wide apart. In-bent knees or deformed legs of any kind are imperfections. The posterns should be medium in length ( "hiimiiioii ami top-priccii' animal al tin' iierkuhire i'ig Society Sliow and Sale, England. 8he realizefl .S20 guineas. Sho typifies the present -day standard taconers. For the production of porkers, the Berkshire is to be ranked in the first flight. Bred and exhibited by Mr. Arthur Hiscnck. Age 8 months 27 days. Combined wei-ht 682 lb. In South Africa the Berkshire (boar) Large Black (sow) cross has been used extensively for the production of baconers, and has been attended with highly satisfactory results. The reciprocal cross has also been practised, but is not recommended for the reason that it is less profitable owing to the lack of prolificacy in the Berkshire sow as compared with the Large Black sow. The progeny of the above cross have proved, excellent doers, and have scaled over 200 lb. at 8i months of age when they are ordinarily dispatched to the bacon factory. There is no doubt that the Berkshire boar has contributed very materially to the success of this cross, particularly in so far as development of ham, firmness of fieshing, and quality are concerned. in e slightly or not at all discoloured. Potatoes which are badly diseased may shrivel up 1o half the natural size, are softer and less nutritious than normal, and not desirable for human consumption. The presence of the worms in the * "Potato Culture," by G. J. Bosman. published in .Tuly. 1922, issue of the Jonrna Common Potato Pests. in Boots of Cucumber Plant, showing Swellings caused by _ GalUovm, Root- Knot, or Eelworm. Approxirnaroly naluval size. 172 JuuiiKAL oi HIE Dki'aktmknt of Agriculture. — Aug., 1922. tubers also aft'eets the keepiuf^' properties; iut'ested tu})ers will not keep as lon<^ as healthy ones, and are more liable to destruction by bacteria] and fungous diseases. Life-liistoii). — The life-history of this worm has not \ et been complete^'y elucidated in South Africa, and need not be discussed here. For our purpose it will suffice to note a few points. The adult gravid females occur in the "trails" or "knots" of IIm' roots of infested plants; the irritation caused by their presence briuf^'s al)Out a rapid multiplication of the surroundino- cells, and this t'N'entnally leads to the formation of the root yalls. By nieans (d' a spear-like structure situated in the head-end of Uie hody the larva is able to pierce its way out of a root into the soil. There li may lie dormant for some time, and then seek out and penetrate another rootlet, or if conditions are favourable it may not abandon the root within which it was hatched, but may mi or less immune crops. (5) Avoid the use of seed-potatoes siiowing nodules. (6) Heavy applications of potash fertilizers often greatly reduce eelworm injury. Unless the soil already contains an abundance of potash, potatoes will respond well to such treatment. <7) In Europe trap-crops have been used successfully against a related species of gall-worm known as the beet-nematode (H. Schachtil Schmidt). It appears that few experiments have been conducted to, test the value of trap-crops against H. ladicicola, and these weie not. Common Potato Pests. 173 successful Wlietlier trap-crops are of any value under South African conditions is not known. Literature . — " Root-knot, Gallworms, and Eelwornis," by C. Fuller, Agricultural Journal of tlie Union of South Africa, Septem- ber and November, 1913; "Root Gallwonn,'' by R. Jack, Bull. 147, Salisbury, Rhodesia; "Economic Importance of Nematodes," by •1. Sandg'iuund, South African Journal of Science, July, 192.1. The Potato Tfbek Moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zell.). Tlus insect is widely distributed and is considered to be the mosi serious iusec1-]test with wbi(di the South Afj'ican potato-grower has to contend. Tbf birvac : Iso attack toliacco .-iiid the stiid\b1aar (IhiluKi strnnioniii )n) . Appearance of Infcslcd fofafocs. — 'J'he caierjtillars eal their \\a_\ into the tubers and sometimes work right to the heart t)f the jx'lato, while at other times they burrow just below the skin. The i)urr()ws, especially the openings to them at the surface of the tuber, are usually The Potato Tuber Moth. Adult Moth above ; larva below at right ; pupa at left, wit h sirle ■"lew of enlarged anal segment: all greatly enlarged. (After Ifotoiorl, f/'.iS. Dpptirtmenf of Aiiricnlturc.) marked by a quantity of coloured excrement. The eye i.s a ftivtuu ite place for the entrance to a burrow. Sometimes the tubers are only slightly injured, while at other times they may be entirely ruined. Life-history. — The adult is a small moth about two-fifths of an inch long, and with a wing- expanse of about five -eighths of an inch. It is greyish-brown in colour with obscure darker markings; the liind- wings, which are whitish in colour and fringed with long hairs, are hidden when the moth is at rest. The small shining white eggs are laid singly either on the tubers or on the tops, and when the cater- pillars hatch out they bore into the tuber, stem, or leaf, as the case may be. In the leaf the larva commonly burrows between the upper and lower surface, or it may fasten two leaves together and feed between them. When full-grown the caterpillar is about half an inch long and of 11 diiiy-white colour with a greenish tinge. It now spins a light silken cocoon, and within this it changes into a puptt. In storehouses the 17-i Journal oi-' the Uefaktaiem oy Xi^ eil i lti rk.—Xvo . , 195^. cocotins arc fiequeiitl y t'ouncl in the eyes of in)tatoes, because ihese torm convenient depressions. Crates, boxes, bins, and l)ags may also l)e plastered \\itli cocoons. In tiie field the pupae are often found just at the surface of the soil. Attei- about ten to twelve days the adult moths leave the j)upal sheatlis. Tin; peiiod if<|uired from the egg" to the adult is commonly fiom U-(S weeks, and iliere aie several genera- tions in a year, the numl)er varying- \\ ith the temperature. /loir iiiheis become Infested in the Soil.—'i'he female moths will o\iposit on any exposed potatoes which they may find in a field. They may occasionally reach tubers thiough cracks in the soil, and may ])ossibly reach tubers that are only slightly coA'ered. This, however, accounts for only part of the infestation. It has also been suggested that the larvae l)ore down thro\igh the steins of th(^ plants into the tubers, Imt this has beew shown to be incorre^-t. Most of the infetsta- tion is due to the hid that the larvae lea^e tlie to])s to bnrrow into the soil and thus enter the tulnTs. That the ^\ilting and dying of tlie toi)s cause the larvae to migrate to the soil is shown by the fact that in summer very few larvae do so \intil the tops begin to die. Cold weather also induces the laivae to migrate from the tops before they have begun to wilt. Control : Natural Enenties. — ^lany larvae an> attacked by small wasl)-like parasites {Omor()us phthorimaca Cnslinian) which hat(di out fi(UM the cocoons of the moth. Confrol: Artlficuil Method-'^. — (1) The larvae do most oi their feeding within the leaf or stem, and <>an therefore be caught with sprays only M'hen they l)ore their way into the leaf or stem. Experi- ment shows that sj)iaying is of little use in the control of the m<»th. (2) ^J'he most important control measure is compact hilling, i.e.. keeping the potatoes well ridged ami covered with soil after the blossoming period. ]\\ thus increasing the depth ot soil through which the lar\ae must burrow to get at the potatoes, many fail to accomplish their object. The correct time for hilling is just after the blossoming period, or in the case of late potatoes before the weather becomes very cold. (o) Badly infested i)otatoes should not be used as seed, but should be destroyed or fed to i»igs or sheej). (4) Prepare the soil well before i)lunting, antl plant the potatoes fairly deep, at least four inches. (5) Do not leave dug potatoes exposed in the held overnight. If they cannot be bagged innnediately cover them well with a sailcloth. Unmarketable potatoes (small and badly infested ones) should all be gathered up and fed to pigs or sheep. (G) Sort out infested tubers, and store the remainder in a cool room which is well ventilated and screened, ii possible, so that moths hom outside sources are unable to gain access to the uninfested potatoes. Literature.— "The Potato Tuber Moth," by AV. F. Schlupp, Ikdl. 4, 1917, Fnion T)ei)artment of Agriculture;'" The Potato Tulier Moth and its Control," l>v W. ^looie. Union Journal of Aoriculture, March 1912. Common Potato Pksts. T TnE Potato Ladybird Beetle (Ejrilachna clregei Mills.)- Many ladybirds are valuable friends of the farmer, since they render assistance in the control oE such important pests as scale insects and plant-lice. The present species is, however, a plant-feeder found all over the Union and in Rhodesia. It causes daniag'e to various crops, both the adult and larvae feeding on the foliage of the potato, pumpkin. vepetal)le marrow, cucumber, turnip, radish, melon, bean. })arsnip, spinacli, and wild solanaceous plants; the potato is its favourite food-plant. The presence of this insect in a potato-field is readily determined by finding" the spiny yellowish larvae or the adult beetles on the foliage. The adult is oval and strongly convex in form, each wing- cover having 8 or sometimes 10 buff spots. The ground-colour of the wing-covers is black, the iegs and the ventral slch* of the body being- buff. Life-history. — The female deposits from 75 to 110 yellow eggs in three or four clusters on the under surface of the leaves. After 7 to 11 days the yellow larvae hatch out {\i the atmospliere contains much moisture many eggs do not hatch) and are at first very incon- spicuous and gregarious in their habits. They are provided with long branched spines which are white immediately after hatching, but soon become darker. After the first moult, which occurs 10 to 14 days after hatching, the laiwae scatter over the plants ; they feed on the lower epidermis of the leaves, wliereas the adults usually feed on the upper. xlfter the lapse of 28 to 36 days the larvae are full grown and ready to puj)ate. For this purpose they seek sheltered spots on the food-plants, and, hanging themselves by the tail-end to a leaf, twig, or other convenient place, transform ijito yellow pupae. After 6 to 10 days the adults emerge from the pupal sheath. s. The complete life- cycle takes on an average 49 days, and there are two generations in a year. During the winter the beetles hibernate under the bark of euca- lyptus trees, stones and rubbish near gardens, and potato fields. Control. — Both larvae and adults are comparatively easy to con- trol because of their sluggish habits and the tendency whicli they have to remain on particular leaves until these are entirely skele- tonized. It is essential that spraying be resorted to as soon as the larvae have been observed on potato foliage, for in the early stages the young are very gregarious, and hence more easily destroyed than later, wiien they have scattered over the plants. Use arsenate of lead at a strength of 3 lb. of the paste or 1^ lb. of the powder for every 50 gallons of water, and endeavour to cover both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves with the spray. Instead of lead arsenate paris green could be used in the proportion of 1 lb. to 100 g-alJons of water, to which 2 lb. of slaked lime are added in order to neutralize any soluble arsenic which may he present, TAterature. — " Two Ladybirds injurious to Potato Plants," by P. -Tack, Bull. 158. Salisl)nrv, Phodesia. 176 fJoUKWAL 01<' THE I)EJt*AIlTMl!-M OF AoHKJL J.l UKE. AuU., 1922. THE CONTROL OF CODLING-MOTH IN PEARS IN SOUTH AFRICA. Dusting versus Liquid Spraying. By F. W. Pettey, B.A., Ph.D., Entomologist, Klsenbuig' Scliool ol Ao'riciilture and Experiment Station, Muldei-s Ylei. Introditction. The advantages of power dusting, when it is successful, are (a) rapidity of application, since dust may be applied 5 to 10 times more rapidly than liquid, (h) saving of labour, as it requires only two men, i.e. a driver and a manipulator, and (c) a comparatively lighter outfit than a spray equipment, which enables the fruit grower to work on steep hillsides or on low-lying ground immediately after a rain. Under Cape Province conditions it would have the advantage of enabling the fruit grower himself to apply the material to his trees, and early in the morning before the severe south-east wind interferes with operations. In dusting, there is no water supply problem, a decided advantage in manj' parts of South Africa, where orchards are on steep hillsides and where water is often scarce. The greatest disadvantages are the greater cost of material, and especially the inefficiency of dusting for the control of scale insects and other suck- ing insects, and peach leaf curl. Consequently, at the present state of dusting efficiency, an outfit for this purpose could only be a supple- ment to the spray machine. A power duster, were it successful, would be of the greatest advantage to the large fruit grower in enabling him to apply the insecticide to his trees in the required time, with practically five times less spray machinery. Comparatively cheaper hxboair and more expensive lime in South Africa tend to minimijje the advantages of the dusting method of control. In 1918 the writer considered that improved power dusting for the control of orchard pests had developed to such an extent in Canada and the United States that the time for giving it an exhaus- tive trial in South Africa had arrived (1). Through the enthusiastic support of the Chief of the Division of Entomology <;C. P. Louns- bury), suitable machinery was procured, and experiments Avere under- taken, based on the materials and methods reported to be successful in the control of codling-moth and scab in apples in North America. Mr. Lounsbury, in a letter to the writer in 1918. wrote : " I imported a Jumbo duster into South Africa when the dust craze struck the Ozark region about fifteen years ago, and some work was done with it at Meerlust." At that time, however, dust materials and machinery- were far from satisfactory. The paris green and lime were much too coarse, and the machinery- was not well adapted for dusting. Ackerman. in the California Bvlleti7i, Department of Agricul- ture, Vol. \1, No. 1, 1922, is Iho only scientist who hns ])nblishe(| The Cojs'rKOL oi-' Couung-Motu in I^eaus ix Solth Afuica. l77 records of oicliaid [)owei- dustiii<;- in tlie control of codling-iuotli in pears. Since the records present results of work conducted only in one season, the Elsenburo" lecords should answer nif)i'e decisively the question of the etHciency of dustin<>- under varyinj^- climatic condi- tions. Ackernian concludes that dusting- cannot be recommended as » 1 ll i;/^BO|^BB0BBI||IBBBpHJB3|^SBI J Hi H^i Fig. 1.— Power Dusting of Apples. fFroiii Cornell Bui. ."154.") The same kind of duster was used in the Elsenburg orehard, -^*^^^^B8 T^ k ^ 1 ^ ^ W^ Fig. 2. — Power Duster. an efficient method of controlling codling'-moth in pears in California. Four and live dust applications failed to control codling in Williams pears, whereas under similar conditions font licjuid sprays gave satisfactory control. Its -forKNAJ. ()1- J lU', Dlill' AIMMKM ()i- At.KK li/I I KK.- -AtM . . , \\)22. IN»\\ i;i; l)isji,N(i I'A^rir.Mi.N 1 . Ill the diisliu}^' leasts a I KLsenhurj;' u larg-e-typc L'o-lior>so-})uwer (luster Avas used (see Fig's. 1 and 2). The limo-sulphur, lead-ar.sonate ])()\vder, and deliydiated copper-sulph.'tlo used were of more than 'JOU luesli to the iiieh fineiie.ss, and free tioin niil. Tlie dusted trees consisted of plots of three roAvs in jicjll imd in lit'Jj, iind <(f (wo rows in 1922, and were handed for Iraj>pinj4' hir\a<', to avoid as much infestation as jiossihle in adjoining' spray plots, each of which con- sisted of at least three rows. Jlie trees selected for records occupied the middle of each ])lot. Ki.si I, IS (»!•' J"jX1>i;im.\ii;.n IS. Tahle i shows that, at lUsenhurg', ])()Mcr dusting' was markedly inferior to power spraying' in the control of codling-moth for three successive years. Table II demoustratevS that dusting was considerably less efficient than sjnaying- in the control of fiisicladium on Louise Bonne pears during" two seasons, and it Failerl to control codling"- moth in this variety. Tdhlr I. — J'oircr Di/sh/n/ versus Ltqiinl •'^pidj/i/ifj, Codliuji-innth Control. Plot. Ma'crials. Year. No. of Trees. , No of Applica- tions, Total Fruit - Wormy Fruit. Per cent. Wormy. Kiefl'pr 7'rc('.-i. * 1. Liquid 2^ lb lead arsenate paste, 50 f^als. water 1919-20 8 (i 2 SS5 1,226 42-0 2. Dust... 85 lb. liiue. 15 lb. lead arsenate 1919-20 •' <; 2,173 1,126 51-0 :\. Dust ... 85 lb. talc, 1 5 lb. lead arsenate 1919-20 W (•> 2,905 1,544 53 • 0 1. Lifjuid 1^- lb. lead arsenate powder, 40 qals. water 1920-21 3 i; 3,159 l'5i; s-1 •1. Dust... 85 11). lime, 15 lb. lead arsenate 1920-21 3 fi 2,0S0 (135 3O-0 I. liiquid 1:5 lb. lead arsenate, 40 gals, water 1921-22 3 '' 5,182 261 5-0 2. Dust... 85 lb. lime. 15 lb. lead arsenate 1921-22 2 7 3,294 1,209 36-0 Clicck ... None 1919-20 1 0 953 740 77-0 '.'heck ... None 1920-21 1 0 1,014 743 73-0 Chock ... None ' ... 1921-22 I 0 r,09 472 77-0 Diichesi -/; 'Ircfs. I. i.i(|uid 2\ lb. lead arsenate paste, 50 gals, water 1919-20 3 •'' 1,724 584 33-0 ■2. Dust... 85 lb. lime, 15 lb, lead arsenat e 1919 20 3 5 1 ,960 917 46-0 Check ... None ... 1919-20 1 0 798 589 72-0 Beurre Jlurdy Trera. 1 . Ijiquid \\ lb. load arsenate. 40 Kals. water 1920 21 3 •"^ 4,729 509 10-7 2. Dust ... 85 lb. lime, 15 lb. load arsenate 1920 21 3 •"• 2,401 981 40 -0 Check ... None 1920-21 1 0 578 397 68-6 * The comparatively high percentage of codling fur the season of 1919-20 was evidently due to a very small crop of pears in the orchard as a whole, following a large one. and to the failure of dusting and other questionable arsenicals tested. " TuJi COMKOi OJ^' CoULIXi-AIoTli IX pEAllvS IX SoUTH At'KlCA. iTU Table 11 . — Fower iJiistinfj versus Liquid Spraying, Codling-moth Fusicladiu m Control. and Plot. Malfi-iuls. Year. ■J. d ^2; C-, 1^ U- 3 .3^ ^- U 'if. Louise Bo line Tieex. 1 Dust... Copper sulpliatc, lime, lead arsenate l'J21 22 2 5 1,203 636 137 52.0 11-3 2. M(|ui(l T;ime, sulphur, It^iul ai'sen- atc 1921 22 3 .") 4,230 214 397 5-0 2-6 ;j. Liijuid Load arsenate, bordeaux 1921-22 3 5 2,224 179 109 7-3 4 • 0 (.'iieck ... Nunc l',»21 22 1 0 391 280 169 71-0 43 '0 1. I^iist ... Cupper sulphate, lime, lead arsenate 1919-20 a r> 3.83,^ 1.484 ■189 38-0 12-0 ■1. [lus^l ... Lime, sui(ihur, Ica^l arsen- ate 1919-20 3 •"' 1,3(;« 659 2N ISM) irvn '.\. I.i(Hiid Lead arsenate, burd^'aiix 1919-20* 3 ') 3,00.) 1,472 NO 49 -U 4-6 Check ... None 1919-20 1 0 1,432 S80 422 61-0 29-0 Note. — Plot 1 (dust) liad iwo api)lieatiuns ot* 12 lb. deliydrated copper-sulphate ])o\v(ler, j)lus S8 lb. lime, before blossoiniuo'^ 10 lb. of deliydrated coiJiiiM'-sulpbatf, ])lus 75 lb. lime, jdus I o lb. lead- ar.seiiate ])owder, for the first two codliii'^' upplical ions, and thre(> biter codlinf^- ayiplications of S.") II). lime, ])lus 15 lb. lead-aisrnalc |)o\\(ier. Plot 2 (dust) had t \\() a ppl ictit ions of veTv tine snlplmr before blossouiing", 85 lb. sul]tliur, phis 15 lb. letid-arseiiale powder, For the first two eodlinj^' ai)plieatioiis, and three later codliny- ;i |)pl icnt ions of (S5 lb. linit', plus 15 lb. Icad-tuseiiate. Plot 2 (litiuid) hud two foliag'e sprays of ('apex lime-sulphur diluted 1:45 before blossom in ji', lA lb. lead-arseuate powder in 50 "^■albjns Capex lime-sulphur, diluted 1:50, for the first two codlinj.;- sprays, and three later, consisting' of Ij lb. letul-arsenate powder in 40 gallons Avater. Plot 3 (liquid), 1921-22, had two apjdieatious oF bordeaux (4:4:50) before blossoming, 1| lb. lead-arsentite ])owder in 40 gallous bordeaux (4:4:40) for first tw^o codling sprays, and three later sprays of 1} lb. lead-arsenate ])owder in 40 gallons water. Plot o (liquid), 1019-20, had two applications of bordeaux (4:4:50) before blossoming, 2^ lb. lead-arsenate paste in 50 gallons bordeaux (4:4:50) for first two codling applications, and three later si)r;iys of 2^. lb. lead-arsenate paste in 50 gallons water. • Conclusions. I'he I'ilsenburg dusting experiments were efFected under favour- able weather conditions, early in the morning, often Avith dew on the foliage and fruit, when there was no wind, and no rain for at "The comparatively severe iufestation of codling in the 1919-20 fruit season was probably due to an abnormally small crop of fruit in the orchard as a wliule, and to a large- source of infestation from the dusted trees. 18(J tJoLKAAj. oi:' iiiii JJepaktmkm oi«' Agkicultuhe.- — Alg., i\)22. least seveial days followiiifi- applications, mid jjiactieall^' no rain at all after the first api)lication for codlino- control. Results. Ihere- foie, demonstrate conclusively tliat dustinf>' under South African conditions will not satisfactorily cc^ntrol codlinji-nioth and fusi- cladiuni on peais. The writer attributes this failure to the smooth nature of the leaf surface, and particularly to the surface of the fruit in comparison with that of apples, which often have a hairy or waxy surface, and to the fact that codling- infestation is severe and has three })roods in a season in South Africa. The violent south-east winds whi(di })ievail in the Western Province during- ilie truit season have a tendency to remove the dust fiom both fruit ;ind leaves, even if it is applied in the absence of wind. Mr. Dice>', of ()rchai-d Siding, who is to be commended for his progress in attempting' po\\er dusting- for (V)dling- control, found it to be a failure in both apj)le and pear orchards in 1920. Dusting-, however, will play an imj^ojlajit pari in the future in the control of insect pests. It is now used with g^J'^^al success in the control of tobacco, potato, strawberry, and cotton pests in America, and appears to be successful in the control of scab and codling"-nioth on apples where there is only one or a partial second brood of the insect each season (2). Dusting- of peaches for certain fungous diseases has been found to be as satisfactory as spraying- in the United States (2). The control of (-()dling--]noth in walnuts by dusting- is also receiving- attention in (^ilifornia. It is qtn'te possible that dusting- machinery and materials will be so improved in the near future as to extend this method of control considerably and even c l']x})losivt's AVorks, gave valuable assistance in having- the nnH<'rials especially |)iepared for these experiments. Litp:ratuhe Ci ikd. (1) Bulletins Xo. •"U-") and No. 8()9, Ag-ricultuial lv\])erinienl Station, Cornell University. "Dusting- as a Substitute foi- Sprax- ing-," by Whetzel and liJodg-ett, in Proceedings of Sixteenth Annual Meeting- of the New York State Fruit Growers' Association, January, 1917. " The Present Status of Dusting- Apple Trees," by Leonard, in Quarterly Bulletin No. 3, Maine Department of Agriculture, 1920. Numerous other references. (2) "Dusting versus Spraying of Apples," by Quaintance. in. the Jovrnal of Economic EntoiiioJui/i/, Vol. XIV, April, 1921. Keep your Journals \ The contents will be indexed every six niontJis and a copy of the index sent to each subscriber. Inquhues AN]) Rkpi.iks. 181 INQUIRIES AND REPLIES. SELECTED LETTERS FROM FARMERS. [HereLiinkr are a number of recent letters replied to by tbe various Divisions arul .Sl'IiooIs of Agnculture concerned. Tliey are selected for publicntion as being of interest to farmers generally in tbe localities affected. In eacb case tbe area only from wbich the inquiry emanates is given : as the replies must necessarily be curtailed, (hey will indirntc, when required, literalnro from wbich further information may be bad.] Globe Artichoke. Do/iiie, Cape. — Could you tell nie tlie lengtli of life of the (llobe and Spanish Cardoon artichokes? I have been going" in for the above plants pretty largely as a feed for stock in time of drought, being- under the impression that once planted they would last a number of years ; but a few days ag^o I was surprised to see in a catalogue that the Globe only lasted three years. Which is correct? The Horticulturist, Grootfontein, replies : The Globe artichoke is a perennial and will live for a number of years. When groAvn for culinary pui'poses, fresh ])lanting's are generally made every two or three yeiirs from stickers. (Head " Vegetable Garden," by Watts.) Gape Gooseberry. Addo, Cape. — Will you please inform me on the following- points: (1) Where can I get Cape gooseberry seed? (2) IIow deej) should it be sown? (3) How far apart should plants be in the rows, and the distance apart of the rows? (4) What soil suits it best? The Lecturer in Horticulture, Grootfontein, replies : (1) Capo gooseberry seed may be obtained from most nurserymen. (2) Seeds are generally sown in tins, picked out and transplanted when about three inches to four inches high and having about eight leaves. Seeds should be covered with about an eighth of an inch of fine soil. (-S) Allow three feet between the plants in the rows, and allow about four feet between the rows. In districts where they make con siderable growth they are sometimes planted a little further apart, as picking is a difficult process if planted too close together. (4) Xot very particular about soils, but " damp off " badly when young in badlv drained situations. South African Swiss Milk Goats. Heidelberg, Transvaal. — Kindly advise me on the matter of the lactation period of the South African-bred (grade) Swiss milk goat. Tlic Division of Dairying replies : Regarding the duration of the lactation period, a Swiss goat ewe will usually remain in milk, pro- vided she is well fed, until a few weeks of the time at which she is due to kid again, unless, of course, she is purposely dried off earlier, [i^2 -luLKNAI. Oi' TIIK J>liP.UtTME.NT Ob' AgKICULTUKE. AcG., 1922. Mildew in Cheese. (hiljo. S.-W. . l///ren«^trated the cheese while in th«! ciiriug-roum through rravks or other a])ertnies in the rind, and in this case tln> cuiing-room should be treated in a similar manner to that suggested for the making-room, pai-ticular attention being given to the shcdving. A c<'rtain amount of mould appearing on the (nitside of tiie cheese is not harmful or objectionable provided it is not in excess; in the lattej- case, wiping- the cheese daily with a cloth which has been wrung out in a weak scdution of fornmlin will act as a preservative. First Grade Cream. S(i,iulfl(ils, ('(ipr. — 1 am continually getting my cream " tliiuj j^raded '" hy the factory. What is the "cause of tliisP / /ir Li-clitifi in Dairijinii, (Tvootfanh-ux, rej)lies : A third Lirade fleam is caused l»y lack of attention to (deanliness in its production. Personally supervise the inilking process and carry the milking out in a cleanly mannei' and you will no longei- ])roduce " third grade ■cream." Head the bulletin " Why Cream Tests A'ary and }[ow to Produce a First (Irade Cream " (U.R. 82/1915), obtainable from the Editor. Af/nviillunil .lournal, Tnion Buildings, Pretoria. •' Sleepy Cream." Soniersfi fjasi, Cajx'. — Since the cold weather has started 1 have experienced great difliculty in getting my butter to " break." After turning the churn for about two hours the butter often still shows no signs of '" breaking." Surely this period is hjiiger than should be necessary. 7 he Lccfiner in Daiiijinij, Grootfonlein, replies: Your trouble IS probably due to one of the following causes: (1) Churn too full or not full enough. In winter always have the churn at least a third full, and not more than half full. (2) Cream too cold. In winter it is usually necessary to raise the churning temperature to Irom 56° F. to 62° F. Also time should be taken to ripen your cream until it has a clean sharp acid taste. Sweet cream takes much longer to churn and does not make such good butter. LNQOlIilliS AND Kl-:l'J,U;.-5. i8.'j Paralysis Tick. CradocJx, Cape. — -1 am losii)g- .several young- Merino lambs at present. They get a sort of paralysis and eventually die from starva- tion unless I put an end to them. My neig-hhonr has had cases amongst his blackhead Persian lambs. He declares it is a tick, and I am sending you a tick taken from a blackhead Persian lamb. The Lecturer in Yctcrindrjj Science, Grpotfontein, I'eplies : The condition described by you is probably t^.— When sliould sows be weaned of tlieii' litters and why? Tlie Principal , Ehenburg School of Agriculture, replies : When breeding on commercial lines it is best to adopt the practice of weaning' your litters at eight weeks of age. By so doing, it will be possible to obtain two litters per year from each sow. This practice will be attended with success only when provision is made for teaching the youngsters to utilize sucli feeds as separated milk and pollard at an early age. (Jrdinarily, sucklings will commence utilizing sucli feed at three to four weeks of age, when a creep should be provided in one corner of the sow's pen. A small shallow trungli should be used to put inside the creep, and a mixture of pollard and separated milk in the proportion of one to four by Meight can be fed at llir beginning. In this way the litter will not prove such a drain on the sow, in consequence of which she will be in fair condition by the time her pigs are weaned at eight weeks of age, and therefore likely to settle again in pig within a couple of weeks of weaning. It is also a good practice to sprinkle a handful of soaked mealies about the pen, so that the youngsters can learn to find their own food, and be able to utilize their ration best when weaned. If, however, one is breeding pure-bred stock, and particularly if primarily for show purposes, better results are obtained by weaning the litter at ten to twelve weeks. According to this system, it is customary to have but three litters in two years. - There is no doubt that the longer the litter is allowed to suckle, the greater is their development and promise for show and other purposes, but it is the more expensive of the two systems. Read " Pigs and Piggeries," Bulletin No. 2, 1919, obtainable from the Editor, Journal of A (jriculfurc. Price -id. Worms in Chickens. Paarl. — Please let me know a simple and effective remedy for worms in chickens. The Principal, Elsenburg School of Agriculture replies : A simple method is to put a few drops of Kerol in the chickens' water from the time the chickens hatch, just sufficient to show the water has been treated. If the worms still show from four weeks upwards, dip all the grain in a 5 per cent, solution of Hycol and dry it out, after which feed. Be careful to keep your chickens on perfectly clean ground. Do not on any account run them where worms have l)een known to infect them. The above remedy has been found to l)e a certain cure if used properly. Best Egg-producing Strain of Fowl. W orceste r . — What are the best fowls for a farm wheie they run wildy Do you recommend Plymouth Rocks for egg'-production •' ihe Principal, Ehenhvrg iSchool of Agriculture, replies : I would not advise you to take Barred Plymouth Rocks for purely egg- ])roductioii. White Leghorn, Black Leghorn, Minorcas, or Anconas are jjuiely egg-producing bieeds. if you want a l)reed for fairly good egg-i>ioduction, und table use also, then take AVhite Pl\iiioutli Bocks, Australian Black Orpington, or Bliod<' Island F{cds, mil JutKXAL O-fr TilE DePAKTMEM Ol' AoKlCl LTCHt. - AtC , , li*22. Peach Leaf Curl. Mdl iiitsburi/. — run \ou it'coiiiiiit'iid an ('ttVcti\t' rt'iucdy for peacli leaf curl." Is llii> " Iruf /uil '" due to a iuuf^-ous nrjwth ^ 7//(' Fnncipai, Elsenbiiiy School of Ayricull urr, replies: As you suggest, the "leaf curl " seen in spring- is due to a funj^ous growth. Tile tieatnieiit for tile prevention of tliis disease consists in: — {(i) Winter ua--0'Ssible, when the buds ;!re sw increases the crop yield, and is now being practised by the most successful and progressive farmers all over the country. Read the article appearing in the jNIay, 1922, number of the Journal on " Causes of High Cost of Production of ^Faize and tbe liemedv" Potato Fertilizei'. Betlial. — Last year 1 made up for my potatoes a mixture to the ton — 1000 lb. superphosphate, 400 lb. bone, 400 lb. guano, and 200 lb. potash. The soil was of a sandy loam type, the crop answering very badly. In my opinion the mixture was not in the right i)ropor- tion. I am sending two soil samples from this land for analysis, and 1 want you to tell me what is necessary and how the mixtures could Imve been lietler balanced. Maize following the potato crop for two years yields about fifteen bags per acre. This cro]> is not fertilized. TJie Principal, School of Agriculture, Fotchefstrooin, replies: Your potato fertilizer is quite well proportioned, but you do not mention at what rate you applied it; 400 lb. per acre would be sufficient. I do not think that soil analysis will help your case in the slightest. You have supplied everything the potato requires except organic matter. If you add two to four tons of mantire in addition, I think you will notice a big difference. The low yield uiay als<^ have been due to disease or insufficiencv of moisture. liS.S ,)(iiK.\Ai. oi' liiK Dkj'aki .\ii;m Oh A(.i{u I i/iUKK. — Aug., l\)22. Lime Unnecessary for Maize and Potatoes. Standei-ton. — Please send me instructions liow to take a soil sample which I wish anah'sed. I think my soil is sour, and I want to know how mucli lime to put on my mealie and potato lands. Tlie Research Chemist, Fotchefstrootn, replies: It is not necessary to lime land for these crops, so it will not be necessTiry to do a soil analysis. If you think your soil is deficient in somiethino-, it is no doubt phosphates. Try superphosphate at the rate of 200 lb. per acre for your mealies and 400 lb. per acre for potatoes. Give the potatoes, in addition, plenty of kraal manure, and you mio'ht also try the addi- tion of 100 lb. of sulphate of potash. Lime does not pay for all crops. Read the article appearing in the Denartment's Journal for February, 1922, entitled " The Ijime He(|uirement of Soil antl Plant," by Thos. T). Hall. Seed of Kikuyu Crass. Albanij, Cape. — Can you tell me where I can procure seed of kikuyu? I have a small plot of the grafss on my farm, but, though it has been well established for about three years, it has never flowered. I wish to put down a couple of acres to it, and should be glad if you could let me know where I < an procure seed for the ])uipose. J he Chief, /)ir,.

    ffirit d'Equivalenccs. Coefficients pour In, con- version des poids, niesures ot moniiaies an systemo metrique decimal; tableaux d'cquivalences des unites de mcsuro du systeme )netri(jue decimal, oi unites de mesuros anglo-saxonnes. Institut Intel-national d'Agricultur<'. Ronu', 1022, ImiU'imcrie do rinstitut international d'Agriculturc. No. M^7. ICO The Australasian Fruit (Growers' vVnniuil and Trad." Ivccoid for 1022. lllustr:,ted. No. 8188. 2iU Macara, C. W. Getting the World to Work. INlancbester, 1922. Sherratt and Hughes. No. 8184. 320 Simple Concrete Uses Illustrated. Johannesburg. W.S.A.C.C. No. 8189. AGRICULTURE, LIVE STOCK, AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. tlO Cosnier, H. L'Ouest Africain Francais. Ses Ressources Agricoles. Son Organisation Economique. Illustrated. Paris, 1921. E. Larose. No. &192. 110 (Jeldeidiuys, F. E. Boekbouboek vir die Boer. Bloomfontcin. De Nationale Pers. No. 8185. 430 (^ehrs, J. H. Live Stock and Farm Mechanics. Illustrated. New York, 1922. The Macmillan Company. No. 8177. 430.1 Notes on the Ayrshire Breed (with Illustrations; and Appendix giving Names and Addres'^es of Prominent Breeders, with Particulars of their Herds. Illustrated. Ayrshire Cattle Herd Book. Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1920. No. 8176. 445 Stapensea, J. Bydrage tot de Kennis der Nieuwvormiugen in de Bynierbast van bet Paard. Illustrated. Utrecht, 1922. S! den Boer. No. 8181. 460,66 Dudgeon, G. C. The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa. Illustrated. London, 1922. John Murray. No. 8179. BIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MEDICINE, ETC. 03(1.1 Smitb, H. M. Gaseous Exchange and Physiological Hequiremcnts for Level and Grade Walking. Illustrated. Washington, 1922. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. No. 8180. 030.601 (Juiist, J. A. Over Antagonisme van den Bacillus Pyocyaneus. Amsterdam. A. H. Kruyt. No. 8183. 030.6961 Jiaabe, J. F. C. Over de Waaide van Sulfoliquid als Antipara- siticum en Antipruriginosum by Kleine Hiiisdieren (Hond en Kat). Utrecht, 1922. F. W. Hager. No. 8178. 630.6961 Van der Hoeden, J. De (1om])lementbindingsreactie by Echino- coccose van Menscli en Dier. Berlin, 1922. Emil Ebering. No. 8182. G35.2 EiK|uete sur la lutte centre la mouche des Olives (Dncus oleae) dans les divers Pays. Rome, 1922. Institut International d'Agriculture. Imprimerie de la Chambre des Deijutes. No. 8190. 038,49.2 Van Oort, E. D. De Vogels van Nederland. Aflevering 10/12, 30 plates; aflovcTing 13/14, 20 plates. 's (Jiayonhage Martinus Nvboff. Nos. 8170 and 8180. ued by authority of the Minister of Agriculture. PRINCIPAL CONTENTS Further Hints on the Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers. Advantages of the Silage System. Intensive Poultry-Keeping for Town Dwellers. Canning Vegetables and Fruits m the Home. Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union — III. Fattening Poultry for Table Purposes. The Sheep Blow- Fly in South Africa — II. Agricultural Experiment. S.A. Dried Grapes for the United States. The Value of Fineness and Length in Wool. STEWARTS AND LLOYDS (SOUTH AFRICA), LTD. ' TUBES AND FITTINGS. P.O. Box 1195, P.O. Box 74. JOHANNESBURG. PRETORIA. P.O. Box 131. DURBAN. P.O. Box 296. MARITZBURG. AGENTS FOR : National Gas Engine Co., Gas, Oil, and Petrol Engines. RRIGATION AND WATER SUPPLY OUR SPED AL TY. AGENTS FOR : John Blake, Ltd., Hydraulic Rams. 1 Eagle Engineering Co., Ltd., Petrol Paraffin Engines. i 1 Thomas & Sons, Windmills and Pumps. 1 1 Oavey Paxman & Co., Steam Engines and Boilers. PUMPING PLANTS. PIPE LINES AND POWER UNITS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. Bell Bros., Ltd., Filter and Water-Softening Plants. 1 Gilbert Gilkes & Co., Water Turbines and Centrifugal Pumps. i Glenfield & Kennedy, Hydraulic Specialities. n/lirrlees, Bickerton & Day, Diesel Oil Engines. ESTIMATES AND AD VICE FREE OF COST. Clydesdale Steel Plates. : u/c --^ ADVERTISEMENTS. '' STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LIIVIITED. (With which is incorporated the African Banking-Corporation, Ltd.) H Authorized Capital ... £10,000,000. Subscribed Capital ... £8,916,660. Paid-up Capital ... . £2,229,165. Reserve Fund £2,893,:^a5. Over 360 Branches and Agencies in Africa. AGENTS AND CORRESPONDENTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. rp[I=3IZZ]IIZlC=]C=]CZ]CDCZ][ZDCI=lIZZ][IZlC=:iiai==]C33l=Z]lZaCD[=^ W D |] TME Q |] " c S South African Breweries, Ltd., I ;0 D iU ARE THE LARGEST . U S BUVERS 9 iJ D 0 0.. . . Q 0 South African Malting BARLEY g 0 D U — FOR BREWING THE — [] ■D D D FAMOUS ... D S CASTLE BEKRS. I '0 , n n p/c 16 n 1-3 C::3CDIZ=I[=I3I=Z1C=3C=31ZDCDC=3C3CZDI=DCII3LZDC3C=DI==II=DCDCD[=][==3CD ADVERTISEMENTS ^» II ^r- II II ir^N MITCHELL COTTS & Co. CAPETOWN: - - P.O. Box 31. MOSSEL BAY: - P. O. Box 2. PORT ELIZABETH : - P.O. Box 482. EAST LONDON : - - P.O. Box 245. BLOEMFONTEIN : - P. O. Box 434. COTTS & Co. JOHANNESBURG : - P.O. Box 706. LOURENCO MARQUES : P.O. Box 492. BEIRA : ;. - - P.O. Box 78. PRETORIA: - - P.O. Box 613. WM. COTTS & Co. DURBAN and POINT, NATAL: P.O. Box 1021. STEAMSHIP AGENTS, COALING CONTRACTORS, IMPORTERS and EXPORTERS. Shippers of: Coaly Maize, Bark, Wool, Ostrich Feathers, Jams, Canned Fruits, and other South African Products. Agents for : DINGWALL COTTS & Co., Pacific Building, VANCOUVER. MITCHELL COTTS & Co., 3 St. Helen's Place, LONDON, E.C. 3. CONTENTS. NOVEMBER, 1922. Notes .. Page 385 The Eetirement of Mr. E. J. Macmillan, Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education)— Extending the Oversea Market— Fattening Poultry for Table Purposes— The Disposal of Manure ; A New Device — The Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers— The Control of the Union's Export Trade- Lucerne Meal : Oversea Trade Possibilities — Home Canning of Vegetables and Fruits— Agricultural Experiment : Variations and Interpretations — Advantages of the Silage System— Tsetse Fly Investigation — Departmental Development : A Division of Extension— Intensive Poultry Keeping for Town Dwellers— The Sheep Blow-Fly Danger— The Control of Anthrax : An Important Conference —Pig Breeding in South Africa— Fairlty Fruit Boxes (page 414)— Nurseries in Quarantine as at 1st October, 1922 (page 438)— Outbreaks of Animal Diseases : September, 1922 (page 456)— Citrus Canker Eradication (page 466). Departmental Activities Further Hints on the Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers Advantages of the Silage System Intensive Poultry-Keeping for Town Dwellers Canning Vegetables and Fruits in the Home ... Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union— III Fattening Poultry for Table Purposes The Sheep Blow-Fly in South Africa— II Agricultural Experiment S.A. Dried Grapes for the United States The Value of Fineness and Length in Wool ... Inquiries and Replies The Poultry Yard Month by Month Staff Appointments, Changes, etc Notes from the "Gazette" 397 415 422 424 429 439 447 449 457 462 464 467 476 477 47S DEPARTMENTAL NOTICE. SPINELESS CACTUS FOR SALE AT GROOTFONTEIX SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, MIDDELBURG, CAPE PROVIN'CE. The uiidernientioned varieties of Spineless Cactus are available for disposal at the Scliool of Agriculture, Grootfonteii). Middelburg, Cape Province:- — Variety. Quantity. Ficus Indica Unlimited Miskatel 500 Algerian oOO Morado 500 Fusicaulis 500 Protectorate 50 Chico 50 Meyers 200 Korfu 200 Hardybred 200 Quyaquiz 200 Freiiso 200 The '.mallest number sold to one buyer is in leaT»3s. Prices are as follows: — .■3d. per leaf from 10 to 100; 2U1. per leaf from 100 to 500: 2d. per leaf over 500; with the exception of " Fusicaulis " and '' Protectorate. "' for which a charge of 6d. and Is. per leaf respectively is made. Applications for supplies should be addressed immediately to the Principal direct. GOVERNMENT GUANO ISLANDS. The Capetown ofiices of the above Division having been transferred to new -quarters, it is notified that, as from 1st November, 1922, the following will •be the new address : — Superintendent. Government Guano Islands, Malagas Buildinc;. Bree Street, Corner Dock Road. Capetown. X3 Journal of the Department OF Agriculture. Vol. V. NOVEMBER, 1922. No. 5. Published moutbly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture, Union of South Africa. Editors G. W. Klerck. Subscription: Within the Union and South-VVest Africa, 5s« (otherwise 6Sm) per annum, post free, payable in advance. Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government Printer, Pretoria, NOTES. The Retirement of Mr. E. J. Macniillan, Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education). ()n the SUtli September last Mr. E. J. Macniillan, B.S.A., who since November, 1919, has been in charge of the Aoricultural Educa- tion Section of this Department, retired on pension. Mr. Macniillan came to South Africa in 1904, liaving obtained the appointment ol Chief, Experimental Farms and Live Stock Division, to the Orange River Colony Department of Agriculture at Bloemfon- tein, and was associated with that Administration during the period wlieii notable advances in agricultural development in that Province took place. Following on the Anglo-Boer war, the prospects of farmers and settlers were at that time far from bright, but difficulties were gradually surmounted largely as the result of the progressive policy initiated frim Bloenifontein. That was the era which saw the introduction of large numbers of sheep from Australia, the importa- tion of pure-bred horses and cattle from Europe, and the establishment of experimental stations and stud farms. The latter have since been discontinued, but the results are evident in improved flocks and herds, and the advances that agricultui'e generally has made in the Orange Free State. The reorganization of the Civil Service at TTnion found Mr. Macmillaii retained at BLiemfontein ; subsequently he was appointed to the Principalship of the Potcliefstroom School of Agriculture and Experiment Station, when that post fell vacant in 1913 owing to the transfer of Mr. Alex. Holm to Pretoria in the capacity of Under- Secretary for Agriculture (Education). When Mr. Holm accepted the Directorship of Agriculture at Nairobi in November, 1919, Mr. Macniillan succeeded him. laA 386 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. Mr. Maciiiillaii is a Cauadiau by blitli, and received liis o'eneral education and agricnltural tiTiinino- in that Dominion. He is retnrninp- to liis home in Prince Edward Island, but it is not known wliether lie will settle oermanently in Canada or come back again. Mr. Macmillan was an exem})larv servant of the Government, and his nuiny qualities gained for him the esteem and respect of his colleagues and the large numl)er of farmers with whom his duties Inouglit him in contact. Extending the Oversea Market. (Jf outstanding importance tj farmers is the establishment of a market for their produce, whether it be local or otherwise, and what- ever effort is expended in fostering such trade is of value to the community. There is now in South Africa a well-known merchant of Bristol, England, Mr. John A. Eowlands, recent President of the Bristol Channel and West of England Corn Trade Association, who has been in touch with the Dejjartment on the -subject of opening up direct trade relations between the Union and that large portion of England and Wales served by the port of Avonnunith, whicli would also be a regular port of call for steamers trading between vSouth Africa and England. Mr. Rowlands is confident that an extended and lucrative trade could l)e established in that direction, and he has already contributed to the Bristol Press favourable reports on the great possibilities of South Africa. He has sent a series of articles to the leading paper of the West of England, and proposes to continue this propaganda while trade prospects remain hopeful. He is also keeping in touch with tlie Bristol Chomber of Commerce and other representa- tive commercial bodies in that part of England. Mr. Rowlands has /•ecently taken up certain business interests in Natal, and while the iKMnediate object is to develop trade locally, he aims at extending opemtions oversea to that portion of Englajid with which he is intiiKately acquainted and where his influence counts. Mr. Rowlands' efforts in making known /South Afjican products on a market that he points out has hitherto received little direct attention, are appreciated, and it is trused will lead to the establishment of trade relationships. To those interested, we would mention that Mr. Rowlands' address is P.O. Box 77, Pietermaritzburs'. Fattening Poultry for Table Purposes. How at an extra cost of only one penny per bird, cockerels of the light breeds, generally regarded as of little use for table purposes, may have one-third added to their weight with the flesh rendered more tender and improved greatly in flavour, is related in an article pul)lished elsewhere in this issue. It is written by Mr. IN'ash, the assistant in poultry at the Grootfontein School of Agriculture, where experiments were carried out with the above result. With the little extra labour and cost involved in cooping and feeding the bird, the hitherto lightly considered cockerel may be turned into a source of revenue and profit. It is worth the consideration of both farmer and townsman, for the treatment suggested by Mr. Nash has shown that what would otherwise have probably been a somewhat untasty morsel may be turned into a succulent table bird, amply repaying the care necessary to render it such. Notes. 387 The Disposal of Manure: A New Device. There is published in the South African Medical Record of the 24th June, 1922, a meinoranduin by Dr. Haydon, the Assistant Medical Officer of Health for the Union, on the disposal of animal manure and garbage in relation to fly-breeding, and the prevention of enteric fever and other intestinal diseases. It refers to' a new device, known as " Baber's," for storing manure and garbage in enclosures, the object being to attract aJl mother flies in the neigh- bourhood to lay their eggs in the manure and thereafter to destroy the maggots that have been hatched : at the same time the process of stacking rots down tlie manure quickly, making it suitable for fertil- izer. Faimers are well aware of the high proportion of ily-bome diseases, and for the reason alone that by its means flies are reduced to a minimum, the device deserves their consideration. But in addition to this outstanding service, it serves the purpose of collecting and putting to' the best use all farm manure and refuse of a fertilizing value. The device consists of enclosures of wire mesh on cement or brick platforms. (See accompanying illustration). A channel sunk in the Perspective showing Handling of Manuie on small scale. platform surrounds the enclosure ; the manure and garbage are dumped in the enclosure and firmly trodden down, and the heat engendered by the fresh material (very attractive to flies) drives all maggots through the meshes of the containijig fence so that they eventually fall into the sunken channel when they are collected and destroyed. This method has been tried by the Kimberley Munici- pality with very satisfactory results; also at Armoed's Vlakte, Vry- burg, it has been found to render practically fly-free what was formerly a badly fly-infested place. It is necessary to have more than one of these enclosures to get the best results. The fresh manure is forked direct into the enclosure, being well pressed down, especially round the sides. Close packing- of the manure at the edges is the secret of success : this consolidates the heap, enaliles decomposition to set in more rapidly, and provides the required heat in the stack. In the centre of the stack holes may be made from time to lime for burying in the contents of latrine buckets, offal, and any house refuse that will easily rot. The heat in the stack 388 JotTENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NoV., 1922. should be sufficient to destroy disease-producing' germs. These mate- rials rotted down increase the fertilizing value of the stack. The female fly is attracted by the fresh manure, and there the eggs are laid: soon afterwards the maggots show signs of activity. Escaping from the heat of the rapidly-decomposing heap, the maggots find their way to the edge of the stack from where they drop through the meshes to the cement floor outside. This floor, however, is also too hot, having been heated by the sun, and the maggots migrate further to the channel where they are collected. They may then be fed to the fowls. In the course of tiiue the manure in the flrst enclosure cools off, and the variation in temi)erature is not suitable for maggot breeding. The stack no longer attracts the female fly, and it is then that the succeeding second, thiid, or fourth enclosure (as required) with iis fresh manure must he at hand to continue the process. Treated in this manner it is estimated tJiat manure is three or four times the value of that rotted down in the ordinary manner: in a dry climate, however, liberal watering of the stack every day is necessary to promote decomposition and heat development. The cost of construction of the platforms can be cut down by paving with ordinary cobble stones grouted in cement, using solid cement work only at the edges of the enclosure and for the channel. It i^hould be possible for cement works to turn out at low cost blocks for the laying of the channel, sump, and edges of the enclosure. If desired holes could l)e provided in the blocks for the insertion of the fencing standards, so that the lemaining constiuction work would only consist of laying the blocks to plan, roughly paving the space enclosed, and putting up the pig wire fence. Where it has been adopted, the device has g'iveii remarkable results : it is described by Dr. Haydon as being more successful than any methods hitherto in vogue for disposing* of manure and garbage for a useful purpose, and at the same time effecting that greatly desired object, the clearance of the house-fly and the many ills it engenders. It is requested that any person using this device will communicate the results to the Editor. The Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers. The publication in tlie August, 1921, issue of tlie Journal of an article by Dr. Veglia, Division of Veterinary Education and Research, regarding the invention of Dr. iiurdizzo for castrating animals, caused widespread interest, and many inquiries followed reg*arding the process. Since then observations on the manipulation and effective- ness of the pincers have continued at Onderstepoort, and further hints on the subject by Dr. Veglia are published in the present issue of the Journal. The expeditious and humane castration of animals is an important matter to pastoral South Africa, and the Burdizzo method, which is gaining wide jjopularity, has advantag-es which Dr. Veglia considers justify its adoption in this country. For further particulars, application should be made to the Director of Veterinary Education and Research, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria. Notes. 389 The Control of the Union's Export Trade. The expanding- agricultural industry of South Africa l)ring'S more and more insistently to the fore the (question of oversea markets for the absorption of our surplus agricultural products. It is a matter of great concern to every farmer, and it is necessary that each should be ac([uainted with the manner in which the export trade in produce of the land is controlled by legislation. Fre(|uent refer- ences have been made in the Journal to the need of studying (especially at this time when some of our products are making" their first essays at securing a footing on the world's markets) the require- ments and, indeed, the idiosyncrasies of the consumer oversea for whom we wish to cater. And it is of surpassing value to the producer that legalized machinery exists which controls to a large extent the ([uality and appearance of prodiicts that leave our shoi'es. The scope of this machinery is briefly outlined in an article published elsewhere in this issue of the Journal. Although wool, mohair, and ostrich feathers are not affected, it will be seen that the Acts (and their relative regulations) concerned cover very comprehensively the products of the land. One of the Acts, recently passed, contains the principle of the levy on exported produce, already in operation in so far as fruit and eggs are concerned, while at present cotton growers also are on the eve of having' their product graded and the levy applied. The above is a continuation of the series of principal Acts and regulations administered by the Department, a resume of each of which it is prop(jsed to publish in the Journal. In the two previous issues the Diseases of Stock Act and the Agricultural Pests Act, with their principal regulations, were outlined. Lucerne Meal: Oversea Trade Possibilities. Reference was made in last month's issue of the Journal to the possibilities of an export trade in lucerne hay, and the desirability of a test consignment. The export of South African lucerne in the form of a meal has also been receiving attention, and it is stated that the })rospects for trade in such an article are favourable, the English market being a wide one, while in Denmark also the demand is considerable. There is a firm in London who state that they are the originators and practically tlie only suppliers in the United Kingdom of lucerne meal, and that their brand is the only one that is really known. Tiiis firm is willing to act as agents for any South African producers who can ship a good class of meal, ground to the requisite grade, and of a bright green colour. The prices to be fixed are given as follows, per ton of 2240 lb., f.o.r. London:— 5-ton lots, £12; 2-ton lots, £12. 10s.; 1-ton lots, £13; the commission to be 20 % off these prices. All bags are to be supplied free, and the meal must be packed so as to weigh 112 lb. net. The firm in question suggests that any one desirous of opening- trade in luceine meal should send to them a small trial consignment at the earliest opportunity so as to introduce the commodity on the English market. Further particulars will be furnished on applica- tion to the Secretary for Agriculture, Pretoria. 390 Journal of the Department or Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. Home Canning of Vegetables and Frnits. It is obvious that Avliatever is done to foster the a fi'ri cultural industry of the country, little will result without the vig-orous appli- cation of the farmer in practising" those measures devised to further his industry. Naturally conducive to health, the hest work of the farmer, nevertheless, depends upon home conditions, particularly in respect of his daily diet, and it is to the housewife, therefore, that the worker looks for those essentials that promote energetic and thoroug-h labour. Every good housewife knows the importance of providing in the daily diet some form of green vegetable or fruit, and the canning of fruits is a home indiistry in which most are interested and that many excel in. Miss Ferguson, the Lecturer in Domestic Science at the Elsenburg School of Agriculture, contributes an article to this issue of the Journal, the outcome of scientific experience, and in which is explained the process to be followed in canning fresh fruits and vegetables so as to preserve them as nearly as possible in their fresh, juicy state. The various methods are referred to as well as the needed implements, and it will be seen that the requirements for this very necessary class of home industry are within the reach of all. While fruit canning is widely practised little has been done until recently in the way of canning vegetables, which in many respects is a simpler process, yet the value of the green vegetable is so great that w^iere it cannot be obtained in its fresh state throughout the year, efforts should be made to provide the canned article. The advice given by Miss Ferguson and the illustrations amplifying it, should prove very useful to housewives in those parts of the country particularly where the lean seasons are protracted and the need exists for preserving fruits and vegetables for use when the short seasons of plenty are past. Agricultural Experiment: Variations and Interpretations. The Department has recently issued a new Science Bulletin, No. 22, " Agricultural Experiment, its Design and Interpretation,"* by Mr. Parish, Vice-Principal of the Glen School of Agriculture and Experiment Station. As its title denotes, it deals with a subject of great importance to officers of the Depaitment and, indeed, investi- gators throughout the world who are engaged on experimental work. It is a matter, also, that affects the farmer very closely, for the proper interpretation of the greatly varying results obtained from field trials and live-stock experiments requires the careful attention of offi(;ers specially trained for that class of investigation. The farmer is, naturally, not concerned with the design of the experiment, and many are not aware of the sedulous attention to detail and the scientific deduction that it entails. ]\Ir. Parish has, therefore, contributed a short article to this issue of the Journal, which shows what properly conducted experiments involve. It is well worth the attention of the farmer, and particularly the increasing number that are joining the Department in carrying out co-operative experiments, for a hastj^ interpretation may often be misleading and dangerous. * Obtainable on application to this Office. Price 3cl., prepaid, Notes. 391 Advantages of the Silage System. Under the above title, Mr. I'arisli, Yice-Principal of the Glen School of Agriculture, coutrilmtes an article (published elsewhere in this number of the Journal) the truth of which must be evident to all. When one considers the possibilities of the country, and looks ahead to the time when it will rank high in the world's production of milk and meat, the increase in our herds (about 4^ per cent, annually) appears unduly tardy. Yet there lies at our hands the means of speeding our increase and improving the quality of our meat, and a perusal of Mr. Parish's article must impress the un- doubted advantages that will accrue from a wider use of the silage system. Although the silo has been known in South Africa for the past twenty years, its use has not spread as rapidly as its undoubted advantages warrant ; census returns show that at the 30tli April, 1921, there were 1329 pit silos and 549 erected silos in the Union, the quantity of ensilage produced during the twelve months ended on the above date being 89,147 tons. The development of our cattle industry depends greatly on a sound system of feeding, and the basis of this, Mr. Parish points out, will be silage. Where this very important part of farm practice is neglected, the stock owner must expect at his side the spectre of drought. With a full silo he can view with eciuanimity the approach of the dry season, conscious that he has the wherewithal to keep his stock alive. It is surely a matter of first consideration. Tsetse Fly Investigation. During September the vStation on the White Umfolosi was visited by Mr. Claude Fuller, Acting Chief, Division of Entomology, in company with Professor J. C. Faure, of the Transvaal University College. Some time was spent examining the progress of the work made and the general environment of the station, which is located in the heart of a g-reat bush savannah and the big game country. Subsequently with Mr. Harris, officer in charge of the station, JSTorthern Zululand was visited to see into the extent of the rest of the fly country, and the repoi'ted presence thereabouts of Glossina hrevipalpis, a species of Tsetse. At Ndunia the entomologists came in brief contact with the Prime Minister's party and during a short stay there the margins of the large pan or bayou, known as Lake Inyameti, revealed several breeding grounds of the fly. The presence of cattle feeding along the lakeside, coupled with a local consensus of opinion that Nagana is absent, is recorded as a matter of interest. To this it may be added that it is extremely probable that G. hrevi- po.lpis is associated with most of the large bayous so characteristic of the Pongola Piver in Tongaland. The previous records of this species in the Union relate to specimens obtained by Mr. P. A. L. Brandon, now magistrate at Ingwavuma, when stationed at Ubombo, and the capture of one specimen by the Hon. Denys Reitz, Minister of Lands, on Lake Inyameti in 1921. Mr. Brandon's specimens are in the Durban Museum, bvit the exact locality from which they came is not indicated. It is of interest to add that, up to the present, no further evidence regarding the existence of Glossina austeni in Zululand is available beyond the one insect captured by Mr. Brandon on the heights of the Ubombo; this specimen is now preserved in the British Museum. 392 JOUTJNAL OF THE ])ePARTMENT OF AoRIfrLTUBE. NoV., 1922. Departmental Development: A Division of Extension. Few, if any, countries in the world can, comparatively speaking, show better progress than ours has in farming during recent years, due to the unremitting eiforts of the farmer and the work of the Department of Agriculture in South Africa. There are many farmers alive to the advantages to be derived through close touch with the Department, and their eagerness to receive the advice and assistance it is able to render is, it is shown, rewarded by the benefits that follow advanced methods of farming. There are others, however, who do not enjoy these benefits to the full and that miglit be theirs by putting into practice the methods, the outcf)me of both local experience and world-wide research, the Department constantly advises. It is to be expected that in a country of great distances and sparse population, difficulties abound in keeping in close touch with the farming com- munity, though the Department has endeavoured to cope with the situation as far as its organization and limited staff have made it possible. In a large measure it depends on its Journal to bring to the home of the farmer a monthly bulletin of original agricultural literature of essentially South African applicability, that will keep him cognisant of the work and thoughts of the Department. A stage in our development has arrived where our produce must enter into competition on the world's markets with the best that farmers in other countries (with the close assistance of their respective Departments of Agriculture) are able to produce. Under conditions that now exist in the Union, the present is a critical stage, and there are those farmers, referred to above, who are alive to the situation and are joining with the Department in coping with it. But with the majority a general s])eeding \\\) of effort is imperative if the advance that has characterized the agricultural industry in recent years is to be maintained, and with a view to this attainment the Department has decided to focus a section of its activities in a Division of Exten- sion. Under the direction of Mr. Heinrich S. du Toit, who, as Government Agronomist, and recently as Chairman of the Drought Investigation Commission, is known and respected by farmers in all parts of the country, the Division will aim at co-ordinating the work of Departmental officers whose duties bring them in touch with the farmer, and at building up that organization among the farmers themselves which history has shown to be the only foundation on which a sound and lucrative agricultural industry can be established. In the first case, it will be the duty of the Division to organize the various officers of the Department throughout the Union so as to make the best use of their services in meeting farmers, and their wives and children, at more or less central places in the several districts. Overlapping and dissipation of effort will be guarded against, and in consultation with the governing bodies of different farmers' organizations a programme of work, if possible for twelve months hence, will be drawn up from time to time, so as best to meet the interests of the district at the most suitable seasons. Thus groups of officers will be detailed to operate in various areas at prearranged periods of the year. By far the most important part of the Division's duties will be to use every possible means of accelerating organization among Notes. 393 farmers themselves, for to a great extent the efficacy of the Depart- ment's activities is limited by the progress made in this direction. Farmers must organize on a sound, uniform basis, so that they may arrange to meet the officers of the Department to the best advantage, and, above all, acquire a self-reliance that will enable them unitedly to overcome the many economic problems that concern their industry, without resource to the State for financial aid. There is so much to be done, and so many ways of doing it, in furthering the welfare of the farmer, that a capitulation here is impossible. The Division will point the way and endeavour to take a lead, as far as possible, where movements may be started that will raise the moral and material welfare of the farmer. It will disseminate advice regarding the best methods of farming and marketing, and the several means of elevating rural life through the medium of clubs for men, women and children, and of other amenities. It will advocate and induce co-operate eft'ort in dealing with both major and minor products, from organizations that combat human and animal ills, and contend with problems of soil erosion, veld control and such like, down to those concerned in the humbler and domestic duties of the housewife, yet which are so potent an agency in promoting good husbandry. There can be no doubt that a Division centred on the above sphere of work should do much in engendering, by helpful advice and initiative, that co-operation and spirit of progress which is needed ann)ng our farmers to place them in the forefront of the world's producers. It is a departmental activity launched in the confidence that the rural community will respond and meet the Department's endeavours more than half way. It is a movement, moreover, that should have the full support of the general community in the possibilities it holds for raising the standard of our chief industry of agriculture. Starting with a small nucleus of workers whose activities must necessarily be circumscribed l)y their numbers, the new Division of Extension is expected to sow the seed of mutual trust and under- standing between the Department and the farmer that will con- tinuously return a crop of benefits to the Union. Intensive Poultry Keeping for Town Dwellers. Excellent results have been olitained at the Glen School of Agri- culture from an experiment carried out over a period of twelve months with six S(mLh African Utility White Leghorn pullets. The object was to test the possibilities of keeping the home supplied with fresh eggs, even in the limited space available usually in the town dwelling. In an article published elsewhere in this issue, Mr. Jordaan, who conducted the experiment, details the construction of the houses used, and the feeding and treatment of the fowls ; he shows also the expendi- ture involved and the returns. These six pullets, between six and seven months old, and chosen at random from among fifty odd bred at Glen, laid 1,470 eggs during the year at an average cost of 7d. per dozen. " The conclusion drawn from the test," Mr. Jordaan states, " IS that the housewife may, without much expense or labour, keep her own egg-producing hens in her backyard, no matter how small, and have a supply of fresh eggs for the greater part of the year." 394 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. The Sheep Blow-Fly Danger. It is fortunate for sheep farmers in this country that they are spared the enormous losses sufl'ered from the sheep blow-fly by pastoralists in Australia, where the pest is one of the principal stock problems contended with, entailing much investigation and the establishment of a special experiment station. It is a matter for grave concern, hoAvever, to know that the pest is found in South Africa, for its presence is a potential danger : in certain areas, indeed, farmers are already engaged in systematic control measures. Reference has been made in previous issues of the Journal to the investigations that are proceeding into the occurrence of the pest in the Union, and there is published in this number another article by Mr. Munro, the Border Entomologist of the Division of Entomology, setting out the results to date of his investigations, the foundation knowledge that will prove of great value to our farmers. There are at least three species of fly in South Africa that are concerned in blowing sheep's wool, and which are described by Mr. Munro. It is possible there may be others. Much has still to be done before it can be said that everything is 'en own about the blow-fly in South Africa, information that is necessary to ensure a successful combat with the pest should it increase, and for their own protection, there- fore, farmers are asked to combine with the Department in its endeavours to investigate thoroughly the occurrence of the pest within its borders. The lines on which this assistance can be rendered are stated by Mr. Munro at the end of his article, and it is trusted that a ready response will result, so that this useful work may be pressed on with all possible speed. The Control of Anthrax: An Important Conference. The departure of Mr. I{. W. Dixon, the Assistant Principal Veterinary Officer, to attend the International Veterinary Conference in London, has a significance that should hold the attention of every South African stock owner. The confereiue, which takes place on the 5th December next, has been called together for the purpose of discussing ways and means of combating anthrax, with a view to eradicating the disease among animals and to the protection of industrial workers against infection. No effort is spared by the Department in controlling the disease in the Union, and every farmer must now be aware of the correct methods of dealing with outbreaks and the disposal of animals that have died from anthrax. Wide publicity has also been given to the serious check to South African trade overseas in wool, mohair, skins, and hides, that may follow if the spread of the disease in this country induces those res])onsible for the well-being of industrial workers to introduce methods, in the form of disinfection of these products, to protect oversea handlers of our wool, etc., from contracting the disease. Such restrictions would handicap our trade and result in monetary loss to the producer. The confereivce is to be held under the auspices of the International Labour Conference, and is the outcome of resolutions passed by the Anthrax Commission appointed by them to consider the disinfection of wool infected with anthrax spores. The guarding of workers against this dangerous disease, which is carried by the wool, etc., of animals that have died from anthrax, is rightly viewed very Notes. 395 seriously, and there is no doubt that the conference will rigorously advocate efficient means of protection. An embargo has already fallen on the products concerned of certain countries where anthrax is known to be rife, but fortunately the cleaner state of the Union has hitherto prevented a similar disability being placed on our exported wool and other produce liable to anthrax infection. The Department views the presence of anthrax in the Union as the greatest menace of all the diseases to which our live stock is subject, and the efforts being made to control its spread, combined with that most important of all things, the rapidly awakening realization of the farmer to the danger and his greater co-operation with the Depart- ment, will, it is trusted, convince those who will meet in conference that the situation in South Africa does not call for any embargo on our exports. Mr. Dixon is intimately acquainted with the position of anthrax in this country and of the various steps in operation to prevent its further spread and to bring about its eventual eradication, and farmers may be assured that the interests of the Union will be fully and conscientiously guarded by him. Pig Breeding in South Africa. During his visit to the Union some months ag'o, Sir Henry Hall, President of the English Large Black Pig Society, inquired into the treatment, progress, and prospects of our pig industry. He was principally interested in Large Blacks, but is of opinion that his conclusions apply with equal force to pig breeding generally in the Union. One of them is that Large Black pigs deteriorate rapidly here. The second generation show evidence of losing tlieir points and of becoming smaller, the causes being ascribed by Sir Henry to the following defects in treatment: (1) Litters are weaned too early; the young pigs are thereby deprived of tlieir natural food and pre- maturely given food which they are unable to assimilate properly. (2) Mating too young% resulting in unhealthy and stunted progeny. (3) The feeding is unscientific and haphazard. A properly grown pig should weigh 180 lb. at six months, where- as pigs were seen exhibited at Bloenifontein and Johannesburg shows, which at this age would not turn the scale at 120 lb. During his four months in South Africa he dealt with many inquiries, which pointed to very little knowledge of pig raising, and he considered that, while the country was suitable for the production of pigs, the industry was going back through ignorance of proper methods of treatment. He is of opinion that with our present stock, our meat- producing capacity could be doubled in twelve months, and he has been assured that the existing capacity of the bacon-curing factories could deal with twice the present production ; also that English markets would take our bacon provided a suitable animal was produced. On his recommendation, the liarge Black Pig Society has agreed to undertake propaganda work in South Africa on behalf of their breed, having impressed upon the society that no satisfactory results can be obtained until our breeders deal with their animals on common- sense lines : if farmers adopted proper methods the industry would figure prominently in the future prosperity of South Africa, but until this change is brought about, he does not advise the sending 396 JouitNAL OF THE Depaktment or Agkiculture. — Nov., 1922. of pedigree stock to South Africa, as it ii light result in h)ss to ilie importer and perhaps bring discredit to the herd of the seller. Much of what Sir Henry Hall says is applicable to existing conditions in the Union, though there are notable exceptions. It must be remembered, hoAvever, as a general rule, that the pig is still looked u])on merely as a side-line of little account, and consequently left largely to fend for itself, receiving such treatment as the farmer may be able to spare after the main activities of the farm have been attended to. Yet were the importance of the industry and the advantages of proper treatment fully realized, there would follow a great advance in the development of pig breeding in South Africa. But even amongst breeders there is doubtless much more knowledge to be acquired regarding breeds and their characteristics, proper selection and culling, and housing and feeding generally. The Hepartment has been considerably handicapped through shortage of stafi: and lack of funds in developing and encouraging the industry, but its ofHcers have always given advice and assistance whenever able. I^ast year also, Mr. 1). C. Laver, the President of the Pig Breeders' Association of South Africa, was granted free railway facilities to visit certain centres in the Union, and carry out extension work; the long absences which such work necessitates from his own business have, unfor- tunately, prevented him from continuing these activities. Sir Henry Hall, as a result of his visit, has certainly directed greater attention to the suitability of South Africa as a pig-raising country, and though his criticisms have been severe it is hoped that they will be received in the spirit in which they were offered. He is sending out a Large Black gelt to Elsenburg, and hopes to inspect her progeny on the occasion of his next visit to South Africa sometime in the beginning of next year. In a recent letter to Elsenburg, furnishing particulars of the gelt, Sir Henry concludes by remarking that in England bacon pigs are fetching 24s. per 20 lb., which leaves a good margin, and that if South African farmers would breed for the English market, and the curers supply tlie liacon required, there exists a lucrative trade for all concerned. Single Testing Pens for Poultry at Glen School of Agriculture. ])ErARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES. 397 DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES. (Note. — The work of the several Divi&iuiis anti Schools of Agriculture covers a wide range of agricultural industry in the Union, and we give hereunder notes and observations from certain of them treating with matters of special interest coming under their purview month by month. The object of these notes, which are not concerned with general routine work, is to inform the farmer of such matters as are calculated to be of interest and helpful to him at the present time. — Editor.; THE DIVISIONS. ENTOMOLOGY. Advice Misapplied. — Theie are certain insect pests, noticeably woolly apliis of the a})ple and the fig-tree mealy bug, which winter in small colonies, and in summer breed up and spread over the trees. The Division often recommends the destruction of the small over- wintering colonies by dabbing them with certain insecticides. A paint brush is usually suggested as the implement and, for woolly aphis, raw linseed oil as the medium for dealing death to the creatures. Unfortunately, by recommending a paint-brush "painting" is suggested and because this is so it may happen that a tree is painted with oil instead of the oil being dabbed or rubbed into the insects. Within the last month two correspondents have complained of the death of trees through painting with oil, and one is not certain whether raw or boiled oil was used. It naturally follows that when a tree is painted over with oil the lenticels are choked, the bark seriously injured, and the life of the tree jeopardized. Eaw oil may be used for the fig tree mealy bug ; methylated spirit may also be employed with satisfactory results. Cockchafer Beetles. — These periodical pests have again made their appearance, the first record of serious injury for this season occuring in an apple orchard near Magaliesburg, Transvaal. Any one of several species may be concerned in attacks of this nature. Some are small, roundish, deep-red beetles; others are about half an inch long and brownish or grayish in colour. All have the habit of clustering at night on the tender twigs of fruit trees, roses, grape- vines, etc., and hiding during the day in the ground near their food- plants. The immature stages are passed as grubs in the soil, and it is reasonably supposed that they feed on the roots and grasses and other plants. When present in numbers, the beetles can do consider- able damag-e, often completely defoliating the trees, and destroying the blossoms and setting fruit. Their control means persistent and thorough work while thej are on the trees. One method is to jar or brush them into tins containing an inch or two of water on top of which has been floated a layer of j)arafhn. Such work should be done in the evening, by lantern light, when the beetles are feeding. Another method is to keep the trees well covered with arsenate of lead, using the poison at the rate of 4 ounces of the paste, or 2 ounces of the powder to 4 gallons of water. During the daytime the beetles may be collected from their hiding places in the soil, but this method is both slow and laborious. o98 -TOVENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NoV., 1922. Cluster Bugs. — A few compkiints liave been received lately about these evil smelling', grayish-coloured insects {Agonoscelis, spp.). They usually attract attention because of their habit of clustering in numbers of trees, where they seek shelter during the winter. When warm weather comes they disperse to nearby veld plants to breed. These insects are rarely troublesome, and it is mainly the numbers in which they gather together that causes alarm. The time to destroy them is while they are clustered on the trees. Brushing them into a paraffin tin containing a little water and paraffin oil is the easiest way to deal with them. Cotton Insects. — \\\ inleresting letter was received recently from a correspondent living in the eastern Transvaal, relating his experiences in controlling cotton insects. It was found that leaf- hopper or jassid injury could be reduced to a minimum by practising autumn or winter ploughing followed by a bare fallow until the crop was planted the following spring. ITnploughed fields, overgrown with weeds and old cotton plants, were observed to harbour the insect over winter. Early planting on autumn or winter ploughed lands was found to be beneficial in that it ensured a vigorous growth before leaf-hopper attack eventuated. For cotton stainer control, a barrier was ploughed around some fields, and a strip burned off around others. The result was that these fields were practically free of stainers, whereas neighbouring untreated fields were badly infested, the conclusion being that infestation comes from the outside and works inwards. These observations coincide with those of the Division, and it is strongly recommended that the practices outlined be followed. Cotton insect control must be accomplished by cultural methods, and this piece of practical experience shows that it can be done. Wheat Louse or Aphis. — This pest of wheat and allied cereals has been causing considerable trouble during September in Griqua- land East and the northern and eastern parts of the Cape JProvince. It is not a serious pest every year. Weather conditions that particu- larly favour the insect, absence of parasites and enemies that normally keep it in check, and adverse conditions for the growth of the wheat crop, lead to outbreaks. An important point is to keep the wheat in as healthy a condition as possible, especially during the winter. As warm weather comes on the enemies of the louse and conditions unfavourable to it usually increase, and control the pest effectively. If the aphid attack is very severe in patches, it is advis- able to burn these over, and if the whole field appears to be threatened it should be fed off. Direct control measures such as spraying, are impracticable. Refuse Tobacco as Insecticide. — Several inquiries have been received recently as to how refuse tobacco can be used for insect control. Tobacco, such as unmarketable leaves, stems, etc., can be made into a decoction that is useful tor the control of sucking insects, like plant lice. However, the strength of this liquor varies consider- ably according to the tobacco used and the thoroughness of extrac- tion. The usual formula is to chop up five pounds of tobacco and allow it to soak in water for several days or to simmer over a fire for about two hours. Such a decoction is diluted with water to make ten gallons. Departmental Activities. 399 BOTANY. Internal Brown Fleck in Potatoes is a very serious trouble with which potato growers on the high vekl have to contend. Affected tubers are externally sound, but occasionally, when there are brown flecks near the surface of the tuber, tbese show through to the surface. Such cases are comparatively rare, and by this characteristic tubers affected with internal brown fleck can be readily distinguished from those attacked by Irish potato blight or late blight which also causes a brown discoloration of the tuber : in the latter cases the discolora- tion is always near the surface and causes depressed areas on the skin of the tuber which can readily be detected without cutting it. Tubers affected by internal brown fleck keep well, which is another point of difference from those attacked by fungous diseases, and are as a rule quite free from external discoloration. When affected tubers are cut across, however, they show brown flecks in the otherwise sound flesh. These vary in size from a pin's head to about one-third of an inch in diameter ; they may be very numerous, or only two or three may be discernible in a section through a tuber. In any case the edible qualities of the potato are impaired, as the brown specks remain quite hard when the tuber is boiled and can be picked out from the soft part of the flesh. The spots are scattered and correspond with those of potatoes aff'ected with " internal disease " rather than with " streak." If an affected tuber be cut across and allowed to dry, the healthy part of the flesh shrinks, but not the corky flecks, and these become raised above the cut surface as they do not take part in the general shrinkage due to loss of water. The same thing happens if pieces of the tuber are dehydrated in alcohol. From the knowledge at present available it would appear that this is a deficiency disease occurring for the most part in rather sandy soils which are deficient in lime and available phosphates. It is our intention to make further investigations into the cause and preven- tion of fleck, and any farmers who are willing to co-operate are invited to communicate with this Division. Quack Crass, a Troublesome Weed. — We have recently had Agropyrum re pens (quack grass), also known as twitch grass and conch grass, sent in for identification from Volksrust, where it is reported as being a most troublesome weed in cultivated lands. Quack grass very much resembles rye grass in general appear- ance. It has the same kind of inflorescence, grows to a height of two or three feet and has narrow, rather long leaves. The long creeping underground runners of the former, however, are entirely lacking in the latter grass, and it is these that make quack grass such a troublesome weed and so difficult to eradicate. In America, where it is well known, it is said to make most excellent hay being both nutritious and palatable, but at the same time, like our kikuyu, it is a pest to cultivated lands where it is not wanted. The best way to eradicate it is to plough early in spring, and then use a shovel - toothed cultivator every three days through the growing season, cutting off' all green shoots below the surface of the ground. A crop such as mealies that can be easily cultivated should be planted, and all green shoots of the quack grass persistently kept down. The reason for this is that the long roots are fed by the green shoots, and if their source of nourishment is cut off the roots must die. 400 JOUHNAL OF THE DErAETMKNT OF AGRICULTURE. NoV., 1922. Grasses and Clovers at Groenkloof and the Dry-lands Station. — riie g'lasses that came tliiough the winter hest were PhaJmis hiilhosa and Eescue Grass (Bromiis iriUdeuorii). Three cuttings were obtained from Fhalaris buJhosa between May and August, giving five cuttings in twelve months from the date of planting-. Rescue Grass remained green throughout the winter, but the stand was too thin to enable one to get a cutting. Amongst the indigenous grasses Penriisetum unisetum (Natal grass) again proved itself to be very frost resistant. It seemed to stand the cold much better on dry lands than under irrigation. This may be due to the irrigated plots being on a much lower site than those situated on the dry lands. Since the rains all the grasses both indigenous and exotic have commenced putting on rapid growth with the exception of Molasses grass which has been completely killed by frost. About 30 varieties and strains of clover are being tried at Groen- kloof under irrigation ; the two outstanding varieties are Medium Red and Berseem Clover, the former standing about 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. high and the latter 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. The Cape Burr Clover has also put on vigorous growth since July, but being of a prostrate habit of growth is not so conspicuous as the other varieties. National Herbarium. — A correspondent from Wolmaransstad sent in a specimen of Typha (Bullrush) and reported it w^as choking his dam. It is the first occasion this plant has been reported to the Division as a potential weed. The plant is common in most vleis throughout South Africa, and if it is likely to prove troublesome in dams, the water sliould be drained off, if possible, and an attempt made to uproot the underground rhizomes. The Noxious Weed Inspector in Natal forwarded an unnamed species of Opuntia and was advised to carefully watch the spread of this plant as it is quite possible it may become a pest. From Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa a new leguminous tree has been recorded and recently described as DIalium Simii, Phil. The District Forest Officer in Zululand forwarded a shrub from the native forests, said to be very common. It proved to be an undescribed species of Xylotheca (A. Kotzeii, Phil.). TOBACCO AND COTTON. Cotton in Zululand. — During September the Chief of the Division toured Zululand and Swaziland with a party studying the soil and climatic conditions of those areas, relative to their suitability for agricultural development. The greatest amount of progress in agriculture was shown at Candover Estates and Pongola Estate where, next season 3000 acres are being prepared for cotton culture. Goss Estate in the same area will have approximately 1000 acres, and, with other smaller properties, will bring the cotton acreage of that area up to 5000 acres. Several big ranching companies in Swaziland, engaged principally in the production of beef cattle, were visited. One of them had about 500 acres under crops, and further consider- able agricultural development is imminent. Departmental Activities. 401 Cotton Breeding. — At the Enstenburg' Experiment Station the selected seed plot of three acres (>'ave lint averag'ing- l^V inch, while the remainder of the crop ranged between l^V to 1^ inch, and the report on the grade was good. The variety was Improved Bancroft. This shows conclusively what will he done when a plant breeder can devote his whole time to the improvement of the cotton crop. Mr. Pullen, wlio is at present specializing in the study of cotton breeding, will have charge of this line of work, when he has completed his studies. Wild Fire. — Complaints are already being received of attacks of wild fire in tobacco. If this disease continues to spread, the neces- sity of sterilizing* the seed before sowing, as announced by this Divi- sion more than a year ago, will be forced upon us. British Cotton Crowing Association Competition. — The following are the winners of the British Cotton (Irowing Association's competi- tion for the best fields of cotton grown during 1920-21 : — 50 Acres. 1st prize 2nd „ 3rd „ ... Balman & Hannan ... Tugela Estates, Ltd. ... S. N. Spear 10 Acres. Total score 81*25 per cent. ,. 70-73 „ 68 -21 1st prize 2nd „ 3rd „ ... I. M. Marwick ... R. Henshall ... C. C. Swardt Total score 81 '06 per cent, „ „ 77-20 „ „ „ 75-39 „ THE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS. GROOTFONTEIN, MIDDELBURG (CAPE). Annual Sale, Crootfontein. — The annual sale of pedigree stock was held on the 15tli September last. The prices obtained were generally speaking, somewhat better than had been anticipated in view of the present depression, and the main feature of the sale was the prices obtained for Tasmanians and Wanganellas. One Wanga- nella stud ram, sired by Elsenburg Admiral, was purchased foi' the sum of £140. Only on one previous occasion has a liigher price been obtained for a ram. The demand for Karakuls was not too good, although from recent reports there would appear to be good prospects of a trade in skins developing with the United States and Canada, while there is also a possibility of an export trade developing in these sheep. The Friesland bull, Groottontein Alfonso, sired by Craigie Alf, was sold for £195, which is considered a bargain. The total realized was £1882. 10s., which compares favourably with the sale for 1921, when a larger number of stock was sold. 402 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — IN'ov., 1922. Export of Eggs. — Great strides have been made in the poultry industry in the past few years in the area served by the School, and it is gratifying- to note the attention given to utility l)irds. The movement m tJie dii'ection of poultry exchanges is one which should go a long way to building the industry on a sound foundation. The 21th September marks a distinct advancement from the economic standpoint, for on that day the trial consignment of 101 cases of eggs was shipped from Port EhVabelh to the United Kingdom. It was inspected by Mr. A. Owen-John, Lecturer in Poultry at Groot- fontein, who also superintended the transfer to the cold chamber in the " Arundel Castle." The consignment showed a very good standard, and a test examination made after the cases had been put on board encourages the hope that on arrival in Ijondon, the eggs will be in excellent condition. If this consignment is well reported on there is every prospect of a considerable development in the export trade as far as the Eastern Province is concerned. Ostrich Feather Industry. — In view of the serious state of the ostrich feather industry, every endeavour is being made to assist ostrich farmers in perfecting organizations with a view to promoting and fostering the oversea market for featheis. In this connection it is hoped to organize a tour through the ostrich farming area to assist in the scheme which has been put forward by the farmers in the Oudrshoorn district, under which an active campaign to popularize the ostrich feather is contemplated. Steynsburg Wool Growers' Association. — A further step in the organization of the wool industry was achieved when, at a meeting of the Steynsburg Farmers' Association, held on the 13th September, a resolution was unanimously passed in favour of the formation of a woo] growers' association. Mr. R. W. Thornton and Mr. D. P. Mellet, the Government Sheep Expert for the District, attended, and delivered addresses on the need for organization and the advantages to be derived from the formation of such an association. A provisional committee was formed comprising a representative from each ward in the District. Chinese Lucerne. — On the 2Glli August the first crop of Chinese lucerne was obtained. These plots are now (25th September) ready to be cut a second time this season, whereas most of the other varieties, such as Russian, Provence, Grimm, etc., are not yet ready for the first cutting. That it is desirable to talce the first cutting as early as possible in si)ring can readily be seen from the accompanying photographs :—Xo. 1 shows a stool of Chinese lucerne which was left uncut when the majority of the stools were cut on the 28tli of August, while No. 2 shows the amount of growth made by a stool of the sauie variety between the 28th August and the 25th September. Judged by the usual standards, the stool in No. 1 would be considered fit only now for cutting, and yet this delay would mean the loss of the growth shown in No. 2. The last cutting, in autumn, was made on the 14th May. The above indicates the rapidity with whicli Chinese lucerne grows during the late winter and early si)ring in the Karroo. Departmental Activities. 403 No. 1. — Chinese Lucerne on 25th September. Last cutting on 14th May. No. 2. — Chinese Lucerne on 25th September. This stool was cut on 28th August. 404 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. Phalaris Bulbosa. — The accompanying' illustration of tlie growth of this grass on the 2oih September is interesting. Piaetically all the growth (almost 2 feet) was made during the winter. This is a valu- able gi'nss for tlie Kairoo, as it i.> quite iifiaffocted by 'rost. Wheat Experiments at Bathurst. — Some l-'iUU varieties of winter cereals were planted between the end of April and the last week in May, and since that time rain has fallen on 24 days, while the weather has been dull and overcast for 50 days. The temperature has varied from 44° to 90°, and misty nigdits and heavy dews have prevailed throughout. A few of the " sunset " crossbred varieties were in ear in ten weeks. Certain varieties of wheat and oats have been badly attacked l>y rust, but it is too early to sul)mit the results of all experiments. There are, however, indications that at the end of the season valuable information will have been acquired in regard No. 3. — J'Jialaris hnlbuxK on 25tb 8eptenil>er. Shows growth made during winter. to rust-resisting (jualities of different varieties, as it is considered that varieties v.hich approach maturity under the adverse conditions at Bathurst, sliould be successful over the greater part of the wheat- growing area of the south-eastern coastal belt. Special Sheep and Wool Courses for Members of Wool Growers^ Associations. — Special courses, extending over a period of from three to five days, have been arranged for the purpose of instructing the members of the newdy-formed Wool Growers' Associations in the purely practical work of picking, throwing, skirting, rolling, and classing the fleeces according to the standards agreed upon by the Middelburg and Graaif-Reinet Wool Growers' Associations. These courses should ensure uniformity in classing and packing by members of these associations. Departmental Activities. 405 Five courses have been arranged of wliicli three have already been held. During each course from 100 to 150 sheep were shorn each day by the regular students at the School, who also received instruction on the same lines as the farmers attending the special course. It is the intention that these special courses should be confined to farmers who have had considerable experience in sheep fanning, and who can therefore readily assimilate the technical instruction, and it is useless for those who have had little or no experience to think ot attending them. hlach year a special course is held at Grootfontein extending over a period of seven months, which _ is devoted entirely to instruction in sheep and wool, and even this period is barely long enough for equipping the prospective sheep farmer with the necessary knowledge and experience, notwithstanding that each student receives individual attention, and that it is a condition of acceptance for this course that an applicant should have some know- ledge and experience or sheep or wool. Furthermore, until a student has assisted in the " get up " of some three or four clips, he cannot be regaided as thoroughly proficient. Farmers who have attended the course now being held include most of the leading sheep farmers in the two di.stricts concerned. These courses have been of very material assistance to the membei's of the two associations. The main achievement has been the uniformity of classification of the wool, which should result from the many association members who attended these courses^ while the regulations framed by the associations should now be uniformly interpreted by all members. The thanks of the school are due to Mr. J. van Eyneveld, of Tafelberg Hall, who readily agreed to the whole of his flock and stud sheep being shorn at the School for the benefit of the students, as the school flock was not large euough \o maintain the full supply of fleeces. POTCHEFSTROOM, TRANSVAAL. The Stacking of Cereals. — There are two kinds of stacks usually made in .stacking wheat, etc. : the four-sided and the round. The latter is chiefly found in the Western Province, while the former is most commonly used in the eastern portions of the Orange Free State, where the summer rain necessitates the making of stacks capable of allowing the water to run off freely. As the Western Transvaal is similarly situated, the four-sided stack is recommended. The usual size for such a stack, holding about 10,000 bundles, is 8 yards by 4 yards. The most important points to be observed in making it in our climate are: (1) Keep the centre well up; do not allow your stack to become level or hollow in the centre, as, when the stack settles, the butt ends of the straw will stand upwards, thus enabling the rainwater to run " into " instead of " off '_' your stack. (2; Do not fail to let your sheaves bind properly ; that is to say, the sheaves of the inner rows must always overlap the outer, to prevent slipping, which would probably cause your stack to fall. (3) See that j^our bundles are well tied; this will ensure a good stack being made (in addition to avoiding considerable annoyance) and save time and money. 406 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. Building the Ohiong Stack. — In laying- out your stack, say, for 10,000 bundles, mark off four corners, 8 by 4 yards. Then place a row of sheaves on end down the centre, starting- and ending- about 1 yard from the end; then place with the ears resting- about just above the bands a row on either side and at the ends. This operation is continued until you have completed the foundation of your stack, which would then in the centre be the length of a sheaf high, sloping down to the thickness of a sheaf on the side and end. You then start your first layer from any point on the boundary of the stack ; push the stubble end or butt firmly in behind the band, holding the sheaf at the same angle as the slope or pitch of your stack, continuing until a row (see section of stack. Fig. I, A) on the outside of the stack is completed. The second and subsequent rows running close up to the centre of the stack are placed with the ear ends over- lapping the previous row in order to enable the slope of the stack to be maintained to allow for binding. At about a distance of two- thirds of the length of a sheaf from the centre of stack, place one row on either side of the centre with the stubble ends against the previous row (Fig. I, B), so that the heads just overlap one another. The last row is then placed to cover the overlapping heads, with the stubble ends alternately to one side and the other (see Fig. I, C). Once your Cross Section of Stack. stack has got a good slope, the inner rows can be placed on sub- sequent layers of sheaves with stubble ends together, and heads over- lapping one another, but as soon as tiie stack begins to lose its pitch heads must be placed overlapping the stubble of the previous rows as in first layer, Fig. I. This will immediately raise the stack in the centre. The corners of a four-sided stack should be slightly rounded, and to obtain a desirable shape it is necessary to start drawing- the heads of the sheaves slightly away from the corner, commencing four or five sheaves away, to make room for the corner sheaf (see Fig. II). The heads of the sheaves will overlap one another slightly. Care should, however, be taken in putting down the sheaves of the inner rows at the corners, so that these do not overlap too far (Fig. II, B), as otherwise the stack will become too steep at the corners. In this way the symmetry of the stack will be maintained. By placing the stubble ends behind the bands of the outer row of each layer, the stack is gradually being drawn inwards, growing narrower as the stack g-rows higher. When the width of the stack Departmental Activities. 40^ has become about 10 feet or when it is getting too high, the head should be put on. All the above measurements would vary according to the length and thickness of the sheaves. The construction of the head is similar to the rest of the stack, excepting that the centre sheaves are laid lengthways along the centre line of the stack and not across it (Fig. Ill, A). Corners of Stack. The ears of the rows of the sheaves from either side of the stack will soon begin to overlap (Fig. Ill, B). As soon as a row overlaps the previous one by about a foot, the stack is completed (see Fig. Ill, C). Sometimes it is preferable putting the last two rows with the ears hanging downwards, but this is not essential. Cross Section of Cap of Stack. It is not advisable having more hands on the stack than is absolutely necessary; on a large stack four men, and on a small one two are enough. In finishing off, it is advisable to fasten the cap down by pinning the sheaves with wooden pegs not more than \ inch thick ; this also applies to a four-sided stack, when the end bundles of the top layer may be pinned down, and in addition the bundles joined together by taking a small handful of straw from each bundle, and pushing this under the band of the adjoining bundle. 408 JoriJx.vL OF THE Department of Agricultuee. — Nov., 1922. The Round Stack. — The round stack should resenihle a rondavel. A stack 6 to 7 yards in diameter will hold about 10,000 bundles. Mark off the g-round, place a bundle on end in the centre, place around this as many bundles as will fit in nicely, leariing' against the centre one with heads slightly above the band, at an angde of about 72 deg'rees ; in other words build a shock. Pack round this in the same manner as in a four-sided stack, until you reach the outer circle of your stack, when the butt end of your sheaves should lie flat on the g-round with the head resting on the previous row. This completes your foundation. By placing your outer laj^ers on the bands you will gradually draw in your stack until the summit is reached. For the top or last layers the heads of the sheaves will overlap one another at an angde; that is to say, the ears of each sheaf practically cover the pi-evious one, so that the last .sheaf placed covers all the rest. Analyses of Rock Samples from Harding. — In view of the importance of phosphates in South Africa and the search always being made for them, the following results of a fevv analyses of some rock samples received at this Institution from Harding are interesting. The analyses were undertaken to deteiiuine their phosphate content. Their partial composition on a water free basis is given below, and was ascertained l)y the assistant chemist, Mr. J. J. Vogel, M.Sc. Sample " A."' Sample " B." Sample " C." Insoluble matter SlvU ;«-80 4()-70 Iron oxide 14-33 12-74 12-47 Alumina Calcium ox ide Phosphoric oxide Carbon dioxide These samples resemble in conjposition some of the Wecnon rocks which are found in a similar geologncal formation. Their phosphate content is low, and their iron oxide and alunnna content twice as great as the lime content. They are of little value commercially on account of their low phosphoric oxide and their high iron content. Fertilizing and Manuring of Maize. — Maize, like other plants, takes up a certain amount of mineial plant food from the soil. If the mealie plant is burned to a clean white ash, the minerals, without which the plant will not grow, may be weighed. This ash contains, among other things, phosphates, potash salts, and carbonate of lime. One important substance which the mealie plant takes up from the soil is lost in burning, i.e. nitrogen. From the fertility point of view the nitrogen phosphates and potash are the most important of these four. Maize can get along very well with little lime. Seeing that ten bags mealies can take the following amounts of plant food from the soil, it is easy to believe that no soil is inexhaustible, and the average South African soil contains only 1300 lb. of phosphoric oxide per acre in the first 6^/3 inches : — 8-73 8-24 8-63 0 04 11-71 9-20 5-48 5-91 6-02 2-20 Departmental Activities. 409 Mineral Plant Food removed by Ten Bays of Maize. Nitrogen. Phosphates reckoned as Phosphoric Oxide. Potash. Lime. Total crop 'y2 Grain only 36 Total crop 42 Grain only , Total crop 30 1 30 Grain only 8 Total crop 6-0 Grain only 0-6 In fifteen to thirty years, if nothing is applied to the land, the yield decreases greatly. The secret of success is to keep up the fertility of the land by farm manures and phosphates. Kraal or stable manure is a cheap and excellent source of plant food, as it contains nitrogen, phosphates, potash, and lime. In the soil, however, the nitrogen and potash are in excess of the phosphates, and this is unfortunately the case also in the farm manures. These, therefore, give best results when reinforced with phosphates : 2(10 lb. of superpliosphates to 2 tons of manure for an acre is a good mixture. In areas of high rainfall more manure can be used. If too much manure is used, it supplies too much nitrogen, producing very leafy plants, which " burn up " in a drought, i.e. suffer from lack of moisture, because they use more than an unmanured plant by reason of their extra leaf growth. Phosphates alone as superphosphates or bone meal or a mixture of the two do not cause a " burning up," but develop good strong roots, which help the plant to withstand the drought, and still produce grain. A mixture of 50 lb. of bone nieal and 150 lb. of superphosphates is a good mixture per acre. The maize grower is not advised to buy complete fertilizers, but rather to make use of phosphates and farm manures. Where he cannot get farm manures, then " green manuring " should be practised. This consists of ploughing under any green crop and allow- ing it to decompose in the soil. In the drier maize areas it is better to feed oft this crop, usually a legume, or cut it for hay. Then plant the land with maize the next year, and give a 200-lb. dressing of phosphate per acre. Another important subject is crop rotation. It has been proved time and time again that it is very bad to grow the same crop year after year on the same soil. A crop rotation lessens insect pests, and as different plants feed at different depths it helps to bring up the available or soluble plant foods from the various layers of the soil. A crop rotation should always include a legume, and some of the crops should get phosphates. A rotation suitable for high veld and middle veld areas is teff', cowpeas, and maize. The phosphates are applied only to the maize. The cowpeas and teff are cut for hay. The cowpeas give a dry-land hay equal to lucerne hay in feeding value. Any suitable summer crop maj- be substituted for teff. Lime is cheap, but it does not pay to apply it to mealies, as they grow veil on sour soil. Unless the land is ploughed and harrowed well, and the crop kept nice and clean, fertilizers will not help much. But if this is done much better results and heavier cobs will result than where phosphates and a little manure have not been used or where legumes have not been planted in the rotation. 410 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. First Cross Suffolk-Persian Sheep. — At the leceut Witwateis- rand Fat Stock Show, Mr. W. Eaton, President of the Witwatersrand Master liutcliers' Association, carried out a slauglitering demonstra- tion on several types of sheep nnder the auspices of the Meat Exchange. The sheep supplied by this Institution for the demonstra- tion were two full-grown first cross Suffolk-Persian sheep, which were in the winning- pen at the above Show. They were taken off the veld in July and allowed to run on the lucerne lands during August, other- wise they were not specially fed on concentrates prior to the Show. Carcass of Suft'olk-Persiaa Ci-oss, lired at Potchefstroom School of Agriculture and Experimental Station. Dead weight, 60 lb. Mr. Eaton has furnished the accompanying photographs, and the following is extracted from his report : — " The photographs will prove the value of this class of sheep from the butcher's point of view: the quality is most excellent and every- thing that could be desired. One photograph shows the whole sheep weighing 60 lb. (which is perhaps a little on the heavy side) ; in spite of this weight, the meat showed an abundance of lean flesh, and especially in the chops, which were large and most saleable, with no waste fat. Departmental Activities. 411 The following- weiglits of one side of the slieep and the other in joints, show that no waste whatever occurred. On cutting the sheep in ha]f both halves weighed 80 lb. I cut into the usual joints (English fashion) to see how tlie side cut out, with the following gratifying results: — Leg: Full of flesh, small in bone, Tf lb. Loin : Cut into 28 very saleable good chops; total weight, 7 lb. Shoulder : Also of very excellent quality, full of meat and like- wise small in bone; weight, 5-o lb. 1. Breast, 6 lb. 2. Shoulder, o| lb. .3. Side, 30 lb. 4. Leg, 7| lb. 5. Neck, 2 lb. 6. Lcin, 7 lb. 7. Suet, 1-| lb. Neck of mutton, or " scrag-end " : Only weighing 2 lb,, very thick in flesh, and a ready sale was effected. Breast: Very thick, fiill of flesh nicely mingled with fat, and very saleable ; weight, 6 lb. Kidney sviet : If lb. This works out at exactly 30 lb., making the total weight of the sheep 60 lb., showing thus no loss in cutting out, which speaks for itself, and is a great improvement on the ordinary slaughter sheep seen in the markets to-day. 412 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. In my upiuion tliey are the finest and most profitable class of sheep I have cut up since I have left London, and production of such should be aimed at, as they would undoubtedly find a ready sale and command top market prices both in South Africa and overseas. Several of my customers who had the mutton had iK)thin<^" but the highest praise as regards the quality and flavour." GLEN, ORANGE FREE STATE. Cropping System for the Small Farmer. — Though much has been written concerning ihe value of rotation in maintaining the yield, and of the value of the diversity- of crops for the sake of greater security, very many farmers still confine their attention almost entirely to maize. Though to the large farmer in certain areas this restriction of activities largely to one crop may be profitable, tliere is no doubt as to the folly of the practice for the small farmer. The rainfall over a great part of the maize-growing areas is notoriously unreliable, and it must be small comfort to any unfortunate farmer to be able to blame the weather for his failure to make good. Moreover, if the crop is successful, the amount of profit it can produce in a limited area is not very great. One hundred acres of maize with a yield of six bags per acre — and the majority of farmers are not getting as much this season — with 2s. (id. profit per bag (those generally who had to sell at 10s. or thereal)outs did not make this profit) I'esults in only £75 profit — hardly a living wage for a farmer. Double this profit could be derived from the same area if a proportion of fodder crops Avas grown and fed on the farm, especially if a legume be included in the cropping system. Our animals need the nitrogen supplied by such legumes as cowpeas, velvet beans, soya beans, kaffir or other beans, and our soils are usually benefitted by growing them ; yet farmers persist in excuses for not making a success of them. Some two or three hundred years ago clover helped to make English farming, lucerne has made the Argentine a successful cattle-raising country, and cowpeas and other legumes have now become a regular constituent of the United States cropping system ; yet there are South African farmers who think they can succeed without the aid of legumes. Stalk Borer.— One feature has particularlj^ struck the notice of the officer in charge of the cost of production of maize investigation on his itinerary, and that is the gieat amount of damage caused to maize by the stalk borer, and tlie vulnera])ility of the crop to its attacks when no measures of prevention are used. Mally, in his Bulletin No. 3 of 1920, has detailed fully the methods which may be used, and farmers are aware of the liability to attacks of the pest and the damage it may cause them, and yet they seldom take any steps either for prevention or remedy. Trap crops are but one of the methods recommended by Mr. Mally, and according to him should be used as supplementary rather than control measures. Never- theless on those farms where stock, especially dairy cows, are kept they will constitute an economi(?al method of attack in that the trap crop will be a valuable feed either for soiling or silage. Farmers who have grown catch-crops of maize primarily for feeding green to their cattle have found greater freedom from stalk borer in consequence. Departmental Activities. 413 Extension Work. — Persons otherwise well informed often have little or no personal knowledge of the Schools of Agriculture in their area and the facilities they offer. Probably one of the most effective ways of keeping' the farming public informed of the best methods to be followed and bringing them into touch with the local agricultural education and research institution and organizing them, is by means of the country agent. At any rate it is maintained in the United States that the country agents have been the most eft'ective means of establishing a contact between the scientific workshop and the farm. In South Africa country agents have not yet been ap- pointed, and other means have to be employed for making known the facilities offered in the way of education, research, and advice by the various Schools of Agriculture. At Glen every opportunity has recently been taken of making visitors to Bloemfontein acquainted with tile work and function of the school. In May last a party of 70 members of the Dutch Reformed Synod were invited to Glen, and in September 150 members of the Presbyterian Church Congress were shown the various sections with their stock and equipment. Towards the end of the month 70 delegates of the Associated Chambers of Commerce visited Glen and left it equipped with some of the properties of a country agent ; it is hoped that they will make full use of their exceptional opportunities of making known the school and the facilities it offers. Commerce and agriculture are mutually interdependent, and any progress in agriculture is reflected to an equal extent in tlie commerce of the land. The Value of Subsoil Inspection. — Two ([uestions which have always to be answered by farmers who send samples of soil for analysis or who want advice on a particular soil, are: "How deep is the soil?" and " What is the nature of the subsoil?" It is sur- prising that a large number of farmers cannot answer these questions with any certainty, even if asked with reference to a cultivated soil on their own farm. It has often happened that the chemist, when visiting farms, is shown a patch of lucerne that will not thrive or an orchard which is dying off, or " something wrong " with one or other deep-rooted crop. Of course the first questions he asks the farmer (if necessary) are the two mentioned above ; and more often than not the solution of the problem has thus been found. So much of thd agricultural value of a soil depends on its depth and the nature of its subsoil that subsoil inspection can never be too strongly recom- mended. It is obvious that for a deep-rooted crop there must be a deep soil, or the subsoil must be sufficiently penetrable and contain sufficient moisture, air, and available plant-food to allow of proper root development. Many trees and other plants will send their roots deep into a limestone subsoil, whereas the same root will not penetrate into the soft Imt " dead " and compact clay subsoil found beneath many soils. Similarly a gravelly subsoil might be more desirable than one consisting of fine silt and clay, and rich in plant-food but not sufficiently aerated. Questions about soils which " dry out rapidly " are often asked. In most cases the cause has been traced to the nature of the subsoil. To know the physical nature of a soil down to its bedrock foundation is worth more than the results of a chemical analysis of the first few inches of surface soil. 414 JOUKNAL or THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NoV., 1922. Agricultural Education. — Now that attention is being- directed to agriculture in primary and secondary schools, and in view of the arrangement recently made whereby the Diploma of the Glen School of Agriculture is accepted as a qualification examination for the Hig-her Primary Teachers' Certificate Examination, the invitation extended to this Institution to put up an exhibit at the Exhibition of School Work arranged in Bloemfontein by the Orange Free State Teachers' Association was cordially welcomed. Exhibits representing- the experimental, engineering-, horticultural, chemical, entomological, dairy, and sheep and wool and domestic science sections, and chosen to illustrate the educational side of the work, were made. Special Course in Dairying. — The Special Course in Dairying which commenced in January last, terminated on the 6th October. The new course commenced on the 11th October, and is expected to continue until 30th September, 1923. The students leaving the school have been examined in the theoretical portion of their work and in testing ; and thej- now have to complete six months in an approved factory before being finally examined on their practical work. Managers of creameries who realize the value of trained men are asked to assist these students to obtain their certificate l>y offering to engage them for the specified period at a nominal figure. In the Poultry Division. — School of Agriculture, Potchefstroom, Transvaal. Faulty Fruit Boxes. The Trade Commissioner reports that there have been certain marks of oranges consistently unsatisfactory throughout the past export season, many of their boxes arriving split iji half. This was due to the use of two-fifth inch plain, frail strapping instead of the usual half -inch self grip. The use of the former strapping should immediately be discouraged, as such poor material is incapable of withstanding the wear and tear of handling. Castration or Animals with the Buedizzo Pincers. 415 FURTHER HINTS ON THE CASTRATION OF ANIMALS WITH THE BURDIZZO PINCERS. By Dk. F. Veglia, Division of Veterinary EdiK-ation aiul KesearcL, Onderstepoort , Transvaal . Since tlie notes upon the use of tlie Burdizzo pincers were published in the August, 1921, number of tliis Journal, fnrtlier observations upon FiCi. 1. — The "Burdizzo pincers" with the piping extension. their manipulation and efficiency have been made. Castration with these pincers has been systematically carried out on cattle, sheep, donkeys, pigs, and dogs, and the previous general instructions for use still hold good. The purpose of tbe present notes is to suggest a few improvements in technique and answer a few questions raised in correspondence with farmers. 14 416 Journal or the Depaetmext of Agriculture. — Xov., 1922. Fm. 2a.— The original handle lenulh of the pincers and tlie piping extension. Fui. 2b. — Kuch's modi ticat ion of the original Buidizzo pincers showing l"g-grip. Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers. 417 Fig. 3a. — Scrotum of a lamVj two weeks old operated on with the pincers. Ua Fig. 3b. — The same bag cut open to show the testicles completely severed from the cords (1 and 2). 418 Journal of the Departmem' of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. The instruiueiit was originally desioiied ior European cattle, but it has been found tliat bulls reared upon the oi)en veld in this country generally show a thicker scrotum, and that for bulls over two years old the closing of tlie pincers on the testicular cords can be facilitati^l by the use of the extensions to the handles shown in Fig. 1. These extensions simply consist of tubes about 10 inches in length, and of li inch internal diameter. They can be slipped on whenever greater leverage is required, and easily removed again when the pincers are used for young calves or sheep, as shown in Fig. 2a. In Brazil, where conditions are similar to those of the Union, and where the Burdizzo pincers are widely used, the same type of Fig. i.—c Testicular bag of a calf lO.V montiis nld, which was castrated with the pincers three months before its death. /< Atrophied and dead testicle of same calf, compared witli h, which is a normal size testicle from a calf one month old. extensions are adopted for the handles. Ktich, however, has recently described another useful modification of the instrument, in which the handles are lengthened, and a liow-shaped knee-support constructed upon the end of one of them. This device affords a better grip, and steadies the pincers during compression of the cord when the opera- tion is being undertaken by one man. This type, as illustrated in Fig. 2b, is now advertised for sale. In South Africa, where the farmer can generally get an assistant to hold the testicular cord during the operation, the simple pipe extensions, lengthening the handles by 3 to 6 inches, will generally meet all requirements, but for the man who prefers to undertake the Castration of Animals with the Burdizzo Pincers. 419 operation unaided tlie modified instrument of Fig. 2b offers undoubted advantages. Farmers have sometimes asked \un\ tlie cords caD ()e crushed under the bag without cutting the skin, and it may therefore be explained that the technique of the operation is based upon the differ* ence in resistance to pressure between the tissues of the scrotum and of the testicular cord. The skin of the scrotum, and the fibrous mem- brane (7'irnica vafjinnlis) containing the cords, resist the pressure of the pincers (Fig. 3a, Fig. 4 «, Fig. 6ni) by Ihe inspector, who will advise the consignor in writing if his fruit ct'imot be passed. The consignor may then refer the matter to a board of reference (constituted according to regulation), after depositing the prescribed fee therefor; and if the board reverses the inspector's deci- sion, the fee will be refunded. All fruit rejected (whether the inspector's decision is accepted in the first instance by the consignor or whether such decision is uplield by the board of reference) must be removed, and the consignor is liable for all expenses of storage pending such removal. Moreover, if the fruit is not removed within the prescribed time, the inspector is authorized to have it destroyed or otherwise disposed of. A cousigjior may ])e present at any examination of his fruit by an inspector. The Act empowers the Governor-General to make regulations regarding the notification of intention to export, packing, time of delivery, marking of packages, condition and grading of fruit, per- centage of fruit to be inspected, stamping of receptacles by the inspector, payment of fees for inspection or storage, cold storage temperature prior to export, removal of rejected fruit, the constitu- tion of the board of reference, the grades and species of fruit that shall be shipped, and the order in which shipnient shall take place (Act No. 16, 1922), and generally for the better carrying out of the objects and purposes of the Act. Any one guilty of a contravention is liable to a fine not exceeding twenty-five pounds. 440 joukxal of the l)epartmein"t of agriculture. ]s'0v., 1922. Fruit Export Regulatio-n's. The regulations under the Act are framed after consul tation with the various interests concerned, and with a view to ineeting- the requirements of the overseas fresh fruit trade. They are subject to amendment from time to time. Those at present in force are Govern- ment Notices Nos. 260 of the 6th February, 1920, and 530 of the 29th March, 1922. It is important that every fruit exporter should be thoroughly acquainted with them, for they contain full particulars regarding the grades of fruit and the measurements of tlieir recep- tacles. The above-mentioned regulations show the manner in which in- tending exporters (who must make their own arrangements for the disposal of their fruit oversea) must advise the inspector and become registered, and how their fruit must be consigned. The inspection fee is Is. 4d. per 40 cubic feet on all boxes going 25 or less to the ton, and 2s. on all boxes going over 25 to the ton."^ Pears, peaches, nectar- ines, apricots, plums, grapes, apples, pineapples, citrus fruit, and mangoes must be packed in new and clean boxes, and the regulations give the measurements thereof. As prescribed in the legulations, every box must be clearly marked on the one end thereof with the registered mark of the exporter, or other means of identification, and other par- ticulars regarding its contents; the other end must also be marked wi|ji the shipping mark of the agent, etc. The fruit must be wrapped in tissue or other suitable paper, and (excepting apples and citrus fruit) may be placed in wood-wool c: cork-dust; this, however, does not apply to Almeria grapes. All fruit must be in a sound condition, fully developed, not too unripe, free from disease, bruises, cuts, or other blemishes affecting its appearance, and be of the characteristic shape of its variety and of uniform size in each box. The regulations state how fruit (other than citrus or pines) not to be shipped in ventilated hold has to be cold-stored for forty-eight hours prior to shipment, and the steps to be taken where private cold stores are used for the purpose : the time spent in refrigerated car may be included in the forty-eight hours. Citrus and pines must be delivered for inspection not less than twenty-eight hours prior to ship- ment. The exporter must pay the charge for cold storage. Special attention is directed to section 12 of the regulations, and to Government Notice No. 530, 1922, which amends this section in so far as oranges are concerned. They give the grades of each fruit and its varieties, and advise which varieties are considered suit- able or unsuitable for export. The regulations give the names of the members of the boards of reference at various ports, whose services are available, at a fee of 10s. per consignment, to adjudicate on the decision of an inspector in regard to fruit rejected if so required by the consigiioi-. Seven days are allowed for the removal of fruit finally rejected. Boxes of fruit may be' degraded and re-marked accordingly by an inspector if otherwise complying with the regulatiuiis. Not less than 5 per cent, of the boxes of fruit in any consignment will be opened by the inspector for examination, wlio will stamp such boxes to that effect. * A special fee of 5s. per 40 cubic feet is now also levied, tiee further on. Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union. 441 (b) THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE EXPORT ACT, Xo. 35 OF 1917. This Act provides for the inspectiou and orading of agricultural produce which is to be exported by sea from the Union for purposes of sale, the inspection of premises used for the slaughter of animals for such export or for the preparation and manufacture of such produce. No agricultural produce nu^y be exported unless it has been inspected and branded by an inspector. This does not apply to wool, mohair, or ostrich feathers (fresh fruit is specially dealt with in Act No. 17, 1914), but includes meat or any product thereof, butter (creamery, ungraded farm, and cooking), cheese, eggs, and any article whatever produced or derived by farming operations; also (see Act. No. 16, 1922, section 11) any such article whether or not it has under- gone any change of form as a result of some process applied to it since it was produced or derived. The Governor-General may from time to time proclaim various articles to be agricultural produce for the purposes of the Act and its regulations. This has been done in respect of maize, maize products, oats, bran, rye, beans, peas, lucerne seed, katRr corn, millet, barley (Proclamation No. 79, 1921), and dried fruit (Proclamation No. 80, 1921). The produce of any animal which is infected with disease, and agricultural produce unfit for human consumption or unlikely to reach its oversea destination in a marketable state, may not be exported, and the inspector will determine this. An appeal against a decision by an inspector nuiy be made to a board which will be appointed by the Minister, provided the aggrieved person deposits sufficient to cover the costs of the board. This amount will be refunded if the appeal is upheld by the board, whose decision is final. Produce found on inspection to be unfit for human consumption, and any animal to be slaughtered for meat export and found to be so infected with disease as to render the meat unfit, may be destroyed or so disposed of that it cannot be used for human consumption or animal food. Any one desiring' to have an animal the meat of which is intended for export slaughtered at any abattoir or slaughtering place, must give due notice to the owners thereof, who, before permitting it, must obtain the sanction of the Minister; likewise, he must have the sanction of the Minister to use his own premises if required for that purpose. Abattoirs and slaughtering places used for meat export pur- poses must be sanctioned by the Minister, whose sanction may be withdrawn at any time where any premises (with the necessary appurtenances and facilities) are not kept in a suitable condition. The Act empowers the Governor-General to proclaim the specific designation, quality, and standards of composition (including mois- ture-content), etc., of produce intended for export, and to prohibit the export of agricultural produce which has been so treated as to give it the appearance of an article of different commercial value. He may also make regulations as to the following matters relating to agricul- tural produce intended for export : The inspection of animals and produce and the premises in which slaughtering or manufacturing, 442 Journal or the Department of Agricultitre. — Nov., 1922. etc., takes place; the place and maiiDer of inspection; notice of inten- tion to export; packing, marking, weighing, size, etc., of receptacles; delivery of produce nt the port; s+orage, conveyance, and treatment of produce; grading and branding of jiroduce ; percentage to he in- spected; temperatures; abstraction oL' samples for analysis, etc.; de- grading, regradmg, or rebranding : circumstances governing the withdrawal of produce from shipment; the various forms of notices, certificates, etc., to be used; inspection and grading fees; and generallv for the better carrying out of the objects and i)urposes of the Act. Penalties are also provided for any contravention of the Act, special reference being made to the forging of certificates, brands, labels, etc. Provision is made whereby any premises may be entered for inspection purposes where agricultural produce is kept, or suspected of being kept, fox export, or where any animal is kei)t the produce whereof is intended for export. Eegulations issued under Act No. 35, 1917. Maize, Kaffir Corn, Maize Meal, and Oats may not be exported from the Union unless they comply with the regulations and restric- tions as presently contained in Pioclamatiou No. 159, 1921. This shows the various grades (eight for maize, five kafiir corn, five maize meal, and two each for Cape Western Province and Orange Free State oats), and the description under which the above commodi- ties will be passed for export by the inspector, who examines every bag' of grain in a consignment at a fee of Jd. per bag, and issues a certificate to the shipper. To allow of export, maize must not contain more tlian 12o per cent, of moisture, nor be shipped at a higher temperature than 63° FahreiiliCit. The moistv.re-(ontent of maize meal must not be more than 12 per cent., nor must the meal be sour, wet, or caked, or milled from musty, weevily, or otherwise defective grain ; further, maize meal grades M3, M4, and Mo must weigh 196 lb. per bag gross. No certificate will be issued where the grain is found by the inspector to be wet, unripe, w'eevily, musty, or artificially dried. Maize and kaffir corn must be contained in new " A " quality twill bags 21 lb. weight (eight porter eight shot), or in new 3^- lb. " 13 " twill eight by six bags in good condition and double sewn. \\ eevily g'rain, when so marked, may be sent torwa.vl for export, the certificate being endorsed " Weevily." Such gram when awaiting shipment will be kept apart from clean grain, nor will it be shipped in the same hold. Grain developing weevil after grading must be removed forthwith by the owner; if it develops before grading, it will be removed to a special store at the expense of the consignee. If a consignor arranges for weevily grain to be shipi^ed in a liold contain- ing clean grain, he is liable to pay the difference between the special export and the ordinary railway rates. All grain rejected by the grader mast be removed within four days, provided that if it is rejected on account of dampness it may be dried at the expense of the consignee and again be offered for inspection. Rejected grain on account of dampness or weevil may be Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union. 443 stored by the consignor, but if it is thereafter disposed of locally by the owner he must pay the difference in the two rates referred to above. The Government is not responsible for any loss sustained in con- nection witli maize, maize meal, kaffir corn, and oats lovwarded for export, and takes no responsibility in respect of any certificate which may be issued by an inspector under these regulations. Lucerne Seed intended for export will be accepted for inspection nt Capetown or such other place as the Minister may determine. It may not be exported unless sound, welJ cleaned, and free from dodder. It must not contain more than 2 per cent, of impurities, including other seeds, and must have a germination capacity of at least 95 per cent. It must be contained in the same class of bags as described above for maize and kattiv corn, and the net weight of each bag of lucerne seed must be 2U0 lb. Each bag in a consignment is examined (at a charge of 3d., which includes the cost of determination of germination capacity and of purity) by an inspector, who will deliver to the shipper a certificate in respect thereof. All rejections must be removed within four days; such seed may, however, after being cleaned, again be offered for inspection, on condition that the screenings from such cleaning are forwarded at the same time to the inspector for destruction or other disposal. In the same way as the grain exports referred to al)OA'G, the Government accepts no responsibility in connection with consignments of seed lorwaided or certificates issued. Butter and Cheese. — At present exportation may take place only through Durban aud Capetown. Xotice of intention to export must be given on the prescribed form to the Superintendent of Dairying. Pretoria, ten clear days before shipment, although an exception is made in the case of shorter notice it the inspector has sufficient time to carry out the necessary work prior to shipment. Butter and cheese intended for export must be placed in an approved cold storage at the port, the temperature for the cheese to be between 40^ and bO° F., and they will be examined at the port in premises approved by the Superintendent of Dairying. There are three grades according to quality, viz., first, second, and third. The regulations show in detail how the grading is applied. The packing must be in boxes, crates (cheese), or cases which, in the opinion of the inspector, are suitable and of sufficient strengtli. The marking of the packages is an im- portant matter, and must be done in such a manner as to indicate to the inspector the date of manufacture of the contents and, in the case of creamery butter, the number of the churning, and of cheese the number of the vat, as well as the number of cases of butter from each churning and crates or cases of cheese from each vat. Such particulars may be indicated by means of a series of letters or figures placed on the top left-hand corner of the case or crate. Exporters must furnish the Superintendent of Dairying with a key to such letters or figures before the produce submitted for grading will be examined. Further details of the packing and marking are given in the regulations. The packages containing creamery butter or cheese whicji have been examined and passed for export are stamped with a distinctive mark showing the grade, and the inspector issues various certificates 444 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. (as prescribed) in respect of same, which give permission to ship and indicate in detail the points awarded. In the case of ungraded farm butter and cooking butter the cases are not stamped as shown above. Cheese must not be shipped at a higher temperature than 50° F. and butter 30° F., nor will the latter be inspected or graded if its temperature is less than 50° or more than 64° F. Should anj- butter or cheese be withdrawn or excluded from shipment, the owners or shippers must notify, within ten days, the Superintendent of Dairying, and return to him the certificates issued in respect thereof. The goods, however, must not be moved from the place of examination until the inspector has cancelled the export or grading mark on the boxes. If sent forward later for ship- ment, the same steps must be taken as in the original instance, and it is in the discretion of the inspector to re-examine and regrade such butter and cheese. liUtter exported from the I^nicui oversea must be sent under the specific designations (a) "Creamery Butter" (butter manufac- tured ill a creamery registered under the Dairy Indubtry Act. Xo. 16 of 1918); (h) '-Ungraded Farm Butter" (all butter other than creamery and cooking butter) ; and (c) " Cooking Butter " (all butter wliich is ]>rcsented for export clearly marked " Cook/ng Butter" on two sides of the case or box). No butter is permitted to be exported which contains more than 16 per cent, ot moisture or more than 0'5 per cent, of boric acid. The inspector may take such samples of butter and cheese as he may consider necessary for examination, inspection, or analysis. The fee for grading or inspection to be paid by the exporter, is 3d. per case or box in respect of all butter submitted for the purpose, and 2d. per crate or case in respect of cheese. The Government is not responsible for any loss which may be sustained in connection with butter or clieese forwarded for export. Dried Fruit. — The regulations are drawn up on similar lines to those governing the export of fresh fruit, as referred to above, and the various steps to be taken in respect of export or otherwise are more or less identical. The fee, however, where the board of reference is appealed tc is £b per consignment. Not less than seven days' notice of intention to export must be given to the Government Fruit Inspector at Capetown (the only port at which dried fruit is inspected and shipped at present), and the dried fruit (which includes nuts of various kinds) must be delivered for inspection at least forty-eight hours prior to shipment. The examination fee is 4s. per 40 cubic feet or part thereof. The method of packing, marking of packages, and the grades of the various varieties are detailed in the regulations. The fruit in each box or tray must be in good condition, of uniform size or colour, and of one variety, and the receptacle must be lined with tissue-packing or some such suitable paper. (July new and clean boxes or bags must be used by exporters. Special reference is made in the regulations to the standard pack- ing, etc., of stalk or cluster raisins and those known as " dried grapes." They must not contain more than 15 per cent, of moisture. One per cent, or more of the packages of a total consignment will be opened and examined by the inspector, \\ho will issue to the con- signor a certificate of inspection and correct grading*, and who will Principal Agricultural Acts of the Union. 445 stamp all boxes or bags complying' with the regulatioiis " Passed by Government Inspector." Meati — While Act No. 35 of 1917 provides for the regulation of the export by sea of meat, the regulations now in force were issued (Proclamation No. 163, 1915) during the time of the war under the Public Welfare and Moratorium Act of 1914. No meat may be exported by sea from the Union before notice has been given to the Principal Veteri)iary Officer in the prescribed form, which provides for particulars respecting tlie port of export, place of slaughter, and marking of the produce. Where an abattoir or slaughtering place is to be used, clue notice must be given to the owners thereof, who must hold the sanction of the Minister for the use of their premises for tlie intended purposes of meat export, and the same sanction must be obtained where a person uses his own premises for similar purposes. Slaughter for export may take place only on such date as the Principal Veterinary Ofhcer may determine. All animals, the meat of which is intended for export, must be inspected by a Government veterinary officer immediately beiore slaughter, and may be slaughtered only after his permission is given. Immediately after slaughter each carcass will be examined, and no meat may be exported unless it bears a label on which is endorsed a certificate by a Govern- ment veterinary officer or meat inspector to the effect that the meat is free from disease, and stating where and when slaughtering took place. Further, no meat may be received on board a vessel unless it is accompanied by another certificate (as prescribed) respecting the suitability of the meat for human consumption, etc. Nor will the latter certificate be issued unless the following fees for inspection are paid to the inspecting officer: — Cattle, per head. 4d. : for every 12 or fractiiui of 12 calves, pigs, and sheep, 3d. (() THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS GRADING ACT, No. 16 OF 1922. This Act makes further provision for the inspection and grading of agricultural products and articles prepared, manufactured, or derived from such products. It contains the principle of the levy for the purpose of raising funds for the furtherance of the industry con- cerned. It provides also, among other tilings, for the prohibition of the importation of products not conforming to certain standards. The manufacturer of preparations from agricultural products, or the representatives of producers who have co-operated for the produc- tion and sale of their agricultural products, may apply to the Minister to have their particular products inspected and graded. The applica- tion will be acceded to if the Minister is satisfied that the aggregate receipts of the inspection and grading fees will be sufficient to defray the expenditure incurred. Special provision is made for the inspec- tion and grading of hides and skins on the payment of a fee, but this may be limited by the Minister to particular abattoirs, slaughter places, etc. Whenever fees are payable under regulations made under this Act or under the Acts referred to above (Nos. 17, 1914, and 35, 1917) in respect of the inspection or grading of any agricultural product, the Minister may prescribe in addition special fees (known as a levy), to be devoted to the promotion of the future production of the product concerned. These special fees will be paid 446 JOUENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NoV., 1922. into a special nccount from which the Minister may direct payment to be made, from time to time, to any co-operative or othei- body of persons who will satisfactorily apply such moneys to the further production and sale of the particular ag-ricidtural product for which the account was created ; he may also tlirect the use of the account in any other manner calculated to develop tlie particular branch of the industry concerned. Those receiving- the above moneys must expend it as directed or approved of by the Minister, to whom they are liable to show proof that the moneys have been so expended, failing' which, further issue's may be discontinued and steps taken to recover any sums not devoted to their proper objects. The Minister may make reg'iilations prescribing standards of composition and equality for the agricuUural product to be inspected and graded; the place and manner of inspection, etc.; ihe manner of packing and the class of receptacle; the fixing of grades and the place and manner of grading, etc. ; the manner of labelling, marking, or branding receptacles; degrading, regrading, or rebranding; the forms of notices, certificates, etc. ; the fees or special fees to be paid for inspection, analysis, or grading*; and generally for the carrying out of the purposes of the Act. Penalties for contravention may be prescribed ; differing regulations may be made in respect of different products. Any officer of the Department or other authorized person may enter premises on whicli is kept any agricultural product to be inspected and graded under this Act, and examine any part of such laemises or receptacle, etc., found thereon, and take samples of the product. Penalties are provided in the event of forgery of certificates or brands, etc., under this Act, and the wrongful application of brands, labels, etc. No agricultural product may be imported into the Union which is not of the same standard of composition or quality of the similar local product which is to be or is being graded under this Act. "■ Agricultural product,'' in this Act, includes fresh fruits of all kinds; any such article as is defined as agricultural produce under Act Xo. 35 of 191T, and any article produced or derived from such fruits or produce whether or not it has undergoiie a change of form as the result of some process applied to it. The Ee(xUlatioxs under Act Xt). 16, 1922. At the present date the only jegulations issued are in respect of the special fee (or levy) on citrus and deciduous fruit and eggs ex- ported ; for the former the fee is 5s. per 40 cubic feet, and for eggs it is 9d. per case. Note. — Those desirous of studying the full text of the laws principally concerned should obtain ; (a) Act No. 17 of 1914 and Government Notices No. 260 of 1920 and No. 530 of 1922; (h) Act No. 35 of 1017 and Proclamations No. 163 of 1915, Nos. 79, 80, 132, and 159 of 1921. and No. 531 of 1922: also Government Notices Nos. 1312 and 1313 of 1921 and No. 925 of 1922; (c) Act No. 16 of 1922 and Government Notices Nos. 1390 and 1452 of 1922. Fattening rouLTuv i'(»k Table PuRrosES. 44'i FATTENING POULTRY FOR TABLE PURPOSES. 1{esults of Experiments at Grooteontein. By S. W. Nash, Asst. in Poultry, Grootfontein Si'liool of Agriculture, Middelburg, Cape Province. When requiring a bird for the table, most farmers go into their fowl run, seize the first fowl they are able to catch, kill it at once, have it cooked within an hour, and are generally disappointed in that it is^ rather thin, and not quite as tender as they expected. But by putting the bird in a coop and feeding it on soft food for tMo or three weeks a very considerable amount is gained in weight ; the flesh becomes much more tender and improved greatly in flavour. The extra cost is only Id. (one penny) per bird. A fattening coop can be made out of any old packing case, put- ting a few slats at the bottom and in front, and a dish for the food, so placed that the birds can reach it easily. The text books and poultry journals generally advise the use of vSussex ground oats, barley meal, wheat meal and fat. We only used the class of food that every poultry keeper is likely to have on hand, viz., mealie meal, pollard, and separated milk. The experiment covered eighteen days. All the cockerels used were unsuitable for sale as breeding stock, in fact were the very poorest specimens we could find. As a rule the daily ration of the birds in our runs is about 2 oz. of bran and pollard mixed with a percentage of meat meal in the morning, green food ad lib. at noon, and If oz. to 2 oz. mixed grain at night^ — the whole costing about 5d. per bird for the eighteen days. Each bird used in tliis experiment received per day, while in tlie fattening coop, 3i oz. of common mealie meal and pollard (three parts mealie meal and one part pollard) mixed with enough separated milk to make a thin paste. Charging the meal and pollard at current rates and the milk at 3d. per gallon, the cost of feeding was 6d. per bird for the eighteen days, or only one penny more than s])ent on those in the runs. After selecting our cockerels they were carefully weighed and placed in the coop, and starved for twenty-four hours in order to make them hungry; they received their first meal at 6 a.m. on the first day, and their second at 6 p.m. ; thereafter they were fed twice daily. They were always ravenous for the food and consumed every scrap. No drinking water was given as there was sufficient moisture in the food, and, of course, we withheld green food. Two White Leghorns, one each Black and Brown Leghorn, and one White Orpington were marked and put back in the runs and fed with the flock in the ordinary manner as a check against the birds in the fattening coop. _ 15 448 JouK.NAj. or the DErAHXMENx oE Auric ULTUKE. — Nov., 1922. The results are as follows : At Commencement. At End ot 8 Days. At End of 18 Days. a CD of' oi o > < bl, 3 0) > c8 0) 0) To 0 08' . 3.5 > « 9 White Leghorns 2 Checks lb. oz. 4 8 3 9 lb. oz. 3 4 3 7 lb. oz. 3 H 3 8 lb. uz. 5 2 No cha 4 11 No cha lb. OZ. 3 8 nge in OZ. 10 weight lb. OZ. 5 13 No cha 5 1 3 7 lb. oz. 3 12 nge in ll). oz. 1 2 weight 4 Brown Leghorns 1 Check 4 3 3 8 3 3 3 7 3 9J 3 8 3 5 Dge in 4 weight 4 3 Lossl 1 If 4 Black Leghorns 1 Check 4 3 3 7 3 1.5| 3 7 a 2 3 8 3 15 12i 1 5 12 3 9 4 11 1 n 0 2 5 White Ori)ingtons ... 1 Check 4 13 4 8 3 8 4 71 •o 14 4 8.i 4 3 14 2 6 10 4 10 4 11 1 14 0 2 1 very old Indian Game 4 7 — — 5 1 — 10 6 0 1 9 1 White Wyandotte ... :. 12 — — 6 11 — 1.-. 7 4 — 1 8 The average gain of tiie liglit bref^ds was 1 lb. 3 oz., and of the heavy breeds 1 lb. 12 oz. The shrinkage in the offal of the cooked birds was remarkable; the gizzards of the game fowl and the largc^st White Orpington only weighed 2 oz. eacli, while that of the Black Leghorn used as a check was 4 oz. There Avas marked difference in tlu' apix'urancc of the birds when dressed f(vr cooking, and a very considerable difference in llie i|nality of the Hesh wlien eaten, that of the fattened birds being siu-culent anil tender, and the cbeck birds stringy and raihcr tongh. ('f)iicl i/.sioHs, — For ;ui extra cost ot Id. covering* eighteen days and very lillle (>xtra laboui', cockerels of the ligbt breeds, generally regaixleil as of not much use for tabl(> i)uri)oscs, can be tniiied into a source of revenue and ])rofil, as a])i)roxima(ely one-third was added to the \vciio.soiiuc cMnnipyga, Wied. Diagram of right posterior spiracle of maggot. Much enlarged, y^, Peritrenie. .y, Slits. Fig. 3. — Pycnosoma alhicepx, Wied. Diagram of right posterior spiracle of maggot. Much enlarged, p. Peritrenie. -v, Slits. ¥\Ct. \.-- 3Ii(sca doniestioa. L., the common house-tly. Diagram of right posterior spiracle of maggot. Much enlarged. ^>», Peritrenie. .?, Slits. J, "Button." Fig. 5. — Lucilia serlcata, Meig. Diagram of posterior aspect of maggot, showing area on which posterior stigmata are situated. Enlarged, d, Stigmata. Fi(i. 6. — Pycnosoma c/i/oropygii, Wied. Diagram of lateral aspect of cephalo- ))haryngeal skeleton of maggot. Much enlarged. ///, Mandible or great hook. /, Inner portion to which musculature is attached. N.B. — It should be noted that this apparatus is double, there being two hooks, etc. 452 Journal of the JJki'artmkist of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 6). Just below these hooks is the mouth opening". On each side a short distance behind the anterior end is a process, the anterior spiracle or breathing aperture [Fig. 1 (/>)]; these spiracles have the appearance of '"mittens, " the " fingers " varying in number from a few to several. On the last segment of the body is an area [Fig. 5 and Fig. 1 (c)] surrounded by a numl)er of processes. ( )ii this area are the posterior stigmata or spiracles [Fig. 5 (,s) (^)j. This area may be rather sunken, and is sometimes very much so, the upper and lower nuu'giiis coming together like lips. In the full-grown maggot each of the two stigmata consists of a dark more or less thickened ring, the peritreme [Figs. 2, 3, and 4 (jj)]. On or just within the peritreme is another structure, the so-called " button " [Fig. 4 (h)], the " buttons " on each spiracle being opposite each other; sometimes the peritreme is broken in the region of the " button." Within the peritreme are the slits [Figs. 2, 3, and 4 (s)] through which air is taken. These slits ai'e invari- ably three in number in the full-grown maggot, and in those vmder discussion are more or less straight and sub-parallel (Figs. 2 and 3), while in the house-fly, for instance, they are sinuous [Fig. 4 (.f)]. J']ach slit is crossed by a numl)er of more or less irregular bars wliicli form a grating. The following are a few notes on the flies that have l)een ])ice(l, ()\vin<^- io the tubercles which remain when the n)ag'got ])upates. \\ may not be out of place heie (o remark' that when fly maggots puj)ate, they do not form a cocoon, noi- shed the larval skin, as is the case with bulteiflies and moths. When ready to pupate, the magg-ot contracts, becomes barrel-shaped, and loujided at each end. The larval skin, contracted in this way, becomes hard and brown, forming- what is termed the pupariuni, and the true pupa is formed within it. When the adult fly is ready io emerge, a cap on the head end of the puj)arium is forced off, and tiie fly draws itself out. When first enierged, the fly is pale-coloured and the wing's are crun)pled up, but the wings soon grow out to their full size, and in a short while the fly assumes its proper colouration. The Green-bottle Blow-fly. Lucilia sericota, Meig. Lucilia serivata, Meig., is a typical " green-bottle " fly, and can easily be distinguished from the two species of Pycnosoma by its plain rather darkish shining green colour, and by the fact that it is somewhat bristly. This species also has a much more slender appear- ance than the other two. Another species of Lticilia, L. argyrocephala, resembles this species very much, but is more bristly. It is faiily common in the Transvaal, but the writer has not yet observed it m the eastern (Jape Province, nor has it been recorded from wool. Another fly that might be mistaken for Lucilia sericata is PyreUia cyanca. This fly is very like the Lucilia in size and shape, and when alive is also of a plain shining but perhaps some- what lighter green. When it is dead its thorax becomes a deep shining blue, while the abdo)nen remains green. This PyreUia has not been recorded as a pest on sheep, and it probably breeds in excreta; it occurs very commonly resting and feeding on ox droj)- })ings, and is found all over the Union. ])uring the present summer (lO'Jl-'J'-J) Lncilid .sericata has not been found to any large extent in wool in the coastal region; in faci, not more than one or two per cent, of the flies reared from wool were of this kind. It is, however, common in the town of East Jiondon. It has been reared in large numbers from meat exposed expeiinientally, and it can be seen in numbers in butchers' shops, where it deposits its eggs on the meat exposed for sale. Although not of importance as a sheep pest near the coast, this species is the only one reared from wool leceived from up-country — the Orange Fi'ee State — up to now, neithei- of the Pyctiosomas being present. Just what conditions control these pests can only be conjectured at ])resent, but more detailed future observations may throw some interesting light on the subject. The maggot of this species is somewhat similar to that of Pycnosovia ch.loropyga, but is not so robust. An examination of the posterior stigmata (Fig. 4) will quickly enable one to distinguish it. The stigmata are not so heavily chitinized and darkened, and are therefore not so conspicuous; the peiitreme is quite narrow, and The Sheep Blow-Fly in South Africa. 455 its margin is entire; tlie "button" is situated un the peiitreme, and has a small rounded opening in its centre. The three straight slits are very similar to those in the other two species, but are rather narrower. The eggs are laid in batches from half a dozen to fifty and more, and the young maggots hatch in twenty-four hours, becoming full grown in five days. An interesting habit of these maggots has been observed in the breeding jars. When full-grown they do not burrow down into the soil, but congregate on the soil just underneath tiie piece of meat in which they have been feeding. They become pinkish in colour, and reniain passive in the fully extended larval ccjiidition for two or three days, when they contract, and then pupate. Adult flies emerge in four or five days. The foregoing details refer, of course, to conditions in n)idsummer; cooler weather lengthens the life-histoiy. The Grey Flesh-fly. Sarcophaga haeuionhoidalis, Fall. Although this fly has not been found to blow wool, it is mentioned here, as it is one of the flies that most commonly blow meat. It is common everywhere, but appears to be much more frecj^uent in towns than in the country. It proved itself a great nuisance in experimental work, as its maggots were sure to become present in every piece of meat exposed unless special precautions were taken to prevent them gaining access to it. The young* maggots, which are extruded alive by the parent fly, can travel quite a good distance in order to reach their food, so that even when one cage was placed within another tliej" Avere not alwaj's kept out. However, the full-grown maggot is easily recognized once it is known. It is large, robust, and somew^hat flattened dorso-ventrally ; a conspicuous feature is that the area on which the posterior stigmata are situated is deeply sunken, its upper and lower borders forming very distinct lips, which, when the maggot is still alive, are continually closing and then opening suddenly. The stigmata are in the upper part of the area, and perhaps in co-relation with the extra protection afforded by being in a cavity they are very slightly chitinized. The peritreme is very slight and has a very wide opening; the slits, too, are slight and narrow. The adult fly will easily be recognized as the common large grey fly, which has a distinct chec[uered pattern on the abdomen. Material for Stuijy. During the course of this paper reference has been made to the fact that much still remains to be done before it can be said that everything is known about the sheep blow-fly in this country. So far three species have been found troublesome in sheep, but it is cjuite possible there may be others. There are questions relating to the abundance and distribution of those that are known; also to their seasonal distribution and the effects of di'ought and of wet seasons on the numbers of the flies. Parasites may be present, and perhaps one only needs to be discovered and encouraged for it to^ become an efficient help in combating the blow-fly pest. 456 Journal of the 1)epartment or Agriculture. — K^ov., 1922. It is on these lines lliat farmers and others interested in sheep will be able to give much valuable assistance. Not only are observa- tions on the presence of the fly needed, but also on its absence, as it Avould seem that some parts are much more troubled than others. The more material there is available, the better will it be for investigation work. Farmers are therefore asked to send as much as they can, not only from various parts of the Union, but also at different times throughout the year. Wool infested with mag'g'ots is particulai'ly rec^uired. Pieces of infested wool should l)e clipped from the shee]) and packed at once in a small box, wra])ped tightly round with ])aper. The parcels should l)e marked " Sheep Blow-fly Specimens," and may be sent O.H.M.S. addressed to the Border Entomologist, P.O. Box IG, East liondon. Information on the following points is wanted from farmers, especially when sending specimens: — From what part of the sheep were the maggots taken? Was the animal recently infested or had it been suffering for some time? To what extent were the sheep infested? Were only a few odd sheep affected, or was the infestation general throughout the flock? Was the present season normal as regards rainfall, or had there been a drought or more rain than usual? Had rain fallen shortly before the maggots were found on the sheep ? Do the sheep suffer to any extent from intestinal worms, and how much diarrhoea or purging is there? Are the sheep infested more at one time of the year than another, and, if so, when? Are maggots noticed in the wool during the winter months at all? In conclusion the writer would like to express his thanks to Mr. G. W. Turpin, of Woodridge, Dohne, for his kindness in afford- ing him opportunities of studying the subject, both at Woodridge and on his farm Silverdale, in the East London District. Outbreaks of Animal Diseases: September, 1922. Disease. C H "3 O O 1 Totals for September, 1922. p a East Coast Fsver Mange Anthrax Dourine Glanders Tuberculosis Epizootic Lymphangitis 24 41 1 7 16 16 4 I 21 2 8 20 8 52 105 4 212 272 1,557 50 8 10 6 Agricultural Experiment. 457 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT. By E. Parish, li.Sc Vice-Principal, School of Agriculture, Glen. Earmers are not ordinarily much concerned with the iechnique of agricultural experiment — the results only affect them. Mainly for this reason u recently prepared scientific bulletin, entitled " Ag^ricul- iural l<]xj)erintent, its Design and Interpretation," is not heing" l)uhlislicd in the Journal, but is being printed as a separate biilh'tni. It is well, however, thai farmers should realize the difficulties atteuch'iii on agricultuj'al exiierinient, of the care necessaiy in the design and execution of it, and in iiiterpretating- the results obtained. ()]i ihe face of it it a})pears a simple thing to test the effect of the application of fertilizer to a ci'oj). Mnormous variation from the noi'mal or true result, however, ordinarily occurs in the figures obtained from the plots under test and unless the officer in charg-e of the experiment is aware of the extent of this probable variation, he is very liable to be misled. Most farmers during their life-time get yields from crops either lower or higher than their expectation, and for which they are unable to account, but few are aware liow frequent this variation from the normal is, or how large it may be. In field trials in adjoining plots treated similarly in all respects the yield of one may be twice that of the other, and for no reason that can be discovered. Eor example, in eight one-acre plots of wheat arranged on the following plan at an experimental station in South Africa, with all plots treated alike in every respect the yield in lb. of combined grain and straw was as follows: — 1124 1178 1051 1224 935 981 400 767 Similarly with experiments with animals, the individual varia- tion is so great as to necessitate repeated trials with comparatively large numbers of animals before any reliable conclusion can be drawn. Often under identical conditions, as far as such is humanly possible, one animal will give twice the gain in live weight of its 458 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. neighbour, and it is inipossi})le to asciibe llie difference to any cause tlian individual variation. For example, in fattening experiments conducted in South Africa with a group of four old oxen selected as nearly alike as possible, one animal made three and a lialf times tlie gain of another, and in another experiment conducted on similar lines one animal made eleven times as much gain in weight per day as another. These are exceptional cases, but they show the extreme variation possible, and indicate how careful it is necessary to be, in drawing nice conclusions from the results of single animal or single plot experiments. FiELn Trials. Causes of Variation. The variation in the yields of plots similarly treated is due partly to difference in soil and partly to the influence of numeroiLs small factors, such as uneven seeding and manuring and cultivation, errors in weighing, eft'ect of birds, insects, previous crops, etc., the effect of which can never be accurately gauged beforehand. Figures obtained from Rothamsted illustrate the two kinds of variation very well. xVt that station the yields of hay from two plots of grass in the same field have been recorded every year since 1856. The measurements and weights were recorded by skilled and experi- enced officers, and the experiment has throughout been conducted as thoroughly as could possibly be. Taking the figures for the whole period of fifty years, the one plot is found to average 10 per cent, higher than the other, a result no doubt largely due to difference in soil. In individual years, however, tlie plot which averaged 10 per cent, greater, was 49 per cent, greater and 10 per cent, less than that of the other, this random variation being due to various factors. Even in five-year periods absolutely reliable results cannot be obtained, and the above experiments furnish striking evidence of this. As stated, one plot over the whole period averaged 10 per cent, greater than the other. In five-year periods, however, the one plot averaged 28 per cent, greater and 4 per cent, less than the other, showing that a difference in yield between the two plots gained over an average of five years could not be considered absolutely reliable. Farmers generally hold the belief tliat for reliable results to be obtained the plots ought to be large. I'iXperiment, however, shows Ihat llie difference in yield of a croj) due to difference in soil is greater in large plots than in small, and that the only way to nullify the effect of the variation in soil is to repeat the plots several times in a systematic way. If it be desired in field experiment to reduce the error to a small figure in the region of, say, 2 per cent., it is necessary to replicate the plots five times. Thus, if one factor were under test, e.g. the effect of fertilizing with a definite quantity of superphosphate, five plots fertilized would need to be interspersed systematically with five plots unnumured; and a convenient and suitable size for each plot would be from one-fortieth to one-tenth of an acre. Averages. The opinion generally held is that an average is a reliable figure, giving a true representation of the range of results under considera- tion. There are many limitations, however, to the use of an average. Agkicultueal Experiment. 459 It can only give a true representation of the series when the varia- tion is mathematically normal and not disturbed by any factor. An example may illustrate the point more clearly. If a curve of the milk yield of cows obtained in the mature class of the advanced registry scheme of the Friesland Breeders' Association of vSouth Africa up to 1920 is plotted, it is found that the greatest number of cows in this class during 300 days give between 10,000 pounds and 12,000 pounds, with a mean yield of 11,340 pounds for the class. In this case, the results being normal, as seen from the curve, the average figure is of value. ^ ^ Milk yield of Cows entered in Mature Class of Advanced Registry Sclieme of Friesland Breeders' Association / ) ' X i / / H «, Taking another group of figures, however, viz., the yields per niorgen of maize in the Union, it is seen how little information an average can really provide. According to the census of agricultural production for 1918, the average yield of maize in the three Provinces of Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal is 4.6 muids per morgen. If the districts be grouped according to yield, it is seen that the greatest number of districts, however, prodiice between 3.6 and 4 bags per niorgen, while there are also more districts producing between 5.1 and 5.6 bags than there are producing 4.6, and the range of yield is from 1.82 to 11.67 bags per morgen. In this case the variation of the series is not normal, there being several disturbing factors, such as irrigation, rainfall, method of farming, etc., and a bare statement of the avera|j;'e cannot adequately represent the range of yield or show the yield obtained in the greatest number of districts. Even at the risk of labouring this point on the limitations of an average, the following extract from an article on the "Cost of a 460 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. liushel of Wheat," by V. W. Peck, of the OfHre of Farm Manaye- ment and ]']cononncs of the United States Depaitnieiit of Ag'ricul- ture, may be quoted : — " What about the Average. " It is ({uite ])ossible, of course, to figure out the average cost of a bushel of wheat for a given region — or for the whole country, or even the world for that matter — provided the necessary data on cost of seed and lal)our, use of land, etc., are available, but after such an average is found it is a sort of statistical white elephant. The average does not serve the purpose it is popularly supposed to serve in establishing the right relation between costs and prices. " The average person— that elusive individual whom no one has ever met, because, like the average cost of wheat, he is a mere abstraction — may be evoked at this juncture to ask the natural question : ' Why will it not do to use average as tlie measure of the cost of i)roducing wheat? ' " Why the Average may be Misleadinc;. " 'J^lie answer to this (juestion nuiy be framed with an eye to the fact that the public mind is prejudiced in favour of the average as a statistical yard-stick, since it has been so largely used as such. If the average cost were set up as a standard, we would have merely a 50 per cent, standard, since the average tends to divide the figures into two groups of about equal size, so that about half the farms c(uicerned show u]) as producing wheat at a cost above the average and half at a cost below the average. On this basis, if the average cost should determine the price, about half the farmers would be producing at a loss. When the price of a coinnuodity goes so low that production is a fifty-fifty gamble, the tendency for many of the producers is to quit and go on raising- some other crop that promises a better chance of profit. The results may be under-production and a period of higher prices." Fortunately it is possible to obtain by tlie use of certain formuhie, figures which do convev an idea of the range of anv series and of the reliabilitv of the average. These formulae ai-e ().(i7 W " — r for the It - ] probable error and \ t- for the standard deviation. From these figures it is also possible to calculate by means of the formula /E," + E/ the probable error or the reliability of the diflterence of two probable errors ; and it is possible to ascertain the measure of certainty which may be attached to any gx'oup of results. Without the use of these figures, the interpretation of any set of results of agricultural experiment may be erroneous and misleading. \' Ai;ii:i 'I Trials. Ill I liese (rials il is often necessary, owing to shortage of seed or other circumstance, to plant a limited number of rows only. In this case, the eit'ect of the lack of competition on the outside rows must be g'uarded against. As an example, in six plots of maize, each of four rows, at this institution recently, the average weight of grain and straw obtained from the two inside rows was 1)8 lb. j)er plot, Aghicultural Experiment. 461 and the coirespoiiding average of the two outside rows was 15G lb., an increase of 59 per cent, on the averag-e of the i vo inside rows, the lack of competition on the outside rows having i much g-reater relative effect in the dry season, in which the expei.ment was con- ducted than if plenty of water had been available. C'()-()]'i;i;attve Exi'Kiumrnt. Tn co-operativ^e exj)erinients the ditHcultx of harvesting carefully- areas of from one-tenth acie to one acre or more frequently arises. I'Lxperiment has shown Ihat l)y harvesting caiefuUy a number of nc(uirately measured areas distiibuted systematically about the plot, a result may be obtained whicli gives as accurate a fig'ure as harvest- ing tlie wliole area. Fjivk Srofnv ExrKRTMKMS. In feeding experiments with fattening or growing animals, the individual variation is so great that the results obtained from groups of less than ten animals are of very little value, and certainly need to be accepted with caution. (Ireat care in the selection of animals in respect of breed, sex, type, and age is also necessary. With feeding" experiments for milk production even greater difficulty is met with. The milk yield is affected by the weather, by slight indisposition, by oestrum, by pregnancy, by the time of calving, by change of attendant, and varies with the stage of lacta- tion. Even with the alternation system, in which the groups under the different treatment are interchanged after definite intervals, it is very difficult to obtain reliable results, owing to the disturbing effect of the change, and the progressive variation in milk production as the lactation advances. Error Due to Bias in the Observer. Knowing the variation liable to occur in the results of single- plot trials, a survey of agricultural experiments so far conducted in South Africa leads one inevitably to the conclusion that the observers in some cases were biased in favour of the result they desired to obtain. However fair-minded the observer may be, there is always a danger of involuntary bias. An instructive example of the possi bility of error of this type is afforded by plotting the frequency curves of the results recorded in the United States Department of Agriculture Year Book for 1918 of 109 observations of the depth of s])ring and fall ploughing in Indiana. These curves show maxima at 5, G, 7, and 8 inches, and minima at the half inches. It is extremely improbable that such a curve accurately represents the actual depth of ploughing; it does, however, represent the recorded depth of ploughing. In this case the error is not in the results, but in the observers, and is due to a tendency in the majority of them to observe and record the depths in units of inches rather than in halves. It is obvious from the above remarks that a great deal of care and a fair amount of experience and knowledge are required for the proper conduct of agricultural experiment, whether with field crops or wdth animals, and although farmers can learn much from experi- menting on their own, yet they should not regard the results obtained from single-plot trials as being' final and decisive, unless the difference due to the factor under test is very large indeed. 462 Journal or the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. S.A. DRIED GRAPES FOR THE UNITED STATES. Organization of the Trade. Mr. Lamont, Principal of the Elseubuig- Scliool oi Agriniltuie, who is at present touring tlie United States studying the various problems of Agricultural Eoononiics, lias furnished a brief report on the possi- bilities of that country as a market for our dried grai)es. He says that our dried grapes are used very largely, if not almost entirely, by Italians in NeAv York city and Chicago, and also in Pennsylvania, for wine making. I'hese people will make wine from white grapes only when there are no red grapes or raisins on the market, or if the latter are sold at prohibitive prices. The white raisins, such as Steen, are considered equal to the Turkish and Smyrna dried grapes and such California raisins as are cheap enough. The Turkish article is now (September) quoted in New York for forward delivery at 8 cents per 1 lb. duty paid New Y'^ork, which means less than 4 cents per 1 lb. at port of shipment, so the grower does not get very much after deducting packing and handling costs. Our Hermitage raisin has made a good name for itself, and is in keen demand. But there is no use (at present at any rate), in shipping any white grape raisins. Just recently a broker was ohered 7 cents per 1 lb. for a few thousand boxes of Hanepoot raisins, which he refused. The trade here consists of (1) our grapes, (2) California fresh grapes, beginning September and going on to November ; (3) Eastern and some Spanish and Californian dried grapes which come in between our season and the Californian. The summer months, July, August, and September, are unfavourable for this commodity. To get a good market our dried grapes must arrive during April, May, and June, with July as the last month. This may alter later on, but is the position at present. Our shipments undoubtedly suffered this year by their late arrival, and some white dried grapes will either have to be sacrificed or converted into wine or grape juice in New York. Inquiries revealed the fact that 20(J,UU(> boxes of 25 lb. eiicli (2500 tons) of the dried product covdd be absorbed. Although we are not likely to have that quantity available, it shows that there is a pretty good opening for as much Hermitage as we can ship from South Africa. The trade is quite satisfied with the size of our pack (25 lb. boxes) and the way in which the raisins are sent (two boxes strapped togethei). There is, however, strong objection lo Steen grapes being mixed with the Hermitage, and red grapes have been included in some boxes marked " Hermitage," which depreciates values and leads to dissatisfaction on the part of the buyers. Nothing but what is called " Black Hermitage " is wanted. Boxes of Steen grapes were actually marked " Hermitage," and there was no question that the S.A. Deied Grapes for the United States. 463 marks were South African ones. Other boxes from South Africa with " Steen " on the printed hibels, had " Hermitage " stencilled over the word " Steen." The actual contents were Hermitage with a little Steen and some red grapes. This ma Ives a bad impression and destroys confidence in our product, which is both undesirable and unnecessary. Besides, where the competition is so keen, things like these only tend to reduce prices. As to packing, mention must be made of the variety of shippers' marks. Some agents' notes of shipments of a few thousand boxes and some of the indiv]dual consignments were as follows, all included in the one lot:— 4, 24, 28, 36, 32, 160, 26 and 4. These came from various growers, and certainly entailed the additional expenses con- nected with the handling of such small lots. The sug-gestion has been put forward that we should ship under one brand only. If we had different grades we might have more brands, but there is no necessity for that as our grading need be for condition and colour only. Size of grapes does not enter into the matter. This suggestion is sound. If the diied grape business could be conducted co-opera- tively there shotild be no difiiculty in fixing an attractive label oi' brand and constituting an organization for shipment ensuring irni- formity in the exported product. This would be a legitimate and essential part of the proper distribution of Sotith African grapes. The best methods of utilizing and marketiug the prodtice of our vine- yards have to be studied, and we are likely to have better correlation if all the various outlets were concentrated under one organization. The Government grading* is, of course, of no value to the receiving trade, as the condition on arrival is what counts : it is a protection against shippers sending bad stuff from Capetown. The price is difficult to estimate, but most are agj^^ed that we could depend on getting about 13 cents in New York duty paid. This would be equivalent to about 9 cents f.o.b. Capetown, or, if the duty is increased under the new tariff, a little less, approximately 4d. pei' 1 lb. in boxes. One cannot definitely say of cotirse what next year's market will be; but the above is indicated. Probably as important a point as any is the selling organization oversea. It is useless to have half a dozen brokers and selling agents all working at the same time to dispose of our grapes. Such a procedure can have no other than a depressing effect on prices. The article must have one or two, preferably one, distributing agencies to handle the whole outptit. In other words, apply the same principle adopted in the motor business in South Africa, and have our accredited agent or agents. If there are more than one they must be kept completely advised of shipments en route to a^oid dumping on the market; a very large number of boxes would also probably be sold while the raisins were still afloat. The Journal aims at keeping farmers informed of what the Department of Agriculture is doing, also of such matters affecting their interests as come under its purview. The Journal contains original articles for the guidance of the farmer on the many and diverse problems which face him. Every farmer should lead it and keep it. 464 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Nov., 1922. THE VALUE OF FINENESS AND LENGTH IN WOOL. lU V. I). IJOSK. (Note. — Mr. Rose first took the diploiiin course and tlieii tlie special sheep and wool course at the («i'ootFoiitein Scliool ot AiES. 471 Feeding Potatoes to Pigs. lJ(iflilrh'hbouT lells me to use it on my black vlei soil, which is rather sticky. /'(itchcf-'u apply to the l.ibraiian, l)e])art nient of Agi icult uie, Pretoria, foi' literature on the subject. Value of Bone-meal. Mdchdr. — Is there any dilference between the feeding value of hones derived from animals in clean districts and those of animals from laniziekte districts? Grootfoiitein School of Agriculture replies: The value of bone- meal lies in its content of calcium phosphate. What little difference there may exist between the phosphate content of bones from different areas would be quite negligible. As long as the bones are sufficiently sterilized the same results should ensure from the use of all bone-meal. Inquiries and Replies. 473 Inoculation of Seeds. lUcJunond. — Oan tlie bacleiial inoculation of seeds be applied lo wlieat and other cereals:' (Triootfontein Scliool of Agriculiuie replies: Certain eoiniiiercial preparations of these bacteria are claimed to o>ive o-ood results with cereals, jiotatoes, vegetables, and other cultivated plants. The in- disputable fact that these bacteria only live in association with legumes effectively controverts this statement. ]iacterial inocula- tion, at its best, is only applicable to leguminous ])laiits. Calls on Willow Trees. East Giiquahiud . — I am posting you some specimens of galls cut from my weeping willow trees. On some trees these galls are as large as a man's head, and the trees seem to be dying. Grootfo?itein School of Aut any paint will do. If too far gone it Avould be as well to fell the tree, and use it for firewood. (Kead ai'ticle in the Joiiiiui] of July, 1!J21, "Crown Gall."j Nodular Worm in Sheep. Graaff-Relnet. — My sheep are suffering fiom worms, about h inch long, pure white, and found mostly in the " dikderm " and " ronch^ derm." I see none in the fourth stomach. Is this the wireworm or some other worm P GrootfoMein School of Agriculture replies : The worm described might be wireM'orm (Haemonchus contortus), but more probably the nodular worm (Oesojjhagostouiuni coluinhimun/i). The latter causes small nodules in the last part of the small intestine, and the first' portion of the large intestine {caecum and colon). There is no effective remedy for the nodular worm because it is so far. down in the ]]itestines that drugs given to combat it are mostly absorbed from the intestine, and thus do not reach the seat of infection in sufficient concentration to kill the worms. The best line oi treatment to adopt is that based on the life- history of the nodular worm. See article on " The Nodular Worm and the Lesions caused by it," by Sii' Ainold Theiler, wliich appeared in the Journal of Tanuarv, l!)!:^]. , 474 JoUKJNAL Ol'' TlIK J)El'AJttTMKM' OF AgRICULTUKE. NoV., 1922. Navel III in Foals. (Jolesbei'f/ . — Please advise me as to llie hest means of treating' navel ill. Grootfontein School of Afji-icidltire replies: Navel ill in foals is caused by organisms wliicli enter the system through the umhilical cord at or soon after birth. It can be prevented by thorough disinfec- tion of foaling boxes or by allowing mares to foal out in the open. Immediately after ])irth the umbilical cord should be ligatured with an aseptic tape, and cut an inch below the tape. The string must be painted with tincture of iodine. For curative treatment give two drams of acetone twice daily. Sterility in Cows. liethuJic. — I have a cow which I cannot get into calf. What is tlie cause of this and what the treatment? Grootfontein ScJiool of Afjrirulfiirc replif's: Sterility in cows might result from several causes, such as malformation of tlie womb, disease of the ovaries, metritis, vaginitis, contagious aboition, etc. If you cannot get a veterinary surgeon to examine her, you might try the following: — Syringe her out daily for a week before service with a sohition of potassium permanganate, and then about an houi- before slie is served syringe again with a solution of bicaibonate of " Cape Aloes " as a Tonic for Stock. Cradock. — Would " ('aj)e aloes " serve as a tonic for stock?' If so, how is it used and mixed, and what aie the doses for cattle and small stock? Tlie Director of Veteri/iartj Education and Researcli replies: — " Cape aloes " as sold for veterinary use consists of the dried juice drained from the cut ends of the leaves of various species of South African aloes. When administered in fairly large doses, it has a laxative or purgative effect in animals, and is commonly used for this purpose in the horse, the doses being 3 to 4 drachms^ given in the form of a ball. Before treatment, the horse should be starved or kept on soft diet for about 12 bonis, and not worked for a few days afterwards. The drug is rarely used as a purgative in ruminants because of its uncertain and unreliable action in this class of animal. Aloes is (^uite a good tonic for all animals when administered in very small doses, but owing to its nauseous bitter taste, is not readily taken by stock, no matter what mixture is employed to obscure this objectionable taste. The only way in which it can be given, there- fore, is by forcible drenching. This method necessarily involves rough treatment of the animals and mitigates against its usefulness for this purpose. If it is desired to employ aloes for its tonic effect, it can be given to horses and cat lie in doses of \ to 1 drachm, and to sheep in corresponding smallei- doses, namely, 10 to 15 grains. l.\(jriKiKs AMJ Uepi.iks. 475 Curing Lemons. Rustenhiirg, Transvaal. — We are having- trouble with our lemons. We cut about three tons, stacked them in boxes and covered with a bucksail. An occasional sprinkling- was administered to prevent them shrivelling-. After some weeks some started getting brown in spots and blotches, becoming worse in time, although the inside of the fruit seemed to keep good. The Divisio?i of Horticulture replies : The curing of lemons is a difficult matter, unless one has the proper equipment. The fruit should be stored in a cool, well ventilated chamber, and covered with a canvas to control the amount of moisture reaching them. The difficulty usually is in keeping them dry enough so you should not continue sprinkling them. During very dry weather, cover more tightly to prevent excessive evaporation. In California the lemons are washed, before being stored, in a solution of 1 lb. bluestone to one thousand gallons of water. This prevents brown rot and other fungous diseases. Tlie fruit should be graded according- to their degree of ripeness and the " tree ripe " fruit will, of course, be cured first. I would suggest that you store the fruit in as cool n place as jKissilde, and 7iot moisten them ai'tifically in any way. New Grasses. Natal. — What is the best time to ])lant Setaria sulcata and Pcn- nisetuin unisetum at an altitude of 2000 ft. ? Tlie soil is a i ather poor sandy loam, we are 30 miles fiom Durliaii and have vei-y slight frosts in June. Molasses grass grows s])leiididly here, remaining beautifully green all winter, but uiiforjunately my cattle will not look at it unless starved to it. The Acting Chief, Division of Botani/ replies : Pemnisetuni unisetvm and Setaria sulcata would best be planted in December; but if you are able to put the grass in nursery beds under irrigation they may be planted any time from now onwards. Setaria stilcata is a moisture and shade loving plant, and our experience has been that it becomes coarser when grown in the open, and only one cutting can be got from it in a season. Pennis'etxim unisetum, has proved itself to be most drought and frost resistant. On our dry-land station it remained green throughout the winter, and in twelve months we procured four cuttings from it. Under irrigation it grew to a height of 7-8 ft. A sackful of roots will plant an area of 10 by 12 ft. Plant in rows 3 ft. apart, and put the roots 2 ft. apart in the rows. The Journal is the Department's medium of making known its activities. It contains information of value to every farmer in the Union Keep it for reference. 476 JOUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AG&iCtJLTURE. — NoV., 1922. THE POULTRY YARD MONTH BY MONTH. November. Ily .J. ,1. JoiMi.AA.N, J'oultry Instriictoi-, ScIkm)! oI A^ncull inc. (iliMi. ()raii";e Free State. Ihci'ding Fens. — Chicks hatched dining Lite Jiionths ot iSovember to March ai-e useless, puny, poor-doers, and non-protit producers, and tor that reason it is advantageous to break up tlie breeeding pens at once it not already done. The removal also of the birds to aiiothei- run will prove beneficial to them and a.ssist in keeping up their egg output. To ensure early eggs for hatching next season (April, May, and June) a sweet, fresh run, with plenty of vegetable growth and scratching material (natural), and protection from winds and cold should be provided. Immediately the birds are removed from the run have it irrigated, and then slightly sprinkled with lime (digging this well in), leaving it for a week or ten days, and then sow it with a mixture of mealies, sunflowers, rape, or barley. Keep the crop growing by regular' irriga- tion. The plants will give a good green food and freshen vip the soil; the fresh soil will be a tonic to the birds and result in a good egg supply. Thr Male Birds. — Male i)irds that iiave given profit-producing pullets are worth looking after; until December or January they are best kept ct)nfined in a movable coop and given intlividual attention. If put together at once they are apt to fight and do themselves damage : when tiie breeding season is past and they are somewhat down in condition this may be done with less risk of injury. Being confined, green food should be given in abundance, as they have not the exercise as when at liberty, the feeding of grain and mash l)eing cut down in accordance with the increase in the green food given, about 1^ ounces of each grain and mash being sufficient per bird. Cutting down the rations will also assist in getting the birds fit for mating in the winter, when it is usually found that although the hens are laying, the cocks, not })eing fully through the moult, are not as fertile as they might be. The Females. — Remove tliese as far as possible from the male birds; they are not so likely to fight and become discontented, with better egg-protlucing results. They may also be run in larger flocks than was the case during the breeding season. Towards the end of the month a number of them will stop laying. Do not think an extra feed will improve this; it is nature calling upon the egg-organs to rest, and any extra feed above that previously given will be converted into fat, not eggs. If it is intended to keep the birds for the following year's breeding this will be detrimental. When they stop laying separate those it is intended to keep, and cut down all their rations 25 per cent., except the green food. Those that have passed their best days as breeders are put in another flock and fattened for market; for this purpose they are ready responders. Place tliem in a small run to prevent undue exercise, and feed as follows: — Mornings, early, moist mash consisting of 1 part barley meal, 1 part mealie-meal porridge, and 4 parts bran wheaten ; 2 pounds of fat to each 100 birds or proportionally, and about 2 oz. dry weight for each bird. Noon, green food ad lib. 2 p.ni.. grain alternatively, broken mealies, kaffir corn, barley. 5 p.m., 2 oz. of above mash, moist, for each bird. After the first or second week of this treatment tiiey should be fit for killing and be prime. Young cockerels not fit to be stock birds next season should also be put aside by themselves (not with hens) and got into condition for killing, getting the same feed as the hens, but in about 25 per cent, larger quantities per l)ird. Fgys. — These are still plentiful and cheap this month. If not a member of an egg-circle (which every producer should be), or distant from market, or the local and natural market is very much glutted, store the eggs by preserva- tion in water-glass or lime solution. Keep the early hatched pullets back from laying as much as i)ossible by fre(|uent changes to different runs; to this end the rations must be on the low side and of a fattening nature, for foods rich in jjroteins will hurry on egg production, with batl results later. The PoiLTKY Yard Month i-.y Momii. ('hickcns. — Watch these for cliickeu pox and roup, and if an outbreak shows itself treat at once. Insects will be most troublesome; keep them in check, and if required and details furnished regarding the species, instructio)is as to treatment will be sent at once. Incubaturs. — Before tliese are put away loi- the season replace each jnirt worn, missing or broken, and thoroughly clean and ilisinfect the incubator both inside and out. WeatJier. — Heavy rains may be expected during tlie month; see tiiat the drainage is good and that no pools of water are allowed to remain about the runs, or worms may surely be expected to sliow themselves. Thoroughbred Stallion " Wilkius Micawlier."— (Jrootfontcin School ufAgricultun Middelbing, Cape Province. STAFF: APPOINTMENTS, CHANGES, ETC 1/9/22 H. H. Storey, Mycologist. Division of JJotany. transferred to Mycologist's Office. Duroan, and as Officer-in-Charge. iNatal Herbarium. 8/9/22 H. L. Anderson. ai)pointed Egg Inspector. Stationed at the Docks, Cajjctown. 16/9/22 D. H. Heyink, appointed Lecturer in Botany, School of Agriculture, CJlen, Orange Free State. 30/9/22 E. J. Macmillan, Under-Secretary for Agriculture (Education), retired on pension. MOVEMENTS OF OFFICERS. The Principals of the Schools of Agriculture will attend an adjourned Conference of Principals, called by the Secretary for Agriculture, and to be lield under his chairmanship, at Pretoria in the beginning of November, 1922, 478 JouK^-AI, OF thk Dki'aktment of AciUK ultuee. — Nov., 1922. NOTES FROM THE "GAZETTE. Attention is drawn to tiie follo\vin n > z > o 2 n c r H C > r C 2 O Journal of the Department OF Agriculture. Vol. V. DECEMBER, 1922. No. 6. Published monthly in English and Afrikaans by the Department of Agriculture, Union of South Africa. Editor: G. IV. Kterck. Subscription : Within the Union and South- West Africa, 5s« (otherwise 6Sm) per annum, post free, payable in advance. Applications, with subscriptions, to be sent to the Government Printer, Pretoiia. THE REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HE present issue completes the fifth volume of the Journal. Published monthly since April, 1920, it has given valuable information to the farmer and has served as a link between him and the Department of Agriculture. Essentially of a departmental nature, it has made known the results of agricultural experiments and investigations in the ITnion, given seasonable advice on many branches of farming, and discussed questions of moment to every farmer in South Africa. The Journal cannot, however, convey in full measure the whole work of the Department, much of which can only be presented to the public in the form of a review covering a stated period, or in a collective form, and this is done in the Department's annual report, wdiich is published in blue-book form. But realizing that in that form only the report did not obtain sufficient publicity among the farmers of the ITnion, it was decided to enlist also the Journal for the purpose. The last annual report was accordingly published in the January, 1922, number of the Journal, and the present issue is devoted to the succeeding report, that for the year ended 30th June, 1922. The report has necessarily to be circumscribed, limited space preventing reference to a great many items, but it is trusted it will enable farmers to realize the manj-^ directions in which the problems of agriculture are receiving the attention of the Department. 1 (■) 480 Journal of the Depaktmext of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR AGRICULTURE. Year ended 30th June, 1922. Secretary for Af/riculture : P. J. Du Toix. 1. Freight Kates to European Forts. — The prosperity of the farmer being h^rgely dependent upon the cost of transport to the markets, the Minister of Agriculture used every endeavour to secure a reduction of freight and railway rates. Excluding speculation and forced sales, every reduction in the transport charge may be said to increase the income of the farming community to the extent of that reduction. The following comparative freight rates as at June, 1921, and June, 1922, show the benefits which have been secured for the agriculturist in that respect. Taking the quantity of these products exported in 1921, the reductions in freight, assuming an equal quantity exported in 1922, show an additional income of £1,200,000 approximately, of wliich wool, maize, maize meal and kaffir corn nccount for nearly £1,000,000. Commodity. June, 1921. June, 1922. Bark, "Wattle (in bags) (P'luctuating) 32s. 6d. „ (pressed) 20s. 6d.* „ „ „ jj 15s.t „ „ Solidified Extract of — 85s. Beans, n.o.e. (per 2240 lb.) ... 65s. 55s. Buchu Leaves 2d. per lb. 2d. per lb. less 20 per cent. discount. Corn and Grain (per 2000 lb.)— Maize. Maize Meal, Kaffir Corn, Hominy Feed, and Hominy Chop 40s. 2 Is. 6d. Oats 4.'5s. 35s. Barley 35s. 30s. Rye 37s. 6d. 37s 6d. Cotton (per cubic foot) ... 60s. 35s. Cotton Seed (per 2240 lb.) 6ns. 45s. Feathers, Ostrich (^ad nihireii) 5(is. per cent. 40s. per cent. „ „ (per 40 cubic feet) 120s. 100s. less 20 per cent. less 20 per cent. discount discount. * Per 2000 lb. t Per 40 cubic feet (pressed to average density of 65 cubic feet). Report of the Department OF Agriculture. 481 Commodity. June, l'J21. June, 1922. Fodder, Forage, Hay, Lucerne, and Oat-hay (pressed) (per 2240 lb.) p-ruit, L)]y. n.o.e. (per 2240 lb. or 40 cubic feet) „ Canned (per 2240 lb. or 40 cubic feet^ Hides, Dry (per lb.) Wet (per 2240 lb.) Horns, n.o.e.. in bags (per 80 cubic feet) „ in bales (bales not to exceed 30 cubic feet) Millet Seed (as Maize). Mohair Nuts, Ground, with shells (per 2240 lb.) without shells (per 2240 Ib.l . Onions, in cases (per 40 cubic feet) Raisins, in bags (per 2240 lb.) ... „ in boxes (per 40 cul)ic feet) ... Seed, Lucerne (per 2240 lb.) ... „ Mafurerua or Sunflower (per 2240 lb.) Skins (at shippers' option) Tobacco, manufactured (per 40 cubic feet) ., „ unmanufactured (per 4() cubic feet) Wax, Bees (per 40 cubic feet) ... Wool, Grease (per lb.) ... „ Scoured (per lb.) .. 72s. 6d 80s. 80s. 8()s. 50s. per bale Igd. per lb. 120s. 80s. 102s. 6d. 75s. 75s. 112s. 6d. lOOs. l^d. per lb. or 60s. per 40 c. ft. 102s. 6d. 70s. 120s. Ud. 2d. Cool Chamber Cargo. 40s. 50s. 50s. id. less 20 per cent, discount. 55s. less 20 per cent. discount. 30s. less 20 per cent. discount. 30s. less 20 per cent. discount per bale. less 20 per cent. discount. 90s. 40s. 60s. 50s. 50s. 50s. 45s. |d. or 40s. less 20 per cent. discount. 92s. 6d. 60s. 80s. gU. less 20 per cent. discount. Id. less 20 per cent. discount. Commodity. Beef, per lb. Eggs, per 40 cubic feet .. Bacon Cheese June, 1921. June, 1922. Ud. 150s. 150s. per 40 c. ft. 120s, per 40 c. ft. fd. 90s. |d. per lb. fd. per lb. 2. Production of Food and Drink. — The imports and exports of articles of food and drink are an index of production. South Africa always had a considerable adverse balance in this respect. The following- return shows that in 1921-22 the balance was in its favour. In food alone, South Africa exported to the value of £1,700,000 in excess of imports. 482 JOUKNAL OF THE DePARTMEXT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. Value of Imports and Exports for the Year ended 30th June, 1922. Article. Imported. Exported. Ale. Beer, etc. Butter and Substitutes ... Cheese Coffee Confectionery and .Jams... Corn. Grain, and Meal Bran — Bran Kaffir Corn Maize Maize Meal Oats Flour and Meal (wheaten) „ (ground in Bond) ... All other kinds ... Eggs Fish, Dried and Cured ... Fresh and Frozen Crayfish ... Other Preserved ... Fruit, Dried and Preserved Fruit, Fresh — Citrus Dtciduous Grapes All others (including Nuts) Lard Meats, Fresh and Frozen Preserved and Cared Milk, Condensed... Spirits Sugar Sugar Products ... Tea Vegetables, Fresh — Potatoes All other Wines All other articles of Food and Drink Total All kinds of Food All kinds of Drink K :^0.215 107,709 7,073 570,507 264,322 736,797 14,460 («) 83,632 I 3,722 I 138,220 120,103 (//) 9,105 7,179 2..382 71,883 357,278 615.266 428,092 39,626 463,327 16,475 1,435 52,457 1,206,808 (c) £5,348,183 £ 13,300 237.499 20,380 2,354 28.890 2,807 9,n9f) 1,722.311 687,3i9 21,887 29,150 11,838 8,959 179.153 35,389 321.539 123 343,2(50 180,495 182,791 85,795 28,230 370 14,103 28,373 42 16.506 1,083.864 3,967 7,901 1 6.798 11.084 59,276 18,969 5.413,766 £3,616.41] £1.731,772 5,314,429 99,337 3. Market Prices. — Tlie following maiket prices of the principal agricultural products and live stock are given to show a comparison between 1922 on the one hand and 1913 and 1914 (pre-war) on the other : — (ct) Mostly pieserved. (i) Includes nuts which are shown differently in the exports. (O Nearly half represented by rice (£480,446) and pickles (£105,635). Report of the Department of Agricultu RE. 483 _• 'd ^• 1 tr> CO to ^ r— • CO to 12s. to 13s. ;. to 10s. fid. 4d. to 10s. 3( s. 6d. to 6s. s. to 6s. 6d. s. to 8s. 6d. s. to 6s. fid. 4s. to 8s. s. to fis. fid. 1. fid. to 15s. i. to 15s. fid. 3d. to 13s. fie . to lis. fid. 9s. to 14s. 8. 6d. to 13s. T3 to o D P oo 1 ^ 0 1 • a^ J. • • ^ 1 : c). : : bcJL '• ^ bco : : be l . . bc i . • be 1 3T<5pS„ S.<^ 30 3! 73 3 • 3 '^ ^ a ■_' o to o & ^ '^ o o s s ill t.s (15(! //a)- Capetown Durban Johannesb f-h,(y (100 I Capetown Durljan (1 Johannesb (rrne Say ( (Capetown Durl)an Johannesb tafoes (150 I Capetown Durban Johannesb liom (120 lb. Capetown 1 )urban Johannesb i o ^ O •< S' - -^ ;:- o P ^ Si ca o •^ 1 -S ^ ^ o ;£ -^ i ^ ►~, - ^ '-•^ -^ ^ 1 484 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. CO o _^ • -: '6 • • • ly . '^ oi '^ 03 lO O O -a" "T -a 73 2, tc" ^ CO « o; ^1 2 ;^ ^1 ?5 4^ OJ ^ iOt), ^ B -lT-3 0| OOP oo co.^ o"^o . O . o • c *^ 3 1-5 -W| ^4J*^ -U^ -M-W_|3 *^ ^ -^ - ^ ^ ° 1—1 — -c" o3 ^ * «c u^ • • _: _: — ■ — - 2 1 1^22 22 22 o -- - - X O «• ^ '=^ o .S o 2 -2 ^' c 0 2 a ' '5 *" O r-" 3 3-6 3 ° t; 03- o . "=> . to 'vj CO "^ '^ '"' . cc OS 03 3 :=£ sj ssg :«;: CM ^ CM =«« cc to epartment's notice. It has been urged by purchasers that legislation should be passed to prevent such dishonest practice, which is carried on by a few, apparently with the intention to deceive the buyer. It would be very difficult, however, to frame suitable legislation for this purpose. Several associations have been formed this year for the proper sorting and marketing of wool, for the protection of the growers, and for securing the best prices according to quality. By Report of the Department of Agriculture. 495 such organization more eft'ective means could be applied by farmers for tlieir own protection and for elimination of dishonesty than by Act of Parliament. A serious statement has been made by an English firm that the qualHy of South African mohair has been steadily deteriorating. In order to test this statement, steps have been taken to submit a collec- tion of the best mohair of the various types for transmission to the Trade Commissioner for purposes of comparison with Turkish mohair. During the last Session of Parliament the law prohibiting the export of iVngora goats was repealed. The prohibition was imposed seventeen years ago in the belief that the interests of South Africa were best served by preventing competition from other countries except Turkey which also had prohibited export of goats. It was believed, moreover, that South Africa had goats superior to any in the possession of the Turks, and that South African mohair could outstrip the Turkish article in quality. Mohair breeders have latterly come to the conclusion that restricted production, which could supply only a minimum number of mills, not only facilitated combination against producers, but prevented the establishment of the mohair industry in other large centres of population. The United States of America, for example, is also a producer of mohair, but to a very limited extent and of inferior quality. The encouragement of produc- -fion in that country, it is believed, would create interests which ■would lead to a more extensive use of and a greater competition for mohair. A memorandum prepared by the Department of Overseas Trade of the United Kingdom shows that, owing to disturbances in tho Ottoman Empire and particularly the slaughter of a large number of goats by belligerents in Anatolia, the supply of Turkish mohair has been much reduced, the present supply of Anatolian mohair having been brought down to one-third of its extent. A scholarship was granted for the study of the requirements of the English mohair market and for a course of study at the Technical Textile College, Bradford. 26. Ea'povt of Frieslands. — At the instance of the South African Urieslaud Breeders' Association, assisted by the British Friesian Society and by negotiations between the Governments of the Union and the United Kingdom (o overcome certain restrictions on the importation oC cattle into the latter country, ihe first exportation of XX shipment of pedigree cattle for sale in Europe took place in March. The sale by public auction was held in June, with highly satisfactory results to the sellers. The highest price obtained was for a cow whicli was sold for £4515. The highest price obtained lor a bull was £4095. For the 91 animals sold the average price paid was £1337. The prices obtained must be regarded as exceptional, but at the same time the sale was gratifying proof of the high standard of excellence -attained bv Fries breeders in South Africa. In order to assist in the maintenance of this standard the limitation of future importation to animals of high milk-producing capacity is under consideration'. 27. Hides. — In the Agricultin-al Produce Grading Act, 1922, provision is made, among other things, for the grading of hides. The Tanners' Federation of Great Britain, supported by tanners in this country, has made repeated representations regarding the bad flaying of hides and Lhe depreciation of the value of hides by brand- ing on the more valuable parts. Bad flaying obtains more especially 496 JoURiVAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. tit the abattoirs. At the Johaimesburg Municipal Al)att()ir the practice is in vogne of contracting for tlie supply of hides to dealers at per quantity for a period of montlas, with the result that no attention is paid to the quality of the hides turned out. The depreci- ation of South African hides by bad flaying and unwise branding is said to amount to anything up to 7s. per hide. At the Capetown Municipal Abattoir a " Perco " flaying machine has been installed, and it is understood that two similar machines will be provided in the near future at the Johannesburg- Municipal Abattoir. This machine is a recent invention, and is said to do perfect flaying. Notwithstanding' this, however, tanners urge that the grading of hides according to the manner in which they have been flayed should be introduced. It is, therefore, proposed to put the provisions of the Act mentioned into force in this respect. The Cape, Orange Free State, and Transvaal Provinces have Brands Acts. In the flrst-named two, the choice of brand, and of the part of the animal to be branded, is left with the owner. In the Transvaal the owner can select one of a number of brands allotted to his district by the Government, but the law requires him to brand on the best part of the hide, while in the Cape and Orange Free State the best part is generally selected by the owner, because branding is facilitated and the brand shows up most clearly. In view, however, of the injury done to the hide, our branding system is in urgent need of revision and legislation to this effect is proposed. It is calculated that the depreciation of hides by bad flaying and the present svstems of branding entails an annual loss to farmers of about £180,000. 28. Meat Export.-— The beef export trade had a serious set-back. While the number of cattle greatly increased, the export of beef dwindled to practically nothing. The following figures speak for themselves : — 1918. i;i20. 1!:I21. .Number of cattle in the Uni(m ... 6,851,924 7,655,072 8,557,089 an increase oi; 11 per cent, in the two years 1918-1920 and of 11 per cent, also m the one year 1920-1921. Export of Beef, 1916 to 1921. Quarters. Quarters. 1916 115,992 1919 285,367 1917 309,214 1920 69,885 1918 123,354 1921 13,326 The causes of this decline are threefold : the termination of the war, during which our export trade in meat came into being ; unsuit- ability (as yet) of our meat for the English market ; and collapse of the markets on the continent of Europe, for which our supplies are suital)le. The importation of frozen meat into the United Kingdom was in 1920 1,076,700 tons and in 1921 970,300 tons, as compared with 764,900 tons in 1913, while the prices between 1920 and 1921 declined from 140 per cent, to 23 per cent, above 1913 prices. In these circum- stances the Continental markets received unusual attention from Report of the Department of Agriculture. 497 exporting countries; tlie former, liowever, coiikl import only 186,000 tont> in 1921 ag-ainst ■300,000 in 1920. Tbe exchange difficnlty lurtlier complicated the situation. Export has become an urgent necessity, in view of the rapid increase in the number of cattle. Moreover, large sums of money have been invested by exporting firms. A great combined effort is required to find an outlet for our surplus, but this cannot be done unless by some means our cattle can be placed on the European markets at world prices and therefore in competition with other countries. Conditions of farming in this country render such compe- tition most difficult, because large numbers of cattle used for draught purposes and owned by natives are not available when they are of tlie age most suitable for marketing, while the comparative absence of feeding and recurring droughts are the cause of unstable prices, often in excess of world prices. The ultimate solution seems to lie in organization both of the trade side and of the producers' side and in education, with a view to reducing the cost of production, for instance, by the elimination of "scrub" bulls; by the breeding of heavier types of slaughter cattle to give greater weigdit for the same outlay ; by feeding types which will pay for feeding, thereby making cattle available lor slaughter throughout the year; and by better flay- ing of hides and branding of cattle to secur'e higher prices for hides. 29. Butter.— The production of butter in 1920-1921 was 18,963,073 lb. as compared with 17,809,287 lb. in 1919-1920. Since 1916 biitter (including ships' stores) was exported to the following extent:— 1916, 1,586,572 lb.; 1917, 3,111,821 lb.; 1918, 1,544,000 lb.; 1919, 512,588 lb.; 1920, 487,876 lb.; 1921, 2,698,201 11). Since January, 1922, 1,273,054 lb. were exported. It is improbable that any further appreciable export will take place in 1922. There have been great fluctuations in recent years as regards prices and production. Such variations are not in the interests of the industry. During the latter part of the war the Imperial Govern- ment purchased large quantities at reinunerative prices. With the decontrol of butter by the Imperial Government trade conditions changed. The South African product had now to compete oversea with butter from other countries. In January, February, and March, 1922, unprecedently low prices were paid for butter-fat. Production in excess of local requirements necessitated export of the surplus, even at a loss. The events which followed are detailed by the Superin- tendent of Dairying. His remarks as t(v what is necessary to enable South Africa to compete in the oversea markets require careful atten- tion by those immediately interested. Regulations have been introduced for grading and inspection of export butter. These have worked smoothly and satisfactorily, and appear to be on the right lines. 30. Cheese. — Since 1916 the following exports (including ships' stores) have taken place:— 1916, 36,088 lb.; 1917, 110,555 lb.; 1918, 487,872 lb.; 1919, 1,560,782 lb.; 1920, 314,301 lb.; 1921, 458,698 lb. Cheese-making has developed satistactorily, and cheese of high quality is being produced. At the same time the Superintendent of Dairying points out that far too great a percentage of indifferent tcheese is still being made, owing to lack of experience. 498 JOUENAL, OF THE DePARTMBT^'T OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. The Department now lias tAA'o cheese graders and instructors, one having- been appointed recently. An improvement ih the quality of our cheese should soon be apparent from the expert knowledge which has been placed at the disposal oi manvifacturers. As in the case of butter, regulations for the grading and inspec- tion of export cheese also were introduced. 31. Pig Breeding. — This industry is not receiving sufficient attention. The Department has not the staff for the purpose. Mr. C. Laver, assisted to a small extent by the Department as to travelling- expenses, has been good enough to give his services free of charge for itinerant instruction ; but it cannot be expected that Mr. Laver should longer continue to do so. The bacon factories have been making great strides in the quality of bacon produced, as has been proved by the prizes awarded for South xifrican bacon at shows in Great Britain. It has bepn suggested by the factories that, in order to prevent unfair competition by inferioi bacon, and to encourag-e the production of a high-class article, bacon tor local consumption produced at factories should be graded. The latest returns of factory production show that in 1920-1921 the production amounted to 5,210,047 lb. Sixpence per 100 lb. live weight would produce sufficient under the Agricid- tural Produce Grading Act, 1922, to cover the cost of grading and leave a balance for providing itinerant instructors to i^ive advice to farmers on breeding and feeding. Such a course would be of direct monetary advantage to both farmers and factories. Regula- tions on the subject will, it is hoped, be promulgated at an early date. 32. Ostrich Feathers. — This industry continues in a depressed state. Co-operation in the markeling of feathers and the provision of funds for an advertising campaign have been advanced from time to time as the only means of laising- the industry out of its present unfortunate condition. Repeated efforts have so far resulted in failure to secure the co-operation of growers. A further effort is about to be made. The growing' tendency to substitute private for public purchase does not appear to be to the advantage of ostrich farmers. Co-operation among ostrich farmers seems to be the only way to check or counteract private sales. 33. Maize. — The 1921 crop was a record one, the production being 13.347,237 bags, of which 4,628,197 bags were exported either in the form of maize or meal and similar maize products. The crop of 1922 is far below that of 1921, but the quantity produced will not be known until towards the end of the calendar year. The elevator system which the Railways and Harbours Adminis- tration is providing will, it is understood, be available for at least part of the 1923 crop. Before the war South .ifrican maize commanded hig'her prices oversea than Argentine maize, sometimes to the extent of 2s. for 480 lb. The Commissioner for Commerce on the Continent of Europe was asked to investigate why in recent years South African maize was sold at lower prices than Argentine maize. He reported that in the fiist place an American company bought up many important German starch factories, which produced the finest quality of maizena. Those factories which used South African maize on account of its superior quality now have to take their supplies from America In the second place, the steamship lines have introduced Report of the Department of Agriculture. 499 bills of lading' which enable them to discharge maize in practically any way they choose. Any extra charges involved in oft:-loading South African maize, which is carried in bags and not in bulk, have io be detiayed by importers. The charges so incurred in respect of South African maize amounts to 6s. 6d. per 2240 lb., as against 2s. 5d. in respect of River Plate shipments. When the elevator system enables South African maize to be carried in bulk, it should command at least as high a price as the Argentine product. 34. Wlieaf a ml <^ats. — The season on the whole was not alto- gether favourable, drought being responsible for a shortfall in some of the principal producing districts in the winter-rainfall area, although in some cases the wheat crop equalled or exceeded that of the previous year. In the summer-rainfall area conditions were favourable in the Cape Province, but varied in the Transvaal, where, however, about the same quantity of wheat as last year is estimated to have been reaped. In the Orange Free State there was a falling off. Production of Wheat and Oats, 1919 to 1921. Wlieat. Oats (Grain). Bags. Bags. I 1919 1,538,720 999,580 1920 2,284,011 1,274,895 1921 , 2,158,000* — The wheat and flour imports consumed since 1917 are: — Bagsf (200 lb.). Value. 1918 458,261 £556,921 1919 449,044 598,890 1920 .. 1,967,213 4,535,471 1921 428,585 007,998 Tlie huge introduction in 1920 was due to over-importation and to a smaller production in 1919. A large quantity of this excess importation had to be carried over into 1921. 35. Viticulture. — The unfortunate boom in 1920, which was fol- lowed by a collapse of the wine market and the ruin of several firms, still leaves its effect. The wine market is depressed, the price paid for the last vintage tor distilling wine being about £3 per leaguer. Of the estimated crop of 105,000 leaguers only 20,000 were sold to wine merchants. The hopes built on a large export trade Inrve not yet been real-, ized. The exports in 1920 were 486,809 gallons, and in 1921 375,726 gallons, valued at £187,837 and £93,142 respectively. The growth of such a trade cannot, however, be expected to be anything but slow. In view of all these conditions farmers turned their attention to the manufacture of raisins and dried grapes on a large scale. From 5d. to 7d. per lb. was offered in New York for the latter, and fairly reinunerative prices ruled for raisins on the London market. A co-operative society exists for disposing of the wine manu- factured, and controls the' disposal of practically the whole crop, and * Crop pstimate. • . t Imports less re-exports : flour, 170 lb. = 200 lb. wheat. 600 JOLRXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. it seems that no difficulty should be experienced iii evolving a system which would give farmers a more or less stable market at remunera- tive prices. The vintages at Groot Constantia Experiment Station m 1921 and 1922 Avere 15,542 and 13,010 gallons (about 129 gallons e(|ual 1 leaguer) ; of the former vintag-e, 908 g-allons were sold and 4910 dis- tilled, while 2230 gallons of the 1922 vintage have been distilled, but as yet nothing has been sold. About 40 leaguers per annum are being matured, which it is hoped to sell oversea. This policy of maturing part of the crop, which was reinstituted in 1921, in addi- tion to the depression in the wine market, accounted for the small quantity sold. A large block of vineyards at Groot Constantia, con- taining 31.000 non-paying vines, was uprooted and replanted. The demand for table grape varieties of whie continues. The Yiticniltural Station at Paarl serves a very useful purpose by supply- ing large quantities of these varieties, the number of cuttings dis- posed of in the year being 5500. Farmers are also giving more attention to Die manufacture of moskonfyt (grape syrup), for which purpose a factory was established in the Caledon District. An oversea stiident in viticulture was instructed to proceed to Italj to make himself Cully acquainted with Professor Monti's system of manufacture, which is said to be the best of its kind. During the year 417 samples were purchased in terms of the Wine and Spirits Act for analysis in the following places : — Cape. — Aberdeen, Alice, Butterworth, Barkly West, Capetown, Clanwilliam, Calvinia, Elliot, Fraserburg, Graaif-Reinet, Grahams- town, Hanover, Hermanns, Humansdorp, Knysna, Ximberley, Oudts- lioorn, Phillipstown, Port Elizabeth, Prieska, QueenstoAvn, Rich- mond, Sutherland, Tulbagh. Orange Free State. — Bloemfontein, Bethulie, Boshof, Heilbron, Harrismith, Jacobsdal, Kroonstad, Philippolis, Vrede. Transvaal. — Ermelo, Germiston, Johannesburg, Krugersdorp, Pietersburg, Pretoria. iV«to/.— Vryheid, Camperdown, Richmond. The following were the results of the analyses and subsequent prosecutions : — Article. Number of Samples Purchased. Adulter- ated or Deficient. I ncorrectly Labelled. Artificial or not Genuine. Number of Prosecu- tions (by samples). Number of Convictions (by sam- ples). Brandy Whisky Oin Wine Vinegar 221 107 »;4 8 17 42 10 8 9 88 18 8 42 10 9 9 12 4 1 3 Total 417 69 59 70 20 Hepurt of the Department of Agriculture. 501 In addition to the 417 samples purchased in the Union and referred to above, samples were analysed on importation, with the results shown hereunder: — Article. Number of Samples. Adulter- ated or Deficient. Incorrectly Labelled. Artificial or not Genuine. Refused Admission into the Union. Brandy ... Whisky Gin Wine Rum Vinegar 20 : 3 27 ' 3 11 3 176 18 8 2 7 9 3 — 3 1 3 16 2 Total 244 29 19 — 25 During the period under review 34 cases occurred in which the proprietors, when prosecuted, were discharged by the courts under section thirty-three of the Act on the plea that the adulteration had taken place without their knowledge. In several cases the barman admitted having adulterated the liquor without the knowledge of the proprietor, the latter being acquitted thereof under section thirty- three of the Act. The barmen concerned were immediately charged with the offence and duly convicted and fined. 36. Fruit Industry. — Two officers, who have specialized in citrus growing, were appointed to the Division of Horticulture. The rapid growth of the industry demands expert advice to farmers at this stage in particular ; in fact, it would have been a great advantage if this need could have been met a few years ago when planting on a large scale commenced. The growth of citrus orchards is very rapid, as evidenced by the following Census returns: — Number of Fruit Trees in 1919, 1920, and 1921 (30^/( April). Discription. 1919. 1920. 1921. Orange, grafted Orange, seedling Naartje, grafted Naartje, seedling ... Lemon 887,470 359,440 127,280 165,490 144.080 954,840 327,670 109.8.50 213,450 166.320 1,371,675 439,375 149,470 226,610 150,710 The oranges exported in the past two seasons 1920 and 1921 were: 1920, 123,051 boxes; 1921, 231,397 boxes. As the report year ends in mid-season, the export for 1922 cannot be given yet. It is estimated, however, at over 20 per cent, in excess of 1921. New export regulations came into force with the 1922 season. These were drafted in consultation with the Fruit Exchange, and made provision for a much stricter control of the quality of citrus fruit 602 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. oit'ered for export. The regulations were not foiuiil suitable in seveial respects and will have to be reconsidered. The main object aimed at, however, namely, the prevention of the export of inferior fruit, wa.s attained. Many growers suffered loss from lack of knowledge of the new requirements; not only were low prices realized for rejected fruit placed on the port market, but railage had to be borne needlessly. The question of inspection is bound up with proper packing facilities. While the present system obtains, by which each grower packs for himself, a larger quantity is likely to be rejected than if central packing could be instituted. If present conditions prevent central packing, the question of inspection at some centre inland may have to be resorted to to obviate the long railway journey in respect of rejected fruit. The quantity of fresh deciduous fruit shi])ped in 1921-22, com- pared with 1920-21, amounted to: 1921-22, 810,289 boxes; 1920-21, 451,319 boxes. The climatic conditions in the latter months of the season were unfavourable, severely affecting the keeping qualities of the grape crop. It will be seen that, both in regard to citrus and deciduous fruit, there is a large increase in the export trade. Large progressive increases in the quantities available for export will take place in the next few years. Fortunately, the fruit growers have taken the wise step to form themselves into one organization, and they are, there- fore, in a far better position than formerly, both to secure the neces- sary cold storage space on outgoing vessels and to purchase their requirements for the trade at lower rates. A great advance was made in the exportation of dried fruit, as the following return indicates : — ■ Article. 1920. 1921. Currants Kaisiiis Prunes All other dried fruit lb. 4,964 3.030,548 55,787 314,230 £ 381 125,840 3,807 23,076 lb. 4,600 6.983,515 ' 80,950 224,780 £ 261 179.599 3,132 8,771 Total 3,405,529 153,104 7,293,845 191,763 Exports for 1922 already indicate a large increase over those for 1921. In the latter year the regulations as to grading and inspection, which then came in force, could not be strictly applied, as they had to be introduced in mid-season, and neither farmers nor the trade had made adequate provision for meeting them. From the beginning of 1922 the regulations were enforced to the letter. This action, however, brought out some defects, judged from the point of view of trade requirements on the London market, notwithstanding that the regulations were framed at the request and upon the advice of exporters. These remarks apply more particularly to raisins. It would seem that there is a market for inferior as well as for high-class Report of the Department of Agriculture. 503 raisins, so long- as uniformity of quality is observed to enable buyers to know what they purchase. The regulations will be reviewed before the next export season begins. The value of all fruit (fresh and dried) and of fj'uit products- exported in 1920 and 1921 was respectively: — 1920. Fruit, fresh — Citrus £93,251 Deciduous 72,159 Other kinds 4,225 Xuts 2,309 Fruit, dried 153,104 Fruit juice and cordials 6,596 Fruit, bottled and tinned 23,126 Jams and jellies (including- marmalade) 124,994 T<.tal ... -. £479,764 1921. £210,008 186,271 12,008 3,144 191,763 6,215 46,812 23,276 £679,497 37. Tohacco.—The 1920-21 crop was 16,620,640 lb., as against 11,644,300 lb. in the previous year. The Chief of the Tobacco and Cotton Division reports that the prices for the best grades remain fairh^ steady, but that the lower grades suffered a decline, attributable partly to the wet season during the collecting periods causing a large percentage of low-grade leaf, combined with the general financial depression and the temporary unsettlement of the market by the excise tax. The technical staff was strengthened by the appointment of three officers, two of whom, however, filled vacancies caused by resignation. A great deal of attention was given to the production of tobacco suitable for manufacture of nicotine. A large number of analyses made of Soutli African-grown tobacco show that tobacco of high nicotine-content is procurable in South Africa, but to what extent cannot at present be stated. The officers in charge of the Tobacco Experiment Station at Rustenburg and at Elseuburg gave con- siderable attention to the cultivation of a wild tobacco known as Nicotiana nisfica. This variety has an exceptionally high nicotine- content. They are continuing experiments and have induced a number of farmers to try this kind, as it is very probable that its cultivation will niak-e the manufacture of nicotine in this country a profitable undertaking for export as well as for the local market. 38. Cotton. — The crop of lint for each of the years up to 1921 was : — Lb. LI). 1909-10 31,169 1916 227,562 1911 13,623 1917 243,885 1912 32,025 . 1918 283,128 1913 34,471 1919 764,584 .. . 1914 71,654 1920 1,094,763 . 1915 215,990 ' 1921 1,169,298 504 JOURXAL OF THE DePARTMENT'OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, .1922. This sliows a progressive increase. The Chief of the Division of Tobacco and Cotton is of opinion that reports of a decline in yield in the United States of America will encourage development of the industry in South Africa. Prices continue favourable and show a satisfactory recovery from the low prices at the end of 1920 and beginning of 1921. A Co-operative Cotton Growers' Exchange has been formed for the disposal of the whole crop to the best advantage. For this purpose the grading of cotton has been proposed, and is receiving consideration. In the previous year's -report the need for sufficient supplies of pure seed was mentioned, in view of the mixed quality of the cotton at present grown. Arrangements have, therefore, been made to extend the Tobacco and Cotton Experiment Station at Rustenburg by thirty acres. The need for the appointment of an additional technical officer for this station still remains, and until such an appointment is sanctioned, the work of supplying sufficient pui-e seed is retarded, 39. Export of Eggs. — The quantity exported in 1921 was 20,831,704 and in 1920 9,219,743, representing a value of £180,389 and £95,391 respectively. False packing by an exporting firm led to an inquiry by a committee, appointed by the Minister of Agriculture, into the control of the egg-export trade. The committee recommended the appointment of whole-time experts for inspection of eggs at the ports, in place of the present' system of a poultry officer at Durban and a clerical officer under the poultry officer's supervision at Capetown. The com- mittee also urged the appointment of a chief poultry officer. If a special inspection fee on export eggs is recommended by the organizations representing the poultry industry, and by this means the necessary funds are forthcoming, the proposals of the committee will be given effect to. 40. Pest Remedies. — Regulations were promulgated for the control of insecticides and fungicides, namely : stock dips, paris green, arsenate of lead, sulphur, copper-sulphate, and cyanide, the object being to ensure that farmers are supplied with remedies which are chemically pure and are of the standard which these purport to be. 41. Agricultural Journal. — Several improvements in the form and substance of the Journal have been introduced. This publication now compares favourably with any other of its kind. Tlie nu)nthly issue numbers 7400 copies in English and 2500 in Afrikaans. There are 2060 subscribers to the English and 310 to the Afrikaans issue. The cost of printing was £5912 and the revenue £2251. In view of the free services rendered by crop correspondents in connection with the crop estimates, the Journal is issued to them free in return. This absorbs about 3500 copies. 42. Grants to Agricultural Societies. — At Union all such grants were undertaken by the Union Government, but the Financial Rela- tions Act of 1913 made provision for grants to provincial bodies being made by those Provinces which elected to do so. The Cape Report of the Department of Agriculture. 505 and Transvaal Provinces made provision accordingly, but the Union Government continued to give grants to societies in the Orange Free State and Natal. Owing to the serious fall in revenue, it was decided to discontinue from the 1st April last grants to the societies in these two Provinces, except the Central Society at Bloemfontein, whose grant is entrenched by Act of Parliament. It is understood that in the Transvaal also such grants are no longer made. 43. Fertilizers Regulations. — The systematic purchase and analysis of samples were arranged, and should establish beneficial protection to farmers by ensuring that fertilizers accord with the composition guaranteed. The arrangements only come into full effect after the period covered by this report, and will be reflected in that of the following year. 44. Guano. — The production in 1921 was 8500 tons, which is a large decrease on the record production of 10,445 tons in 1920. The unfavourable yield was due to very heavy rains during the breeding season. A reserve of about 5000 tons had been built up to meet a possible short production. It was thought advisable to reduce this reserve so as to allow of a greater production of wheat, and the reserve was -consequently reduced by about 1000 tons. The total quantity sold was 9423 tons in 1921 as against 8535 tons in 1920. The price of wheat having fallen to 20s. to 22s. 6d. per bag, a low figure compared with the cost of production, which remained high, the Government decided to reduce the price from £10 to £8 per ton. Notwithstanding this reduction, the demand was less than that of the previous year ; no doubt due to the reduced purchasing power of w^lieat growers in common with other sections of the farming community. The main items of revenue for the last two years, ended 30tli June, were : — 1921-22. 1920-21. Guano £76,752 £91,556 . Sealskins 19,710 23,812 Penguin eggs 3,892 3,728 . The total receipts for the financial year 1921-22 were £115,817, and the expenditure £02,283. Sealskins realized on an average 39s. 9 id. each, a very satisfac- tory price. The collection this year was the largest yet made, namely, 10,129. 45. Z?m7)f/s.— During the period 1st July, 1921, to 30th June, 1922, 1375 additional brands were registered in the Transvaal Pro- vince, 82 in the Cape, and 7 in the Orange Free State. 1362 branding irons were supplied by the Government contractor during the period stated. The sum of £372 was collected for registration fees and £1280 for branding irons supplied at cost price. The total number of brands registered in each Province to 30th June, 1922, w^as as follows :— Transvaal, 25,599; Orange Free State, 1618; Cape Province, 6,049; total, 33,266. No Brands Act is in operation in Natal. 506 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. I. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Under-Secretary for Agricvlfiire (Ediicdfion) E. J. Macmillan, B.S.A. 1. General. — Considerable progress Mas made in educational work during the year. The support obtained for the two years' course was well maintained ; there was an increased demand for training by men who desired to fit themselves for settlement on the land at once. The attendance at the short vacation courses was larger than in the previous year. Special courses also were well attended. Many new and important experiments were undertaken. While certain inquiries were concluded, many more were instituted and the volume of work tends to increase. There is a danger that with the multiplication of requests by the farming community for advice and assistance throughout the country, investigational work may fall behind. This would prove a fatal error, for instruction, whether in the classroom or on the veld, must be based on researcdi. The demands of the extension service have increased and will continue to grow. Officers whose duties lie at the institution may be able to give special assistance outside from time to time, but in the main, itinerant instruction must be carried out by those who can devote their whole time to the work; in other words, a special itinerant staff at each school will be necessary. Important improvements were made at Elsenburg in providing electric light and a larger water supply. A complete water-borne sewage system is also under construction there. Apart from these works, little development was possible, and buildings and plant are urgently needed at several schools. The Grootfontein Instituticn is still housed in the old cantonment buildings of wood and iron built twenty years ago. Accommodation for staff is an urgent need at all schools. Many officers are now compelled to reside several miles from their work ; best service is not obtainable under such conditions. No progress was made in the establishment of a school for women which was proposed to be provided at Mariendahl, a portion of Elsenburg, funds not being available. Women are now admitted to short vacation courses only. 2. Staff. — The number of staff was the same as in tlie previous year as shown in the following statement: — Staff Employed at 30th June, 1922. Description. Head Office. Elsen- burg. Groot- fontein. Cedara. fotchef- stroom. Glen. Total. Professional and Technical... Administration and Clerical Instructor and Assistants ... 5 i 15 5 13 20 6 14 13 4 15 13 17 85 4 29 9 57 TOTAI 9 33 40 25 34 30 171 Staff at 30th June, 1921 ... 8 34 40 28 31 30 171 Report of the Department of Agricitlture. 507 There were also employed at training farms: — Boginsel, 5: Guba Park, 6. Additions to staft are required, especially for itinerant work, and as assistants to research officers. 3. Scholarships and Bursaries. — Ten new scholarships for study oversea were awarded during the year. The following figures show the position regarding scholarships to date : — Scholarships or grants made 12G ]l^umher of returned scholars in Government employ 47 Xum])er still engaged in study 43 Eleven returned scholars were api)ointed to posts in the Depart- ment. The number of assistance bursaries of £50 each, granted to needy students at Schools of Agriculture, was the same as last year (8). The value o'f the oversea scholarship is £200 per annum. 4. Courses of Instruction. — The attendance generally continued very satisfactory. All institutions were full since the beginning of the year with the exception of Glen School, and steps have been taken whereby special courses will be given there to the full accommoda- tion. The numbers enrolled in the Diploma Course were not quite as large as those shown for last year, but the position in respect of the training of young men has changed but little. There was a strong demand for shorter periods of instruction and for practical training of older men who are anxious to take up farming with as little delay as possible. Many men, just arrived from oversea with the object of farming in the Union, applied and A\ere enrolled. The training farms are at present unable to accept all applicants for this kind of work, and numbers are also being accommodateid at the schools for practical and special courses. The facilities offered by the special sheep and wool course given at Grootfontein were extended to provide for a larger number of entrants, and 27 men were accepted instead of 15 the previous year. The interest shown was fully maintained, and the course promises to develoj) into one of the best of its kind given anywhere. It has indeed come to be recognized as an essential por- tion of the training recjuired for all who wish to engage specially in sheep and wool M'^ork. The special course in dairying at Glen, designed to equip men for the position of management in factory dairying, is filling a long-felt want. A change in the course will be made to permit students finishing in time to enter factories in October, when the manufacturing season begins. There was a large increase in the attendance at winter vacation courses, which prove popular and must be considered as exercising a direct effect on current agricultural work. Development lies in the direction of special subject courses of one w^eek's duration only. This appears to be the form of instruction most suitable to the majority of the public. Winter vacation courses Avere extended to Cedara also during the year. The short course in wine-making given at Elsenburg during the summer vacation was well attended. At the training farms, the student is required to devote his energies to practical work, the period of training lasting one year. This affords opportunity for observation on the varying operations of the seasons and is the least time which can be recommended. Instruction in field work, dairying, poultry, and carpentry given 508 Journal of the Department of Agricilture. — Dec, 1922. by the resident staff is supplemented with lectures in otlier subjects, such as live stock, veterinary science, and horticulture. 5. Courses and jNTumbers in Attendance, 1921-22. Description of Course. Cedara. Glen. Elsen- Groot- burg. fontein. Potchef- stroom. Total. Diploma Course ... Special Course in Sheep and Wool Special Course in Dairying Practical Course ... Other Special Courses 38 17 21 10 1 2 .56 53 — 27 8 3 84 2 252 27 10 18 15 Total Winter Vacation Courses Short Course- -Wine-making 55 59 34 IKi fit 7'.t 27 83 163 86 125 322 542 27 Grand Total ... 114 150 170 246 211 S91 Numbers enrolled at Training Farms. — Beginsel (Standerton), 35; Guba Park (Indwe), 25. The total number of persons who attended these courses during the year was 951; in 1920-21 there were 811, showing a considerable advance. The diplomas and certificates awarded were as follows: — Elsenhuvg : 23 diplomas, 2 certificates in agriculture. Glen : 22 diplomas, 2 certificates in agriculture, 10 certificates in dairying. Grootfontein : 16 diplomas, 14 certificates in sheep and wool course. Milk and cream testing certificates Avere issued to 7 persons. Pofchefsfronm : 26 diplomas. At Cedara the diploma course was reopened in January, 1921. The students' inter-school judging competition was again held at the Bloemfontein Show. All five schools competed, with five men ill each team. The classes judged were Friesland cattle, draught horses, and pigs. The team from Potchefstroom won first phice, and the Glen team was second. 6. Extensioyi Work. — Information is conveyed to farmers on many agricultural questions, chiefly by means of correspondence, through organized lectures, and by personal visits. The demand for assistance of this kind has grown, as the advice of itinerant officers has come to be more appreciated. Much can be done with the aid of correspon- dence, but the average man requires his difficulties to be investigated on the spot. This means the development of an extension service on a liberal scale. The figures for the past j^ear sliow^ more work accomplished, principally in connection with sheep and poultry. In household science, too, more persons were reached. Three demon- strators were employed in this subject throughout the year. The strengthening o'f the Grootfontein and Glen staff's for sheep and wool, and arrangements for closer co-operation with the Sheep Division, made it possible greatly to increase the extension work in this subject. Report of the Department of Agriculture. 509 The tables hereunder indicate tliat tlie poultry officers were able to show a o-reater volume of work done than those of any other branch. In horticulture, too, a very considerable interest is to be noted, indicative of the growth of the small holding" system and the readiness of the public to take up the study on lines most appropriate to these conditions. Agricultural Education : Extension Work done during 1921-22. Lectures Number Visits to Subject. Inquiries dealt with. and Demonstra- Attend- ance. of Shows Farms, Poultry tions. Attended. Yards, etc. Agriculture ;ind Stock ... 7,687 166 8,319 135 767 Aofri cultural Chemistry 1,573 20 818 7 91 „ Botany ... 478 / 390 / 32 , Engineerino' 944 2 40 4 31 Entomology 534 8 500 6 47 Veterinary Science 280 5 170 4 150 Dairying... 106 r> 160 8 10 Poultry 3,767 194 14,502 71 413 Horticulture 988 90 1,973 19 133 Household Science 492 109 7,534 37 6 Total for year 1!)2 1-22 ... 16,849 606 34,406 298 1,680 Total for year 1920-21 ... 13,791 416 27,528 293 1,801 Engagements filled in judging at shows numbered 262, a large increase over the previous year, and many important and beneficial conferences were held at the different schools. At Elsenburg there were three such meetings, viz., the Annual Grain Farmers' Confe- rence, the Cape Dairymen's Association, and the Tobacco Growers. All three were well attended. Lectures were delivered by the staff, and features of work of interest in each instance were inspected. A Dairy Farmers' Conference was held at Cedara in April. About 250 persons were present. The Annual Poultry Conference at Cedara, in May, drew an attendance of 400 and was very success'ful. At Glen a largely attended Poultry Conference was held. The Annual Maize Growers' Conference took place at Potchefstroom in April. The Boys' Maize Growing Competition was conducted from Potchef- stroom for the seventh year; twenty-five schools competed and a very satisfactory interest was shown in the work. Live stock were entered for competition at the leading shows, and exhibits of an educational character representing the results of experimental work were staged at as many centres as possible. Assistance was rendered to various breed societies in the inspec- tion of cattle for the appendix section of the stud book, 19 herds being examined. Members of the Grootfontein staff inspected 67 flocks of merino sheep for stud-book and grading purposes. Two agricultural surveys of proposed railway routes were carried on by the Principal of Grootfontein and reports made to the Railway Ad- ministration. The analysis of materials, testing of seeds, determination of fat in milk and cream, and similar services, were carried out for the 510 Journal of the Departmekt of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. farniing- public at nominal fees. The inspection of dairy glass- ware continued to demand considerable attention from the Chemistry Sections. T. Puhlicotions. — Many articles were contributed to the Journal of the Department, and subjects dealt with in a technical manner were furnished for separate publication. A great deal of information on different agricultural subjects was given through the agricultural Press. Financial Statement of the Schools of Agriculture and Experiment Stations for the Year ended 31st March, 1922. Net Cost per Name of Institution. Receipts.* Expenditme.* Student for 1 Maintenance and Education. & & & s. d. Cedara 8,227 20.810 108 10 7 Elsenburg 13,648 »2,66.S 105 4 11 Glen (•),798 24,742 138 3 0 Grootfoutein 12,529 41,614 156 5 ,5 Potchefstroom Total 9,(348 28,818 1(14 3 6 50.850 148,647 122 13 6t EXTRACTS FROM PRINCIPALS' REPORTS. 8. Cedara: .7. Fisher, B.Sc, N.D.A., Principal. AfjricuJfiiral Conditions. — Agricultural produce, including live stock, has, similarly with other commodities, passed through a very great depression. This was felt not only by the dairy farmer and maize grower, but also by the sugar planters, and those feeding stock. The fall in the price of maize and the Ioav worth of milk gave a decided impetus to the production of pork. Conditions with regard to surj)lus oxen are far from satisfactory. Prices for oxen are so low that the farmer will not sell; farms are becoming over- stocked. Fresh farms are being taken up by settlers in increasing numbers: a very hopeful sign. A pressing problem is that of markets for various kinds of the farmer's produce; and more than ever is it necessary for the farmer to know what his costs of production are. E.rperinient and Research. — The Experiment Station at Winkle- spruit was closed at the end of 1921, The sugar industry in Natal is dependent upon one variety of sugar-cane : the IJba variety. The need is urgent for new varieties, new selections, cross-breeding, and selection with the object of main- taining vigour and drought-resistant qualities, but lowering fibre and increasing the sucrose content. A compreliensive study was made of the diseases of cutworms. Many species of insect parasites were reared. A new fungous disease * Incluuing value of free issues and transfeis. t Average for the five Institutions. Report of the Department oe Agriculture. 511 of the wattle baf>-woim was discovered and studied ; it proved the importance of wilt diseases. Investigations in refJi^ard to wattle bark and other South African tanning materials were continued. The oxidation of arsenical dips in dipping tanks received much attention. The extent of the oxidation was found to he much greater in tanks stocked with proprietary dips than with the plain arsenite of soda dip, only explained by the presence of coal-tar derivatives in the proprietary dip used. Another important test made was that of investigating the reversion of water soluble phosphates in dolerite soils. Three new fungous diseases were found on beans and cowpeas. Seed selection of maize and tuber selection of potatoes were carried out. Among crop experiments the maize manuring trials demon- strated the value of phosphates in the more soluble forms. Inocula- tion experiments with leguminous crops yielded interesting results and indigenous clovers were considerably developed. Variety trials were carried out principally with grasses, beans, and potatoes. A world's record for Rhode Island Red Single Comb was established during the egg-laying competition that finished in March, 1922. A pen of four hens produced 904 eggs in 48 weeks; 868 eggs were 2 oz. and over, giving an average of 206 eggs per bird. A disastrous hailstorm on the 17th March, 1921, resulted in early defoliation, l)ruised bark and destroyed fruit buds, and a light fruit crop in 1922. Fruit-Hy was very much in evidence, and to combat this, blackberries were eradicated from the orchard and worthless varieties of other fruits eliminated. Woolly aphis was very prevalent, and three attempts to introduce the parasite secured from the United States of America were successful. The Farm. — Weather conditions had an unfavourable effect' upon yields in this area. Later sown teft' crops failed altogether. The season at Cedara, however, was above the average. Whilst the oat- hay crop was harvested with difficulty, and the potato crop did not turn out too satisfactorily, other crops did well. In Algerian oats, from 100 acres, 2 tons per acre were secured in fairly good condition, while 9 acres were grazed off in spring by test cows. Maize grain j'ielded 1000 bags from 140 acres : a good return. Maize, silage, about 75 acres, yielded poorly owing to a dry autumn. One silo was fillecV ; approximately 200 tons of excellent silage were made. Other crops sown were: — Teff, potatoes, soya beans, linseed, swedes, turnips, rape, Japanese millet, and artichokes. There appears to be a demand for the medium heavy type of horse for farm work, such as maize planting, mowing, etc., and this is a promising sign. The number of cattle at 30th June, 1922, was: — Frieslands, 4-'); Ayrshires, 29; Shorthorns, 55; and Aberdeen-xVngus, 73 — total, 20(i. The total yield of milk for the year was 19,402 gallons and was below tliat of last year. During the year the chief ailment of cattle was gall-sickness. All animals suffering from this have recovered, save one young Aberdeen- Angus bull. The contagious abortion cows were transferred to Onderstepoort for research purposes. Three animals v/hicli gave positive reactions were maintained on account of their high individual merit. There have been no fresh cases during the year, which points to the fact that any infection is now confined to the isolated camps. 17 512 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.— Dec, 1922. The entire herd has remained free from tuberculosis for several years now. All cattle are tested yearly.. The stock sale on 24th June was not up to expectations. The slump in cattle and the poor attendance seem to have been the factors responsible for the low prices. 9. Elsenburg : W. A. K. Morkel, 31. Sc, Actinp Priticipal. Agricultural Conditions. — Everything considered, climatic condi- tions were exceedingly unfavourable for the profitable production of all cereal crops, but for the growth of summer crops they were most favourable. Owing to the poor returns in all cereal crops, farm commodities did not change much in price. Milk was a regular glut in the market throughout the spring and early summer, and in conseciuence the prices realized 'for dairy stock were not more than average. Owing to the large surplus the market value of wine was in many cases below the actual cost of production. For wheat and other cereals, prices were barely above the cost of production. Extension and other Work. — The amount of extension work exceeded that of the previous year ; this service has been expanded 6o much that the Institution cannot possibly meet the demands made upon it. The analysis of materials reached a large volume, principally soils, wines, water and fertilizers, milk-testing, and the germination of seeds. At Mariendahl extensive experiments and inquiries in the nature of research are in progress in the various sections. Many have been running for several years, and a number of important new experi- ments have been nndertaken. A comprehensive series of experiments in the cross-breeding of pigs and feeding for the production of bacon was completed. Much experience was gained in methods for the control of codling-moth. The Farm..— Die total area under cultivation was {a) winter crops, i.e. grain, hay, grazing crops, 393 acres; (6) summer crops, i.e. silage, grazing, soiling, and vegetable crops, 173 acres. The principal crops grown were oats, wheat, rye, vetches, maize for silage purposes, and rape. In addition, sweet sorghums, Sudan grass, barley, kale, sweet potatoes, kaffir melons, mangolds, and sunflowers for silage purposes, were also grown. All sheep, excepting the merinos, made satisfactory progress. Attention has already been directed to the inadvisability of keeping merino sheep in this area, and as a result a considerable number were disposed of at our annual sale and also culled. The pure-bred Suffolk Down flock again proved to be very successful, and an excellent lamb crop was obtained. Both the Friesland and Jersey herds made steady progress. A new Jersey herd-leader, " Inkerman Cid," son of the world-famous " Cid," was imported from England in August, 1921. His first crop of calves have just been dropped and give every promise of proving highly satisfactory. This Institution is the possessor of the first Jersey cow in the Union to qualify 'for the advanced registry, and also the record (official) butter-fat production Jersey cows. Over 75 per cent, of Friesland cows have qualified for admittance to the advanced registry. IIeport of the Department of Agriculture. 513 The annual sale of live stock was held in (October, 1921, the prices obtained lor all classes of stock being a record for this Institution. The gross receipts amounted to £2364. Develupment. — Among other works the following were carried out: — (1) Four acres were sown to cluster pine. The germination of the seed was good and the growth of the trees satisfactory. (2) Ten thousand sugar-gums and pine trees were planted on different parts of the farm. (3) The small plantation of 2000 sugar-gums planted on the Klapmuts boundary of the farm made remarkably g'ood growth. (4) A borehole 160 feet deep was sunk and is yielding between 6000 to 8000 gallons of water per day. (5) 942 fruit trees were established during the year. These consisted of almonds 80, apricots 299, peaches 406, prunes 157; varieties of fruit specially suited for drying purposes were planted. Mariendahl Farm. — The total area under cultivation was {a) winter crops (grain, hay, and grazing crops), 200 acres; (&) summer crops (silage, grazing, and soiling crops), 65 acres. The standard of the grade herd of Friesland cattle was considerably improved by the continued use of young pure-bred Friesland sires from Elsenburg. The herd at the 30th June, 1922, consisted of 40 cows, 20 hei'fers, and 42 calves. The young pear orchard gave remarkably good returns, the bulk of the fruit being handled at Elsenburg. The returns from the vine- yard were also satisfactory, most of the crop being converted into raisins. Between 500 and 600 fruit trees were planted. A borehole was sunk io tlie depth of 145 feet, the casing being driven into solid granite rock. The daily yield from this supply of water is estimated at 30,000 gallons. 10. Glen: M. ./. Juuhert, B.S.A., Principal. Afiricnltural Conditions. — The depression continued throughout the year. The price for horses remained practically stationary. There was a slight advance in cattle prices. The price of wool improved considerably, but very few farmers benefited, as the majority of clips were sold before the advance took place. If prices can be obtained for the next clip equal to present prices, many farmers will be saved. Heavy losses were sustained and considerable expense entailed owing to severe drought during the latter half of the summer, followed by an extremely cold winter. It is feared that a large percentage of this year's lambing crop has been lost. Increased attention was given to pig-breeding. Many requests are made for assistance in grading up herds, and queries received regarding grading, feeding, etc. ; unfortunately, the Institution is not in a position to meet all requirements. The need for more extension work in the economic production of live stock crops is urgent and cannot be delayed mucli longer. The organization of farmers on the whole has retrogressed in the Orange Free State. Occasionally there is a revival, but it is only of short duration. The weakness is the lack of system. Until a general plan of organization is formulated for all farming pursuits this difficulty is bound to occur. Co-operative societies have done a great deal of good. The membership of some has remained practically stationary for the last six or eight years. This shows 17a 514 Journal, of the Depaetment of AGRicuLTrRE. — Dec, .1922. that all farmers who have realized the value of co-operative societies have joined. Further progress will be slow unless farmers can be organized in special or general associations and active propaganda work is undertaken in educating theni to realize the value of co- operation. Eayperiment and Research. — Trials are in progress with field crops, both under irrigation and on dry lands. This work is still in its initial stages. A considerable volume of analytical work was handled, and investigations were carried out in regard to certain soils. A study was also made of the wild rodents connected watli the spread of plague. Domestic science was confined almost exclusively to j)r()blems connected with farm life, such as canning of vegetables and fruit, soap-making, etc. This kind of work is not undertaken to any extent by household science teachers, and there is an unlimited field for investigation. The Farm. — The rainfall for the year ended 30th June was 17.24 inches. The water storage requires to be considerably augmented to meet the requirements of the farm. Practically all the crops partially failed owing to lack of water. As the majority of crops were put in early an average hay and ensilage crop was obtained. The total area under cultivation, not including the orchard, deciduous trees, vegetable garden, and permanent crops, was 416 acres. The following main crops were giown : — Oats, rye, teif, Sudan, maize (silage). The water in the river was exhaiisted early in the winter, and the oats and rye crops were grazed off in consequence. The annual sale of stock realized £1075. Only a limited number of stock was offered for sale. Considering the depression which prevailed throughout the Union the prices were satisfactory. The numbers of pure-bred stock maintained at the Institution as at 30th June, 1922, were: — Horses, Percheron and Clydesdale, 21; donkeys, Catalonian, 15; cattle, Friesland, 68; South Devon, 42; Africander, 19; pigs. Large Black, 25; sheep, Wanganella, 179. Most of the horses are Percheron. A small stud of donkeys is kept. The Friesland herd is continuing to attract attention owing to its capacity for yielding milk. When the animals it is ])ro])osed to sell this year are disposed of, all the cows in the herd will be eligible for the " Advanced Registry." Considerable atten- tion is being paid to the improvement of the Wanganella Stud. Xow that a lecturer is stationed at the Institution the stud can receive the attention it deserves. DeveJopwent. — Improvements carried out included the comple- tion of science fittings for the school, erection of an incubator house, supply of new pump and power churn, 6600 yards of faini fencing, and 22 new poultry runs. 11. Grootfonteix : R. W. Thornton, Prin(ij)aJ. Agricultural Conditions. — The several branches of farming practised in this area suffered from the prevailing depression, but there are signs of improvement. There is one good sign everywhere, the desire of the farmer to organize, and it is felt tliat if he can be Report of the Department of Agriculture. 515 given tlie correct lead in (a) the economics of prodnction, and (h) tlie conditions of marketing, things will be mncli improved. An active campaign in tlie economics of production in the school and by exten- sion work amongst tlie farmers will do far more good at the present time than other class of woik. Angora goat farming is just emerging from the Idackest stage in its history, but assistance is required to establish it permanently. The same remarks apply to ostrich farming, but in a less degree, as Grootfontein possesses the nucleus of a staff to assist the farmers in this direction. Considerable progress has been made during the past year in sheep farming. In regard to cattle, co]ulitions have also improved in the system adopted, but the collapse of the meat market is a serious set-back and it is feared Avill affect the progress towards improved feeding. A very large number of silos came into use during the year, and the silage campaign conducted from this Institution is bearing good fruit. E.i'tenrion Work. — Every eft^ort was made to release members of the staff from routine duties to enable them to prosecute work throughout the area, and compared with previous years considerable progress was made. Greater improvement is anticipated as a result of a further rearrangement of the curiiculum wliich lias now been completed . E.iperinieni and UeyearcJi. — Extensive tests were conducted with winter cereals, including 350 varieties. The wheat cross-breeding experiments were continued and several promising crosses raised. Selection trials in maize and grasses were among other important experiments in field crops. I^rovision was made for co-operative trials l)y farmers, but the Ijulk of these could not be carried out owing to drought. The experimentalist for the South Coast reported a variety of wheat (known as " Great Scott ") which for four years has proved to be proof against rust in an area where the latter has been very prevalent, and steps were taken to test it extensively throughout the Union. An important irrigation experiment was laid down with the object of obtaining reliable data as to the minimum and maximum supplies of water to be used for various crops under Karroo condi- tions. This will be a very comprehensive test extending over a number of years. Considerable attention was given to potatoes, including trials of varieties, storage of seed, and selection of seed from different areas. Observations were undertaken concerning the prol)lem of veld- grazing and the effect of different methods of veld treatment on the stock carrying capacity. Investigations regarding the control of the *' Blow-fly " pest are in progress. The principal lines of research in chemistry were studies in soils of the Karroo, fertilizers, and sugar-beet contents. Important trials were carried out and results published in regard to the use of prickly- pear as a feed for ditt'erent classes of stock. The Karakul breeding experiments were continued and inijiortant investigations commenced with the merino, including the relation of kenip as a breeding character, the effect of altitude, and grazing problems. The breeding experiments with ostriches are progressing favourably, and crosses with the North African birds promise to yield valuable results. Various feeding experiments with poultry for egg production were carried on. The production of vegetable 616 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. seeds, the best times for seeding" and practical means of iniiiiniiziiig- the macrosporium disease of tomatoes, were studied. An area of approximately 500 acres was recently acquired adjoining the village of Bathurst, and a large number of wlieat varieties and selections have been sown. The Farm. — In general the season was not very satisfactory for crops. The acreage dealt with was as follows: — vSudan grass, 60; pumpkins, 4; potatoes, 8; oats, 84; lucerne, 140; silage, 25; salt bush, 13; vegetables, 2; orchard, 12; experiments, pricklv-pear. 40; fallow land, 130— total, 468 acres. The Percheron breed of horses is kept and numbers 22. A small stud of Catalonian donkeys has been maintained. Two pure-bred herds of cattle are now kept, Friesland and Shorthorn. There are on the farm upwards of 200 head of breeding cattle, and approxi- mately 3000 .sheep (including Merino stud sheep), Karakuls, Merino flock and slaughter flocks of Persians, and cross-breds. There are about 160 Angora goats, and of ostriches 20 breeding birds ;ind 100 head of young stock. The annual sale of stud stock on the 16th September, 1921, realized £1908. DeveJopme7}f . — The principal woik was on a large storage dam in the vlei, which was constructed under the direction of the Irriga- tion Department ; the installation of an electrical plant to pump water for domestic purposes ; a shed for the Angora goats was rebuilt ; and the erection of a small milk-room at the dairy stable. The irriga- tion dam for experiments was enlarged to a capacity of about 750.000 gallons, and a system of concrete water channels was constructed. A considerable extent of new fencing was erected. 12. Potchefstroom : T. G. IT'. NeiiiecJa\ B.A., 3I.Sc.Ag., Principal. AfiricuJfuraJ Conditions. — There was a considerable shrinkage in the maize crop of the season 1921-22, especially in the western Transvaal, owing to drought and locusts, and also in the eastern high veld due to stalk-borer. Poor prices ruled for maize, so that many growers who are solely grain farmers were and still are in serious financial difficulties. The year was a good one for live stock. Unfortunately, prices for live stock declined considerably owing to the depression, those for pigs being most discouraging to growers. It seems that here also co-operation is necessary to stabilize the market. At present sufficient discrimination is not made by buyers between the kaffir type of pig and the well-bred, properly fed baconer. The market 'for slaughter she-ep and nieuino wool hardened considerably in the season of 1921-22, and good prices have been maintained throughout, but dairy farmers had a bad time during the year. An endeavour was made by this Institution during 1921 to induce maize growers in the western Transvaal to extend their operations to peanut-growing. At the time of writing, growers of this crop are receiving very fair returns for it. Ea-periment and Research. — The cross-breeding experiments with the Suffolk ram on pure or cross-bred Suffolk-Persians again furnished interesting and instructive results. The cross-bred ewes are proving excellent mothers, and in nearly all cases have leared twins. The Report of the Department of Agriculture. 517 percentage of lambs has been high. The lambs mature at an early stage, prove very hardy, and keep in excellent condition all the year through . Studies conccniiug ihc nitrification of soils were continued and much important work done in connection with tobacco soils in the Rustenburg District. The lime requirements of soils were also investigated. A number of entomological experiments were com- pleted, including- the control of grain-eating- birds and methods of destroying- rats and other vermin. The research work on charcoals made 'from exotic timbers grown in the Union was completed and the results published. Some promising- botanical studies are in progress, including- the vitality of maize seed, potato diseases, seed degeneration, rust in cereals, and general breeding work in wheat. The crop experiments were extensive — some 30 different experi- ments being conducted in this section, variety and fertilizer trials predominating. The Farm. — The season was unsatisfactory in seveial respects. Altogether 867 acres were steam-plouglied and ploughed with oxen, including- 74 acres at Brakspruit ; 267 acres were manured with Government guano. 297 acres with superphosphate, 1002 acres were irrigated, and 1476 acres were cultivated. Owing- to drought, several crops were complete failures, and in most cases the ground was reploughed and other crops sown. The ground prepared and planted to the different farm crops during- the year was 500 acres in extent. In addition, 50 acres, which form the experimental plots, were under plot tests. There were 224 acres under maize of the Chester County and Potchefstroom Pearl varieties. The former and portion of the latter gave a good yield of grain. Both the silos were filled and a quantity of green maize which failed was fed to the dairy cow-s. About 50 per cent, of the whole crop was blank; stalks growing to over 6 feet in height failed to produce cobs. This was general throug-hout the district. Good progress was made during the year with the different breeds of live stock. Except in the case of horses the natural increase was satisfactory. Five herds of pure-bred cattle were maintained, also a herd of cross-bred cattle used for experimental purposes. Totals of the different herds on hand at 30tli June, 1922, were as follows : — Friesland, 70; Ayrshire, 51; Hereford, 71; Sussex, 75; African- dei , 64; Hereford-Africander, 18; Sussex-Africander, 20; other cross- breds and oxen, 78 — total, 447. There were also 75 pigs on hand. The year was a particularly good one for sheep. The lambing season was a record one, 115 ewes giving 110 lambs, an average of 95 per cent. As in former years it was difficult to get the Romney sheep to breed at a season suited to this district. The annual sale of pure-bred stock was held on the 7th Sep- tember, 1921, and considering- the adverse conditions then prevailing, the result was satisfactory. The total amount realized was £2054. Development. — A portion of the farm Noydjons, some 1000 acres in extent, was acquired from the Lands Department for grazing purposes, and several miles of new fencing erected. Approximately 200 acres of the school farm were enclosed Avith dog-proof fencing-. Electric light was installed in several of the staff residences and in the educational block. 518 JoUliXAL OF THE DePARTMEXT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. Report No. II. VETERINARY DIVISION. F/iuripal I'eterinary Officer: J. D. Boethwick, M.E.C.V.S. 1. General. The position with regard to the eradication of certain contagious animal diseases in the Union cannot be regarded as altogether satis- factory : this is largely, if not wholly, due to the inadequate field staif at the disposal o'f the Division. Much of the blame for the slow progress made in the eradication of East Coast fever undoubtedly rests Avith the stock farmer, and until it is more or less generally realized that the Government regulations are primarily a protection to the stock farmer, progress will continue to be slow. On the other hand, if every stock owner in the Union were imbued with sutficient public spirit to regard himself as a potential administrator of the stock diseases regulations, there is little doubt that contagious diseases would very soon be under control. Meanwhile, we have to face the fact that many stock owners regard the regulations as both irksome and, to a large extent at any rate, unnecessary, and such being the case there is only one alternative, and that is to increase the field staff of the Division, thereby increasing the supervision of dipping operations and so forth. While expenditure of public funds must l>e rigorously controlled, economy can be carried too far: if a more strenuous compaign were adoi)ted for a few years it would do much towards cleaning up animal diseases throughout the country. Even if tlie veterinary field staif were doubled for a brief period, the results would warrant the extra exi)enditure. Sucli a l)oli( V would be economical in the end ; the disease would l)e confined within limited bounds, and, as a result, the supervision could be relaxed to a certain extent over a large portion of the area at present needing supervision, and the efforts of the staff concentrated in the areas still infected. Both in the Transkeian Territories and Natal^ the field stafi" was increased during the year, in the latter province by 20 full and part time dipping inspectors and, in the Territories,, by the addition of four inspectors and the creation of posts for six senior inspectors to control certain districts, for which six o'f the most exjjerienced inspectors on the staff" of the Division were selected. The Division is, however, still under-staffed and, until more super- vision is provided for dipping operations, satisfactory progress in the eradication of East Coast fever will not be made, more especially in Natal. 2. East Coast Fever. Cape. — In March, 1922, an outbreak of East Coast fever was discovered at Komgha, in the Cape Province. The position is Report of the Department of AcRicfLTrRE. 519 considered to he very satisfactoiy,* so luueli so indeed that it was considered pert'ectly safe to reopen the district to ox transport. A hlock of 18 farms was quarantined ; within this area the dipping- interval was shortened from 7 to 5 days and handdressing' was also ordered. The source of this outbreak has not yet been discovered, bvit seeing that several locations in the Transkei bordering on the Komg-ha District were at the time actively infected with East Coast fever, it is highly probable that that Avas the source of infection. T ranavaaJ.- — There are nine districts in which East Coast fever exists, as compared with six at the end of June, 1921. (1) Ljjden- burg. — In this district there is only one infected farm, two having been released from quarantine during the year, and no fresh out- breaks have occurred. At Elandsdrift No. 41, twelve deaths occurred, with 28 last year. The last death occurred in March, 1922, and there is every reason tor believing that the disease is now under control, and no furtlier deaths are expected. (2) Piet Retief. — There were 12 infected farms in this district at the end of June, 1922, as compared with 13 the previous year. While no less than 12 farms became clean during the period under review, 11 fresh outbreaks have recently occurred, a serious setback. The infection would appear to have been introduced from Swaziland on the one side and from Natal on the other. The disease was first discovered on the farm Hebron No. 185, and it was proved that cattle from the farm in question were allowed to stray into Swaziland shortly before the disease broke (nit on this farm. Six further farms adjoining the Swaziland border subsequently became infected, and the disease was, unfortunately, conveyed by means of transport oxen from one or other of these farms to the Piet Retief Town Lands, where a single death only occurred. Eurther outbreaks occurred on the farms Zendelingspost No. 145 and Bakenkop No. 121, on the Natal border. While the mortality on the majority of the newly infected farms cannot be regarded as serious, the reintroductiou of the disease into this district is most disappointing, and had it not occurred, only one farm would have been remaining in quarantine at the end of the year. In this district 125 deaths from East Coast fever have occurred and 3416 head remain in-contact. (3) Fieters- hurg. — Excellent progress in the eradication of disease was made, and only 6 farms remain infected as against 14 at the end of last year, and of the 6 infected farms 3 will become clean in Julj^ and August by lapse of time since the last death. The only fresh out- breaks occurred in January and February, 1922, on the farms Mid- dagzon No. 926 and Nooitgedacht No. 56 respectively, where only one death occurred. The total number of deaths in this district from East Coast 'fever amounted to (Uily 5 head, and 6000 animals remain in-contact. (4) Barberton. — Excellent progress was also made in this district, as disclosed by the fact that only 3 farms remain in quarantine as compared"^ with 16 at the end of the previous year. One fresh outbreak occurred, however, on the farm Rozentuin, situated near the border of the Carolina District. The source of infection has not yet been discovered, but as the farm is in an isolated part of the district there is little doubt that the outbreak *Up to August, 1922, onlj^ one animal is known to have died nf the disease out of total of 1282 in-contacts. . 520 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. lesiilted from an illegal iiiuvemeiit from some infected area. Out of 909 in-contacts, 92 deaths occurred. (5) Zoutpansberg. — The number of infected farms and native locatioiis in this area total 24, as compared with 45 at the end of June, 1921 ; 32 farms became clean during' the year, while 11 fresh outbreaks occurred, all of which, with one exception, were in the Sibasa area and were extensions of infection from pre-existing infected areas. The total number of deaths from East Coast fever in this district was 1977. and 21,017 head remain in-contact. (6) Pretoria. — On the 30th .Tune, 1921, there were 87 infected farms in this district. During the year 35 fresh outbreaks occurred, while 29 'farms became clean, leaving a total of 93 farms still infected. Practically all the fresh outbreaks were the result of the spread of disease from infected to buffer farms, and comparatively few deaths occurred in the case of these fresh out- breaks. Dipping was only commenced on a number of infected farms in the Bush Veld towards the end o'f 1921, and, in view of all the circumstances, the percentage of deaths was surprisingly small and may be taken as an indication that, generally speaking, dipping operations had proved most effective. The area south of the Pretoria- Middelburg railway line is now rapidly becoming clean. There is every reason to believe that if the present system of supervision and control is maintained the great majority of infected farms in the Pretoria District should be out of quarantine within twelve months. The deaths recorded number 750, and 24,015 head remain in-contact. The position in this district cannot be regarded as other than satis- factory. (7) Carolina. — There was no East Coast fever in this district at the end of June, 1921, but outbreaks occurred on the farms Zoekmy and Kleintheespruit during April, 1922. It has not been definitely ascertained how the disease came to be introduced into this district^ but an illegal movement of cattle was doubtless responsible, either from the Barberton District or 'from Swaziland. Provided the erec- tion of dipping tanks on the surrounding farms can be expedited, no great difficulty is anticipated in controlling the disease. Out of a total of approximately 600 animals in-contaci, 82 deaths from East Coast fever have occurred. (8) Waterberg. — This is another district to which the disease spread during the mouth of March, 1922, an outbreak occurring in the Landsberghoek native location, which also involved the farms Hartebeestfontein No. 1520 and Bloemhof No. 1672, and subesquently spread to the adjoining farm Driefontein No. 1547 during the month of Maj', 1922. The most disconcerting feature in regard to this fresh infection is the fact that the farms concerned are about 80 miles distant from the nearest known source of infection, and no light has yet (August, 1922) been thrown on the source of infection, despite all efforts made by the police and the officers of this Division. The deaths recorded total 37, and 1825 animals remain in-contact. (9) Middelburg. — In the Witbank sub- division of this district the disease made its appearance in February, 1922, on the farm Kranspoort No. 18. The source of the outbreak has, unfortunately, not been traced, but as the main road leading out of the infected portion of the Pretoria District traverses the farms concerned, there is little doubt that an illegal movement over this road took place. Natal. — The position in Natal improved appreciably during the year, although in some districts there were fresh outbreaks in clean Report of the Department of Agriculture. 521 areas in which dipping operations were not supervised but left to stock owners themselves. In Umvoti and Estcourt veterinary areas, the two worst infected areas last year, much headway was made, but on the other hand setbacks were experienced in Vryheid, Paul- pietersburg, Babanango, Utrecht, Ixopo, Camperdown, Richmond, and Lower Tugela Districts, due mainly to two causes, namely, irregular and improper dipping, and failure to report deaths promptly. Long familiarity with the disease in Natal has bred contempt and when it is not in the immediate neighbourhood there is a tendency for dipping operations to become slack and irregular, and at certain seasons they are even entirely suspended. During the year an increase of staff was authorized, but it was well into the summer months before suitable men could be obtained, and owing to the fresh outbreaks, in addition to the old infected areas which require close supervision, the whole staff was employed in infected and in-contact areas only. The additional inspectors, however, assisted very materially in checking and eradicating the disease in those areas, and on the whole the results were satisfactory. If the same supervision could be extended to all areas exposed to infection. East Coast fever could quickly be eradicated in Natal, and this extension of supervision thus prove economical. Transhei. — During the year 58 fresh outbreaks were reported as against 56 during the previous year, and the areas in quarantine on 30tli June, 1922, totalled 100, as compared with 70 a year previous. The following districts are free from the disease : — Matatiele, Qumbu, Tsomo, St. Marks, Xalanga, Nqamakwe, and Port St. Johns, west of the Umzumvubu River. Unfortunately, there was a recru- descence of the disease in several districts, more especially in the Kentani, Butterworth, Engcobo, and Umzimkulu districts. This is attributable to a variety of causes, chief amongst which were the excessive rains following drought which prevented the proper dipping of cattle ; the extensive movement of stock necessary during drought and the failure of the water supply at some tanks on account of the drought ; non-co-operation of a certain number of stock owners who evade dipping ; a tendency to slacken off dipping operations in some localities where the natives having dipped for many years become tired of the routine or, lulled into a sense of false security, feel there is no longer any danger to be feared from East Coast fever ; and illicit movements of cattle, which, in these vast unfenced areas almost entirely occupied by natives, are practically impossible to check. The inadequate number of field officers and dipping tanks, too, must be regarded as largely responsible for the slow progress made in the eradication of the disease, but several new_ tanks are at present in course of construction and will be in readiness for the campaign against the disease next summer. The position in Eastern Pondoland, which is regarded as one wholly suspected area, may be considered satisfactory in view of the fact that out of a total of 151,000 head of cattle only .']01 head have died from East Coast fever. 3. Anthrax. This disease is still prevalent throughout the whole of the Union, and it is more than likely, in the large unsettled districts and native areas where police posts are few and far between, that many out- breaks are not reported. 522 JOUENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AgEICULTURE. DeC, 1922. In previous reports the serious nature of this disease was com- mented upon, and it was pointed out that anthrax is responsible for more losses amongst farm stock than the total losses from all other contagious diseases. It is a matter for regret that stock owners cannot be brought to realize the danger of skinning and cutting up the carcasses of animals dying suddenly and unexpectedly, notwith- standing the repeated warnings against the practice. The most important factor in the successful suppression of anthrax is the proper disposal of infected carcasses, but this is found most difficult to enforce owing to ignorance or carelessness on the part of the farmer and the lack of police supervision. The i)olice do their best and render valuable assistance, but it is impossible for them to control the proper disposal ofi all suspected carcasses. If anthrax is to be successfully stamped out, it is imperative that the farmers assist, and it is high time they banded themselves togetlier and pledged themselves to see that the carcasses of all animals which die from disease are either burned or properly buried. Most farmers are alive to the danger of cutting up anthrax carcasses, but the danger arises- from the carcasses of animals supposed to have died of gallsickness, lamsiekte, etc., and eventually found to have died of antlirax, 'for these carcasses are often allowed to be cut up and the meat distributed far and wide. Systematic inoculation and more general supervision are the only means by which we can satisfactorily deal with this disease, and the staf¥ of the Division would need to be increased very considerably to obtain and maintain effective control over the large areas where antlirax is at present prevalent. The prevalence of the disease in the Union will, sooner or later,, result in the proliibition of the export of certain products except under permit issued on a certificate from the grower that his product comes from flocks not infected with anthrax. It will also be necessary for 'farmers themselves to take action in order to safeguard their present oversea markets, unless producers are prejiared to face the consequences. Cape. — Outbreaks are still on the increase in the Cape Province. The excess of reported outbreaks over last year numbered 29. The mortality also shows a corres])onding increase, whilst the number of animals inoculated has more than doubled. The increased mortality, it is considered, is not due to more widespread inoculation, for every- where the reports as to the results obtained with spore vaccine are encouraging : 198 outbreaks were dealt with, in the course of which 1033 animals died and 38,475 were inoculated. There were 169 out- breaks during the previous year. Transvaal . — The number of out)>reaks totalled ()84, as compared with 800 during the ])ievious year, and apiiroximately 98,000 animals were inoculated. The disease is particularly persistent in the districts of the Witwatersrand and Pretoria. Natal. — 86 outbreaks were dealt with, involving the death of 320 head, and the inoculation of 34,526. During the previous year 105 outbreaks were reported. Orange Fret State. — The disease is still widely prevalent, the most heavily infected districts being Kroonstad, Lindley. Bosliof, Bloem'fontein, Heilbron, Winburg, Yrede, Senekal. Thaba 'Xchu, Keport of the Department of Agriculture. 523 Hoopstad, and Ficksburg. The present field staff of the Division in this province is quite inadequate to cope satisfactorily with the disease. The total number of outbreaks was 323, as compared with 307 in the previous year, while 58,699 animals were inoculated and 1353 deaths were reported. Transkei. — 303 outbreaks were dealt with, as compared with 493 during the previous year, and of 27 magisterial districts, the disease is endemic generally in 23 districts. In the Transkei the disease can be regarded as second in importance only to East Coast fever, and it is felt that only by systematic inoculation can satisfactory progress be made towards its eradication. 4. Tuberculosis. Generally speaking, with the exception of a certain number of tests conducted for the Friesland Breeders' Association and other owners, only actual outbreaks of this disease were dealt with. Neither the staff nor the funds available for payment of compensa- tion, render it possible to follow up the source of infection, and there is little doubt that until the position is improved in these respects little or no headway will be made towards the complete eradication of the disease. Cape. — The restrictions imposed in the districts of the Cape and Stellenbosch were removed, as it was felt that no good purpose was being served by retaining them in such a limited area ; 13 outbreaks were dealt with and 2574 animals tested, of which 138 reacted. Of the latter number 118 were destroyed. The total number of animals tested last year was 2319, of which 103 reacted. Transvaal. — Two outbreaks were brought to the notice of the Division, while 75 animals were tested at the request of owners, chiefly in the case of animals about to be dispatched to destinations outside the Union. Natal. — Seven outbreaks were dealt with in the course of which 1574 animals were tested, of which 51 reacted. Orange Free State. — Three outbreaks were discovered, as com- pared with 1 during last year. Transkei. — One case was discovered, namely, at Idutywa. The animal was destroyed and the in-contacts tested, with negative results. 5. DouRiNE OR Slapsiekte. Cape. — 47 outbreaks were dealt with, involving 1155 animals of which 102 either died or were destroyed, the districts concerned being Barkly West, 26 outbreaks ; Hay, 5 : Herbert, 2 : Kuruman, 9; Taungs, 2; and Vryburg, 3. The outbreaks of this disease in 1920-21 totalled 39. ' Tran.rvaal. — No 'fresh outbreaks were reported, but one farm still remains in quarantine. Natal. — No outbreaks were reported. 524 JOVENAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. Orange Free State. — The disease was discovered on certain farms in the Boshof District, resulting in the destruction of -^9 animals. In addition, six farms were quarantined as a precautionary measure, but no cases occurred thereon. Transkei.- — No outbreaks were reported. 6. Glanders. In the C^ape only 3 outbreaks were dealt with, as compared Mith 15 in the previous year; 12 animals died or w^ere destroyed, while 25 in-contacts were involved. In the Transvaal 4 outbreaks occurred and 530 animals were subjected to the mallein test. A serious out- break occurred at Nigel in the Heidelberg District, in connection with which 373 animals were tested. There were no outbreaks in the Orange Free State or Natal, and in the Transkei only one case occurred, in the Tabankulu district, where the infected animal was destroyed. 7. Mange. This disease is widespread throughout the Cape Province, still mostly in the large towns, as was the case in 1920-21 ; 105 outbreaks were dealt with as compared with 148 the previous year ; 23 animals died or were destroyed out of a total of 349 in-contacts. In the Transvaal there were 96 outbreaks, as compared with 139 during the previous year. The chief source of infection is still the Witwaters- rand area, where the prevalence of the disease continues to be a source of trouble. In Natal there were 9 outbreaks, as compared with 6 during the previous year, and in the Orange Free State 8, as com- pared with 5. In the Transkei 28 cases were reported, as against 17 during the previous year; 14 of the fresh outbreaks occurred in the Indutywa district ; 9 in Nqamakwe ; 2 each in Matatiele and Umzimkulu, and one in Mount Currie. All the cases were success- fully treated. 8. Other Proclaimed Diseases. Epizootic Li/mphangitis. — There were 5 outbreaks of this disease in the Cape Province ; 2 in Bathurst, and 1 each in Barkly West, Humansdorp, and Uitenhage districts, as compared with 10 outbreaks during the previous year; 6 animals died or were destroyed. No outbreaks were reported in the other provinces. Swine Fever. — No outbreaks of this disease occurred. Ltnig-nckness. — No outbreaks of this disease occurred. 9. Non-Proclaimed Diseases. Horse-sickness. — The usual nuniber of inoculations was con- ducted. In the Transkei the disease made its appearance at Port St. John's, but ceased without any undue mortality occurring. Quarter Evil is still prevalent and inoculations continue. Blue-tongue was pff-evalent in certain districts in the Cape Province, notably Middelburg, Graaff-Eeinet, and Cradock. In some parts the presence of the disease is attributed to the abnormal and early hatchings of mosquitoes. E-EPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 525 10. Statistics. The usual returns are subjoined : — (i) Imports of Animals : Year ended 30th June, 1922. (a) Animals Imported into the Union from Oversea. Ports of Entry. Cattle. Horses. Pigs. Sheep and Goats. Dogs. Cats. Zoological Specimens and Miscel- laneous. Total, Capetown Port Elizabeth ... East London Durban Total 39 1 1 44 106 90 34 2 3 22 1 139 355 71 2 4 36 14 1 4 9 51 295 6 145 583 85 196 39 517 113 19 60 1,029 (b) Statement showing Breed and Sex of certain) of above. Cattle. Cattle — {continued). Breed. Males Females. Breed. Males. Females. Angus ... Jersey Shorthorn Kerry Hereford Friesland 1 2 13 3 3 1 6 29 5 1 2 Ayrshire Red Poll South Devon Total 2 2 1 8 4 2 27 58 Horses. Sheep and Goats. Stallions and Mares and Fillies. Geldings. Breed. Earns. Ewes. Colts. Shee^} — Suffolk Merino 1 Romney Marsh ... Wanganella Shropshire Miscellaneous Croats — Toggenburg Total 2 •245 5 1 3 46 Ill 39 14 225 12 7 3 256 261 Pigs. Bleed. Boars. Sows. Berkshire Large Black Gloucester 1 9 1 2 24 2 Total 11 28 526 J0URN.\L OF THE DeP.^RTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. (c) Cattle Inijyorted into the Union from adjoi/tinrj Tcnitories. From. Foil Slaughter. FoK Restocking. 1921-22. 1920-21. 1921-22. 1920-21. Southern Rhodesia ... British Bechuanaland South West Africa Swaziland Basutoland No. 11,980 23,709 17,342 6,558 No. 12,031 23,6S5 11,239 5,031 8 No. 1,936 4,096 4,134 No. 4,506 10,069 Total 59,589 51,994 10,166 14,575 (ii) Cattle Dipping Tanks as at SOtii June, 1921 AND 1922. Province. 1921. 1922. Cape (exclusive of Transkeian Territories)... Transvaal Natal 1 P";^*^ 1 Native Orange Free State Transkeian Territories 1.773 2.036 4,908 401 268 817 1,852 2,684 5,035 405 314 820 Dipping TanJxs.- — During" the period under review 316 applica- tions were made to the Land Bank for advances for the construction of dipping- tanks. In the nine infected districts in the Transvaal there were 2283 dipping tanks in commission on the 30th June, 1922, as compared with 1656 on the 30tli June, 1921. (iii) Export of Meat. During the twelve months ended 30t]i June, 1922, 6023 head of cattle, as compared with 15,170 during llie twelve months ended 30t]i June, 1921, were insjiected for export, and the following was the quantity of beef exported, viz.: 1920-21, 42,887 quarters; 1921-22, 6727 qmirters. During 1921-22, 830 sides of bacon, 382,100 lb. of pork, and 310 pork carcasses were exported. (iv) Legal Proceedings Instituted by Division, Year ended 30th June, 1922. Province. Prosecutions. Fines. Cape (exclusive of Transkeian Territories)... Transvaal Natal Orange Free State Transkeian Territories No. 369 1,025 1,545 4 1,645 & 906 2,370 3,603 22 2,489 Total ... ... . ... 4,.588 9,390 Report of the Department of Agriculture. 527 Report No. III. VETERINARY EDUCATION AND RESEARCH. Director of Veteiinaiij Jul ucdtion ond l^esearcJi Sir Arnold Theiler, X.C.M.G., D.Sc, etc. 1. Administration. During the year it wos possible to adopt gradually the main principles of the reorganization of the Division, as laid down in the meiaorandum submitted from Vryburg- in November, 1919. and subse- quently adopted by Parliament. In view of the financial situation research work had to he cui- down to the lowest possible minimum, aJid several important investi- gations that were either in hand or in contemplation had to be abandoned. xVlthough the reasons for curtailment of expenditure are fully realized, restriction of research work is not actually in the economical interests of the country. Owing to the shortage of professional staff and the urgent neces- sity for economizing in every direction, the laboratory at Grahams- town was temporarily closed down as a research institute. Arrange- ments were made, however, to maintain its functions as a routine laboratory, and farmers in the eastern districts of the Cape Province have been able to obtain any vaccine or laboratory product required, and blood smears are still being examined there. 2. Eoutine Work. Anthrax Vaccine. — 800,330 doses were jirepared and issued from Onderstepoort of the single spore vaccine, and towards the end of the year a double injection vaccine was introduced, of which 19.2G0 doses were supplied. The issue of single spore vaccine showed, an increase of 182, 8G2 doses over the previous year. Pietermaritzburg and Grahamstown laboratories retailing 43,945 and 62.265 doses respectively out of the totr.l production. During 1920-1921. 430. 1G5 doses of the Pasteur method anthrax vaccine were supplied, but the issue was discontinued in 1921-1922. Quarter En] Vaccine. — The output showed a considerable reduc- tion, only 358,050 doses being prepared and issued from Onderstepoort 528 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922, as against 547,920 doses tor the previous year. The difference wa& due to provincial variations. IVire-ivorm Remedy. — The output varies annually ; this year it was 5,466,500 doses, against 4,488.800 last year, bringing the total issues since the remedy was introduced in 1917 to over 30i million. For the powder form of administration 4451 Josing spoons and 634 dosing howls were issued. For lic[uid dosing, including sheep and cattle, 13 liquid dosing spoons, 277 phials of hydrochloric acid, and 37 litre measuring tins were issued. Blue Tongue Vaccine. — A decrease in output has also to be recorded, the issues being 712,43 6 doses, compared with 845,213 doses the previous year, due probably lo the general financial depression during the year, farmers preferring to run the risk of mortality rather than incur further expenses. Red water and Gallsinknes!^ Vaccine. — Another decrease is to be noted, 9171 doses having been issued as against 17,557 in the previous year. The issues of this vaccine showed remarkable increases during the period 1916 to 1921, over 117,000 doses being issued in those five years, whereas in previous years the annual outpit remained fairly constant, and averaged about 10,000 doses. Contagious Abortion Vaccine. — The issue of the " live "' con- tagious abortion vaccine was commenced during the year, and a total of 1745 doses dispatched up to 30th June. Dip Testing Materials. — 1320 litres (equivalent to 132,000 tests) of dip-testing fluid, 1100 large tins, 160 small tins, 2950 books of test-paper, and 85 measuring spoons were issued. Inoculation of Mules against Horse-sickness. — A sufficieiit quan- tity of serum and virus was supplied for the inoculation of 3638 mules against horse-sickness. Returns are available of 2413 inoculations undertaken during the year: 1973 of these mules were inoculated at owner's risk, and the remaining 440 under the insurance scheme. The amount of the premiums paid into revenue totalled £445, against which payments in respect of compensation amounted to £195. Microscopical, Pathological, and Serological Work. — The usual microscopical and pathological routine work was undertaken at the various laboratories, the number of specimens examined at Onderste- poort amounting to 23,547, at Pietermaritzburg to 18,004, and at Grahamstown to 690. The Onderstepoort and Grahamstown figures show a slight decrease compared with last year, whereas at Pieter- maritzburg an increase of 3995 examinations occurred. Agglutination tests for the diagnosis of contagious abortion were continued at Onderstepoort and at Pietermaritzburg, 4089 being undertaken at the foimer station and 774 at the latter, the proportion of positive to negative results being approximately 2 to 7 in the Transvaal and 1 to 6 in IN^atal. Approximately 800 various samples were received for examina- tion, half of these being m connection with the investigational work of the Division, and the other half having been received from the public or from officers of other divisions. The total is distributed, in round numbers as follows: — 200 dip samples, 50 dipping materials. Report of the Department of xVgriculture. 529 250 vegetation samples, upon 100 of which full analyses have been made; 100 poisoning- cases and 200 " miscellaneous," including food- stuffs, waters, stock remedies, vaccines, blood and urine examination, etc. The total number of actual determinations runs into several thousand and need not he detailed. Stock Dip Regulation if. — Tow^ards the end of the year the technical executive work of the stock dip regulations was \indertaken in regard to registration forms, and conformity of composition of products offered for sale with guarantee under the regulations. It may be remarked that failure to produce sound scientific articles is due to ignorance of requirements rather than to deliberate fraud, and iliot tJie problem o'f control is likely to find its solution in advisory work for manufacturers rather than in prosecution under the Act'. o. Research Work. Lanisiekte in Catth . — The experiments continued tlie work of previous years, and were also developed in new directions of great economic importance. The present programme includes further experiments upon the most economical mode of phosphorus feeding and the most economical compounds to use; upon the influence of factors such as age, weight, and individuality, in relation to phosphorus requirements for nutrition and for control of lanisiekte through control of osteophagia; upon the influence of phosphorus and other coinpounds on skeletal development, rate of growth and speed of reaching maturity; upon milk yield of cows and upon food con- sumption. It also includes experiments designed to bring out the influence of nutritional factors other than phosphorus, and to eluci- date completely the causes of the winter fall in butcher-weight of stock on poor veld grazing. These involve a study of soil and climate : of the physiology of stock nutrition; of the chemical and botanical composition of indi- genous grasses; and of infl.uences such as overstocking and veld-burn- ing on the nutritive value of the pasture. These are all practical problems, the solution of which has an immediate economic value. The most striking results so far obtained bear upon the nutritional a.spect of phosphorus deficiency, and show that phosphorus is a limit- ing factor in the growth rate of cattle, and a dominant factor in the maintenance of live-weight under ordinary conditions of veld grazing. The cost of phosphorus feeding must, therefore, not be credited only to insurance against lanisiekte, but also to increase in beef produc- tion. A profit and loss account in some of the Armoedsvlakte experi- ments shows a clear profit of 300 per cent, upon the cost of treatment. Since the areas in the Union to which the nutritional factors apply are far wider than those over which lamsiekte occurs, ihe annual financial gain to the stock-raising industry in the future can easily be made to exceed the annual financial losses from lamsiekte in the past; so that the disease itself, by focussing attention upon greater issues, will ultimately prove to have been a blessing in disguise, and the expenditure upon the present investigations be reflected in the beef export trade of the ITnion. 530 Journal of the Departmein't or Agriculture. — Dec, 1^22. The lesiilts of t]ie j)iesc'iit expeiiiiients upon cattle have been so stri]\in<;' that the nutritioua! factors involved are being explored in all directions, ajid considered especially in rej^ard to sheep and horses. From the strictly disease point of view, the earlier work is being continued upon the conditions of toxin production, the distribution of the toxicogenic sapi'ophyte throughout the Union, the study of putrefactive bacteria, and similar problems; although shortage of staff necessitates subdued activity in such directions. Pica Surrey. — This work, initiated in 1920, has been abandoned as a consequence of the reduction in divisional expenditure. The data already acquired are, however, of considerable value, and indi- cate the necessity of continuance the moment finances permit. The results will bear not only upon the control of lamsiekte, but directly upon the beef-production of the Union. Anthrax. — Furiher experiments were undertaken with a view to adjusting the strength of the spore vaccine so lhat it would confer sufficient immunity to stop and prevent an outbreak of the disease, and yet cause no ill effects in the inoculated animals. The results of previous experiments were confirmed ; goats were very much more susceptible than other animals, and it was found advisable to make a special vaccine for use on these animals, which is now being- issued and applied with good results. This same double vaccine is also recommended for milch cows and in other special cases. Experiments were also commenced in the Orange Free State with the object of establishing- the role that the horsefly plays in the spread of anthrax. Various observations made it extremely probable that these flies are responsible for many severe uutl-reaks. Unfortu- nately, the experiment had to be discontinued because no further cases appeared on the farm where the work was carried out. It is hoped that conclusive evidence will be obtained during the coming year. A number of tests was also conducted with the Australian spore vaccine (McGarvie Smith Institute, Sydney, New vSoutli AVales), reference to which has appeared in the press. These tests confiimed the earlier conclusions that the Australian vaccine was undoubtedly good and produced a very strong immunity. Immediately after vac- cination the animals withstand very large doses of virulent material. In test sheep it was found that the immunity began to decline after six months. The clain) that the vaccine produces life-long immunity could not be substantmted. It was further found that ^he Australian vaccine when inoculated into goats produced a mortality of about 20 to 30 per cent. Comparative tests between the Australian and the Onderstepoort spore vaccine showed that the immunity produced is about the same in both, that, however, the Australian vaccine pro- duced worse swellings in horses, and that it is positively dangerous for goats. Qvarter Evil. — Fairly successful experiments were carried out to find a reliable vaccine in liquid form. Such a vaccine has been prepared, and the results obtained from the use of several thovisand doses issued free to farmers are ver\ encouraging. Further expeii- ments, having for their ol-ject the improvement of this vaccine, are RErORT OF THE DePAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 531 still proceeding-, and it is hoped to issue a relial)Ie hlack quarter vaccine in liquid fmin vluring' the coming year. Nagana. — The officer in charge of the experimental station in ]N"tambanana Settlement, near Empangeiii, Zululand. which had been started for the study of nagaua, was severely handicapped at first by lack of accommodation, but in the course of the year his efforts were attended by a large measure of success. In trying the various reme- dies that had been recommended, it was found that tartar emetic gave very good results. This ireatmerit lias now been applied on a very extensive scale to the cattle of the settlers, with the result that the mortality from nagana has been reduced to a very low figure. Some other important points were settled in the course of these investiga- tions. It was observed that there were more than one species of trypanosome responsible for the disease in Zululand, the small species {Trypanosoma congolense) causing the greatest trouble in cattle. The investigations are being continued. Horse sickness. — Of a total lurmber of 2413 mules inoculated against horsesickness the mortality was about one per cent., con- sidered very satisfactory indeed. Investigations into ! lie inoculation of horses were continued with the object of making the nietiiod safer and simpler. Although it has not been possible so far to simplify the method to any apprecialde extent, considerable progress can be reported in reducing mortality. Amongst the horses treated at Ojiderstepoort according to this improved "method, the mortality was reduced to 2" 5 per cent. The inoculation of horses for private owners, which had to be abandoned for hnancinl reasons, was restarted. The conditions governing the inoculation were amended so as to give preference to bona fide farmers who wished to ha\e their riding or transport horses inoculated. The maximum valuation now accepted is £15 per horse. The fee for inoculation amounts to £5 per head, which includes the cost of feeding and stabling the animal for a period of four to six weeks, but excludes transport expenses which must still be borne by the farmer. In the event of the horse dying as a result of horse- sickness, compensation to the fixed amount of £15 is paid. Some further experiments weie undertaken with the object of elucidating the cause of staggers. Although a few cases of this disease appeared among the horses m one experiment, it is not possible as yet to produce the disease at will, and its ultimate cause is still obscure. Dourine. — The serological test for this disease was introduced and found to give good results. The value of the test lies in the fact that by means of it, cases can be detected before they show clinical symptoms of the disease, thus making it possible to remove or destroy such animals before they have done much harm; and secondly, that in doubtful clinical cases it is possible through the test to decide whether the animal is suffering from dourine ^r not. Experiments on the treatment of the disease are being undertaken. Studies on the NorviaJ and Diseased Blood of Horses. — These were conducted by one of the research officers and yielded soine very interesting' results. It was found tliat sex, food, water, etc., had practically no influence on the number of red corpuscles in the blood, whereas the number differed very markedly with the mode of life of 532 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. i]\e animal. S+ahled liorses liave less blood corpuscles than working' animals, and these again less than race horses in training. Other points of physiological and pathological interest were also in- vestigated. Xoduhir Woim Disedse in sheep a])pears 1o be gaining in import- ance in South Africa, and heavy losses are ascribed to it in various parts of the country. The life history of the parasite (Oesophagos- toinum columbianum) has now practically been cleared up. It has been found that the larvae in their third stage bore into the mucous membrane of the irtestine aiid give rise to the nodules to which the .ious of the farmers against previous experiments. The result confirmed the conclusion previously arrived at. Various other inteiesting- experiments were carried out with the acari themselves. A number of dips was also examined, and their action on the acari studied. Bloedpens. — This disease was studied wherever opportunity offered itself. Valuable information was obtained, but many points still remain to be cleared up. Malta Fever. — Some observations and experiments were started with the object of establishing the distribution of this disease amongst animals (especially goats) in South Africa, and of iutrodu'Mng a test for diagnosing the disease in the blood. This test is now being carried out, and the disease has actually been diagnosed in some goats. The question of the relationship between Malta fever and contagious abortion is now receiving attention. Spi/orhaetosu m Figs. — The pathology of this disease was investigated. It wms found that the infectioji is by no means very rare in South Africa. Several cases of spontaneous infection were diagnosed. The disease was transmitted in various ways. The spirochaetes seem to have a predilection for the skin, ihe genital organs, and the lungs. Tlie disease very often runs a mild course and results in spontaneous healing. Therapeutic tests ai'e therefore some- what unsatisfactory. (lovsitlde. — Earlier experiments were repeated and ihe conclu- sion confirmed that Vangneria pygmaea is the cause of the disease. The plant appears to be more toxic in the early stages of growth than later in its development. KriDipsirkte. — Feeding tests were carried out with various species of Cotyledon. Positive cases of krimpsiekte were produced with (Jofyledon loolLicliii . Report of the Department of Agriculture. 533 Other Toxic Plants. — All throiioh the year toxicity tests were carried out with gifhlaar (Dichapeialum cijtpnxnm). An explanation wns found for the earlier contradictory results. It was proved that only the young' leaves are toxic. In the spring cases of poisoning are, therefore, most numerous, but later in the season, when most of the leaves Lave matured and lost their toxicity, a new batch of young- leaves appears which again proved to be very poisonous. Numerous feeding experiments were conducted with suspected plants that were sent in by farmers and others and were reported to be injurious tO' stock. In practically every iiistance, the result of the feeding- test at the Inboratory was ]iegative. Miscellaneous. — Various otiier diseases were investigated during the year, but in most cases no definite concdusions were arrived at. Amongst these diseases may be mentioned the so-called Sireafing Sickness in Calt^es, a disease which was first reported from Rhodesia a few years ago, and has since made its appearance in several other 5)arts of South Africa. An officer of this Division made a preliminary investigation into the disease in vSwaziland, where it is rapidly spreading, but in the absence of proper facilities, satisfactory experi- ments could not be conducted to clear up the nature of the condition. The investigations are being continued. A peculiar disease in sheep with exudative inflammation of the skin leading to extensive formation of crusts was brought to the notice of the Division. A few sheep were sent to the laboratory, and among\st them oir3 or two cases of paralysis of the hind quarters appeared. In these cases a degeneration of certain portions of the spinal cord was observed. This clue will be followed up as soon as moi'e jnaterial can be obtained. Preliminary investigations were also conducted on Blue Udder in sheep. This is a disease tiiat has been described in Europe. Fortu- nately, it seems as if it is less virulent in South Africa than in Europe. Organisms were isolated from the diseased udder, and with them a somewhat similar condition was reproduced in experimental sheep. However, further work is necessary before any of these organ- isms can definitely be iiu'riminated as the cause of the disease, and before therapeutic experiments can be commenced. A condition jn lambs known as AplitTia was also examined. Farmers have expressed the opinion that the disease is transmitted by means of flies. From the preliminary observations, it seems not unlikely that more than one distinct disease in lambs have been grouped under this name. The true aphtha is probably non-fatal ; the cases of death in the same flock being' most likely due to another cause. Biochemical and physiological investigations into lamsiekte and other diseases are under consideration, including general veterinary dietetics ; investigations into compounds of probable value in the destruction of external parasites of stock; studies of " rapid methods" for the determination of ingTedients used in commercial dips ; further experiments on dipping; influence of phenolic bodies upon bacterial changes in dipping tanks ; improvements in methods for field assay o£ dip washes ; and development of biochemical methods lor clinical use in veterinary medicine. ■534 Journal of the Departmeivt of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. 4. Veterinary Education. Fdculiij of \ ('t< riiuirij Science.— This new departure deserves special nieution. The first batch of students taking- the B.V.Sc, of the IJiiivorsity of Soutii Africa, liavinp' completed the first two years "scientific" or " pre-clinical " training- at the University Colleges, entered upon the third year of the five-year curriculum, or " first vocational " year at Oiiderstei)oort, in February. ( )f the seven pioneei students, two are already graduates of other faculties, one having- previously taken a B.Sc, in Agricalture at Pretoria, and the other a B.Sc. in pure science at Stellenbosch. The subjects of study of the third year, arul tlie teachers who conducted the courses, are as follows: — Physiology II Prof W. H. Andrews. Pathological Physiology ... Dr. C. P. Nesej-. Pathology I Sir Arnold Theiler. Veterinary Anatomy III... Prof. G. de Kock. Einbryology ] Prof. P. J. du Toit. Ecology and Mycology ... Mr. A. 0. D. Mogg. General Bacteriology Prof. H. H. Green. Special Bacteriology Prof. P. P. Viljoen. Biochemistry Prof. H. H. Green. In addition to these members of the staff teaching at Onderste- poort, three members, Prof. Andrews, Mr. M. W. lienning, and Mr. P. J. J. Fourie, conducted courses for students of the Transvaal University College in the Faculties of Veterinary Science and Agriculture. In regard to teaching duties, it is imi)ortant that the novel system of management should be explained. All teachers are prim- arily researcii officers of the Division, with ordinary ofiicial duties cognate to the subjects they profess, and tutorial work is semi-detach- able both in regard to time and salary. Preparation for lectures is made outside of official hotirs. and teacliing officers receive emolu- ments of £100 if of lectureship rank and of £200 if of professorial rank, in excess of those received by purely di^■isional officers to whom no teaching is assigned. In the event of any officer purstiing one duty to the detriment of the other the teaching function may be detached by the Public Service Comniissi(m, with corresponding detachment of salary. The system is working M-ell, and has the great advantage of providing a large number of specialized teachers at low €OSt. The other advantages of associalio)! with the In^titute at Under- stepoort are already appaient. xVll the required post-mortem mate- rial, embryological mateiial, bacteriological material, and clinical cases, have been obtained as a mere " by-product " of the research ind routine activities of the Division ; the large resources of which ullov/ of an adequate training being offered with that staff, equip- ment, and nurterial which are necessary for official work irresjiective of the co-existence of tlie Faculty. Even in respect to buildings, the arrangement is economical since the Divisional laboratories provide researcii facilities for the staff, and but little special additional accom- modation is devoted to exchisive student use. During the year there were only three rooms which had not served a dual purpose. Report of the Department of Agriculture. 535 Report No. IV. SHEEP AND WOOL. (Jiicf of Division : B, Enslix. 1. W '/nl . — Tlie wool market reiK-hed its )iiost acute ioiiii of depression towards the end of 1920 and the begiiDiiiifi of 1921. but bepan to show signs of improvement in May, 1921, after which date there wiss a steady demand for most types of wool at prices considered \ery satisfactory to growers. This improvement was largely due to the g-reater demand for continental account, principally Belgium, France, and Geimany, which considerably advanced prices. Good averag-e wool was sold in May, 1921. at Td. per lb. For outstanding" clips of extra super-combing as much as 22id. was realized in February, 1922. Towards the end of the 1921-22 season practically all wool at the ports was sold. The year may, therefore, be considered a good one. (i) Export of Scoured Wool, 1920 axd 1921. 1921. 1920. Countries of ] )estination. Weight, lb. Value. Weight, lb. Value United Kingdom Canada Belgium France Germany Holland Italy Norway Sweden Japan United States of A Total 4,725,361 23.496 1,853,.554 159,047 1,4.38,185 91,247 10,771 14,880 3.212,165 ll,528.70r) 420,151 1,679 122,061 12.635 108,8S5 8,021 1,0; )i i.c.Sfi 350,191 1,026,350 4,576,007 1,375,834 9,361 224,032 70,343 19,605 9,531 2,9.59,539 3,864,963 13.109,215 950,138 265,844 1,063 32,508 13,951 .5.328 2,232 711,619 1,015,365 2,998,048 ■536 Journal or the Department or Agricvlture. — Dec, 1922. (ii) Export of Grease Wool, 1920 and 1921. Countries of Destination. 19-21, Weight, lb. Value. 1920, Weight, lb. Value. United Kingdom ... Canada South-West Africa... Belgium France Germany Holland Italy Japan United States of America. Russia Sweden Total 97,1.5:^,131 30, OS 6 7,100 25.903,617 20,934.783 4S,414,736 8,320.300 2,371,000 7,306,674 13,394,977 10,982 45,817 218,893,209 3,168,987 1,445 118 698,047 592,588 1,527,920 107,467 84,800 396,(^39 629,564 600 2,310 38,048,431 4,303,.335 15,202,776 1,230,263 7,114.233 1,952.474 1,512,495 28,942,(i93 12,.392,117 1,275.016 90,471 320,460 94,742 161.991 .5,193,095 1,550,945 7,210,485 106,395,532 j 12,990,055 Average price, 1921 : Scoured wool, 21'8(kl. ; grease wool. 7 '90(1. A^ erage price, 1920 : Scoured wool. 54"88d. ; grease wool, 29"P)Ud. The liigli average prices for grease and scoured wools in 1920 weie due to the abnormal state ol tlie market towards the end of 1919 and the beginning of 1920, v.'hen up to SS^d. was paid for grease woo]. Towards the end oP 1920, however, the market for nearly all commodities had become very depressed, and in conse- <|uei]ce of the unsettled state of the world's markets tlie banks refused to make advances on produce. Many farmers, entirely dependent on the sale of their produce, were therefore faced with ruin when the interest on the mortgages on their farms liecame due. In oidei- to come to their assistance the (iovernment appointed a Coinmission to proceed to Gei-many to find an outlet for South African produce, hut the negotiations failed. The Imperial Govern- ment was then approached, and satisfactory arrangements were made for tile purchase of the balance of the 1919-20 season's wool clip on the basis of prices ruling during the season 1913-14. Owners of wool who desired to sell were required to reg-ister their clips witliin a certain period, and to deliver same to the Government through brokers at the coast Vvho had been appointed as Government agents. As the prices offered were considerably above the ruling market prices for mo^t of the types, the offer was eagerly accepted by all who held wool. Owing to the state of the market it was expected that the deal would be a loss to tlie Imperia] Government, but in view of the improvement that has taken place, a profit will probably be made. On account of the large stocks cf wool which had accimulated in America, and in order to protect the interests of wool growers in the United States of America, the Government of that country intro- duced an Emergency Tariff in May, 1921, for a period of six months (since extended), imposing a duty oi 15 cents per pound on grease wool. This duty meant that Soutfi Africa was at a great disadvantage in competing for the American market, owing to the heavier class of wool grown in this country as compared with Australian wools. Report of the Department of Agriculture. 537 E,epiesentatioiis were ininiediately made to the Goveinmeut of the United States by the LTiiion Government and 1)y conunercial houses, pointing" out that the imposition of wool duties on a weight basi.s would be specially prejudicial to South Africa 'oy reason of rhe lower average yield of this country's clips, and that if an import tariff was considered necessary, it would be preferable from a South African point of view that it be levied on an ad valorem basis, the latter being calculated according to clean scoured results. The new customs tariff, however, has been based on the clean scoured yield, and imposes a duty of 12h cents on wool of a 37 to 40 per cent, yield, 10'6 cents on 29 to 34 per cent, yieldiug wools, and 33 cents per pound on scoured wools. Thei'e appears to lie a steadily increasing demand for expert services: the Departmeitt will be better able to c-ope therewith in the coining season ou account of the expert staff having l)een increased by six young men who have taken sheep and wool courses at Grootfontein and in Austialia. Farmers are beginning to realize more than ever that tlieir only salvation lies in improved methods of production, and that the growing aiid proper marketing of good wool is a most stable and lucrative investment for capital to-day. The work performed by the expert staff is reflected yearly in the general improvement in quality and quantity of the Union's wool clip. The farms are being improved and the general system of man- agement is becoming much more efficient. A large conservative element of farmers, however, still remains to be converted to the advantages of modern wool-growing methods. The excellence of the general average of Australia's flock sheep was brought about solely by sheep classing and good management of flocks. At present the average weigdit per fleece in the Union is only about 6 lb. This must be increased. [f within the next 10 years the weight per fleece in the Union is increased by 2 lb., at Is. per pound the value of the Union's clip will be increased by £2,500,000. There are great possibilities for the expansion of the merino sheep industry in tlie Union. (Jwing to the decrease in th.' world's merino wool supply, every effort should be made to increase production - 2. Wool Classing. — There was a certain amount of improvement in this direction, but not nearly enough. There are still too many farmers who pay little or no attention to the " get up " of their wool. Great credit is due to those progressive ^nen who by carefully classing their clips are building up a good name for the South African article on the world's markets. The present expert staff is doing everything possible to achieve that object. Short courses in wool classing at the schools of agriculture and demonstrations at farmers'^ meetings were also given regularly during the year. A certain amount of false packing still continues to be indulged in by unscrupulous growers, and unless steps are taken to deal suin- niarily with these offenders, the confidence in the Unio;i wool clip overseas will soon be shaken. Soutli Africa can grow wool equal to that produced in Australia, but owing to the prevalence of scab and the continued pernicious system of kraaling sheep, a big percentage of the Union's clip is not rnarketed as attractivelv as it should be. As long as farmers tolerate 538 JOURXAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICrLTURE. DeC, 1922. pcab and persist in ^he kraalinjx of their sheep so lono- will their won], on account of its dip-stained, dusty, and unattractive appear- ance, be handicapped on the world's markets. The recent legislation in connection with jackal-proof fencing' may be rep:arded as a great boon by those districts concerned. The question of the improvement of non-wooUed types of sheep by crossing' with English l)reeds to produce a superior animal fit for the export trade is a very important one. Results obtaiaed to date am]ily justify optimism and further expenditure and experiment in this connection. During the year the sheep and wool experts visited 1189 farms, on which they classed 334,611 sheep; gave 101 lectures, and judged at 38 shows. 3. Mohair. — The following is a statement of exports of mohair, showing the quantity and value of mohair, Avith countries of destina- tion, exported during the years 1920 and 1921. Exports of Mohair, 1920 axd 1921. Countries of Destinatiun. 19 21. 1920. Weight. Value. Weight. Value. lb. £ lb. £ United Kingdom 1G,072,213 522.996 6,083,069 493,227 South-West Africa 7,150 119 — Belgium 4,196 62 21,054 2 015 France 19,879 552 34,490 1.327 Germany 17.956 496 Holland ... ... 11,735 262 United States of America 994,786 59,156 151,275 22,404 Total 17,127,915 583,643 6,289,888 518,973 Average price: 1921, 3-18d. per 11).; 1920, 19-80d. per \h. The higher average i)]'ices"for mohair exported during the year 1920 were due to the boom in the market towards the end of 1919 and the early part of 1920. and the fact that buyers principally confined themselves to the purchase of the better classes of mohair. The depression in the mai'ket towards the end of 1920 and the beginning of 1921 made the outlook for mohair farmers even worse than for wool growers, and urgent appeals were made by them to the Govern- ment to assist in the disposal of their produce. Endeavours were also made, at the time negotiations were carried on in regard to the wool scheme, to sell the suiplus stock of mohair to tiie Imperial Govern- ment, but as a deal did not result a scheme was introduced in June, 1921, whereby farmers were able to obtain cash advances from the banlcs on wool and mohair held by brokers who had been appointed as Government agents uader the scheme. Owing to the improvement ■of the market very little advantage was taken of the scheme, and only £1,250 approximately was advanced. This amount has already been repaid to the banks with the exception of £40. The mohair market during the season 1921-1922 was, as far as summer kids and summer firsts are concerned, quite satisfactory Report of the Department or AGRictTLTURE. 539 and up to 54d. per i)ound was paid during- the season for super sumiuer kids, while super summer firsts were sold at 16d. These may be considered as record prices. For other classes the niarket was less active, and inferior descriptions were difficult to dispose of. 4. Scab. — (a) Legislatinu. — Two important amendments to the regulations were effected. In duly, 1921, the definition " Authorized Dip " was amended to include any manufactured lime and sulphur dip coming up to the standard of efficiency and sold with a guarantee as required by Government Notice No. 1084 of 1921. and section 23 of the regulations dealing with movements o'f shee]) and goats into protected aad semi-protected areas was amended so that the permit is now issued by the inspector from whose area the sheep are moved. (h) Cnmpulsorij Dipping. — As the result of a conference of senior sheep inspectors at Pretoria m July, 1921, comi)ulsory dipping was completed in 67 districts, viz. :--Cape (including Transkei), 45; Orange Free State, ]4; and Transvaal 8; 9-18,985 sheep being dipped twice by the itinerant staff. Ajntit from compulsory dipping, 7,271,713 sheep were dipped twice under the supervision of area inspectors. The majority of these were clean sheep dipped as a precautionary measure on entering protected areas, as well as contact flocks. Comparing these figures with those of the year before, it will be seen that the itinerant staff dipped about half a million less, and area inspectors one million more sheep, the total of sheep dipjJed during the period under review exceeding that of the previous year by half a million. Tins is accounted for by the fact that some itinerant inspectors were seconded for duty in Swaziland, to which territory many farmers trek for several months in the year, while others assisted ai^ea inspectors in cleaning v,]) their areas. Although it was found necessary to subject some districts, ab'eady protected, to a compulsory dipping owing to intioductions of infected flocks, most of the dipping wis carried out in districts which had no protec- tion so as to clean them up and ])re])are them for protection. Reports from most of the districts are satisfactory, and to some a preliminary protection has been extended, which means that flocks moved into them from non-protected areas m.ist l)e dipped, and when sufficient time has elapsed to judge of the position, semi-protection will be extended to them. (c) ProtecferJ and Senii-Z^rotrcted Areas. — During the year pro- tection was extended to 27 districts, as follows: — Protected: Cape, 13; Orange Free State, 4. Semi-prc^tecied : Cape, 8; Orange Free State, 2. Present total for the T^nion — Protected : Cape, 28, ( )range Free State, 16; Transvaal, 4. Semi-protected: Cape, 35; Orange Free State, 2; Transvaal, 1; Natal, 5. (d) Compensatio)). — Two owners were compensated to an amount of £157 for stock lost through dipping. Certain claims were disal- lowed because they did not fall within the terms governing the pay- ment of compensation. Considering the large iiumber of stock dipped under supervision, the losses are A'ery small indeed. This is a credit to the inspectors, proving that they exercise great care in administer- ing the dippings. (e) Movements of Infected ,SYot7..- -Notwithstanding the warning sent out the previous year that no facilities would be given owners 540 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. to move infected stock, tlie DeY)artmeiit had again to give concessions in the Calvinia district on account of the drought; in such cases every possible precaution was taken to prevent infection of clean stock. But a larg-e namber of illegal movements took place, more especially in the drought-stricken districts. The following statement of stock received at the Johanuesbiirg and Maitland abattoirs shows the number and peicentage of infection found, which compares very favourably with the statistics of previous years. The improvement is attributed mainly to the strenuous dipping campaign: — Locality. Consign- ments. No. of Sheep and Consign- ments No. Per Cent, of Goals. Infected. Infection. JoIki iniesliii rq : From orijjiii other than Sonth- West Africa 6,702 762,388 8S 11,026 1-16 From South- West Africa 137 27,790 64 12,885 46-70 Maitland : From orio'in other than South- West Africa ... 1,498 401.05.-, 92 44,640 6-14 From South-West Africa 214 77,376 39 18,891 18-22 At Pretoria 1720 consignments comprising 167,172 sheep were received, of which five consignments comprising 1,032 sheep were infected. The inspector in charg-e of the Joha^uiesburg abattoirs reports: — '"Very few consignments of ciean sheep arrived from South-West Africa up to September, 1921. Since then a vast improve- ment wns noticeable, large consignments arriving thoroughly dipjied and cleatised. Since November, 1921, up to -JOth June, 1922, with the exception of one consignment in January, all arrived clean." (/) Flocks Quarantined, 1921-22.— Province. Local. Contacts. Introduced. T.,tal. Cape (excludiog Translvcian Tei'ri- tories) 3,797 810 714 5.321 Transkei 2.027 153 96 2.276 Bechuanaland 502 238 88 S28 Transvaal ... 1.870 2.288 508 4.666 Natal i)56 257 208 1,421 Orange Free State... 771 164 144 1,079 Total 9,923 3,910 1,758 15,. -,91 Compared with the previous year, there is a considerable reduc- tion in the number of actually infected flocks, the total of local infected flocks the previous year being 12,966, and introduced infected flocks 2341. The contact flocks need not actually be infected, but are quarantined and dipped as a precaution. (fj) Other Diseases. — Disquieting reports were received from different parts or the Union oi floc]cs being badly infected with Oesopliagostovium columhianiim or nodular worm. This disease is Report of the Department of Ageicultur] 541 serious, and unless some effective specific is found it is o-oing to cause considerable loss. The blowfly, tliougli not nearly so bad in South Africa as in Australia, is troublesome enough, and causes a fair amount of loss each year. Destruction of the fly, with proper crutcliing- and dressing of the sheep with a powerful and effective disinfectant, is the only remedy. The ked or sheep louse is becoming more serious each year. Ked or lick-stained wool is unattractive, and does not command the best prices, resulting in monetary loss. Keds are easily eradicated if properly dealt with, and all farmers should be compelled to cleanse their flocks of this pest. 5. Small Stock Return. — The following table is a return of small stock in the different Provinces as at the 30tli June, 1922, and shows the losses through disease and drought: — P o 'Ji H rfi 'Jl 1^ ^ < H o a o Q CO H H M c n < H o JJ S^-A) o >^ -S Si a) -' a> CO CO CO r^ O C' >— I CC' IX 1— 00 — 00 z^ lO 1—1 t^ 00 OO CO r^ CO ■ri '^ «D CO -* 00 — — 1< -h lO CO CC' " " CO o CO m" in o CO t^ CO 35 00 00 OO ^ ,—1 00 CO o CO o 05 I>4 lO CO CO IM iC O t^ lO CO l~- OO CO f— CC' czTcT 00 OO CO r; Ji CO CO CO CC IM CO t- 1^ o ■ S "> S w S g P 2^ > tt-i a. -y; g CO g i^i:S|2^ g<10 ^W!^; g:c^ gcKO !^ ^ C3 O J 1^ -C o 35 to O 05 •O oo' 542 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. V. ENTOMOLOGY. Actin;) Cliicf of Dirislo7i : Claude Fuller. 1. Genciiil. — For six years past tlie eiieip'ies of the Division liave been leo-ularly almost l)r(nig'ht to nothino> 1)y tlie stress of periodic locust campaigns. Always understaffed, and of late years more so even than formerly, the administrative duties involved — coupled with the distribution of pumps and poisju supplies — have been so g-reat that the staff of the Pretoria ofHce has staf^oered under the burden. There has never been a sufficient interval between one and the next campaig'n to recover lost ground. It has been impossible to study the bionomics of the locust and ecjually impossible to design experiments towards finding new methods of destroying the pest or to im])r>ive the composition of the poison used, with the exception of the experiments (referred to below) that were recently started by Mr. Mally. Entomologists, ])lant inspectors, and any available otficers of the Division have had to take the field each season for months on end to direct operations, and to the entire neglect of those duties for Avhich they were specifically engaged. As such a state of affairs could not continue longer with the increasing severity and regularity of locust outbreaks, the administra- tion of the locust law was partitioned off in September, 1921. It is now allocated to a senior administrative officer, assisted by a per- manent senior locust officer and a temporary staff'. The depletion of the professional staff', to which reference was made in the preceding report, has not yet been made good. The Pretoria office remained during the year weakly staffed in an excep- tional degree, considering the many professional duties expected from it. Investigational work continued largely upon the unsatisfactory level of recent years, circumstances precluding any of magnitiule or importance. During the year 1921-22 there was a marked revival of the fumigation of citrus orchards for scale insects. This was brought al^out by tlie rapid strides made in our orange-growing industry. Much advisory assistance was given by the Division in this connection, and practical help extended in the securing of suitable covers. It is a pleasure to draw attention in passing to the remarkable and useful results of Professor J. C. Fame's recent study of the bionomics of the locust, an original research he has been able to undertake since leaving the Division and joining the faculty of the Transvaal University College. 2. Branches. — (a) Cape Soiith-West (Senior Enfomologist : C. W. Malhj, M.Sc). — The staff consists of two entomologists, one plant inspector, one clerk, and one European messenger, with headquarters at Capetown. The duties of the Ijrancli are multifarious. The recent appointment of an entomologist has enabled the senior entomologist to carry out a series of experiments with locust poisons, and from the progress made it is expected that valuable results will accrue. The experiments of last season will bo repeated and extended during the Report of the Department oe Agriculture. 543 coining' voetg-anger seasjn. Special studies of tlie ])Iaut-iufestiiig' mites and their control are in progress. (b) Eastern Provind' {Entomologist : D . (rinin). — The staff consists of one entomolooist and one assistant entonioloo-i^t, with head- quarters at Port Elizabeth. Imported and in-transit plants, seeds, and the like are inspected and general duties performed. The ])rincipal studies undertaken were as follows: — (1) Life-history of the false codling'-moth in Bathurst District; (2) coccinellid beetle (Epilachno simiJis), which destroys barley, maize, and wheat; (3) larger cabbage moth {Cmcidolomia hinotaJIs), which in the caterpillar stage destroys cruciferous plants, principally t'al)ltage and cauliflower; (4) bean bug- (Acdnthomia tome nto sic ollis), a destructive insect in bean fields in the coastal districts ; (5) Colias electa (tlie lucerne cater- j)illar) ; investigational and control work was conducted in Sundays River Valley, Patentie, and other places where lucerne is grown exten- sively ; (6) Parasa sp. The caterpillars defoliated Acacia cyclopsis ;ind Acacia salina in the Government Forest near Port Elizabeth, and life-history work was begun in March, 1922. (7) The life-history of ihe meal moth (Pi/ralis farirtalis) was studied during the year. A laige number of demonstrations was given for the control of codling- moth, scale insects on citrus trees, fruit-flies, etc., and also several lectures on the insect pests of deciduous and citrus trees as well as general farm crops. (c) Natal (Enfi)violofjist: C. P. ran der Merwe). — The staff consists of one entomologist, one assistant entomologist, and one plant inspector, with headquarters at Durban. The assistant entomologist, Mr. H. H. Harris, is at present located in the Umfolosi fly-belt, Zululand, and engaged u])on the study of the bionomics of the tsetse ily. The casual investigations of the year cover the life-history and control of the elegant grasshoi)i)e]', citrus psylla, button beetle, and mole crickets. The investigation of the tsetse fly began last year and has already brought to light many inijtortant phases. The work has progressed so far that there is already some promise of practical measures being devised to narrow dowi, the extent of ihe principal belts. The species found predominating in tlie more important belts has proved to be (rlossina pallidipes, concerning the life-history and habits of which but very little was formerly known. The officer in charge of the studies " has displayed the greatest enthusiasm and application, although beset by many handicaps and located in a highly malarious area. (d) Border (Entomolof/ist : H. K. Miniro, B.Sc). — The staff consists of one entomologist without assistant, with headquarters at East London. This office, inaugurated only last year, is already serving a very useful purpose. Particular attention is being given to the habits and control of the flies that " blow " sheep. An investiga- tion of the native fruit-flies infesting wild olives has been commenced with a view to discovering parasites and the possibility of sending these to Italy to act as contrcdling agents for the olive-fly there. 3. Nursery Inspection. — The total number of plant nurseries registered for the nursery year — September, 1921, to Septend)er, 1922 — was 399, an increase of 32 over the previous year ; 3G5 nurseries were inspected (about 60 of these twice). Of the nurseries, 200 were in the Cape Province, 133 in the Transvaal, 35 in Xatal, and 31 in the Orange 18 544 Journal of the Department of Aiiwu ultuke. — Dec, 1922. Free State. The number in tlie Cape increased by 12, in the Trans- vaal 13, the Orant^e Free State 7, whilst Natal remained the same. The total numl)er of plants, shrubs, ornamentals, trees, vines, etc., reported by nurserymen as likely to be ready for sale during- the year, compared with the number for the i)revious year, was for 1920-21, 28,178,279, and for 1921-22, 26,976,751. Of these, forest 1rees comprise 21,188,515 and 19,505,055 respectively. The total number of common fruit ti'ees in process of production, but not expected to be ready for sale durino- the year, was reported to be:— Deciduous, 2,617,775 and 2,316,767; citrus, 952,800 and 1,071,425 for 1920-21 and 1921-22 respectively. The number of new nursery quarantines imposed was twenty (of which seven applied to the entire i)remises) in 1921-22 against sixteen in 1920-21 and twenty-one in 1919-20. Eed scale (C. aurantii) on citrus trees continues to be the chief cause for quarantine. At the close of the year nine quarantines were in force. The citrus stock under quarantine aggregated 12,000 i)lants. A list of the nurseries in quarantine is published monthly in the Join nal of the Department. A disease which is causing- some alarm in the Western Province, on peach stocks principally, is crown gall, whilst in the Maritzburg area many apple stocks are lost through the s])read of Sclerofium sclerotiorium. The first case in the Transvaal of this latter disease was reported at Magaliesburg-. 4. Iinportations of Flatits. Frvifs, Seeds, (ind Beeswax. — (i) Plants. — The importation of plants is reflected in the subjoined table. Pear stocks show a slight falling off, whilst the importations of cherry and plum stocks have been relatively higdi. Other items vary but slightly from the records of last year. European pear stocks continue to arrive infested to a slight degree with crown gall and scale insects. The temporary suspension of the i)rohibition on blight-proof apple stocks, of which notice was given in the last report, led to the issue of permits for the introduction of 312,000 stocks through the winter of 1922. Importation OF Plants, IvSt July, 1921, to 30th June, 1922. 1 Johannes- Kin.l. Capetown. Port East Elizabeth London. Duil)aii. burg and Pretoria. Total. Fruit Tree Stocks- Pear 143,000 (9)* 12,500 (2) — 12,000 (2) — 167,500 (13) Cherry 20,500 (2) 4.500 (2) — 5,000 (1) — 30,000 (5) Plum .5,000 (1) — — — — 5,000 (1) Fruit Trees 312 (12) — — 354 (9) 350 (."i) 1,016 (26) Berries 255 (15) 1 (1) 6 (1) 157 (5) 130 (2) 549 (24) Roses 243 (19) 66 (3) 109 (5) 85 (5) 155 (5) 658 (37) Ornamental Shrubs 2,545 (56) 655 (5) 47 (2) 788 (14) 55 (7) 4,090 (84) Osiers — — — — 150 (1) 150 (1) Palms 271 (5) 250 (2) — 57 (3) 578 (10) Carnations... 8,745 (31) 6,876 (10) 764 (5) 11,866 (32) 12 (2) 28,263 (80) Chrysanthemums ... 305 (9) 146 (1) — 430 (13) 132 (4) 1,013 (27) Other soft plants ... 501 (28) 774 (5) — 1,324 (5) 113 (C) 2,712 (44) Sugar-cane... — — — 8 (2) — S (2) Cuttings, various ... — — — 2,102 (6) 14 (2) 2,116 (8) Bulbs 136,292 (14) 10'3,475 (2) 18,46(1 75,284 (2) 12,192 345,703 (18) Figures in brackets refer to the number of separate permits issued for introduction. Report of tiik Department oe Agriculture. 545 (ii) Fruits. — IMie oversea fruit enterino- the Union was, in case units, iialf as nuu'li again in 1921-22 as in 192U-21 (api)roximately 7500 aoainst 5000). The imports comprised 7000 cases of apples, 350 cases of g-rapes, 184 cases of oranr>'es, and 10 cases of lemons. There has been no trouble of importance as regards insects and disease in connection with these imports. (iii) Seeds. — Eight lots of cotton, eight of barley, and twenty-six of maize were admitted, each variety being limited to 10 lb. (iv) Potatoes. — The importation of potatoes shows a considerable droj), 19,860 cases against 58,902 for tlie preceding twelve months. (v) Beesirctx. — The imi)ortations through all the ports were as follows: — Foundation comb, 0')G7 lb. (thirteen consignments); yellow wax, 10,267 lb. (five consignment-s) ; cera alba, 934 lb. (twenty-one consignments). The weiglit of cera alba fell to al)ont half that of 1920-21, whilst the foundation comb and the yellow wax weights almost or quite doubled. The figures reflect not alone an increased activity on the part of beekeepers, but also of the local manufacturers of floor and furniture polishes. Cera alba is mainly imported for l)harnuiceutical purposes. 5. Plant and Fruit Removals. — During the year under review the regulations limiting the movement of apples, pears, quinces, and mangoes within tlie TTnion were withdrawn, and there are no longer any closed areas as regards fresh fruit other than that fresh grapes may not be sent into certain scheduled districts of the Cape Province. The inspection of plants in transit by post and rail recorded from the six inspecting stations totalled 697, of which 157 were fumigated. 6. Puldications. — Ai)ait from 105 short notes on various insect ♦ roubles and other matters gernume to the work of the Division, the moit' imi)ortant publications were: — (1) " Insect Pests : A Fact )r in Green Manuring." By C. AV. Mally, M.Sc, Journal of the Department of Agrieulture, September, 1921. (2) " The Sheep Bh.w-fly." By H. K. Munro, B.Sc, Journal of the Department of Agriculture, February, 1922. (8) " The Termites of South Africa " (II). By Claude Fuller, S.A. Journal of Natural History, III, 2, March, 1922. 18a o4G Journal of the Depaktment of A(;i{iculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. VI. BOTANY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY. Irtiiifi (liief af Pin'sioii: Ethee M. ])()n)(;E, M.A., D.Sc. F.Tv.S. 1. I'hint /'(if/iiil(»(/i; (iiul M jicoloji fi . — Tlie work on llic wastage in export citrus fruit was continued, and tlie results of tlie investi;,vation T.'ere published in Bulletin ]N^o. 1 of 1922. The situation with rej'.ard to citnis cankei' eradication continued tj be stvtisfai-tory. Durino- the year only four trees were found infected, and tliese were all on the farm Buft'elspoort, in the Rusten- burg District. During 1920-21 six trees were found on three diiferent farms ; on two of these no further infection occurred during the following year. An extensive field experiment is being carried out to test the advisability oA replanting citrus trees after three to five years in orchards where infection v\'ith citrus canker has occurred. Certain other citrus diseases, including verrucosis and scaly bark, are also under investigation. The latter disease has only been observed in this country Avithin the last two years, and in certain areas appears to be spreading with considerable rapidity. An outbreak of wart disease in potatoes (Stjnchitriutn cn(J(>})i(>- ficAivi Perc.) occurred in Natal. An inspection of potatoes on the farms in the affected area was organized as soon as the matter was reported, and is still in progress, but the origin of infection has not yet been discovered. Potatoes showing wait disease have up to the present only been found on two adjoining farms in the Impendhle Division, Natal. These are fortunately stock farms, and the owners only grow potatoes for their own use, so it is hoped that the disease has not become more widely distributed. No cases of infection were reported from the farms on the Boston area, near Impendhle, where potatoes f4re grown in considerable quantities. Investigation \\o\\ was coiisideral)ly hampered during the year. Subsequent to the resignation of Dr. van der Bijl, a mycologist from Pretoria was transferred to Durban for two months, and the repeated absences from headquarters of the Chief of the Division and Miss Thomson in connection with the botanical survey, had the effect of throwing the whole of the advisory Avork on to the shoulders of the remaining members of the staff. As a result, very little progress was made in the investigation of citrus diseases and A-arious other fungous and bacterial diseases Avhich urgently need tittention. In connection Avith the advisory work many diseases of doulitful or obscure origin Avere reported. Some of them are likely to prove oi economic importance and require investigation, but it is not possible to investigate many of these problems with the present staff". In particular may be mentioned two diseases of peanuts ; in one case, the plants turn yelloAv and die without ajiparent cause ; in another, the apparently healthy plants bear a large crop of nuts entirely devoid of kernels. Report of thp] Dkpartment of Agriculture. 547 ])uriii<^' the jx'iiod under l•e^'ie\v no suitable myc dog'ist was obtain- able to take charo'e at the Natal Herbarium, Durban, and in consequence all investii^'ation work at this station was at a standstill. The Government Mycoloo-ist at Capetown continued liis work on the causes of wastai>"e in export citrus iruit; the results obtained were embodied in bis report jjublished in liulletin No. 1 of 1922. Sprayino- experiments on the control of pear scab, or FusicJaditiin, were carried out at St clb-nbosch and Somerset West. The results show that o-ood control can be ol)lained provided that sufficient appli- cations are made at the ri(/lit time. The winter .stao'6 of the pear organism was observed for the iirst time in South Africa, and a preliminary investi^'at ion made on the periodicity of the winter spores and the correlation between tlieir liberation and the first outbreaks of /''usirladium. ()ther plant diseases which are being- kept under observation in ihe western Cape districts are the following-: — Silver leaf disease; :ii;i)lc mildew, which is especially tioublesome near Hobertson and Montagu : " vrotpootje " of wheat ; and certain loquat dise.ises. 2. \nti(jn(il Heilxiiium. — During the year 5599 specimens of tiowering plants were acquired b\ purchase, donation, or exchange, and 973 specimens sent in exchange or donated tj other herl)aria. ( )ver 2o()() determinations of plants were made during the year. In Ihe crv];togamic section, 7i)9 specimens were incorj)orate(l and con- sidcMable })rogri'ss w;is made in the preparation of an exchange colb'ction. An uji-lo-date rei'erence index was coni])iled of the 1000 odd geneia of lungi rei)resented in the herbarium, with special reference to their systematic position. The necessity for this arose owing- to the recent revision of many grouns and the lack of any co-ordinated reference v\-ork on the uuitter. In the Botanical Museum 118 specimens of economic interest were incorporated. Among the donations received special mention should be made of an exhibit of Para rubber from the Research La])oratory, Petaling, and of tea from the Rjyal Botanic Gardens, Peringuay, Ceylon. 3. Grasses. — Miss Stent spent two months at theKew Herbarium on a special study of South African grasses, taking- with her for deter- mination some 500 specimens from the National Herbarium and 300 to 400 from Rhodesia. It was found that certain genera badly need revision, and copious notes were made for future work along these lines. A large number of collections of indigenous grasses were named (including those made by Dr. Pole Evans on his frequent trips to the bushveld, by officers of the Division of Veterinarv Research, and l)y other collectors, notably Mr. Eyles, of Rhodesia). Certain new- species were found in these collections and are being- described. 4. Botanical Siirrcij. — A meeting- of the Botanical Survey Com- mittee was held at Grahamstown in November, 1921. Several matters of importance affecting the work of tlie survey were discussed. The Directo]- rei^orted that the Minister had auth.u-ized the jjublication of a Botanical Survey Guide, and also of Dr. Schchiland's paper on the Cyperaceae. Dr. Bews read an interesting paper dealing with the (luestion of slope in regard t(- the vegetation of the Natal coast, and also spoke on the subject of the origin, migration, and evolutionary tendencies of the Natal flora. He also outlined the wjrk he had done in connection with the Pica Survey. Dr. Marloth g-ave an account of his trip with the Veterinary Research Officer from Grahamstown in r)4S .l(ti i;.\Ai, OF rill': Diir.u; imk.n r of Ac imc ii.tfue. — ])kc'., l!)22. coiniectioii willi iuvesti»-atioiis into the cause o'f ]\iinip.si?kte of poats and sheeu. Dr. Schouland reported on the invasion of Heliclii!ii>u in (irjiuroph ulhuu, on the Anuitoki Mountains, and suppested that the Botanical Survey should take steps to investig'ate means of restoring- the veld to the orip'inal condition of a piass veld. Memoir No. 3 of Hie Botanical Survey of South Africa, entitled " South African Cype7'aceae," by S. Schonland, and Memoir Xo. 4, "A Guide to Botanical Survey Work," were published durinp: the year. 5. Botanical Stations. — Work at the Botanical Station, Prinshof, was carried on under considerable ditHculties owinp' to the lack of proper fencinp* and suitable buildin<;s. Since these were not forth- cominp', owinp- to tinanciai stringencies, it was decided to discontinue work at Prin.shof and for the present to carry on the ex])erinients at Groenkloof and the Dry-lands Station. Special consideration was p'iven to experimental T)lantinp- of indipenjus p-rasses, of which the Division has between seventy to eip'hty species under cultivation. Kikuyu prass still p-ives the best results as a pasture p'rass. It is superior to many veld p-rasses in that it can stand tramplinp by stock and also rootinp- by pip\s ; this beinpf due to its app'ressive rootinp- system. Natal p'rass (Penvisefum unisetu)ii), a native of the ])rakensberg, has ])roved to ])e most frost-resistant, and commences its prowth in Aup-ust, when most of the other veld p'rasses are still dormant. Panicum. laevifolium (variously known as Old Lands p-rass, Pelala P'rass, Roll g-rass, or Blanwzaad-g'ras) is the best of the native hay grasses. Of the exotic grasses under observation, Napier fodder (Pvnui- setiim inirpureximi) can be recommended for ensilage. It does best on a warm moist soil. The frosts experienced during the winter weie a severe test of the frost resistant qualities of the various grasses. The exotics were less affected by cold than the indigenous grasses, and PJialaris hulhosa and Rescue grass {Bromus uniobridey) were con- spicuous in this respect. Same interesting' experiments were also carried out with various clovers, some of which were tound to grow well with Kikuyu grass. 0. Puhlicatums. — The following is a list of the Division's recent pul)1icatious : — Title. Author. Published in. A new species of Pteronm {P. E. P. Phillips Kew Bulletin, 1922, page Folpi/i Phill. & Hutch.) 28. A Possible Cattle Vood(^Sesbania E. P. Phillips ... Agricultural .luurnal, vol. c'niprascens) IV, page 3()1. Tiie Thorn Pears {Scd/o/iii/, spp ) E. P. Phniips BothaUa Xo. 1, part 11. The (icnus OrJuui E. P. Phillips Bothalia ^o. 1, part II. The Genus (Jllnia K. P. Phillips and J. Hof meyr Bothulia Ku. 1, part II. The Genus Cychypia ... E. P. Phillips and J. Hof meyr Bothalia No. 1, part II. The Soutli African Ascomvcet' s, E: M Doidge Bothalia S\o. 1, part II. Part II Investigations on Expoit Citrus M R. H. Thomson, V. A. Put- Bulletin No. 1, 1922. Fruit during I92I ter 11, and G. Hobson Spineless Cactus as a Fodder H. A. Melle Agricultural Journal, vol. for Stock Ill, page 68. Report of the Department of Agriculture. 549 Title. Author. Published in. The Fungus Food of certain A. M . Bottomley and C. S.A. Journal \at. Hi.st., Termites Ful er vol. III. Note on Urojildyctis aJfaJfae A. M. Bottomley Afir'iGultnval Jounidl ^ vol. in Lucerne 'IV, page 153. Plant Diseases in the Western V. A. Putterill AgricuUuraJ Jouni'il, vol. Province Ill, pa^es 259 and 313. II. — Collar Rot in Orange Trees III. — Fusicladium or Scab of the Apple and Pear Fodder and Pasture Grasses of s. M. Stent and II. A. M elle Aiji'iciilfural .Journal, vol. South Africa Ill, 1921, pages 136 and II.- Rhodes Grass 271. III.— Star Grass Wart Disease of Potatoes E. M. Doidge A(ir'icult nral Journal , vol. IV, page 447. Plant Diseases in the Western V. A. Putterill A//ricultu>'al Journal, vol. Province 'IV, pages 332 and 430. IV. — Two Diseases of the Loquat v.— The Control of Pear Scab or Fusicladium Dubbeltje (Trihitlvit terre)ttri>i) s. M. Stent ... Agrirnltnral Jovrnal , vol. and Geeldikkop in Sheep 'iV, page 548. Poisonous Properties of Sudan s. M. Stent ... A(jr\cultnral Jonriial, vol. Grass IV, page 46(5. The Weeds of South .\frica — K A. Lansdell Ai/ricultur/i/ Jon ma I, vols. 111 VII 'ill and IV, 1921 22. A Note on the Germination of J. A. Hofmeyr S A. .hmrnal Xaf. Hid., Elephaniorvh \za hiirckelWi vol. HI, page 21."). Sudan Grass, Groenkloof Experiment Siation. 550 JOUKNAL OF THE DePAKTMENT OF AgKK ULTURE. DeC, 1922. Report No. VII. DAIRYING. Siijx'rinfcndf'iif of J)tiiri/iiif/ : El). O. Challis. 1. Staff. — The Assistant Superinteiuleiit of Dairyino-, Mr. E. G. Hardy, returned from seven months' leave in Eng-hind in Decemher last, havinii' been ^-ranted an extra month for the purpose of attending' tlie London Dairy Show and carryino- out, in conjunction with experts in London, examinations in repard to shipments of vSouth African butter; he also visited Holland and Denmark. Much useful informa- tion was gained, esi)ecially reo-arding the condition of South African butter on arrival in London. It is only by occasional visits of this nature that full details of the c()nditions in which our dairy products are received on the overseas market, and the faults ol)served in them, can be obtained with the desired accuracy. A new appjintment of Cheese Grader and Instructoi' in Cheese- making' was made last May, Mr. vS. Groot being appointed on a three years' contract, and stationed at Aliwal North. Experience showed the need of stationing' an officer in the western districts of the Cape, with headquarters at Capetown, and ])airy Inspector Allison was appo'nted to this i)osition. 2. Creaiiierij Matters. — During ilie period under review every- thing- })ointed to a very large production of butter throughout the Union, but tlie total quantity Avas 12/)27,7')2 lb. : the total ])roduction for the six months ended :VOtli June, V.)2l, was 8,727,094 lb. TTiere are seA'eral reasons for this falling off, the chief being the abuoiiual reductions in the prices for butter-fat. No doubt the prices had to be considerably reduced to prevent a g'eiieral collapse of the creameries in the Union, but whether, under the conditions which prevailed this season, the prices of 7d., 6d., and 5d. (and in one or two instances even less) for butter-fat Avere really justified is not quitt' i-lear. These low prices had a disastrous effect on the industry as a whole, and many producers refused to supply cream at these prices, and some reverted to individual butter-making, while others turned their cows out to run with their calves. This conditiip was followed at the latter end of the season by a severe drought, and when prices for butter-fat returned to a more normal basis very meagre su])plies weie forth- coming. To Cvstablish our dairy industry and export Irade there appear to be two essentials, viz., a g'reater i)roduction on the part of the farmer throug'h the improvement in his herds and treatment of same, and a far greater output by the various creameries to reduce overhead and manufacturing charg-es. If these two factors are not seriously taken in hand it is feared the Union will not l)e able to compete successfully in the oversea markets. There is still much discontent on the i)art of cream supi)liers in regard to the grading' of their cream, and the percentage of butter-fat returned. Whilst admitting; that no creamerv is infallible and mistakes will occur, numerous investigations by officers of this Divi- sion have not substantiated the allegations made bv the variinis Report of the Department of Agriculture. 551 suppliers; fuitlier, as most of tlie creameries in the TJnion are more or less connected with the farmers themselves, and as most of the various boards of directors are composed of farmers, it cannot be imao-ined that they would intentioinilly try to injure one another. ]?ut this discontent amon<^st the su])i)liprs is yearly on the increase, and unless a better spirit of co-operati ui is brou^lit nbout tlie develop- ment of our dairy industry will be jeopardized. ;'). K.r/Kirt of li)iflcr. — I)uriii<4' Hie year 49,210 cases of Initter, ei|uivaleiit to 2, TOO, 090 lb., were ex])orted to London, and throuo-hout the ])eri()d thai exportation took place everything- pointed to a good export season, but for reasons given abo^e it was broug'ht to an abrupt close. Unfortunately, the nuijority of the butter exported landed in London just at the time when the accumulated war stocks were being disposed of, consequently the market was very (le])ressed and great dithculty was experienced in disposing- of the l)utter at anything- like remunerative prices. One of the g'reatest diawbacks to the establish- ment of an export trade is the inability of creameries to maintain a steady supjtly, and oversea buyers are neve]' certain when the next consignment of South African liuttei' is coming forward. Under our ])iesent state of development this is to a large extent unavoidable, l.ut if the five or six million ])()unds of butter produced by individual effort in the Union, and mostly sold at very unremunerative prices, weie converted into an ex])oit Initter thiough (o-operative action the ])jsition of our ex])ort trade would ini})rove enormously. Attention is drawn to the following principal faults observed in the grading' of most of the butter foi' ex])ort this season : — (L Un- suitability of boxes for export; (2) unsuitable g'rense-])roof lining- for same; and (3) shorr weights. These faults, and their remedy, rest with the creameries them- selves, but with future consignments o'f butter for export considerably more string'ent action will be taken by the g"raders where such faults are observed. For example, many cases of butter (which, according* to our export condition.^, must contain 50 lb. net on arrival in London, an allowance having" to be made of iialf to ihree-quaiter lb. jier case for shrinkage), have been found to contain only 54 lb. net, and in one or two isolated cases even less. This shows g-ross mismanag'ement and carelessness on the part of the creamery employee responsible for the packing'. In issuing* the certificate stating the net weight of each consignment it is quite impossible for the g-rader to weig-h every case. In any case tliis certific;)te of weig-ht is not final on the oversea markets, in view of the " Foreign Produce Fxchang-e " rules reg'arding" landed terms of butter sales, which clearly lay down that packages containing' net weigdit of more than :!() lb., and \\\) to 00 11:., are to be weig'hed within ha.lf a ])oun(l, or, in other woi'ds, all b.ixes of butter must weigh 50^ lb. ncf. It is hoped that in future creameries will give serious attention to these points. 4. Clieese-makinfi Industry. — The out])ut of cheese during the year amounted to 5,337,203 lb., of which appro s:imately 149,200 lb. (uily weie exported, the prices oversea not being considered sufficiently remunerative. Although production has been fairly g'ood, there is far toj g'reat a percentag-e of indifferent cheese. The primary cause of this, in most inj'tances, is lack of experience on the part of cheese- makei's; in many cases also a clieese-maker who does know his work leaves it to the native attendants, often at the most critical stages 552 JOUKNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DeC, 1922. of cheese-making, and with disastrous results when the grading of such cheese takes phice. There are times also when milk suppliers have been very careless m the handling of their milk ])rior to its arrival at the factory, but this only accounts for a small percentage of the bad cheese made, and as a general rule the cheese-maker himself is the greatest culprit. Many cheese factories have recently closed down owing to lack of support by their su])])liers and the unmarketable nature of the cheese produced. Good cheese will always find a market, but the inferior article gluts the market and reduces the price of well-made cheese. If a system of payment were inaugurated whereby cheese-makers had their salaries reduced according to the percentage of bad cheese made, and received a bonus for all first-grade cheese produced at a factory, the unsatisfactory state of affairs at present existing might materially be minimized. 5. General. — Milk recording work is still on the increase, but there are several knotty points which will have to be taken into con- sideration in the near future. If anything is necessary to confirm the importance and necessity for keeping proper official milk records one has only to look back at the magnificent results of the Friesland Breeders' Association sale in England, which would never have taken place if a proper system of milk records bad not been in force. The administration of the Dairv Industry Act_ has taken up a good deal of the time of the officers of this Division. Further experience shows that certain additions to the Act will need to be made. Inkerman Cid," Head Sire of the Elsenbuig Jersey Herd. Rkport oi- THE Uepaktment of Agki culture. 553 Report No. VIII. CHEMISTRY. (liief of /)irision: Chas. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C. 1. (h'f/cniizafion. — The iiiost important function of the year has been that of hiyino- foundations for the closer co-operation of the sections of the Division located in varijus parts of the Union. This cannot be achieved all at once, but a few select phases of work will l)e broug-ht into line step by step. Some of these will be enumerated later on. The o'uidino- principle has been the resolution adopted at a conference called by the Secretary for Agriculture of heads of divi- sions and principals of agricultural schools (shortly before the twelve months under report), viz., that the control and guidance of research work should be vested in the chiefs of divisions, and that the services of the technical officers (i.e. in this case the chemists) at the schools should be utilized to the greatest extent possible to assist the heads of divisions. The relations between the chemists at the schools and the Chief of the Division in regard to research work would therefore rest upon the basic principle that the former should act in a directive capacity, in consultation with the principal of the school concerned, in respect of any work to be carried out by any particular chemist. At Grootfontein the Division has in Mr. A. Stead an officer of its own : he advises the principal on matters pertaining to the school's chemical section, and in return the school laboratories are at his disposal for the purposes of the Division. On the other hand, the chemist belonging to the school staff assists in the work of the Division as far as possible, subsidiarily to the exigencies of the school's own requirements. On this basis the relations between the various chemical laboratories of the Department have been made closer, but a further rapprochement will be needed before a coherent unit is evolved. Meanwhile, consolidation is being proceeded with first where most urgently needed. The Pretoria laboratory is wholly under tlie control of the Divi- sion. A great deal of the work there carried on hitherto has consisted of soil investigation. The greatest difficulty is in regard to research work. There the supervision of the Chief of the Division embraces the laboratories attached to the schools as well as those directly connected with the Division. The fullest and most willing co-operation from principals and chemists is given in the endeavours to bring about co-ordination, but development must not be forced. At present measures are taken continuously to inform each institution of the progress of research work at every one of the others. This makes for mutual interest and 554 Journal of the Dkp artmext of Agriculture. — ])k( ., l!)2'J. solidarity of aim. Several problems have arisen and have been dealt with in a satisfactory and uniform manner, that previously would either have been disposed of as tlie individual institution first confronted therewith thought fit, or left in abeyance until a chemists' conference could consider it. With the important matter of the agricultural soil survey of the Union little progress has been made. It is impossible for the Chief of the Division to give the survey the undivided attention which is essential, and Mr. Stead, Senior Chemist oi the Division, who was placed in charge thereof, was prevented by other duties and prolonged illness from assuming that charge. The work will, it is coniidently hoped, sjon be commenced. 2. Comuiission Work. — During the year the Chief of the Division served on committees appointed to investigate the problems arising from the need of cheap industrial iilcohol, and to iiKjuire into the matter of the destruction of prickly-pear. From October, 1920, until well into thp year under report, Mr. Stead was virtually seconded for service as a member of the Drought Commission. The first-hand knowledge of the country and its problems and conditions gained in the course of this inquiry should prove of great value to the ])i\-isioii. 3. Piihlicdfions. — The following papers by officers of the Division were publislied during the twelve months: — A. Stead : "The Value of the Paddock Svstmi,'" .lourn. /hpf. Aqric, Vol. HI, No. 2, August, 1921, pp. l:!l-l:55. R. J. Sunt: " Hepresentative Transvaal Soils: The Norite Black Turf,"' Journ. Df'pt. Aqric, Vol. Ill, No. 4, October, 1921, pp. 337- 342. "The Uses of Tobacco Waste," ./n„ni. Jkpt. A, inc., Vol lY, No. 3, March, 1922, pp. 207-271. C. F. Juritz: " Tlie Nicotine-Content of South African Tobacco," Journ. Depf. Agric, Vol. IV, No. 6, June, 1922, pp. 552-562. " The Submarine Phosphates of the Agulhas Bank," S.A. Journ. of Industries, Vol. IV, No. 10, November, 1921, pp. 863-865. " Bacterial Production of Motor Fuel," S..A. Jonni . af Industries, Vol. IV, No. 11, Deccniher, 1921, ])]). 905-910. B. do C. Marchand : " (Jn the Volumetric Determination of Phosphoric Oxide," S.A. Journ. of Science, Vol. XVII, Nos. 3 and 4, July, 1921, pp. 259-268.' W. J. Copenhagen : "Studving our ]\Iarine Resources," -^'..4. Journ. of Industries, Vol. V, No. 4, April, 1922, yp. 160-163. Eepokt of tiik Departmlkt o¥ Agkk'ultuke. 555 Extracts from the reports of the Division's Officers in charge AT Capetown, Giujoteontein, and Pretoria. 1. — Copetoicu : Chief of the Division. (a) Anali/tical Wnr/,. — Duriiip- the year 477 samples of various kinds were analysed. Of these, the analyses of salt, brine, bittern, etc., were performed foi' the purpose of a g-eneral survey of the salt- pans of the Fnion ; and an investi^'ation into the nicotine-content of various ty])es and qualities of tobacco o^rown in the Union was under- taken in connection Avith Uw i)r()duction of a satisfactory tobacco extract. An analysis of ash from tobacco stems yielded 17'8 per cent, of potash. With the exception of seventeen samples of o-uano and a few analyses of limestone, ])ractically all the fertilizers analysed were in connection with the Fertilizers, Farm Foods, and Pest Remedies Act. As usual several analyses of Government o-uano were made, and a series of comparative analyses of the produce of the different islands are also in jjrogress. Limestone from Saldanha Bay crushed for use as ag-ricultural lime was found t(j contain 36"3 per cent, of carbon dioxide, correspondino' to 82'5 per cent, of calcium carbonate. Some limestones and supposed phosphatic deposits from Dassen Island were examined, but the results were not promisinp-. A special rei)ort on the subject of the change in the composition of basic slap- was furnished, also one on the alleged poisonous character o'f basic slag and other fertilizers. An investigation was commenced, and is being continued, in regard to the relatijn lietween the degree of ripeness of gra])es and their sugar-content to their suitability for export. A restricted amount only of soil investig-ation could be carried out. A sandy soil from tlie Caledon District was examined and found to be, as such soils usually are, indifferently supplied with humus, low in moisture-retaining' power, and poor in plant-food. Two samples of virgin sandy loams from Klipheuvel were also deficient in organic matter, nitrogen, and water-retaining power as well as in organic plant-food. Some soils from a farm at De Dooms proved to be rather brak, containing about '25 per cent, of sodium salts. A similar pro- portion was found in one out of three sjils obtained from a farm in the irrigable area of the Olifants River, Van Rhynsdorp. A very brak so'l from Middelburg, Transvaal, was examined. It contained "56 per cent, of sodium salts. A deep virgin soil of good humus- content, rich in nitrogen and with a satisfactf)ry moisture-retaining power was rec.'ived from the C-eres District, but its supply of inorg-anic ])lani-f jod could only be described as moderate. Ten soils from the Cradock Division were examined in connection with the construction of an irrigation dam. The occurrence of collai-rot in citrus trees in the Clanwilliam District led to an examination of the .s'oil for brak salts and acidity. In neither respect was the salt in any way at fault. The use of liquid hydrocyanic acid for the destruction of ])ests on fruit trees led to an investigation of the charactei' of the li(|ui(l commercially applied for the purpose and the mode of its manufacture. 556 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. The only sample of water that requires any special remark was one from Bellville, tested for salinity in connection with its proposed use in dairying. It contained 51 "2 parts of dissolved salts per 100,000, consisting almost entirely of sodium chloride. As to plant products, a sample of senecio from Newlands was examined in connection with its use as a poultry food. Some guinea grass from Somerset East was also analysed with a view to being utilized as fodder. Several plants were examined for their essential oil content, and the constants of those oils determined. Experiments were carried out to ascertain whetlier j)rickly-pear sections contain any saponin or pectin substances which could cause it to act as a " spreader " in insecticide washes, but nothing definite could be elicited. It was also sought to ascertain whether prickly-pear mucilage could partially replace g-elatine if added when a solution of the latter was just below setting consistency. In this respect, too, the results were of a negative nature. In connection with experiments at Elseiibiug on feeding pigs with tlie residue of maize from which alcohol had been prepared and distilled oft', analyses of mealie meal before and after treatment were carried out. (h) To,nc()'lo(iii-(il ll'o/'/.'. — Occasional cases of supposed poisoning of stock were submitted for examination. Several samples of strychnine were received at various times, with the complaint that they had been found ineffective for wild animal ])oisoning. In eveiy case the article was found perfectly pure, and the fault must lip in the compounding of tlie bait. The deposition of crystals in drums of concentiated sodium arsenite solution was inquired into, and attention given to the numerous untoward results of the careless or malicious use of the arsenicals employed in orchard spraying and stock dipping. (c) Microhiiological TFo;7i'. — In connection with the commercial manufacture of acetone and alcohol from such cultures as maize or sweet potatoes, a bacillus capable of effecting the conversion of mnize was obtained by the kindness of the Rockefeller Institute, and cultures were prepared for a large-scale production of these articles, but the plant was not located in a suitable environment and was subsequently broken up. Pure cultures of certain soil organisms were procured from the Lister Institute, and sub-cultures of these were prepared and distri- buted amongst agriculturists for experimental purposes. Further samples of soil from different parts of the TTnion were sent to Roth- amsted for the study of soil protozoa. Experiments in sail inoculation were initiated on several farms in the south-western districts. (d) Dairy Indvsfry Act. — Under the provisions of this ilct all milk and cream testing a])p]iances oft'ered for sale within the Union have to be tested for accuracy of graduation and dimensions, and marked in a Government laboratory. This practice was continued, and 616 articles examined during the year. They comprised 447 Bab- cock cream bottles, 72 Babcock milk bottles, and 97 pipettes. Of these, 46'9 })er cent, were rejected, viz., 50" 1 per cent, of tlie cream- test bottles, 86"1 per cent, of the milk-test bottles, and 3'1 per cent, of the pipettes. Eeport of the Department oi' Agriculture. 557 (e) Consultation Wor/:. — On frequent occasions reports had to be furnished on miscellaneous abstract questions submitted for advice, such as the manurino^ of sandy grass lands, horns as a fertilizer, preservation of foodstuffs, etc. -Grootfontciu : A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.8. Most of the period was occupied l)y the ofticer in charge in serving- as a ]nenil)er of the Drought Inquiry Commission or on leave of absence. Other work included the inspection of manurial experi- ments, of brak land at ITitenhage, of prickly-pear spraying tests, of brak in an orchard near Cradock, the compilation of a compre- hensive report on brak for the Department of Mines and Industries (still in progress), investigation of the 'feeding of sheep on prickly- pear as the main portion of their diet, investigation of farmers' experience in the Graaff-Reinet District regarding the utilization of Agave americana as a stock food, experimental feeding of prickly-pear to cows and oxen, and continuation of sheep-feeding experiments. In connection with the report on brak, referred to above, the methods ado])ted for reclaiming* brak land near Robertson were inspected, and led to a reconimendation that tlie Division of Chemistry should engage in such operations as, for instance, at Klijidrift, where the well-known efforts of the late Mr. J. P. Marais had failed. A considerable amount of work of an advisory and consulting nature was also done. -Pretoria: B. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc. (a) Anah/tiral Work. — The samples received for analysis or examination comprised: — Soils and sub-soils, 146; fertilizers, 115; dairy products, 20; tolacco, 16; water, 15; miscellaneous, 69; total, o81. Of the soil samples, 54 were taken by officers of the Division in connection with investigational work. The only other soil samples which call for any comment were five sent in by the Postal Depart- ment in connection with the rapid corrosion of stay rods and plates. This was ascrilied to alkaline salts in the soil. Preventive measures were suggested. (h) Ihiirji Glassware. — The total number of pieces tested was 932. consisting' of Bahcock cream bottles 583, Babcock milk bottles 2T7, pipettes 72. The percentage rejected as incorrect was four. (c) Investigations. — In addition to the continuation of others, investigations were commenced on the physical properties of soils, the influence of various factors on the citric solubility of the phosphoric oxide in basic slag, and the determination of " available " potash in soils. The trials of various methods for the determination of phosphoric oxide in fertilizers were completed, and the results for the sample of basic slag" experimented on were published in the Journal of the Sontli Afriean Chemical Institute, Vol. V, No. 1, p. 16. (d) Pot Experiments. — In connection with certain of the investi- gations in hand, pot experi^nents on a small scale were commenced. 558 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. IX. TOBACCO AND COTTON. Cltief of Dirision : W. H. Scherffius, M.Sc. 1. Publications. — In addition to articles in the Jounuil, a l)ainplilet, " Wild Fire and Angul:ir tSpot," \\:is issued and a number of articles prepared for the agricultural press. 2. To])ncro. — The 1920-21 tobacco crop for the Union was 16,620,640 lb., as compared with 11,644,.3()0 lb. the year previous. The price for the best grades remained fairly steady, but the lower grades suffered a heavy decline. This is attributable to various causes. The wet season during the curing period caused a large percentage of dark and low-grade leaf, and the general financial depression throughout the world caused a big decline generally in the prices of agricultural products. The excise tax, coming at this time, further tended to unsettle the market, but the relief m.easures adopted by the (lovern- nient and the amended excise law should assist in restoring stability. The exports and imports of tobacco for 1921, not including Rhodesia, were resjjectively 641,825 and 356,286 lb. The Rustenburg and Parys tobacco societies were in a somewiiat depressed condition for a while, but the relief measure referred to above, and later a slight improve- nnmt in the market, eased the situation. The Turkish Toi)acco Society was in a much better position on account of the supply not being equal to the demand for this type of tobacco. 3. Cotton. — The cotton crop for the previous year amounted to 1,169,298 lb. of lint, thus maintaining the progressive annual increase since 1909. The 1922 crop, although showing a light yield per acre, will average out very well for the whole area i)lanted, as fortunately there was a comparatively small amount of destruction by insects. The price of cotton steadily advanced till July, 1922, when it stood at about 13d. per lb., cash ((notations on American middlings. With the alarming reports of a declining yield of American cotton, the opportunity of developing- a big industry in this country is most encouraging. The Co-operative Cotton Growers' Exchange should be of mutual advantage to cotton growers in the disposal of their crop, as it is always advantageous to have for disposal a large parcel all of one grade. 4. Pure Seed. — The demand for improved cotton seed became so urgent and the necessity so apparent, that the Government decided to station a plant breeder at the Rustenburg Experiment Station to devote his time to this important work. Further, authority was received to increase the acreage of cotton lands. This was done, but the specialist was not secured, and this line of investigation did not make the progress hoped for. 5. Britisli Cotton Growing Association'.^ Frizes. — The second competition for the year 1920-21 was completed in so far as the Divi- sion was concerned, as the samples were sent to the Association some time ago to be judged. Arrangements are being made for the third competition to take place during the year 1922-23. The prizes offered Report of the Department of Agric;ultitre. 559 for the secoutl competition were as follows: — (a) Best fifty or more acres of cotton, £100; second best, £50; third jbest, £25.' (b) Best ten or more acres of cotton, but less than fifty acres, £50; second best, £25; third best, £12. 10s. For these competitions the officers of the Division measure the fields and rate them for the farm practice methods applied, and collect the weights of the crops. The question of quality is judged by the Association. The field work in connection with the second competition was heavy, but the encouragement given to the farmers and keen interest shown by them, it is considered, fully justify the extra labour involved. 6. Af/ricidtura] Shotcs. — Tlie officers of the Division were in much demand as judges at the agricultural shows. An exhibit of tobacco and cotton and by-products was staged at all the principal shows. 7. E.vperiment Station lT'r)/7i'.-— Experiments were continued in connection with the improvement of types by plant selection and the projiagation of individuals in comparative row tests; the improvement ()f commercial fields by the process of eliminatifui ; testing the relative merits of different distances of planting; comparison of varieties by planting in a series of plots; fertilizer and rotation experiments; testing the relative merits of the different methods of curing tobacco; comparing various methods of treating tobacco to produce the higliest percentage of nicotine; and the production of other crops to improve the land and for use on the stations. At the llustenburg station the tobacco and cotton crops suffered to some extent on account of drought during January and February, but they recovered consideiably wlien the rains set in. The tobacco fertilizer plots gave excellent results and proved to be the most satis- factory yet obtained. The tobacco flue-curing- experiments gave excellent results. Very valuable work on cotton breeding- was con- tinued, but the whole attention of a qualified officer is necessary to get the best results. The students' hostel was full during the whole time. The ajjprentices acquitted themselves very creditably. The work being done at Elsenburg in the development of improved types of tobacco will be of lasting lienefit to the Turkish tobacco planters. The station has I'eaehed a stage in which it is supplying improved seed to all those requiring it. The popularity of these improved strains is apparent in the sales thereof : only a few ounces are sold to each farmer, yet the revenue from this source will, it is anticipated, amount to more than £100 in 1921-22. At the Piet Eetief station similar work to that of pievii.us years was undertaken by the foreman, the new manager having airived too late to conduct the oi)erati()ns in the beginning of the year. Much more satisfactory results may be anticipated in the ftiture. Spraying experiments to control tlie tobacco beetle were contintied last season, and this seems to be the only safe means of controlling this pest. 8. Itinerant WorJi. — The varioits itinerant officers of the Division gave series of lectures at the agricultural schools, and attended and lectured at farmers' meetings thrcghout the Union. The fibre expert had a hea\y year's work visiting the variotts ginneries, first to classify the seed cotton as it came from the farmers and later grading a sample of the lint from each bale before it is shipped. There were lOGG bales of approximately 500 lb. ea-h, which had to pass twice throitgh his hands. In addition, he graded and reported on a great nuraber of small samples sent in by farmers. 560 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. X. HORTICULTURE. Cliief of Division : I. Tribolet. 1. General. — The Chief of the Division spends about half his time in visitin<>' various parts of the fruit ^'rowing- areas of the TTiiion, interviewing" inquirers regarding" fruit-farming", attending fruit growers' meetings, arranging" shipping" matters, etc., and judging at agricultural shows; the rest of his time is spent in office, attending to correspondence, Avriting reports, etc. In November, 1921, Mr. Nel>elung", the citrus specialist, arrived from California, and took up his work with the Division. He has lost no time in becoming acquainted with local conditions in the various citrus districts of the Union. In the course of his several tours he has not only obtained knowledge regarding soil, temperature, rainfall and water supply, and, to a certain extent, the farmers occupying the land, but has also been able to impart valuable advice to numerous inquirers. This advice touched on methods of citrus culture that obviously needed remedying", such as, proper methods of nursery propagation, of planting, and of pruning young and old trees ; the general care of the orchard in matters of irrigation and cultivation ; and the correct picking of fruit in respect of the types of clippers and picking bags to be used, also the manner of handling. The citrus expert, Mr. H. B. Anderson, arrived on contract from the United States in xiugust, 1921, and did excellent work until May, 1922, when he had a severe attack of malaria, contracted in tlie north-eastern Transvaal. He died on the 10th of that month, iinicli regretted by those with whom he liad become acquainted in various parts of the citrus areas. The itinerant horticvilturist, Mr. Le Sueur, stationed at Port Elizabeth, in charge of the eastern Cape districts area, resigned from -Tanuary, 1922. The Dis-ision is thus short of two veiry important officers. It is proposed to fill one of the vacant posts with one of the oversea students, due to return about November. On account of the big developments taking place in fruit growing in the eastern Cape Districts (Sunday's Eiver, Fish River, Uitenhage, Gamtoos River, and elsewhere), a capable itinerant horticulturist is urgently needed for this part. An officer is also required to fill ihe late Mr. Anderson's post, as the citrus industi'y is making rapid progress, and one citrus specialist is totally unable to cope with the increasing work. 2. Ea-port Season 1922 : Stajf Arrangemsnts . — The Division was again unfortunate in regard to staff. Mr. Roworth, the inspector Report of the Department of Agriculture. 561 at Capetown, has been on sick leave since the 23rd December, 1921. During the first two and a half months of his absence, the Chief of the Division took charge at the Docks at Capetown. Later, when the season had well started, Mr. Edmonds, the assistant, was put in charge, followed by Mr. Nebelung. The volume of export increased, however, to such an extent, that it was necessary to have further assistance, and Mr. R. Bulmer was appointed temporarily, on the 26th June, to take charge of the inspection work, and is still in office. It was also found necessary to appoint four temporary hands at various times, to assist in the inspection in order to keep pace with the large quantities of fruit being rushed forward for export. At Poi:t Elizabeth, Mossd liay. East London, and Durban, the inspec- tion is conducted by officers not attached to the Division. These ports will in the near future require to be served by permanent trained men. Owing to the slumj) in wine, many of the wine fanners, instead of pressing their grapes, converted a portion into dried grapes (raisins) for export to the Ignited States. Some hundreds of tons of this product found their way to the docks for shipment overseas; as the dried grapes were shipped under Government Regulations, inspection had to be carried out, and temporary assistance had to be given. 3. ()i'(j(inizatiu)i of Fruit Growers. — -As predicted in the previous year's report, fruit growers have realized the necessity of co-opera- tion, and after many meetings and a certain amount of propaganda work, have formed associations to guard their interests and get their products overseas in the best possible condition. The result of the movement was the establishment of a South African Fruit Exchange. It embodies various sections of the fruit growing interests in the form of divisions, such as a citrus division, a deciduous division, and a pineapple division. These divisions, looking after their own sectional interests, are represented on the Exchange. In general matters such as shipping, buying material, etc., the lixchange operates. The formation of the Exchange will no doubt relieve the Division o'f responsibility in various ways, and perhaps be more satisfactory to growers who join the movement. 4. Decidvous Fruits. — The export season opened on the 9tli De- cember, 1921, when the first shipment went forward. Climatic condi- tions during the time of export were rather unfavourable, especially towards the end of the season ; grape growers suffered most, spasmodic showers and dull weather at about the ripening time accounting for a good deal of wastage. The varieties croi)ping heaviest were pears, grapes, and peaches; prunes were on the low side, and apricots moderate. Prices for good sound fruit ruled high throughout, especially for grapes. Althougli about 800,000 boxes of all fruits were shipped, better shipping conditions existed than last season. The Department is investigating the probable causes of wastage in export fruit, and no doubt valuable data will lie obtained. 5. ( itrus Fruifs. — The 1922 export season started on the 20th May. About the commencement of the shipping season, heavy hail- storms swept over parts of the Rustenburg valley and other districts, doing considerable damage to the almost ripe fruit. 562 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Despite a general lightening- up ui the Export Iteguhition.s, inferior fruit still seems to find its way overseas. This will never be overcome unless growers honestly co-operate with the Department and endeavour, under tiie iustructions of its experts and inspectors, to ship fruit suitable for exj)()rt. It has been stated in previous reports, and is ag'ain emphasized, that the proper place in which to giap])le efl'ectively with tins ])r()blem is in ihe orang'e groves and district packing'-liouses. The prices obtained liave not been as high as during- the years immediately after the war. This decline was expected, and will l)robably continue, yet a fair jjroht should be derived from the sale of oranges at from 16s. to 2()s. overseas. It is very noticeable that short counts of large fruit do not realize by from 2s. to 3s. as much as the longer counts of small orang-es. The ship])ing' space arranged through the fruit exchange has lieen g'ublished in the Marcdi, 1922. number of the Journal. As a result many inquiries were received regarding certain grape 564 Journal of the Department of A(iRi( ulture. — Dec, 1922. varieties. Twenty-seven different varieties were exported to test their travelling qualities, and a full report was forwarded to the Journal (published September, 1922), with remarks concerning the growth, etc., of each variety. Dried currants were made from the Cape currant and the Zante currant, and a sample of each submitted to Mr. Cartwright, a recognized authority on dried fruits, who made the following remarks: — So far as the quality goes theie U little to choose between them either in appear- ance or (flavour. The South African fruit is somewhat bolder, but either would be equally saleable. A few of the berries in the South African sample are unusually large from a confectioner's point of view, being almost as big as Sultanas, and these would be better eliminated. Over a thousand boxes of grapes were sent to the Johannesburg market and realized satisfactory prices, averaging 3d. per lb. net. This proves that good fruit well packed can be sold at satisfactory prices on some df our local markets. Large numbers of viue-cuttings were again distributed all over the Union. Grapes and wines were exhibited at the Paarl Agricul- tural Show, but owing to the manager being unwell the exhibition at Rosebank had to be cancelled. The wines of the station were of good quality, and, although wine was generally almost unsaleable, were disposed of at the maximum price laid down by the Co-operative Wine Farmers' Association. Large numbers of the public visit the station from time to time to study the different varieties of grapes, systems of pruning, trellising, etc. The total revenue of the station was £388, and the expenditure £331, exclusive of manager's salary. 5. Estimated Production. — The 1922 crop is estimated not to exceed 105,000 leaguers as against 140,000 in 1921. This shortage can be attributed to a smaller crop all round and to the amount of raisins produced, A new feature last season was the turning of wine- grapes into raisins. The raisins made from wine-grapes are inferior to those made 'from recognized raisin grapes. These are exported to America, where the working classes consume large quantities of raisins if procurable at reasonable prices. Reports from America state that the raisins are fetching from 5d. to 7d. per lb. This leaves a small margin for the producer here, yet it pays better than making wine for £3 per leaguer. Of the estimated crop of 105,000 leaguers only 20,000 have actually been sold to the wine merchants; so that the rest will have to be declared surplus. The wine industry is at present in a very bad state indeed. There seems to be an optimistic feeling that next year there will be an improvement. 6. Plantings'. — On account of the bad state of the wine market, plantings have not been very extensive with the wine-making varieties and especially the white varieties. Owing to rumours tliat there may be a demand for hermitage raisins in future this grape is still planted to a (certain extent. Table grajjcs and especially exj)ort varieties, are still planted extensively. Grafted vines of these varieties fetched good prices and the market is practically empty, whereas many vines are still offered of the wine-making varieties. 7. Export of Grapes. — This branch of the industry is exi)anding rapidly. Judging by the amount of plantings it can confidently be stated that grape export is going to be a very big concern in the near future. Beport of the Department of Agriculture. 5G5 Report No. XII. GOVERNMENT WINE FARM, CONSTANTIA. Manager : A. G. van Reenen. 1. Apprentices. — During the period under review tlie full number of apprentices (sons of parents who cannot aft'ord to send them to any of tlie Schools of Agricultuie) was in residence. A good many applications for apprenticeshij) were received, and these boys will be taken on as vacancies occur. The general behaviour of the apprentices was good. 2. Vintajje. — The vintage was a good one, the yields being as ifollows : — Sweet C'onstantia, 1915 gallons; Constantia Berg, 2020 gallons ; Sauvignon Blanc, 3592 gallons ; Hermitage-Malbec, 2230 gallons; Cabernet Sauvignon, 957 gallons; Pontac, G6 gallons; and Press, 2230 gallons— total, 13,010 gallons. A large block of vineyard was uprooted, and 31,000 vines grafted on suitable stocks planted in its stead. In the year 1922-23 more< will be uprooted, and the land prepared for replanting in the fol- lowing season. Some of the old orchards were also uprooted and are being replanted. 3. Ea'periments. — Experiments are being carried out to find the most suitable American stocks for this district, as some varieties which do well in the drier districts, such as Stellenbosch, Paarl, Montagu, etc., are not suited to the Constantia area. Owing to the wasty condition of grapes on arrival in Europe during the 1920-21 season, several varieties of table grapes were grafted on certain American stocks, by which it is hoped to bettei: the ripening and colouring of the fruit, at the same time making it hardier without tending to coarseness. Manurial experiments are also being carried out with the same object in view. Experiments are being conducted in conjunction with the Mycologist to test the different sprays for the control of Anthracnose and Peach Leaf Curl ; also with the Chietf Division of Chemistry in connection with l)acteiia in the soils for legumes. Two large experiments in the manuring* of vines are being cairied out; these will be spread over a period of tliree or four years, the main object l)eing to ascertain how much of each of the different plant-foods the vine iiclually requires to give the best yield of fruit, both for quality and qunntity, while still retaining its vigour. Apparently there are no data of this description, except that from abroad, so that many people are fertilizing or manuring without knowing what quantities of plant-food their vines require. Turkish tobacco was grown for instruction of the apj)rentices ; a satisfactory crop of very good quality was reaped, although the weather conditions were not favourable in the early part of the season. For the year ended 31st March, 1922, ilie total ex])enditure amounted to £3391, and the receipts to £1432. The latter is lower than expected, but owing to the state of the wine market no large sales were put tlirough, so tliat the whole of the previous season's crop remained on hand at the end of the year. 566 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. XIII. CO-OPERATION. Ri'fjistvdr of f'o-cprrdfirr At/nCiiJ t ii raJ Sdciet/cs : .FoTis. Kktief 1. New Socicfics. — Five new sociolies were refi'lstercd — two in llic Oranf^'e Free State and three in the Transvaal. Two of these deal with citrus, one supplies its members with dairy cattle, and two are tobacco societies. 2. lieviordl of Societie.-! from ]ie<)ii^icr-. — Two societies were removed from the Register of CVj-oi)erative AoTicultural Societies during the year, viz., Pretoria Landhouw Ko-operatieve Vereniging and Dewetsdorp Ko-operatieve Landhouw Vereniging. Both were general produce societies. The first-named society was formed in 1918, and has not, as stated in the })revious Eejjort, at any period of its existence been able to make any headway. The dissolution of the society, however, involved no loss to its memliers ; on the contrary it was in a position to pay out a small dividend. The Dewetsdorp society was registered in 1920, and dealt mostly with wool. It was put into liquidation, as the members decided to transfer the business to a larger institution. 3. The Ntniiher of Active Societies is forty-five, as shown in the f ollowino' table : — Transvaal Orange Free State Frodace and Im- plements. H 13 Cheese Factories. Dairy Cattle. Thrashing. Tobacco. Total Citrus. Total. 28 22 45 4. 7 Jte Tinnorer of Societies is shown as under Maize Sold. Tobacco Sold, lb. Otlier Produce Farming Requisites Sold. Sold. A'^alue. I Value. 1920 .. 1921 .. 532,4 74 1,646,836 3.794.662 3,844,493 i: 166.430 £267,648 ■£288.939 £180,303 IIepokt of the Department oe Agriculture- 507 The actual luimber of bags of maize received from members during the 1920 reaping season was 181,300 more than in the follow- ing season (1,502,735 against 1,321,427 bags). The (juantity sold during the calendar year 1!)20 was considerably less than in 1921, as the societies had exceptionally large stocks on hand at 31st December, 1920. The turnovei' in tobacco continues to increase, 1,048,852 lb. more were sold in 1921 than in 1919, and 2,309,872 lb. more than in 1918. The Magaliesl)erg Ko-operatieve Tabakplanters Vereniging received from its members during the 1921-22 season 6,553,710 lb. of tobacco. The turnover in implements, etc., was less in 1921 than in the previous year, owing partly to the depression in the produce market and pai'tly to societies having restiicted the credit gi'anted to their members. 5. Mcnihcrs/i i/j. — At 3)0tli June, 1922, the total membership of the societies in active operation was 12,554, as compared with 11,893 the previous year. Additions to membership during the year under review were 1382, and withdrawals 721, the latter being made up of: resignations, 484; deaths, 50; expulsions, 53; and two societies dis- solved, 134. (i. /^rof/rcss iikkIc hi/ Sorlefiey. — The subjoined statement shows the financial position of the individual societies. The information given has reference, in tlie majority of cases, to the financial year 1920-21 which in the case of nearly all the societies ends on 31st May. 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R,KP()RT OF THE DePAKTMKNT OF AgRIC^ULTURK. 571 X o ry^c OJ C w; C £■■3 y: l>\ It ^^ 0/ r-i^. 1— ( -c o Ph S S c o =5 Jo|ag*£ ?f» a- b .2-" g g^ p.- S •^ ^ s ^ jr^ '^ +^ ^ c +-. r-- ^ S > Sail OJOO ^s iS -h O ^ a w s^>^ h-; )72 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. o J ^ o"" -; rt 0 •- .5 >.•■- _S' ■'•' B 3 .= ■'- NJ 1 1^ O S " IH'I III 11 il '1 ^2i-ti5S ^St; i-S §-S 2:: ^1^-S|5 2 = 2 .-5o^g_^. 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    p -' -£ .i c c % 5 .0 0 c ? a S 2 S i S ^ ^^ ? ? S 0 a: e^ Report of -jiie DErARTiJENT of AGKiciTf/juRE. 573 J made a profit. It is > a greatly increased ing the year. Heavy i in connection with naize, but, with care- should survive the lese over-advances, iaiance-sheet, cinaim- liu'ht which made it Siiinety will survive. l;i luent has occurred, rty is unsatisfactDry, ihances on maize and 1 to members when igh. ch tills Society made the reorganization, 1916, has not been is Society referred to d not have an imme- ancial position. The in a loss of £356. 10s. present confining its ply to members of U^ i, -^ ^a,^ S^^ S „ ^ "=^^3 « '^ o o g S s .- r^; ^ rt ^ ^^ N ■? ii -i-- ai-rT.ao gm ^ ?i s ^C. '-' a ij «og|>^as|ooga^O;g^g^ .2£c^,--;s l^-S &o|S nils s § i asm s.s=i l-si-s H H S H H H H , rM ^ _, ^ ^ ^ ^-j (u C-1 (M J^] (71 Ol fM I>1 (m" lo in in t-" o CO" Q "3 ^ -\ t-h" rt ,-h ^■' o" — 1 p: r/3 --^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO o in o to -t o -f -* o 00 T-i t~ 1- 00 50 oi t^ 00 in m -* oi_ t--- ^ r^_^ o" r-T in o in in o -+-)--+ rH in M wp 05 OJ ,«' W GC 00 1-1 ; r~ O CO i^ r^ o « r-( -t ti -k'^ 5R o -+ CD t-- -i< o-i T-i in CD lO o ci w -H ^ m in 00 03 =*< tC rH in -T oc of -h" r-T of JS 2S ■^ ^ 00 CO '"' a Oj . m oi 01 in c. lO o o ^_^ d > Vi 6 o o in in m CO ca 00 t-'vi; t^ CO GC Oi c; CO T-H Ol M 9 " i t-i' lO t-^' CO (Sf^ 03 *■ 01 CO — CO CO O CO Ol a-a o 00 Ol -1- 01 ^ CO o Ol .;S -f co__ ■- -^ c;^ CO 01 03_ 2 a o cS '^5 "•* -rf 3 o -+ CO m o -f 00 1- -f -t CO 01 CC -.O 1- 00 -H a o O I- .0 -. -f c: -t 01 o ■« o t-h" CA CO -+' *' C^' o o ■^ m -+ " 01 00 00 CD -f m 00 -f CD o c CO 00 01 00 -f ^ Ci o in o o 1- C0_ 01^ l-_ CO_ >X CO q iJl 2 3 '■** c: -+ 01 lO" oo" 01 co' of ol C2 OJ" A. ci '-' «? 1^ CI- O -f O -f -f s 00 01 o 03 m i~ 05 in m CO CO o -+ v> ^■ t3 CO OS O- t~ 1- CO o o r- -t CD vn CO ' 0^1 i-i (£ Ci Ol^ crt >; •« 1 o H •^ y_, .«e 5 •tt o s o M ^ a t (. s o fc- B ^ K; •2 "■ "^ ft ^ is ^ 574 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. EH H M o c m t>2 O Ph S'3 o » o ^ -^ A t, * 9J (jj »j xJ S SI o — .S> " S '^ ■^ p.o=c p sen "^ .2 m .S — a ^ •-- +^ -t^ '-^ X ■„ -s 5'-g ist : H. S. DU Toit. 1. General. — The Division's activities in agronomical itinerant- extension, co-operative experiment and org^anization work are carried out in various parts of the Union. i?Lssistance is aL'^o given (mostly by letter and seed parcel post) to farmers seeking advice outside the IJnion. 2. Co-operative E,:rperiinetits.—Th.e fast growing spirit o'f co- operation among the farmers of the Union has again manifested itself in the vastly increased numbers of applicants for seed, and also in the greater number of agriculturists who sought advice. During the period under review 95,714 lb. of different varieties of the most suitable seeds were issued to 714 farmers in 151 districts of the Union on the co-operative system. Owing* to the increased demand for seed, the financial depression of the country and the shortage of funds on our Departmental Seed Vote, a great number of applications for seed could not be acceded to. 3. Pietershurg Experiment Station. — Many wheat varieties were planted during the season, but unfortunately all were very severely damaged hy a terrific hail -storm (ni the 17th October, 1921. Great Scott Wheat. — Owing to this particular wheat proving to be rust-resistant, a quantity of seed was obtained and distributed for experimental purposes. Grasses. — In March, 1921, the following varieties were planted in small plots: — Pennisetum, Rhodes Grass, Phalaris Bulbosa, Star Grass, two varieties of Buffel Grass, Blue Grama, New South Wales Blue Grass, Side Oats, and Grama. Pennisetum, Buff'el Grass, and Rhodes Grass gave the best results. Molasses Grass was planted in December last and has up to the present been very disappointing, giving very poor growth. It was nipped by frost during the early part of June. Maize. — The following varieties were planted: — Leguna, Sahara Yellow, Hickory King, Wills Gehu, Oil Dent, Silver King, Golden Nugget, Rhode Island, White Flint, Natal 8-row Flint, and Minne- sota 133. The most drought resistant of these varieties were: — Leguna, Sahara Yellow, Oil Dent, and Natal 8-row, with yields of 12^, lOi, 6, and 6 bags per acre respectively. The season was ^ 19 ' oT6 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. exceptionally dry (hiring* the whole g-rowing period of the ni;iize crop. The drought was so severe during the flowering and cobbing stages of the crops that a number of varieties succumbed altogethei', and while Sahara Yellow resisted the drought splendidly and gave its usual average yield, it would appear that it has found a superior in Leguna (a recently imported White Dent), which is a vigorous grower, drought-resister, and g'ood yielder. Mangels. — Mammoth Long Red did very well, some roots weighing up to 25 lb. each. Millets. — Boer Manna, Broom-corn-millet, Proso millet, and Japanese Barnyard were planted. Broom-corn-millet again gave the best results in grain, hay. and feeding vahie. Mimiesota Black Amber Cane. — Two acres of this crop Avere made into stack silage, which proved excellent. This cane is considered very suitable for the drier parts as an ensilage crop. Beans. — Fifty varieties were planted. The Bomba and Flageolet, two white varieties, did best. Sorghums and Kaffir (Jorn. — Twenty varieties were planted, but owing to the ravages oif grubs and aphis the results were poor. Spineless Cactus. — Among the fourteen varieties experimented with, the following gave the best results: — Fusicaiilis, Morado, Tralnitt's Algerian, and Miskatel. Trees. — The dry-land mixed fruit and forest trees continue to do very well, and also some fodder siirubs, of which Gacia {Cytissus stenopetalus), some o'f the salt Inishes, and Gemsbok bean do excep- tionally well. Barley. — The new 6-row (Mariout) malting variety, of wdiich mention was made in the previous report, has again done very well as a summer crop, and the farmer co-operative experimentalists all rc])ort very fas'ourably on this vaiiety. Rye. — This cereal is still receiving si)ecial attention, and some progress has been made towards gaining the object aimed at — the consumption of rye bread in South Africa, as explained in the previous report. Peanuts. — Resulting from many years of study and experiment in the cultivation of peanuts, it can noM" definitely be stated that this crop is not only profitable, but is also a comparatively safe crop, especially in the summer rainfall areas of the Union. Hundreds of bags of seed have been distributed to many farmers with most gratifying results. The peanut has developed into a new South African industry and deserves every encouragement, especially in reduced railway rates and ship's freights. A peanut by-product and nut-butter factory has been established at Duivelskloof , Northern Transvaal, and a strong company has been formed Avith the object of erecting a large oil-expressing plant at Pietersburg, Transvaal, and exporting nut oil to England and Continental Europe, where there is an unlimited demand for this commoditv. Report of the Department of Agricultuee. 577 Report No. XV. GOVERNMENT GUANO ISLANDS. Supenntenrlcnt: W. 11. Zeederber(;. 1. Production of Guano. — The steady increase in the ])roduction of o>uaiio, noted in preceding- rejiorts, was maintained, and had it not been for the losses sustained dnring the latter part of the breeding season 1920-21, throug-h the action of the very heavy rains which fell on the coast in January and February, the output fof 1921, if it did not actually exceed it, would not haA'c been very far short of that of the previous year. Notwithstanding' this, however, the total collec- tions amounted to approximately 8500 tons, of which 3274f tons were obtained from the Colonial Islands, and 5225^ tons from the Northern Group. The. following- return shows the yield of g-uano and the quantities actually broug-ht up to Capetown during the year 1921, as comi)ared with the previous year : — Island. Collected. 1920. 1921. Shipped to Capetown. 1920. 1921. Cohin'ml Gronp. Malagas Island Dassen Island .Jutten Island Lamberts Ray Islet Bird Island... Dyers Island Paternoster Island ., Marcus Island Seal (False Bay) Island . Elephant Hock Fonndlings Island ... Total Xorfhern (iri 01 p. Sinelairs Island Ichaboe Island Possession Island ... Halifax Island Mercury Island Pengnin and Seal Islands , Pomona Island Plnmpudding Island HoUamsbird Island Total Grand Total Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. l,186f 981 l,?42i 981 939-i 716=L 939:^ 7161 .^24 .552f 536 552f 336J 362 336f 362 389i *2G2| 389Jr 375| 31 1; 146 316 146 74 84 i 72.! 74 Nil .54 — 54 :^n ihh — 79f H(5 36f 36 36| l«9i 33 169i 33 4,C06 3,274| 4,138 3.41U 138 87f 142 138 2,663.i 2.606.i 2,744| 2,991| 1,729 J 1 ,3.58* l,571f 1,1201 •503 456 450 603 300 310 300 310 545.', 220 .545J 220 165| 130 165 130 88 57 83 88 206 — 206 — 6,439i 5,225i 6,208f 5,60U 10.445i 8,50() 10,3461 9,012| Roughly Estimated. 578 Journal of the Department or Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. The reserve stock of g-uano (being the balance left over of the 1921 crop) on hand ou the 31st December, 1921, was approximately 5280f tons, of which quantity about 1911^ tons were still remaining- on certain of the islands on that date. The whole of this quantity, with the exception of roughly 27 tons on Bird Island and about 35 tons on Possession Island, was brought u]» to Capetown and dis]iosed of in the first allotment in 1922. 2. Allotment and Sale of (ruano. — The total quantity of guano disposed of throughout the Union between 1st July, 1921, and 30 th June, 1922, was 9141f tons, of which 9118f tons were sold by allot- ment and 23 tons through the medium of the Knysna depot. Two allotments were made during this period, viz., one in July, 1921 (being the second for that year), in connection with which 1778| tons were distributed, and the other in February, 1922, when a further 7340 tons were allocated amongst the successful applicants. 3. Demand for Guano. — jS^otwithstanding the reduction in tlie selling price of guano from £10 to £8 per ton in November, 1921, there was a decided falling off both in the number of applications received and the quantities applied for in connection with the allot- ments this year. This may be only a temporary phase, attributable no doubt to the prevailing financial depression, but there is reason to believe that the general reduction in the prices of other fertilizers has also, to some extent, affected the demand for the Government article, which, nevertheless, still remains considerably in excess of the supplies available from time to time. 4. Distrihution of Guano, 1921. — The total quantity of guano applied for during 1921 (including applications from other Govern- ment departments) was 28,145A tons, and the quantity actually dis- posed of in the same period was 9423A tons, 92'6 per cent, of which was absorbed by the western and south-western districts of the Cape Province ; of that quantity 7069i tons were distributed between the Malmesbury, Paarl, Cape, Stellenbosch, and Caledon divisions alone. The following statement shows the quantities sold and (listril)uted during 1921, as compared with 1920: — Si'M.\[AKY OF Distribution. Cape Province — Western and south-western districts Other districts ... Transvaal (all districts) ... Natal (all districts) Orange Free State (all districts) ... Grand total 5. Analytical Composition of Guano. — The average composition' of the several stocks of guano disposed of during the year 1921 was as follows : — Phosphoric oxide soluble in water, 3'3 per cent. : phosphoric oxide soluble in 2 per cent citric acid solution, 9'6 per cent. ; total phosphoric oxide, lO'O per cent. ; nitrog-en, 10'6 per cent. ; potash, 2'1 per cent. : lime, 99 per cent. 1920. 1921. Tons. Ton^. 8053 87241 1201 123f 256i 418 92* 141i 12f 16 8535i 9423A Eefort of the Department of Agriculture. 579 i). Prospects for 1922. — Tlip breeding season 1921-22 was a very o'oocl one, and the resultant crop would no doubt have exceeded the record established in 1920 but for a repetition of the calamitous happenings already recorded in connection with the previous season. Very heavy and unseasonable rains again visited the Colonial Islands during January and February, 1922, but notwithstanding the losses sustained in consequence thereof it is estimated that the total collec- tions for 1922 will be approximatelv 9700 tons, or about 750 tons short of the figures for 1920. 7. Seahnii. — Xo sealing was undertaken on the south coast during the season 1921, l)ut, as the result of operations carried out on the west coast, 10,129 skins were secured. Of these, 9301 were procured from the islands and rocks off the South-West ilfrica coast — the largest numl)er yet obtained from those sources in any one season — and the balance, 828, were taken from Elephant Eock. With the exception of a small consignment of 410 still on hand at the closing date of this report, all skins were shipped to London and disposed of at Drices ranging from 8s. to 58s., or an average of o9s. 9kl. per skin, the total amount realized being £19,337. 8. Seal Oil. — As there is hardly any demand for this product, and there is still a large unsold stock on hand from previous seasons, very little seal oil was secured in 1921. 9. Sale of Pienguin Eags. — The total numbei" of eggs taken by the contractors from Dae-sen Island during the season 1922 was 535,680, from which a revenue of £3683 was derived. 10. Renenwe and Expenditiire. — The total revenue derived from the sale of guano, seal skins, penguin eggs, etc. (exclusive of gratis issues of guano to other Divisions, valued at £1779), for the financial year 1921-22 amounted to £115,817, and the total expenditure for the same period (excluding free services rendered bv other Departments, valued at £116) was £02,283. Percherons, Glen School ot Agriculture. 580 Journal of the Department of Agriculture.— Dec, 1922. Report No. XVI. INSPECTION OF GRAIN. Chief Inspector of Grain : G. F. NUSSEY. 1. Exports. — Durino- the year exports amounted to 4,688,897 bag's, consisting" of the following: — Maize, 3,295,544 bags; maize meal, 1,282,264 bags; maize grit (rice), 7847 bags; hominy-chop, 42,185 bags ; maize flour. 357 bags ; kaffir corn, 14,588 bags ; oats, 38,299 bags; beans, 109 bags; lucerne seed, 4858 bags; bran, 2870 bags; manna seed, 10 bags. The year 1921-22 was an exceptionally good one in many respects ; the crop was the heaviest yet reaped in any one season, and was uniformly good throughout the Union, as well as in Rhodesia and the adjoining native territories. The total of maize, etc., shipped oversea easily established a record over any preceding year's shipment. According to Census figures the 1921 harvest yielded 13,347,237 bags, and the consumption for the Union, according to the same source — taken over an average of five years (1914 to 1919) — was stated to be 9,800,000 bags. It will thus be seen that the actual quantity shipped overseas was considerably in excess of the difference between these two figures, and it follows that either the information furnished regarding the actual yield was incorrect or the quantity for local consumption was fixed at too high a figure. 2. Quality of Maiz>e. — The quality of the products exported was good. Rejections on account of serious causes amounted to 51,672 bags, of which 31,794 bags were due to dampness, the result in many instances of harvesting the crop before it was in a properly dry condi- tion, and no doubt also to the eageruess of speculators to ffet early into the market. A press circular was issued ])ointiiig out the danger and loss arising out of railing damp maize for export, and Jiotifying the facilities offered for the testing of maize for moisture content. The latter were taken advantage of, and with a continuance it is antici- pated that the railing of damp maize to the ports will in future be greatly diminished. The work m connection with moisture testing, adjudicating on samples as to grade, and the distribution of the various commodities standardized, increases with each succeeding year. '■\. Gradiny. — Only one complaint of a serious nature was received in regard to grain shipped from Union ports, and this was in respect of a cargo loaded at Durban consigned to Mauritius. ]Vo other complaints were received, and the general opinion is that our grading is consistent and reliable, and our certificates are held in high repute overseas. Report of the Department of Agriculture. 581 4. Screening Maelnnea. — In vi'.nv of the erecliuu oi the eleviiturs, certain points in connection with the roi.g-h screening" machines which are beino- installed at country elevators were inquired into, more par- ticularly the correct mesh of sieves most suitable for screening". As a result of experiments cp'nducted, Mr. Littlejohn Philip, the eng"ineer in charge of the work, has recommended (and this Division is thoroughly in agreement) that the upper screens throug-h which the maize has to pass, but which keeps back pieces of cobs, sticks, and rubbish larger than the grain, based on present g-rades, should be as follows : — Screens with oval holes f inch by h inch for g"rades 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8; and h inch diameter round holes for g-rades 5 and 6; the lower screens in both cases to be of \ inch diameter round-hole perforations. Anything- possing throug*h these screens to be definitely fixed for rejection. 5. .\ew Grades. — As a res\ilt of the foiegoijig, the hxing of new grades, to come into operation with the elevator system, was con- sidered. < )n the instructions of the Secretary for Ag"riculture a formal conference of representatives of the maize industry was held at Johannesburg", when it was unanimously agreed to accept the grades prepared and proposed by this Division. The expenditure in connection with this Division for the financial year ended 31st March, 1922, amounted to £7192, whilst the revenue collected over the same period amounted to £11,593. In view of the Division's coming- transfer to the Railways and Harbours Administration, I desire to tender my sincere thanks to those officials of the Depaitmeiit witli whom I have been almost in daily contact during" tlie twelve years of my service for their courtesy and assistance. 582 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Report No. XVII. PUBLICATIONS. Editor, Journal of the Department of A/jrici/ltirre : G. W. Klerck. 1. General. — Tlie i)iesent Journal has been published monthly, in English and A'frikaans, since April, 1920. The information it gives is, for the most part, official, and therefore of a nature not otherwise readily accessible to the farmer. It is not designed to be a magazine of light agricultural literature, nor is it meant to share the functions of the excellent agricultviral Press of the Union. The Journal is the record of the work of the Department and gives its views on current questions. It is not peculiar to South Africa that the farming community as a whole is not given tO' reading agricultural literature, but it is, nevertheless, regrettable that so few of our 80,000 farmers have taken the opportunity of keeping in touch with the Department through its chief medium — the Journal. Farmers to-day show clearly that they appreciate and need the services of the Dei)artment's officers, yet the Journal, which contains the considered advice of these officers, and in a country of great distances is one of tlie chief means of bringing such advice to the door of the farmer, does not at present find its way to every homestead. From a departmental point of view, experience has shown the need of an official publication like the Journal; it is an essential apparently in other civilized countries. There are farmers who strive to excel and know that their enterprise is best aided by sedulous vstudy of the department's findings and advice; to such the Journal is a prized publication. But a great many, unmindful seemingly of the need that always exists for im- proving farming methods, neglect a potent means of bettering them- selves. It seems, however, that it is rather with the coming- generation of farmers that a greater appreciation of the value of a sound reading habit may be expected. And recognizing the importance of agricul- ture to the country, it is clear that in the education of those who will eventually take up farming, the Journal with its wealth of agricul- tural information, the result largely of original research under South African conditions, should serve a most useful purpose and be in the hands of all teachers concerned. Judging bj- the recurring inquiries of school teachers, it seems that many already make use of the Journal in their work ; were it made available to all its scope and usefulness would be greatly extended. The Agricultural Gazette of Canada, for instance, is employed in this manner. In connection with the circulation figures of the Journal, it should be noted that one of the causes of the comparatively small number of subscribers may be found in its free distribution to 3500 crop correspondents, in acknowledgment of their valuable and gratuitous services. Kep(jkt of the Depaktment of Agricultuee. 583 2. Circulafiov. — The number of subscribers to the Journal at tbe SOtli June. 1922, was: — English version, 2060; Afrikaans version, 310: total, 2370. The 'free mailing list (which in most cases includes also gratis copies of all departmental bulletins published) amounts to: — English, 4754; Afrikaans. 2092; total, 6846. 3. Revenue and Experidituie. — The total revenue received during the year ended 30th June, 1922, was £2251, comprised of subscrip- tions and sales and advertisements in the English edition. i\_dvertise- ments for the Afrikaans edition have not yet been obtained. The cost of printing the Journal during this period (twelve issues) was: — English, £4087; Afrikaans, £1825; total, £5912. This amouiited to ll'7d. per copy for ilie English. ,ind 23' Id. for the Afrikaans; against this the subscription is 5s. per annum, or 6d. per copj'. 4. Other Publications. — A large number of departmental bulle- tins (iibout 230) covering a wide range of subjects is available to the public, some being priced and the others issued free of charge. Tlie number of bulletins issued during the year amounted to 22,317, and the revenue received for the priced ones was £81. 13s. Id. The following- bulletins were added to the list during the course of the yeai' : — ^o. 2/1921. The Organization and Conduct of Poultry Shows and Clubs. No. 3/1921. Export of Meat. No. 4/1921. The Destruction of Rodents. No. 5/1921. Pruning of Deciduous Fruit Trees. No. 1/1922. Investigations on Export Citrus Fruit from South Africa during 1921. No. 2/1922. Pear Scab in the Western Province. No. 3/1922. Export of Citrus Fruits. 584 Journal or the Department or Agriculture. — Dec, 1922» Report No. XVIII. LIBRARY OF AGRICULTURE. Librarian : D. S. van Warmelo. The catalogue of the collection of books in the central library and the various divisional libraries, completed last year, was not printed as intended, the cost being prohibitive. This is a drawback to the lending" part of the library. The requirements of the subscribers are, however, partly met by a stencilled list of the more useful works contained in the central library and by a printed table of the more important subjects dealt with in our collection of books : a list of the principal accessions to the library is also published in the Journal from time to time. The total number of subscribers was 265, as against 243 the year before, but, as the library is open to the public during office hours, and as many non-subscribers, e.g. civil servants, professors, etc., avail themselves of the opportunity offered, the total number of readers may be put at a conservative estimate of 550. The accessions to the central library and the Divisions in the form of complete works amounted to over 600, whilst in addition many thousands of serials (journals, reports, annuals, bulletins, etc.), were received in exchange, gratis, or as on standing order. The library's expenditure on publications during the period under review was £754. In October, 1921, Mr. Paul Eibbink, who had done much in building up this library, resigned to take up the post of Librarian of the Library of Parliament, Capetown, and was succeeded by the present incumbent on the 21st November. In March and April, 1922, the Division of Veterinary Education and Pesearch and all the Schools of Agriculture were decentralized from the central library as regards their supply of books. The library is, therefore, no longer the medium through which publications are ordered for these Institutions. IIkpokt of thk Dkpartme.nt of Agriculture. 5S5 THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Abridged List of Staff. ADMINISTRATION (Union Buildings, Pretoria). Secretary for Aoriculture Under-Secretary for Agriculture Chief Clerk ! Accountant 1'. .1. (Ill Toit. G. N. Williams, D.S.O. F. W. Green. W. H. L. P'riedrichs. DIVISIONS. Veterinary. Principal Veterinary Surgeon J. I). Borthwick. M.U.C.V.S. Assistant Principal Veterinary Surgeon ... R. W. Dixon, M.R.C.V.S. Senior Veterinary Surgeon. Pretoria... ... F. Hutchinson, M.R.C.V.S. Senior Veterinary Surgeon, Capetown ... I. Spreull, F.R.C.V.S. Senior Veterinary Surgeon, Pietermaritzburg W. Power. M.R.C.V.S. Senior Veterinary Surgeon, Bloemfontcin ... A. Grist. M.R.C.V.S. Senior Veterinary Surgeon, Umtata... ... (i. VV. Freer. M.fi.C.V.S. Veterinary Education and Research. Director of Veterinary Education and Sir Arnold Theiler, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, etc. Research and Dean of the Faculty of Veterinary Science Deputy Director of Veterinary Education P. .J. du Toit. B.A., Ph.D., ]»r Med.Vet. and Research and Profes.^or of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases Sub-Director of Veterinary Education and H. H. Greeu, D Sc. Research and Professor in Biochemistry Sub-Director of Veterinary Education and P. R. ViljDen. Dr.Med Vet. (Berne). M.R.C.V.S. Research and Professor in Applied Re- search Senior Research Officer and Professor in W. H. Andrews, D.Sc, il.R.C.V.S. Physiology Senior Research Officer and Professor in G. v. d. \\". de Kock. M.R.C.V.S. Veterinary Anatomy Research Officer and Lecturer in Veterinary C. P. Xeser, B.A.. D.Sc, M.R.C.V.S. Medicine Research Officers G. A. H. Bedford. F.E.S. : P. J. van Zyl, B.A., Ph.D. : W. W. Henuinu. M.R.C.V.S. : P. J. J. Fourie. M.R.C.V.S. : M. W. Sheppard, ,. . ■■ B.Sc. M.R.C.A^S. : W. Steck, Dr.Med.Vet. (on contract) ; H. 0. Monnig, B.A., Ph.D. Officer in Charge Anii(}e(hrl(ikft' Lahoratonj. ... Dr. F. VcgHa. Allertox L((h(iratorii, iiiuir I'lptPniiartt -Jivrij. Officer in Charge Research Officer (pn contract) E. M. Robinson. Dj-.Med.Vet.. M.R.C.V.S. J. Scheuber, Dr.Med.Vet. 586 Journal of the Department of Agriculture. — Dec, 1922. Xagaiia HeM'.arch Ldhoraforij, luuir Empaiigciu, Ziihihi nd Officer in Charge ... H. H. Cursoii, M.R.C.Y.S. Officerx Af/.sent on Spec'ud Duty In Evrope. D. T. Mitchell. M.R.C.V.S. ; .J. B. Quinlan, M.R.C.Y.S. ; A. 0. D. , B.A. Sheep and Wool. Chief Assistant Chiel... Principal Sheep Inspector Principal Sheep Inspector Principal Sheep and Wool Expert Senior Sheej) and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Exjiert Sheep and Wool Expert Sheep and Wool Expert Shee}) and Wool Expert B. u. L. Enslin. D.S.O. J. F. Jordaan. D.S.O. W. Y. T. Cronwright. 0. C. Weeber. A. G. Michaelian. J. .]. McCall. Grahanistowii. L, VMsser. Capetown. D. H. Mellet, Middelburg, Cape. y . T. LoxtoD. Durban. F. Stow, Bloemfoutein. W. S. van Heerden, Potchefstroom. J. H. Kruger, Pretoria. T. P. V. d. Walt. Wepener. A. M. la Grange, Aliwal North. B. Hartigan, Victoria West. A. van Zyl. Kimberley. Entomology . Chief C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc. Assistant Chief... ... ... ... ... Claude Fuller. Senior Entomologist, Cape ... ... ... C. W. Mally. M.Sc, P^E-S.. Capetown. Government Entomologist and Plant In- ('. P. v. d. Merwe, Durban. spector, Natal Government Entomologist and Plant In- D. Gunn. Port Elizabeth. spector. Eastern Province Government Entomologist and Plant In- H. K. Munro. B.Sc. East London. spector. Border Government Entomologist and Plant In- G. C. Haines. Pretoria. spector, Transvaal Chief Locust Officer ... ... ... ... R. H. Williams. Pretoria. Senior Locust Officer ... ... ... ... F. L. Thomsen, Pretoria. Tsetse-Fiji J/trextigtitio/i. Empcingeiil., Zulnland, Assistant Entomolo•) 15 (tO 23 id) 9 7 13 9 7 2 30 6 2 No. 4 4 2 2 4 Total 280 1,039 16 AGRICaTLTUR^ Head Office Schools — Elsenburg Grootfontein Potchefstroom Cedara Glen u. Educatiox. 9 22 27 24 17 21 2 15 15 16 10 11 Total 120 69 ' — Trainiiuj Farms — Beginsel Indwe — 5 6 — ■ ^ - Total — 11 — Grand Total 400 1,119 16 {a^ Including Dipping Inspectors. (]>') Including Sheep Inspectors, (f) Exclusive of Locust Officers. {d) Exclusive of 20 Citrus Canker Inspectors. ( l^ , 1 ; s ' f ^ it * I 1 1 I \' < ' ' ;* r^t