[Supplement to The Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria, joth January, IQ^^-] THE JOURISrAL OF THE DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE VICTORIA, Australia. VOLUME VIII. 1910. 18456. '■^. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF vVGRICULTURE OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. PUBLISHKD FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT BY DIRECTION OF THE HON. GEORGE GRAHAM, M.L.A., Minister for Agriculture. LIBRARY VOLUME Yin. NEW YORK 1910. BOTANICAL QAKL>BN. ^. T. SHARP. Editor, §5 3luth0rit]o: J. KEMP, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE. 1910. A 2 '0^-^^ COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to. republish any matter are at liberty to do so, -provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single Copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; III. (1905); 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 1905), out of print; IV. (1906), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 7 (July, 1906), out of print; V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each; VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print; and VIII. (1910), 12 parts, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the fore- going rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. volume: YIII. Parts 1—12. LIBRARY NEW \ijiiK BOTANLCAL QAK,tL»EIN. I N Diux:. Abortion in Cows ... Actinomycosis Adcock, G. H. — Educational Facilities at the Rutherglen Viticultural College Erinose of the Vine Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard at the Rutherglen Viticultural College Advantages of Subdivision of Es- tates Afterbirth, Removing Agricultural Education — Burnley School of Horticulture ... Educational Facilities at the Viti- cultural College in France Grant to Agricultural Societies ... Agricultural Societies, Grant to Agriculture, Limiting Factors in Ailments — • Abortion in Cows Actinomycosis Affected Quarter Bee Mortality in the Stawell D trict ... Blackleg Blindness Broken Wind Colic Congestion of the Lungs Pleurisy (Mare) Death of Rams Death of Young Pigs ... Discharge from Nostrils Fatty Disease of the Liver Pregnant Ewes Fluke Foul Brood Foul Sheath Founder Grease Impaction ... ... 22-, Inflammation of the Bowels Injury to Bull ... Malignant Sore Throat ... Mammitis Paralysis Poultry Diseases and Pests ... Ruptured Penis Scours ... Stiffness in Lambs' Hindquarters Stomach Worms 547 125. 227, and 124, 351^ 610, 559 81^ -203 306 133 73S 41 635 229 229 353 559 812 812 149 22J 811 610 546 124 738 351 546 632 641 809 547 125 546 676 610 125 676 148 812 23 676 484 676 351 547 Pa«e 610 484 226 547 484 676 801 789 742 181 228 190, Sii Ailments — continued. .Strangles Swollen Hock ... T}'mpanitis LTlcers on Jaw of Sheep Warts on Horse's Nose ... Weed ... Analyses — Arsenate of Lead ... 672, Manure i to, 219, 327, 443, 519, 644, Soil ... ... 313, 681, 713, Timber Water ... Answers to (Correspondents 64, 124, 226, 35r, 482, 545, 609, 675, 737; Ants — Black ... ... ... ... 127 Destroying ... ... ... 589 White, Potatoes attacked by ... 228 Apiculture — Advantages of Good Combs in the Production of Honey ... ... 616 Bee Mortality in the Stawell Dis- trict ... 58, 149 Checking and Controlling Swarm- ing ... ... ... ••• 566 Destruction of Combs by Wax Moth LarviE ... ... ... 482 Foul Brood of Bees ... ... 809 Nuclei for Mating Queen Bees ... 695 Position of, amongst the Rural In- dustries ... ■•• ■■•613 Production and Marketing of Bees- wax ... ... •■• •■■ 85 Rearing of Queen Bees ... ... 368 Apple- Bitter Pit and the Enzymes of the 805 Bitter Pit of the •■• 201 Black Spot of the ... ■•■ 64 Apples — Feeding, to Cows ..■ ■•• 610 Vinegar from ... ... ••• 15' Apple Trees — Laterals of ... ..• ••• 321 Variegation of Foliage of ... 64 Archer, R. T. — - Building Hints for Settlers — Portable Tramways for Fajm Work ... ' ... •• '06 Arsenate of Lead, Analyses of Samples ... ... 672, 801 Artificial Manures (see Manures). Index. Pagp Asparagus ... ... ... 217 Bacchus Marsh Farm Competition 144 Bacon Curing ... ... 192, 226 Bacteria, Tests with Cultures of Root- tubercle ... ... ... 98 Barley, An Abnormal Six-rowed ... i7r Bartsia, Common ... ... ... 125 Bathurst Burr ... ... ... 546 Becher, A. V. — Bacchus Marsh Farm Competition 144 Dairy Herd Competitions (Natha- lia and Numurkah) ... ... 95 Bees (see Apiculture). Bermuda Pig Root ... ... 735 Berwick Fodder Crop Competition ... 214 Beuhne, R. — Advantages of fiood Combs in the Production of Honey ... ... 616 Bee Mortality ... ... ... 149 (Jhecking and Controlling Swarm- ing ... ... ... ... 566 Foul Brood of Bees ... ... 809 Nuclei for Mating Queen Bees ... 695 Position of Apiculture amongst the Rural Industries ... ... 613 Production and Marketing of Beeswax ... ... ... 85 Rearing of Queen Bees ... ... 368 Beuhne, R., and Willgerodt, O. — A Disease affecting European and Victorian Bees ... ... 62 Billis, R. v.— Supply of Butter Boxes ... 173 Birds- Bronze Cuckoo ... ... ... 186 Birdsfoot Trigonel ... ... (p Bitter Pit— of the Aiijde ... ... ... 201 and the Knzymes of the Apj)le ... 805 Blackberry, Eradication of 483, 739 Blackburne, J., and Crooke, A. W.— Tree Planting for the Beautifying of Cities and Towns ... ■■ 421 Blackleg ... ... ... 227 Black Split ... ... 64, 607 Blairgowrie Dairy Farm ... ... 457 Blindness — in Filly ... ... ... 811 in Sheep ... ... ... 125 Bluestone Treatment (Wheat) ... ^1 Bone-chewing Habit ... ... Sii Booth, R. T. (Meeking, E., and)— Fruit Export Trade to the United Kingdom and Europe ... ... 520 Bordeaux — Lime Water ... ... ... 728 Mixture ... ... 607, 673, 728 Paste ... ... ... ... 607 Boring — Removing Casing ... ... 484 W^ater ... ... ... ... 484 Bower, A. — Drainage ... ... ... 640 Broken Wind ... ... ... 610 Bronze Cuckoo ... ... ... 186 Page Brown, A. A. — Tick Fever in Fowls ... ... 96 Bryobia ... 83, 216, 325, 406, 477, 544 Buckwheat ... ... ... 738 Budd, H. W.— Sulla Clover ... ... ... 800 Budding ... ... 38, 82 Bugs, Bed ... ... ... 590 Building Hints for Settlers — VI. Three-roomed Cottage ... 32 VII. Portable Tramways for Farm Work ... ... 106 VIII. Wire-netted Fencing ... 207 IX. Farm Plumbing — Selection of Tools ... ... 526 X. Sheep Dips ... ... 5:50 XI. Farm Plumbing — Odd Jobs 583 XII. Farm Sanitation ... ... 648 XIII. Concrete Fencing Posts ... 706 XIV. Mallee Roller ... ... 780 Buildings — ■ Bacon Curing ... ... ... 226 Fowl Houses ... ... ... 6 Hay Shed ... ... ... 484 Milking and Shelter Shed ... 513 Roof Coverings ... ... 484 Silos ... ... 108, 120, 192, 213 (See also under Building Hints.) Bull, Injury to ... ... ... 125 Burnley — Egg-laying Competition Rules ... 736 Fruit Trees grown at School of Horticulture ... ... ... 409 School of Horticulture and Small Farming Butter- Boxes Export Trade, 1909-10 Calves — Blackleg ... 227 Dehorning ... ... ... 812 Food for ... ... ... 191 Cameron, S. S.— Hereditary Unsoundness in Horses 328 Stud Horse Industry ... ... 485 Third Annual Report, Government Certification of Stallions ... 233 Cape Weed ... ... ... 675 Caponizing Turkeys ... ... 192 Carbide ... ... ... 483 Carmody, P. J. — Prospects of the Coming l-'ruit Crop ... ... .•■ 7^3 Castella, F. de- Chestnut, The ... ... 656 Cork Industry in Portugal ... 376 Spring Frosts ... ■. •.• 597 Vinegar from Apples ... ... iS' Wine Industry in Southern Europe 65, 220, 311, 470, 664, 753 Castor Oil Plant ... ... .-• 226 41 '7Z' 453 ... 444 Iitdex^ Cattle— Actinomycosis Bone-chewing Habit Dairying with Pure Stock Dairy Value in Show Stock Lice Lick Tympanitis Celery Chamber of Agriculture, Eighth Con- yention — Abortion in Cows Handling Grain in Bulk Position of Apiculture amongst the Rural Industries Stud Horse Industry Cheese Exports Cherry Slug ... ... 727 Chestnut ... Chicken Po.x Chicory Chou Moellier Citrus Trees — Culture Fumigation Pruning Raising Orange Trees from Seed Cloonan, P. F. — Rape Fallow versits Bare Fallow Closer Settlement Studies — I. Nine Acres carrying Twelve Head of Stock II. A Metropolitan Dairy Farm ... Clothes Moths Clover — Burr ... Clustered Strawberry Subterranean Sulla Cockroaches Codlin Moth 38, • •■ 125, 483, ii, 161, 216, 324, Colic Competitions — Bacchus Marsh Farm Berwick Fodder Crop Burnley Egg-laying Dimboola Crop Echuca Dairy Herd Elmore Crop Euroa Farm Jeparit Farm ... Lang Lang Fodder Crop Mansfield Farm Murchison Crop Nathalia Dairy Herd Numurkah Dairy Herd ... Pelluebla Crop Rochester Crop St. Arnaud Farm Swan Hill Crop Swan Hill Farm Milking Tungamah Crop Concrete — Fencing Posts ... Silos 812 811 554 703 64 547 226 83 559 549 613 485 454 803 656 25 483 418 546 82 190 738 iiq 372 619 737 126 126 812 Soo =:88 673, 803 546 144 214 736 93 795 93 91 91 302 91 92 95 95 93 93 91 92 792 93 706 609 Congestion of the Lungs (Mare) Connor, J. M. B.^ Chou Moellier Closer Settlement Studies— A Metropolitan Dairy Farm Nine Acres carrying Twe Head of Stock Maize Crop in the Wimmera, Pioneer Successful Dairy Farmer, A Winter Crops for the Silo Cool Storage of IVuit Cork Industry in Portugal Cottage, Three-roomed Cows — Abortion Affected Quarter Afterbirth, Removing Feeding Apples to Impaction Mammitis Parturient Paralysis Pregnancy Ration for Dairy Crooke, A. W., and Blackburne, J. — Tree Planting for the Beautifying of Cities and Towns ... Crowe, R. — Exports and Deliveries of Perish- able and Frozen Produce 128, 6x2 Review of the Dairying Season and Butter Export Trade Crowfoot, Soft Cii-pressus Lambertiana horizontalis Dairying — Advantages of Subdivision of Es- tates Butter Boxes, Supply of Calves, Food for Closer Settlement Studies Cow, A Deceptive Dairy Herd Competitions Dairy Value in Show Stock in the Glenelg Shire Labour-saving Contrivance, A Maize for Fodder with Pure Stock Season 1909-10, Review of the Sensible and Profitable Dairy Farming Successful Dairy Farmer, A Swan Hill Farm Milking Test ... in the Winehelsea Shire Winter Crops for the Silo Dehorning Calves Dimboola Crop Competition Diphtheric Roup ... Dipping Sheep ... 52 Dips, Sheep Diseases of Animals (see Ailments Dodder Drainage ... DredgfinsT Page 124 418 619 ;lve A 372 299 512 54 3Q 376 Z^ 547. 559 812 738 610 125, 676 148 812 226, 547 547 3; 95^ 421 420, 740 444 737 546 133 173 191 619 148 795 703 626 610 385 554 444 455 512 792 465 54 812 93 76 540, 628, 788 •■• 530 737 640 503 Index. Dudderidge, T.^ Spraying Dwarf Fruit Trees for Small Gar- dens Echuca — Dairy Herd Competition District, Summer Fodder Crops for Education (see Agricultural Educa- tion.) I'.el-worm — Onion ... Potato ... ... S7, 360, 50.S, I-^ggs— Eating ... Handling of Laving Competition Rules Preserving (See also under Poultry.) Elevators — • Handling Grain in Bulk... Elmore Crop Competition English Leicester Sheep Erinose of the Vine ... 203. Euroa Farm Comjietition ... Ewart, A. J.— An Abnormal Six-rowed Barley ... Influence of Stubble Burning on the Fertility of the Soil Limiting Factors in Agriculture ... New Pasture Plant for Victoria, A Ovens River Valley, The Prickly Pear ..." Slugs anil Snails Spread of Weeds and of Plant Diseases Tests with Cultures of Root- tubercle Bacteria Wild "Grasses" for Weaving ... Ewart, A. J., and Rees, B. — Seed Tests Testing Lucerne Seed E.xperimental Fields — Potatoes Tests with Cultures of tubercle Bacteria Wheat Export Statistics — Fruit, Plants, Bulb Pagre 64.2 403 795 67 ^ X63 570 29 62 s 736 3 549 03 784 642 MI 646 353 90 503 188 S07 689 98 694 774 59^ 570, Root- 129, 98 273 Perishable and Grain, &c. 128, 420, 612 Frozen Produce Export Trade — Butter Cheese Fruit Lamb Fallot, B.— Home-made Vinegar Fallow, Rape versus Bare Farm Equipment — Labour-saving Contrivance, A Lucerne Hav Cart Mallee Roller ... (See also under Implements.) Farrer Memorial Fund Feather-eatln"! 740 420, 612, 740 444 454 ;20 787 no 610 40S 7S0 121. 29 372. 214, 54. Fencing — Concrete Posts ... Divisional ... ... 64, Wire Netted Fertilizers (see Manures). Fish and Game, Protection of Fisher, A. W. — Mai/e and I.iuerne in the Western District Fleas ... ... ... 2-. Flies- House ... Vinegar Flowers — Burnley School of Horticulture ... Monthly Notes 40, 83, 161, 217. 407, 470, 545, 608, 674, 727, Slugs and Snails Fluke Fodder- Apples, Feeding to Cows Buckwheat for Calves Castor Oil Plant Chou Moellier Closer Settlement Studies Crop Competitions ... qi Crops, Echuca District ... Crops for the Silo Crops, Swan Hill District Fattening Pig for Show Purposes 'aicerne Growing ... 182,227 Maize for ... 126, 348, 385, Malt Combings ... Mangolds Millet, Poisonous Qualities of Mouse-proof Stack Site ... Nitrogen Free Extract .. Oatmeal Branning Prickly Pear Pumpkins for Stock Feeding Rape Cultivation Ration for Dairy Cows Ration for Trotting Pony Relative Values of, grown on Rich and on Poor Land Rye . . ... 126, Seed Tests ... .. 592, Sensible and Profitable Dair\ing... Stack Cover Successful Dairy Farmer, A Sulla Clover ... ... 47 Tree Lucerne Forestry — Butter Boxes, Supply of Chestnut Cork Industry in Portugal Cupressus Lambertiana horizontalis Killing Trees with Arsenic Nature and Uses of Hard Seeds ... Pines of Australia, A Research on the ... Pine Trees, Death of Shelter Belts Tree Lucerne Tree Planting for the Beautifying of Cities and Towns ... 706 484 207 595 348 590 480 591 41 p6, 804 S07 641 610 738 IQI 226 41 s 619 302 675 .546 t)75 609 ,348 676 610 35» iql 675 352 610 188 738 227 547 547 676 , 6og . 774 455 191 '^12 , 800 228 173 656 376 546 191 770 671 351 474 228 421 Irvhx. Formalin Treatment (Wheat) ... 53 Foul Brood of Bees ... .-■ 8oq Foul Sheath ... ... ... 547 Founder ... ... ... ... 12; France, Wine Industry in Southern 65, 220, 311, 470, 664, 753 French Be.ins ... ... ... 228 French, C, Junr. — Bronze Cuckoo ... ... 186 Household Insect Pests ... 480, 588 T/omato Moth ... ... ... 50 Frosts, Spring ... ... ... 597 Fruit- Crop Prospects ... ... ... 723 Export and Import Statistics 128, 420 612, 740 Export Trade to the United King- dom and Europe ... ... 520 Marketing and E.xport of, Laws relating to ... ... ... 193 Fruit Trees- grown at Burnley .School of Horticulture ... ... ... 409 Citrus Trees ... ... 190, 546 Dwarf, for Small Gardens ... 403 Laterals of Apple Trees ... 321 Number per Acre ... ... 67; Orchard Notes 37, 81, 159, 215, 324, 405, 477> 544' 605, 673, 726, 803 Spring P rosts ... ... ... 597 Variegation of Foliage of Apple Trees ... ... ... 64 Varieties for Caniambo, Drouin, and Yarragon Districts (See also under Orchard.) Fumigation Fumitory ... Fungus, The Genuine Locust Fungus Diseases- American Corn Smut Black Spot ... ... 64, Chestnut Irish Blight, Testing Potato Varieties for ... Irish Blight in Tomatoes Leaf Curl Leaf Rust Rust in Wheat ... Shothole, or Scab Smut of Maize ... Spread of Plant Diseases Stinking Smut of Wheat Furniture Beetles ... Game, Protection of Fish and Gapes Garlic Gates Gemmell, T. — Home-made Silo Gilruth, J. A.— Abortion in Cows Fatty Disease of the Liver in Pregnant Ewes Glenelg Shire, Dairying in the Government Cool Stores, Deliveries from ... ... 128, 420, 612, Grafting .. 351 82 738 434 298 607 662 .. 48 607 . . . 607 ,:. 284 ,.. 607 ... 290 ... 689 533 284 .. 591 • ■ 58 s .. 26 ■•• 545 210 213 559 626 740 607 Graham, G. — Purch.isc of Superphosphate Grain, Handling in Bulk ... Grant to Agricultural Societies Grapes — " Vin Ordinaire" Varieties of ... (.See also under Viticulture). Grasses, Wild, for Weaving Grease Ham, H. W.— English Leicester Sheep Export Lambs ... Sheep Dipping ... 32, ,40. Hatton, J. C.— Victorian Register of Veterinary Surgeons, 1910 Hawkins, H. V.— Handling of Eggs Poultry Farming on Small Hold- ings ... Hawthorn Hedge ... Hay- Cart, Lucerne Shed ... Heat Apoplexy Hedge Plants — Cufressus Lambirtiana hcri^ontaU^ Hawthorn for Poultry Run Shelter Belts Hey wood District, Maize for Hoary Cress Holmes, E. S. — " Scab " and Eel-worm in Po*:itoe< Honey (see Apiculture). Horses — Afterbirth, Removing Blindness Broken Wind Colic ... ... ... 227, Congestion of the Lungs and Pleurisv Death of Mares... Disch.irge from Nostrils Foul Sheath Founder Government Certification of Stal- lions ... Grease Hair in Mane and Tail, Improving Growth of Hereditary Unsoundness in Inflammation of Bowels... Paralysis Pawing Ration for Trotting Pony Rubbing against Stumps... Ruptured Penis ... Scours Stomach Worms Strangles ... ... :;47, Stud Horse Industry Swollen Hock ... Warts ... Weed ... Household Insect Pests .. 4S0, 118 549 229 22S 694 546 784 787 628 401 62; 408 484 26 ;46 r27 546 474 676 737 570 738 811 610 546 124 676 546 >47 125 233 546 328 610 610 226 547 484 676 484 351 610 485 484 484 676 Index. Hunt, H. A.— Australian Meteorology and Weather Forecasting, Some Notes on Rainfall in Victoria 127, 419, 548, Identification of Plants 125, 228, 483, Impaction ... ... 227, 351 Implements — Grading ... ... 1S5 Subsoiling Plough ... 467 Import Statistics — Fruit, Plants, Bulbs Page 709 739 737 ,676 , 684 , 760 &c. 612, , Grain, 128, 420 Inflammation of the Bowels Insecticide, Converting Pyrethrum into Insectivorous Birds of Victoria — Bronze Cuckoo ... Insect Pests — Ants ... ... ... 127, 228 Bryobia 83, 216, 325, 406, 477, Chafer Grub in Strawberries Cherry Slug ... ... 727. Codiin Moth 38, 82, 161, 216, 324, 726, Erinose of the Vine ... 203 Household Onion Eel-worm Peach Aphis 216, Phylloxera Pig Lice Potato Eel -worm Poultry San Jose Scale ... Root Borer Tomato Moth Woolly Aphis Irish Blight- Testing Potato Varieties for in Tomatoes Irrigation Deep Working of Soils of Lucerne Maize Crop in the Wimmera, Pioneer Water for Jeparit Farm Competition ... Kenyon, A. S. — Building Hints for Settlers — Mallee Roller... Sheep Dips Three-roomed Cottage W^ire Netted Fencing Pump and Water Measurement Subsoiling Kerr, J. M. — ■ Dairying in the Winchelsea Shire Kitchen Garden (See Vegetables). Knap-weed Laidlaw, W. — - Potato Eel-worm ... 87 Laidlaw, W. , and Price, C. A. — Onion Eel-worm Sterilization of Soils 480, 325, 478, 607, 87, 360, S08, 38, 216, 325, 406, 677 A )40 610 191 186 589 544 609 803 673, 803 642 588 163 674 643 812 .570 23 161 674 50 477 358 48 762 7^8 299 352 91 780 530 32 207 568 467 465 483 50S 163 365 Papre Lambs — Export ... ... ... 787 Stiffness in Hindquarters ... 676 (See also under Sheep.) Lang Lang Fodder Crop Competition 302 Lawson, H. T. — Silo Building on the Farm ... 120 Leaf — Curl ... ... ... ... 607 Rust ... ... ... ... 607 Lee, F. E.— Farm and Crop Competitions ... 91 Results of Continuous Wheat Ex- periments ... ... ... 129 Legislation — • Marketing and Export of Fruit, Plants, &c. Protection of Fish and Game Sheep Dipping ... Levelling ... 685, Lice — • Cow Pig Poultry Lichen on Fruit Trees Lick- Cattle Sheep Lime Dressings ... ... 64, Lime-water Bordeaux for Spraying Limiting F'actors in Agriculture Locust Fungus, The Genuine Loganberry Lucerne- Growing Hay Cart Irrigation of Seed, Testing Tree in the Western District ... McAlpine, D. — Bitter Pit of the Apple . ... Irish Blight in Tomatoes Irish Blight, Testing Potato Varie- ties for Lime-water Bordeaux for Spraying Locust Fungus, The Genuine Potatoes and Tomatoes on the Same Plant ... Rust and Smut Resistance in Wheat, and Smut Experiments ments with Oats and Maize Smut of Maize and its Treatment Stinking .Smut of Wheat, Treat- ment of" Macdonald, L. — Tomato-growing in the North ... 698 McFadzean, J. S.- — Advantages of Subdivision of Estates ... ... ... 133 Berwick Fodder Crop Competition 214 Dairy Value in Show Stock ... 703 Echuca Dairy Herd Competition ... 795 Lang Lang Fodder Crop Competi- tion ... ... ... 302 193 59"; 788 762 64 S12 28 738 547 610 227 728 353 434 79 227 408 182 592 228 34S 48 358 728 434 205 290 53 Index. XI McFadzean, J. S. — continued. Maize for Fodder in the Lilydale District Rare Profits from Sows Sensible and Profitable Dairy Farming Soils, A Note on the Working of McRobert, W. G.— Handling Grain in Bu'.k Maize- Crop in the Wimmera Cultivation for Echuca District for Fodder. Last Season's Results — I. In the Ballarat District ... II. In the Lilydale District ... III. In the \arra Glen District for Heywood District Lang Lang Fodder Crop Competi- tion Limiting Factors in Agriculture ... Smut of, and its Treatment in the Western District Mallee Roller Malt Combings Mammitis ... .•■ 125, Mangolds Mansfield Farm Competition Manures — Analyses no, 219, 327, 443, 519, 644, Burning of Crop, Manuring after Carbide Green Lime Dressings Orchard Phosphoric Acid Potato ... Poultry Seaweed as a Fertilizer . Soil Improvers ... Superphosphate, Purchase of Unit Values for 1910 ... no, Mead, E. — - Irrigation of Lucerne Meeking, F., and Booth, R. T.— Fruit Export Trade to the United Kingdom and Europe ... Merian's Bugle Lily Meteorology — • Australian, and Weather Forecast- ing ... Climate at Montpellier ... Rainfall in Victoria 127, 419, 548, Spring Frosts ... Milk— for Pigs ... Preservation Winter, Payment for Milking — Machines Tests, Farm Millet, Poisonous Qualities of Montpellier School Mosquitoes Mouse-proof Stack Site 158, 64, 388 400 455 122 549 299 126 675 385 388 397 676 302 351 290 348 780 610 148 351 91 789 126 483 609 227 606 483 6og 3 352 547 n8 520 735 769 316 739 597 226 453 451 450 792 191 223 Glenelg 626 ... ib3 ... 227 Chafer Grub Citrus Trees Codlin Moth Murchison Crop Competition Musk Erodium Nathalia Dairy Herd Competition ... Neilson, A. S. — Dwarf Fruit Trees for Small Gardens Nitragin ... Nitro-culture Nitrogen Free Extract Numurkah Dairy Herd Competition Oatmeal Branning Oats— " Abundance " Smut Experiments with ... O'Keefe, P. B.— Dairying in the Shire of Onion — Eel-worm Seed Orchard — Arsenate of Lead, Analyses of Bitter Pit Black Spot Bryobia S3, 216, 325, 406, 477 Burnley School of Horticulture 41, Cherry Slug ... ... 727, in Strawberries ... igo. 18. 82, 161, 673 . Drainage Dwarf Fruit Trees for Small Gar dens ... Grafting Tnter-crops in Laws relating to the and Export of Fruit Leaf Curl Leaf Rust Lichen on Fruit Trees Lime-water Bordeaux for Spraying Loganberry Monthly Notes 37, 81, 159, 2r5, 405, 477, 544, 605, 673. 726, Passion Fruit Peach Aphis Planting Prospects of Crop Pruning Root Borer San Jose Scale ... Shothole or Scab Spring Frosts Studies — I. Green Manuring ... II. Laterals of Apple Trees ... III. Shelter Belts Variegation of Foliage ... Vinegar from Apples Wonderberry ... ... 78 Woolly Aphis ... 38, 216, 325, 406 Ovens River Valley Pag-e 92 125 95 403 98 98 352 95 610 54 284 672, 201, 64, 546, 16, 726, Markelin" . 216, 325, 478, 607, 351. the Coming Fruit 407, 801 805 607 544 409 803 609 738 324- 803 406 403 607 191 193 607 607 738 728 79 .l24. 803 609 674 675 723 478 674 161 607 597 158 321 474 64 2r6 477 503 XII Index. ... 632 ... 610 ... 812 ... 734 126, 352 ... 609 ... 90 ••• 737 ... 126 IS2, 227, 348, 59^ 126, 352 126 ... 1^5, 483, 812 47, 800 ... 226 216, 325, 478, 674 Paralysis — - Ante-1'artum (Ewes) of Horse Parturient (Cow) Parsnip, Wilfl Paspaliiin Passion Fruit Pasture Plants — Birdsfoot Trigone! Burr Clover Clustered Clover Lucerne Paspaluni Strawberry Clover Subterranean Clover Sulla Clover Pawinf^, Pony Peach Aphis Pelluebla Crop Competition Pescott, E. E.— Burnley School of Horticulture and Small farming T^ist of the Fruif Trees grown .-it the School of Horticulture Loganberry, The Orchard and Garden Notes 37, 81, 215' 324. 405. 477' 544. 673, 726, Orchard Studies — Green Manuring Laterals of Apple Trees Shelter Belts ... Wonderberry, The Phosphoric Acid ... Phylloxera Pigs- Acorns as Feed ... Bacon Curing ... ... 192, Death of Young Fattening for .Show Purposes Lice Milk for Parturition, Delayed Rare Profits from Sows ... Pleurisy (Mare) ... Plumbing, Farm ... ... 526, !;83, Poison Plants, Reputed Portugal, Cork Industry in Potatoes^ " Carman '" Diseases, 1909-10, Experiments with Eel-worm ... 87, 360, 508. Experimental Fields, 1909-10 for Hey wood District for Longwarrv District ... Manuring Fields " Scab ' Testing Varieties for Irish Blight and Tomatoes on the Same Plant attacked by White Ants Poultry — Burnley T'-gg-laying Competition... Eggs, Handling Farming on Small Holdings Page 93 41 409 79 159. 605, 803 15S 321 474 78 4^3 643 380 226 124 609 812 226 .351 400 I2A 648 733 376 35^ 360 • 570 7" 609 483 6of) 570 158 20 1; 228 736 625 407' Poultry — continued. Hedge for Run Tick Fever in Fowls Turkeys, Caponizing Pregnancy — - Ascertaining Non Price, C. A.— Examination of Bees for Bacterial Disease Price, C. A. (Laidlaw, W., and)— Onion Eel-woi'm Sterilization of Soils Prickly Pear Pridham, J. T.— Experimental Work at Longerenong Agricultural College ... Value of Pedigree in Seed Wheat Pruning — ■ Citrus Trees Laterals of Apple Trees Trees Pumpkins for Stock Feeding Pump and Water Measurement Purification of Muddy Waters Pyrethrum, Converting, into Insecti- cide Rabbits — Destruction of Poisonous Qualities of Millet Rainfall in Victoria 127, 419, 548, Rape — Cultivation Fallow versus Bare Fallow Rees, Bertha- Nature and Uses of Hard Seeds... Rees, B. (Ewart, A. J., and) — Seed Tests Testing Lucerne Seed Reports — Competitions, 91, 95, 144, 214, 302, Dairying in the Glenelg Shire Dairying in the Winchelsea Shire Government Certification of Stallions " Scab " and Eel-worm in Potatoes Review — A Research on the Pines of Aus- tralia Rochester Crop Competition Roller, Mallee Roof Coverings Root Borer Ross, A. J.— Maize for Fodder in the Ballarat District Rotation of Crops Rothera, A. C. H.— Purification of Muddy Waters Reputed Poison Plants Roup Rust and Smut Resistance in Wheal Rutherglen Viticultural College — Educational Facilities at ... Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard, 1910 Page 546 96 192 226 547 58 163 365 273 553 190 321 478 73^ 568 437 191 739 191 739 227 119 774 592 792, 79- 626 465 233 570 671 93 780 484 674 385 644 437 733 25 635 306 Index. Hill 674 592, Rye- Fodder Value of Varieties of Ryland, E. A.— Deceptive Cow, A Farm Milking Tests — Swan Competition Labour-saving Contrivance, A Lucerne Hay Cart St. Arnaud Farm Competition St. John's Wort Sanitation, Farm San Jose Scale Scaly Leg Scott, P. R.— Analyses of Arsenate of Lead Analyses of Manures, no, 219, 327, 519, 644, Unit Values for 1910 no, 219, Scours Seaweed as a Fertilizer Seed — Lucerne, Testing Nature and Uses of Hard Onion Tests Tobacco Wheat, Value of Pedigree in Semmens, J. M. — Protection of Fish and Game Seymour, G. — Experiments with Potato Diseases Potato Experimental Fields Sheep- Blindness Death of Dipping ... Dipping Act Dips English Leicester Export Lambs Fatty Disease of the Liver in Preg nant Ewes Fluke ... Impaction Lick Rape Fallow versus Bare Fallow .. Shronshire-Merino Cross Stiffness in Lambs" Hindquarters.. Ulcers on Jaw Wool Industry, The Shelter Belts ' ... Shothole or Scab ... Silage, Crops for ... Silo- Building on the Farm Chaffcutter Concrete Floor of Halford Bros.' Home-made, A Silver Fish Sinclair, G. A. — Sulla C.'ot.'i 52, 540, 628, 54. 192, Page 126 609 14S 610 408 91 648 161 26 ,801 443- 78q 443 484 352 592 770 227 774 749 553 595 360 711 125 738 788 788 530 784 787 632 641 35^ 6io 119 351 676 547 524 474 607 546 192 609 192 108 213 591 47 53. 7'3, 7 168. Sledge, T. J.— Building Hints for Settlers- Concrete Fencing Posts Slugs and Snails ... Smith, T. A. J.— Tobacco Culture Smut — American Corn ... of Maize and its Treatment Stinking, of Wheat Smuts of Australia Snails and Slugs ... Soils — Analyses of, ... 313, 681, French Viticultural ... Improvers Influence of Stubble Burninc Fertility Sterilization of ... Working of, A Note on the S°"^l ■■• ... 228, 483, Spraying, 38, 82, 161, 324, 406, 477, 607, 642, 673, 726, 728, Stack- Cover Mouse-proof Site Stallions — • Government Certification of. Third Annual Report Hereditary Unsoundness in Horses List of Certificated Parades, iqio. Time Table of Stud Horse Industry Statistics — • Butter ... Cork Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c., 420, 612, Perishable and Frozen Produce, 420, 612, Poultry Rainfall ... 12- Tobacco . . Wine ... Sterilization of Soils Strangles Strawberries, Chafer Grub Stubble- Burning Ploughing in Stud Horse Industry Subdivision of Estates, Advantages of Pagre 706 S07 741 298 290 284 784 807 419. 548, 54; Subsoiling Subterranean Clover Sulla Clover Surgeons, Veterinary, Register of Swan Hill- Crop Competition Farm Milking Test Fodder Crops for Tank Catchment 467. 125, 483, .47. Victorian 742 3" 547 646 365 122 738 544, 803 191 675 233 328 245 241 485 445 377 128, 740 128, 740 I 739 741 68 36s 610 6og 646 227 485 133 753 812 800 401 92 792 675 484 Index: of Root-tubercle 592, Tests — with Cultures Bacteria Farm Milking ... Seed Thistles, Eradicating Tick- Fever in Fowls ... Fowl Sheep ... Timber (see Forestry) Tobacco — Culture Tree Tolley, G. H.— Irrigation Tomatoes — Growing in the North Irish Blight rn ... Moth ... and Potatoes on the Same Plant Tools, Plumbing, Selection of Tramways for Farm Work, Portable Trees (see forestry) Tungamah Crop Competition Turkeys, Caponizing Turner, E. J.— Dairying with Pure Stock Turner, J. — The Fluke Turner, J. G. — Imports and 792 774 352 96 28 52 741 735 677, 762 50 205 526 106 93 192 554 641 Exports of Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Fruit, 128, 612, Laws relating to the Marketing and Export of Fruit, Plants, &c. Tympanitis Unit Values for 1910 no, 219, Unsoundness in Horses ... 233, Vegetables — Asparagus Burnley School of Horticulture Celery ... French Beans Garlic ... Inter-crops in Orchard ... Irish Blight in Tomatoes Monthly Notes 40 83, 161, 216, 407» 479. 544. 608, 674, 727, Onion Eel-worm Onion Seed Peas for the Cohuna District Potato Eel-worm 87, 360, 508, Potato Experimental Fields, 1909-10 Potatoes for the Longwarry District Potatoes and Tomatoes on the Same Plant Slugs and Snails Tomato-growing in the North Tomato Moth Vermin Destruction ... 675, Veterinary Surgeons, Victorian Register of Vinegar — from Apples Flies Home-made 420, 740 193 226 443 328 217 41 83 228 545 191 48 325. 804 163 227 483 570 711 483 205 807 698 50 789 401 591 156 Viticulture — Educational Facilities at the Viti- cultural Colege Erinose of the Vine ... 203, Phylloxera Preliminary Preparation of Vine- yard Land Spring Frosts ... Vinegar, Home-made Vines grown at Burnley School of Horticulture ... " Vin Ordinaire" ... 71, Yield of Reconstructed Vineyard at the Viticultural College, igio Wine Industry in Southern France 65, 220, 311, 470, 664, Wade, J.— Phylloxera Walker, E.— Rotation of Crops Warts Water — Analysis of Boring Irrigation ... ... 532, 677, Measurement Purification of Muddy ... Tank Catchment Weather Forecasting, Australian Meteorology and Some Notes on.. Weed Weeds — Eathurst Burr Bartsia, Common Blackberry, ... ... 483, Cape Weed Dodder Fumitory Hoary Cress Knap-weed Musk Erodium ... ... Reputed Poison Plants ... St. 'John's Wort ... Seed Tests ... ... 592 Soft Crowfoot ... Sorrel ... ... ... 228, 483, Spread of Thistles Wheat- Buckwheat Crop Competitions Earliest Variety for Grain Experimental Work at Longere nong Agricultural College, 1909-10 Handling Grain in Bulk Improvement Committee Rape Fallow versus Bare Fallow Results of Continuous Experiments Rust and Smut Resistance in Seed, Value of Pedigree in Stinking Smut of William Farrer Memorial Fund White, Jean — Bitter Pit and the E'nzymes of the Apple ... ...' Page 635 642 643 753 597 156 41: 228 306 753 643 640 484 228 484 762 568 437 484 769 676 546 125 739 675 737 738 737 483 125 733 503 774 737 738 689 352 738 92 126 273 549 273 119 129 284 553 53 123 805 Index, Willgerodt, O. (Beuhne, R., and)— A Disease Affecting European and Victorian Bees Williamson, A. — Erinose of the Vine Willsniere Park Dairy Farm Winchelsea Shire, Dairying in the ... Wine (see Viticulture) Winter Crops for the Silo ... Wire Netted Fencing ... 207, Wonderberry ... ... 78 Wool Industry Pase 62 642 461 465 .S4 484 216 524 Woolly Aphis ... 38, 216 Worms — Onion Eel Potato Eel ... 87 Stomach Wright, C. H.— Building Hints for Settlers Farm Plumbing Farm Sanitation V'ounger, W. — Maize for Fodder Glen District' ... 3^5. 406, Pa;re 477 360, 508, 163 570 351 526, 583 648 the Yarra 397 Vol. \ill. POULTRY FARMING. Part 1. [Refristered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper,] EGG PRODUCTION.: ',^f^'%--;\<~: - — THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lO Jj^NTJJ^^^^, lOlO CONTENTS. PAOK, Poultry Farming on Small Hoklings ... ... ... H. V. Hawkins 1 Building Hints for Settlers — VI. Three -roomed Weatherboard Cottage ... ... .1. S. Kenyon .32 Orchard and Garden Notes .. ... ... ... E. E. Pescott 37 Burnley School of Horticulture and Small Farming ... ... E. E. Pescott 41 Sulla Clover ... ... ... ... ... ... G. A. Sinclair 47 Irish Blight in Tomatoes ... ... ... ... ... D. McAlpine 4S A New Fruit Pest —Tomato Moth ... ... ... ... C. French, junr. 50 Sheep Dipping ... ... ... ... ... ... H. W. Ham 52 Treatment of Stinking Smut of ^^'heat ... ... ... D. McAlpine 53 \Viuter Crops for the Silo . ... ... ... ...J. M. B. Connor 54 Bee Mortality in the Stavvell District — I. Examination of Bees for Bacterial Disease ... ... C. A. E. Pi-ice 58 II. A Disease afi'ecting European and Victorian J5ees a. Btuhne and 0. Willijerodt 62 ,'\ I iswerr, to Correspondents ... ... ... ... ... 64 Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Suljscrij)tion Rates inside front cover Publications issued l)y the Department of Agriculture ... inside front cover Agricultural Education in Victoria — Dookie Agricultural College ... ... ... ... inside hack cover Longerenong Agricultural College ... ... ... inside hack cover Burnley School of Agriculture and Small Farming .;. inside back cover Wyuna Irrigation Farm ... ... ... ... inside back cover Lectures on Agricultural Subjects, 1910 ... ... inside back cover Agricultural Classes, 1910 ... ... ... ... inside hack cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Artic-les in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknoivledgment is made. The Journal is issued montlily. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Cominonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; III. (1905), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 1905), out of print ; IV. ( 1906), V. (1907), VI. (1908), and VII. (1909), 12 parts each, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at tlie foregoing rates. A few bound copies of Volumes V. (1907) and VI. (1908) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume ; postage. Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should bs forwarded to the Secretar}' for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3s. per annum. Post free. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III., and IV. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage — Parts I. and II., 4d. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. Bj' D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia, By D. McAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, Sd. Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. By Professor A. J. Ewart, 2s. 6d. Postage, 5d. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d, ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, 9d. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and W^eekly). 6d. per dozen. When ordering, mention "Monthly" or "Weekly." THG JOURNAL libra:?y NEW YORK BOTANIC A 1 GARDEN. Tfie department of M^ncufture VICTORIA. Vol. VIII. Part 1. iOth January, 1910. o^ CO POULTRY FARMING OX SMALL HOLDINGS. H. T'. Haickiiis, Poultry Expert. The annual value of poultry products raised in the State in 1908 was estimated by the Government Statist at the excellent total of ^,^1,547.000. This, of course, includes not only the poultry and eggs sent to market, but also those consumed on the farms. These figures increased by ^47,000 over those for 1906, and were equal to more than one-half of the value of the aggregate output of the mining industry (;,^3, 03 1,000) for 1908. But there is room for expansion. Poultry -raisers do little more than supply the demand in the State. Indeed, they are not able yet to fully meet the requirements for eggs. In 1908, after deducting exports, there was a net importation into Victoria of 589.322 dozen eggs, valued at ^^22,631. from the other States. But these figures are trifling when compared with those for New South Wales anest kept centres, which is a further inducement. The writer is firmly convinced that some such systtm would add a stimulus to the industry, and it would not be long before Victoria stood out prominently as a large exporter of eggs. Egg Circles. Should the Government ac- cept the wi'iters recommenda- tion. I.e., that the time is ripe for the adoption of a system of forming egg-collecting circles, as is done in Denmark and quite recently in South Aus- tralia, the egg trade will be- come gigantic. In addition to supplying our own markets, we should, I feel confident, share in the Home market, which pays to foreign nations close upon £8,000,000 per annum for eggs. A photograph of one of the South Australian egg-circle cases is here reproduced. Buying Eggs by Weight. Much has been said of buying and disposing of eggs by Aveight. As far as selling to the consumer is concerned, the present method is far from satisfactory. No incentive is given the breeder tO' build up a flock of layers averaging 2J-0Z. eggs. At the time of writing, if-oz. eggs are fetching equal prices with tho.se J of an ounce heavier. lo Jan.. 1910.] Poidtry Farming on Small Holdings. .5 In Denmark, all eggs are bought from the farmers by weight, and sold bv the dozen in standardized grades ; some form of discrimination against small eggs is undoubtedly a part of the needed reform in buying eggs from the producer. This discrimination may be brought about by buying by weight, by docking all lots of eggs of less than a certain average weight, or culling out all eggs less than a given weight or size, and paying consider- ably lower prices for these culls. If this were done, we should see farmers weeding out the hens laying small eggs. The greatest handicap to the egg trade in Victoria is, in my opinion, the storekeeper with his custom of bartering merchandise for eggs. He reckons his profits on goods as more than his loss (if any) on eggs. Nc^ effort is made by the storekeeper to buy eggs on a quality basis or to induce his clients to impro\e their flocks. Preserving Eggs. The method of preserving eggs by means of waterglass is the most satisfactory process of keeping them for a few months. Waterglass is a cheap product that may be secured from any chemist or storekeeper. It is used in the proportion of one part of waterglass to ten parts water. The water should be well boiled, and afterwards cooled prior to mixing. One gallon of waterglass will be sufficient to pack 50 dozen eggs. Large tin cans, OT small barrels, may be used to advantage in packing the eggs. Eggs should, on no account, be stale; the fresher they are, the longer they will keep. Care should be taken to keep the eggs so preserved in a cool cellar or shed with an even temperature. When using preserved eggs for culinar\' purposes, it is lest to puncture the shells on the broad end, to remove the accurhulated gas. If this is not done, the egg is almost sure to crack when boiled. Agricultural Value of Poultry Manure. I have often wondered, when reading the results of egg-laying com- petitions, and balance-sheets furnished by agricultural students, why no mention was made of fowl manure. One is led to the conclusion that most poultry breeders either neglect gathering the manure daily, or else throw it into the rubbish heap. When it is remembered that each bird of 8 to 9 lbs. live weight drops nearly 52 lbs. of manure each year at night-time alone, and basing the average daily droppings at nearly 100 lbs. per bird per year, what must the value of this manure, wasted or trodden in yearly,, amount to in Victoria ? To get a fairly accurate idea of its value, I have had gathered daily the droppings from four pens, the size of each pen being 75 feet x 25 feet. In two of the pens there were eight birds, in the other two seven, short grass being in each pen. The result was as follows : — From the pens of eight birds, weighing 8 lbs. each, the manure was gathered and partially dried (seven days), the weight from each bird averaging (during day-time), \\ oz., and on dropping-board under perch (night-time), 2 ozs., or 46 lbs. per annum. It will thus be seen that the night manure from large birds is worth at least is. per annum. This conclusively demonstrates • that thousands of tons of fowl manure, representing thousands of pounds sterl- ing, are lost yearly in this State alone. Roughly speaking, the fresh rnanure is worth £^2 per ton, and, when dry and properlv stored in casks, ^4 per ton. It will thus be seen that little, if anv, manure from live stock is so rich in fertilizers as the fowl manure. a 2 ] ournal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. true market value i; Fresh Partially- Manure. dried Manure. 61.63 41.06 20.19 38.19 2.97 5-13 2.63 3.13 12.58 1249 100.00 100.00 I. 71 3.78 2.09 4-59 According to an eminent authority, its follows : — Moisture *Organir^ matter and ammonia salts ... Tribasic phosphate of lime Magnesia, alkaline salts, &c. . . Insoluble salicious matter (sand) *Contaiuing nitrogen Equal to ammonia One thing should be borne in mind, i.e., that lime must on no account be used in the runs, or houses, as lime liberates the ammonia, and when such is the case, its value as a manure is practically gone. The collected manure should be stored in an old barrel, where it must be kept dry, and mixed with a little sand, gvpsum, or wood ashes, also a little .soot. This tends to prevent the loss of ammonia. The manure may also be placed in a tub with water, and allowed to .stand over-night; then stir and use the liquid for watering. Vegetables of all kinds, also flowers and plants, especially pelargoniums, roses, lemons, &c., do well with it. The growth of the onion and tomato, &c., is largely increased by the use of this manure, and to nurserymen it is of the greatest value. The vegetable acids are as important as protein to growing chicks, both being an absolute necessitv. It is therefore an ea.sy matter where land is avail- able, for everv farmer of poultry to utilize to its fullest extent the valuable manure referred to in growing vegetables. Breeding and Feeding. The Breeding Pen. Localitv plays a most important part in the success or otherwise of poultrv breeding. Badly drained, sour, or very stony land should be avoided ; rather select a site having an easterly aspect, sloping so that the early morning sun mav sweeten the ground, Avhich is a great factor in warding off disease. All cannot secure sandy soil, but look for loose soil, and, wherever possible, secure the sandv spot. It dries out quicker, and is much easier to keep clean. Farmers know little or nothing aljout the breeding ptn, but to m\ mind this is the key to success. The old idea of keeping a few fowls round the homestead is passing. The farmer should know something about the fowls he has. Before he thinks of incubating he should be careful to watch for the layer of 150 to 200 eggs; hence the necessity of a breeding pen. A fair sized pen, say, 50 by 20 ft., should be set apart for this purpose. First of all, run the plough round, making a trench of, say, 10 to 12 ins. deep. Then place the posts (8-ft. lengths) about 2 ft. in the ground, 12 ft., apart — good saplings barked will do. Before filling up the trench, run two rows of barbed wire all round. This w'ill be a safe investment, and will effectivelv keep out foxes or wild dogs. Breakwind. — After this, run a batten round 3ft. from the ground, to keep posts straight, but on no account have any top rail ; it onlv encour- ages the birds to flv o\er, and is also a source of danger where frxes are troublesome. The latter will never attempt to jump on wire m-^sh, but lo Jan., 1910.] Poultry Farming on Small Holdings. if you give them a foothold, trouble will begin. Use 6 ft. palings cut in half, or, if funds permit, plain sheet iron. The palings or iron should be nailed on to the middle batten all round the pen, and will provide a splendid breakwind for the stud birds. Shade and Shelter.— It must not be forgotten that shdt.r is abso- lutelv necessarv in a breeding pen. The temperature of a f owl s body being greater than our own, it stands to reason that shade from the sun s ravs must be provided. The best and most quickly grown shelter hedge 1 1'urual of Ai'riciiltiirc. "lo Jan.. 1 910-. is the tree lucerne {Tagasastc). It will grow in almost any part of Vic- toria, and will stand drought well. The tops should he cut every month, and utilized in the morning meal. Then it thickens and shoots out at the lowest part of the stem., throwing shade along the ground, where the birds can rest comfortablv from sun and wind. SHADE AND SHELIKR. Construction of Houses. — The next consideration should be housing in the breeding pen. A small portable house is all that is required to hold only such birds as are selected typical layers ; or you may wish to cater for the export trade. In any case, seven to twelve birds will be sufficient in one pen, no matter what breed you intend keeping. The house should in all cases face the east, so as to get as much sunshine as possible. It is not necessarv in this climate to buihl expensive or warmj ARRANGEMENT OF YARDS ON CORRIDOR PLAN. houses. The north, south, and west sides should be closed in, and should l^e quite free from cracks and draughts, the east side alone being entirely open. The roof should slope eastward, and project 2 feet over frontal uprights; this will effectively prevent an easterly rain (a rare occurrence)- lo Jan., J910.] Poidtrx I'dnnni'i^ on Small Huldings. 7 from driving in on the birds at night-time, and will allow the rain to drop clear of the base of house. A good plan to safeguard the floor is to run -a small piece of spouting round the house, and have the downpipe placed BREEDING PEN. SIZE, 50 FT. X 22 FT.. WITH PORTABLE HOUSE. in position to carry the water clear of the pen. For example, a portable building 6 ft. long by 4 ft. wide, the back 5 ft., and the front 4 ft. high, makes a serviceable hou.se. Ten sheets (5 x 2) of narrow gauge galvanized iron will suffice, 3 sheets for roof, 3 for back, and 2 for each end. Having no floor, it is easily moved, simple to sprav, and is almost insect proof. ANOTHER VIEW SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSE. Many make the mistake of coddling their fowls. Coming off the perch of a warm house at dawn in June, the birds receive a severe shock, .and very often take cold, which may lead to roup, the fowTs worst enemy. An even temperature, a house free from draughts, a dry floor, and good •ventilation, are requisite. Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. Perches. — These should always be low. Eighteen inches from the ground is ample, and the perches should not be nailed. When nailed you have always to contend against the vermin trouble. The litcl- red mite, if allowed sufficient latitude, will drain the system of any fowi, and the very essence of egg-production is drawn from the bod\ of a hen in an infested house. It will pay better to secure insect-proof perches, which may be constructed as follows: — Take a piece of iron tubing 24 inches long, and an ordinary jam tin, cut a hole in the bottom of tin sufficient to allow the tubing to pass up through the tin within 6 inches of the top, then solder the tin to the iron. The perch should be about 8 inches shorter than the length of the house. Bore a hole in both ends of perch the size of tubing, and when the tubing is fixed on to a heavv stand or driven into the floor, place the perch, which should be made of 3 in. x 2 in. hardwood, on top. Perches require to be about 3 inches wide to prevent crooked breasts. These are often caused through the birds roosting on narrow perches. When the perch is in position, pour a little kerost^ne into the tins at each end, and the perches will be insect proof. NEST BOXES- -DARK AND EASY TO CLEAN. Floor Catchment. — The continual cleaning of the floor is usually followed by the ground becoming basin-shaped, and the result is a damp floor in winter time. A cheap and effective plan to prevent this is to purchase a piece of black tarpaulin, about the size of the floor, and nail this on to two pieces of wood, one at each end, and place on floor of house. Every morning roll it up and empty the droppings mto a wheel- barrow. If the birds have been scouring, through eating too much wet grass, and the carpet of tarpaulin has become very dirty, remove it to a tap, and put the hose on. Then hang over a fence to dry. It is advisable to throw a little sand on to prevent the droppings adhering to the tar- paulin. This svstem works well, saves a great deal of time, and presents the .spread of vermn.. Trap Nf.sts. — Trap nests will assist the farmer to disco\er the good layers, and will enable him also to pick out the unprofitable birds, which are too often bred from unknowingly. These should be used for t; ble purposes : on no account waste food in keeping bad layers. Nests should JO Jan., 1910.] Poidir) Farming on Small Holdings. never be made inside the fowl-houses, nor yet adjoining. The better phin is to have them in a shadv, darkened spot, away from the house. If the hens are allowed to make nests in the houses vermin is encouraged. Dust Bath. — A dust bath should be provided in everv breeding pen, and should consist of a shallow lx>x 5 by 4 feet, in which sand, ashes, and some sulphur, and a little insectibane, should be placed. This should be shaded, and kept moist in summer time. In the winter months, keep drv, and have a cover to take on and off. Neglect of the bath means an increase of the fowl fleas, which, unlike the blood mites which are only found out at night, live on the body of the hen, and drain it of much of the egg-forming elements. These parasites lay countless small white eggs, almost the size of silk-worm eggs, on the downv part of the feathers, especially under the wings and near the vent. In the early autumn, when the birds usually lose their old feathers, these eggs are carried about the farm, are duly hatched, and return to the newly feathered flock; therefore the necessity of a dust bath is apparent, if we expect our birds to do any- thing above the old-time barnyard fowl. We live in the days of improved methods, and the more we attend to the little details, the better results accrue. Grit Box. — Everv fowl requires some form of grit for the gizzard's proper work. Fowls have no teeth, and their onlv means of grinding is done in the gizzard bv means of grit, sav, sharp pieces of broken earthen- ware, smashed to the size of a pea, or half the size of a grain of maize. This form of grit is that most relished, and I have known birds to leave quartz until they have exhausted all the earthenware. Oyster shell, Lrcken into small pieces, may also be given to assist shell making, but it is not hard enough to serve the double purpose. Drinking Vessel. — Many poultry-keepers make the mistake of uing open receptacles, such as an old saucepan or cracked dish, filling it up once a week, and allowing it to be exposed to the sun's rays. This is a serious error. Should a touch of disease appear on the farm, the bird affected naturallv drinks a lot, and in so doing leaves the germs of disease behind for the others which follow, and so disease is spread broadcast. The scalding of the tins is verv essential. No disease spreads so ripidly as bv means of infected drinking water. Keep the water cool and abso- lutely pure. A cheap water vessel can be made out r)f a kerosene tin, cut from the front, half wav down on both sides, and again cut across the centre of tin. Raise the piece of tin slightlv. It will not only form a shade to the water, but also more important still, it prevents the fowls' feet fiom geting into the water, and theret)y forms another safeguard against disease germs. See illustration of breeding pen. Keep a rustv horseshoe in the water, and occasionally add 80 drops of sulphuric acid to each gallon. Once a month add a packet of Epsom salts to each half gallon. The colour of the comb should be ob-erved ; the whitish red, the blackish purple, or the very pale comb denotes something radicallv wrong. A bright, healthy, appearance is desired. Classification and Description of Breeds. The methods of classification usually adopted by poultrvmen divide the races of domestic fowls on the basis of their general utility. Four general classes or divisions are made : — 1. Meat or Table Breeds. 2. Egg or I>aying Breeds. T,. General Purpose Breeds. 4. Ornamental Breeds. ] oiirual of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. Meat or Table Breeds. — The best known types of this class m Victoria are the Dorking, Indian Game, Old English Game, White and Buff Orpington. In England, a great deal of attention has been given to the production of a fine quality of meat for table purposes, and the result is a very compact, fine boned, low set fowl, carrying a large amount of breast flesh. The English Dorking (Silver and I)ark) is the best example of this. Egg or Laying Breeds. — The chief representatives of the egg breeds belong to what is known as the Mediterranean class. As the name implies,. WHITE LEGHORN COCKEREL. (The type to prolune great layers.) thev originated in the countries adjoining the Mediterranean Sea. The Leghorn and Ancona breeds are native to Italy, the Black Spanish, Minorca and Andalusian to Spain. The breeds in this class are small to medium in size, are quick, alert and active. They mature earlier than the heavy breeds, but do not do so well in confinement. The chicks are easv to raise, and the widespread popularity of the Leghorn is an indica- tion of it-j value as an egg-producer. All the breeds in the egg type ao Jan.. 1910.] Poiilir\ Larmnig on Small Holdings. ■class lay white shelled eggs. The hens are not to be trusted as sitters, and the quality of the flesh is decidedly rjoor. General Purpose Breeds. — With the exception of the English Orpington, the best known breeds of this class are American. The Wyandotte and Plymouth Rock are the more popular types in this country. The birds in this class are of a type midway between the two special purpose classes just described, and possess a combination of qualities which form a splendid table bird, yet a bird with a remarkable tendency towards egg production. During the past year, the writer placed six "Black Orpington pullets in a run of 50 ft. x 20 ft. with open fronted -house facing the east. They averaged 210 eggs each, no mean achieve- •ment. as few Leghorns ran equal :!oo in the vear. WHITE LEGHORN PULLET. Plymouth Rocks. — This breed of poultry has been aptly termed the ■farmer's fowl, due probably to their foraging habits, docile disposition, and ability to stand confinement. It was a great favourite, ten years ago, "but suffered through the Wyandotte craze, but it is pleasing to record that several large breeders have taken them up and they promise to again become one of the most popular farmers' breeds. The Plymouth Rock has a long urnt bone, the latter for preference. Add more green food, \\heat, bran, and crushed egg-shells to rations. All of these will improve matters, reducing at the same time the amount of animal food — too much meat will produce soft eggs. "What Poultry-raisers should Avoid. Low-lying ground — it is difficult to drain. Second-hand material — risk of disease. Making perches too high. Buying mixed lots of fowls — thev mav Ije past the laying stage. Leaving eggs in nest — gather daily. Keeping cockerels with laying pullets — infertile eggs keep better. Cheap and musty food. Kitchen scraps from hospitals. Late hatching — means lack of stamina. Too much grain — causes liver troubles. Giving watej when birds suffer from diarrhoea. Overcrowding. Too wide a ration — it should be quality rather than quantity. Feeding grain to sick birds. The sitting hen with wing cut — eggs get chilled. The leggy sitter — too clumsy and often breaks eggs. The hen covered with vermin — the chicks will also have them. L'sing a broody hen twice in succession — her temperature will be low_ Breeding from deformed stock — like begets like. Breeding from birds after suffering from roup. Dirty water in the pens. Feeding tainted meat — affects flavour of eggs. An excess of condiments — they irritate and cause thirst. Spices — A sheep's liver or boiled rabbit is better. High nest boxes — the hen breaks more eggs than she hatches. Thin-shelled eggs for incubatoi. Opening egg drawer in incubator bt-fore three davs have elapsed. Opening egg drawer when shells chip — chicks get chilled. Feeding chicks for first thirty hours. Too high temperature in incubator — keep at 103 degrees. Too high temperature in brooder — 85 degrees is sufficient. Delay when bad symptoms appear in the flock — isolate sick birds. Placing duck eggs in cool storage — they do not keep. Packing eggs in musty chaff — it taints them. Packing eggs in cases on which kerosene has been spilt. Carbolic powders in nest boxes — eggs are affected. Setting hens in flat-bottomed boxes. Putting too many eggs under hen. Damp houses — ill-ventilated ones conduce to catarrh and roup. Narrow perches — contracts the breast bone. lo Jan.. 1 910.] Poultry Fanning Oil SmalL Holdings. 31 Incubation during the summer months. Using the winter laying shed during the summer. Keeping the male bird with hens when breeding is over. Having more than one gobbler to twelve turkey hens. Fertile eggs for storage — infertile keep better. Keeping hens over three years. Inbreeding — it promotes disease. An excess of the three W's — wind, wheat, and water. Overcrowding the crate for market. Mixing brown and white eggs — grade them to size and colour. Changing your agent too often — get his confidence and he, yours. Missing the Cup markets, &c. Access to orchard during spraying operations. Sending old with young birds to market — grade :hem. Heavy combed hens when selecting layers. Exciting laying hens — often causes death. Feeding cock with hens. Running pullets from one yard m another — often causes ovary troubles Building fowl-houses' adjoining vour neighbour's fences. Too many fowls in a small yard. Glass as grit — earthenware is best. Egg-eating hens. Leaving infertile eggs in incubator after 7th day — use for chick feed. The hen laying double-yolk eggs. Disposing of eggs in the earlv spring if vou want winter layers yourself. Keeping cockerels beyond five months. Feeding too late in the mornings. Cold pollard. Exposure of drinking vessel to sun's rays — induces bowel troubles. Leaving diseased carcases ab<3ut — burn them. Poultry in the pig-sty. Tainted soils — plough and use lime, or grow a root-crop first to cleanse. Star\'ing fowls during moulting season. An excess of meat — it is as bad as none at all ; 1 oz. dailv is sufficient. High poultry buildings — they are difficult to disinfect and cost too much. :&^- ■-"■'^§3&.-- 32 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. BUILDING HIiNTS FOR SETTLERS. VI. — Thrke-Roomed Wkatiiekboard Cottage. A. S. Kenyan, C.E., Engineer fur Agriculture. As there seems to be a need for a building costing less than the four- roomed cottage described in the August and November numbers of the Journal, the accompanying plan, A:c., of a three-i'oomed weatherboard lean- to have been prepared. This form of plan is not so economical as a square one, but is more suitable for future additions. It will be noticed that the cost of lining the inside is a very big propor- tion of the total. If only one side of the dividing walls is lined, 400 feet less of lining will be required, which would effect a saving of 24s. for material. By making a dado 4 ft. high, and covering the studs above the dado with hessian, 1,300 feet less of lining will be needed, and 45 yards of 72-in. wide hessian, and 200 feet of 3 in. x 1 in. batten required. This would mean a saving of £2 lis. 6d. for material. The saving would be very slight if the hessian were papered, and the result would be much less satisfactory than lining. SPKCIFrCATlON. Excavator. — Excavate the ground for stumps and sole plates to a depth of at least 20 in., and well ram the earth put back round stumps. In ramming, only a small portion of the earth is to be put back at a time, and then rammed before any more earth is put back, using a little water when ramming. Timber. — The timber is to be sound and free from all defects. All timber is to be hai'dwood unless otherwise specified. Stumps and Sole Plates. — The stumps, 6 in. x 3 in., x 2 ft. 6 in. red gum, are to be spaced 4 ft. 6 in., centre to centre, the length of the building, and 4-ft. centres across the building (the 6-in. face going across building), and to stand upon 8 in. x 8 in. x 2 in. red-gum sole plates. Halve the stumps as shown in detail drawing for a length of 8 in. from top of stump, the four corner stumps being further checked at top 2 in. deep x 4 in. on inside of stump. Sleepers and Joists. — Sleepers, 4 in. x 3 in., are to be run the length of building, resting on their edges on the shoulders of stumps to which they are to be bolted with one 6 '^ in. by | in., bolt to each stump. The sleepers are to be halved at joints. The joints in one row of sleepers must not be in a line with the joints in the next row. The 4 in. x 3 in. sleepers supporting the studs in end walls and dividing walls are to rest on the longitudinal sleepers, and to be bolted to the stumps with one 6,7 in. x f in. bolt to each stump. Joists, 4 in. x 2 in., to rest on the longitudinal sleepers, to which they are to be well skew-nailed with 3-in. nails. Joists to be spaced 18-in. centres, every third joist which will come against the top of a row of stumps to be bolted to stumps with one 51, in. x |-in. bolt to each stump. Studs. — Corner studs, 4 in. x 3 in., window and door studs, 4 in. x 2 in., and other studs, 4 in. x 1| in., to be spaced 18-in. centres, which will place the studs in the front and back walls alongside the floor joist to which they are to be well skew-nailed with 3-in. nails. Corner stud to rest on longitudinal sleeper, and to be checked 2 in. on to transverse sleeper, to lo Jan.. 1910.] Buildmg Hints j or Settlers. 33 which it is to be well nailed. Transverse sleepers to be checked f in. for ends of studs. Studs of dividing walls to overhang \ in. on each side of sleeper, and inside of studs of end walls to be flush with inside of sleeper. All to be well skew-nailed. ■5lctioN-A-A- •5roE ' Rl^Vatioi^ • p.*- -^ ' FroN T ° Elevatioi^ - OQo Gal tanh PLAN OF THREE-ROOMED WEATHERBOARD COTTAGE 1 0.^40. B 34 Journal of AgricitltKrc. [lo Jan., 1910. Toji Plates. — The inside of studs in fi-ont and back walls to be checked 1 in. deep x 4 in., the top of check beiny 5 in. from top of stud. In this check, well nail 4 in. x 1 in. plate. Bafters. — Rafters 5 in. x 1^ in. to be spaced 3-ft. centres, to rest on top of back and front plates, to be well nailed to sides of studs, and lowier ends to project 2 ft. 6 in. beyond studs. The studs in end walls to be checked | in. on the outside for end rafters, and studs in dividing walls to be checked 2 in. for rafters resting on tliem. Tiie rafters to be well nailed to these studs. Bracing. — The walls are to be braced diagonal!}' witli y> in. x 1 in. battens, for which the studs are to be checked 1 in., the studs in the outside walls to be checked on their outer edge. The sleepers supporting dividing walls to be checked h in. for brace. Purlins. — Purlins, 3 in. x H, in., to be spaced as shown in section and well nailed to top of rafter. Fascia and Barge Boards. — Fascia, 6 in. x 1 in., to be well nailed to projecting ends of rafters, as shown in drawing, finishing at ends against barge boards. Barge boards, 6 in. x 1 in., to be nailed on to outside of end rafters, the top being flush with top of rafter, and lower end finishing flush with fascia. Window and Door Openings. — The 4 in. x 2 in. studs to be checked ^ in. for the ends of i in. x 2 in. heads, and the 7 in. x 1^ in. sills. Heads and sills to be well skew-nailed to studs. Each door opening to have 6 in. x 1^ in. red gum step, the top of step finishing | in. above floor. Flooring. — Nail to top of joists and transverse sleepers with two 2|-in. nails to each joist, the nails being well punched, 6 in. x 1| in. T. and G. red deal flooring. Carry the flooring right through in as long lengths as possible. The cross joints must not be in a line. Weatherboards. — Cover the outside of studs with haidwood weatherboards showing a 5-in. face. Nail to studs with If -in. nails to each . stud. The weatherboards on front wall to be cut in between rafters as shown, and on end walls to be taken up to the under side of rafter. The weatherboards to be stopped at corners with 3 in. x 1^ in. stops nailed to corner studs, and at openings to stop against jamb lining. Finish at lx)ttom with 3-in. strips of weatherboard nailed to stumps, one row on back and front, and two rows on end walls. Lining. — Line the inside of studs in outer walls and both sides of studs in dividing walls, and under side of rafters, with 6 in. x ^ in. T. and G. beaded white deal, lining to stop against jamb lining at openings. Plant 1 in. x I in. scotia in angles of wall and ceiling and angles of walls. Jambs, Stops, &c. — Jambs and heads of door and window openings to be lined with 6 in. x | in. white deal, projecting f in. on the inside to stop lining. Plant on 2 in. x | in. white deal stop. Window l)oard to be 5 in. X \\ in. red deal, returned at ends and finished undei'neath with 1 in. X I in. scotia. All as in detail. Sashes. — Hashes to be 4 ft. high x 2 ft y. \''i in., four lights glazed with 16-oz. glass, hung on one pair of 3-in. butts, and furnished with one 4 in. iron barrel bolt and 6-in. cabin hook to each sash. Doors. — Doors to be 6 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. 8 in., ledged and braced, hung on one pair of 18-in. tee hinges, and furnished with one 6-in. rim lock, with brass handles to each door. Ledges, braces, and sheeting to be G in. x | in. T. and G. white deal, all securely nailed together with 2-in. nails, well clinched. lo Jan., 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. ZS Ventilators. — Six 14 in. xG in. box ventilators, of 6 in. x | in. white deal, to be constructed near ceiling in front wall, and covered on the outside with tly-proof wire netting. v^v..^v/" ' I): ntr^i^ '^Jj'*7'» p r = Jf^^rCK S - li ^ - ^ - : 1 1 .i--2-,. ^ t ^ ;' ■^ ,'"" r^* S "^ 1 .Joist *>2* ^ f ^— - L ^CTAILS OF CURNCR 5JUMP5 J0/3TS i iTUOJ JLCCPCti U DCTA^i^ Of OTHZR iWKPi ^ca}e of ■ Feet DETAILS OF THREE-ROOMED WEATHERBOARD COTTAGE. Hoof, &c. — Cover the roof with S-ft. sheets of 26-gauge galvanized corrugated iron. Allow a lap of 1^ corrugations, and nail to purlins with 2-in. galvanized springhead nails at every second corrugation. Iron to be turned down at ends of building on to barge boards, and securely fixed thereto with |-in. clouts every 6 in. Cover the angle of roof and back wall with 18-in. galvanized iron ridging, secured with springhead nails to purlin B 2 ;^6 J oiirnal of Agriculiure. [lo Jan., 1910. and studs. Fix 4-in. galvanized iron O.G. spouting to fascia with stout galvanized iron straps at each rafter secured with l|-in. clouts. Spouting to have slight fall to down-pipe, to be stopped at ends, to be doublf^ soldered and riveted at joints and connected with tank by f-in. diameter down-pipe. Tank and, Stand. — Tank to be 1,000 gallons 24-gauge galvanized corrugated iron, double soldered and riveted, having a 26-gauge galvanized cover, with an 18-in. diameter manhole and lid. Tank stand to have 3 in. X 1^ in. decking, spaced 1 in. apart, and well nailed to 4 in. x 3 in. joists, resting on 4 in. x 3 in. sleepers, supported on 6 in. x 3 in. x 3 ft. red-gum stumps spaced as shown on 12 in. x 12 in. x 2 in. sole plates. Tops of stumps to be halved on and liolted to sleepers 6^ in. x | in. bolts, and corner .stumps bolted to joists with similar bolts. Stumps to be braced with 4 in. x 2 in. red gum, bolted with f-in. bolts. Tank to be provided with brass turnover tap, having padlock and two keys, also an overflow pipe and length of waste pipe equal to height of tank. Fireplace. — Fix iron fireplace and chimney against outside of end wall as shown. The bottom of fireplace to be level with floor and to be supported on solid foundation. Form hearth as shown of 24-gauge gal- vanized iron secured to floor with ^-in clouts. Set oven in fireplace. Quantities. Bed-gum — £ .s. 1/. Sole plates for tank-stand, 12-in. x 2-in. 9 1-ft. Sole plates .. ... 8-in. x 2-in., 32 8-in. Stumps ... ... 6-in. x 3-in. 9 3-ft., 32 2-ft. 6-in. Door steps ... ... 6-in. x l|-in., 2 3-ft. Braces for tank-stand ... 4-in. x 2-in., 4 5-ft. 225 feet super, at 16s. 6d. ... ... ... ... 1 17 2 Hai'dwood — Sleepers and corner studs 4-in. x 3-in., 4 18-ft. 6-in., 4 14-ft., 4 12-ft. 6-in. And tank joists ... . 2 1 1 -f t. , 2 10-f t. , 7 5-ft. 6-in. Studs, joists and head.s, 4-in. x 2-in., 18 12-ft. 6-in., 6 11 -ft., 10 10-ft. , 8 3-ft. Studs ... ... .. 4-in. x U-in., 32 11-ft., 2410-ft. Fascia and barge boards 6-in. x 1-in., 2 15-ft., 3 11-ft. 865 feet super, at 9s. 6d. ... ... ... ... 4 2 3 Rafters ... ... 5-in. 1^-in., 12 15-ft. Window sills ... ... 7-in. x Ig-in., 3 3-ft. Top plates .. ... 4-in. x 1-in., 2 18-ft. 6-in., 2 14-ft. Purlins, weatherboard, 3-in. x H-in.,5 18-ft. 6-in., 5 14ft., 2 stops, tank-floor 10-ft., 2 11-ft., 16 5-ft. 6-in. 253 feet super, at 10s. 6d. ... ... ... ... 16 7 Bracing ... ... 3 in. x 1-in., 8 13-ft., 4 lift. 104 feet run. at 2s. 6d. ... ... ... ... 0 2 7 Weatherboard.s, 2,300-ft. run. at 5s. 6d. ... ... ... 6 6 6 Baltic Pine — Flooring and window boards, 0-in. x 1^-in., T. and (t., red, 800-ft. run. at 12s. 6d. . ... ... ... ... ... 5 0 Doors, jambs, stops, and vents, 6-in x |-in., T. and G., white, 450-ft. run. at 9s. 9d. ... Inside lining, 6-in. x ^-in. T. and (i ., B white, 3,200-ft. run. at 6s.... Scotia, 1-in. x |-in., 300-ft. run. at 4s. 6d. Sashe.s, 4-ft. high x 2-ft. x 1^ in., 3 only, at 10s.... Ironmongery — Galvanized iron, 26-gauge, corrugated, 34 8-ft. .slieets at 2s. 6d. ... „ „ 24 ,, plain, 1 6-ft. X 3-ft. at 3s. 6d.... ,; « 24 n 4-in. O.G., spouting, 6 6-ft. lengths, at Is. 2 3 11 9 12 0 0 13 6 1 10 0 4 5 0 0 3 6 0 6 0 10 Jan., 1910.] Orchard and Garden N otes. 37 Ironmongery — con binned Galvanized iron, ^G-gauge, 18 in. ridging, 6 6-ft. lengths, at Is. 4d. // ,1 26 n 3-in. diameter down-pipe, 1 6-ft. length, at lid. ... It II .straps for 4-in. O.G. spouting, 1 dozen, at.Ss. 6d.... II springhead nails, 2-in., 400, at 8d. ... Fly-proof wire netting, 1 sq. yard Rim locks and bra.ss handles, 4 6-in. (3 I'ight, 1 left), at 4s. 6d. Tee hinges, 18-in., 4 pair, at 2s. 3d. jmir Butt hinges, 3-in., 3 pair, at 6d. ])air ... Iron barrel bolt, 4-in., 3 onl}', at 4d. "Cabin hooks, 6-in , 3 only, at Gd. Bolts, nuts, and washers, fin., 4 9-in., 67 6A-in., 14 5J-in., 6 4A-in. Wire nails, 20-lb., 2i-in., 10-lb. 2-in., 10-lb. la-in., 20-lb. U-in, 141b. 3-in., 14-lb. 4-in. Wire clouts, 1-lb,, Ij-in,, 1-lb. fin, 1,000 gallons galvanized corrugated iron tank, 24-gauge, complete Iron chimney and firej)lace Oven Total co.st of material at Melbourne prices ... £48 6 2 £ .5. d. 0 8 0 0 0 11 0 3 6 0 2 8 0 2 0 0 18 0 0 9 0 0 1 6 0 1 0 0 1 6 0 7 6 0 16 0 0 0 8 4 5 0 1 10 0 1 10 0 ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescoft. Principal, School of Horticnlturc. Burnley. The Orchard. Keep the soil loose. Supply water to the trees. Spray for Codlin Moth and Woolly Aphis. Commence Budding. Cultivation and Moisture. — The unexpected early December rains have given orchardists an excellent chance to work up their ground, especially those whose work was backward owing to the heat and dryness of November. The soil is now in very suitable condition for surface cultivation, and the harrows, disc cultivator or scarifier should be kept ^oing to keep up a good condition of surface looseness. Even where the soil had been previously well cultivated, the cultivators _ should be agaiii run over the surface, as any succeeding hot weather will cause the^ soil to form a crust, which would be the means of dissipating a very consider- able amount of soil water. Every effort should be taken to retain this moisture so that the fruit crops shall have all they require for their per- fection. To further attain this end no weeds should be allowed to grow in orchard soils. It is well to remember the old adage, that " Every weed is a pump," and so everv weed left in the orchard is continuallv pumping away into itself, and through itself into the atmosphere, the water whici, should be for the sole use of the fruit trees. A good watering, if water be available, should be given to the trees that are maturing their fruit. It is not wise to be sparing of water at this time. A tree that is growing, and carrying fruit, needs all_ the stimulus that can he given to it in this way. The tree is more likely tc set strong fruit-buds for next season, in addition to perfecting tins season's crop of fruit, if sufficient moisture be given to it. Over irrigation :should be guarded against, especially in stiff and undrained soils. So 38 Journal of AgricnUure. [10 Jan., 1910. long as a tree is growing well, and producing fair average, and good quality crops of fruit, the water should be applied but sparingl\. The problem to be decided by each grower is, what is the minimum quantity of water to give a tree, in order to produce the maximum lesults; and this can only be definitely solved by a knowledge of local soil, temperature- and rainfall conditions. Spraying. CoDiiN Moth. — The fight against the Codlin .M':th .-huuhl still Ije- continued. The second broods will now be on the wing, and it will he well to have the whole of the apple and pear trees sprayed this month w ith ar.senate of lead, to insure a clean and full crop. Last season the fixst brood chry.salides were observed in the bandages at Queenstovvn as early as nth December; and moths were captured leaving the bandages at Panton Hill on 19th December. This shows the urgent necessity for what is generally called the Christmas spraying. . Eggs of the Codlin ^^loth were found last year on 5th December at Burnley Gardens. The.se would' hardly be the eggs from the second brood of moths; they would in all probability have been laid by some moth of the early brood, which had emerged from a deep crevice, or a cool sjKjt, where its entrance into the stage of perfection had been delayed bv the cool temperature cf the hiding place of the chrysalis. If the late December spraying has not been given, all apple and pear trees should be sprayed at once, and the fruit should be kept covered with spray for the rest of the sea.son. Provided that no rain occurs to- dilute or to wash off the spray, an interval of three or four weeks may elapse between each application. Bandages, fruit rooms, second-hand cases, &c., should all be kept under strict supervision, and the chrysalides all searched out of every possible hiding place. Woolly Aphis. — Where any Woolly Aphis had remained on the trees, it received a severe check with the advent of the hot winds and hot spell In mid-November. The subsequent cool change in December was \erv favourable to its increase; and should the season continue cool, it will be well to make further attacks on this pest, before it fully destroys the valuable fruit spurs and la'cerals upon which it may have settled. A strong spray of tobacco solution is very "effective, and this should be given without delay. Where attacks are light, the sulphur-potash paint, a strong nicfitine solution, or kerosene emulsion may be applied to tht affected parts. Budding. Young treeS; or old trees that have been previously cut down in pre- paration for budding, ma\- be worked over towards the end of the month. Ii- is advisable to select dull, cool weather for this operation, so that the sap may run more freely, and so that the weather will not have too drying an effect on the bud. The operation of budding is a very simple one, and is easily performed. To gain a successful end, the sap should be flowing freely, so that when the cuts are made, the bark should " lift " or "run" easily, and without any clinging or tearing of the fibres; and it should separate freely from the wood. The bud selected should be firm and well matured, and should show no signs, of premature growth what- ever. It is cut from the .scion with a shallow cut, and if any wood, in- the cutting, be left in, this should be taken out of the bud. A smooth clean spot should be .selected on the bark of the stock, and a T-shaped lo Jan., ipro.] Or cJiani and Garden Notes. 39 ■cut made ; the \ertical cut being longer than tht horizontal one. The bark at the point where the cuts meet should be raised, and the bud inserted between the bark and the wood of the stock. The bud should be gently pushed down into jX)sitio'n, and it should then be bound with soft twine, string, or raffia. If the bud be too long for the cut, the top may be cut off level with the horizontal cut. With practice, it will soon become possible to cut buds that will need neither cutting nor trim- ming. After two or three weeks the buds mav be examined to see if the buds have " taken '' ; that is, if the bud has. united thoroughlv to the stock. When that occurs the tie may be cut. If a growth be desired at once, al' wood above the bud may be cut off as soon as the bud has " taken." The wood may be cut off some short distance above the bud, so as to prevent any bark splitting and consequent loss of the bud ; and so as to throw the bud out at a fair angle. Ultimatelv. this should be properlv trimmed. If desired, the bud mav be left dormant throughout the autumn and winter, till next spring. In this case, the lateral or branch is not cut off, :but is left on until the usual winter pruning. Fruit. The apple crop will now be approaching maturity, and such early varieties as William's Favourite, Irish Peach, Red Astrachan and Graven- stein will shortlv l;e on the market. The latter is perhaps one of tlfe finest flavoured of all apples, and its pure white flesh, juicy and crisp, along with its aromatic flavour, makes it a popular, and easily saleable apple. The nature of the tree is such that it will not retain its fruit until it is well coloured, but allows it to drop prematurely. With this apple, colour goes a long wav to increase the market price. A very fine colour mav easih- be obtained bv allowing the fruit to remain where it falls on the ground, in the shade of the tree, for two or three days'; the ground having been previouslv well covered with a good layer of straw, or drv sweet grass. The fruit should be kept out of the direct rays of the sun as much as possible. Cool Storage of Fruit. It is now a matter of a \ery short time when the system of cool storage which was originated at Doncaster, will be extended to other parts of the southern districts. It has been demonstrated by Mr. French, Manager of the Doncaster Cool Stores, that with care, and a careful study of their requirements, almost every varietv of fruit mav be cool stored for varying periods. Rome Beauty, Munroe's Favourite and Jonathan apples, and Broom Park, Vicar of Winkfield, and Winter Nelis pears, have been suc- cessfullv preser\ed in the Doncaster stores for over twelve months, and have come out in perfect condition. Almost all varieties of soft fruits may be kept for some considerable time; even strawberries have been kept, and their delicate flavour well preserved, for six weeks. During the past season, pears were stored at a time when their market value was from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per bushel case, After being kept in the stores for some few months at a cost of about 2s. 3d. per case, thev were shipped to various Inter-State markets, and sold at prices ranging from tis. to- 155. per case. 4° ] ounial of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. Flower Garden. The deservedly popular flower, the Delphinium, which has frequenth- been called the " King of the Blues," now occupies a prominent part in- most of our flower gardens. It is easy of management, and yields such- fine results, that no one can go astray in cultivating this beautiful summer flower. It should be in full flower at the present time. If the old flower stems are removed at about ground level, as soon as the flower has, passed- its beauty, another crop of flower shoots will spring up from the base, and give another succession of bloom. With crowns that have been well matured, and that were planted early, it is thus possible to obtain^ four successions of bloom each season. If seed be desired, one stem of each variety will yield abundance of seed. This should be saved from, the early flowers. It may now be planted, so as to get young plants in the autumn. The Delphinium requires a fair amount of water and manure, and a good summer mulching is always beneficial. January should be a busv month in the garden. The waterings will be constant and frequent ; and after everv watering the surface should be well loosened and stirred with the hoe, to keep it moist and cool. More cultivation and less water is a good rule to be observed. If the hoe be used more and the hose less, in summer, greater benefits will accrue, and the water bill will be considerably reduced. Mulchings with straw, grass, &c., are very useful just now. The mowings from lawns form valuable mulching. Waste tobacco stems are also valuable as a mulch ; they will considerably reduce insect pests, snails, and slugs; and as they contain about 2 per cent, of nitrogen, 4 per cent, of lime, and 5 per cent, of potash, as well as about i per cent, of phosphoric acid, they are valuable as a manure. Dahlias, Chrysanthemums, and other tall growing slender herbaceous- plants will require support in the way of stakes ; they will also need mulching considerably. These plants should receive no check whatever, but should be continued with a regular even growth right through the- season. Another desideratum is that the soil should be well drained. Plants of all descriptions thrive far better in well drained soils, and they require a far less amount of water. Constant watch will need to be kept for the various small caterpillars that attack the buds of these plants. Spraying with a weak solution of Paris Green and lime, or similar in.secticide, will be u.seful ; hand-picking should also be resorted to. Carnations require lavering this month : and seeds of Cosmos. Zinnia, Iceland Poppv, Aster, Pansv and Delphinium mav lie sown. Vegetable Garden. The work in this section is much the same as in the flower garden^ Frequent waterings, good mulching, and regular soil stirring will be the work for the month. As soon as any bed is cleared of vegetables, it should be manured and well dug over in preparation for the next crop. Deep digging is alwavs desirable in vegetable growing. Cabbage, cauli- flower and celery plants may be planted out. In planting it is the usual practice to water the soil, so as to cause it to set well around the young roots. The upper, or vegetative part of the plant should also be sprinkled occasionally. This will vitalise it considerably ; and as the leaves absorb the moisture, it will assist in keeping the plant alive while its roots are taking h(>ld of the soil. A sowing of potatoes, and also cabbage, cauli- flower, turnip, peas and leek mav now be carried out. lo Jan., 1910.] Btimley ScJiool of H orticidture and Small Farming. 41 BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE AND SMALL FARMING. E. E. Pescott, Principal. The Burnley School of Horticulture and Small Farming is situater^ dn a picturesque and sheltered bend of the River Yarra, at Burnley, about 4 miles from Melbourne. It may be reached by train, either from the Burnley, Hawthorn, or Heyington stations ; .by tram to the Richmond "terminus; or by the Auburn horse tram. The flower gardens, lawns, and shrubberies are extensive, and this ipoition of the estate is a very popular visiting resort. PRINCIPAL S RESIDENCE. The two orchards comprise about fourteen acres of fruit trees and "\egetable garden. Over tweh-e hundred varieties of fruit trees are at (present under culture. The apple collection includes considerabl\ over .six hundred varieties, mostly on the dwarf Paradise stock, and there are • over three hundred varieties of pears. Such a collection of fruit trees .in full bearing is unequalled in Victoria, and its instructional value is ^■ery great. The dairy herd is comprised of pMre stock of the Ayrshire and Jersey strains, ten cows being kept. The poultry runs contain pure stock of the leading breeds, including White Leghorns, Black Orpingtons, Wyandottes, Minorcas, and others. About two hundred chickens are raised ajinually by means of incubators; and of these, both pullets and cockerels find a readv sale throughout the State. Sittings of eggs from the selected stock are also sold and de- spatched largely during the season. The School is controlled by the Department of Agriculture, and in it youths over the age of fourteen years are trained in the sciences of horti- < culture, especially as related to fruit-growing, and agriculture, on a scale J oiinial of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. now knoAvn as " Small farming." The students receive instruction whicb will enable them to become orchardists, orchard managers, or managers- PAVILION AND LECTURE ROOM. of properties whereon intense culture and closer settlement ccnditions obtain. The estate at Burnley is subdivided into commercial and collection orchards; vegetable and flower gardens; lawns and shrubberies ; culti\'ation INTERIOR OF LECTURE ROOM. and pasture paddocks; with nursery, stables, fowl ya.rds and houses, cow- sheds, dairy, barns, silo, &c. !o Jan., 1910.] Burnley Scliool of Horticjilturc and Small Farming. 43 Lecture courses on all phases connected with horticulture and small farming are given. The practical side of the curriculum includes the CLASS LESSON PRUNING CITRUS TREES. whole of the wo,rk necessary to manage and maintain the above subdivi- sions and estate. ■ For the silo, two crops are annually produced, and made into silage. The winter crop of grain and leguminous plants is PORTION OF COLLECTION OF DWARF APPLE TREES. harvested in October, and the summer crop of maize is planted immediately afterwards. The silage is u.sed for fodder for the dairy herd. 44 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. rn lo Jan., 1910.] Burnley School of Horticulture a}id Small Farming. 45 The whole ofthe stock and equipment is thoroughly modern, and every opportunity is thus provided for the thorough training of the students. Experiments are carried on continuously with various cereals for fungus diseases, such as rusts and smuts ; fungus diseases are also experimented with in connexion with potatoes and other root crops. These experiments are under the control of Mr. D. McAlpine, . Government Vegetable Pathologist, who visits the Gardens regularly. Students may enter for a general course of instruction, ox they may select one or more of the following divisions : — i. Orchard Work and Fruit Production, ii. Dairying, Pigs, Poultry and Fodder Crops, iii. General Gardening (Flowers and Vegetables). ONE OF THE POULTRY YARDS. The school year commences early in February, and continues throughout the year until December. Students are expected to be regular in attendance and they must keep full notes of all lectures and instructional work. The terms are ^5 per annum, payable in advance. The fee does not cover residence, but good accommodation may be obtained in the neigh- bouring suburbs. Applications for admission should be made to The Secretary, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Melbourne. New Works for 19 10. The new work for the coming sessions' will include the following: — 1. The collection of grape vines, numbering over 200 varieties, is to be regrafted on the Phylloxera resistant varieties, the stocks having been specially selected and purchased by Mr. de Castella on his recent visit to Europe. 2. Various parts of the orchard and shrubberies are to have their sys- tems of underground drainage further continued and completed. 46 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. lo Jan., 1910.] Sulla Clover. 47 3. Surface levelling in both orchards is to be carried out. 4. The .subject of suitable stocks for various varieties of fruit trees is to be .specially and practically studied ; and as far as possible it is intended to produce from the School nursery, all trees required for the orchards. 5. The planting of shrubberies of native Australian trees and shrubs will receive prominent attention. SULLA CLOVER. {Hed ysanim coronarnim. L.) G. A. Sinclair, Principal, Longer eiiong Agricultural College. The accompanying illustration shows some bushes of this valuable fodder plant, which was described by the late F. von Mueller as " one of the best of perennial fodder hexbs, yielding a bulky return." It was tried at this College in 1900, by sowing seed obtained locallv ; but no plants grew therefrom. Through the kindness of Mr. F. de Ca.stella, Govern- ment Viticulturist, some seeds of two varieties were received and sown in November, 1908. .STLLA CLOVER. The germination results were not very good, but the .seeds which ger- minated made very vigorous growth all through the autumn. No irrigation was applied at any stage. A stray cow ate the plants bare in the late autumn, but they grew quickly again, and in the spring reached a height of 5 feet. The flowers set badly at fir.st, but after the bees got to work there was no further trouble in this direction. The blossom of the one variety is white, and of the other red, the former seeming the more vigorous of the two. Mr. de Castella mentions that he found it was widely grown In Andalucia (Spain) and in the South of Fiance. It is also common in Italv, and in the north of Africa. 48 ] ounial of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. IRISH BLIGHT IN TOMATOES. D. McAlpiue, Vegetable Pathologist. A diseased tomato was forwarded to me by Mr. J. G. Turner, Senior Inspector of Fruit Exports and Imports, from a line of 26 cases imported from New South Wales and arriving here on 22nd November. The stalk end was of the ordinary red colour and healthy looking, but the blossom end was of a dirty-green colour mottled with brown. On cutting the tomato across, it was found that the flesh beneath the discoloured skin was of a brown rusty colour and extended towards the centre as shown in Fig. 2. After being cut for some little time there was a rotten dis- agreeable smell. On placing slices of the diseased tomato in a moist chamber, the fructification of the Irish Blight developed luxuriantly on the cut surface in 22 hours. The time taken for the development of the fructification of the fungus on the cut surface of a diseased tomato varies considerably, probably owing to the varying degrees of heat and moisture. Another slice from the same diseased tomato was placed in a moist cham- ber and closely observed. In this instance the fructification developed on the cut surface in 7^ hours, and this is the shortest time vet recorded. t. TOMATO AFFECTED WITH IRISH BLIGHT. 2. SECTION OF SAME TOMATO. It is exactly the same fungus in the tomato as that causing potato blight, and this was proved conclusively by infecting a healthy potato with the spores of the fungus from a diseased tomato and a healthy tomato was infected with the spores of Irish Blight obtained from one of the diseased potatoes grown in Beech Forest. This fungus may attack other members of the potato family as well as the tomato, but the latter is the only one of economic importance which requires to be specially attended to. It is not always sufficiently realized by growers how closely related potatoes and tomatoes are, for the one can be used as a stock for the other. Potato plants will grow on tomato plants, and tomato plants on potato plants. If the potato is used as the root, both tomatoes and potatoes may be produced, but if the tomato is the root, neither potatoes nor tomatoes will be developed. It is not only the potato industry which is threatened by the Irish Blight, but also that of the tomato, and when it is remembered that the value of the tomato crop is reckoned to be worth over ;^i8,ooo in 1908-9 to Victoria, it can readily be understood that the disease is not one to be trifled with, and that it should be stamped out wherever possible. That the risk to which the tomato-grower is exposed is not exaggerated, mav be seen from the losses sometimes incurred from this cause alone. It is lo Jan.. 19 fo.] Irhli Bliglit in Tomatoes. 49 recorded in the Journal of iJie Board of Agricultnn-. England, that one grower lost 50 tons of tomatoes grown in the open air in 1907, out of a total of 70 tons, or 71 per cent., owing to the plants being attacked by Phytopht/iora infestans. The same disease, causing considerable loss, is also found in tomato plants in New Zealand, both when grown in the open and under glass. The disease generally attacks tomatoes similarly to potatoes, first appearing on the leaves, then passing to the stems and linally causing the fruits to rot. From the succulent nature of the tomato, it is a splendid breeding ground for the fungus, and if the diseased fruits are allowed to lie on the ground and not destroyed, they produce spores iri countless millions, readily carried by the wind to other tomato plants. Some of the most luxuriant crops of spores reared in my laboratory, have been developed from tomatoes. Inoculation Experiments. It is important for the grower to know if the disease is communicalile from tomatoes to potatoes, and vice versa, for he can thereby be on his guard against spreading the disease from one crop to the other, by means of the diseased fruit or the diseased tubers as the case may be. Healthv tomatoes can be inoculated from diseased potatoes and healthy potatoes from diseased tomatoes, as the following experiments will show: — 1. A healthy green tomato had sporangia from a diseased potato placed on its skin in a drop of water. In course of time, the surface around this spot became discoloured and depressed, and the infected por- tion was clearly marked off from the diseased by being paler at the junc- tion. The tomato was cut through, showing the brown tissues beneath the skin, and on being placed in a moist chamber developed the fructifica- tion in 49 hours. The time which elapsed altogether from the inoculation of the tomato to the production of the fructification of the fungus was sixteen days. 2. A clean tomato was placed in a ves.sel where a diseased tomato had been freely shedding its spores, and from mere contact with the spores, the healthy tomato was infected, so much so that in nine days the fructifica- tion appeared on the surface of the skin, ready to be blown away and carried to fresh plants. 3. A healthy potato of the Southern Cross variety was infected at the crown end with spores from a diseased tomato. In 6| days the fructifi- cation appeared in various patches with a profuse development of sporangia, and the voung green shoc-ts of the potato were literallv covered at the base with the fructification of the fungus. It is a well established fact, therefore, that diseased potatoes and tomatoes are mutually infective, and every care should be taken only to have seed potatoes or tomato plants from clean districts. So far affected tomatoes have only been found in imported material from New South Wales, but wherever the Potato Blight occurs in Victoria, there is a danger of tomatoes being affected if grown in the same districts. Eternal vigilance is the price we must pay for freedom from this, as well as other pests, and now that we know how to control the disease bv spray- ing and to destroy the spawn of the fungus in the seed potatoes by sterilis- ing, if representatives from the different States were to meet and agree upon a common course of action, based upon our knowledge of the cause of the disease, it would be found that the difficulties are not so great as they appear, and that the loesses caused by it could be reduced to a minimum. 50 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910^ A NEW FRUIT PEST. Tomato Moth. {Hcliothis ar»iigt:ia, Hubn.) C. French, Jiiiir., Assistant Government Entomologist. This exceptionally common insect, known as the Tomato Moth, Cut- worm, &c., is unfoitunately too well known to need a detailed description,, as much has been written about it by entomologists. But, for growers- who are not acquainted with it, the accompanying plate will serve to show what the insect is like. It has a bad reputation as a destroyer of tomatoes; in fact, hardly any vegetable or garden plant comes amiss to the larva of this insect. Tomatoes arriving from the other States are often badly attacked, and much loss results to the growers. During November I received specimens of apricots and caterpillars- attacking the same from the Department of Agriculture of South Australia for identification. They were the above-named insect, and in South Australia were causing much damage to stone fruits,. Mr. Geo. Quinn, the Chief Horticultural Expert, is under the impression that the same cater- pillar is causing damage to apples in that State. A grower from Western Australia also informs me that Cutworms cause considerable damage to- stone fruits in his State. Recently, Mr. S. A. Cock, Vegetation Diseases Inspector in the Bendigo- district, forwarded some plums damaged by caterpillars. At mv request he sent the following notes on his observations of the pest: — " It is the first time that I have been able to catch the caterpillar at work, although last vear I noticed plums and apples affected in the same way. Seeing the looper caterpillars on the trees, I blamed them, although I could scarcely credit them with making such a deep bore into the fruit. This caterpillar attacks the green fruit on the tree in exactly the same manner as it does the tomato, making directly for the kernel of the fruit, and when it has de.stroyed that, either withdraws and attacks another fruit, or bores clean through and attacks the adjoining fruit. One caterpillar will destroy many plums, apricots, or apples. The young caterpillars live or. the leaves of the tree, and I have observed both large and small larvae eating the foliage. The pest is verv severe on plums, and plays sad havoc where the crop is heavy, boring out whole bunches. The plums wither, and then drop off. The plum most attacked is the Diamond. I have also observed the pest attacking apricots, and on Friday last detected it on- the apples. The apples attacked were not sprayed, and were eaten into the pip, and hollowed out in the same manner as the plums and apricots. The pest is in Harcourt, Walmer, Maldon, and other places." It is most unfortunate that it has developed a liking for fruits as the moths of this species are found in countless numbers in all parts of Vic- toria. The egg or eggs are deposited on the leaves or fruits of the tree, and the young, after being hatched, feed on the leaves for a short time, and bore into the fruit (see figures on plate), eating the centre out and in some instances leaving only a thin skin. The\- then eat their way out through the opposite side and continue this procedure through manv fruits, as mentioned above by Mr. Cock. Spraying with arsenate of lead has proved successful when the fruit is voung, but should not he used when it is ripening. During October and November, when the moths are hatchinfj; out from their lo Jan., 1910.] A New Fruit Pest. 51 <:hrysalides in the ground, thev could easily be attracted to the light ^of a lamp placed on a brick in a tin vessel containing kerosene. An ordinary C. FKEXCK, DIREXIT. L. 0. VALD ANDERSEN, DEL. HELIOTHIS ARMIGERA, HUBN. (TOMATO MOTH). iMg. I. Plums showing damage caused by caterpillars. Natural size From Nature. Fi- 2 Larva, back view. Natural size. From Nature. Fi"" 2K. Larva, side view. Natural size. From Nature. "Y\a , Chrvsalis. Natural size. From Nature. Fi. i Chrvsl.lis after moth has emerged. Natural size^ From Nature. ''■ ^' Fig. 5. Perfect Insect. Natural size. From Nature. hurricane lamp would answer the purpose. By this means the moths ^dlT be destroyed, which will prevent egg-laving. The ground . around the fruit trees should be kept well worked, as the caterpillars go mto the ] our )ial of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. crevices to pupate. Logs, bags, or stones in the orchard should be removed as they are favourite hiding places for the moths, and also for the caterpillars to pupate under. Bran mash placed under the tree may be of some use. Caterpillars, if placed together in boxes, devour each other, sucking the contents until only the skin remains. SHEEP DIPPINC;. //. IT'. Ham, Sheep Expert. Generally speaking, undipped sheep, no matter how well and carefully bred they may be, cannot produce fleeces to their fullest natural extent, either from the point of quantity or usefulness. Of course, there is a stage of inferiority of fleece when dipping may not increase its value per lb. in the same wav as with some inferior bred fleece.^ skirting does not always pay. But, with careful and proper dipping, sheep must be \er\- ill-bred in- deed when freedom from parasites does not allow of more wool per head ; further, the extra comfort thus secured means, all else being equal, in- creased ability to put on flesh. Farmers owning sheejj with any pretentions at all to good breerling, lose better prices per lb. and an increased yield per head through the sheep not being dipped, and especially in a season such as the one ju.st passing. The better bred the sheep are, the more the advantages of dipping are seen; ill-bred inferior woolled sheep show the least benefits. Northern sheep farmers will find dipping more beneficial in preventing the spread of lice than of ticks. Lice is the worst of the two evils. Ticks are not likelv to spread,- or even appear, to any extent, in dry districts; they increase most in wet winters and in timber country, and are more natural to the areas of heavier rainfall. During the early summer, when the wool is short, the heat and dust destroy the young ticks soon after they are hatched. But this is not so with lice. The latter have been prevalent in the northern areas where ticks are seldom seen, and a very small pro- portion of farmers appear to realize the reason for so much wool-plucking and the scraggy and " tippy " appearance of their sheep, especially the lambing ewes. Lambs on their mothers are often just as bad in the north, with lice, as the lambs are in the southern districts, with ticks. A lamb irritated with lice and living on the little milk a ewe affected in the same way can give, has little chance oi developing into the type of sheep one would desire. Its chances for export as best quality are certainly poor. Towards the end of winter, lice seem to lessen, and at shearing time the bulk of them are taken off with the fleece. The shortness of the fleece at that time dis- courages the development to any extent of those that remain. About April, however, the mild weather and the additional covering of wool, cause the conditions to be again favourable for them to breed in greater numbers. Poverty is often credited with bringing on these pests; but during the autumii. even when perfectly clean, sheep will be low in condition in any case. It is more correct to say that sheep with lice or ticks at that time must become poorer still. Sheep properly dipped, especially in powder dips, will not breed lice, no matter how poor they become. In some seasons, lice are prevalent in the southern districts also, and shf-ep when verv neglected have both lice and ticks. [To be continued.) 10 Jan., 19 io.] Treatment of Stinking Smut of W/zeat. 55 THE TREATMENT OF STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. Experiments at Longerenong Agricultural College. D. McAlpine, Vegetable Pathologist. In March, 1909, I was requested to give a practical demonstration to the Wimmera farmers on the best methods of treating wheat for the prevention of Stinking smut or Ball-smut as it is frequently cidled. Between 200 and 300 farmers attended at the Longerenong Agricultural College, and I was able from the facilities placed at my disposal by the Principal, Mr. Sinclair, to make up the necessarv solutions and dip the wheat in their presence. Bluestone and formalin are the two recognised substances for pickling wheat, and both were used on this occasion. The necessity was impressed on the farmers for having solutions of a definite strength, so that all the grain may be treated equally and with a minimum of risk as to its being injuriously affected in germination. Accordingly, 10 lbs. of bluestone were dissolved in 50 gallons of water, and a similar solution was kept ready in an extra barrel to replenish the dipping solution as it was used up. Half a bag of seed wheat was taken and dipped in the solution for about half a minute, shaking it up well so that every grain was wetted and any floating smut-balls were carefully skimmed off. In this way a large quantity of seed wheat can be treated in a comparatively short time. The formalin solution was easilv prepared by taking a i-lb. bottle of the proper strength, as prepared by Cuming, Smith & Co., and adding it to 40 gallons of water, when, after stirring, it is ready for use. A bag was suspended in the solution, fixed to the edge of the barrel by a ring, and the seed wheat was poured in slowly, so that all the smut-balls, light grains, &:c. , rise to the surface and are easily skimmed off. After stirring the grain occasionally and soaking it for ten minutes, the bag was lifted out bv a pulley arrangement and drained. As soon as it is dried it is readv for sowing. In order to prove the efficacy of the treatment, plots were laid out of nearly one acre each, on land which was as nearlv as possible equal throughout. During the three preceding years there was fallow, wheaten hay and oats, and the season was a very wet one up to August. Seed wheat of the variety Jade was cho,sen, which had a little smut, with .smut- balls scattered through it. The grain was treated as above with bluestone and formalin respectively on 17th June, and eleven days afterwards it was sown at the rate of 50 lbs. to the acre, together with a similar plot untreated. The plots were criticallv examined on 9th December, with the result that while the untreated plot yielded nearlv i per cent, of ball- smut (.85), that treated with formalin did not show a single smutty grain, and in that treated with bluestone only one diseased plant could be found with a single ear affected. This result is just in keeping with numerous previous experiments. If the seed is treated with a solution of the proper strength, and everv grain wetted, with all the .smut-balls skimmed off and the grain kept in disinfected bags, there is no danger of ball-smut appear- ing in the crop, for it is onlv bv means of seed infection that this smut can be propagated. 54 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. WINTER CROPS FOR THE SILO. /. M. B. Connor, Dair\ Supervisor. In every dairying district and particularlv in tlie nortli of Victoria where summer fodder crops cannot be successfully grown without irriga- tion, it is more important to take advantage of crops which grow rapidlv I. OATS, BARLEY, RVli. AND TARES. during the winter months in order to produce a supply of silage to carry the dairv herd over the ensuing summer. 2. BARLEY. OATS. RYE, AND TICK BEANS. Oats, barlev, rye, beans and tares fulfd these requirfments. If .sown earlv in the autumn, the\ make a rapid start and continue to grow steadilv through the whole of the winter months. By the end of lo Jan., 1910.] W'niicr Crops for the Silo. 55 56 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1 910. lo Jan., 1910.] Winter Crops for the Silo. 57 October they are ready for filling into the silo. Green crops weigh at least three times as much as the summer crop when dried in the form of hay. A three ton crop of hay would represent fully ten tons of silage to the acre. The results obtained by Mr. G. Hope on his dairy farm at Caulfield serve to illustrate what can be dontr- on ordinary sandy land with a moderate amount of artificial manures to the acre. Three acres of land, I an acre of which was planted to oats, and 2| acres to mixed fodder, produced over 60 tons of silage. This extraordinary yield was due to the uniformly heavy crop over the whole of the area. Twenty tons to the acre from crop 6 feet high represents an average of 9 lbs. to the square yard, or a sheaf from the binder every two square yards. Many heavy patches may be found vielding at the above rate, but it is unusual to find the average hold good for several acres. Photographs Nos. 3 and 4 .repre- sent the crop of oats grown at Mr. Hope's. The land was ploughed 9 inches deep, harrowed three times and worked to a fine tilth. It was manured with \\ cwt. blood manure per acre, and sown on 12th March with Abundance oats, at the rate of 2| bushels per acre. This crop was harvested for the silo on 3rd Novem- ber, '09, and i^eturned 25^ tons of green fodder to the acre. Prior to sowing the crop illustrated on page 54 (No. i) the land was ploughed, at intervals, three times, viz. : — 3 inches deep, 6 inches deep, and 9 inches deep respectively. On the 2 1 St April it was sown with, the following mixture : — Black oats, i bushel ; barley, i bushel ; rye, \ bushel ; and tares, \ bushel per acre. Manure (mixed) at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre was applied. The crop was harvested on 8th Novem- ber for the silo, and yielded 17 tons of green fodder to the acre. -55/, «i * *- 58 JouDial of Ag/iciilture. [10 Jan., 191 o. Another mixed crop was sown on j8th April, the preparation of the land and the manuring being the .same as in the case of the crop sown on the 2 1 St April. Th^ seed used was the following: — Tick beans, 2\ bushels; rye, | bushel; black oats, \ bushel. It was also harvested on the 8th November for the silo and returned 18 tons per acre. A view of ^Ir. Hope's lucerne paddock is also given. This paddock was ploughed 10 inches deep, harrowed four times, cross-harrowed and rolled. It was sown on loth September, 1908, in drills, at the rate of 7 lbs. of Hunter River seed to the acre. This crop has done remarkably well, and has returned fi\-e cuttings since sown. When cut on the 3rd November 12 tons per acre of green fodder were obtained. The lucerne is cut and chaffed dailv and mixed with the dairv herd's ration. BEE MORTALITY L\ THE STAWELL DISTRICT. Con.sequent on the heavv mortalitv which has recentlv occurred in the apiaries located on the eastern side of the Grampians, ^Nlr. R. Beulme was deputed to make inquirx . Mr. Beuhne visited many of the apiaries and from the owners of nineteen he was able to obtain reliable information .showing that out of 1,293 colonies the losses had been no less than 599. He also secured .specimens for bacteriological in\estigation which has been undertaken by Mr. C. A. E. Price of the Government Laboratory at the request of the Director. The matter was also brought under the notice of the Commonwealth Analyst by Mr. Beuhne. The results of Mr. Price's investigations and also of those of Mr. Willgerodt of the Commonwealth Customs Laboratory, are published here- with.— Editor. I.— EXAMINATION OF BEES FOR BACTERIAL DISEASE. C. A. E. Price, Microscopisi, Government Laboratory. During a recent inspection of 19 different apiaries situated along the eastern base of the Grampians, extending from Glenorchy to Great Western, Mr. R. Beuhne found that out of a total number of 1,293 colonies examined by him there had been an absolute mortalitx from some obscure malady of 599 colonies, equal to over 46 per cent. During the last week in OctoVjer I received through the post two small cages containing a number of living bees. Each oT the cages con- tained about 20 individuals. In the cage marked No. i , the bees were said to have been from a normal hive. The bees in No. 2 cage w'ere taken from a hive showing effects of the disease (or dwindling). Appearance of the Bees. — The normal bees on inspection appeared to be of an active robust character, while those from the affected hive, al- though at this period equally active in their movements, did not appear to possess the same vitality as the bees taken from the normal hive. There was no evidence on the floor or walls of either cage of excrement of any nature voided by the bees, which, if present, might tend to give some indication of a disease similar in character to the dy.senteric troubles which affect l)ees in the spring months, when the l^ees it is stated, discharge their excrement not onlv over the comb but on the sides, floor, and alighting lx)ard of the hive ; the drv faeces take the form of a long streak of dirtv red brown material. About four davs, however, after the bees lo Jan., 1910.] Etc Morta'litv in the Stait^dl District. 59 came to hand, those which were supposed to be suffering from the malad} became sluggish in their movements without showing the trembling motion of the organs generally associated with bee paralysis ; nor were there any special features of a clinical nature to aid in diagno'sis. Eventually, by the end of the sixth day, all of the affected bees were dead, while of tho normal bees none had died, the only change noticeable amongst them was that they were somewhat less active. Dissection. — Within a short time after arrival at the laboratory a numljer of both normal and abnormal bees were dissected, and a careful examination made of the intestinal tract, special attention being given to the lower portion of the bowel which, according to some recent investiga- tion carried out in the years 1907 and 1909, Mr. Imms* concluded that the mortality amongst the bees in the Isle of Wight was brought about by an obstruction or distension of the colon, caused In certain forms of food in the shape of pollen grain and particles of a wax-like nature forming hard compact masses in that region. Some of the bees on dissection certainly did present a similar aspect as regards the distension of the lower bowel ; but as exactly the same conditions were met with in both the normal and abnormal bees, this cannot be regarded as a factor tending to elucidate the disease under investigation. Portions of the semi-fluid yellowish material taken from the colon of the normal bees, on being submitted to a microscopical examination, were found to be composed of several different forms <]' pollen, whilst the pollen present in the colon of the un healthy was principally that collected from flowers belonging to the natural order, Compositae, together with a few particles of a waxy material. Xo micro-organi.sns of a special character were detected in this preliminar , microscopical examination of the bowel contents of either the unhealthy or healthy bees. Bacterial Examination. — Smear preparations wer,' next made from the blood and juices of the bees obtained (a) by removing a leg; (b) by opening the dorsal wall of the thorax. The specimens were then stained in the usual way by carbol-fuchsin and others by Loeffler's methylene blue. Although a few rod shaped organisms were noticed, their limited numbers did not appear to point to a bacterial infection. Bacteriological examination of that portion of the digestive system of rhe bee called the chyle stomach was next undertaken, especially as Dr. Maldenf who continued the investigation into< the bee di.sease in the Isle of Wight in the year 1909, isolated an organism capable of being distinguished from the other organisms present in the stomach contents. This bacillus " appears as a short round ended, thick organism with darkly staining ends and lightly staining central bands (]>nlar staining) and digestive canal closely resembles Bacillus pestis m general appearance." of a bee. He proposed calling it Bacillus pestiformis apis " and as 1, .Ksophayus; 2, Honey these bacilli take up the stain more deeply than most of Stomach • 4,' Mai^g^ the other organisms met with in the smears, the labour hian tubes; 5, suiaii „ , . °, . ... ....,,,, intestine; (i, Colon; 01 detecting them is materially diminished. 7. Rectum ; s, Anus. * On a disease of bees in tlie Isle of Wiyht. .Journ. Board of A^rio., Enj,'., June, 1907 ; Feb., 1909. t British Bee Jourrud, March 18. page 101. 6o Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jan., 1910. In the smears made from the chyle stomach of the unhealthy bees no organisms resembling the above were found, although the examination revealed the presence of a mass of small oval bodies resembling the spores of a mucor, or the cells of a form of vagrant yeast. At first some significance was placed on this discovery, but when it was found that the stomach contents of the normal bees occasionally contain similar cells, it was not looked upon as being the cause of the disease ; however, on find- ing that the samples of thin honey taken from diseased hives, forwarded to the laboratory for analvsis, contained cells somewhat resembling those found in the chyle stomach of the Ijees, especiallv in a honey from the Great Wes tern district where there had been heavy losses, it was concluded that there was possibly a connection between the cells present in the thin honey and those found in the chyle stomachs of the bees giving rise to fermentative changes which would probabh' account for the mortality. It will be seen from the subjoined analysis of the honey by Mr. E. R. C. Peters of this laboratory, that the thin honey, having a large amount of moisture, and a high nitrogen content, renders it a suitable medium for the growth of fungoid organisms (Mucors, Yeast, etc). SMEAR PREPARATION FROM THE CHYLE STOMACH OF A DISEASED BEE, SHOWING SPORES X 3OO. There may be something in the opinion, which is said to prevail almost without exception amongst apiarists, that the consumption by the bees of nectar from iron bark trees which are in bloom from April to October, contains something objectionable as they are entirely ignored by bees, pro- vided other trees are in flower. The honey gathered from these eucalypts may possibly contain a higher percentage of nitrogen, thus rendering the honey derived from this source a suitable medium for the growth of fermentative organisms. Cultures from each of the different honeys were made on agar con- taining 2 per cent, of glucose with the following result: — No. 1 sample ... ... .. Some yeast colonies. 2 .. ... .. ... Numerous A few yeast only. Nil. lo Jan., 1 910.] Bee Mortality in the Stawell District. 6r The microscopical examination showed the presence of yeast as fol- lows : — - No. 1 sample ... ... ... Large yeast cells, budding. l> ,, ... ... A mass of yeast eells. ,, 8 ,, ... ... ... Some yeast cells only. ,, 4 ,, ... ... ... Pollen cells, no yeast. 'On the primary agar cultures prepared from the colon and contents, taken from the unhealthy bees, there developed at room temperature a mass of fungoid growths, Penicillium glaucum, a number of yeasts, and a few colonies of bacteria forming large wrinkled growths on the surface of the media. On sub-culture on gelatine, however, they were early re- cognised as belonging to the B. siihtilis group. The cultures plated out ■on media from material from the healthy bees did not yield anything •more than a few moulds and a mucor similar to Mucor racemosus. At this period it was realized that the information gained by the micro- .scopic and bacterioscopic examination had not revealed anything to account for the malady beyond the presence of a number of yeasts in the watery .samples of honev' and cells somewhat of a similar nature in the colon contents of the unhealthy bees. The presence of these cells in the honey and also in the bees gave rise to a suspicion that the disease might be caused by the bees feeding on honey in a state of fermentation. For the purpose of further investigation, two additional samples were forwarded by Mr, Beuhne, one taken from a healthy and the other from an imhealthy Tiive. Some thin honey was received at the same time for examination as to fermentative changes. A small number of yeast cells were present in this honey. In the meantime my attention was drawn by Mr. Beuhne to .an article in the " Leipziger Bienen-Zeititng," October, 1909, by Dr. Enoch Zander, of Erlangen, on a disease of bees caused by an animal parasite, which he has named Nosema apis. This parasite, he states, is always present in bees suffering from a maladv somewhat similar to that under in- vestigation, and the oval cells described by him exactly resemble those de- tected previously in the chyle stomach. On an examination of the chyle :stomachs from a number of bees received later, the cells previously re- ferred to were again found to be present both in the sickly and in one instance only in a bee supposed to be normal. From Dr. Zander's de- scription of Nosema apis, the cells found resemble in every particular those •mentioned in his article. His description is as follows : — The peculiarities of life and the form of Nosema apis are exceedingly simple. Above all, it must be emphasized that this parasite and all its relations are cell parasites, which can only thrive in living tissue, but not outside the bee's body. In this respect it differs from the silkworm parasite which thrives in all organs, while Nosema a-pis thrives only in the middle intestine. After having devoured the intestinal cells of its victim, it envelopes itself in a membrane which protects it after the death of its host, and thus may live for a considerable time outside the body of the bee. These forms are called spores and are the only stages of development ever met with. If such a spore enters the middle intestine of a healthy bee, the membrane splits open and e.xpels a minute elongated parasite, which immediately bores into tlie intestinal walls and increases to an incredible extent. Barely four days after entering the intestine it produces new spores. The Nosema spores cause 'a marked discolouration of the intestine. While in healthy bees it is reddish and translucent, it becomes dull and milky white in colour after infection, a true sign of the disease. The intestinal cells which are full of Nosema spores gradually die off and are excreted and thus give rise (o a. possibility of affecting healthy bees should the excreta come in contact with their food. 62 Journal of Agiicnltiire. [lo Jan., 1910, KEPORT ON ANALYSIS OF HONEYS, SUBMITTED BY Mr. R. BEUHNE. Sugars. Ratio. Polarization. 5, as Formic cid. No. and Description. 6 6 . ^ ^2 §1 0 3 > 0 t 1 p '■3 S Oij 1^ ft H Q h-5 «h5 etter known a-; the centre of a once flourishing trade, w^hich has of late years lost much of its importance ; that in what was known as vins d'imitaiion (imitation wines). So-called Madeiras, Ports, Marsalas, Malagas, &c., were turned out by the million gallons and shipped to all parts of the world, skilful imitations, made from the juice of well-selected grapes, no doubt, but the whole business was scarcelv in accordance with modern French ideas on the naming of wines, which have recently become much more strict than they were formerly. It is interesting to note that very large quantities of these wines were for- merly .shipped to the United States and other countries under such curious, hybrid names as "French sherries," "Burgundy ports," &c. Much of the raw material for this trade was recruited from the rancio wines of Banvuls. Collioure and other Grenache growing localities in Roussillon. At none of these places, however, was I able to stay, and a few hours after passing the Spanish frontier I arrived at Montpellier, the capital of the department of Herault, and as such the viticultural capital of France, if not of the whole world, for it is to Montpellier that students flock from all parts of the world in search of the latest and most scientific knowledge concerning matters viticultural. Arrival at Montpellier. The generous hospitality extended to all comers and the unselfish way in which French viticulturists are ready to impart the knowledge they have acquired as the result of \ears of w^ork — knowledge which would in mo8. lo Feb., 1910.] TJic Wine Industry m Southern France. 67 As for myself, the reception I met with from those friends I had been fortunate enough to make during m\ three weeks' stav in Montpellier some six months earlier, was more than gratifying. My first vi.sit was to M. J. Leenhardt-Pomier. Personal matters scarcely come within the scope of this report ; besides, I was the recipient of generous kindness and valuable assistance from so many that space will not permit reference to each in detail. To M. Leenhardt, however, I owe so much, that T cannot refrain from here expressing the gi'eat obligation I am under to VERCFLANT HOMF STEAD AND VINEYARD. The lower portion of this vineyard produces 3,000 gallons per acre. this gentleman, who is one of the foremost wine men in Southern France at the present day, as may be gathered from the fact that he was President of the Wine and Grapes Committee at the Franco-British Exhibition held recently in London. He is a retired wine merchant, and owns extensive vineyards in the neighbourhood of Montpellier. His summer home at Terchant is one of the show \incvards of the district. Amongst many GRAPE PICKING AT VERCHANT. Other interesting features it includes several experimental plots. M. Leen- hardt was thus in a position to help me very materially in the work of my mission, and for his generous aid I am most deeply indebted. Thanks to his introduction, I was able to make frequent visits to the well-known Agricultural School, where I was cordially received and learnt much of deep interest. I also had many interviews with ^L Richter. the well-known c 2 68 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. nurseryman, whose grafted vines are now playing so imix)rtant a part in the reconstitution of our vineyards, and from whom i received much information of great value as w'ill be seen later. Montpellier is a fine tow^n of 80,000 inhabitants, possessing a Uni- versity in addition to its celebrated Viticultural School. It is the capital of the department of Herault, the most important in France so far as wine production is concerned. This department, together with the ad- joining ones of Aude, Gard and Pvrenees-Orientales, make up the region generally known, from a viticultural point of view especially, as Le Midi (The South). This region, with its million of acres under vines, produced in 1907 the enormous yield of 672,540,000 gallons, or nearly half of the total wine production of France in that year. The department of Herault, and more particularly the district in the neighlx)urhood of Mont- pellier, may be taken as typical of the whole region known as Le Midi. Before entering on the description of viticultural conditions and methods followed in these departments, it will be w^ell to trv to give some idea of the importance of the vine industr\- of France and its bearing on the economic and social condition of the countn.-. National Importance of the French Wine Industry. . In a non wdne-drinking country, such as Australia, it is hard to realize the national importance of the vine industry of France. In order to bring this vividly before the public of England, M. Leenhardt had wall sheets prepared which were displayed at the Franco-British ExhiViition held in London in 1908, from these a few extracts are here made — Wine Production of the World. Eurojje America Other 3 countries producing wine 26 Wine-producing countries \verage of ten years 1897 -1906.) Gallons. France ... 1.073,512,000 Italy 748,682,000 Spain ... 436,810,000 Portugal 93,610,000 Austria 74,052,000 Roumania 67,650,000 Russia 60,214,000 ( lermanj- 52.030,000 Bulgaria 49,258.000 Hungary 41,580,000 Turkey" 41,2.50,000 Greece 2.5,740,000 Switzerland 23,320,000 Gallons. Servia ... 18,454,000 Azores, Madeira, Canaries 4,466,000 .. . 2,806,628,000 Chili ... 59,730,000 Argentine 33,528.000 United States . 31,786,000 Peru ... 19,272,000 Brazil ... 7,964,000 Uruguay 2,926,000 Mexico 726,000 Bolivia 616,000 .. . 1.56,508,000 Australia 4,510,000 South Africa 4,290,000 Persia 616,000 . ... 2,972,-552,000 . 9,416,000 )untries . 2,972,555,000 Gallons. (iallons. lo Feb., 19 io.] The \\ iiic hidiistrx in Southerii trance. 69 This table brings out several interesting facts. France has during the past ten years produced one-third of the total wine supply of the world. It can be seen that little Switzerland, a country so cold that only small patches are fit for the growth of the yine, produces seven times as much as our Commonwealth. The population of both countries is about the same. We also find that such countries as Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece and Servia, countries .seldom considered by us. produce between them the respectable total of over 200,000.000 gallons. The abo\e figures are average ones. Turning to those for the 1907 vintage we find that France, including Algeria, produced the enormous yield of 1,642,760,000 gallons (France 1,453,564,000 and Algeria 189.200.000), or more than half the average annual world yield of wine. \Mien we consider this enormous volume of wine, two questions present themsehes. What is this wine? What happens to it? The first question is answered bv the following table: — Wine Vintaged in France in 1907. Production of each Department (Quantities Officially Declared by A'ine-growers.) Gironde Cote d'Or Marne ... Both Charentes Herault 294,S00,0()0 Aude 184,800,000 Gard 93,500,000 Pyrenees-Orientales I 99.440,000 J Gallons. 119,660,000 Claret. 14,960,000 Burgundy. 6,600,000 Champagne. 65,560,000 Cognac (wine distilled). J> )U' to excise supervision and payment of duty on its removal from the farm of the growei'. ■« .',:; ' '• ._ 5 J The following table shows the annual consumption of wine, beer, and spirits per head of population- in a few typical countries. These figures are from the Viotorian Year-Book for 11.08-9. The figures for ■ France differ somewhat from the French estimate: — Country. Wine. Beer. Spirits. Victoria •65 11-92 •67 Australia •65 10-73 •73 United Kingdom •29 28^4 •93 France 30 •? 7-9 1^36 German Empire r45 26 1 155 Bavaria — 54 5 — Italy 25-1 •18 •26 Spain 18 •S — — Belgium 1-02 48 • r35 ij Feb., 1 910.] The Wine Industry in Southern France. 71 has always been in countries warm enougli for tlie growth of the vine since Biblical times. It figures on the table at the midday and evening meal, from the highest to the lowest in the land, in private houses and cottages as well as in hotels and restaurants, where it is no more considered an extra, or charged for as such, than bread. It is, in fact, part of the daily bill of fare, just as tea is with us. The fundamental difference between the wa\ in which wine is consumed in France and in Australia may be summed up in a few words. Most of the wine consumed in Aus- tralia is taken between meals, whilst almost the totality of that drunk in France is taken with meals. This point has a vital bearing on the ques- ^tion. Frenchmen do not drink wine between meals — to do so is usually •considered " bad form "" — but they do not consider a meal complete unless accompanied by a glass or two of wine. As will be pointed out presently, this wine is of verv low alcoholic strength, and is very usually further diluted by the addition of a little water at table. Taken regularly in this way wine is a food and not a stimulant — it forms part of the daily ration, replacing an isod\namic quantitx of other carbohydrates. In other words, though consumed very generally, it is the custom of the country to take it only in strict moderation. For it to l:>e possible for wine to occupy such a position in the daily life of the nation, two things are necessary. The wine must be of low alcoholic strength, and it must be available at such a reasonable price as will place it within the reach of all. Both these requirements are met in the common French wine universally known as •' \/in Ordinaire,'" and frequently referred to in France as Vin de Con- sommation \C our ante (Current Consumption). Vin Ordinaire. There is perhaps no type of wine which is so completely an unknowii ■quantity to the average Australian or Englishman, who has not travelled in France, as tht* ''vin ordinaire" of that country, and yet this is the type produced and consumed to the practical exclusion of all others, not only in France, but in all countries which produce wine in large quan- tities. It is the everv-dav drink of the wealthy classes, as well as of the artisan and labourer.' Other wines are placed on the table occasionally; but it is "vin ordinaire,'' often mixed with water, which is the usual beverage of France. The total consumption of choice wines in France would not greatly exceed the export trade, and this we have seen to only constitute about 4 per cent, of the total production of the country. As regards alcoholic strength, statistics show clearly the low alcoholic strength of the great bulk of this wine. The 1,453,564,000 gallons pro- duced in France (Algeria excepted) in 1907 have been classified as fol- lows:^ ^ „ Gallons. Wii.e of less than 19A 1 er cent, proof (11° French) ^'??!!'nnn'SSn Wine of 19i per cent, proof . lo'lSSWO Wineof more than 19i per cent, proof - ■•■ ■■• '4U,l».i,UUU These figures render further comment almost unnecessary ; it is interest- ing, however, to note that the quantity of sweet wine made in France in 1907 only amounted to 712.030 gallons, probably less than we produce in Australia. . Turning to the price at which the bulk of this wine is sold, we tind figures whtch appear at first sight rather disconcerting. The y;eld of 1907 vintage (1,453,564,000 gallons) was officially estimated to be worth -J, 117, 343, 626 francs^(;£44. 693-74.- o;,. 6d.;, or rather less than 7id. per Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. gallon. These figures were based on actual sales, which are us-ually effected throughout France, very shortly after vintage.* Two facts render it possible to sell wine as cheap as this ac a profit.' I. Heavy Yields. — Statistics show that the 4,136,915 acres under vines in France produced in 1907 1.453.500.000 gallons, o-r an average of a little over 360 gallons per acre. If we turn to the four departments known as Le Midi, with its 1,000,000 acres of vines, the average yield per acre increases to over 600 gallons. It is in the Midi that the greater part of the "vin ordinaire" of Ph-ance is produced. Still further limiting our area and onlv taking into consideration the department of Herault, with its 447,320 acres of vines, we find the average in 1907 to have been nearK 660 gallons per acre, a high figure when one considers that young vineyards, as well as unsatisfactory ones, of which large areas still exist, are included in the average. Statistics fail to give an adequate idea of the heavv yields of vast numbers of these vineyards, for the \ine lands of Herault Ijelong to two distinct categories — stony uplands, unfit for almost anv other culture than the vine — and ordinarx agricultural land, level or CARTING IN THE GRAPES. undulating. Large areas of the former reduce the average considerably. In the latter the vield is seldom below 1,000 gallons per acre, whilst 3,000 is frequently exceeded. It is in parts of this department that the highest yields on record are probabh obtained, as we shall see when describing in detail the viticultural methods in vogue. 2. Rapid Maturation. — The verv cheap price mentioned above renders, lengthy maturation impossible. It is one of the peculiarities of " vin ordinaire '" that it is fit for use at a very early age. It may come as a surprise to many unacciuainted with this tvpe of wine to know that it is at its best at from 12 to 18 months old, and quite fit to drink at six months or even less. After it is 12 months old. it does not im- prove on keeping and does not increase in \alue. There is perhaps no subject connected with ^'iticulture concerning which greater misconceptions exist than the age of wine, esipeciallv with the general public. Many of tho^se who look upon them.selves as well informed, and are so ready to give advice, are in the habit of telling one that " the great fault of Australian wines is that thev are not properly matured," " that thev are put on the market too young," &c. No doubt, in some * A ver.v satisfactory improvement has quite recently taken place in the price of wine in France. Accordinn- to latest advices this has hardened to nearly 20 francs ])er hectolitre- almost Od. per gallon — a price which has not been obtained for this type of wine for a ^ood many .\ ears. lo Feb., 1910.] TJic W'nic Imiustrx hi SoutJiern France. 73 cases, this is so, but in others the reverse is the case. The truth of the matter is that different wines vary very considerably in the time which it takes them to arrive at maturity, or, in other words, to develop all their qualities. In marked contrast to the rapidly-maturing " vin ordinaire" are the high-class wines of the " Medoc," near Bordeaux, which we know di< clarets. These, as a rule, are scarcely fit to bottle until they have under- gone five vears' maturation in wood, and continue to improve in bottle for many years ; during their first few years they are decidedly unpalatable. Choice wines take a varying time, both in wood and in bottle, to acquire the maximum of quality they are capable of. As a rule, the choicer the wine the more slowlv does it mature, and the more unfit is it for consump- tion when quite voung, whereas, on the other hand, the " vin ordinaire" which constitutes the bulk of the wine of France, is almost immediately fit for consumption, and does not improve on keeping. IN THE VINEYARD. Messrs. J. Leeiihardt-Pomier and F. Richter examining a vine of '' Grand noir de La Calmette.'' The closeness of plantation and absence of summer ])runing are here illustrated. As regards wholesomeness, " vin ordinaire " gives a rude blow to one of the cherished errors so often and so freely expressed by would-be critics of Australian wines. We often hear it stated that young wine is injurious, that much of the wine retailed in Victoria is little better than poison, because it is not sufficientb matured. &c. Now, the greater part of the wine produced in France is drunk before it is eighteen months old. Exact figures on the subject are difiicult to obtain, but from a careful examination of it, and of statistics bearing on it, there can be no doubt that at least 60 per cent, of the i„364 millions of gallons consumed in France is under twelve months old, whilst fully 90 per cent, of it is less than two years old. Yet this voung wine has no injurious effect on the average health of the French people, which is certainly not inferior to that of neighbour- ing countries where wine is only an occasional luxury. 74 journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910.. Apart from this view of the question, however, is it not surely illogical to think that the somewhat recently fermented juice of fresh fruit should^ be wholesome in the case of the apple yet injurious in that of the grape? For cider is, in Southern England, mostly consumed before it is twelve months old. The wholesomeness, or otherwise, of food products concerns medical men rather than agriculturists, but it is time that attention was drawn to^- these mischievous errors concerning the age of wine which are the result of ignorance and prejudice. These two facts enable it to be sold profitably at a price which places it within the reach of all, a price which fluctuates very considerabl> , but which is such that sound, well-made, wholesome wine seldom costs the con sumer who procures it in bulk, more than iid. per gallon (rather less than- 2d. per bottle). Of late years, perhaps, no agricultural produce has undergone more violent fluctuations than this very type of wine, owiug to- the altered conditions of supply and demand arising from the ravages of phylloxera in the first place, and the ultimate solution of the difficulty by means of reconstitution on American stocks. Prices have been exceedingly profitable in .some seasons, whilst in others thev have fallen to consider- ably less than the value of the casks required to store the wine in. The viticultural crisis of 1907, which led to grave trouble in Southern France, was the result of an acute fall in the price of wine, and it is satisfactory to note that at the present time the outlook has very considerably improved. In a general way, it may be stated that with the price of the wine, at the- vineyard, at 4|d. to ^A. cost of production is barely covered ; at 6|d. a fair profit, and at 8jd. to gd. a verv handsome profit is realized. " Vin ordinaire" is either red or white; formerly little else than red wine was made, but of late years white wine has increased very consider- ably in public favour and has therefore been much more largely produced. A considerable (]uantity of it is now made annually from red grapes, which preponderate in the vineyards of France. Both types have much in common, though thev differ, of course, in colour, tannin contents, and' flavour. They are light and agreeable and strike an Australian by their acidity, which is considerably higher than that of our wines. This acidity is entirely due to the grape and mu.st not be confounded with that result- ing from defective fermentation. This high acidity is one of the valuable features of these wines, for it enables them to be mixed with a good deal of water without their flavour undergoing very marked modification. Frenchmen distinguish between wines which stand watering and those- which do not ; the common wines of the country belong to the former category in a very decided manner. Though possessing but little bouquet, they have a briskness and freshness which renders them attractive- to the regular consumer. Thev are thirst quenching in a \ery high degree, especially when mixed with water. These wines are. as a very general rule, faultlessly made and in excellent condition. With the keen com- petition of the present dav, a defective wire would be quite unsaleable. A remarkable feature of these wines is their evenness. The chief varia- tion is in the alcoholic strength, which ranges between 8 degrees and 11 degrees French standard (14 per cent, and 19 jjer cent, proof spirit), ro' much so that it is very generally sold an degree (by the degree), the price being determined according to the alcoholic strength. The following analyses of four typical samples of "vin ordinaire" selected in France bv the writer show the usual composition of this wine. They were analyzed by Mr. W. Percy Wilkinson, Federal Analvst, before his transfer to the Federal service, and whilst he was State Government Analvst : — no Feb., 1910.] The Wine Industry in Southern France. IS w 0 < M P^ ^ 0 K P 0 o CO -t -^ ■* t^ 00^0 -M -M -M -— 0000 GO in cc a> r* -^ i> '^f O CO OS GO >-.' fi ^ bt-r' 2-? be s a s "o ^5 ^1 s ce .s ■Sg-2 CD-^ ii -^ s _ ai 0 2 £-2 ?i c3 sa 0 j^ 1 =3o.'E tc >>_q; 0 S °.2 t- X a^fi 2 '^ 0 qj t:.c '^ ' .. bc — ^"S 0 E-.^S =p is 5 5" 0 .2 ffl z. pj >^ >-, -^ =* a ^>'Z Hi ~ =3"" :i. ■z. .2 C 3 > Qi ^ 0 £ 23^ p,o 0 as^ S-M, S C ■So P =i =* II S S '^ s a M 0 % ^"5/ ■S| "^.S 9 >. ""H — ■??, ■? 0 2a O c3 S.2-S *- bc 5 o ^ S s5 ■- c - '5 o ■ Q'3 aE- >> ^ •3 ^ tS ,3 bc .'- # i^ •73 ■■?; 0 biD •73 .^ d 0 ■ii P. a - ^ -^ ^-J S.Q-2.S %%-i^ ^j o 2 ^ Itll .„& — X w S w ^■^^ 2-" ^ &. oj » a a bit-^ -< S o !«S52 e.a 3.9 a o oj o aS 2i:-3 -a 5isJ S -jd Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910.] Such is the " vin ordinaire" of France, it 1 have deaU at some length with it, it is because it would be hopeless to endeavour to describe the viticulture of the region in which it is most abundantly produced before explaining its nature and the important part it plays in the every- day life of the a\'erage Frenchman. Outside of France, the wines of that country are known by the Clarets, Burgundies, Champagnes, and a few other tvpes which seldom find theii way tc Australia. 'Fhese choice wines, by reason of their high cost of production increased by lengthy maturation, could not possibly become really popular beverages, and yet they are the wines which, no doubt, in the minds of most Australians represent the wines of France. i.iGHT Wine and Temperance. The bearing of the character of the wine made, on the habits and general sobriety of the population of Southern France, as well as of other wine- producing co^untries, is so striking that viticulture in the region can- not be described without reference to it. The French, in common with the other Latin races, have long been noted for their sobriety. No doubt, alcoholism has increased in the country — so much so as to give cause for grave anxiety, but this is only of recent years, and has nothing to do with the industry'. On the contrary, it is significant that this deplorable change corresponded with the Phylloxera crisis and the consequent scarcity and rise in the price of vin ordinaire, which led to its substitution by other beverages. Alcoholism is on the increase in Northern France, where the large beetroot distilleries are situated. It is practically unknown in the Southern departments, the region of abundant light wine.* In this part of the country, those who devote themselves to the pro- motion of the temperance cause found their hopes on '' Le vin c outre Valcool" (wine against alcohol). I cannot illustrate this attitude better than by giving a few extracts from a letter I received a couple of mails ago from M. Leenhardt. This gentleman, as founder and president of the Ligue Antialcooliquc de VHerauli (the anti-alcoholic league of Herault), is one of the foremost temperance advocates in Southern France. In replying to requests for his criticism of my reports on Spanish Viti- culture, copies of which I had sent him, he expressed surprise at my having devoted so much attention to the strong wdnes of Spain and Portugal before dealing with the light vin ordinaire of his part of France. In reply, I endeavoured to explain Victorian conditions and ou( exceedingly small wine consumption. I received an answer from which I translate- the following extracts : — "It is not that you have succeeded in modifying my feelings on the wine (|ues- tion. On the contrary, what you write me ... . convinces me more and more of what I see in all countries privileged lo produce those two foods, bread ;md wine, one solid, the other liquid ; there is nothing preferable for man, especially the latter, always ready for immediate use (without recourse being necessary to boilin" water, to infusions which only make an anodyne and not a nourishing drinkt). Wine is the most wholesome food, the most hygienic, the most nourishing and fortifying. With these two foods alone, in Spain, Italy, France, and else- where, man undertakes the hardest work .... working as long as it is daylight and is never an alcoholic, if he does not drink fortified wine, such as are Sherry, Port, and other wines, too alcoholic bv themselves. You were better placed than any one, after your long, serious and conmlete study of vine regions and their popu- lations, 'to bring about this great and happy change, necessary and useful, in the conception of the part played by wine, in regions where it is not produced and * Absinthe the increase in the consumption of which is caiisino- so much anxiety among thinking- people in France cannot be considereri here. Its use is really a drug habit. „ ^ , t Twisalmost unknown in France by the bulk of the masses, thou-h afternoon tea is very usually taken- by ladies of the upper classes. lo Feb., 1910.] The Wine Industry in Southern France. 77 where it is not, or imperfectly known. Formerly, England, without vines cr colonies producing (winej sought, for her wealthy classes . . . those not wishing to take to whisky . . . the fortified wines of Spain and Portugal. Later .-.n, Clarets, Burgundy, Beaujolais, Hermitage, were more and more appreciated; but these are all superior wines — expensive beverages de luxe — and only accessible to rich people. But, to-day, England has her colony Australia which can, and ought, to produce for her (if she wishes it) popular wine, wine for the masses, the most natural liquid form of food, preferable in every way to all others. And if she wished it, Australia could, at a profit, as well as we can (and batten) offer to her own population and afterwards to all English speaking people on the surface of the earth, good wine ... of from g deg. to 10 deg. (15.8 to 17.5 per cent, proof) at 30 fr. the hecto of 22 gallons . . . say 2d. per bottle; since we sell it here, at 15 fr. the hecto, with profit to the producer at the present moment." It will be seen that the point of view, frora which the whole wine question is regarded in France, differs radically from that from which it is usually, or perhaps more correctly, often considered in Australia, but it must be repeated that the above only applies to very light wine which, as is frequently said in French, ne fatigue ni la tete ni V estomac (fatigues neither the head nor the stomach) wine varying from 14 per cent, to 17 1. of proof spirit, and taken with meals. The French view of the question has been very clearly stated in the valuable paper read bv M. L. Roos, director of the CEnological Station of Herault before the International Congress of Applied Chemistry held in London, in 1909, entitled, Le Vin Dans L' Alimentation (wine as food). * '■> >|: * * Would the production of such wine be possible in Victoria? Would it pay? These are questions which will doubtless be asked. To the first, the answer is decidedly in the affirmative. All that is necessary is to grow the Southern French varieties — we have them here now (several for many years) — on suitable soil and to train them, and treat their fruit as is done in their native Midi. As regards the second question, there is less certainty, for we are not a wine drinking people, and any change in the habits of a country must come gradually. This much, however, may be confidently affirmed — that Australians can never become large constnners of wine until some such light type is placed within their reach at a low price. In Spain, Portu- gal, and Italy we find the same state of affairs as in France. It is only very^ light, rapidly maturing wines which can possibh' become the every- day drink of a people, and this for the two reasons of wholesomeness' and low cost. There is no reason to fear that the consumption on a large scale, of wine of this type, would interfere in any way with our present wine industry. The high class wines' we now produce are something quite apart from \in ordinaire. Thev are partaken of only on rare occasions, seeing that our average consumption per head is little more than \ gallon per year. With a light common wine in much more general use,' the occasions on which something better would be required would' become more frequent, and the demands for the types we now produce would correspondinglv increase — wines, manv of which have been abundantly proved to be of a high order of merit. The difficultv of handling wine of this type must not be lost sight of ; its low alcoholic strength renders it very liable to acetification, and trouble will doubtless be experienced at first, especiallv in connexion with retailing from bulk. Even now. drv wines containing at least \ more alcohol, often suffer from ignorance and carelessness of retailers, which result in the wine going "off." There is no doubt, however, that this difficultv can be overcome, and with careful handling wines of under i5 78 ] oiirnal of Agriculture. [10 Feb., 1910, per cent, proof can be placed before the public in faultless order iix Australia as well as in France. * -x- * -x- * The vine region of the Midi is, taken on the whole, one of the most interesting in Europe. It is here that the heaviest yields are obtained and that the most recent scientific knowledge has been brought to bear on both vine growing and wine making, in short, that the intense culture of the vine is brought to its highest state of perfection. In Australia, where the common fault of our viticulture, as well of as our agriculture generally, is that it does not constitute intense culture , we have much to learn from this region. The salient features of its viticulture will be dealt with in next article. The photographs reproduced in this issue are illustrative of usual viticultural operations in the vineyards, near Montpellier, and do not at this stage require detailed description. THE WONDERBERRY. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of Horticulture., Burnley. A considerable axnount of attention is at present being devoted in the columns of various horticultural papers to one of Luther Burbank's so- called innovations — the Wonderberry. This plant is catalogued and sold by various seedsmen and nurserymen as one of the " latest creations" of the " Wizard of America " ; and as it is now being grown in Victoria, it is well to know somewhat of its history. It is an annual, and requires to be propagated from seed in the springtime. Burbank hybridised two varieties of Solatium nigrum, the Black Nightshade, which is so very common all over this State, and, as a result, produced the Wonderberry. Of it, he says — This new species bears the most delicious, wholesome, and healthful berries in the utmost profusion, and always comes exactly true from seed. Prominent British horticulturalists had their doubts about this berry, -and plants were grown side by .side with several forms of Solanum nigrum to test its value. The berries when ripe were forwarded to Dr. Greshoff, of Haarlem, one of the best known authorities on vegetable poi.sons. His report appears in the issue of the Gardeners' Chronicle, of 30th October, 1909 ; and he says that he •cannot recommend the use of these fruits as food ; because, although they may differ in the amount of poison they contain, according to the traditions under which they were grown, it will always be dangerous to eat them, and especially so for feeble -children. Dr. Greshoff also says that the poison contained in the fruit is that known as Solanin ; and of the varieties analysed, the most poisonous was the Wonderberry ! So that the Wonderberry is nothing more or less than a slightlv variable form of a plant reputed to be poisonous, certainly dangerous at various stages, while harmless at others, which has been growing in profusion for years past on our rubbish heaps and other places where weeds abound. In any case there are dozens of other and better and more useful fruits for human consumption without having recourse to such a plant as the Wonderberry. Plants of it are now being grown at the Burnley Gardens for experimental purposes. Up to the time of writing no fruit has yet appeared on them ; but the plant itself appears to be identical with the common Black Nightshade, both in habit of growth, in foliage, and in flowers. lo Feb., 1910.] The Loganberry. 79 THE LOGANBERRY. E. E. Fescott, Principal, School of Horticulture, Bwnley. Among fruits of the berry class, the blackberry and the raspberry have long been popular favourites. Both fruits are easily cultivated, and both are enjoyed as luscious and delicately flavoured fruit. They readily lend themselves to cross fertilization, and quite a number of new varieties of small fruits have been introduced to cultivation and are now in prominence as a result of this hybridization. Chief among these black- berry-raspberry hybrids are the Dewberry, the Phenomenal, the Mam- moth, the Primus, and the Loganberry. These fruits are all of American origin ; the Dewberry being an improved variety of the American traihng blackberry ; Phenomenal and Primus being two hybrids produced by the world-famous plant originator, Luther P)urbank ; while the Mammoth and the Loganberry were raised by Judge Logan, of Santa Cruz, California. MR. T. GRANT S LOGANBERRY PLANTATION, RINGWOOD. The Mammoth was the successful result f)f cross fertilizing the natne American blackberry with one of the early raspberries; but the Logan- berry was a chance hybrid, being the result of natural cross pollination, also between the native blackberry and one of the cultivated raspberries. The seeds of the native fruit were sown by Judge Logan for experimental purposes, with the result that one of the finest of berry fruitsi was pro- duced and perpetuated. Most of these fruits are on sale at various Vic- torian nurseries, but the one that has come more prominently into favour than any other is the Loganberry. This fruit first originated in 1881. and was introduced into Victoria some years later. The Loganberry is of a robust hardy nature, and the plant partakes more of the parental characteristics of the blackberry than the rasp- berry. Its strong rambling nature makes it a plant easy to establish, and if grown on trellis, or on fences, it is easy to control, and is far less likely to become a pest than is its parent the blackl^erry. As an ornamental plant it will become ver\ useful, as its handsome foliage makes it a striking object when used either to cover old legs or fences, 01 as' a plant for pillar climbing. 8c ] ouriial of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. In the southern parts of Victoria, it seems to thrive equally in sheltered and exposed positions. A fence at l\anhoe, near Melbourne, covered with this plant, is thriving and producing good fruit in a fully exposed position to the north winds, and to the hot sun all day long. The photographs reproduced in this article were taken at Mr. Thomas- Grant's Loganterrv plantation at Ringwood. The fruit is larger than that of the raspberrv, more resembling the blackberry in shape, dark red in colour, and with a flavour suggestive of both fruits. The flavour is more piquant and acid than that of the rasi>l)erry ; and the berry does A GOOD CROP. not possess at all that j>eculiar flavour that is so distinctive to the rasp- berry. For this reason it is frequently preferred, and there is no doubt that as the Loganberry becomes more known, it will become a serious rival to the popularity of the raspberry. The individual fruits are gene- rail v about I inch long, and very frequently they are found i\ inches in length. The bunches are numerous, and produce a good quantitv of berries. Its' strong sturdy nature and vigorous growth are points in its favour, and against the raspberry, as it, so far, does not seem tO' be at all liable tO' attacks of the root-rot fungus, Anii'iUaria mcllca, \\hich is so destructive to raspberrv plantations. lo Feb., 1910.] Orchard and Garden N ates. This plant will thrive successfully wherever either of its parents are grown, a deep alluvial soil, well-worked, to allow a cool root run in summer, and a sheltered position being mcst suited to its requirements. A fair amount of irrigation W'ill cause the plant to yield a generous crop of an excellent sample of fruit. Being of a vigorous habit, and' pro- ducing canes at the same time as it produces its fruit, the plant naturally requires a good amount of moisture in the soil ; the drier the soil, and the more exposed the situation, the more water it will need. The Loganberry may be propagated either by root division or by layering. The growing canes mav be layered by simply bending the canes do^wn to the ground, fastening them with a forked stick to keep them in position, and covering loosely with a mulch of soil, which should be kept moist. The cane will produce roots freely and readily from each leaf joint under the soil. Each winter the old and straggling canes should be removed so as to allow the new growths to become strong and produce good fruit. In spring or early summer the strong growing shoots should be pinched back so as to strengthen the cane and produce a good quantity of fruiting laterals. The Loganberry is mentioned in some American horticultural magazines as a honey plant, owing to the fact that the bees cluster around the flowers in considerable numbers. Still it would not be ad\asable to plant it for that purpose, as there are many other plants more suitable as " bee- plants." which flower simultaneouslv with the Loganberry. Having made so marked a .success in the production of the Loganberry, horticulturists have utilized this plant for further hybridizing purposes; and as a result two new berries have been placed on the market. These are the Laxtonberrv and the Lo'wberrv. The Lowberrv is the finest of these two. and is a cross between the l^oganterrv and the blackberr\ . It produces remarkably large berries, black in colour, and verv juicy, the berries being sometimes 1% inches in length. ORCHARD AND CxARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescoti, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Fumigate for red anil other scales. Cultivate the soil frequently. Continue budding and summer pruning. Spray for codlin moth, bryobia, and woolly a])his. Fruit Gathering and Packing. Orchardists will be busy during February with the gathering and marketing of fruit. In gathering fruit, every care should be taken to see that it is not in any way bruised or crushed. This is often the cause of fruit decaying so rapidly, and of the deterioration of fruit in the fruit room. All fruit should be handled as lightly as possible. Another point to be observed is the necessitv for grading fruit for the market. Grading pavs, and it pays handsomely. A buyer will never offer a good price for mixed grades ; more especially as he will probably require to regrade it, if he wi-shes to resell it. A good price will always be obtained for first grade fruit ; while the low price ofl'ered for fruit of mixed grades can generally be secured for the lowest grade as well. The more exact the grading, the more profit for the fruit-grower ; the more care in packing, the more returns for the producer ; and so the greater care and exactness, the better it pays to grow fruit. 82 Journal of Agriculture. [lo P'eb., 1910- Still another point to be observed is the packing of fruit when quite dry. Wet fruit should never be packed in the cases. If fruit is picked in early morning with the rain or dew still on it, it should be thoroughly air dried before packing. Orchard Operations. The copious rains of mid-January were very beneficial to plant growth,, and manv varieties of fruit received a great impetus thereby. A few varieties of soft fruits that were ripening at the time of the rainfall,, cracked ; but the benefits to the orchard were far greater than the loss of fruit. Windstorms have been fairly general, and in some places great, damage has occurred. The rains gave a great .stimulus to the trees and. fruit ; and cultivating work was made much easier. Cultivation should still be proceeded with, and the soil kept in a con- tinual condition of surface friability. This is especially necessary at this- time of the year. Now that a good supply of rain is in the soil, it should be well conserved, so that the growing period of the trees may be continued until early autumn, when the trees should be allowed to ripen their wood. Budding mav be continued ; and if an early start were made, the buds, may be allowed to push their way out into growth, so that this may harden and be ready for pruning in the proper season. Buds that are placed in. in late season, should be left dormant until the springtime. Summer prun- ing also may be continued, and all superfluous terminal lateral growths^ removed, so as to strengthen the remaining buds and also to force out fruit buds for next season. Fumigation. February is the best month for fumigating evergreen trees, notably trees of the Citrus species that are infested with any variety of scale. The trees should be closely enveloped in a fairly air-impervious sheet or tent, and hydro-cyanic acid gas should be generated inside. The fumes of this gas are extremely dangerous, and the process should be carried out with great care. A fairly .safe charge for an average tree, that is, a tree about 12 feet high and of about 10 feet in diameter, would be 4 ounces of cyanide ot potassium, 4 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid, and 12 ounces of water. An earthenware, wooden, or enamel vessel should be used, and the acid should be measured into this first ; then pour the water on to the acid, and when all is ready, the vessel being insicie the tent, the cyanide should be dropped quicklv into the liquid, and the tent closed down. Approximately, three quarters of an hour is all the time necessary to fumigate the tree. Fumigation is a dangerous operation in strong sunshine; the result of fumigating at such a time would be that the tree would probably be killed. Manv growers, for safety sake, prefer to fumigate at night time. If done in the daytime, a cloudy day should be selected. Fumigation is the easiest and the surest method of completely eradicating red scale on Citrus trees ; and it has been performed with great success on both sides of the Dividing Range in Victoria. Spraying. The cold and wet weather of January has had the effect of somewhat retarding the operations of the second brood of the codlin moth. Very few eggs were observed up to the time of writing, 19th January. With the return of the warmer weather, this pest will be on the wing ; and the whole of the apple and pear trees should be again spraved and kept covered with spray to the end of the season. All fruit infested with larvae should be collected and destroyed, and a more rigorous search than ever .10 Feb., J910.] Orchard and Garden N otes. 83 should be made for all forms of the moth. The more insects that a grower >can destroy at this time of the year, the less he will have for next year; .and so he is reducing to a minimum each year the attacks of this pest. The bryobia mice, wrongl\ called the red spider, has increased con- .siderably with the cold weather, and for this the tobacco spray should be u.sed at once. Where the mite has obtained any hold on the trees, growera .should decide to give their trees a thorough dressing with red oil next ■winter. The same remarks also applv to the woollv aphis. Vegetable Garden. The vegetable garden will require abundant water at this time of the year ; liberal dressings and mulchings of manure will also be needed. These conditions, together with hoeing and soil stirring where necessary, -are needed to produce succulent summer and autumn vegetables. All vacant plots should be well manured and dug deeply over in anticipation ■of the planting of winter and sprmg vegetables, the manure being worked in as deeplv as possible. All vegetable and animal manures should be well rotted before being used for the garden. Seeds of leek, Brussell's sprouts, summer cabbage and cauliflower, •carrot, turnip, parsnip, silver and red beet, peas and French beans may .still be sown. Celerv plants should be planted out into rows, and celery seed may also be sown for successive crops. Celery is a very popular winter vegetable, and it could be much more ^grown, if it were thorough!) miderstood. A bed of celery should be in every garden, and it is certainly very easy to produce. It is valuable as a salad, a boiled vegetable, and for flavouring soups ; it is also a reputed reliever of rheumatic pains and affections. The seed should be sown from December to February, according to locality. It is best to sow the seeds in boxes or seed pans, covering them with glass to induce quick germination. The soil should be very fine and friable. When the young plants are from 1 1 to 2 inches high, they should be planted out in boxes or in .sheltered beds; and as they grow and become stronger, they should be planted out in their place in the garden. Rich, cool and moist pulverised i;oil, well worked, and kept free from weeds, and careful attention, are all the requirements of the celery bed. The celery plants are generally planted • out in trenches; and as they grow, earth is heaped up around the plant so as to thoroughly blanch the stems. An American method of blanching is to place a board on each side of the rows of celery plants, and secure them closely in position, so that as much light as possible is excluded. It- is claimed for this method that it is a far cleaner way than the earth ■^Dlanching ; but the latter system produces a better quality of celery. There IS a variety of celery known as self-blanching, ijeing naturally of a whitish growth. It is not to be compared to the varieties which are blanched ^by forcing, but it is very useful for soups and for flavouring. Flower G-arden. In the flower garden, the most popular and showv flovers this month will be the Canna, the Zinnia, and the Salvia. Of the iormer, the most favourable types for gardens are the orchid and the gladiolus flowered ^•arieties. Flower lovers should at this time visit gardens where the various varieties are labelled, and take a note of fresh varieties for next season. Cannas are very easily grown, and as they require very little attention, 'they should succeed in almost any garden. They seem to succeed, better 84 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. than any other plant, in an undrained soil. Their bold and decorative appearance enhances the landscape of any garden where they may be grown. Plenty of water and plenty of manure are the conditions that Carinas love. The flower trusses should be removed as soon as their beauty has passed, t'"" make room for other heads on the stem ; and as soon as a flowering stem has developed all its flowers, it should be removed from the base. Cannas are not often used for house decorations ; but two or three spikes, in a fairly large vase, make an attractive enhancement to any room. Austria, Suevia, Alemannia, Kate Grey, Florence Vaughan, Philadelphia, Wyoming, and Queen Charlotte, would be a good selection for a, garden. The Zinnia is a most popular hardy annual, of a showy nature, and valuable either for massing in groups or as a single specimen plant. If grown as a .specimen, as many flowers as possible should be encouraged and left on the plant, as if only a few flowers are left, they tend to be- come \ery gross and coarse. A number of varieties, among these the twisted or curled, and the zebra or striped, have been introduced into cul- tivation; but the old type of Zinnia elegans, and its improved and enlarged edition, grandiflora, still hold swav in the garden. The Salvia family are now in full bloom, and the " Bonfire " Salvia and its allied varieties are adding largely to the attractiveness of the garden. The seed of the various Salvias should be saved as it ripens, as it is comparatively easy to raise them from seed, if the young plants are pro- tected until the frosts are over. Salvias Bonfire, Gloire de Studgardt, and Tom Thumb, are the best of the scarlets, the latter being of dwarf habit. Salvia patens is perhaps the finest blue flower grown ; it is easily grown from root division or seed, and requires a .shaded position to be most suc- cessful. S. azurra is a paler blue than patens, and is of a far more hardy type. An uncommon salvia, and one that is very suitable for rockwork, is. S. argcntia. Its extremely large spreading leaves, covered with thick silvery hairs, are an effective setting for its si>reading spikes of pure white flowers. A clump of this salvia would be beautiful in any garden. Flowering trees and shrubs such as Acacia data, the most handsome of all acacias, Oleander, Poinciana, and Virgilia capensis are now attracting attention ; and these should be noted for future reference, as they are very useful and attractive as summer flowering shrubs. Cultural operations and watering should occupy considerable time this month. The rains of January have soaked well into the ground and where gardens have been mulched, the water may now be used very sparingly. Unmulched beds should be frequently stirred with the hoe, to loosen the ■ surface, and to destroy all foreign growths. Delphiniums should be well looked after for autumn blooms ; the old' stems should be cut down, and the crown liberally mulched and watered. Carnation layers must be attended to, the soil being kept cool and moist, so as to allow easy rooting. Any perennial or hardy annual seeds may now be sown, and cuttings of Zonale pelargoniums, or what are commonly known as geraniums, may be planted. A few spring flowering bulbs may be planted for early blooms, and the soil and beds well worked in anticipation of planting the main crop in March and April. Dahlias, Chrysanthemums and Roses will require a great deal of atten- tion this month. Dahlias should be well staked, watered, and all unneces- sary laterals removed. lo Feb., 1910.] Production aud Marketing of Beeswax. 85 Chrysanthemums should be thinned out, and staked, if this has not previously been done. The lloral buds should be selected, and all others pinched out ; and the plants should then be well fed wherever necessary. All old flower heads should be removed from the rose bushes. In March the plants may be thinned out, manured, and generalh prepared in anticipation of the crop of autumn blooms. All shrubs and trees that have bloomed should have their old flowering stems and shoots thinned out, so as to start fresh growths for filling in spaces, and for next year's blooms. PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF BEESWAX. {Continued from page 774, Vol. VII.) R. Beuhne, President, Victorian Apiarists' Association. When an apiary has been in existence for a number of years it becomes necessary to replace some of the old black brood combs. This should be done every season — whenever an opportunity offers to withdraw them from the brood-chamber. They should then be replaced with new ones. There are also occasional cases of foul brood necessitating the removal of all the combs of infected hives. Although burning of combs and frames is frequently recommended to rid an apiary of disease, there is no neces- sity whatever for the destruction of the wax contained in the infected combs; all that is needed is to carefully put them away indoors, out of the reach of bees, until they can be boiled down, which should be done as soon after as possible. A Langstroth comb, if built on a full sheet of foundation, contains about 2 ounces of wax when new, but somewhat more after it has been in use for some years, as .the bees add wax after the foundation is first drawn out. When very old combs are boiled down for wax, not more than eight should be put into each tin with three gallons of water, otherwise the mass becomes too stiff and difficult to press clean of wax. Sometimes, hundreds of combs have to be cut out and boiled down and a great number of vessels would be required to hold the water and liquid wax coming from the press until the wax is set, unless it is skimmed off while hot which is tedious work. By the use of a separating tank, wax and water can be separated automatically, the wax being retained in the tank while the waste water, if not too thick and black, can be used for boiling down more combs or else at once disposed of. Waste water from boiling down combs or water containing honev should not be thrown out so that bees have access to it, but should be buried ; apart from any risk of spreading disease it may start robbing or stinging. This separating device (Fig. i) consists of a plain box lined with tin. One corner of the lining is covered by an L-shaped piece of tin soldered to the side and end. open on top and reaching onlv to within half an inch of the bottom, with an outlet stud through the end board of the case about four inches from the top. At the opposite corner of the case is another outlet stud two inches from the top. Before allowing the wax to run into the tank from the press, sufficiert hot water should be poured in to cover the end of the enclosed corner so as to prevent the wax escaping into it. After several lots of boiled comb have been put through the press, the wax and water will have risen in :S6 Journal of Agriadtiire. [lo Feb., 1910. Fig. 1 the tank to the level of the outlet tube A, and from now an amount 0+ water, equal in weight to the water and wax coming from the press, will run over by tube A. As wax is considerably lighter than water, it does not displace water by its own volume, and therefore rises in the main body of the tank as it accumulates until it reaches the wax outlet tube B. This is best kept corked till it is desired to draw the wax into moulds or a cooling vessel, when by opening the wax tube B and closing the water outlet A the whole of the accumulated wax flows over when more liquids run into the tank from the press or sufficient hot water is poured into it. A serviceable tank of this description can be made out of a kerosene case and two tins by any one able to use a soldering iron. Cut the tops out of the kerosene tins, close to the rim, and hammer back the cut edges. Then cut the side out of one tin, as shown in Fig. 2, and the other as in i" ig- 3 '> put the tins into the case, straighten out the pieces left for lapping over in Fig. 2 and the lx>ttom piece in Fig. 3 ; then solder together. With- draw the lining from the case, cut the holes for outlets A and B into lining and case, reinsert the lining and solder on the studs (which should be at least one inch in diameter) and the angle piece covering A. The work is then completed. This receptacle, if emptied and wiped dry after use, will last for m.any years, as wax has a protecting influence on tin. It will save a great deal of labour by dispensing with skimmhig and remelting ; water will also be economized, an important consideration to beekeepers who are 'located in drv districts. Fig. 2 Fig. 5 SEPARATING TANK. lo Feb., 1910.] The Potato Eel-Worm. 87 THE POTATO EEL-WORM. Some Preliminary Observations showing how it differs from THE Onion Eel-Worm. IF. Laidlaiv, B.Sc, Micro-Biologist. In nearly all descriptions of the Potato Eel-worm it is assumed that it and the worm attacking the onion axe one and the same. They both belong to ■ the Nematoda which forms a large and important sub-order of the Nemathelminthes. There are a great number of species in this sub-order and, although the conditions under which they live are of the most varied kind, the structural differences are so slight that the determination of the species is attended with great difficulty and may account for the confusion that has arisen. Minute nematodes abound in all moist soil and around the roots of plants. The great majority of these worms do not attack living plants- but live in decaying organic matter in the soil. The part played by them in the soil is not thoroughly understood. Sometimes they are in such great numbers, that, although not distinctly parasitic, they probably do- damage. Many species are free living and have received distinct specific names. These, as Linstow has pointed out, may not be separate species at all, but merely stages in the life history of some of th^- parasitic- species. The eel-worms attacking plants belong mainly to the following genera of the family Anguillulidse : — Tylenchns, A-phelenchus, and Heterodera. They are of small size and are provided with a spine or spear which works to and' fro through the mouth, and by which the worm bores into the tissues of a plant. The onion worm is larger than the potato worm, averaging one- twentieth of an inch in length, while the potato worm averages only one-fiftieth of an inch. The reverse is the case with the newly-escaped embryo, that of the potato worm being the longer. The eggs, also, of the potato worm are larger than those of the onion worm. If we take a potato that is affected with eel-worm, we will find rounded swellings on the surface; these may occur all over the potato or in patches. The swellings vary in size and are often confused with scab. (Eel-worms are frequently found in scabby potatoes, there being a double infection.) If we take a potato showing these swellings and cut it into thin slices at right angles to the surface, we will see under the skin at distances varying from 1-32 to \ of an inch, rarely deeper, little round cysts which are visible to the naked eye, being about the size of the head of a very small pin ; these are the female worms which have become distended with eggs. In a potato that is newly dug, the little cysts are transparent and very difficult to make out with the naked eye, but in one that has been kept for some time they are more easily seen as the cyst becomes opaque and nearly white in appearance, and by-and-bye the starch cells in the neighbourhood become brownish through degeneration. This is analogous, no doubt, to the degeneration which takes place around the cystic form of some of the nematodes affecting animals. After the female has assumed the rounded form it dies. In the case of a worm that has only recently assumed this rounded or cystic form, on expressing the con- tents and examining under a low power, we find the cyst contains only a mass of germinal cells, while in an older cyst these are contained in a limiting tube-like membrane, probably the wall of the uterus itself which 88 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. has become tougher and not so easil\ ruptured. \w the still older cvsts these germinal cells become aggregated into oval clumps within the tube, acquire an en\-elope, and later on become perfect eggs. In the older potatoes the cyst is easily removed for the purpose of ob- servation, the wall of the cyst which is really the epidermis of the dead worm becoming tougher as the potato dries. If a piece of dried potato containing the cystic form of the worm be placed in water, the wall swells slightly, becomes softer, and is more easily ruptured. On placing individual cysts in water they swell up b\- osmosis, a portion of the contents usuallv being expressed. From the contained eggs living worms are hatched out in eight davs ; this, nn dnubt, is much slower than it will be in natural SECTION OF POTATO SHOWIXG NEMATODE CVSTS conditions owing to the difficulty of keeping the eggs with just the requisite amount of moisture. Some cysts show no development of eggs, only con- taining the germinal cells before spoken of ; these may be non-impregnated females, but more probably the non- development is due to the artificial conditions under which the observations were necessarily conducted. The Egg. The envelojje of the egg is chitinous and is very resistant to chemicals, drying, or moisture. It is provided with a process which enables the embrvo to escape, one end coming off like a little lid or cap. The move- ment of the embryo within the egg is very slow, observations having f.re- (juently to be conducted for hours before any movement can be detected. This differs markedly from the embryo of the onion worm which is very active inside the egg and ruptures the envelope by its own activity. The eggs differ greatly in their rate of development, karyokinesis going on more rapidlv in some than in others ; this to a great extent is probably due to the artificial conditions under which the observations are carried out. In many of the Xematoda, division of the embryo occurs very rapidly. If eggs are dried for weeks and then moistened, the embryos show movements in tlie egg within 48 hours. lo Feb., 1910.] The Potato Eel-Worm. 89 Worms. Xo living worms were seen in o\er 100 sections of mature potatoes ex- amined, though in all there were female worms in the bladder- like or cystic form containmg eggs in various stages of development, some containing embryos fully formed and ready to escape. If the eggs are obtained by scraping an infected potato, some acti\"e worms are sure to be found, the scraping having ruptured the cyst and seme of the eggs and set the young worms free. Drying for 24 hours kills the young worms; this, again, differs from the onion worm which retains its vitality at all ages and begins to move actively w'hen moisture is added after being kept in the dried condition for over two vears. In the onion worm the cardiac bulb can be seen beating rhythmically ; I have not been able to demonstrate' this in the potato w'orm. The onion worm is viviparous and o\iparous, thus further differing from the potato worm wdiich, as stated above, forms a cyst, the de\elopment of the eggs going on after the parent worm has died. The whole life historv of the onion worm is (]uite simple, and can be watched from the egg till the worms are full) grown and reproducing their kind. If a fresh piece of onion be placed in a. dish containing onion worms, in a few hours the worms are attacking it vigorously. No such thing occurs on adding a piece of onion to a dish containing young potato worms, nor do pieces of potato pulp or scrapings attract them ; in infested soil the adult worms are feebly attracted if a piece of potato is attded So far as mv observations go, the potato eel-worm is low^er in the scale of being and more passive than the onion worm. It resembles to a certain extent Heterodera schachtii. which, according to Strubell, '' forms the galls or swellings on the roots of manv plants especially tomatoes and cucumbers. The free larvae of this form live in the earth and make their wav into the smaller rootlets ; here the fem.ale larvae shed their skin, loose their characteristic nematode form, and become citron shaped. The embryos develop within the body of the mother, and, escaping through the uterus, ultimatelv cause her death." Soil. In a specimen of soil brought by the Potato Expert, ^Ir. Seymour, from Killarney, three distinct species of nematodes were found, one of the species identical with the potato worm being found in 60 per cent, of the slides examined. In soil obtained by Mr. Price from the onion district of Portarlington, no worms were found ; though in a potato (Carmen, No. T ) from the same land I found many worms in the rootlets, including a female with an area of germinal cells similar to those found in the encysted or bladder form. Many Avorms w^ere also found in the young shoots. This potato was no doubt infected when planted. In a self-sown sample from the Agricultural High School. Warrnam- bool, supplied by Mr. Seymour, emptv egg envelopes were seen ; a number of worms w'ere found in the potato, many in the rootlets and a few in the shoots. Manv worms w^ere also found in the sample of soil handed to me at the same time. Specific Gravity. The worms float for a little while in a 5 per cent, solution of sodium chloride, but very soon sink as the salt is taken up by osmosis. The eggs have a slightlv higher specific gravity than the worms, probably because there is more protoplasm in proportion to the superficies. 9° Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. From the foregoing it will be seen how necessary it is to plant seed -entirely free from infection. One single cyst contains many eggs and will produce enough worms to infect the ground around. The blisters, unless numerous, easily escape observation, hence a cursory examination is not sufficient before planting. The potato worm not being nearly so active as the onion worm, I should think ploughing so that the surface soil is buried deeply would be beneficial for a time at least. The ordinary ■earth worm of course plays a large part in again bringing the eggs of the nematode to the surface. My thanks are due to Mr. Price for the samples of soil and potatoes, and for kindly giving me his notes on the onion worm ; and to Mr. Seymour for the samples of soil and potatoes supplied on different occasions. {To be continued.) A NEW PASTURE PLANT FOR VICTORIA. BiRDSFOOT Trigonel {Trigonella ornitJwpodioides, L.). Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Govern/i/ent Botanist and Professor of Potany in the Melbourne I.hjiversity. In the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Volume XX., p. 87, 1907, it was recorded that the Eirdsfoot Trigonel {Trigonella ornithofodioides, L.) had established itself in Victoria as a naturalized alien. The plant is a member of the Leguminoscs, closely allied to the smaller clovers, but differing in the flowers which occur in twos or threes usually, instead of in heads as in the true clover.s. The pod is also longer, projecting beyond the calyx and opening at the end on one side when ripe, so as to resemble a scooj). The plant is a native of Western and Southern Europe, although it extends as far north as Denmark. It grows usually in dry, sandy pastures, •especially near the sea, and flowers early in summer. In Europe, it grows as an annual with thickly matted spreading stems rarely more than two or three inches long. In Victoria, especially in some parts of Gippsland where it has recently spread, it seems to grow larger, sometimes attaining a foot in height and the tufts often being five to six inches in height and breadth. A single plant may weigh one-half to one ounce when fresh, though usually less than this. It is, therefore, quite equal to some of the medium sized clovers. When grazed, the root appears to last for more than a year if the ground is not too dry. If not too closely cropped, it seeds freely and dies down in January. Up till that time it yields a fair amount of feed for stock. It has no injurious or objectionable qualities, and its spread is to be encouraged on all dry, sandy or unimproved natural pastures. It is doubtful, however, whether it would repay cultivation, and it is certainly inferior to lucerne, sainfoin and the larger clovers as regards yield per acre and permanence as a pasture plant. It is, however, worth noting as one of the few naturalized aliens whose " accidental " entry into Victoria appears likely to do more good than harm. The fact that it is often found growing among Strawberry Clover suggests that its seed originally came in mixed with imported clover seed. Its larger size and luxuriance in^ "Victoria is the result of our favourable climate and rich soils. ]o Feb., 1910.] Farm and Crop C ompetiiions, 1909. 91; FARM A^^D CROP COMPETITIONS, 1909. Results of Competitions held under the auspices of Agricultural Societies during 1909. F . E. Lee, Agricultural Superintendent. The regulations relating to the allotment of the Government subsidy to Agricultural Societies requires that " the Society shall provide and ofEer a substantial prize (not less than £5) for improvements in farm practice and management, or the cultivation of special crops in the district." Numerous Societies, in compliance with the foregoing, have offered prizes for either farms or crops. The schedule of points under which these competitions were carried out was published in the December Journal. The competitions mentioned here have, in all cases, been judged by officers of the Department, at the request of the Society concerned : — Farm Competitions. Name of CoinDetitor's Agricultural Total Ifame. Address. Society giving Prize. 1* 2' 3* 4* 5* 6* 7* 8* 9* 10* Points .- Harding, E. Rigg's Creek . . Euroa 10 13 15 18 9 10 14 16 12 8 125 Sargood, F. Mansfleld-road . . 6 14 14 16 6 9 14 18 14 9 120 Gooding, T. Rigg's Creek . . 7 12 17 22 5 9 12 16 10 9 119 Schultz, F. W. . . Glenlee Jeparit 7 13 17 16 6 7 14 15 12 4 111 Jensz, H. Tarranyurk i> 7 13 15 14 7 8 12 15 14 4 109 Olsen, C. Jeparit >> 6 11 16 15 8 7 9 17 12 4 105 Anderson, P. J. Ellam :, 7 12 15 15 4 5 5 13 10 4 90 Boss Bros. Gowar East St. Amaud 8 12 17 4 10 10 14 18 15 6 114 Bath, E. G. Swanwater West 8 11 16 10 8 10 12 17 13 7 112 Telford Bros. . . Slaty Creek ^ 9 9 18 6 7 8 12 10 12 6 97 McLean, L. Carapooee 8 10 15 12 5 5 10 16 10 4 95 McLean, D. „ 8 12 10 4 5 6 9 17 5 4 80 Hermiston, W. . . Mansfield Mansfield . . 8 14 10 18 9 10 13 18 12 8 120 McMullen, A. > n 8 12 15 15 8 8 10 15 12 8 111 Greenaway, J. . . " " 7 10 12 20 6 7 8 15 10 7 102 * See details in next Table. Analysis of the Awards. It is highly interesting, both as a measure of the average attention shown by farmers towards the specific details of farm management in each locality, as well as an index of the general farm practice throughout the State, to> note how the above awards appear when compared with one another. The total percentage of maximum points awarded for all sections of the competition is as under : — Euroa, 80.6 ; Mansfield, 74 ; Jeparit, 60.9 ; and St. Arnaud, 60.6. The points which the following analysis makes evident are — (a) A want of appreciation of the benefits of fodder provision in one form or another. (6) Some further attention to the efficiency and maintenance of out-buildings, (c) The necessity for an adequate and easily accessible water suppl}^ for stock. 92 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. ) Maximum I Points. 1. Best subdivision according to metliods of farming adopted . . 2. Tlie number of stock of all Ivinds on tlie farm 3. The area under cultivation and the class of crops grown 4. The best provision for fodder con- servation in the shape of silos, hay and straw stacks, and root crops 5. The condition of fences, gates, yards, bails, pigstyes, barns, and stables 6. The farm homestead and arrange- ment and convenience to out- buildings 7. The best provision for water supply for stock 8. The quality of stock kept on the farm 9. Number and variety of farm implements and their shed accomniddatiou 10. The best prnvisidu for tree plant- ing, or sliclttT belts of any kind for stock District Averages. 7.6 13.0 15.3 6.6 9.3 13.3 16.6 12.0 8.6 Jeparit. 6.7 12.2 15.7 15.0 6.2 6.7 13.3 15.0 12.0 4.0 St. Arnaud. Mansfield. 8.2 7.6 10.8 12.0 15.2 12.3 7.2 17.6 7.0 7.6 7.8 8.3 11.4 10.3 15.6 16.0 11.0 11.3 5.4 7.6 Crop Competitions. The conditions under this heading provide for the best 30 to 100 acres of wheat grown within the district. As might be expected, the crops shown by competitors are amongst the best in each district, and the somewhat optimistic estimates of yields given are being well sustained by actual harvesting results. Competitor's Name. Address Name of Agricultural Society giving Prize. Varietv of Wheat. 1 2 3 4 10 9 10 40 10 9 10 38 10 9 10 37 10 9 10 35 9 9 9 36 10 10 10 33 8 10 10 35 s 10 10 34 7 10 10 35 10 10 9 32 6 9 10 30 10 9 9 16 9 9 9 15 9 9 9 14 9 9 9 14 9 9 9 14 9 9 8 14 9 9 9 13 9 9 9 12 9 9 8 13 9 7 9 14 8 9 8 13 Cassidy, James Bwart, M. . . Cahill, J. . . McMillan, R. N. . Cahill, J. . . Day, J. . . Bidstrup, C. Anderson, E. Cassidy, E.. jun. . Mackie, J. Metcalfe, J. McAllister, K. Williams, W. Oreenham, P. (1) . Greenham, P. (2) . Chisholm, J. Watt, T. . . Hayes, M. J. Stewart, T. C. Hoberts, J., jun. . Holland, L. (Mrs.). Holland, W. Murchison East Dargalong Murchison East Murchison Munhison East Murchison Murchison East Wahring Murchison Lake Boga Kunat Goschen Tyntynder West Swan Hill Kunat Federation . . Dart's Imperial Federation . . Steer's Early Purple Straw Dart's Imperial Steinwedel . . Dart's Imperial Dart's Imperial and Federation Dart's Imperiai and Yama Dart's Imperial and Federation Dart's Imperial and Jubilee Steinwedel and Fede- ration Dart's Imperial and Federation 67 66 64 63 63 63 62 62 61 55 lo Feb., 1910.] Farm cmJ Crop Competitions, 1909. 93 Crop Competitions — continued. Name of Agricultura 1 Competitor's Name. Address. Society giving Prize. Variety of Wheat. 1 •■', 4 Total. McCullough, J. (1) . . Bamawni Rochester Federation . . 9 9 10 34 62 Belt. K. Nanneella 8 9 10 35 62 Wallace, G. H. (1) . . Warraganiba 8 9 10 34 61 Wallace, G. H. (2) . . ,, Dart's Imperial 9 9 10 29 57 McCullough, J. (2) . . Bamawm ,, 9 9 10 29 57 Walters, J. Diggora ,, ,, 7 8 10 30 55 Stewart, W. G. Kyabram Federation . . 6 9 10 30 55 Wilson, J. . . Rochester 6 9 10 30 55 Kerlin, E. . . Timmering . . Dart's Imperial 9 9 10 26 54 Pulton, J. . . ^Nanneella 6 9 10 26 51 Boyd, J. . . Elmore Elmore . Tui-vey 9 10 10 36 65 McKay Bros. (1) Warragamba . Federation . . 10 9 10 34 63 McNaught Bros. Diggora Turvey 9 9 10 34 62 Green, J. (1) Warragamba . 1 Federation . . 8 9 10 35 62 McKenzie, G. (1) C.irop West . . ,, 10 9 10 33 62 Clark, J. (1) Wanalta 8 9 10 34 61 Hayes, T. . . Con.p West . . Purple Straw 9 9 10 33 61 Anderson, R. M. Elmore . Steer's Earlv Purple Straw 9 9 10 32 60 McKay Bros. (2) Warragamba 10 9 10 31 60 McKay Bros. (3) . Dart's Imperial 1(1 9 10 31 60 Adams, D. H. Elmore . Federation . . 8 7 9 35 59 Dale, J. (1) Runnymede . . ., 10 9 10 30 59 Dale, J. (2) Dart's Imperial 10 9 9 30 58 McKenzie, G. (2) Corop West . . ,, ,, 9 9 10 30 58 Clark. J. (2) Wanalta ,, ,, 7 9 10 31 57 Green, J. (2) Warragamba 8 9 10 30 57 Cleary, P. . . Smith Elmore Federation . . 8 8 10 30 56 Murphy, D. J. Hunnymede . . 7 9 10 30 56 Kortuni, H. Klmore 6 4 10 30 50 Gallivan, M. Hiirramine Tiingaiuali Wallace 10 10 10 26 56 Nailon, J. (1) I'elluebia Federation . . 9 9 10 27 55 Stevenson, J. (1) Tharanbegga 9 8 10 27 54 Payne, W. . . ,, Purple Straw 10 10 10 24 54 Mulquiny, A. Federation . . 8 9 10 27 54 Ellis, P. (1) Youanmite . . 8 9 10 27 54 O'Brien. J. Burramine Red Straw . . 9 10 10 24 53 Dickie, J. . . Tharanbegga Federation . . 9 7 10 26 52 Condie, D. (1) Purple Straw- 10 9 10 22 51 Condie, D. (2) Federation . . 8 8 10 25 51 McCarthy, J. Pelluebla Red Straw . . 9 10 10 22 51 Nailon, J. (2) " Hudson's Early Purple Straw 9 10 10 22 51 Hopkins, T. (1) Boosey Pelluebla . . Steinwedel . . 10 10 10 21 51 Walsh, E. (1) Youarang Purple Straw 9 10 9 22 50 Hopkias, T. (2) Boosey « 9 10 23 50 EULs, T. (2) Youanmite . . .^ 9 10 23 50 Harrington, J. (1) Youarang Dart's Imperial 10 9 10 21 50 Harrington, J. (2) ,, 10 9 9 22 50 Stevenson, J. (2) Tharanbegga . Purple Straw 9 9 10 22 50 Lawrence, J. Youarang . . . Federation . . 7 8 10 24 49 Condie, D. (2) Tharanbegga . Red Straw . . 9 9 9 22 49 Lee, W. Youarang . Federation . . 8 9 10 22 49 Walsh, E. (2) ,. ',', . Purple Straw 8 9 10 22 49 ! Name of Agricultura 1 Competitor's Name. 1 Address. Society giving Prize. Class of Land. 1 2 3 4 Total. Schwartz, J. F. j Katyil Dimboola . . Mallee 7 9 9 30 55 Glatz, J. . . ! Dimboola >• ., 9 9 9 20 47 Preuss, R. . . Katyil West . . 9 9 8 20 46 Klinge, G. H. Gerang ,, 8 9 9 18 44 Schaefer, E. Dimboola >, ., 8 9 8 18 43 Sallmann, F. W. (1) . Kornheim . Not Mallee . . 10 9 10 34 63 Fechner, W. Dart Dart . . ^ ,, 8 8 10 36 62 Walsgott, C. G. ,, 8 9 8 36 61 Fechner Bros. Dimboola ,, 8 9 10 34 61 Barber, John Wail ,, 8 9 9 35 61 Harders, G. Kornheim . . ,, 9 9 10 33 61 Mibus, A. . . Katyil ,, 9 9 1 8 35 61 Sallmann, F. W. (2) . Kornheim .^ ,, 9 9 1 9 33 60 Fechner, C. E. Dimboola . 9 9 8 34 60 94 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910- A prominent feature of the crop competition is the number of different varieties of wheat grown. It is only possible to make comparisons between the yields of varieties in the Murchison, Kochester, Elmore, and Tungamak. districts, where the competitive crops consisted of one variety only. In^ the districts named the number of crops and average estimated yields were: as follow : — Crops. 2 .3 2.5 18 2 1 Turvey Steer's Early Purple Straw Federation . . Dart's Imperial Steinwedel . . Wallace Purple Straw Red Straw . . . . . . 3 Hudson's Early Purple Straw 1 Suitability of Wheat Variety to Various Districts. It is interesting to note the following order of preference shown by the crops under review to each district. rage Yield per Acre. 35.0 bushels 32.0 30.9 ,j .30.0 „ 26.5 26.0 )) 24.1 22.6 22.0 Variety. 1 j Murchison. Rochester. Elmore. Tungaiii, Federation 1st 1st 3rd 2nd Dart's Imperial 2nd 2nd 5th 5th Steer's Early Purple Straw 3rd 4th Steinwedel 4th 7th Turvey 1st Purple Straw 2nd 3rd Wallace 1st Red Straw 1 4th Hudson's Early Purple Straw 6th The Federation emerges from the above analysis with considerable credit^ and may fairly be claimed to be the most prolific yielding variety grown at present in Victoria. It is gratifying to know that the Field Branch of the Department of Agriculture was the means of introducing and widely dis- tributing this variety by means of experimental fields which afforded com- parison between some 40 varieties, the great majority of which have now been discarded in favour of Federation. The Commonwealth of Australia owes an undying debt of gratitude to the late William Farrer for this fine example of the application of science to the breeding and selection of wheats. It is to be hoped that the farmers throughout Victoria will appreciate the advantages that are to be gained by entering their crops for these competitions, and that the number of competitors will be trebled next, season. 30 Feb., 1910.] Dairy Herd Competitiom, 1909. 95 DAIRY HERD COMPETITIONS, 1909. A. V . Becker, Dairy Supervisor. Numurkali. It is a pity there were not more entries, but if the competition were iheld earlier, say in October, I think there would be greater interest taken. Mr. W. Hodgson comes first with 75 points, and Mr. J. J. Darbyshire mext with 72 points. Mr. Hodgson is to L>e congratulated on the way he has kept his herd ..milking all the year round, with the aid of his silo w'hich he has filled again this year for the coming winter. He keeps his farm and buildings in good order. If he could manage to weigh the milk daily and test more often he would find the ad\antage in being able to cull his herd 3nore quicklv. When using milking machines it is not so easy to keep ■daily records of the yields of the individual cows. Mr. Darbyshire has very complete records ot both \ields and tests, ^but as he makes no provision whatever for winter feed his herd suffers "in this respect, being practically only six months in milk, which is very unprofitable dairying. With the Ayrshires he possesses, it is hard to iniderstand whv he has not vet gone in for a silo in order to keep his herd .milking all the year round. The following are the detailed points gained by each competitor in ■the different sections: — Sections— (Maximum points ; 25 in each section.) '•Cleanliness, construction and arrangement of jards and buildings. Management of farm from a dairying stand-point Methods of recording yield and test •Other features, such as quality and type of herd, breed- W. Hudfrsnll. .1. .J. Darbyshire. 18 15 22 13 15 23 20 21 75 72 Nathalia. There was onl\ one farm worth v of inspection ; the other farm entered was altogether below standard as regards sanitation, general management and the like, to lie entered for a competition. Mr. A. H. King, the successful competitor, is methodical and tidy iii the management of his farm; and although his buildings are very primi- tive in their construction, thev are kept clean. He also shows some fore- thought in providing winter feed for his cows, having a large stack of silage made from a paddock of wild oats. From the results obtamed _f rom a plot of lucerne in his garden, I should think it well worth his while to put in two or three acres by the side of the billabong. I would stronglv advise the daily weighing of the milk and the pur- chase of a Babcock tester in order to cull out the wasters in the herd, ^nd to get a better quality of dairv type than there is at present. 96 ■ Journal of Agriculture. [10 Feb., 1910. TICK FEVER IX FOWLS. A. A. Broivn, M.B., B.S., hupcctor of Foods for Export. A disease that is the cause of considerable mortality in fowls, and con- sequently of great losses to poultry breeders, prevails over a large extent of Australia. It would be difficult to estimate the losses annually inflicted on the poultry industry in the Commonwealth by the depredations occa- sioned by the fowl tick {Argas americanus) that is the primary factor in the dissemination of the infective agent. The infective agent is a micro- organism which lielongs to the protozoa, or lowest division of the animal kingdom. It is harboured in the bodies of Argasides or fowl ticks, and the ticks bv biting fowls introduce it into their bodies. Female. Male. Dorsal aspect. Ventral aspect. Ventral aspect. Dorsal aspect. (Two and three-quarter times natural si?.e.) FOWL TICK. {Argas americanus.) Tick fever is a disease of the blood in which haemolysis, or destruction of the red blood corpuscles, is a characteristic feature, and this haemolysis is produced by the vital activities of the micro-parasite. Fowl tick does not mature on the bodies of horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs, ducks, or geese, although ticks may occasionally perhaps be observed on them. The special micro-organism prevailing in the Argas americanus that causes the fever in fowls has not, moreover, ever yet been detected in the blood of any animal or bird in the orders mentioned. Ticks attack birds belonging to the pigeon and fowl tribes and \oung ticks attach themselves to their bodies, and there they may remain until they undergo certain transformations incidental to their development. There is as yet no direct e\idence to prove that chickens hatched from the eggs of fowls that had suffered, and yet recovered from tick fever, are hereditarily immune. Young chickens in the infested areas are probably often attacked and inoculated by ticks so that by the time they have reached the adult stage of exi.stence, provided they have survived the inoculations, they have acquired immunit\ to the specific micro-organisms. Ticks are the carriers of the infection, but all ticks may not contain the specific organism in their bodies. Ticks can be kept in receptacles that admit air without food for twelve months without losing their vitality. The micro-jjarasite, the I'iro plasma gallincc, which is the actual cause of the fever in fowls suffering from tick fever, is a particularly small motile organism belonging to the animal kingdom. The organisms exist both in the blood-cells (intra-corpuscular forms) and in the blood serum (extra- corpu.scular forms). The extra-corpuscular forms are far more numerous and larger than the intra-corpuscular forms. In preparations made froirj the blood of the heart and large vessels only a few organisms are at any time detectible, but in preparations made from the blood of capilliaries of lo Feb.. 1910.] Tick Fever 1)1 Fowls. 9/ internal organs, parlicularly the kidneys, many of the protozoans may readily be seen. The red blood cells of the fowl are about i-25ooth of an inch in length, and the piroplasma is from i-i5th to i-2oth the size of a red corpuscle. The intra-cellular forms are very small and may be observed as minute spherical l)odies resting near the edge of the blood corpuscle. Xot manv intracellular forms may be detected in the cover slip preparations, hence the difticuitv experienced in determining the exact causation of the mortalitv in tick infestation. The extra-cellular forms are larger and more numerous than the intra-cellular forms, and in prepara- tions of blood from fowls freshly killed thev are readilv enough observable to the trained observer. The bod\ temperature of affected fowls rises several degrees. The normal temperature of a fnwl is 107", l)ut elevations of the temperature lo 1 10" and even 112" are not uncommon in the course of tick fever infection. The fowls become weak, emaciated, and lose the power of their legs. The red blood corpuscles are broken uj) and this condition is one of the essential factors in th»- course of the disorder. Since the organism.? belong to the f>rotozoa the\ are incapal)le of being cultivated outside the bodies of fowls. The organisms. l>psides \arying in size \ar\ alsn in form. Some are spherical, some pear shaped, some oblong and some j)ossess irregular shapes. They are highly refractive and do not satisfactorily absorb stains. However, they can be stained bv special methods and I possess some verv good slides. It is some time since that I reported the existence of the Piroplasma gallincc in the blood of fowls and its connection with the tick fever disease. (^)uite .recently again, for further investigation, I sent two young fowls to Swan Hill to be placed in a situation where TICK FE\ EK l^heN might become tick infested and so infected with ORGANISMS. the s[)ecific micro-parasite. The result was positive . „ ,1, J „ , 111 bcith cases and the fowls were returned to me for A.— Red blood cells showiiiL; . . . „,, , piroplasma; in them (intra- sp'cial examination. 1 he axerage number in red corpuscular form.). corpu.scles iu a healthy fowl is 4,000,000 per cubic biood^ serunr"(e* tra-corpu"- millimetre and the average amount of haemoglobin 68 puiarforms\ P^^. (,p,^|- y,^ ^]^^ fowls that Contracted tick fever, investigations disclosed that the number of corpuscles had sunk to 2.800,000 per cubic millimetre and the hEemoglobin to 44 per cent. Some years have elap.sed since 1 identified the parasite {A^rgas americanus) when it first commenced to make its influence felt in Victoria, and the course of action that has been since followed to check its spread has pro\ed eminentlv successful in confining it to the areas in which it was first discovered. A great deal of work has been done in the direction of securing its eradication from the poultry runs of the State, and it is hoped that when the Poultr\ Diseases Bill which has been drafted has been placed upon the statute-book, there will be provided ample power to take such action as will lead to the complete extirpation of the pest from Victoria. 17087. Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. TESTS WITH CULTURES OF ROOT-TUBERCLE BACTERIA. Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany in the Melbourne University. Since the article on this subject was published in the January 1909 number of the Journal, a series of tests have been carried out at the Burnley Horticultural Gardens and at the University, with a view to investigating the practical utility of cultures of root tubercle bacteria, such as are sold under the names of " Nitragin," " Nitro-culture," &c. The necessity for such tests is clearly shown by the remarkably divergent results obtained in different countries and in the same country by different investigators, as well as by the fact that recently pamphlets have been widely distributed in this State making various extravagant or untrue claims on behalf of these cultures. It is claimed, for instance, that the cultures benefit the growth of leguminous plants (peas, beans, lucerne, lupins, clover, &c.) on all soils, and that they may be directly used to improve the growth of cereals (barley, wheat, oats, &c.). The latter statement, in particular, is quite untrue. Cereals have no tubercles on their roots ; they do not assimilate the free nitrogen of the air, and therefore cannot possilily be directly benefited by inoculation by root- tubercle bacteria. Any person led by such a statement to purchase bacterial cultures for inoculating a cereal crop, would have just cause for a legal action against the agent or company responsible for obtaining his money bv false pretences. The jx)int cannot be too strongly emphasized that even if the cultures of root-tubercle bacteria did all that was claimed for them, they could only l>e expected to benefit leguminous crops' grown in soils in which root-tubercle bacteria are deficient or absent, and there are other and more efficient ways of adding bacteria to .such soils than by the use of exj>ensive and uncertain cultures'. It cannot be denied that, in the hands of various scientific experi- menters at different research stations in Germans , the proper use of the cultures' has enabled particular leguminous crops (lupins, peas, &c.) to grow well in soils where, owing to the deficiency of the appropriate root- nodule bacteria, growth was otherwise deficient or very poor. At the Tharand Experiment Station, the relative merits of commercial prepara- iions of root-tubercle bacteria, such as Nitragin, Nitro-culture, &c., have been investigated. Experiments have been also conducted in Scotland. In some cases, the crops were apparently benefited, but in others their use appeared to be inimical to the crop instead of advantageous. This .was possibly due to the experiments having been tried on land in which the requisite root-tubercle bacteria were already abmidantly present, and to the fart tliat the treatment of the seeds before planting may in some cases weaken their germinative power ; or it may have been due to insufficient attention being paid to the unavoidable fluctuations occurring in all field experiments. The German results are, however, more uniformly favourable, possibly owing to the more judicious use of the cultures and the restriction of the experiments to soils where good results were likely to be obtained. Vogel, for instance, in the Illustrierte HandieirthscJiaftlchc Zeitung for 1907, page 5, sums up generally in favour of the improved Hiltner cultures for practical use with the improved methods of inoculation. For instance, out of 62 tests of pure cultures for Serradella, 85 per cent, gave lo Feb., 1910.] Tests zvith Cultures of Roai-tubercle Bacteria. beneficial results, and good results are also reported from the use of pure cultures for lupins, peas, vetches and beans'. We may therefore conclude from European experiments that the scientific use of suitable cultures on a limited scale, will be beneficial in enabling legumes to grow in otherwise unsuitable soils', so' far. as European conditions are concerned, and presumably also in a few sterile Victorian soils. A point worthy of consideration is, ho'wever, as to how cultures made in Europe stand transport to Victoria and how long vitality is re- tained under the usual conditions of storage. Ordinary bacterium cultures at suitable temperatures' attain their maximum development in a few days. After that they are on the down grade, more and more dead forms being present in the culture, although if kept cool living forms may still be present, in many cases for years, in properly kept cultures without any renewals. No data appear to be available as to the exact length of time a '' nitragin culture'' or " nitro- culture " retains its eflEicacy To determine this, experiments were necessary. Sufficient evidence of the difficulties which hedge about this question is given by the results of Harding and Wilson (New York Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 300, page 137), who have experimented on the in- oculation of lucerne on 67 farms in ^t^ counties of the State. Only one-third of these farms alread\ contained the root-tubercle bacterium of lucerne in sufficient amount, and on the remaining two-thirds inoculation of the seeds with bacterial cultures failed to give satisfactory results. Complete success was, however, obtained by inoculating these fields with soil from old lucerne fields at the rate of 150 lbs. to 300 lbs. per acre. This is, of course, the natural method of inc<:ulation, since as the old tubercles die the bacteria are set free and continue to live in the soil for some time, reinfecting each new crop of the same kind. Some local investigation of the questions outlined above was evidently necessary, and also tests were advisable of the bacterial cultures which have been for some time on the market in Victoria, and have been ex- tensively advertised by means of agents and printed circulars. The cultures were obtained in the usual way by purchase, one being guaranteed to contain bacteria for the inoculation of field peas, the other for the in- oculation of alsike clover. The tests were carried out at the University and at the Burnley Gardens. University Tests. The cultures were tested in the first instance bv using peas grown in sterilized artificial nutrient solutions, three peas being giown. in each bottle. No. I w'as inoculated, No. 2 was uninoculated, and No. 3 was inoculated, but the nutrient solution contained no nitrates. The results are well shown in the accompanying photogi-aph, the peas growing in the uninocu- lated culture solution being distinctly taller than in the other two, while in No. 3 (no nitrates) inoculation was quite unable to make good the deficiency caused by the absence of nitrates. On examining the roots of the plants grown in the culture solutions, it was seen that root nodules were entirelv absent except from No. i. Before starting the experiments, the bottle and the nutrient solutions were thoroughly sterilized, and the peas were also sterilized* while dry by one minute's immersal in boiling water. Evidently, therefore, the culture solutions did actually contain root-tubercle bacteria capable of * As regards root-tubernle bacteria. D 2 J oiirnal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910 infecting the roots of the pea, l>ut the\ were either not \ery vigorous' or not ver\ numerous. The tubercles do not form so well under water as in soil, but this is mainly a (juestion of aeration, and during the experi- ment, proper care was taken that thi.s condition was fulfilled. It is curious that the only tubercles should have been formed in the solutions containing nitrates, for it is generally held that, in the soil, the abundant presence of nitrates tends to decrease the formation of root tubercles. Although a single experiment is hardly conclusive, it is possible that nitrates do not influence the development of root-tubercle bacteria on roots grown in a culture solution in the same way that thev do in the soil. ^V<: PEAS GROWN IN WATER CULTURE. The actual size of the roots as grown in the different solutions is shown in the second illustration. In addition to the culture experiments, six small plots were prepared, each 6 feet square, and laid out as in the i)lan on page 102. Care was taken to see that the soil and other conditions were quite uniform, and during the course of the experiments the plots were kept entireh- free from weeds, and the soil open and pervious. The seeds were inoculated before ])lanting, bv mixing the cultures with sterilized skimmed milk and moistening the seeds with this mixture before planting. Care was taken to insure even planting, and in the case of the peas each plot contained ic Feb., 1910.] Tests 7^it// Cultures of Rofl't-t/ibcrclc Bachrla. loi the same number of plants. \o replanting was necessary to fill up gaps, since Jx)th the peas and clover gave 100 ]:)er cent, germination. The experiments were begun e.n 13th May, and the seedUngs were well above ground by ist June. The plots were all surrounded bv wire netting, and they were harvested about the middle of October, cut close to the ground, immediatelv placed in sacks and weighed on a sjjecial balance capable of weighing se\-eral hundredweight to a fraction of an ounce. Although in large experiments done in the field the unavoidable error due to uncontrollable conditions mav amount to as murli as to or ::o ROOT SYSTEMS OF PEAS FROM WATER CULTURES. 1. Inoculated. -J. rniiiocuhueil. 3. Inoculated. No Nitrates. per cent., even in good experiments, and in bad ones may be much greater, in small plots like the above where the conditions can be so thortaighh controlled, the limit of error mav not be more than 2 to 5 per cent. Bearing this fact in mind, the plots show conclusively that inoculation did not benefit either the clover or peas in the slightest degree, but rather the reverse. In all thr plots, tubercle-^ were present on the roots, and they were as abundant in the uninorulated j)lot as in the inoculated o.ie. The tubercles were possibly not (]uite so abundant in the plot to which nitrates were added, but, nevertheless, the vield in this plot was greater ] oiinial of A ''ricidti/re . [lo Feb., 1910. p:xperimextal plots— university. Hybrid op Alsike Clover. IriO( u ated a week before 14 11 s. 7 ozs. ("ninociilated. 14 lbs 14 ozs. Field OP Dun Peas. Incjculated + 2 cwt. KNl A {!^r'i culture . [10 Ikh., 1910. Ft is, therefore, only possible to recommend the nttemjjt Ix-ing m.'ule to ;i'I^';iiis, iiiccrne, siiis, ttc.) in wh.it .ippi'ars snitable soil. (j) If th'- l.iiliin- is not diit- to insnniciint dr;dtia;^?', the need ol liiiie or a ddiciciKA ol | jhosj)haffs or jiotash or watir. KOOl S\.SIKiVIS ()!■ ( LOVKK CI.AiNI S (SOII, (CI.M \'V.}. I. Iri.Mulnh-rl. L lii...-iil;iti-a, :!. I iiiPi.Miiliilcd. (3) And il, (111 cxaiiiiiiatioio \\\v j.laiils wliich sucocckI ai'c sluiitod and w itii li'U (i|- ix I I'.iil tul^'rcJi'S. 'I'licn till- laiiiifi iiia\ roncliidc tliai dir laijiiii- ol \.\v h-<^iiiiiinous crop is diH; to tin- aliscnce nl the a ] t|ir< i|rriatf ■ root iiih<-r''l«' hactoja fi'Mn the soil. 'I lie di-fnii/ncx ina\ Le(l oil, pounded to a ihin ])asle with water, which is then mixed with the se<'(!s before plantin^i;. 'i'lu- addition of a little milk aids the therms to adhere to the seeds, which should be dried and planted at once. j[. Xitragin or nit ro cultui'e max he used in the same w,i\ for the inoculation of Ji<' seed. alwa_\s pro\ideensive and iea.st -ure method of infecting a sterile soil. To inoculate tlv soil directb with bacteria from cultures or from tin,' tubercles is both wasteful and costl)', no appreciable effects being produced unless relatixcK large i|u.iii- tities are used. Hence, there is no iieeid for a largt; outla\ for cultures, even when there is iki e-ther means of obtaining thi- required root tubercle bacteria, liut an\ farm<'r desirous ol maintaining tlu' humus ,ind nitrogse aid thev ran assimilate free nitrogen. There can be no doubt that the bacteria from the tubercle.« of one member of the pea famih- ma\ infect others though possibb not all of the members of fhe same lamib. but so far as is known, oiilv memlK^rs of that famil\- ([mms, beans, \-etches, clo\er, lucerne, medick, sainfoin, trefoil, kc.) aif enabled b\ bacteria to directb assimilate th(- free nitrogen of the air. Hence, to adxcrtise bacterial ciiltiu'es as of direct benefit to cereals is not justifiable, and e\'en their use for legumin- < us crops is' hardly beyond the experimental stage, and is not to Ik- arlvis^xl until e\cry other method of establishing a leguminous crop on sterile soil has failed, inchiding manuring and culti\;ilion. for fertile soils on which legumes have prexiouslv grown, the cultuxes are quite u.seh^ss. According to K. B. I"' red (Virginia Station Re])ort, T908, p]). 132 131) root-nodule bacteria are able to assimilate [yrr nitrr>gen even when not gr()wing within the r<^iots of a leguminous plant. 'I'luw can onb do this, however, when the culture medium eoiitains carbo hv drates. so that in the soil their nitrogen-fixing activity when free is slight or negligible. Actual tests have .shown that, in the absence of leguminous jilants, the net result of the activitv rif micro-organisms in well-aerated and culti\'alerl soils is to produce a loss, rather than a gain, r'^'' ' 1 mf' •; 1 Aidfeifa 1* jrJ^r^^-*^^'*'^^^^^:' *;' \ i'-*' ■) t^- ■■ ' LOADING TRUCK WITH MAIZE. portable portion of the track in the paddock so that it can be moved up to the crop as it is taken out in a face; that portion from the paddock to ■the silo could be of a heavier and more permanent nature. The truck -used is 8 ft. long bv ^ ft. 6 in. wide. ON THE WAY TO THE SILO. These tramways can also be utilized for many other branches of farm work. Similar ones are in operation at Mildura in connexion with the "harvesting of fruit, but the track is of metal and more costly than those xmder review. io8 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. From the- illustrations it will he seen that ii somewhat unique plan has been adojited in the construction of the huililings on Messrs. Halford Bros.' farm, 'i'he silo, wliich has a capacitx of ahout too tons and of OIL ENGINE AND LOADED TRUCK. the type recommended hv the Depajrtment of Agriculture, is placed in the centre of the milking shed. The latter is octagonal in shajx- and the cows- stand facinn- the silo in the centre. .About 5 feet of the silo is below MILKING SUED AND .SILO, MES.SRS. HALFORD BROS. FARM. (Till' silo is ill the ( untie of llir Ijiiililili- .) the surface and the balance above. There is a gangway 6 ft. 6 ins. wide Cincluding feeding trough) between the bails and the silo. The width of the bails at the head is 40 ins., and at the l)ack 57 ins., tlie depth of lo Feb., 1910. Building IIi)its for Settlers. J 09 the Ijiails being 7 ft. with a 12-in. gutter and a 4-ft. path l>etween it and the outside wall. The wall is on blocks 9 ins. to j8 ins. above the pave- ment, thereb} allowing for ventilation. A loft with softwood floor runs KILLrNG TlilC SILO. all round the silo and ahfixe the milking shed. It will l)e seen that this plan provides for consideralile eronomy of space as well as for con- \t'nient feeding arrangements. The l)ails accommodate over sixt\ cows. GENERAL VIEW OF FARM BUILDINGS, MESSRS. IIAI.FORD BROS. FARM. Men's iniartcTS in t'oregrDUiid iiiiil dairy to ri^lit. Flats where maize cro]) is ;;r(i\\ ii in distance. Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. THE ARTIFICIAL MANURES ACTS. Unit Values for 1910. P. R. Scott, Acting GovcriiDicnt Analyst and Cliemist for Agriculture. The requirements of the Victorian Artificial Manures Acts are as fol- low in regard to the analysis of samples of manures submitted each year : — " In the case of manures which are not liable to vary in quality during the current season every vendor of or dealer in manures, who is required by the jNIinister so to do and manu- facturer or importer of manures shall every year in the month of October or Noveml>er and also whenever required b\ the Minister so to do deliver to the said chemist without pay- ment samples not exceeding two pounds in weight of the manures which he intends to offer for sale or which he will use in making any special mixture required and which are not liable to vary in quality during the current season." " The said vendor manufacturer importer or dealer shall forward with such samples a statutory declaration in such form as mav be prescribed to the effect that the samples delivered are correct samples of all the manures to which this section applies which he will offer for sale or sell during the current sea.son and declaring the prices at which he will either him- self or through his agents sell such manures to persons who require the same for purposes of cultivation but he may vary any such price after giving notice of such variation to^ the said chemist." " The said chemist shall analyze or cause to be analyzed under his supervision all samples forwarded to him pursuant to this Act by vendors manufacturers or importers of or dealers in manures, and taking into account the constituents which have a commercial value in each sample, shall calculate from the results of the analysis the average unit value of such con- stituents, and shall then compile a complete list of all the manures offered for sale showing the prices asked for the same and showing also their value according to the average unit values as calculated from the analyses." " Such average unit values shall constitute the basis for calculating the values of all manures for twelve months from the pub- lication of such list pursuant to the provisions of the Artificial Manures Acts." The samples of manures forwarded to the Chemist for Agriculture for analvsis and valuation for the 19 10 season numtered 103, and the analyses of the whole of the samples, their selling price, and their calculated values are shown in the tabulated list on the following pages : — Unit Value.s of Manures in the ^Melbourne ■Market for the 1910 Season. s. d. I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of nitrate ... ... 17 6 I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia ... 14 6 I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of blood manure, bonedust, or bone fertilizer ... ... ... ... 12 o T per cent, of water .soluble phosphoric acid ... ... 46 I per cent, of citrate soluble phosphoric acid ... ... 40 lo Feb., 1910.] Artificial Manures Acts. s. d. I per cent, of insoluble phosphoric acid ... ... 29 I per cent, of phosphoric acid in fine bone (in bonedust or bonemeal) ... ... ... ... ... 40 I per cent, of phosphoric acid in coarse bone (in bonedust or bonemeal) ... ... ... ... ... 29 1 per cent, of potash as sulphate ... ... ... 5 4 I per cent, of potash as chloride ... ... ... 4 5 Method of Calculating the Commercial Value of a Manure. The average commercial value per ton of a manure sold in Victoria is obtained by multiplying the percentages stated of the fertilizing substances by the corresponding unit values fixed therefor, and adding the separate values together. Examples: — I. Sulphate of Ammonia- — Invoice certificate, 20.5 per cent, nitrogen — Calculation — 20.5 X 14/6 ... ... ... ... ^14 17 3 Calculated value per ton .. ... ;^i4 17 3 2. SuperpJiospJiatc — Invoice certificate, 17.46 per cent, phosphoric acid (water soluble) [nvoice certificate, 1.16 per cent, phosphoric acid (citrate soluble) [nvoice certificate, i.oo per cent, phosphoric acid (insoluble) Calculation — Phosphoric acid (water .soluble) 17.46 x 4/6 . Phosphoric acid (citrate soluble) 1.16 x 4/ Phosphoric acid (insoluble) i.oo x 2/9 Calculated value per ton ... ... ;^4 6 o 3. Bonedust — Invoice certificate, 3 per cent, nitrogen, 18.5 per cent, phosphoric acid. Mechanical Condition : 30 per cent, fine, 70 per cent, coarse. Calculation — Nitrogen 3x12/ ... ... ... ^1160 Phosphoric acid — Fine 18.5 x 30 == 5-55 X 4/ ... ... \ 2 2 £?> 18 7 0 4 8 0 2 9 100 Coarse 18.5 x 70 12.95 X 2/9 Calculated \a\ue per ton ... ... ^4 13 9 The unit value system enables a farmer to readily ascertain if the price asked for a manure is its reasonable com.raercial value. The term " com- mercial value" must not be confu.sed with the "agricultural value" of a manure. The commercial value represents the value of a manure according to its composition, while the agricultural value is measured by the extent of the increase in quantity and quality produced by it in a particular soil under certain conditions. The agricultural value is liable to great variation, ] ouriial of Agriculture. [lo P'eb., 1910. for instance, while most soils may respond to an application of ordinary superphosphate practically no benefit may be obtained on others. The same effect is noticeable with regard to other fertilizers. As a general rule, however, the application of a phosphatic manure is more or less effectixe on all soils, due, in a great measure, to a deficiency in the average soil of pho-sphoric acid. Xo attempt can therefore be made to place an agricul- tural \alue on anv of the fertilizers submitted, further than to state that thev all contain certain elements necessary for plant life. Some soils re- fjuire, perhaps, only one of these elements, while others require more. Some .soils contain the elements in a more soluble or available state than others. Fertilizers containing the plant foods in an in.soluble or unavail- al>le form are, of course, slow in action, and should not be used with quick-growing crops. Section 3 of the Artificial Manures Act 1905 prescribes that the Unit Values shall lie fixed from the constituents ha\ing a commercial value in each sample, and this has been done accordingh . Xo rule can be laid down as a guide to farmers as to which fertilizer is most suitable for any particular soil. It should, however, be remem- bered that as there is no danger of the loss of phosphoric acid by leaching from the soil, it is advisable to buv that ingredient in its soluble or readily available form. Phosi)horic acid appears in three forms — water soluble, citrate soluble, and insoluble. The first two forms are known to be readily available as plant foods, while the insoluble is slow in acting, and one would not expect satisfactorv results from this form of phosphoric acid if used for a quick-growing crop. A special feature of the Victorian Artificial ^Manures Acts is the re- quirement of a label or tag attached to the bags declaring the guaranteed <:ompo.sition b\ analysis of anv manure sold in the State in quantities exceeding 56 lbs. at one sale. Tliis is provided l)v section 7 of the prin- cipal Act, and, as a further measure of protection to farmers, it is made c(imj)ulsory, under section 5, for vendors to deliver to all purchasers of manures, an invoice certificate declaring the guaranteed analysis of th'^ manure sold. Xo farmer in Victoria should take deliverv of manure unless the above conditions of sale are complied with. Substantial assistance would be rendered in the enforcement of the Act if farmers would immediately report any irregularity observed in the sale of manures to the Chemist for Agriculture. Additional control of the sale of manures has been provided In- the amended Act of roth October, 1905. Under section 4, sub-section I, officers of the Chemist's Branch may collect samples of manures through- out the State. The results of the analysis as to the percentage for fertilizing con.stituents found in a manure, and the percentage claimed by the guarantee on tag and invoice certificate, are published side by side along with the calculated value. These analyses are published in the Journal of the Defartinent uf Agriculture from time to time, and should be read bv all users of manures. It is necessary in order to carry cut the Act, for the Chemist to occa- sionally require j^urchasers of manures to forward copies of the invoice certificates sup}>lied to them for his inspection. It has frequently been found that purchasers do not retain the invoice certificates in their posses- sion. Everv purchaser of manure is required bv section 24 of the Act to keep any invoice certificate supplied bv the vendor of manure, for failure to produce the invoice certificate when required to do so by the Chemist for Agriculture, renders purchasers of manures liable to a penalty not exceed- ing ^1 for the first offence, and not exceeding ^^5 for any subsequent offence. lo Feb.. 1910.] Artificial M a 11 u res Acls. 113 I s — Cot' ?■? ? .H T3 ct : 2 o-S crt Ss ■- ^^gg '^ S 302S 30. 30 S££ 2 c£- ^ o £ S ^ o !S 's! ^ ^ — .^i'^ P^ S? 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Artificial Manures Acts. 115 a a tri a 0 •rt c3 5 t-(N 00 00 O CO 00 O 00 CO eoco (M rt (M CO irt -* CO in CO I> to o .-.rH O 5D-* O O O ^ i-H e-i o N l-Hl-l O rt Tj< a 00 o o i^H~ .-IrH 1-1 (M 10 O CO CO O CO * 00 C» CD - a :^ a r-l - ^1 0 CO (M 00 0 in CD -H C] ^ CO in CO ;:; 00 00 t- t> (N N rH (M CO CD OS C-l ■*in Tj( in t- CO CO CO CO CO in CO in Ncoio a a t, 0-2 Pi O 0 CO in • • * ■* SJ 0 ^j ^5 CO - o> - -- r^ 0 CO (NOO omcoiN (N (N ^ CO CO in 00 00 t- t^ IN IN^ (N CO CO« »-♦ r-t IN CO -* CO CO in IN CO CO co CO CO in CO "cD 0^ CD CO in « COrl (M 00 CO 0 CO CO in CO 01 in M 0 in « 0 XCD CD X t^ 0 CO C33 0 CO t^ t^ t- t~ IN (N OC-I COIN CO t^ 00 IN CO IN rH rH 10 T-l t~QO 0 0 00 •* CO ■"11 0 0 OlO OiocniN Oi in CO o» CD (M in in 10 10 IH 000 t^ CO 00 CO 0 00 0 -■ 0 0 0 0 0 CO rjico •* eo OrH '^ eoco 0^ 0 0 in CO 01 in 0 0 0 •* IN 00 00 i-l 0 t> CO 05 t~ ^- 0 CO IN CO in CO CO IN CO 00 CO in CO in CO 0 IN CO ■*IN 0 CO 0 •<» ■ 0 0 O X. .1 J. Adams, Dundas-street. Northcote J. W. 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T17 csiS C«J fl c o o >; 2 c oc m| cag «! « a o 3 ^ g _ _ o _ . SS 5: bf,'^ c > o -2 ^ -I 5 M . o S S S ■= ^ 3 'Z'^ -^ ■■n'~' i^ a z o . ~ n ^o " ^cs 5<^ -Sg- -s. ■£■£■£= c 3g§.2c _« ' : « t: = : o s ^ -^ ^ -P t., - ^ ""■ "■•■ o t- ?"-= 6i a^ *- - rS X! >=iS w 0) t^ ^«ill|g||l||sii|S|^ «|. . f . . ^11 0000 C' 00 0 000005D000 o o 00 00000 ininO'OiAooot^iftoo o o irto O i-H ■<* 05 00 (Nr-IOOOt^O Or~ O t> i-l iH 0 c t- CO OiQO OT «D t^ i> to vn • • ' ■ ! ! OJ'^tO-- • • '. '. OOM -*(>JO • • • • . in r~o r- 1^ OS • ■ • . . . .-IIMO 0000 o o o o o o o o 00 O O O O O o o lOiococ-io T-cocct^c-i-*ci-*'t^ooo in o i-ho -f— losinirs 'Mooomino^r — t*'?irMCi t^ o OiiM* -i'CCOt^CC ■*00»f5*t*0'*"1'I^iniOin'* (« CO in«o 0000 o o o o"o 'o o o 00 o o o "o o 6"o Oint^oOO Csr-t^COQOCOQOOCOOOO 0 o OiO iTooo-^io I'-^cO'^'^o^'Minoooor-i w t-i 000 CO 00 o oaoc-lc^i^ t^^i-^-frj'^ciot^oooiO in 00 -^m t^cOt-HCso ot'-QOOincocoo'Mcir-^H cs co xo N M « e-l S-J (N i-H rt CI SI (M CI t-H CI CO CI CI CI CO C3 CI inin^Hci in o in o o in d co oio o o co 00 in ?-5 ca~ indt^oci i-i"*rt-*0'*iMcoo3i:~.*in ai S »« tOr-*c3cooo coooc-iooinMincotooooo 00 00 inoo r^o ooo-*oot*ci~oso OS m bs t^ o w"cv^~ • •■Qooo toccooosoqr- 00 00 o tji to S cio i-ii-H oiinoocirHtoeOTticJcie^r-i rn o cjci la oi th in to o o in th 00 i-i oo ^^ o in ^oTin • • -rt to inr-(0t-0"-iin C0O5 00 t- o in c~ om ■*•* eocOT)^-5leoc^r-l(^^■* o in ci i-i t- t^ooinos CO T-HO^r-ICO rt CO CJ to CO rt rH 1-1 CO CO t~ o CI o cq CO l> in O rH t^ i-H in CO Cl rH CO 00 to CI CXI CO CO CO CO in CO ■* ci in ci r^ in to 01 f-* to 00 in C] to 05 •* too T)l ,-( rH ci 1-1 iH o in I> O rH O m in in CI CO CJ o ■* o ^ CI r~ 00 o in ^ 0 gPQ c3 fc. Q 3 fe: Pa-S,PasS^ ~< 6D fl- oe ■ t3 0 '"' S i-H S -J l« - 3 » •"."S ^g ■a . c " 0 !?0^ £< c >;; <; fq « n •S a H H o o fM be <: > o 0 Qj r^ ^ ^ h-] 5 ,u ^ 01 CD. 2 <=(■ c o ii8 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. The Purchase of Superphosphate. Memorandum by the Hon. George GraJiam, M.L.A. The Department of Agriculture numbers among its manv functions, that of guide and protector of the farmers' interests, especially in regard to matters involving a complicated estimation of commercial worth. In the use of artificial manures, the Department has done much ser\ice in educating the farmer by means of lectures, demonstrations, and Journal articles, to understand that the value of such materials depend entirely upon their solubility and consequent availability to the crops to which thev are applied. INIanures, nowaday.^, are looked upon as an absolutely essential item in the cost of crop production, and any falling off in the quality must be regarded with apprehension unless there is an equivalent reduction in the price of the material. It has been frequently pointed out that the agri- cultural value of a manure may differ widely from its commercial value, for the reason that the former is regulated by soil and climatic conditions over which the farmer has little control, whereas the latter is measured by the trade values of the i)lant foods present according to their degree of availability. The farmer is more concerned with the commercial value of suferphos- fhate than most other forms of artificial manure and the purpose of this article is to draw attention to the rise in value of the insoluble phosphoric acid as compared with that in previous years. As has been stated, the value of a manure depends upon its solubility and consequently thorough distri- bution throughout the soil, as well as its easy availability by the plant. The term "insoluble" implies a material of little service to the crop to which the manure is applied, and hence should only have a low commercial value. It has been the policy of the Department to discourage any more than a very small amount of insoluble phosphoric acid in superphosphates by the giving of only a nominal value per unit. The unit values under the Artificial Manures Act have been calculated from the average qualities of the samples forwarded by vendors for analvsis under the terms of the Act. Superjihosphate. 1904. 190.5. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. Phosphoric Afiid, Water .Sohi>)l(^ . . „ Citriile Inscilubie s. d. .5 Z 4 8 1 0 B. d. 5 3 4 8 1 0 8. d. 4 6 4 0 1 0 s. d. 4 6 4 0 1 0 s. d. 4 9 4 0 1 0 Not piib- lislied. s. d. 4 6 4 0 2 9 The effect of the increa.se of value for insoluble phosphoric acid in super- phosphates is likely to have an appreciable influence upon the qualitv of superphosphates sold in the future, for the reason that it opens up the way for a reduction of the water soluble phosphoric acid and the increase of the insoluble phosphoric acid, without altering the total quantity con- tained in the manure. It is admitted by all competent authorities that it is the water soluble phosphoric acid which gives value to superphosphate. The acid is made in a quickly soluble form in order that it mav become thoroughly and rapidly distributed throughout the soil. If there is any fairly large amount of insoluble phosphoric acid it stands to reason that this portion cannot readily come in contact with the .soil particles and hence is of practically no service to the crop to which the manure is applied. •2)% = *4 6 9 17% (o) 4/6 = £3 16 1% m if- = 0 4 2% @ 2/9 = 0 2 6 0 9 lo Feb., J910.] Rape Fallow versus Bare Fallow. 119 The exact effect of the alteration of the unit values, on superphos- phates of equal quality, in this year from those in 1908 (no values were fixed during 1909) is as follows : — 'ixvperyhosphate 19u3. Phosphoric Acid, Water Soluble . .. .. 17% @ 4/9 = £4 0 9 ao. do. Citrate ,. .. .. .. 1% (a- 4/- = 0 4 0 do. do. ,, Insoluble .. .. .. 2% @ ]/- = 0 2 0 Total Phosphoric Acid . . Supeyphogphate — 1910. Phosphoric Acid, Water Soluble do. do. Ciirate ,, do do. ,, lusoiuble .. Total Phosphoric Acid . . . . 20% =£460 In other words, the portion of the manure usable bv a crop (water and citrate soluble phosphoric acid) is worth ^4 4.S. 9d. in 1908, and only ^4. OS. 6d. in 1910. It is impossible under the present Artificial Manures Act to now alter the values fixed by the Acting Chemist for Agriculture, but it is tht in- tention of the Minister of Agriculture, when Parliament meets, to intro- duce a Bill, which will give the ofiicer administering the Act wider powers to check any tendency towards falling off in the quality of a superphos- phate. Another point of interest to the farmer is the date of publication of the unit values in each year. At present, the values do not appear until the bulk of the manures have been sold and despatched to the country, delivery in many cases having been taken by farmers during the season of wheat carting. By a much earlier publication of the values in each \ear, farmers will have more opportunitv to study the quality of superphosphate offered and decide upon the brand offering the most advantage for the monev. RAPE FALLOW VERSUS BARE FALLOW. Mr. P. F. Cloonan, Crown Lands Bailiff at Sea Lake, when forward- ing the following letter, adds that the results obtained by Mr. Cathcart strongly support the advice given by Mr. Temple Smith at the Agricultural Classes held at Sea Lake last vear : — " The following goes to show that much may be done to better the splendid returns that have followed the adoption of improved methods of cultivation in these districts. It has been argued that the limited rain- fall makes the use of bare fallow, as opposed to rape fallow, a necessity in the scheme of rotation that has done .so much for the Mallee agricul- turist. With a view to testing the question, Mr. J. J. Cathcart. a successful farmer near Sea Lake, last .season sowed rape on 30 acres of a large pad- dock of fallow. Off those 30 acres he has harvested 24 bushels of Dart's Imperial wheat of prime sample — a plump, good coloured grain — for which he received id. per bushel over the ruling price, while the adjoin- ing portion that had been well worked right through the year, and sown at the same time, produced only the same number of bushels of Federation wheat. Mr. Cathcart claims that the result was most gratifving; he not only had 30 acres of rape with which to top off his lambs, but he was saved the extra labour involved in continuous working to conserve the moisture and destroy the weeds." The satisfactory result obtained shows what can be done in a year when the rainfall is fairly good. Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., lyio. SILO BUILDING ON THE FARM. The following inttrt-sting and appi"fciati\e letter and the accompany- ing illustrations have recently been received from Mr. H. T. Lawsnn, of Ulverstcne. Tasmania : — " In 1903 1 was at the Melbourne Roval Show, and obtained one of vour ] ouniah there. Although not farming at the time, I kept it bv me, and when I started farming about 2\ years ago I became a subscriber. I was so pleased with it that I sent for all back numbers, and the\- have been of valuable service to me. From the description of killing, dressing, and curing pigs, I started curing my own pigs, and was so successful that I had orders for all I could cure from, the shops at the same price that the\ were j)aving for b'est factor\' bacon. HARVESTING THE OAT CROP. " With the help of a farm hand, I have now Iniilt a silo from the -SII.O ULILT FROM UIRECTIONS IN JOURNAL. thanks for \our --. . „. answers to my previous inquiries. I am forwarding some more bv this mail. Of course, we have our own agricul- tural experts, but through lack of funds thev are too handicapped to FILLING THE SII O. be of the service thev should, so we gladlv ^vrH our.selves of the oppor- tunity of getting our information from )our fine staff of experts and splendiil Journal.''' Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. A NOTE ON THE WORKING OF SOILS. /. S. McFadzean, Dairy Supervisor. Many soils vary largely in their consistency under different degrees of moistness, but there is some stage between wet and dry when each may be most easily reduced by mechanical action to that friable condition that is necessary in a good seed-bed. When breaking up land at any season, but more especially when the weather is dry, every effort should be made to work the ground at this stage, in order that the labour and cost of cultivation may be reduced tO' a minimum, and a satisfactory yield be ultimately obtained. It is not to be supposed that any one would intentionally make this work of cultivation heavier for himself or his team ; nevertheless, this is often done through overlcoking some simple matter in connexion with the variations of the soil or weather. Even when apparently dry, all soil contains some moisture; but, when in a condition which allows of it being easily turned over by either plough or spade, there is usually an obvious amount present. In breaking up ground that is intended for cropping during the summer months such moisture should be carefully conserved. Want of attention to this point frequently has caused much loss of time, and has even resulted at times in the failure of that sea- son's sowing. If damp soil on being turned over should lie in an unbroken sod, exposed to the action of either a hot sun or a dry wind, much of the moisture it contains will soon evaporate; and it is apt then to become more or less caked and cloddy. In such a condition it will not make into a satisfactory seed bed ; but, if broken down by harrowing before it becomes over dry, much of its moisture will be retained, and it will be more easily brought tO' the desired condition for .sowing. No gardener in digging sweet ground woiild turn it over in sods and leave it to dry in that state. Each spadeful is broken down as it is turned over ; and when digging is' fini.shed very little more work is re- quired to make a satisfactory seed-bed. On the other hand, it is quite a common occurrence for a ploughman to continue turning over acres of soil until he has finished a given area ; meanwhile thoughtlessly leaving the damp soil to bake and clod, and the moisture to evaporate. The result is that, without an opportune rainfall, he afterwards experiences much difficulty in bringing that ground into anything like fair sowing condition, even by expending much extra time and labonr on it in repeated working. In such cases the weather is blamed for the unsatisfactory result. But, if the farmer had worked his acres on a method similar to that applied by the gardener, and broken down the newly-turned soil before it became dry, he would have had no cause for complaint. A like result is obtainable with either plough or spade if the soil is' worked down at the proper time; that is, before the moisture dries from it. Under dry weather conditions, therefore, ground should be broken down as soon as possible after it is turned over ; and the drier the atmo- sphere the less time must be lo^st in harrowing down the freshly ploughed lo Feb., 1910] The " Willia/n Farrcr " Memorial Fund. 123 surface. Xo rule, however, will suit all soils or weather variations. The point to be remembered is, that to allow soil to dry out to any extent before breaking it down by harrowing means increasing the cost of pro- ducing the crop by putting up more work for the man and team ; and at the same time the possibility oif a satisfactory crop is being materially reduced. In either the farm or the garden, a small area properly worked will give a more satisfactory result than a larger extent of ground indifferently treated. Careful cultivation insures a more even germination of the seed when sown ; each plant is also enabled to make better root growth ; and the land has thus a better chance to yield a good return. THE "WILLIAM FARKER'' MEMORIAL FUND. The following letter from the Under-Secretary for Agriculture, Sydney, is published in anticipation that a ready response to the lequest therein contained will be made by Victorian wheat-growers and others. As stated by Mr. F. E. Lee, on page 94 of this issue, the Federation variety of wheat, bred by the late INlr. Farrer, may fairly be claimed to be the most prolific yielding variety grown at present in Victoria. The labours of the noted wheat experimentalist have brought considerable benefit to wheat-growers throughout the Commonwealth, and it is fitting that his memory should be suitably remembered in perpetuity. Department of Agriculture, Sydney, i8th January, 1910. Dear Dr. Cherry, I have noticed with considerable satisfaction that 30U have been generous enough to give full credit to the value of some of the Farrer wheats in adding to the productive wealth of your State. You may be, perhaps, aware that we are trying to raise a monument to the memory of the late William Farrer, to commemorate the splendid work he did on behalf of wheat-growers, and, incidentally, the millers and bread eaters of the Australian States. We have now raised ^300, but wish to get considerably more, in order to establish a scholarship to carry on the education of some farmer's son who has shown special aptitude for wheat breeding. Probably the scholarship will take a student from the College or one of the Farm Schools to the University, on similar conditions to the Daily Telegra-ph Farrer Scholarship which is given to the best student at either of the Farm Schools, and provides the holder with another year free of cost at one of these Schools. Would it be amiss to ask you to notice the matter in the next number of your Journal, and invite those interested in Victoria to co-operate with us in establishing this memorial ? Any subscriptions from your State would be doubly welcome in this connexion. Yours sincerely, HENRY C. L. ANDERSON, Under-Secretary. Dr. T. Cherry, Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. Donations should be forwarded to the Under-Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Sydeny, N.S W. — Editor. 124 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 1910. AXSAVERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the l)ei>aitinent has Vjeen orj-anized to a lari,'e extent for the purpose of ^iviiiy- information to farmers. i^>uf~tioii> in every branch of ayrriculture are gladly answered. \Vnte a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All inquiries must be accompanied by the name and addre.ss oi the writer. Congestion of the Lungs and Pleurisv. — Because of the clearness and terse- ness of the following letter, received frjm Mr. D. A. McDougall, ■" C'raigielea,"' Maroona, it has been decided to publish it in full, together with the reply of the Veterinary Branch. Mr. McDougall writes — "■ I had a mare die and would like to know what was the cause of her death and what would have been the proper treatment for such a case. She was working in the harvester when she took bad, but had not been in constant work for some lime. " It was first noticed that she would not eat, was shivering and her breathing was fast ; the body was very hot, especially about the chest, and the heart was beating fast. In putting the ear to the front of the chest, a dry grating sound could be heard ; it could also be heard on the right side of the chest and along the neck. The ears and legs were cold. She ate a little now and again, stood mostly in the one place with the head down and the ears drooping, and had a reddish discharge coming from the nostrils. " She was bad for about a week, took another fit of shivering and fell over once or twice. The heart seemed to be getting thinner and not so fidl ; more irregular. On putting the ear on the right side of the chest a sound as if the chest had a lot of water moving about in it could be heard. It sounded like water dropping from a height into a vessel ; it could be heard from the bottom of the chest well up the sides of the horse. On looking at the side of the horse a line was noticeable, running from the flank to the shoulder along the bottom of the ribs, pressure on the right side of the chest caused jjain, and a very low, painful, cough was present. The inside of the evelid was of a dark red colour, the front legs swelled and a watery discharge was oozing out of them. ■' I put mustard, vinegar, and a little turp' around the sides of the chest and also oia the front of it. There was some swelling under the chest and a little in front of it after the j)laster came off. When breathing she would give a little grunt with each breath. She never laid down all the time she was bad, but at last she staggered, breathed faster, broke out in sweat, and dropped down dead. The illness lasted ten days. Doses of tincture of aconite, and sweet spirits of nitre were administered, and injections made. Towards the last I gave her whisky and water." Answer. — The first symi^toms shown were those of acute congestion (with hsemorrhage (jr a]joplexy) of the hmgs which was mainly indicated by the bleeding from the nose ; from this the mare may have recovered had not pleurisy set in as a complication. The line described as rimning along the lower border of the ribs is verv characteristic of this affection. The most common cause of congestion of the lungs is fotmd in putting a full blooded animal suddenly into hard work, more especially during hot weather. The first line of treatment to a(lo])t in such a case should be an endeavour to stimulate the general circulation so as to relieve the blood pressure within the lungs. This may be effected by administering in the very early stages a dose of tincture of opium, 2 ()Z. ; this should be followed every three hours with a stimulant such as ammonia in the form of aromatic spirits or, if that is not available, then 4 oz. of brandy or whisky, at the same time applying warm rugs to the body and warm dry bandages to the legs. The latter may also be rubbed with a mild stimulating liniment. A warm well ventilated loose box should be provided. Pleurisy setting in renders the chance of successful treatment more remote. Treatment is similar to that for congestion of the lungs but, in addition, the chest walls should be rubbed with a strong stimulating liniment or mustard plaster. Tincture of aconite ^ dr., and spirits of nitre 2 ozs. , mav be given everv four hours with advantage. Later on, as the fever subsides and recovery mav be looked for, absorption of the fluids, which have been formed in the chest cavity, may be assisted by administering three times a day the following : Tincture of nux vomica ^ dr., iodide of potash 5 dr., tincture of ginger i^ ozs.^ water i jiint. Death ok YorXG Pigs. — R.J.S. writes :^" Several of my young pigs have died lately when nbout three weeks old and in good condition. The stve is dry, but dusty. The symptoms are — They start sniffing as if suffering from cold in the head, the nostrils get choked up and are blown by the flies, there is a bad smell and the j)igs do not suck. Death ensues in three or four days."' lo Feb., 1910.1 Ansicers to Correspondents. 125 Answer — Use plenty of antise[)tics anil disinfectants in the styes, and over- come the dust by flooring. Wash and keep the nostrils clean, and in the early stages before they block up blow a small ([uantity of the following jiowder up the nose daily : — Iodoform, i part ; boracic acid, 4 parts. Founder. — C.L.S. inquires as to treatment for founder following foaling. He refers to a severe case in his district and states that, although the mare is likely to live, it is very probable that she will lose both front hoofs, as suppuration between hair and hoof is setting in. Answer. — The same method of treatment is adopted in all cases of founder — standing in cold water or applying cold water bandages to allay the inflammation and administering 2 drams of nitrate of potash in every bucket of drinking water. When following foaling, the additional ])recaution of syringing the vagina daily with an antiseptic is advisable. In the case mentioned, as the mare has become so bad, cleanliness must be attended to, keeping her on a soft clean bed. Should the hoofs drop off^, it will perhaps be the best termination in this case, as temporary horn will form and in time new ones grow, and she will be little the worse. Bt.ixdxess tx Shkep. — A.A.B. states that blindness in sheep is prevalent in his district. In one flock of 100 sheep fuUv 50 are affected; the eyes turn white. .\nswer. — This may be a specific disease, but at the present season grass seeds in the eye, or the irritation of thistle jjricks, must not be lost sight of as a cause. Make a careful search and remove, if present, and use the following lotion twice a day, dropping a few drops into each ej-e : — Sulphate of zinc, 2 grains; tincture of opium, i dram; water, 4 ounces. Mammiti.s, — D.E.F. writes : — " My cow had milk fever and was cured by the injection of air into the udder. Now one of the teats does not work properly. There seems to be a lump in it. The milk splashes up when it is milked into the bucket. Is there anytlung I can do to remedy the defect r-""' Answer. — A mild mammitis has evidenth- supervened on the air treatment, and the splashing referred to is probably due to clots which are forming arwi then being forced through the teat. The milk should not be used, and the udder should be fomented twice a da\' for about lialf an hour and then well massaged with camphorated oil. Injury to Bull. — B.S. states that a valuable young Ayrshire bull of his was injured five weeks ago through being driven and yarded with a mob of strange bullocks, presumably by the latter jumping on him. The symptoms are :- — Stiffness and humped back (especially after lying down), tail stiff and powerless, apparently in pain when about to pass urine, which is discoloured. Answer. — The bull has apparently received internal injuries, probably affect- ing the kidneys through sprain of the imderloin muscles. Place him in a convenient small enclosure by himself and a])ply a i)laster to the loins. This should be done by first clipping the hair for a space of 15 inches long and 12 inches wide over the loins and croup. Then prepare the plaster by cutting a piece of calico to correspond to the clipped ])atch and smearing it with a molten mixture of 2 parts of pitch to I of beeswax. When at the right heat put the plaster on the loins, pitch side to skin, and smear the whole area over again outside. To spread the pitch evenly, a hot shovel or flat piece of iron should be held near the parts and the plaster made to stick firmly by pressing it against the skin with a flat stick at the same time. Give in a damped feed, night and morning, a tablespoonful of Epsom salts with one teaspoonful of saltjietre. Pl.^nts for Identification. — W.T.I)., R.F., and W.M. fiuwaid specimens for identification. .4H.s/ce>-. — W.T.I). — Bnylsiu /ati/o/ix, Sibth. and Sni., Coninn)n Bartsia. It is an introduced plant common in pa.stures in nian\' parts of this State, often sent in as a supposed poison plant. It does not apjjear to have any definite poisonous properties, but might cause obstruction or irritation of the alimentary canal if eaten in large quantities. The plant is sporadic, being more aliundant in some seasons than in others. It was originally introduced with impure agricultural seed, but the small seeds are now spread in pastures by the wind. Cultivation, and the avoidance of over- stocking help to keep it down, as well as resting the pasture in spring, with an early mowing before the plant seeds. Since its roots are often parasitic on grass roots, its presence in pastures is additionally objectionable. Stock rarely touch it. Aiiswet. — R.F. (1) Bartsia /a^/o//a, Sibth and Sm., Common Bartsia (see above). (2) TrifoUum smhterraiieum, L., Subterranean Clover. An introduction from the Mediterranean regions. Of some use as a pasture plant ; it also aids in suppressing annual weeds. (3) Eroduim mosrhatnm. L'Herit, Musk Erodium or Crane's-bill. An introduction from Europe. Of slight use as a pasture plant, more especially when young, but, on the whole, to be regarded as a weed. 126 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Feb., 191CT. Answer. — W.M. — Trifolium glomeratum, L., Clustered Clover, a native of the Mediterranean regions, introduced into this State and now widely spread. It is an annual which seeds freely and so maintains itself, even on dry, sandy soils. Whilst growing it yields fairly good pasturage, but dies down in autumn and late summer when usually herbage is most needed. It is a good plant for aiding in the improvement of bare, arid pasture land which it steadily enriches and adds to the carrying capacity for at least half the year. Sheep voiding the un- digested seeds carry the plant from place to place. Paspalum. — Orbost inquires why Pasfalutn sioloniferum has not ton-'e into public favour like Pasfalum dilatatiim. He also asks whether "Boyd's Clover" will form a turf from seed. Answer. — Pasfalum stoloniferum is comparatively little known. Its yield appears to be less than that of Pasfalum dilatatum, and its creeping habit of growth makes it a nuisance in cultivated land. It is comparatively resistant to- drought and has no injurious or poisonous properties recorded against it. There is no record of "Boyd's Clover." Is it a seedsman's name? Please forward a specimen. Strawberry Clover. — -T.E. desires information regarding Strawberi-y Clover. Answer. — There are two forms of Strawberry Clover. One is the annual Strawberry Clover, Tr-ifolium res^ipinatmn, L. ; the other is the jjerennial Strawberry Clover, Trifolium fr'tgiferum, L. Both species are introduced plants. T, Jragiferum, L. is a native of Europe, of North Africa, and of Asia. It somewhat resembles T. r-epens, the White or Dutch Clover, in its mode of growth, but after flowering the calyces expand into small bladders, and take on a reddish colour. Percival does not include either this or the preceding species among the clovers recommended for cultivation. It grows well on clayej' or wet sandy soils. Cattle grjize well and fatten on it. Baron Mueller regarded it as superior to Dutch Clover, but this is very doubtful. It maj-, however, stand summer heat better. The annual Strawberry Clover is a native of Europe, Africa, and Asia, aff'ording a little grazing in spring, dying down in autumn or late summer, but maintaining itself readily from season to season by its numerous seeds. Baron Mueller mentions that " this clover is cultivated with predilection in Upper India, also in Afghanistan." This is evidently an error, as the plant is not mentioned in the official dictionary of The Economic Products of India. It is not worth cultivation, and is of very subordinate importance as a |)asture plant. Maize Cultivation. — J.S. inquires as to cultivation of maize and similar fodder crops. Answer. — Every attention should be given to the proper cultivation of maize and similar fodder crops. The seed having been sown in rows at least three feet apart, the soil should be kept stirred on the surface between, both to keep down weeds and to conserve the soil moisture. Care must be tctkeii not to work too close to the growing plants or to stir the soil too deeply. The fine feeding roots of the plants are liable to be damaged in either case, and the growth of the crop to be thus checked. Also, as the object of inter-cultivation is to conserve the soil moisture, shallow working only is required. To bring damp soil to the surface from below will cause unnecessary loss of moisture, and the crop will suffer from its loss. The lightest possible stirring of the surface soil is all that is required ; but the work should be repeated frequently till the crop is too high to get the cultivator through it without damage to the plants. On very light soils a piece of brush fixed under the cultivator will shorten the working length of the teeth, and prevent them from running too deep. Fodder Value of Rye. — H.H.W. inquires as to value of rye as fodder for stock. Answer. — The comparative values of green rye and green oats are as follow : — • Protein FreeExtract. ^^*- Rye ... 1.8 per cent. ... 6.8 per cent. ... 0.6 per cent. Oats ... 2.5 ,, ... 19.3 ,, ... 1.4 ,, Earliest Variety of Wheat for Grain. — H.H.W. wishes to know the earliest variety of wheat recommended for sowing for grain. Answer. — Bunyip. Manuring after Burning of Crop. — H.H.W. writes: — "Supposing a field be- heavily manured with superphosphate and the luxuriant resulting crop be destroyed just before harvest time, is the manure lost or is it returned to the soil through the ash?" Answer. — The amount of phosphoric acid in the ash of a burnt croj; would be trifling. The manure is practically wasted by the crop being burnt. 1 o Feb. , 19 10.] Statistics. 127 Black Ants. — -D.E.F. wishes to know how to poison black ants. They are located in a chimney and are a great pest. Answer. — Mix arsenic with sugar or honey, and with a brush or rag smear same on chimney, out of the reach of children and domestic animals. If squirted into the crevices in the brick-work, benzole will, if persisted in, drive the ants away. Hawthorn Hedge. — H.P.B. asks whether it is advisable to cut a young, fast- growing hawthorn hedge during the summer. Answer. — The best and most suitable time to cut a hawthorn hedge is imme- ■diately after the flowering season. If the season be fairly cool the cutting may be delayed till January. It should be cut hard back so as to insure a good furnishing of lower growths, otherwise the hedge will grow all to top with verv little undero-rowth. STATISTICS. FouKTH Quarter, 1909. Rainfall In Victoria. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with cones[ionding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available recorda to dnte. October. November. December. Quarter- Basin or District. 9 C3 3 1 c 3 1 9 t if 9 C 35 a) 2<» C c — = 5 7 ZIhe Secretary /or )\gricuUure, jVIelbourne. ^€i Remittances from beyond the State to be made by Post '[£ Office Order. " A valual)le contribution to the library of the rural producer." — AuMraJanan. " This publication is one woitliy of place on the bookshelf of every landholder in the f^tate." — Leader. " Without a doubt the most informative book of its kind yet issued by the Agricultural Department." — Weekly 'I imes. " Although this excellent work applies particularly to Victoria it will be found very valuable to residents in other States." — Past oral is/a' Beview. CONTINUOUS WHEAT EXPERIMENTS, ol. VIII. VINEGAR FROM APPLES. Part 3. [Registered at the General Post Oliioe, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper. PRICE THREEPENCE, (Annual Subscription—Victoria, Intnr-State, and N.Z., 3/-; British and Foreign, 6/- THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lO jVI^RCH, 1910. CONTENTS Results of Continuous Wheat Experiments ... The Advantages of Subdivision of Estates Bacchus Marsh Farm Competition, lf)09 A Deceptive Cow ... Bee Mortality Vinegar from Apples ... ... ,.. Home-made Vinegar Orchard Studies — I. — Green Manuring ... Orchard and (Inrden iS'otes The Onion Eel-worm An Abnormal 8ix-rowed Barley The Supply of Butter Boxes Irrigation of Lucerne Insectivorous Birds of Victoria — The Bronze Cuckoo Prickly Pear Answers to Correspondents Journal of Agriruftm-e — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Publications issued by the department of Agriculture Agricultural Education in Victoria — Dookie Agricultural College Longerenong Agricultural College Burnley School of Agriculture and Small Farming Wyuna Irrigation Farm Lectures on .Agricultural Subjects, 1910 Agricultural Classes, 1910 Weeds, Poi>ion Phmtn, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria F. E. Lee J. S. McFadzean A. V. Berher It. Bfuhne F.deCnMella B. Fallot E. E. Pescott E. E. Pescott W. Laidlaiv and C. A. Price A. J. Eirart R. V. Billis E. Mead C. French, jun. A. J. Eiuart Rates insidefront inside /roil t inside back inside back inwle back inside hack inside back inside back back PAGE. 129 133 144 148 149 151 156 1.58 159 163 171 173 182 186 1S8 190 cover cover cover cover cover cover cover cover cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the .Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknoirledgment is made. The .Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single co{)y Threepence. A limited number of tlie issues comjjrising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; III. (1905),9parts, exclusive of Part 3 (Mav, 1905), out of p)rint; IV. (1906), V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each, and VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. A few bound copies of Volumes VI. (1908), and VII. (19U9) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume ; postage, Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3s. per annum. Post free. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III., and IV. By C. French. 2s, 6d. each. Postage — Parts I. and II., 4d. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine, Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. 10 coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia, By D. ^IcAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. Ewart, 2s. 6d. Postage, 5d. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d. ; paper, 2s 9d. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weeklj'). 6d. per dozen. When ordering, mention "Monthly" or "Weekly." 2s. Postage, 3d. McAlpine. 165 pp., By Professor A. J. 6d. Postage — Cloth, THe JOURNAL OF LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL QAKPETS. Tfie ©epartmenf of Mgriculture VICTORIA. Vol. VIII. Part 3. 10th March, 1910. RESULTS OF CONTINUOUS WHEAT EXPERIMENTS. F. E. Lee, Agricultural Superintendent. The policy, initiated five years ago, of conducting wheat experiments upon different sections of the same plot of ground, is just now beginning to bear fruit. Among progressive wheat-growers, the usual practice is to grow one or two crops of wheat, followed by a crop of oats, then a year or so in grass before the land is fallowed prior to resowing with wheat. This practice is an admirable one w'hen the holding is sufficiently large to permit new land to be broken up each year without diminution of the area under wheat; but it is not possible upon a small farm. One of the objectives of the present wheat experiments is to test the possibility of more intense cropping of the same land, without diminishing its producing power or rendering it foul with wild oats and weeds. The returns referred to in this respect are from land which has borne three wheat crops in five years. The figures are eloquent as demon- strations of two facts : — {a) That the yield of suitable varieties of wheat under a system of thorough .soil preparation and manuring, and aided bv the use of only prime graded seed, can be maintained over a longer term of years, without fouling the land, than has hitherto been considered possible. {b) That the future improvement of the State average yield of wheat is likely to be more dependent upon soil treatment than manures. The writer, ha^■ing consistently opposed the burning of stubble for several years past, was confronted with the problem of satisfactorily dealing with this problem upon the experimental plots. A method which has been found to give good results is the rolling of the stubble and cross discing to cut it into small pieces which are worked into .the soil without serious difficulty. Another method having many advantages, is a thorough scari fying of the stubble prior to fallowing. This latter method is advocated by Professor Campbell, the prophet of " Dry Fnrming," as an effective means of restoring capillaritv between the subsoil and cultivated portion. 1915. E 130 Journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. It will be remembered, that loose soil bonds more easily, than is the case where the soil is 'separated by a layer of grass, or stubble from the bottom of the furrow. The fallowing on the experimental plots has, in the majority of cases, been done earlier and the soil mulch has been better maintained thrcughout the summer, than is the case on larger areas. The fact that higher yields have followed such improved methods is a strong argument in their favour, and points the way for a reduction of the large areas grown bv some wheat- farmers and the concentration of energy and implements on smaller areas. The saving in seed, manure, and time is more than sufficient as a set off against more frequent working of the land. Upon the question of graded seed, I can speak emphatically. Federa- tion wheat is not a large grain and, during grading, a rather high propor- tion goes away as seconds and thirds, but the first grade seed is a prime quality and in every way capable of producing vigorous plants. I go so far as to say that no farmer should sow any wheat seed which has not been graded, and the same principle might be applied to other farm seeds with profit. It has been observed that the wheat upon the experimental fields germinated more imiformly and quickly than is ordinarilv the case and, moreover, the young crops did not seem so liable to checks in growth by unfavourable weather conditions. This, I consider, is directly traceable to the vigorous qualit}' of the graded seed. Manure may influence both germinatio'i and vigour of voung crops tc a large extent, bul the vegetable processes slow down if the plant is not capable of maintaining its progress, by a well developed root svstem. Three Crops in Five Years on the Same Land. Reference to the table of results will show that, for five consecutive years, Federation wheat has been grown on some of the plots. The yields have shown no falling off, which goes far to prove that the producing power of the land is not impaired bv such heavy cropping, provided it is helped by other conditions. The following are the vields of five crops of Federation in the Wimmera, Mallee, and fringe, and noi-thern plains: — Wimmera. — - C. Xowatna, Jung, average for 5 vea.rs, 31.3 bushels per acre. A. Boyd, Minyip, average for 5 vears, 22.1 bushels per acre. A. Hutchings, Lubeck, average for 5 vears, 19.5 bushels per acre. Mallee and fringe. — B. Lavery, Watchem, average for 5 years, 19.8 bushels per acre. A. Barber, Narraport, average for 5 years, 19.3 bushels per acre. D. B. Innes, Rainbow, average for 5 years, 17.6 bushels per acre. W. Williamson, Boort, average for 5 years, 16.2 bushels per acre. North and North-Eastem Plains. — W. Sproat, Donald, average for 5 years, 28.8 bushels per acre. Nixon Bros., Eddington, average for 5 years, 22.9 bushels per acre. H. Pollard, Glenloth. average for 5 years, 12.0 bushels per acre. Wheat Variety Yields for Last Season. Federation wheat, like most other varieties, has shown a disposition to favour certain soils and weather conditions. Other varieties with reputations for prolificacy are constantly coming forward, hence the trials, year after year, of varieties having good reputations against Federation. A consideration of the returns which are grouped into districts, allows a good idea to be formed of the suitability of varieties to particular districts. lo ■March, 1910.] Results of Continuous Wheat Exferiments. 131 ■Ji a: 0 .£ ■.iS '.^ a; 01 'C :5 eg cS t_ C 0 a; 5C 50 g i i 6 t 5 * j^ t ; t ; = t i ; t s t ^ ^ rf 0 l^ X -H 03 OO 1^ :o « 0 :o -o (N — C X 10 CO c >o -+ GO G: ■* C5 S5 CO cb >o cc s; -<* ro .L, •^ 05 T l-t ^ •<* I- 00 -H —1 51 n^ C-) ^ — 1 (M (?) C-l rt ^ (M rt — ^ ij 0 u-5 ^ 00 ■* 00 ffl t- ^! "* 3: (M X ^ "CI- — X --t le cc •* "5 — X 0 — 00 t^ ^ t"- X ^ ^ ffO »o ■*COrt fC 0 -^- i >o 0 -H (N rH -^ ^ -^ '-•(M rt (>J (N 01 rt >^ bit "" .^; rc L- -t to X 0 i~~ '— — ' :c X 0 r~ 0 t- "M 0 — M re 0 ;S r^ i~ — -*■ r^ 0 35 i^ C-4 « t- X r- -i^ -* 1- rt 0; X '-1 0: .— ' •^ c^ ,__,__ -^ X ^^ ■-H M — ■ -^ (N04 c5 rt CC(M rt rt (M 2 K 0 s 'fi >" ^ 0 0 Z c: rt ?- 0 "ci ^' W X -f 0 (M t^ iCi Si' -1 0 •-= --o I- 0 g; c: "* cc re 'C 1- 7^ 52; i S - 10 0 -t fc X 3; •-0 -t -^ 05 L-; s; 0 't rt -t 'O l-'M ,'^ X 0 £ =i _^ -H- -.M - -M ^ -^ C) ^ ^ 11 -M rt _ ^- ^^ m <^ 0 ci ^ J aj &< s a ^ cc c; (N t-^ r- Tf -f ;o s cc X 0 rt •* 0 « ST. •0 >o ;z: C3 0) J- >H 0 t^ « X X OS 10 C5 •* X (N Cl X X c c rc 0 C 0 i CI? 1"^ 0 ■^ -H ^ iM — ^^ -H — 1 — (M rt f-H !M CI (M rt rt ^H '1 D H H tf ^ H .J t^ ■M -t •.£ l- X i~ 0 ci t— X tH (>1 r- 0 CO l^ X r— ( _aj C^ _ ^ CI -^ -H 0? (N IMCOO^ i— to «: irit 11 ... tchem rapoit rt ... iibow ■f. "3 ?2 S 5 S 5 c a s^ ;5 S 0 2-2 S S = a. .2 ^ ^ ;! :§ ^ "3 .:.-:; 'c "o "o 0 S ? 0) C+H ■s 3 ■? i ^ ..... . Si •i .... S ^ : ; : : : : S £ 1 2 is 0) f 5; is i* ^ 1 : : : iD SO . . . §3 1 ^ ; ; i^ c3 Northern arp, T. H xon Bros ewiek, J. roat, \V. rter, J. Hard, H. < •So?" a^ - 2 .5 <: £ = J |I5 pq 'J :z itney, J. Igriiii, J. very, H. .rber, A. illiainson, nes, I). B. < > ^■ri t- a, c3 0 c/3 Iz; H v: 0 &j ^•£::±-^^ 132 Journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. Northern Plains. — Federation exceeds all other varieties by a bushel per acre. Yandilla King, however, produced nearly 4 bushels per acre more than Federation on the same plot (W. Sproat's) at Donald. Another variet} which has yielded consistently well is Australian Talavera. Of the other two varieties, College Purple Straw did well, but in no case did the yield exceed that of Federation. It has decided advantages as a hay wheat. Jumbuck is reported as liable to shell, and the low returns in some cases are due to this loss. Wijnmera. — In no place in the State has Federation vielded so con- sistentlv well as in the Wimmera. The magnificent average vield of 28.8 bushels per acre, with a maximum crop of 35 bushels, constitutes a record in experimental field work. Yandilla King has yielded 5 bushels per acre less on the average than Federation. Australian Talavera is 3! bu.sbels per acre behind Yandilla King, the next varieties in order of yield being College Purple Straw and Jumbuck. Mallee and fringe. — In the Mallee and fringe. Federation sustains its first defeat for the premier position as a grain wheat. Under identical conditions at Watchem, Xarraport, and Boort, Y'andilla King gave superior returns. At Nhill, Rainbow and Jeparit, Federation gave the better returns. While it is far too early to form a definite conclusion upon the matter, I must point out that, in the western portion of the Mallee and fringe country, Federation has vielded consistently better than on the eastern side. Especial efforts will be made to confirm this fact next season. Australian Talavera again holds third place to Yandilla King and Federation. It is evident that this is approximatelv its true comparison as a grain producer. Jumbuck occupies fourth place for the Mallee group in place of College Purple Straw. It is curious that few, if anv. cases were reported from the Mallee fields, of Jumbuck shelling its grain. It is just possible that a rather earlier harvesting escaped the heavv winds prevailing at that time, hence a greater proportion of grain harvested. The general averages for each variety, regardless of locality, entirelv confirm the order of precedence as grain producers. Federation has fairlv won and worthily maintained the hia:h opinions formed of it, when intro- duced into Victoria bv the writer five years ago. Upon a wide range of soils, and under a variety of weather conditions, it has vielded consistently well, and may, with al>solute certainty, be recommended as a grain wheat in anv district in northern Victoria. Conclusion. The writer takes this opportunitv to state that, from henceforth, new duties will occupv him elsewhere, and the continuance of the experimental field work will be in other hands. It is difficult to adequately express the obligations the writer is under to those farmers who have so whole- heartedly and sympathetically assisted him in carrying on these wheat experiments during the past five years. That they have served a useful and practical purpose, and have added largely to the wealth of the State, is evidenced by the universal popularity and extensive growth of Federa- tion wheat. The work of improving the State vield of wheat is laid down with a considerable amount of personal regret which is tempered by the knowledge that the wheat-grower is now sufficientlv alive to the fact that the work must go on without interruption. \ further acknowledgment is due to the patience, loyalty and co-operation of the officers of the Field Branch, through whose efforts the field operations were carried into effect. lo March, 1910.] The Advainages of Subdivision of Estates. 133 THE ADVANTAGES OF 8UBDIVISI0X OF ESTATES. The Results of a Three-years' Experience of a Subdivided Estate IN THE LiLYDALE DISTRICT. /. S. Mel' adzean, Dairy Supervisor. The value of agricultural land is based on its contained fertility as represented by its capacity to produce an estimated quantity of some saleable commodity. The natural fertility of land is always possible of improvement by cultivation ; and up to a varying limit, the more systematic that cultivation is, the higher the production will be. On this fact rests the practicability of the system of closer settlement. To allow of such -settlement being profitable there must, however, be a fair working margin in sight between the price of all land purchased for this purpose, and its prospective value when ultimatelv brought to its full state of produc- tiveness. Where full allowance has been made for this, the subdivision •of land for closer settlement has a fair prospect of being satisfactory to all concerned, and not otherwise. In reviewing the conditions of the dairying industrx then existmg ni the Lilvdale Shire, allusion was made in the Journal, of February, 1907, to the probability of some of the larger estates there becoming subdivided before long ; and their carrying capacity for stock being accordingly increased. Since then, some little progress has been made in this direction with Mr. Joseph Timms' St. Hubert's estate at Yering. This property lies between the Yarra and the Healesville-road, some 6 miles to the north-eas: of Lilydale ; and was so named by one of the •original owners, jNIa". Hubert de Castella. Along with the Chateau Yering estate, and a large area of adjoining country, this property was purchased from the Crown by Mr. Paul de Castella some 45 years ago. Soon *s aM sIhBa ^^^k'*' w^ ^^m m:.^ •.' IB-**^ ^^; w ! injiif! f nil 1 11 „...,_: ■'" .... — - — - 1 L w made for their hire from owners of starving stock in other less-favoured districts. Mr. C. Blogg let his land for six months for .30s. per acre. About half of the St. Hubert's farm was let at 25s. per acre for twelve months ; and on both the Chateau and the Lodge properties dairying gave place to grazing for a time. Some further changes have also recently taken place here. Both of these last mentioned properties, as well as those of Mesrs. Thos. Timms and ^NlcClure, have changed hands at an advance on the prices paid for them at the subdivisional sale. Mr. J. Timms, senior, has again added the Chateau and Mr. T. Timms' block to his local possessions. Mr. Prior has bought the Lodge ; and ^Ir. Herkes has purchased Mr. McClure's. Since Mr. C. Blogg resumed possession of his block, he has brought nearly the whole of it under cultivation, 70 acres being sown for hay, and 30 acres planted with potatoes this season. His shed is also in use, as he is milking 45 cows there, on shares for the St. Hubert's owner, and grazing them on one of the adjoining paddocks of that farm. Photograph No. i shows this farm in the foreground of a general view of that .side of the old St. Hubert's estate. The " No. 2 " milking shed is seen on the left : and the high ground to the right in the distance lo March, 1910.] TJic Advantages of Subdivision of Estates. 1.^9 is Mt. Mary. A tree, further to the right, ahnost hides the piggery, and the slaughter house above it. The St. Hubert's homestead is also hardly distinguishable through the pines surrounding it which show in the centre of the picture. On the line of hill showing between Mr. Blogg's house and his shed, Mr. Gilbert's place can be seen ; while to the right of the milking shed a cluster of build- ings mark Mr. Pochon's and Mr. Prior's buildings in line; the former being about half-a-mile the nearer in reality. This photograph was taken from the levee bank before mentioned, which begins on this farm, the suc- cess of which is demonstrated by Mr. Blogg being able to cultivate the whole of his ground during the past season of heavy rainfall. A small portion of this bank may be seen in the right of the picture. Turning to photograph 2 the view shows the estate from the top of ]Mt. Mary. In this, Messrs. Whitehead Bros. ' farm and one of the dwellings are shown nearest on the left. Directly over the house, and still to the left are Mr. Prior's house and shedding. Over Mr. Whitehead's milking shed is seen the old "No. i " St. Hubert's shed, now owned by Mr. Herkes. The pines in the centre again hide much of the old home- stead. To the left of this, lies Mr. Gilbert's farm steading. Over that again is seen the Chateau Yering ; and Mr. Pochon's farm is over Mr. Herkes' shed. From these photo- graphs some slight idea of the posi- tion as well as the extent of the sub- divided estate may be gained, for in No. I nothing of the Chateau nor of Whitehead's can be seen, and in No. 2 almost nothing shown in i is in view ; while from neither can the size of the Chateau or St. Hubert's homesteads be gauged. Illustration No. 3 shows the " No. 2 '" shed and dairy with the pit silo which is now being enlarged bv rais- ing the wall. A herd of 160 cows 140 Journal of A^ricitUurc. [10 March, 1910. are milked here for supplying the cheese factory ; and they were averaging- 2 gallons per cow at the time of inspection in Novemhier, being then nearly all in their flush. Photograph No. 4, shows the milking shed on Whitehead Bros.' farm where 40 cows are milked. This farm is also supplying the factory. The majority of these cows are Ayrshires ; and are very typical stock, and good producers. A too ton wood and iron silo is in use here, and 72 acres are under cultivation. The flats along the creek are of very good quality ; but their working could be much improved bv underground drainage. Nos. 5 and 6 show as much of the St. Hubert's steading and factory as the trees around it will allow. In No. 7 we have the old " No. i " shed and silo on Mr. Herkes^ property. This silo is of concrete, and was built by Mr. D. Mitchell on the site of the old pit used by Mr. Rowan. It is octagonal in shape. 7. MILKING SHED AND SILO, MR. HERKES FARM 32 feet diameter, and 28 feet high. Only a portion of this silo has been' lately used ; the maize being stacked across one half of its floor space. There axe 27 cows in milk here, and 60 acres under cultivation; the factorx taking this milk also. Mr. Gilbert's steading is shown in illustration No. 8. Twenty-hve cows are milked here, and 50 acres are cultivated. This farm is probablv the most productive for its acreage on the estate u\) to the present, ttie cows being kept in a good flow of milk throughout the year by judicious, management and the assistance of the silo. All these farms have a good proportion of the river-flat land ; and the rich black soil therein is not to be surpassed for growing fodder crops. Mr. Gilbert sows his oat crop early, and gets as much out of it as possible by feeding it off with his dairy herd right into September ; and the ultimate yield of hay appears to be all the heavier for the treatment. The cows here were- '^^!^^^^^^J^9^^:}__J^ieJ^mages of Subdivision of Est a tes. 141 14^ Journal of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. averaging 7 quarts per day last February, 8 quarts in August, and 9 quarts in November. The next view (No. 9) shown is that on Mr. Pochon's farm, where 22 cows are milked to supply a Hawthorn retailer. There are 28 acres in cultivation here; but as yet there is no silo, the surplus maize crop being stacked till used. Besides working this farm Mr. Pochon, under contract with a citv firm of wine-merchants, continues to manage the vineyards on Mr. Prior's and the Chateau Yering properties, which now total only 40 acres. 10. MR. PRIOR S MILKING SHKD AND SILO. Photograph No. 10 shows the milking shed and silo on Mr. Prior's farm. For some time after he purchased this farm, Mr. Towt milked from 50 to 60 cows ; but, up to the present, Mr. Prior has gone in mainly for grazing and cultivation. The place is at present carrying 160 head of stock; while 50 acres were cropped for hay, and 25 acres are sown in maize. The last illustration (No. 11) is that of the old Chateau shed. As has been stated, on Mr. J. Timms deciding to again take up the dairying business, this property was re-purchased by him from Mr. Blog-g ; and 75 cows are now milked here. This shed, as well as the "No. 2," is fitted with tramv/ays to facilitate the carriage of milk to the cooler, as well as the other work of feeding and cleaning. Mr. Timms now intends to fit both these sheds up with machines, owing to the difficultv of obtaining reliable milkers. With the exception of Mr. Whitehead's herd the cows on all these farms are big framed stock showing Shorthorn, Holsiein and Ayrshire crosses, and are well suited to the heavily-grassed country they are on. The dairying and general farming are under the superintendence of Mr. J. Timms, jnr. ; while the factories and general business of the place is in charg'e of Mr. Merry, who has for many years been connected with Mr. Timms, snr. , in other lines of business. Besides this, each depart- ment throughout the farm and factorv is under a working manager who is directly responsible for the proper carrying out of his part of the work. As regards the result of this subdivision to date there are, of the original estate, 1,285 acres now used for g.razing stock other than dairy cattle. This leaves 1,830 acres in use for grazing dairy stock, and 785 acres under cultivation. Though as yet we have practically no increase in the ic March, 1910.] The Advantages of Subdivision of Estates. 143 number of cows milking at the dates of the two spring inspections of 1906-7 and 1909-10. still, from the 400 cows, the returns at the first date were (approximatel\) 520 gallons per day; while on the latter inspection the yield was 770 gallons — an increase of almost 50 per cent, within three years. In the former instance, these cows were in three herds; now they are di\ided into seven. By this subdivision, not only have the cows much shorter distances to travel to the sheds, but the number of hands engaged in milking has been increased from 18 to 25 ; which II. THE OLD CHATEAU YERING SHEDDING. allows for the work being done more quickly ; and the cattle having more time to graze, or rather having less time under durance in the yards and sheds. A good many of those engaged in milking the stock now, have also a personal interest in the results; which makes for better work than usually results from hired labour. As the cultivation in this three years has also increased from 320 acres to 785 acres, and several silos have been built, the increased yield may be expected to be maintained, and possibly improved upon. There are several families residing on the estate ; and, whereas the total number of hands previously emplox ed was usually less than 40, there are now about 70 regular employes and 20 temporary men on the place. The cheese factory books show milk purchased up to 1,195 gallons per day, with an average of 900 gallons per day for the months of October, November, and December. This, of course, includes surplus milk from farms in the neighbourhood other than those on the old estate; and if it were not for the establishment of this factory almost the whole of this milk would have been under offer to city retailers. There is no doubt, therefore, that the withdrawal of this milk from the city supplv would have some little bearing on the wholesale price of the milk forwarded from here during the past spring months ; and the producers of the city supply have reason to be slightlv interested in the success of this factory. As the whole of these farms now dairying are possible of being culti- vated, and only a small portion of each is at present broken up, it will be many years yet before all will have reached their full limit of produc- tiveness as regards dairy farming. With its handy position to the railway station, proximity to the metropolis, first class water supply, and splendid soil, the Yering district has many advantages that render it particularly adapted for dairy farming when carried out on up-to-date lines. 144 Journal of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. BACCHUS MARSH FARM COxMPETITION, 1909. A. V. BecJier, Dairy Supervisor. A. Stock. — The cattle on the farms visited were considerably above the average. Especially was this so in the case of four herds of milking shorthorns, which included some Royal Show winners. The country around the Marsh seems particularly adapted for growing typical speci- mens of this very fine dairy breed ; Mr. James Lidgett at Mymiong possesses some of the best cows in the State; whilst his brother, Mr. Henry Lidgett, has the present champion milking shorthorn bull. The only farm where I saw evidence of the scales and Babcock tester being used was at Mr. Meyers', and he duly gained p>oints for it. It seems very difficult to get farmers to realize the importance of regularly weighing and testing each cow's yield, when it has been asserted on good authority that at least a third of the cows milked in this State do not pay for their feed let alone show any profit ; and it is only by this means of keeping records that the individual yield has any prospect of being improved. In horses, Mr. Robertson gained most points, having two very good stallions, which I was pleased to see did their share of the ordinary farm work. It is a pity that stallions are not more often given regular farm work, instead of, as in most cases, being pampered up and overfed on boiled barley and not given nearly enough exercise to keep them in good health and effective as sires. Some nice draught mares were also to be seen at Mr. Meyers', a two-year-old filly in particular being exceptionally well grown. Sheep were in evidence on all the Myrniong farms, and seemed to do particularly well, Shropshires being most in evidence. Mr. James Lidgett had 30 acres of very fine rape on which some well-grown wethers were grazing. His ewes and lambs also looked well. Mr. Meyers' pure Shropshires were a select little lot, the lambs being well grown and showing plentv of quality. Four competitors did not carry sheep on their farms. On most of the farms, pigs were conspicuous by their absence; I only saw two brood sows on the nine farms visited. It seems hard to under- stand why this very profitable branch of farming is not given more atten- tion ; and I should like to see more points allotted for this class of stock in future. I know many of the farmers get no skim milk from the factorv, but with the fine lucerne country most of them have. I see no reason why they should not all keep a brood sow or two. ISIy own ex- perience has been that a good sow always paid me better than mv best cow. The poultry were mostlv of a nondescript class, with the exception of Mr. Dickson's; but most competitors lost points in this section on account of the poor accommodation provided for the birds and the in- sanitarv state of the houses ; on one farm thev evidentlv roosted on the implements. B. Best System of Cropping. — The crops seen on the majority of the firms were not as good as one might expect considering the pood season. This I consider was mainly due to defective cultivation methods and dirty seed. Several crops suffered from want of harrowing, the roller having been used last, thereby causing the soil to cake, strangle the crop, and allow the moisture to evaporate. In a wet season like the one iust passed thro'Jgh. the harrows require to be used frequentlv to keep the surface JO March, 1910.] Bacchus Marsh Farm Competition. 145 soil loose, prevent evaporation, keep down weeds and give the growing ■crop a chance to stool. There seemed to be no regular rotation followed by any competitor, except Mr. Kerr, who, on his graded flats, grew oats, barley, maize, and Jucerne in the order mentioned. The others seemed to confine themselves to oats, barley and wheat, no rye having been grown at all. Few farmers' jealize the value of rye as a rotation crop. This cereal, besides leaving a much larger amount of organic matter in the form of roots and stubble than either wheat, oats, or barley, provides sufficient available plant food for a succeeding cereal crop. If sown in the autumn it can be fed off with sheep, and either threshed for seed (which brings about 4s. per bushel) or ploughed in for green manure. Red Clover {Trifoliiim pratense) is also a good rotation crop, being known in America as the King of Soiling Crops ; sown with wheat or barley as a nurse crop, it does remarkably well, and provides splendid summer feed in the stubble. Being a legume it has the power of ■obtaining the free nitrogen from the air. besides making a tremendous amount of root matter. C. Cleanest and best Crop of any kind. — Mr. Burgess' crop of 40 acres Algerian oats gained the maximum points in this section. Being ^rown on new ground it had every appearance of making a very fine clean sample of seed oats if kept for grain. He also had 100 acres of Federation wheat of good colour, and well stooled, but in places it had suffered from the wet winter. Mr. Urquhart also had a verv good oat crop, but it lost points from having patches of Cape Weed through it, as did also Mr. James Lidgett's crop. D. Mac hitler y and Implements. — The implements on the whole were very complete. Mr. James Lidgett has a verv hand\' oil engine, which seems to do practicallv everything except milk the cows. Mr. Urquhart's implements were exceptionally well cared for. A binder, which had been in use for six years, looked as if :"t had only cut about 10 acres, and I was pleased to see the ploughs and harrows had their regular place in the shed on this farm. Manv farmers think that because an implerrient is made of steel or iron, exposure to the weather does it no harm ; it not ■only rusts all the bolts and mould-boards, but destroys the temper of the material it is made of as well. Mr. Dickson lost many points in this section, as he had sold all his implements some time ago, and has now to depend on outside work for his cultivation, which has the disadvan- tage of often not being able to get the work done at the right time. E. Fencing. — The fences on the majority of the faiins were in good order, and appeared to be regularly attended to, judging bv the supplies of posts and rails available for repairs. I should, however, have liked to have seen more subdivision fences on some of the Mvrniong farms. It is far better to divide some of the larger paddocks in two, and spell one half while the other is being grazed, than have the stock running over the whole paddock and getting no chance of fresh grass periodically. The gates on the winning farm deserve .special mention ; they are well hung on separate posts and nearly all neatlv painted. F. Orchard and Vegetable Garden. — All the farms, I was pleased to see, grew their own vegetables, and also possessed a few useful fruit trees. Mr. Kerr'.s garden was the best seen, water being laid on every- where. Besides a regular supply of fresh vegetables, there is a good flower garden and shrubbery surrounding the house. Mr Burgess also ■deserves credit for a young orchard of about sixty trees, planted last vear, vhich ought to do well in that class of country. 146 1 oil riial of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910- G. W atcring Stock. — The water supply was good, nearly all the farms having troughs supplied with ball taps. At the same time, the open dams would be better fenced off from the stock and water laid on by gravita- tion which is possible in most cases. Stock during hot weather generally stand in open dams, treading in the banks and contaminating the water. This can be easily avoided with a little forethought. //. Dwelling and Outbuildings. — This section was exceptionally good. Points were lost more from a lack of tidiness and maintenance than from want of buildings. Mr. Urquhart has: an admirable system of having his buildings, drays and waggons painted every three years, a plan which is very rarelv carried out among the farming community of the State. Some of the stables would have been the better for a few more windo'ws, as they must be very dark during the winter months. /. Reserve of Fodder. — Mr. Kerr scored the maximum points in this section, having an old stack of lucerne hay of 25 tons and another con- taining about 15 tons. Mr. Burgess was unfortunate in being a new settler. Having only been eighteen months on the Staughton Vale estate, he had to buy all his feed ; but he has a good hay shed in course of erection, and in future he will be able to make adequate provision. Silos were conspicuous by their absence. After the experience this district had last year, it is surprising there are not any to be seen on the farms, as a good deal of the surplus feed seen about the head- lands and plantations could be put to profitable use if converted into silage. /. Tree Planting. — A great many new plantations are to be seen on the majority of the farms visited. Mr. Burgess has done wonders in this respect with sugar gums. Should they all grow, he will have a bountiful supply of shelter around his homestead and paddocks. Mr. Robertson also has some corner plantations of pines and cypress evidently doing well. K. Improvement in the Original Productiveness of the Soil. — Mr. Burgess deserves great credit for the work he has done during the short period he has been at Staughton Vale. He started with a raw block of 234 acres. Seeing the farm now with buildings, fencing, fallowing, grulibing, tree planting and 150 acres of standing crop, it is hard to realize that it has all been done within so short a period. It just shows what the right class of man with a little capital behind him can do on a closer settlement block. Mr. Kerr .scored well in this section for the way he has graded and levelled some of his flats for lucerne under irriga- tion. T was particularlv struck witli the poor quality of the feed in the grazing paddocks. Thistles, Barley Grass, Wild Mustard, Spear Grass, Crow's Foot, and Cape Weed seemed to comprise the bulk of the herbage. Mr. Robertson was the only competitor who had a paddock of rye grass. It seemed to be doing remarkabK- well, and proves that there is no excuse for not having clean well-grassed paddocks. Farmers are too' apt to keep to the same paddocks for cropping and grazing vear by year, instead of going regularly around the farm with the plough, cultivating some new ground each year, and putting the old grounil down in grass. By this means they not only improve the fertility of the soil, but keep down the useless weeds and rubbish that gradually creep into all the paddocks. The lucerne seen on many of the farms clearly shows what a \aluable fodder it is. At Mrs. Scott's, in particular, there is a splendid 30 acre paddock, which for a first season's growth is exceptionally clean. lo March, 1910.] Bacchus Marsh Farm Comfetition. T-A1 Farmyard manure is evidently valued in this district. Good compost heaps were to be seen on most of the farms. If the use of g}psum is adopted in the stables, cow-sheds and pig-stves, it will not only help to keep them sweet and clean, but by fixing the ammonia in the manure considerablv enhance its value. P5 ZJ 2 12 ~ I 05 i^ 10 a500t---*(Nr^eooo X X o: t^ lO •^ t- -* o +3 1:1 o ^ s "J ~ -^ s i^ s ^ ;jl ^ ^ pq P3 "^ Joiinuil of AgricHltKrc. [lo March, 1910. A DECEPTIVE COW. The acccmpanx in{^^ illustrations are those of a cow prohibited under the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act. On appearances she would be judged a heavy milker. As a fact, she gave practicallv no milk, and such as was yielded was either purulent or curdled. The bulky appearance of the udder was due to tissue enlargement (" callousing "), the result of long- continued sub-acute inihunin.it iun (Manimiti.s) of all the quarters. The illustrations have been reproduced from photographs furnished by Mr. E. A. Rvland, Dairy Super\isor. lo March, 1910.] Bee Mortality. 149 BEE MORTALITY. R. Beuhiie, President, Victorian Apiarists' Association. The mortalitv of bees in apiaries along the eastern base of the GrampianS; which was referred to in the January issue of the Journal, continued for a short time after my inspection of the affected apiaries. Since then, I have received a report from Mr. Holden, Secretary of the Stawell Apiarists' Association, which includes many apiaries I was unable to visit. It shows that out of a total of 1,783 colonies of bees, 996 succumbed. The total number of colonies which went into winter includes over 100 colonies in the Victoria Valley where no losses were experienced. Deducting these from the total, the actual loss in apiaries affected amounts to 59 per cent, of the original number of stocks. But, as many of the surviving colonies had dwindled away tO' the minimum number of bees which is essential to recovery, I estimate the loss of bee life in the apiaries affected at 80 per cent. The investigation as to the cause or causes of these enormous losses, which appear to occur at intervals of some years, has not proceeded far enough yet to definitely connect them with either Nosema apis or Bacillus pestiformis apis. In the case of both of these diseases, there are certain well delined symptoms which are absent in bees disappearing as those in the Stawell district did. Microscopical examination of bees from different apiaries in Victoria, carried out by Messrs. C. A. Price and O. Willgerodt, has certainly proved the presence of Nosema apis spores in the chyle stomach of bees, showing either symptoms of bee paralysis or an absence of that robust and well-groomed appearence which the specialist bee-keeper associates with a thriftv condition of his stocks. But these symptoms have been known in Victoria for at least fifteen vears and re-queening colonies so affected with a queen of a different (resistant) strain, together with replacing the old brood combs, has generally proved effective in eliminating the disease. On the other hand, there is reliable information available that a wholesale disappearance of bees without showing any symptoms of disease occurred as far back as 1872 in Central Victoria, long before the advent of Italian bees and of the frame hive. While colonies affected with disease are generallv on the verge of starvation during a dearth of nectar and always less profitable, even in a good honey flow, it was the colonies yielding the best returns which disappeared during the recent epidemic in the Stawell district. In view of the heavy losses sustained, bee-keepers look anxiously for- ward to a solution of the problem. The in\estigation on scientific lines being, as yet, in the initial stage, any means employed to prevent the recurrence of losses can be based only on the facts as they present them- selves at present. Consideration must, however, be given to the possibility that this mysterious mortality may eventually be connected with Nosema apis, or proved to be another disease due to special bacteria, or merely the result of the consumption of food unsuitable under the prevailing atmospheric conditions. In visiting the various apiaries I repeatedly found that two distinct lots of bees, in one instance both owned by the same bee-keeper but treated differently during the autumn months, showed totally dissimilar results. The best results were obtained with colonies which weie extracted late in 150 Journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. the season, the bees being afterwards confined to a single storey. In a small apiary of 27 colonies, extracting took place as late as June, even the honey from the brood chamber being removed. Although 9 colonies died, apparently from starvation, the others were in good order, whilst, at an apiarv within a mile, where the hives had been left in what is, by most bee-keepers, considered ideal condition, that is " full of honey," the loss was 70 colonies out of 86. With one exception, the surviving 16 colonies were extremely weak. In another instance, an apiari.st extracted the honev from 23 of the weaker colonies in his apiary of 88, after the main honey flow, and placed them, in single stories, in the scrub country some two miles distant. At the time of my visit, the 65 colonies in the main apiary, which had not been extracted, had dwindled down to 7 weaklings, while the 23 in the scrub had built up strong enough to divide each colony into two for increase. In a third case, part of an apiary was moved to the scrub without extracting the honey, and there was prac- tically the same rate of mortality in both lots of bees. From the foregoing facts the inference might be drawn that it was the late gathered honev which sa\ed the bees, but the honey analyses (see page 62) show that samples i, 2 and 3 were late gathered honey from Eucalyptus Icucoxylon (White Ironbark) and taken from colonies which had succumbed. The percentage of moisture of this honey, which was found in the unsealed cells of the outside combs, is too high for safe food for bees at that time of year, even apart from the presence of fermentative organisms. It is well known that feeding sugar syrup, made too thin, in autumn, brings disaster to bees during winter or spring. Honey gathered late in the season, if the atmosphere is very humid as is the case after the autumn rains, cannot be evaporated by the bees to a sufficient density when stored in combs outside the cluster of bees. If contained in combs not covered by bees during winter, even honey gathered previously and of propter densitv will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, particu- larly if the cells are not capped over. In Northern Europe and North America, bees are confined during winter to just the number of comljs they can cover. In Australia, there is supposed to be no wintering problem with 'bees. Colonies are, in the majority of apiaries, left with all or most of the spare combs in the hives. If these combs are empty and dry, or sealed over when containing honey, there may be no other harm in this practice than a certain waste of the animal heat generated by the cluster of bees. But when a late honey flow occurs, and is succeeded by a severe wdnter, the honey stored in combs outside the cluster absorbs an abnormal amount of moisture from the atmosphere, as well as the condensed moisture due to the respiration of the bees. The experience of several apiarists who have always shut their bees down to a single storey rather earlv in autumn, and the instances I noted in the Stawell district of bees coming through well when confined to a few combs, seem to point to the necessity of adopting a method of pre- venting the very late gathering of honey, and the deterioration of honey gathered earlier, by leaving to the bees onlv as manv combs as they can cover. Even if, ultimately, the mortality should be proved to be due to a di.sease caused by a bacterium, it must be apparent that bees kept warm, and on food of normal densitv, are likel\' to be more resistant than when consuming great quantities of waterv honev to produce the amount of animal heat necessary to maintain the requisite temperature of the cluster in a larger space. lo March, 1910.] Yinegar from Apples. 151 Pending the final results of scientific investigation, I would recommend to bee-keepers : — 1. To avoid the transferring of combs of brood honey or pollen from one colony to another. 2. To return, as far as possible, extracted combs to the hive from which thev were taken. 3. To remove all surplus combs before winter, after replacing them in the hive for cleaning up by the bees. 4. To mark the boxes of spare combs with the number of the hives from which thev came, and to return them to the same hives when wanted in spring. 5. To treat a certain number of strong, medium, and weak colonies in the wav suggested, if it should be impossible to deal with all. VIXEGAR FROM APPLES. F de Castclla, Govermneiit Yiticiilturist. A correspondent writes for information concerning the making of vinegar from apples. He asks the following questions : — 1. Would it be likely to pay? 2. What implements would be required ? 3. How he should proceed? As conversion into vinegar may provide a means of turning to account, apples which would be unsaleable for other purposes, a replv to the above questions at some length may prove of interest to apple-growers. Good wholesome vinegar can undoubtedly be made from apples. Large quantities are produced from this source every year, in France. Though not quite equal to wine vinegar, it is, if properly made, superior to much of the malt, and other vinegars which find so readv a sale in Victoria, where the general public is very easy to please in the matter of vinegar. Curiously enough, it seems to have become so accustomed to the inferior article usuallv to be met with, that many persons even prefer it to the best wine vinegar, at least at first. Wine vinegar, in spite of its marked superiority, is, to some extent, an acquired taste with us, though once such taste is acquired it is preferred to all others. The writer had occasion to discuss this question recentlv with the leading wine-vinegar maker of South Aus- tralia. Though admitting that he encountered a good deal of prejudice at first, his business in the article continued to expand since, as he explained, " I never lose a customer." The superiority of wine vinegar over that from all other sources is proved by the considerable quantitv which is still imported, in bottle, from France. In spite of its high cost, persons with educated palates refuse to use any other. Excellent vinegar, equal to the best French, is now produced on a commercial scale, in "Victoria, so there is no longer need to have recourse to the imported article. Apple, or perhaps more correctly, cider vinegar, though not equal to the best made from wine, from which it differs by a flight characteristic (but not unpleasant) taste, reminding of the apple, is nevertheless an excellent and wholesome product and one which is appreciated in most apple-growing countries. Indeed, persons accustomed to cider vinegar usuallv prefer it to anv other. 152 Journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. Would it be likely to pay? To grow apples for the sole purpose of conversion into vinegar would, in all probability, be found unprofitable. It is only as a means of dis- posing of surplus fruit, which would otherwise be wasted, that the question merits consideration and trial on a moderate scale. Though ordinary vinegar (malt and artificial) is of poor quality, it is also very cheap. Competi- tion, aided by the prejudice referred to above, in favour of the better known, though inferior article, would also have to be reckoned with. These militate against a rapid increase in the use of wine vinegar, although the latter is of a quality the best cider vinegar cannot hope to equal. Never- theless, on a small scale, and more particularly for local sale in apple- growing districts, these obstacles apply with less force, and there would probably be a sufficient local demand to absorb a good deal of cider vinegar at a profitable price. Its suitability for use in the making of pickles and preserves should lead to a considerable local demand for this purpose alone. The prices ruling for grapes for wine-making purposes should give some idea as to what might reasonably be expected for apples intended for somewhat similar j>urposes. Grapes have considerably increased in value, quite recently, owing to various causes, but until the present season ^4 per ton has rarely been exceeded. Apples for cider making are worth even less, and it would appear, therefore, that for conversion into vinegar, it is scarcely probable that more than a couple of pounds per ton would be obtainable. Needless to point out, the grower who utilized his own produce would realize a higher price than he could expect from a purchaser who would have to make h:s profit. Probable Yield fer Ton of Apples. — Mr. J. Knight records a large number of observations as to the percentage of juice, and its specific gravity, yielded by numerous varieties of apples, chiefly grown in the cooler portions of the State.* Fifty-two samples of apples yielded an average of 71 per cent, of juice, with an extreme range of from 50 per cent, to 80 per cent. The average gravity of the juice for sixty-four samples was 1.069 (9.3 deg. Beaume), the extremes being 1.051 and 1.088. On this basis the average yield in juice would be 158 gallons per ton. Allowing for loss during fermentation at the rate of 5 per cent., the yield in cider would amount to about 150 gallons per ton. One of the leading cider makers in this vState informs me that, with the plant generally in use, and operating on a large scale, he cannot ob- tain yields of juice equal to the above, which were obtained by treating small quantities of apples. Under these conditions, very much more thorough extraction is possible. He assures me that he does not get more than 80 or 100 gallons of cider to the ton. On a large scale, the last portions of juice can only be extracted bv great pressure. After a certain point has been reached, the cost of extraction appears to be greater than the value of the juice obtained. The substitution of diffusion for pressure (see Journal, 1909, p. 365) would greatly increase the yield of juice. During acetification a further loss would take place. This would amount, at a liberal estimate, to 7 per cent. ; on this basis, the quantity of vinegar vielded bv a ton of apples would be about 140 gallons. Common vinegar is sold in bulk at is. per gallon, at which price, ^7 would be the amount realized from a ton of apples. Cost of manufacture would * See Jt)innal, 10th .June, 1909, p. 348. lo March, 1910.] Vinegar from Apples. 153 certainly not exceed -£2 per ton.f This would leave ;^5 per ton as the value of the ton of apples after conversion into vinegar. It may be objected that is. per gallon is too high a value to place upon the product: it must be remembered that the cider vinegar would be much better, and especially much stronger, than that usually sold in bulk, so much so that the addition of a considerable proportion of water to it prior to sale would be permissible. Under skilful treatment, apple juice of 1.069 specific gravity should produce vinegar containing 8 per cent, of acetic acid, whereas the minimum strength allowed by the Pure Food Act is 4 per cent. Much of this extra strength must, however, be allowed as a set-off against the difficulty in pressing out the last portions of the juice from the apples. It will be seen that, after allowing for several contingencies, the amount realized bv the conversion of apples into vinegar should be about equal to selling them at ^4 or ^^5 per ton. Process of Manufacture. The third question can be more conveniently dealt wdth before the second. A Two Stage Process. — The operation of converting apples into vinegar consists of two verv distinct operations : — I St. The conversion of the juice of the apple into cider. 2nd. The transformation of this cider into vinegar. The sugar of the apple is the substance which eventuallv becomes the acetic acid of the vinegar, but the conversion cannot take place directly — the intermediate stage of alcohol has to be passed through. In other words, the sugar must be converted into alcohol by the first or alcoholic fermentation stage, and onlv after the completion of this stage, can the liquid enter on the second or acetic fermentation stage. T/ie Alcoholic Fermentation or Cider Stage. — Full information con- cerning the conversion of apples into cider will be found in the article by Mr. Knight already referred to. To briefly resume. The apples must first be reduced to pulp in the cider mill. From this pulp, the juice is extracted, usually bv pressure, in suitable presses, but diffusion may also be employed. The juice must then be strained or filtered, after which it undergoes alcoholic fermentation in suitable vessels. It will here be sufficient to deal with the points in connexion with which the making of cider for conversion into vinegar differs from that of ordinary cider for drinking purposes. The most important of these is the absolute necessity for the conversion of sugar into alcohol being complete. In other words, the cider must ferment out quite dry. In Victoria, the public taste favours a more or less sweet cider. The presence of a. varying proportion of unfermented sugar is insured chiefly by repeated filtration but also by pasteurization or the use of sulphur. For conversion into vinegar sweetness (even slight) must be carefullv avoided. Since it is only alcohol which can be transformed into acetic acid, the presence of any remaining sugar would mean so much loss of acetic acid (or of strength) in the resulting vinegar. The presence of sugar is even more undesirable, however, in other ways. It serves as a food for numerous micro-organisms, other than the acetic t In France the cost of conversion of a similar quantity of wine into vinegar is estimated at about 15s. The cost of crushing and fermentation into cider, added to this, and the hig-her price of labour being- taken into consideration, the cost would come to about i.1 yer ton in Victoria. 154 Joiir)ial of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. acid bacillus, the development of which is interfered with at the expense of the quality of the resulting product. In the presence of sugar, the acetic ferment itself often behaves in a faulty manner, producing, instead of the thin film or veil on the surface characteristic of healthy fermentation, a gelatinous membrane at the bottom of the cask. This mass, often termed mother of vinegar, is an indication of faulty conditions, and its formation is to be avoided. In order to insure complete fermentation the juice should, when first crushed, be of suitable composition. A gravity of 1.069 oi" 9-3 <^^S- Beaume, corresponding to a resulting alcoholic strength of 15.8 per cent, proof, should ferment out rapidly and completely. This is, as we have seen, the average gravity of Victorian apple juice. Abundant exposure to air prior to or at the commencement of fermentation is verv beneficial, and will insure its being active and healthy. Filtration during fermen- tation is to be avoided, although straining through any coarse tissue, such as hessian, to remove rough impurities in suspension, can do no harm. Conversion into vinegar is not likely to be ever applied to high grade fruit. On the contrary, it will be of greatest use as a means of preventing faulty or damaged fruit from going to waste. With such, the addition of a small quantity of tannin to the apple juice prior to fermentation will often be found very beneficial. This will cause the precipitation of albuminoid or mucilaginous substances in the juice and insure an appre- ciable improvement in condition at the close of the first fermentation, thus producing a cider better suited for the healthy growth of the acetic ferment later on. From f oz. to i J oz. of tannin of good quality dissolved in warm water, or preferably in weak spirit, per 100 gallons of apple juice, will be sufficient. More than ij oz. should not be used, and if the fruit is in fair order this quantity may be correspondingly reduced. When the alcoholic fermentation is complete and all sweetness has disappeared, the cider may be filtered or fined; it should, as soon as fairlv clear, be racked into fresh casks. It is now ready to undergo the second part of the process. Needless to say, absolute cleanliness must be observed in all manipula- tions. It is just as necessary here as in the making of wine or ordinary cider. The only organisms, the development of which is desired, are the alcoholic and acetic ferments. That of so-called .secondary or parasitic ferments is to be carefully guarded against. These are largely filth organisms and one of the best safeguards to use against their development is cleanliness. Sulphur, the fumes of which are of so much value in wine making for preventing the development of noxious organisms, cannot be had re- course to here; its antiseptic action would check the healthy growth of the acetic ferment. It must be very sparingly used, if at all. The Acetic Fermentation. — Having transformed the apple juice into cider it would be possible to proceed immediately with the second stage of the process. Before commencing this, however, it will be well to allow it to rest for a certain time, in order that it may become clear, and lose the carbonic acid gas with which it was charged at the close of its alcoholic fermentation. Acetification does not take place actively at low temperatures. The best temperature for the development of the acetic ferment is from 86 deg. F. to 95 deg. F. (Pasteur). This, however, is not that adopted in the best vinegar works, a superior product being obtained between 68 deg. and 89 deg. Below 50 deg. acetic fermentation is slow and unsatisfactnrv. lo March, 1910.] Vinegar from Apples. 155 Unless the room in which acetification is to take place can be warmed arti- ficially, it will be better, especially in cool districts, to store the cider until the following spring, when the weather is sufficiently warm for satisfactory action. Such rest will improve condition, a very important advantage, for the growth of the surface ferment film, the agent w'hich carries out the transformation of alcohol into acetic acid, is not normal unless the liquid be clear. Filtration or fining should be had recourse to, prior to acetification, if the liquid be cloudy. The most satisf actor v strength for the cider is between 12 per cent, and 16 per cent, proof spirit. Above 16 per cent, action is slow and below 12 the resulting \inegar is too weak. Should the strength of the cider be above 16, it should be reduced with pure water, preferably boiled and allowed to cool. As regards the process of acetification, full information as to how this can be best conducted on a small scale is given in the Journal of IMarch, 1905, in an article by B. Fallot on the production of " Home-made Vinegar " by the Orleans method. Though this is one of the oldest methods, it is one which is capable of producing excellent vinegar, with very simple plant. The chief objection to it, on a large scale, is that it is rather slow. It therefore necessitates the holding up of a considerable stock, in course of manufacture. (As the Journal mentioned is out of print, the article is reproduced herewith.) For this reason, several other methods have general Iv been substituted for it in large vinegar works, notably the English method, the German method, and what is know^n in France as the Luxembourg method. These require elaborate plant. On account of its simplicity, as well as the good quality of the product it is capable of yielding, the old Orleans method, as described in the article mentioned above, is the one to be recommended for our present purpose. The percentage of acetic acid in the vinegars produced by ciders of different strength is a point of great importance. Theoretically, 100 parts of alcohol should produce 130 parts of acetic acid, but in practice there is a loss of about 15 per cent, of alcohol. The following table* shows the strengths of vinegars yielded in practice by wines of different strengths : — - Absolute Alcohcil Proof Spirit Acetic Acirl bv vo hiine. Per cent. Per cent. 6 10-5 5-3 7 12-3 6-2 8 14- 71 0. 1.1-8 8- 10 17-5 8-9 11 193 98 1-2 21- 10.7 These figures applv to the manufacture of vinegar from wine, but they apply equalh- well in the case of cider, provided the conversion takes place under normal conditions, as would be the case in properly conducted works under skilled supervision. On a small scale, it is doubtful if the full yield of acetic acid, as stated above, would be obtained. Plant Required. Full particulars as to this will lie found in the two articles referred to (see Journals, March, 1905 (reprinted below^), and June, 1909, p. 347)- * Portes and Ruyssen. Ti-aitOdeln Vigne et de sex Produits. Vol. II., p. 613 156 Journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. To briefly resume, the following would be necessary : — Cider mill, cider press and casks of various sizes — chiefly hogsheads for the fermentation of the apple juice, and after, for its conversion into vinegar. A filter will also be found useful, and of course the usual cellar appliances such as pump, hose, buckets, &c., will be required, as well as saccharometers, thermometers, &c. Mr. Knight informs me that one of his assistants, Mr. T. H. Heath- cote, has for some time been conducting experiments in the making of vinegar from apples. He wall be pleased to give information to those interested in the question. At the A.N. A. Exhibition, now being held in Melbourne, are to be seen pickles made with this type of vinegar, which has also been successfully used by the fruit preserving expert, for the making of raspberry vinegar and other cordials. Home-made "Vinegar. B. Fallot. Vinegar is a condiment of daily use not always offered for sale commercially in a state in which it can be consumed with impunity. This can be understood when it is general to call by the name of vinegar all liquids obtained by the acetification of alcoholic beverages, such as wine, beer, and cider, or the trans- formation of their alcohol into acetic acid. But if this organic acid is the essential basis of vinegar, it does not follow that a simple dilution of acetic acid with water would be vinegar. Vinegar is a substance endowed with hygienic properties dependent upon the composition of the liquid from which it was formed. In addition to acetic acid, there should be organic and inorganic salts, ethers which give the bouquet, glycerine, a small proportion of alcohol, in reality all the elements which constitute the original liquid. It is to the general effect of this combination that the properties of vinegar are due. We speak here of true vinegar, of which wine vinegar is the type, and which is becoming, it must be regretfully noticed, more and more rare. Actually it is through perfected systems of acetification that the vinegar maker hardly uses wine, but rather diluted cheap spirits. Vinegar made from these spirits diluted possesses none of the above- mentioned hygienic constituents. It may even from its excessive acidity be a danger to weak digestions. If even its origin were known it might be possible to remedy the inconvenience of defective composition, but the trade as a rule offers it for sale as wine vinegar. A little glucose is sufficient to cover the excessive acidity, and the consumer purchases it with confidence at a high price, and at the expense of his stomach. . True wine vinegar is becoming rare, but as it is necessary to be sure of having it good, the only method is to make it oneself. This is quite possible anywhere. On the farm, in the town and cities, every household should make its own vinegar. It is so simple, and the necessary material so cheap, when even the bottoms of bottles of wine may be used, which are otherwise thrown away, as will be gathered from the following practical details of the operation. Before beginning on the purely practical side of the question, it is as well to cursorily examine the theories upon which it is based. We have said that the process of making vinegar consists in transforming Alcohol into acetic acid. Let us examine the phenomenon which produces this transformation. It is known that the formation of acetic acid is due to an oxydation of alcohol, with a production of water, as expressed in the chemical formula — C2H60-f()i'=C2H-iO«+H20. Pasteur discovered how this transformation actually took place, and proved that acetification is a fermentation due to the jjresence of a ferriient Mycoderma, or Mycrococcus aceti, without which air alone, which is indispensable, cannot act. Classed among the group of aerobian ferments, i.e., requiring the oxygen of the air in order to exist, this ferment lives on the surface of alcoholic liquids in the forrn of a fine white veil, which is so instable that the least agitation of the liquid submerges the cellules of the ferment and asphyxiates them. In time this veil thickens, and ends in forming a consistent membrane, to which is givea lo March. 1910.] ]'i//cgar from Apples. 157 the name of " mother of vinegar." An essential condition for the life of the ferment is a temperature between 67 degrees and 87 degrees Fahr., outside of wiiich limit the ferments suffer, and eventually cease to work. Pasteur proved that this ferment is indispensable for the transformation of alcohol into acetic iicid, and that without air it cannot be produced. From a practical point of view it is deduced from the preceding points of consideration that to make vinegar there must be : — The presence of acetic ferment, the presence of air, a temperature between 67 degrees and 87 degrees, and an alcoholic liquid containing the e'.ements necessary for the life of the ferment. The presence of the ferment is the first condition. If Pasteur's theories are considered, which show the air to be full of germs of all kinds, it would seem that there would be no necessity to trouble about the ferment itself, and by only exposing the wine to the air acetification would soon be produced. This does happen, as may be seen in ullaged Tsottles. But in this case the commencement of fermentation is slow, and there is a risk of developing other ferments, which would have a different action, and possibly destroy even the alcohol. To have good vinegar this accident must be avoided, and by obtaining only the acetic ferment. It is therefore preferable to add to the liquid some of the •cellules of the ferment, which, when placed upon the surface, develop rapidly. For this a sort of culture is made in a shallow receptacle — a saucer, for instance in which is placed a little wine, reduced to lo per cent, proof spirit and one-third its volume of good vinegar. This is exposed to the air in a warm place, and very soon a veil formed by the cellules of the ferment will be formed from the germs in the air, and they can be added to the surface of the liquid to be acetified. The manufacture of vinegar is condensed into these few lines. Take an alcoholic liquid, place on its surface traces even of acetic ferment, leave it exposed to the air in a proper temperature, and the ferments do the rest. This is the old Orleans method, which was discarded by the trade on account of the time it takes '(about two months) before good vinegar is obtained. For household use this does not matter, on account of the moderate consumption, and this process is the l)est for the purpose when emjiloyed under the following conditions : — A cask is •chosen, in accordance with the quantity consumed. A ten-gallon keg would be large enough for almost any household. If it has iron hoops they should be painted, as otherwise they would be rapidly destroyed by the vapours of acetic acid. In each head a hole should be bored, say a quarter of the way down from the top chimb, and covered with mostjuito netting, so as to prevent the entry of iiny insects. Below the front opening is placed a bent glass tube, tightly fixed in n cork, so as to show the level of the liquid. A wooden tap is inserted below this. It is essential that no metal tap should te used, and the wooden tap should turn easily, and the cask should be solidly fixed, so as to prevent any shaking, which would break the veil formed by the cellules of the ferment, and so destroy them. For the same reason, it is as well to fit a wide glass tube through the bung- hole, reaching nearly to the bottom of the cask, through which the wine to be acetified can be added without breaking the veil of cellules on the surface of the liquid. To start the affair working, the operation is very simjile. The wine to be acetified, re- ■cluced to 12 per cent, proof, together with one-third of its volume of good vinegar, is poured into the cask, so that the level of the liquid comes within half an inch of the air-holes in each head. Then the vinegar ferment previously prepared is carefully placed on the surface of the licpiid, and the glass lube is inserted, and secured into the bung- hole through a cork bung, and the cask left in a proper temperature. At the^ end of from four to six weeks vinegar may be drawn, and every suc- ceeding fortnight, each time replacing the quantity drawn by an equal quantity of wine to be treated. Such an installation can be fixed in any house — in a kitchen, for instance, provided always the temperature is constant and suitable. To obtain good vinegar, sound, clear wine should be used, and reduced to from 12 per cent, to 15 per cent, proof spirit. Above that strength acetification is slow and somewhat in- complete. 158 Journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. ORCHARD STUDIES. I. GREEN MANURING. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The system of green manuring, or as it is called in America, the system of growing co\er crops, because the crops coA^er the ground at a time when it is otherwise bare of foreign growths, is one that should commend itself to every orchardisc, who desires tO' perpetuate, or to continue as long as possible, the fruiting abilities of his trees. To do this, the grower must decide that his soil shall never become exhausted, or " tree sick." When a tree has been growing, and of course in the one place, for a number of years, it can easily be understood that it has removed from the soil a very large amount of the constituents necessary for its nutriment and sustenance. Thus the soil becomes somewhat exhausted, and perhaps depleted of the particular food that the tree requires ; and the tree has then continually to struggle against very adverse circumstances ; and so it is not easily possible for it to grow, to remain vigorO'US, and to regularly produce fruit. The fruit-grower should look upon his land as his fixed bank deposit, and the tree as the interest producer. So long as the trees are not drawing upon the soil to reduce its value, then they are doing well ; but every means must be taken so as to perpetually keep the soil as near to its original state of productiveness as possible, or to improve this condition. Thus, a judicious system of manuring comes into operation, and it is with the work of green manuring that we are now immediately concerned. In a few words, green manuring consists of growing a crop of plants, preferably plants of a leguminous nature, in the late summer, and, when the crop is in full flower, ploughing it into the soil, there to rot and add to the amount of humus already in the soil, ultimatelv becoming a valu- able plant food. A large variety of plants may be used for this purpose, but those of a leguminous or pod-bearing character are by far the most valuable. These plants possess the ability to gather atmospheric nitrogen and store it up, especially in the nodules which are so prevalent upon their roots. Thus, when the plants have been turned in by the plough, the garnered nitrogen becomes readily available as a food supply for the trees. The leguminous plants are thus a nitrogen factory, collecting, storing, and ultimately dispersing one of the most necessary and valuable of plant foods. Of course, nitrogen mav be added to the soil bv means of nitro- genous chemical fertilizers ; but it is the addition of humus as a result of the decay of the green manure, that is so valuable, not only as a manure, but as an amelioration of undesirable soil conditions. American calcu- lators have estimated that the world's annual expenditure in nitrogenous manures is aboiit 25,000.000 pounds sterling; and it is stated by them that over every acre of the world's surface there is as much nitrogen in the air as would replace the total quantity used, assuming that it be utilized in the form of green manuring by growing leguminous cover crops. The crop of leguminous plants is sown broadcast or drilled in the orchard in earh autumn, March for preference. The plants thus obtain all the advantages of any early rains, and should reach a fairly advanced stage before the frosts and cold weather of winter arrest their further development. In spring, the plants start into growth again, and are soon in full flower. The crop is then rolled, and ploughed in. Various legumes are grown, chiefly vetches, tares, various species of beans, lupins, cow peas, partridge peas, and field peas. The last-named is the variety that is more grown than others. lo March, 1910.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 159 According to the nature of the plant sown for green manures, so should the quantity of seed used be small or large. Thus, a greater quantity of field peas would be required than that of beans or lupins. One hundred- weight of superphosphate and bonedust should be sown with the crop ; and the seeding should be a liberal one, at least one bushel per acre of field peas (if that be the legume selected) being used. As soon as the crop has reached maturity, and this is judged by the fact that the whole of the crop has reached its full flowering stage, the crop should be rolled so as to render the ploughing more easy of accom- plishment ; then it may be ploughed in, using a circular coulter in front of the ploughshare to cut up the crop, and thus make it more readily to become covered by the soil. One danger to be guarded against is the continuance of dry weather, after the crop has been pldughed in. If such a contingency should arise, the land, after ploughing, should be well harrowed and then rolled, so as to retain any moisture that ma\ be in the soil ; frequent cultivations will also be necessary. The advantages of green manuring are many. Humus and nitrogen are added to the soil, the former amending the physical texture, and the latter adding to its manurial value. Thus, the fertility of the soil is not only restored, but it is largely increased. The succulent plants being turned into the soil, a large amount of plant moisture is therefore added, and so the svstem is one of natural irrigation. The physical condition of the soil being improved bv green manures, the soil is in a more fit state for soil aeration ; the presence of a cover crop in winter prevents the severe frosts from affecting anv tree roots that may ibe near the surface ; the presence of a growing crop prevents largelv anv surface washing that may occur on hill lands, through excessive rainfall. These and many other benefits accrue through the carrving into practice the svstem of green manuring. And so naturallv anv one, or all, of these conditions occurring, the trees must benefit, the orchard must be in a stronger condition, and the resultant crops of fruit must be largelv increased. orchafyD and garden notes. E. E. Pescott. Principal , School of Horticulture , Burnley. The Orcliard. Fruit Notes. The past month has been a very unfavourable one tO' the proper develop- ment of fruit. The alternating cold and heat changes have set up unde- sirable conditions. Large numbers of apples have been scorched by the hot sun to such a degree as to^ render them absolutely useless. Reports have come to hand from all districts that bitter pit is more than usually prevalent this season. This seems to add weight to the suggestion that this " disease " is the result of an uneven and irregular flow of sap. A crop of plums on one tree at the Burnley Gardens has this season shown all the signs of bitter pit, and the fruit is now under investigation. If it should prove to be this trouble, another species of fruit is added to the list of fruits attacked by this mysterious disease, as no record has previously been noted, of plums being so affected. Reports have been received that the much heralded apple King David iias fruited in various places this season. At Diamond Creek, Inspector i6o J ourtiaL of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. Wallis noted that this apple is now bearing, and that every fruit is very badly affected with bitter pit. The trees, however, are young, and mature trees may give a better result. At Emerald, the fruit shows good signs, and looks well, but so far it does not appear to be any earlier than Jonathan. Some fruit trees in the collection at the Burnley School of Horticulture are every year proving themselves to be of good quality and consistent in bearing; and though they are not generallv in cultivation, they possess- characteristics which would make them desirable to grow, especially where orchardists grow for the local market, and desire a continuous succession of fruit. Souvenir de Congress pear is of a very vigorous nature, fruit fine, large, and juicy. The fruit xipens shortly after the William's Bonr Chretien; and seems to possess some of the flavour of that pear. It is rather coarser, but as a succession is well worthy of cultivation. Wright's Early plum is a plum belonging to the Japanese section. The fruit is almost .similar to that of the Burbank ; but it is one of the earliest known ripening varieties, and hence it is desirable. It fruited this year a fortnight earlier than the ordinary cherry plum. Early Almond apple is a good quality cooking apple, of very fine flavour, and good size. The tree carries fair average crops. It is ready for use early in January. If the fruit is allowed to mature, it is of a beautiful amber colour, of acid flavour; and is ripe in mid-Februarv, although for cooking it may be used earlier. Garden Royale apple is an apple possessing the first qualitv of cooking; flavour. It is an excellent early cooking apple, a very good bearer, and is ready for use in mid-January. Wealthy apple is a fine flavoured apple, verv crisp and juicv, sweety and a mid-season fruit well worthy of cultivation for dessert purposes. The tree bears well, the fruit is of good size, and the apple is very attrac- tive, being well streaked with rich red lines ; it ripens towards the end of February. Orchard Work. Where orchards are requiring renovation or manuring, an early start should be made to plant a crop of leguminous plants for green manure. An early start is absolutely necessary, and the advantages of this practice are too numerous to be overlooked by orchardists. A separate study on green manuring will be found on another page. A start should now be made ui preparing land for winter planting. The soil will require to be well ploughed, and it will be necessary to have it thoroughly aerated and sweefened before the v<^>ung trees are planted. All tree roots and stumps should be removed, and burned, so as to remove all possibilities of the root rot fungus attaching itself to the tender growing- roots. If at all possible, the soil should be well drained, and as far as it can be done, the system of drainage should be well carried out as early as convenient. When ploughing the land, it would be a distinct advantage, and of great profit to the orchardist, to subsoil the land as w-ell. The usual method of sub.soiling has been to follow along in the furrows made by the plough, with a second plough, which has had the mouldboard removed. A more economical method, and one just as advantageous is now in vogue; and it is simply to attach a subsoiling " foot " behind the ploughshare. This stirs the subsoil 4 or 5 inches below the srerphosphate, or sulphate of ammonia, t)e used, the proportion of one ounce to four gallons will be ample, for the weekly supply. Excessive manuring and over-feeding tend to gross growth and coarseness of petals, and these should always be avoided in floriculture. The popular zonale pelargonium, more commonly known as the geranium, will now be at its best. The autumn flowers of these plants 1915. F i6: Journal of A-^nciiUiirc. [lo March, 1910. are generally better than those at any other time of the \ear. With little culture, and less water, these beautiful herbaceous plants will produce a profusion of beautiful flower trusses through the season. They pre- fer a sheltered position, and should be planted so as to recei\e only a moderate amount of sun, and no wind whatever. Cuttings of these plants will now strike readih , and a few late blooms may even be ob- tained from these when rooted. The well-knovv'n bedding \ariety. Rev. F. Atkinson, produces a blaze of colour in the garden all through the summer, early and late; and this variety rivals the popular "Bonfire" salvia for intensity and profusion of bloom. A good small selection would be : — Scarlets — Rev. F. Atkinson, F. V. Raspail improved, Deuil de Mirabella, Fiery Cross, Cremorne Scarlet. Crimson— Lord Curzon, Egypt (very dark). White — Albion, Adolphe Brisson, and Mary Seaton (crimson and white), California (brick red, double), Rainbow (cerise and white), ^Madame Landry (pink, double), and Fire Dragon (scarlet, cactus). Plantings of all varieties of spring blooming bulbs should now be made. The soil should be deeply dug, so as to allow a very free root run for the bulbs. All manures, either animal or chemical, should be thoroughly worked into the soil, being well distributed all through. The roots of most bulbs grow in an almost vertical direction, and hence the greater percentage of the manure should be placed below the bulb. A small layer of soil or sand should cover the manure and the bulbs planted in this. On no account, should any manure whate\er come into immediate con- tact with the bulb itself. This always weakens, and more frequently rots, the bulb completely. Bulbs should not be planted too shallow ; ordinary daffodil bulbs may be planted with about three inches of soil above them, the soil being fixmly pressed around and above the bulb. Smaller bulbs require shallower planting and vice versa. A few bulbs may be kept for planting till April, for later blooms in the s])ring. Sow now, all varieties of hardy annuals and perennials, as well as seeds of flowering trees and shrubs. Palms and shrubs may now be lifted, if necessarv, and placed in more favourable situations, cool weather being selected, and everv preparation for their reception Ijeing made previously. In moving permanent plants and shrubs, a good ball of earth should be lifted, and as few of the roots disturbed as possible. lo March. 19 ro.] The 0)iton Eel -worm. 163 THE OXIOX EEL-W OKM. Experiments for the Eradication of — With a Short Description of its Life History and Habits. ir. Laidlaii-, B.Sc, Micro-Biologist ; and C . A. Price. Microscopist. It is only within recent \ear.s that special attention has been directed to the systematic study of the Nematoda or thread worms parasitic on plants, as distinguished from those affecting animals, though various experiments were made manv years ago bv the Department of Agriculture for the eradication of eel -worms affecting the onion crops in the Drvsdale district. In the year i8qo. Dr. X. A. Cobb, in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, called aitLmtion to the fact that an eel-worm, know-n to science as Tylenclius devastatrix, was believed to exist in Australia. This was confirmed bv an article from the pen of Mr. A. X. Pearson, who at that time was Agricultural Chemist for Victoria. At the instance of the late Mr. Levien. M.L.A., a prominent onion- grower, Mr. Pearson visited the Drysdale district for the purpose of ascertaining the cause of a disease affecting the onions. He discovered in the diseased onions a minute eel -worm. He says : — The ground at present is in a deplorable state. It is not surprising that this should be so. In almost all cases where crops are grown year after year on the same land, without rest or change, such a condition of things arises, but besides this continuous onion growing the ground is not cleared of the diseased onions which are allowed to reniain bearing the eggs or spores to the next season. For many years jirexious to this date, this land had been continuouslv cropped with onions, owing to its suitabilitv for their culture. Mr. Pearson arrived at the conclusion that the only remedy for the state of things then existing was an entire change in the svstem of agriculture, the aboli- tion for a time of the onion crop from the district and the establishment of suitable rotations. He exjjerimented with a number of chemicals, including chloride of lime, gas lime, dilute solutions of mercuric chloride and dilute arsenical solutions. He also burned straw and brushwood on the surfare of the soil, without any or onlv slight beneficial effects. Dr. Cobb applied to Mr. Pearson for specimens of the diseased onions, which were forw^arded and on which he contributed a report to the Agricul- tural Gazette in 1891. After a minute description of the aratomy of the eel -worm (which he rc-cognised to be Tylenchus devastatrix), and the various agencies bv whirh it is spread, he suggested the following remedies : — 1. To destrov all affected jilants. 2. To remove all weeds that might afford the worms a subsistence. 3. Removal of the first three inches of the surface soil. 4. Deep and thorough ploughing which turns the soil exactly bottom side up. 5. The promotion of a ra[)id growth of the plants cultivated. 6. Sowing the infested Inml thicklv with rye, and reaping it while voung. 7. Injection of carbon bisulphide into the soil, the iniections to be shallow and numerous. 8. A good svstem of drainage. In the year 189 1. various chemicals were tried by Mr. D. McAlpine, Vegetable Pathologist, for the eradication of the onion eel-worm. The F 2 j64 ] oiirnal of Af:_r/culiiin' . [jo March. 1910. following chemicals were used during the experiments carried out at that time : — 1. A mixture of sulphate of potash and sul[)lia(e of ammonia. 2. A dressing of lime. 3. Spraying the plants with diluted phenvle. 4. Spraying with dilute corrosive sublimate. 5. Dilute rorrosive sublimate ajiplied to the soil in the badly affected parlb. 6. Sulphate of iron forked in between the rows of the onions. These chemicals, it is stated, produced no^ effect, the disease being as bad on the treated as on the untreated plots. Since then, numerous experiments for the eradication of this pest have been tried by other investigators, principally on their own initiative. Amongst these, special attention must be made of Mr. R. J. Fletcher, of North Geelong, whose work extended over a period of foin- vears. and included not only the effect of chemical DISEASED ONIONS ON THE RIGHT, SHOWING DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE EEL-WORM. (half NATURAL SIZE.) substances and manuxes on the affected land, but also a study of the lite history and habits of the eel -worm. By this observer over 300 plots were treated, scattered over nine different farms in paddocks known to be diseased, and included within an area of 30 square miles, thus getting a variety of soils, drainage, and other conditions. The chemicals used were the following : — Sulphurous acid, chloride of lime, arsenic and soda, potassium cyanide, corrosive sublimate, spent oxide fro-Ti gas works, common salt, ground quicklime, freshly slaked lime, saccharated solution of lime, flowers of sulphur, precipitated sulphur, and na])hthaline. Out of this comprehensive list of chemicals, he found that sul]~)hurous acid and ammonia were the only two that gave results worth lo March, 1910.] Tlic Onion Eel-ivorni. 16: further consideration. As the sulphurous acid was only tried on two farms, the results obtained were not considered conclusive. Some experi- ments with this gas were carried out by us in the laboratory, but the soil ■was rendered so acid that onion seed failed to germinate. No good results were obtained by enriching the soil by manurial treatment, or burning brushwood or straw on the surface. jNIt. Fletcher summarizes as follows :- - No good is obtained by chemical insecticides, fertilizers, change of seed or burning, and little relinnce can be placed on transplantinj;. Good barley can be grown on diseased land and can be followed by one, sometimes two, good crops of onions; then barley must be sown again. Soil fertility has little to 'lo with tlie ])resence of eel-worms. During the season 1909, further experiments with some of the more recent chemical substances were again undertaken by the Department, the land being kindly placed at our disposal by Cr. R. Willey, of East Bella.rine, who is an old resident, and a close and enthusiastic observer of the eel-worm and its habits. The soil in this dLstrict formg an almost ideal nidus foi the develop- ment and spread of nematodes, being volcanic, rich in humus, and capable of retaining a large amount of moisture. The followmg recent analyses will give some idea of its richness in plant food : — Parts per 100, odo. Nitrogen ... ... ... ... ... 284 Phosphoric acid ... ... ... ... 102 Potash ... ... .. ... ... ... Ux] Lim.e ... ... ... ... ... ...■ i,jou Chlorine ... ... ... ... ... ^ The large quantity of lime present in this soil is mainly due to the •use of sea shells as a means of altering its mechanical condition, it being of a veiy sticky and tenacious character, when moist. A number of plots were set apart for the experiments, each measuring one-fortieth of an acre. The land, having been recently ploughed and harrowed, was in a fine condition ; but, owing to the wetness of the season, together with the sticky nature of the soil, and the absence of drainage excepting that of the natural fall of the ground, it was somewhat difficult to apply the chemicals to the soil, especially those in solution. The following is a list of the chemical solutions and powdered sub- stances u.sed in the experiments, together with their cost per acre : — Plot I. — 2g lbs. of Potassium Cyanide at lod. ])er lb. ... ^^"4 3 4 Plot 2. — 3 pints of Cyllin at 7s. per gallon ... ... 5 5 o Plot 3. — I lb. Potassium Cyanide at lod. per lb. ... ... 150 Plot 4. — 25 lbs. of Apterite at los. per 100 lbs. Plot s. — 3 lbs. of Vaporite Plot 6. — 15 tins of Pestox at is. 6d. per tin Expense prohibitive. 4 10 o Method of Application. Plot 1. Plot t. Plot 3. Plot 4. I Plot 5. Plot 6. l-40th ofanacre. I l-40thofanaL-re 1 40th of an acre. 1-SOth of an acre. 12 square .yards. l-40th of an acre. Watered three times with 100 gallons of Potas- sium Cvanide, •08 % solution, at intervals of three weeks. Watered three Watered four Treated with Treated with time.s withjtinies with 100; 83 lbs. of powdered lib. of Vaporite Cyllin solution, gallons of •02;j % Apterite, forked in the same 1 pint to 100 solution of into the soil to a , manner as Plot yallons, at inter- Potassium Cya-| depth of 4 inches, [ 4. yals of three nide, at intervals on three different' weeks. of two weeks. occasions, at inter- vals of two weeks. Watered three times with 100 gallons of water containing l:[lbs. of Pestox, at intervals of two weeks. During the time the plots were under treatment, the almost continuous rainfall tended to facilitate he solution of the powd?red substances, and the absorption of the chemical solutions. i66 JouDial of Agriculture. [lo >[arch. 1910. It will Ije noticed from the above table that the expense of some of the chemical substances is very great. Besides this, their application to ihe land requires a great expenditure of time and labour, thus materially adding to the cost of treatment. When powdered chemicals were used ihey were cast over the soil and then dug in to a depth of 4 inches, the onion seed being sown in the usual wa\ some three weeks later. The .seed germinated freely and did not appear to show any ill effects from the chemical treatment which the soil had undergone. Unfortunatelv, very low temperatures p.re\ailed at this time, which with the almost continuous rains greatly retarded the growth of the young plants. Owing to this heavy rainfall some of the plots, were completely flooded, many of the seedling onions being washed out of the ground. A subsequent inspection of the plots showed a number of broken rows of young onions, many of which had reached the height of ij inches. Almost all of these, on a closer examination, were found to be diseased. On the higher ground, a small number of the plants appeared to be healthy ; but even these were found to contain worms in different stages of growth, fn both the stems and leaves. EARLY STAGE AT WHICH THE GERMINATING ONION SEED IS ATTACKED BY EEL- WORM. ( X 3.) The almost complete failure of the chemical treatment to prevent or even check the attack of the nematodes was remarkable ; for it must be lemembered that in some of the plots that as many as 5,000 seeds bad been sown, and it was confidently expected that at least some of the plants Vv^ould escape, particularly in the earlier stages of their growth. Probably the majority were alreadv diseased before .showing' aboYe the surface. That the seed soon after its germination is attacked bv the eel-worm can easily be demonstrated h\ sowing onion seed in pots filled with infected soil. If the germination of the young plants is carefully examined from day to day with the microscope, the worms can be seen attacking the young shoots and invading them, even in the earliest stages, and in some instances worms have l)een detected in the germinating seed itself. Carbolized lime. Naphthaline and sand (a patent preparation), and calcium carbide, were used on some of the land adjacent to the plots. These substances were either drilled in along with seed, or spread along the furrows, so as to remain in close contact with the seed. Germination was interfered with bv this method of application, and. besides, it did not prevent the ravages of the worms, all of the plants e\entuall\ dying off from disease. lo March. 1910.] Tlic Onion Ed-worm. 167 A numljer of \'cun<^r jjlants, grown on soil free from infection, were taken and transplanted, one lot being dipped in a solution of lead arsenate, the other l:>eing untreated. They were then planted out in an infected area. In a little over a week all the plants treated with the lead arsenate had died off, probablv owing to the solution being too concentrated. The unti'eated plants did not show any evidence of attack by the eel-worm. Our experiments show- that onions transplanted from a sterile seed bed are not liable to attack bv nematodes, unless the bulb be injured in the process of transplantation or bv other agencies. Method of Detecting the Eggs of Nematodes in the Soil. It is extremelv difficult to detect the eel-warms or their eggs in the soil, more especially is this the case in the black soils of the Drvsdale district. Hundreds of micrO' slides prepared from this soil mav be examined without detecting the presence of either the nematodes or their eggs. Owing to the great amount of labour entailed by the above method of examination, it was necessary to have .recourse to one which would reveal their presence in a quick and satisfactorx manneT. ^ ^. y \:\. '^«^i THE OXIOX Kr.L-UOKM IN VAItlDlS STAUKS. (X '■^'^.^ \ ECiOS OK XKM ATOUliS, SIlOVVlNCi TIIK CliNTAlNKU KMHKYCS. (X r2'>.) The process adopted b\ Dr. Cobb* of washing the nematodes out of the soil, by mixing with water, and pouring back and forth from one dish to another, allowing the mixture of earth and water to stand until the oaganisms have settled, then pouring off the muddy water, was found to be unsuitable when dealing with the black soils. Our first experiments for the detection of the nematodes in the soil w^ere carried out somewhat on bacteriological lines. Boiled onions were taken and the pulp inoculated with small quantities of the affected soil. After an interval of twelve days, an examination of the pulp showed the presence of numerous embryo eel-worms, while the uninoculated pulp remained sterile. The latest method adopted by us is on similar lines. A quantity of soil taken from infested land is placed in a small glass jar, the soil moistened wdth sterile water, and strips of onion leaf free from nematodes laid on the surface, and examined at intervals of a few days. After a period ranging from seven days to a fortnight, the eggs of the eel-worm, if present in the soil, will have hatched out in the vicinity of the leaf. All that is necessary then is to take a small fragment of the * Xeiiiiite nc difference between tlie awned and awnless grains, except that the seedlings from awnless grains being weaker, would be more apt to suffer injury from unfavourable climatic and other conditions. The varietv does not therefore appear to have any advan- tages which would render it specially suitable for cultivation, but rather the reverse, since although apparently hard\ . it is not more so than other six- rowed forms. In anv case, the observations are of .some interest, since they confirm the conclusions drawn from the results of the experimental removal of the awns as to their function in aiding the ripening of the grain. Evidently, also, the awn has the same function in a drv climate- where the rate of transpintion is usual Iv high, as it has in the moister climate of England where transportation is on the whole less active. The two-rowed barleys, which include the finest malting varieties, are generally considered to repre.seht the original form, but the present varietv may possibly represent a stage in the degeneration of a six-rowed to a two-rowed form. lo March, 1910.] The Siifply of Buiter Bo.xcs. 1 7,5 THE SUPPLY OF BUTTER BOXES. The producers of Victoria, considering the present price for butter boxes made of New Zealand pine to be unreasonably high, recently waited upon the Hon. the Minister for Agriculture (Hon. Geo. Graham, M.L.A.), and asked that steps be taken to secure a supply at lower rates. They sug- gested that an officer should be sent to Queensland to ascertain whether there was sufficient timber of suitable quality a\ailable, so as to admit of boxes being obtained at prices satisfactory to the producing community. The Minister acquiesced, and deputed Mr. R. V. Billis to furnish a report which is published below. For the photographs, we are indebted to the Queensland Department of Agriculture. — Editor. Sir, Melbourne, 18th Januar\, 1910. i have the honour to report having visited Queensland, under instruc- tions from you, for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is sufficient hoop pine {Araucaria Cunmnghamii) available m (Queensland to supply the butter box requirements in \ ictoria for some time to come ; and it so, to find out if it is practicable for the producers here to obtain an adequate supply. The Honorable the Minister for Agriculture, Mr. Paget, requested his officers to furnish me with all the information O'U the subject available. Mr. Scriven, Under Secretary for Agriculture, greatly facilitated mv inquiries, and I also obtained information from Mr. Phillip MacMahon, Director of Forests, from Mr. Peter McLean, late Under-Secretary for Agriculture, and from various gentlemen connected with the timber in- dustry. Timber Avmlabu'. — Mr. MacMahon informed me that he considers there are about 3,000,000.000 superficial feet of hoop pine ready to be cut, that is, available timlDer, in the State. I understand he refers to State reserves, and confines his estimate, to the popular pine country, namelv, from Brisbane to Gladstone. The following statistics, from a report bv Mr. MacMahon, issued in 1909, will be of interest : — .Some of the Timbek Reserves ix Qieexslaxd at 31ST December, iqo8. District. Area of Reserve. Acres. Brisbane ... ... . . ... ... 211,336 Bundaberg ... ... ... ... ... 165,946 Gayndah ... ... ... ... ... 210 Gladstone ... ... ... ... ... 211,178 Gympie . . ... ... ... ... 338873 Ipswich ... ... ... ... ... 107,228 Maryborough ... ... ... ... 112,274 Nanango ... ... ... ... ... 140,410 Stanthorpe ... ... ... ... 14,800 Toowoomba ... ... .•• ... •.- 30,522 Warwick ... ... ... ... ... 46,700 Tolnl ... ... ... ... 1,388,697 It will be seen that the counties dealt with in this table are those from Brisbane to Gladstone. It was not easy to approximate the average quan- tity of pine to the acre. The Departmental estimate is slightly under 2,000 superficial feet in certain forests, but one merchant told me that there were about 8.000 feet in a good forest. I also heard of other esti- mates ranging from 2,000 tn 8,000 feet to the acre. Taking, however, 2,000 feet to the acre, it will he seen that there should be. approximatelv, 3,000.000.000 fppt in the reserves referred to aI)Ove. There is also n large 174 Journal of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. HOOP PINE {Araucaria Ciinninghamn). 10 March, 1910.] The Supply of Butter Boxe.^. '75 HOOP PINE iAfaucaria CuiniingluiDin). 176 Journal of Agriculture. [10 jNIarch, 1910. amount of pine on private property, much of which is near railways and can be purchased reasonably. Moreover, north of Gladstone, other forests exist ; in fact, areas of pine may he found all along the Queensland coast as far as Cairns. Several new railways are in course of construction, or are projected, which will tap new forests of pine hitherto too far from railways to be marketable. The following is a schedule of timber reserves affected by the extension of the railway line from Kannangur tO' Black Butt and an approximate estimate of the quantity of timber thereon : — 30,000 5,000 10,24.0 610 14,700 1 ,4.00 14,800 Tota: >75« line crosses reserve About 5 miles About 6 miles to centre of reserve . About 4 miles About 14 miles to centre of reserve. About 16 miles AVmut 25 miles to centre of reserve. 1,838 feet to acre 2 5,000,000 feet 16,000,000 ,, 13,000,000 ,, 100,000 ,, 12,000,000 ,, r, 000, 000 ,, 74,000,000 ,, 1 4. 1 , 1 CO, 000 feet It is estimated that there are 23,350,000 feet of other timbers, besides pine, on the above areas. Kannangur is 83 miles from Brisbane, and Black Butt probably 40 miles further. The estimate as to the quantity of timber ori the reserves is a Departmental one, which is con.sidered by timber merchants to ,be very conservative. It does not seem necessary to furnish further particulars to satisfy one that there is sufficient timber in Queensland to supply all the butter boxes Victorian producers require. One gentleman, who is familiar with the timber resources of the State, and also with the dairying industry, said : " There is enough hoop pine along the Queensland coast to supply all the butter boxes wanted in Australia for many years to come." Means of Obtaining a Supply of Boxes. — To appreciate the conditions with respect to the butter box industry, it is necessary to recall what took place some two years ago in Queensland. At that time there was, and is still, a Timber Merchants' Association there. The Queensland producers were then charged as much as is. 5d. for boxes by the members of the Association, and even at that price it was not easy to get supplies. It was necessary to apply to the Secretary of the Association for boxes. The producers at last realized that there was plenty of timber available, and they resolved to erect their own mill if merchants would not reduce their price to a reasonable figure. One merchant, however, arranged to supply boxes at is. o|d. each, and large contracts at this price over a number of years, were entered into. The producers, therefore, decided not to proceed with the erection of their mill. With the exception of one or two box makers, most of the timber mer- chants have, I understand, practically gone out of the butter box industry, partly, it is said, because the profits obtainable from box making under present conditions are not attractive, but chiefly I believe, on account of the existing activity of building operations in Brisbane. With a view to ascertaining whether the Queensland merchants could cater for our requirements, T commenced to interview representatives of the .o_Ma_roi, 19,0.] Th: Suppl, of Butter Bo.,c. 177 178 Journal of Agriculture [10 \Jarch, 1910- various firms, ibut 1 soon found that the best plan was to see Mr. J. Gore,, the Secretary of the Timber Merchants' Association. I explained the posi- tion in Victoria, and asked if, in tlie event of the Victorian producers desir- ing to obtain butter boxes from Queensland, the timber merchants could supply up to 1,000,000 boxes a year. He said they could, but that they could not, he believed, supply at less than is. 4d. f.o.b. Brisbane; IS. 4d. was, he stated, the price producers in (Queensland who had not contracts were then paying, and it was intended at the meeting of the Association that day to increase the price to is. 5d. I afterw'ards re- ceived a letter from the Secretary of the Association, which practically amounts to a quotation, and is a consideraljle reduction on the present price of butter boxes in Victoria. If the producers here would be satisfied with the price quoted, I am of opinion that contracts could be arranged, and that there would be no doubt as to the merchants supplying the necessary quantity. The merchants re- quire ample time to execute orders as it takes about seven wrecks to properly season the timber. Suitability of Queensland Hoof) Pine for Butter Boxes. — Although the suitabilitv of hoop pine for butter box purposes appears to be now firmly established, I made some inquiries as to how it really compared in Queens- land with the New Zealand grown box. The dairy expert, Mr. Graham, who is familiar with both the New Zealand white pine and the hoop pine, informed me that he preferred the latter. The New Zealand timber, he said, showed dirt more quickly, and was more easily stained. The Queensland hoop pine he found to be of a closer grain, harder, and more difficult to break. Verv few complaints are recei\ed as to breakages of boxes made from hoop pine. On the other hand the following passage is an extract from a letter dated the 21st December, 1909, by Sir John Taverner, the Vic- torian Agent-General, in London : — " The general condition of this butter was fairlv good, but T found manv boxes broken." Sir John Taverner, of course, refers to butter boxes made from New Zealand timber. The hoop pine mav be heavier than the New Zealand timber, but it is well within the weight stipulated l)v the shipping companies. The high prices and fir.st prizes that Queensland butter has won in England have perhaps, more than anything else, removed prejudice against the hoop pine box. Attached is a copy of the Departmental Chemist's re- port on the Queensland timber as compared with that grown in New Zealand ; a perusal of Mr. Brunnich's report should dispel anv remaining objection to the hoop pine butter box. Sawmills in Queenslaxp and their Yield.s. Number of Mills. Annual Produce in Sawn Timber. 2 Over 5,000,000 super, feet 1 From 4,000,000 to 5.000,000 super, feet 2 .. 8.000,000 .. 4,000,000 ,, ,, 6 2.0' 0,000 ,. 3,000,000 1* ,, 14 „ 1.000,000 „ ?.000,000 ., ,. 29 500,000 .. 1,000,000 117 Under 5,000 super, feet 4 Planing and mould intr mills Total . . 1 7") lo March, 1910.] TJic Supply of Butter Boxes. ^79 General Remarks. — At the present time, the building industry in Bris- bane and in many of the Queensland towns is very prosperous. The exist- ing sawmills are, therefore, fully taxed, and it is not easv for them to supply the demand for timter, but I believe the erection of several new mills is projected. I might mention that Wages Boards are continually extending in (Queensland, and these mav have an influence on the price of timber. I also inquired as to the practicability of obtaining timber in the log shipp>ed to ]\Ielbourne, but was informed that the Go\ernment will pro- babl\- prohibit the exportation of timber in the log, in order that the work of cutting up may be provided within the State. It might be advisable, however, to make sure whether such prohibition would be allowed under Commonwealth law. SCENE AT A QUEENSLAND .MILL. While in Brisbane I was impressed with the possibility of our producers co-operating and erecting their own mills, as was intended bv the Queens- land producers some time ago, but on further inquirv some difficulties pre- sented themselves. Still, it is a matter for you to decide as to what action you will recommend the producers to take, and perhaps the following in- formation may be of use to you in arri\'ing at a decision. The very best part of a tree is necessary for butter box purposes, and I was given an estimate that onlv ^2, per cent., at most, of marketable timber could be used for boxes. The co-operative millers might not always find it easy to dispo'se of the balance of the timber, and in that case the boxes might cost much more than they anticipate. In some cases, when the Government sells a quantity of timber it is required that wood distillation works shall be erected in addition to saw- mills. The producers may not consider it advisable to associate themselves with the manufacture of naphtha, c*fec. It should also be remembered that, in wet weather, the state of the roads is sometimes so bad that bullock teams and traction engines, used for carting ti/.iber to the mills, are often idle for a long time, during which period no haulage can be done, but this of course would apply to all mills. Further, it might be necessarv to erect more than one mill, for journal of Agricidture. lo March. 1910. while there is plenty of timber to be had, it might happen tliat some diffi- culty would be experienced in finding a f(jrest large enough to provide timber for one mill to turn out the required number of boxes per vear. GRADING AND WKIGIIING BUTTER FOR EXPORT. If private enterprise will not supply the demand for a reasonable re- turn, and if the price quoted bv the Association cannot be reduced, it BRANDING EXPORT BUTTER BOXES. mav still be worth the producers' while to go deeper into the niatter, with a view to erecting their own mills. I attach a copv of a contract with respect to a recent sale of Goxernment timber The timber is on 10,000 acres, part of a forest of 30,000 acres. lo March, 1910. T lit Slip pi )• of Biiticr Boxes. 181 The Department fstinuitcs tliat there are 40,000,000 feet of pine on the 10,000 acres, but L understand this is a low estimate. It will be noted that the miller may not cut a tree less than 80 inches in ^irth, 5 feet from the ground. He must also erect a wood distillation mill costing ^5,000 in addition to a sawmill costing ;^5,ooo. I also enclose two maps, a number of photographs, copy of the last report issued by the Director of Forests, a list of the principal timber merchants in (Queensland, and a number of other i)articulars, all of which are self-explanatory. T feel sure that those engaged in the dairying industry in Victoria would be well advised to obtain butter boxes made of Queensland hoop pine, and that a considerable saving would therebv be effected. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient sevxant, R. \'. jJlLLlS. The Hon. thf Minister for .A.iiricultu.re, Melbourne quep:nsla\'d timhkk for butter boxes. Analyses by /. C. Brunnich, Agricultural Chemist, Brisbane. (Jueen4 1 - 57 % „ watery extract from the wood 1-1(1 ■7.") 1-21 Weight of wood. lbs. per cubic foot 3S-2 40-3 30-(l water absoil)ed, lbs. jicr cubit foot s er cubic foot in 2 hours 3-1 31 (J 3-9 41- 1 3-0 38-7 evaporated per cubic foot in () hoins 6-6 67-4 6-2 (if) -3 (i-S 69-9 cva[)onite(l jier cubic fool in 24 liours 8-8 89-8 7-9 83-2 8-3 89-3 The watery extracts were obtained by letting sawdust of the timbers soak for twentv-four hours in water. They were almost tasteless, that is, the extracts had onlv the very slightest woody taste and there was no difference between the samples. The extracts of the Queensland timber were quite colourless and that of the New Zealand of a light yellow colour. The amounts of extractive matters taken up by the water, of special importance in the use of these liudjers for butler boxes, are the lowest in the Queensland timber, particularly in the second well seasoned sample which is lo be considered in its favour. Another point of importance is the amount of water absorbed by the timbers, and again the manner in which such water is given off when limbers are exposed to the air, as a criterion of the porosity and capillarity of such limbers. The experiments show that no difference exists in regard lo these properties between our Queensland and the New Zealand pine. The second sample of the Queensland timber, a well seasoned wood, was heavier than the first half seasoned sample; it was a much closer grained wood from a different locality. These experiments conclusively contradict any objection that Queensland finf could give a peculiar flavour lo the butter. Journal of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. IRRIGATION OF LUCERNE. Elwood Mead, Chairman, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. The law defining the duties of the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission requires it to instruct occupiers of laiid in Irrigation and Water Supply districts " in the best methods of irrigated culture and the utilization of water applied to agriculture." In the performance of this dutv the Commission intends to publish, from time to time, bulletins giving practical information, as an aid in the improvement of irrigation practice. COULBijRNl Road DE/v\ohlsTR,ATioH Plots ~ TatU rjk — A MANNER OF GRADING AND APPLYING WATER. (First Field Prepared — Tatura Demonstration Farm.) The first of these bulletins deals with the irrigation of lucerne, because it is regarded as the most useful crop which can be grown in Victorian irrigated areas, and the one destined in time to become the most valuable nnd important. The irrigated areas must be the chief reliance of the lo March, 1910.] Irrigation of Liiceriu. 183 State in protecting the pastoral districts against the \icissitudes of dry seasons. No fodder crop equals lucerne for this purpose. The irrigation districts of Victoria must, in the near future, become the principal dairying districts of the State. Lucerne is one of the best fodder crops for this industry because it contains all the ingredients of which milk is made. The greatest value of lucerne, however, arises out of its influence in improving the character of the soil. Much of the irrigable land of Victoria, which has a clay soil, needs more nitrogen and humus. Lucerne, because it draws its nitrogen from the air, be- cause its roots strike deeply into the subsoil and bring to the surface the stores of fertiiitx from below, cannot fail to improve the mechanical con- dition of the soil, and hence pro-mote the success of irrigation in growing all kinds of cro])S. Thus far, the growth of lucerne has been neglected, in part because qf the belief that it would not grow on clay soils. The failures which have occurred have not, however, been due to the soil, but to the bad treatment which the crop has received. Scarcely any of the land is graded. When irrigated, the water fails to reach the high spots and drowns out the low ones. Very little lucerne is grown for hav. This has been due in the past to the lack of labour-saving implements used in harvesting, and to the present practice of pasturing the crop. While De/v\oiJ STRATI orJ Plots MANNER OF GRADING AND APPLYING WATER. (Second Field Prepared — Tatura Demonstration Farm.) pasturing at certain seasons of the )ear may not be injurious, all authori- ties agree that to pasture lucerne grown on clay soil, in wet weather, is ruinous. The belief that profitable crops of lucerne cannot be grown on clay soils has been the greatest obstacle to its extension in the irrigated dis- tricts of the Goulburn Vallev. Yet these soils are not nearly so difficult to cultivate as the gumbo soils of many of the lucerne districts of the United States. The following statement of Joseph E. Wing, an expert 1 84 journal of Agriculture. [io -March, igio. agriculturist of America, is a fair presentation of the results of American- experience, which Victorian experience has confirmed. Soils on which it is difficult to grow Lucerne. — It is more difficult to grow lucerne on some soils than others, and on some of them it is not wise to make the attempt. First, any soil that is not more than 2^ feet above the water line is too shallow for continual lucerne growth. It needs a depth of at least 3 feet to water, and if the distance is even greater all the better. In laying tile underdrains for a foundation to a lucerne field seek, then, to get the level of the water line down at least 3 or 4 feet. On peaty soils with little clay or sound earth within them it is not often that lucerne will thrive. There are some excejitions to this rule, though thev are not ^vell understood. On nearly barren sands it is doubtful if it is worth while trying to establish lucerne fields. They must be continuously fed in order to produce this forage, so rich in mineral elements, and it must be remembered that these mineral elements must come from the soil. Clays. — While the most luxuriant growth of lucerne is usually from a porous soil, a loam or gravelly alluvium, yet clays drained and stored with vegetable matter are ])roducing some of the best growths of lucerne in the United States. This is especiallv true of strong, tough limestone clavs that, when in their natural state, hold water " like a jug," but when underdrained and well manurerl become more ii;h ]iLLK.-5L;RAPER. o])en and pervious to both air and moisture. On such clays lucerne revels, and when ])loughed up and other crops are planted on the land it is astonishing to see with what vigour they grow, revealing plainly the very great benefit that the lucerne has been to the soil," both by adding nitrogen through the decay of its leaves and roots, and by bringing up mineral matters from the sub-soil, and by decaying and leaving ihe air and water passages through the clay, always before too dense to permit these helpful agents to work their will. And when lucerne is sown again upon these clays after one or two years of grain or hoed crops, manure being scattered over the land in the interval, it' is found that the lucerne responds wonderfully and yields better than it did after its first seeding. As an aid to improvement of Victorian practice and to the determina- tion of the . modifications of practice in other countries required to suit local conditions, the Commission has carried on an experimental and demonstration farm at Tatura for the past two years. One of the fundamental problems to be dealt with here was to determine what plan of preparing land for irrigation was best suited to the soils and grades- lo ^Ia.-^ch, 1910.] Irrigation of Liicernt of the Goulburn Valley. Other questions to be studied, were the fre- quency with which water needs to be applied under irrigation, and the treatment of the soil required to promote the growth of the crop. The diagrams on pages 182 and 183 show the manner of grading and applying water adopted at Tatura. The first field prepared was of an undulating character, giving an opportunity of testing a number of methods of applying water. The second field had a uniform slope, and here the method of applying water best suited to such slopes was adopted. The diagram shows the manner in which the water is applied. B '^ '9 \ to/teet to z4a.- ^ f-S'sb Seclion on AB h O"''"^ C Iron heoh, VaJreS (•tfbrCazh end) LAND GRADER. Using a stream of about 6 cubic feet per second, the field can be Avatered in one working day, if the water is' turned on at about daylight and continues running until as long as one can see to handle it. The average depth of water used in one irrigation is about 3 inches, and thus far it has required from one to two waterings for each crop or from six to ten waterings a year. The two tools used in the grading of these fields were the buckscraper, and a grader manufactured by a local blacksmith. Illustrations of both are given. i86 journal of Agriculture. [lo March, 1910. The number of tools, and implements for grading land is being rapidly increased in VictOTia, and the Commission desires to obtain illustrations and prices of these, and has recently issued a circular asking makers to furnish it with both. The work of the Commission is not, however, a sufficient basis for a bulletin on the irrigation of lucerne, and the experience of. irrigators is too limited to enable a manual on local practice to be prepared. In the United States, however, this matter has been the subject of careful and comprehensive studv for several ^•ears, and the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of Agriculture has recently issued a bulletin on the irrigation of lucerne, which applies so well to conditions here that the Commission has reprinted the greater part of it. The bulletin {Farmers'' Bulletin, 373, issued 19th November, 1909) was compiled bv S. Fortier, Chief of Irrigation Investigations, OffiT'e of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture. For convenience in perusal, the word alfalfa, which is used instead of lucerne in the United States, has been changed to- lucerne, and dollars and cents have been converted into pounds, shillings and pence. Applications for copies of the bulletin should be forwarded to the Secretary, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Melbourne. INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS OF VICTORIA. The Bronze Cuckoo {Chalcococcyx plagogu$. Lath.). C. French, Jr., Assistant Government Entomologist. Amongst our useful insect-eating birds, the Cuckoos certainly hold a prominent place, and the above named species is one of the best. This bird is generally found in the same vicinity as the Narrow-billed Bronze Cuckoo, and it is no easy matter to separate the two species unless one has a close view of the birds. The most noticeable difference between the markings of the two species is that the Narrow-billed (C. basalis) has the crown dark brown, and a brownish colour in the tail. The eggs of the Bronze Cuckoo are of a bronze or olive green colour, whilst those of the Narrow-billed are of a white colour with pinkish markings. Both of the.se birds deposit their eggs in the well known nests of the Yellow-rumped Tit {Acanthiza chrysorrhoa), and it is no uncommon thing to find the eggs of the two species in the same nest. Bronze Cuckoos were fairly numerous in the suburbs near the city this season, and seem to be on the increase. Unfortunately, the Tits usually build their nests in the Prickly Acacia {Acacia armata) hedges within easy reach of boys, and many nests containing eggs of the Cuckoos are destroyed. When the Tits build in private gardens thev generally remain unmolested, as this little useful insect-destroving bird is a general favourite. The food of the Bronze Cuckoo consists of various noxious insects, and as the birds continually visit orchard after orchard in search for food, they consume a great number of insects daily. The Pallid or Unadorned Cuckoo {Cuculus inornatus) is one of the verv few birds that destroy the larvae of the destructiye Vine Moth. lo March, 1910.] Insectivorous Birds of Victoria. 187 C. C. BKITTLEBANK, DEL. C. FRENCH, DIREXIT. THE BRONZE CUCKOO. {Chalcococcyx flagogiis. Latham.) i88 journal of Agriculture . [jo March, 1910. PRICKLY PEAR. A Fodder Plant for Cultivation ? Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany in the University of Melbotirne. As this matter is one of some importance it will be worth while discuss- ing the last two publications on this question by the United Stales Department of Agriculture. They are the work of Dr. David Griffiths, Assistant Agriculturist, and are directed to show that Prickly Pear is adapted for profitable cultivation as a farm crop. The species to which these statements apply is (9^7/;?z'/(3 Lindheimeri, Englm., whereas the plant naturalized in Victoria, and which has proved sufficiently troublesome and threatening to^ be proclaimed under the Thistle Act for the whole State, is Ofimtia monacantha, Haw.,, a different species. It is by no means uncommon that one species of a genus may be useful while another is the reverse. For instance, in the genus Brassica we have included under Brassica oleracea, L. the cabbage, cauliflowex, Brussels-sprouts, &c. , which are among the most useful of cultivated plants, while under Brassica Sinapistrum, L. we have the Charlock, which is one of the worst weeds of cultivation. It does not appear, however, that we have a similar instance in this case, or that Opuntia Lindheimeri, is markedly .superior as a fodder plant to O . monacantlia. As the two Bulletins recently issued, though slightlv tinged with enthusiasm, are characterized by a strict regard for fact, it will be sufficient to give an epitome of the facts thev establish and leave farmers to judge for themselves as to whether the evidence justifies them in undertaking the cultivation and spread of this or any other form of Prickly Pear. Spiny versus Spineless Forms. Dr. Griffiths does not recommend the cultivation of any of the spineless forms, at present known, in preference to the spiny forms, his reasons being quoted below in tabular form as follows : — Advantage of the sfineless forms. 'rhe\' do not require singeing. Advantages of sfiny native forms. 1. They are hardy. 2. They do not require fencing. 3. They are injured but little bv wild animals. 4. They require a minimum of handling. 5. They accomplish the distribution of the manure during the day. An additional disadvantage of the spineless forms is that unless fenced in with wire netting they are eaten by rabbits, &c. In regard to the spiny forms, before the plants can be eaten with safety, or in fact eaten at all, the spines must be burnt off or otherwise removed, or softened. Neither Bulletin gives any satisfactory estimate of the cost of this treatment. Under the head of cultivation, however, it is mentioned that the labourers used were Negroes and Mexicans, and it is po.ssible that the presence of cheap coloured lalx>ur in abundance may give this plant a value it could not possibly enjov under white labour conditions in Australia. Thus, the wages of a man work out at 5d. an hour in the calculation of the cost of planting. Useful labour is not easy to obtain at this rate in Aus- tralia. lo March, 1910.] Prickly I 'car. 189 Resistance of Prickly Pear to Drought and Cold. Tiie idea that this plant wiil grow and thrive in the most arid districts is a common, but quite mistaken one. A generation ago, an ingenious French- man proposed to render the Sahara desert capable of supporting life by plant- ing Pricklv Cactus over it. Experience has shown, however, that the plant Avill only grow in really arid districts when irrigated, and where water is available vastly better plants can be grown. The plant does not resist frost at all well and is, in fact, a sub-tropical one. Dr. Griffiths shows ■only a relativelv small area of land on the south-west and .south coasts of North America, including California and Florida, where he considers the plant might be profitably grown. Victoria would not come under this zone, although parts of New South Wales and of Queensland, where various P.rickly Pears are well known pests, would present a similar range of conditions to^ the zones marked for the cultivation of the plants in the United States. Tne following is a quotation from page 17 of the latest Bulletin, January, 1909 : — The writer believes that the plants will grow under cultivation, without irri^M- tion, on the Gulf coast of Texas and in California from the Sacramento Valley south. Under the influence of the ocean, they may get along with neither cultiva- tion nor irrigation, but in the interior vallevs they will have to be carefully cultivated in order to conserve the moisture after the rains cease in the spring. Experience has proved this at Chico, California. In the great arid interior region •extending eastward from the southern Sierras, the Prickly Pears will have to be irrigated before thev will make any growth worth while. The statement which the writer made in a previous publication applies with equal force here and will bear repetition. The Prickly Pear plants are adapted to a region having a considerable rainfall too irregularly distributed for ordinary crops. They must have water to grow and a considerable amount of it. They are the camels of the vegetable world. Thev must have water, but they can get along for long periods without it. It must be remembered that, in the matter of arid regions, the United States falls far behind Australia, having no districts which can be com- pared with the deserts of Central Australia, so that there is no reason to iear the plant establishing itself in pest fashion in Central Au.stralia. In fact, districts with an average annual lainfall below 16 to 20 inches may disregard the plant as a possible serious pest, since it can never exhibit the luxuriance of growth shown in warm countries with a higher rainfall. On page 31 of the 1908 Bulletin it is stated that " the experiments have been done on land having a rainfall of 16 to 40 inches per annum (average 28 inches), the temperature minimum averaging 22° F. and the rainfall being rather irregular " though less so than over the greater part of Australia. Where there is a good, but somewhat irregular, rainfall, deeply-rooting perennial fodder plants which draw water from the deeper layers of the soil, will give better results than plants like Prickly Cacti which get over temporary drought by storing water and checking transpiration. Plants which check their transpiration also check their growth when the temperature is most suitable for it, whereas the deeply -rooting fodder plant will usually grow mo-st actively during Avaim drv spells and so makes the most of everv opportunitv. Summarizing the remaining data given bv Dr. Griffiths: — The cost of planting an acre of Prickly Cactus was ^i i6s. 8d., and would be at least double .this in Au.stralia. (The cost of eradicating* it when once established mav vary from jQ^ to ;^io per acre.) The cost of cultivation and of preparing it for food bv cutting and burning is not given. 190 journal of Agriculture. [10 March, 1910. Harvesting takes place by cutting and burning off the spines, tiie stock being allowed free access to the plantation and eating the plants as they are prepared for them. A plantation once established will keep good for 15 to 20 years. Harvesting should take place every two years. The fodder cannot be stored and it does not pay to cart it any distance. For a dairv cow 140 lbs. per day are needed, for a steer, 75 lbs., i.e., an average of about 23 tons per year. Under cultivation a yield of 23 tons per acre can be obtained per annum, but less than 3 tons without cultivation, the plant really being a slowly growing one. The plant suffers from three diseases, two of them being apparenth serious ones. Where the grasses are not grazed, it grows less than on grazed land. Six pounds of Prickly Pear are stated to be equivalent to one pound of Sorghum hay, so that the proportion to Lucerne might be as 10 : i. Hence, with a moderate yield of Lucerne of, say, 5 tons per acre per annum, the food values per acre are I^ucerne, 50 ; Prickly Pear, 23 ; and this is comparing an average yield of Lucerne with a maximum yield of Prickly Pear. To conclude, Prickly Pear will onlv grow in arid districts when it is irrigated, i.e., in districts with an annual rainfall below 16 inches, although irregular stunted growth may of course be possible near this limit. Granted the conditions of rainfall, soil and temperature under which it thrives, better fodder plants can be grown. It is one thing tO' endeavour to make use of a plant which has taken possession of the land, but quite another to recommend its cultivation and spread. Where used as a fodder bv burning off the spines, it should be employed only with other more nutritious foods. It is too bulky to transport and too sapp\- to be worth drying or preserving. Dr. Griffiths expressly states that it is to be regarded only as " roughage," as a stand by, or as supplementary to other feeds, and the question at once arises as to whether it is not far better and more profitable to store fodder in ricks and silos, rather than allow it to stand in the fields in the form of prickly plants like Spinv Cacti. Remember, that a dairy- man with a hundred cows, in addition to the daily milking, would, if using Prickly Cactus as food, have to cut and burn the s|)ines off more than six tons of the plant -per day! With the foregoing facts before them, farmers can conclude for them- selves whether or not the plant is worthy of cultivation. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Pkunini: Citrus Trees. — C.C. inquires wliether citrus trees require pruning. He also asks whafc amount of manure is recommended. Ansiver. — (1) Citrus trees recjuire regular pruning and thinning out, so as tO' relieve them of old and unnecessary wood, to admit light and air. to prevent over- crowding, and to allow the deyelopment of new wood upon which the fruit is borne. This work is very often neglected, and the trees, as a result, present the appearance described. The trees should be pruned and thinned out in spring, cutting out crowd- ing, useless wood, and all old laterals that have carried fruit. Cutoff also all dead and decaying wood. Kemove u])right growths from the centre of the tree, and allow it to spread as much as possible. Examine the roots and stem of the tree for root or collar rot. If either be present, cut away and destroy every trace of diseased wood or bark. Paint the wound with an antise))tic solution of equal parts of carbolic acid and water. The soil should be thoroughly drained, and the roots sliould never be injured by any cultivating implement, i'l) Fi'om 1 lb. to 2 lbs. of sul]ih!itp of iron is a useful manure for citrus trees. lo March, 1910.] Aiiszvers to Correspondents. 191 Killing Trees with Arsenic. — W.T.C. writes :— •' I have been usiny the Department of Agriculture ... insidefroiit cover Agricultural Education in Victoria — Uookie Agricultural College ... ... ... ... inside hack cover Loiigerenong Agricultural College ... ... ... inside hack cover Burnley School of Agriculture and Small Farming ... innide hack cover Wyuna Irrigation Farm ... ... ... ... inside back cover Lectures on Agricultural Subjects, 1910 ... ... inside back cover Agricultural Classes, 1910 ... ... ... ... inside back cover Weeds, I'oison J'tmits, ami Naturalized Aliens of Victoria ... hack cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Journal of the l)ei)artment of Agriculture of Victoria are protected bj' the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the tisual acknowled'^»A.AA^0(?l ACARIDS AMONG HAIRS ON UNDER SURFACE OF LEAF (AFTER FOEx). The group to which the acarid causing Erinose l>elongs includes the vermiform or worm-shaped mites. One family of the latter is an animal parasite, but the gall-mites, with which we are alone now concerned, live exclusively on vegetation. Apparently, they have no eyes, and no special breathfng organs known as tracheae, but breathe through the skin (Pocock). They are provided with piercing organs with which they attack the foliage or buds. Normally, the Arachnida have four pairs of legs. This provides a rough and ready way of distinguishing them on the one hand from true insects, which have three pairs, and crustaceans on the other, which are provided with fiye pairs of legs. However, the Phytofiidcc, or, as they are now more generally called, Eriophyidce, have apparently lost all trace of the third and fourth pairs of legs. They have " only two pairs of legs which have no claws, but are furnished with bri.stles and ' feather hairs ' " (Warburton). Their structure will be readilv seen and understood from the accompanying figures drawn ])v Mr. Brittlebank after Viala and Fciex. They are known as Gall or Blister mites from their work on the leaves, buds or twigs. The scientific names Phytoptus-Eriophyes are in allusion to the bli-stered or scorched appearance of the affected leaves and to the woolly appearance exhibited by the attacked plants. About 200 species have been recorded, and each seems to favour a special kind of tree or plant. Careful observers of the more injurious kinds afiirm that they are spread by means of insects, spiders, &c. Even the aphis has been credited with providing a frequent and ready means of tran.sit for some species. II April. 1910.] Potatoes and Tomatoes on the Same Plant. 205 " Witches' brooms," common in the old land on birch trees, are reallv caused by one of these gall-mites. Another known as the currant gall-mite is more or less frequent on currant bushes in Great Britain and elsewhere. Still another variety forms galls on plum twigs in American orchards We are all familiar with the Blister gall-mite of the pear {Phyto-ptus -pyri), or at least familiar with the appearance of the leaves attacked. An excel- lent description, with coloured plate, may be consulted in Mr. French's Handbook of the Destructive Insects of Victoria, Part I. Another parasite that has special interest to us is the Rust-mite {Phytoftus oleivorus), which punctures the oil cells and causes the appear- ance popularly known as " Maori " on oranges. This name is doubtless due to the discolorations or markings on the rind being fancifully compared to the tattoo marks on the Maori skin. The acarian that causes Erinose of the vine is known as Phytoftus {Eriofhyes) vitis. In countries where it is common it is not now regarded with much concern. Sulphur dressings during the vegetative season usuallv keep it down as readily as is the case with red spider. When the invasion is more than ordinarily severe, treating the vine stocks during the dormant season with kerosene emulsion, or any insecticide, or even with hot water, "has proved efficacious in ridding the vineyard of this by no means for- midable invader. While it will be wise to destroy them, and prevent their further distribution, yet their presence need give no cause for unnecessary alarm. POTATOES AND TOMATOES ON THE SAME PLANT. D. Mc Alpine, Vegetable Pathologist. In the article on " Irish Blight in Tomatoes " which appeared in the Januarv number of the Journal, it was stated, as showing the close relation- ship existing L>etween potatoes and tomatoes, that a tomato plant could be grafted on to a potato plant, w^ith the result that both tubers and fruits would be produced. This is a well-known fact, although I have not carried out the experiment myself, but a clear photograph of such a plant has recentl\ appeared in the Deutsche Landivirthschaftliche Presse of December, 1910, for a copy of which I am indebted to Mr. Percy Wilkinson, Commonwealth Analyst. The accompanying illustration shows the potatoes below and the tomatoes above, and the historv of this plant mav here be given as recorded by Dr. Karl Snell. Potatoes were planted in pots on ist June, and on 19th June one of the young potato haulms which had developed three shoots was cut across and each of the shoots had a young tomato nlant grafted on to it. The grafting was done in the usual manner bv cleft-grafting. On 4th July, the plants were removed from the pots and planted out in the garden where they remained until they ripened. The photograph shows one of the plants as it appeared at the end of October, bearing 18 tomatoes and II potatoes. From the illustration it may be seen that the foliage was almost exclusively that of the tomato and the.se leaves supplied the nourishment, not onlv for the tomato, but also for the potato. Thus, from the same nutritive material, two quite different parts of different plants were 2o6 journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. nourished — the succulent fleshy fruit of the tomato and the firm starchy tubers of the potato. There \Yas no blending of the properties of the two. Just as in the case of a peach shoot grafted on the rooted stem of a plum, the shoot continues to develop only leaves, flowers, and fruits of the peach. DOUBLE PLANT WITH TOMATOES ABOVE AND POTATOES BELOW. as long as it lives; and, if a shoot of the plum stock were allowed to grow, even after twenty years' union with the peach, it would be found to produce only the normal' leaves, flowers, and fruits of a plum. II April, 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 207 BUILDIXG HINTS FOR 8ETTLEKS. VIII. — Wire Netted Fencing. A. S. Kenyan, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. As several requests have been received for information with reference to the erection of wire netted fences, the followin,g notes on the general principles and cost of construction may be of service. There are many different types of fence, but as suitable timber is becoming scarce, the wire fence is now almost universally used. This is the type of fence which it is intended to deal with. Posts may be of wood, iron, or reinforced concrete, and require an article to themsehes. In nearly every case, howe\er, the ordinary split bush post will be the most easily obtained. It is advisable to get the best timber procurable, as inferior timbers, such as stringy bark, in some localities have a very short life. For the beginner, it is well to have a look around the district and see which are the best fences. Opinions differ as to the spacing of posts. An essential feature of the rail fence is the short panel, but where wire takes the place of rails, there is no doubt that fewer posts can be used. Posts spaced approximately ajs follows have been found to give very good results : — A. Posts, 8 ft. 3 iu. centres ... 6+0 to mile B. Posts, 16 ft. 6 in. centres ... 320 to mile ... i dropper between posts. C. Posts, 22 ft. centres ... 240 to mile ... 2 droppers between posts. D. Posts, 33 ft. centres .. 160 to mile ... 3 droppers between posts. At times, spacing of over a chain — up to 81 ft. — for divisional fences for sheep is used. The difficulty, or otherwi.se, of obtaining good fencing posts must be the guide as to which pattern will be used. Any one of these patterns would make an efficient and durable stock-proof fence. It is chiefly a question of maintenance, which fence will prove the cheapest. All posts when erected should have the outer edges in line, and should be upright. They should line along their tops and not follow the lesser irregularities of the ground. The earth should be put back round them and well rammed. The timber must be sound and barked, and all posts sawn square on top. Split posts (8 in. X 4 in. to 7 in. x 3 in.), 6 ft. 3 in. long, 2 ft. in ground, one edge roughly dressed. Corner posts, 12 in. diameter, 8 ft. long, 3 ft. 6 in. in ground. Gate posts, 12 in. to 15 in. diameter, 8 ft. 9 in. long, 4 ft. in ground, should be quite separate from fencing posts and have no wire strained from them and have a sill log level with surface checked into them. Straining posts, 10 in. diameter, 7 ft. 6 in. long, 3 ft. in ground at distances of about 7I chains. In pattern A every 60th post will be a straining post. In pattern B every 3otli post will be a straining post. In pattern C every 22nd post will be a straining post. In pattern D every i5tli post will be a straining post. Permanent struts on two sides of posts must be placed at all angles, corners of fences and at every second straining post. The top end of strut is to be cut wedge shape and let 2 in. into side of pxDSts 22 in. from the top of post and securely butted against the adjoining posts, or preferably against a short post stmk 2 ft. in the ground and situated at least 10 ft. away from the bottom of the post which they are supporting. Struts are to be not 2o8 Journal oj Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. less than 4 in. in diameter. It is important that the strut should not be placed too near the top of the pest. The result of placing the strut too high is to lift the post out of the ground when the wire is strained. The strut should not be lower than half way between the top of the post and the ground. When the posts are more than 10 ft. apart, droppers are required, one dropper for spaces up to 17 ft., two droppers for spaces from 16 ft. to ■22 ft., and three for spaces from 22 ft. to 33 ft. Three droppers are the maximum number advisable no matter how big the span. It seems better in practice to have an uneven number of droppers between the posts so that a dropper may come exactly in the centre. Wooden droppers of 2 in. X I in. hardwoqd, ^3 ft. 9 in. long, are secured to the plain wires with staples which pass over the wire through a hole in the dropper and are then clinched on the opposite side of the dropper ; they are to be tied to the barbed wire with No. 12 gauge galvanized tying wire which is to pass through a hole in the dropper about i| in. from, the top of it. Metal droppers of plain or crimped wire may be used in place of hardwood droppers. These are secured to the wires with loops and clamps and are supplied with the droppers. There are also other forms of metal droppers which make very satisfactory fences and rec(uire verv little labour to fix, no loops, staples, &c., being necessary to secure them. The wire netted fence should preferably have 5 wires, including one galvanized barbed wire firmly fixed in a groove bored in the top of the posts and secured with two 2\ in. nails to each post. Another way of fix- ing the barbed wire to the top of the posts is with No. 12 gauge galvanized tying wire which is to pass through a hole in the post about 2 in. from the top. The barbed wire is not essential where no other stock but sheep are grazed; but for all other stock, it cannot be dispensed with. The other four wires are No. 8 or 9 gauge steel galvanized or black wires spaced at the following distances from the ground : 12 in., 24 in., 36 in., and 43 in. The plain wire is secured to the outside of the posts with i in. galvanized staples, or ^ in. holes may be bored through posts 2 in. from the out- side edge and wires tied on with No. 12 gauge wire. The barbed wire is thus not in line with the plain wares, being in the centre of the posts while they are on the outside. All the wires to be thoroughly strained. The wire netting of the desired gauge, width and mesh — 17 gauge, 42 in. wide, and \\ in. mesh is recommended — is to be erected so that the straight selvedge is at the top. Great care must be taken in straining the netting. Six in. of the netting should be placed without bending under the ground (a trench the recpiired depth having previously been dug) so that the top of the netting can be fastened to the third wire from the ground, to which it is secured with 24 clips to each chain length ; the netting is also secured to the bottom w.ire with 16 clips to each chain length. The bottom 6 in. of the netting may be tarred by dipping the roll to the required depth in a pot of boiling tar to which a proportion of kerosene has been added. Specification for a 33 ft. Span. Excavating. — The ground to be excavated to a depth of 2 ft. for 8 in. x 4 in. or 7 in. x 3 in. split posts, spaced -^t^ ft. centre to centre ; every fifteenth hole to be 3 ft. deep for 10 in. diameter straining posts. Holes for 12 in. diameter corner posts to be 3 ft. 6 in. deep, and for 15 in. diameter gate posts 4 ft. deep. A trench 6 in. deep to be dug outside of fence for wire netting. All earth put back round posts to be well rammed and trench filled in when netting is fixed. II April, 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 209 Strainers. — Strainers 10 in. diameter, 7 ft. 6 in. long to be spaced 165 vds. centre to centre and sunk 3 ft. in ground. Permanent Struts. — All corner posts, angles and strainers to be strutted on two sides with struts 4 in. diameter by 10 ft. long; the top end of strut to be cut wedge shape and let 2 in. into side of posts 22 in. from top of posts. The bottom end of strut to be butted against the bottom of a post 2 ft. long by 6 in. diameter, sunk in the ground. Split posts. — Split posts 8 in. by 4 in. or 7 in. by 3 in. by 6 ft. 3 in. long to be spaced 33 ft. centre to centre between strainers. Outside face of post to be roughly dressed and posts sunk 2 ft. in the ground. Posts to be bored Vq in. diameter at 8 in., 15 in., 27 in., and 39 in. from top of posts for No. 8 wires, and i in. diameter at top of posts for barbed wire. Corner Posts. — Corner posts to be 12 in. diameter by 8 ft. long and sunk 3 ft. 6 in. in the ground. Droppers. — Three hardwood droppers, 2 in. by i in. by 3 ft. 6 in. long, to be spaced 8 ft, 3 in. apart between posts. Holes bored in dropper witli J in. augur to be spaced as follows, measuring from bottom of dropper : 3 in., 15 in., 27 in., 34 in., and 40 j in. Wire Nettiftg. — Wire netting No. 17 gauge, 42 in. wide by i\ in. mesh IS to be erected so that the straight selvedge is at the top. The bottom 6 in. should be sunk in the ground without bending which will bring the top on a line with the third wire from the ground to which it is to be secured with 24 galvanized netting clips to every chain in length. The netting is also to be secured to the bottom wire with 16 clips to every chain length. QUANTITIES AND COST PER MILE. Posts, 16 ft 6 in. Cent res. Posts, 22 ft. Centres. Posts, 33 ft . Centres. Matorial. Quantity. Cost. Quantity. Cost. Quantity. Cost. Wire, plain, galvanized steel, No 8 gauge ... I 3 cwt. £6 16 6 13 cwt. £6 16 6 13 cwt. £6 16 6 Wire, liarbed, galvan- ized, No. 12 gauge... 4 cwt. 3 2 0 4 cwt. 3 i 0 4 cwt. 3 2 0 Wire netting. No. 17 gauge, 42 in. x I5 in. mesh I mile 27 0 0 I mile 27 0 0 I mile 27 0 0 staples for droppers, i.^ in. 1 0 gross 0 5 0 1 5 gross 0 7 6 I 5 gross 0 7 6 Staples for posts, i in. 10 gross 0 5 0 7 gross 0 3 6 5 gross 0 2 6 Tying wire, galvanized, No. 12 gauge \ cwt. 0 4 0 \ cwt. 0 4 0 I cwt. 0 4 0 Netting clips 23 gross I + 6 23 gross I 4 6 23 gross I 4 6 Split posts, 8 in. x 4 in. X 6 ft. 3 in. 310 9 6 0 230 6 18 0 150 4 10 0 Straining posts, 10 in. diameter x 7 ft. 6 in. II I 5 0 II I 5 0 II I 5 0 Struts, 10 ft. X 4 in. diameter ... 22 0 16 6 22 0 16 6 22 0 16 6 Droppers, 2 in. x i in., hardwood... 320 3 4 0 480 4 16 0 480 4 16 0 Labour II 15 0 — 10 10 0 — 9 10 0 Total ... — £65 3 6 — £63 3 6 — fS9 14 6 2IO Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. Barbed Wire. — The top wire to be 12 gauge galvanized barbed wire firmly secured to top of posts and dropi>er.s with 12 gauge galvanized tying wire which is to pass tlirough holes in tops of droppers and posts. Plain Wire. — Below barbed wire are four No. 8 gauge steel galvanized or black wires spaced as follows measuring from the ground : — 12 in., 24 in., 36 in., and 43 in. Wires to be secured to outside of posts with i in. galvanized staples or with No. 12 tying wire and to the droppers with i| in. galvanized staples wliich pass over the wire through the hole in dropper and are clinched on the opposite side of dropper. Gates. The most unsatisfactory thing about most farms are the gates. Rarely do they appear to be in good order or working satisfactorily. Ranging from the Mallee lightning gate of one-barbed wire and a stake to the most elaborate mortice- framed iron-stayed structure, it is generally a bother when driving to open or shut them. Defective design, both in undue weight and in framing, is, as a rule, responsible for this state of things. Lightness and stiffness are the essentials, and, leaving out the iron gates now coming into general use, but beyond the ordinary farmer's ability to make, there is none better than the double-batten gate. It is no novelty, having been often described and long in use. There are, however, some points where improve- ment can be made, and these are incorporated in the drawing herewith. In a gate there are rails, angle braces, and stiles ; the stiles to which the hinges are attached are termed hanging stiles, and those with the catch falling stiles. The materials for one pair of 3 in. x i in. double-batten gates for an opening of 12 feet are: — 8 rails, 3 in. x i in. and 6 ft. long — 48 ft. 8 stiles, 3 in. X I in. and 4 ft. long — 32 ft. 4 angle braces, 3 in. x i in. and 6 ft. 6 in. long — 26 ft. I catch, 3 in. x i in. and 4 ft. 6 in. long — 4 ft. 6 in. 4 packing pieces, say, 3 ft. 6 in. Total 114 running feet, 3 in. x i in. hardwood. 4 pairs hinges and gudgeons, as shown. 4 cuphead square-shoulder bolts, 7-16 in. x 33 wood lencrth. 8 cuphead square-shoulder bolts, 7-16 in. x 25 wood length. 18 cuphead square-shoulder bolts, f in. x 3 in. wood length. All with nuts and washers. The method of construction is of the simplest. Lay two stiles hanging and falling, on the ground at the proper distance apart and square; lay the angle brace so that it comes to the ends of stiles; mark it and cut several, as many as required ; lay it between the stiles ; place the rails in position, as many as desired, and projecting beyond the stiles at each end, and on top of them lay the remaining stiles and the angle brace. A nail or two will hold them in position while holes are bored through for the bolts, and the latter inserted and screwed up. A pair of gates should not occupy in mak- ing much over one hour. If many are wanted, a frame should be made and set on the ground, for convenience and saving of time. The points to be borne in mind are to keep the bolt holes as far as possible from the ends of the battens to avoid risk of splitting. This is done bv canying the angle braces to the ends of the stiles, and not to the crossing of the rails and .stiles as usual, and by extending the rails beyond the .stiles at each end. If the farmer is the proud possessor of a forge and stock and dies, he can make the ironwork for himself. If not, recourse must be had to the local blacksmith. The cost, however, should not exceed about seven shillings for the two pairs of hinges. II April, 1910.] Budding Hints for Settlers. Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. In erecting, the gates should be hung to posts independently of the fence. A gate post with wire strained to it will never prove satisfactory. Between the posts a sill log should be set, chocked into each post and just at or a little below the surface of the ground. It serves to keep the posts fixed in position, and is necessary if it is intended to wire-net the gate against rabbits. The gudgeons should be so put in that the gates swing back clear of the posts, leaving the latter to stand any collisions with waggons or implements, which they are better fitted to do than the light gates. The catch consists simplv of a piece of 3 in. x i in. batten, sufficiently long to- extend from one angle brace to the other, between them and the double stiles, and resting on one of the rails. This catch stiffens up the gate so- that it is practically one panel. More or less rails may be put in. If fewer than shown, wire-netting stretched over the gate makes it proof against sheep. In positions where the work is light, the top and bottom rails only, with wire-netting between, will be sufficient. Soft wood is, on the- whole, preferable to hard wood, as it is about as strong and is considerably lighter. The gates shown weigh about 70 lbs. each in hardwood, and about 50 lbs. in soft wood. The projecting ends of the rails at the falling: stiles give room for adjustment when hanging. By the aid of a handsaw they may be made come together as closely as desired, even if the gates are- not hung quite true. Never put the angle braces running down from the hanging to the falling stiles; always place them as shown in the drawing. Keep the gates screwed up — once a year at fir.st, and less frequently after- wards. Do not strain wire to your gate posts and expect the gates to hang' true. Gates are better painted both to preserve them and for the more ready identification at night time. Cold water paint, Washington white- wash, &c., are better than nothing. General Notes. The holes in the iK)Sts should be bored after they are put in the- ground so that the wire mav run true. Straining mav be done t>v any of the ordinary means though any one of the patent strainers working in the middle of the span between the- straining posts is recommended. Should straining be done at the post itself, it will lie found advantageous to bore double holes and put a loop through about 10 ft. in length to which the ordinary wire is tied. The strainer should have two holes to catch the double wire, and fasten- ing, whether permanently or temporarily, is done by twisting the strainer around, thus twisting the double wire and saving anv trouble in wedging. The extra cost involved in buying a special wire will be repaid in the extra life of the fence. The ordinary wire in the market is at times of inferior quality and will not stand restraining. Galvanized wire is advisable with wire-netted fences, and in all cases- near the sea or in swampy areas. Always start unwmding the wire from the centre of the coil ; there is less chance of kinks and tangles. The barbed wire is essential to prevent heavy stock slackening the wires by bearing them down. Paddocks with valuable young stock running in them should have rails on top instead. Woven wire fences are largely used in the States ; but have not sufficiently proved themselves here to warrant their adoption. Besides,. they do not fit in well with rablnt-proof fencing. II April, 1910.] .4 Home-made Silo. 215 A HOME-MADE SILO. T . Geinmell, Dairy Supervisor. A typical example of what can be done by the exercise of a little energy is shown in the results that have accrued from the erection of a home-made silo on Mr. Frederick Boddy's farm at Seymour. Mr. Boddy's .silo, which was built two years ago, is of 50 tons' capacity, and was con- structed almost entirely bv him.self (see illustration). He used 44 sheets of corrugated galvanized iron, fastened to wooden upright supports with |-inch bolts, 13 bolts to the sheet. There are 9 uprights (4 in. x 4 in.) 22 feet in length, w'ith a few bands of fencing wire wound around. Over all a bark roof was constructed. The whole structure rests on a cement floor. GALV.\XIZED IRON SILO, MR. F. BODDV S FARM. The crop for ensiling is conveyed to the silo by means of an ordinary elevator, after it has been chaffed by a cutter driven by a 6-h.p. Tangyes' oil engine. The cost of the silo and elevator was about jQ2o, whilst that of engine power works out at about is. per working hour. The silo is filled in about seven days, the stuff being w^ell trampled during the filling, and finally weighted with about 2 tons of stone. As to the results from feeding his dairy herd on silage, Mr. Eoddv is emphatic. He says he immediately noticed an increased supplv of milk. He had as good a supply of milk and cream in March through feeding his cows with silage as he had in the middle of spring under ordinary conditions. All his cows took to the new food readily. The crop for the silo consists of 4 parts oats, 2 parts Cape barlev, 2 parts tares, 2 parts tick beans, and i part rye. The silo is erected close to the milking sheds, and the fodder needs to be carried but a few yards to the cows. Thus, regular feeding is facili- tated, and instead of taking the herd half a mile awav, each cow is fed in the bail and gets her proper supply. Mr. Boddy states there is little, if 214 Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. any, waste when the silage is properly made. He considers the time is rapidly approaching when the silo will be considered as indispensable on the dairy farm as the chaffcutter or the plough. BERWICK FODDER CROP COMPETITION. /. S. McFadsean, Dairy Supervisor. Following on an application received from the Mornington Farmers' Society I judged the Fodder Crop Competition held under its auspices. The competition was for the best five acres, cropped with four acres of maize and one acre of pumpkins. Messrs. Wanke and Kirkham, both of Narre Warren, were the only competitors, the first-named being awarded the prize offered. Mr. Wanke' s crop was on a creek flat; the soil being a dark loam of good quality. Rather more than half of his four acres of maize was sown with Sydney Flat Red seed at the end of September. The balance was put in about two weeks later; about a quarter of it being with Flat Red seed, and the remainder with Hickory King, the latter variety making rather the better growth. The earlier sowing was about seven feet high when seen; and was estimated to cut about 14 tons 11 cwt. per acre of green fodder. The later sowing was about 4I to 5 feet high, and would then cut about 1 1 tons 8f cwt. per acre. The earlier sown crop had flowered, and was beginning to go off in colour, but the second sowing was in full growth. Both had been .sown rather heavily ; which, as well as being a waste of seed, prevented a proportion of the stalks from making their proper development. The crop was in rows three feet apart, and the inter-cultivation had been fairly well attended to. No care, how- ever, had been given to clearing the weeds from the headlands or among the maize in the rows. Neglect of these items means a loss of points in such competitions, for one of the objects of drill-sowing maize in rich ground is to enable the land to be cleared of weeds ; and a weed-fouled crop is not indicative of careful farming. A mixed fertilizer had been used over the most part of the land ; but a few rows of the earlier sown crop had been put in with stable manure below it in the furrows. These rows made exceptionally good growth at first, but during the late spell of dry weather this part of the crop went off in colour very fast, and, at time of judging (28th February), it had stopped growing altogether. The mistake made here was in not having the ground manured earlier, so as to allow the coarser material to rot before the seed was sown. Had there been more rain, in all probability this part would have more than held its own to the finish. But, under drv weather conditions, the efi'ect of the unrotted manure was to keep the soil excessively loose, and allow the moisture to drv from it ; and the maize plants conse- quently suffered. The same condition sometimes obtains on fresh stubble land turned down and sown in the earlv summer ; when, if there is not a sufiiciency of rain to assist in rotting down the dry stalks and roots, the young crop on it will make little headway. The acre of pumpkins on this farm was a mixed seeding, including a majority of Mammoth and Ironbark. They were sown in rows five yards apart, with rows of maize between to shelter and hold the vines. The II April, 1910-] Orchard and Garden Notes. 215 plants were making good headway, the whole of the space between the rows being covered with the runners, and the crop had set well. It, however, was not nearly matured, the vines being green throughout, and not more than 10 per cent, of the pumpkins had reached their full weight. Several of those that were ripening would run to 60 lbs., and the crop, when seen, would yield about 7j tons to the acre. Mr. Kirkham's crop was not so favourably located, being on lighter ground, and on a small rise. It was in three paddocks. The best portion of the maize crop was about 2^ acres near the dwelling on the top of the rise. This averaged about 6 feet high, and was estimated to cut 8 tons 3 cwt. of green fodder. It was in rows three feet apart, and kept clean ; but the seed had been sown too thickly, and the crop was beginning to dry off. The rest of the maize was in a paddock on the slope of the rise. This had been sown late. It was in drills 18 inches apart; and it had also been too thickly seeded, there being about 80 per cent, more plants on the ground than could be expected to properly mature ; also, being closely drilled, it could not be horse-hoed, and much of it was drying off at less than 18 inches high. The pumpkins on this farm had been sown rather late. They appeared to have made good headway, and a lot of fruit had set; but the majority of it was so small that unless extra favourable weather ensued within the next few weeks, the yield would be verv light. At its jiresent stage it would run about ij- tons to the acre. This is a good maize-growing district ; and, as some very fair crops were seen on other farms, the competition should have been greater. Pumpkins, however, while a good vielding crop in some places, do not find favour with every farmer, and they do not suit every locality so universally as maize. I therefore would suggest that, in future competitions in this dis- trict, the crops be kept separate, and prizes be awarded for each, or for whichever may be considered the more important. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Fruit. With the exception of the very late varieties, all fruit has been now gathered, and the fruit rooms and stores are all filled with the produce of the orchard. The fruit room should be well ventilated and aired; but all direct currents of air should be avoided, as these will certainly shrivel and dry the fruit. The store room should also be kept as cool as pos- sible. Everv care should be taken to keep out of the store room all fruit infested with anv pest or disease. Such fruits should be_ immediately destroved, preferablv by being cooked for animal consumption. The fruit rooms this' year will need very close attention, and a lookout kept for the development of bitter pit. The season's climatic conditions have been so variable, that, if the irregular flow of sap be the cause of this ■ undesirable condition, then bitter pit will be very prevalent. As a matter of fact, this disease is more than common in some districts just now, probablv owing to the alternating changes of heat and cold. 2i6 Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. Cultivation. The heavy rains of February and March have made cultivation very easy this season, and growers are enabled to get in early crops for green manuring. As soon as the fruit is off the trees, the land should be well ploughed and left in a rough condition until the spring ploughing. If at all practicable, a crop should be planted for green manure. No better method of feeding the trees and of inipro\'ing the soil has yet been devised. Land mav still be prepared for the reception of young trees, suggestions lor this work being given in last month's Journal. It is advisable to get all ploughing done as early as possible. In addition to having the soil loose and open for the reception of autumn and winter rains, it gives the grower a chance to thoroughly cleanse his orchard from all pests during the winter time. Pests and Diseases. All codlin moth bandages should be removed after the ploughing, and burned. It is not advisable to remove them before ploughing, as some larvae certainly shelter under clods, and in the soil ; the cultivation disturbs them and cau.ses them to find a fresh hiding place. All second-hand and old cases should be thoroughly overhauled. It is preferable to do this work now, instead of leaving it till spring, when the rush of other duties will certainly prevent it being carried out. The cases, if not bad enough to be destroyed by fire, should be dipped for some time in boiling water. And this is not only for the killing of the codlin larvae, but also to destroy larvae or eggs of any scale or aphis ; and also any spores of fungus diseases that may have found lodgement therein. As soon as the trees have shed their foliage, they may be sprayed with red oil emulsion for woolly aphis, peach aphis and the bryobia (red spider) mite. And this should be done before pruning, so that in handling and carrying the prunings, the pests will not be carried about the orchard to infect the clean portions. Pruning. Mr. Geo. Quinn, of the South Australian Department of Agriculture, has re-issued his work on Fruit Tree Pruning, and has brought it thoroughly up to date by means of fresh experience and illustrations. In anticipation of the coming pruning season, growers should thoroughly master this work, as the instruction given is invaluable. No modern orchardist can afford to be without it. The Wonderberry. A number of correspondents have written in regard to this fruit, and some have been good enough to forward specimens of the plant and its berries. The plants at the Burnley School of Horticulture have now ripened their fruit. Judging from this, and from the specimens receive'^, we find no reason whatever to alter the opinions expressed in the February number of this Journal. Botanically, the plant is identical in every part with that useless weed, the Black Nightshade, Solanum nigrum, and the flavour of the fruits of both ]>lants is exactly similar. Vegetable Garden. This is about the best month for the removal, transplanting and sub- division of such kitchen garden plants as rhubarb, mint, horse radish, thyme, &c. Before planting out, the ground should be deeply stirred. II April, 1910.] OrcJiard and Garden Notes. 217 and well mixed with old decomposed manure. The deeper the working, the more profitable will be the results. Topp's Winter, Stone's Ever Bearing Ruby, and Early Albert rhubarbs are popular and profitable varieties to grow. Asparagus beds should be attended to, and the tops cut off before the seeds have a chance to drop on the ground. If allowed to do so, thev will germinate and grow, and so the seedlings will become a nuisance in the later season, and the worst weed in the bed. The tops should be removed as soon as the seeds are ripening. The ground should then receive a good manurial dressing. Well rotted .stable manure is very beneficial ; or, if obtainable, a good top dressing of sea-weed is also valuable. Formerly, a heavy dressing of salt was given on all asparagus beds ; but experience has shown that the presence of salt is not at all necessary to the develop- ment and growth of the plant. Further, later analyses of asparagus show that, of all ingredients in the composition of this plant, salt is in the lowest percentage. The most perfect fertiliser for asparagus is a mixture of 2i cwt. sul- phate of ammonia, 2 cwt. sulphate of potash and from 4 to 5 cwt. of bonedust per acre. This will supply a fair amount of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid in the proportion required by the plants. Asparagus, is a gross feeder, and the plant requires abundant food, in an available form, and within easy reach, during its growing period. The most suc- cessful practice in manuring asparagus is to top dress with stable mariure in the autumn, and then to feed with chemical fertilisers in early spring. In preparing new asparagus beds, the ground should be very deeply dug, a depth of from two to three feet being not at all excessive. A good rich friable soil is required ; and a good mixture of well rotted stal)le manure should be thoroughly worked into the bed, which must be well drained. It is not essential to place large quantities of manure in the bottom of the bed or of the trenches. This is a wasteful practice; the plant will thrive far better in a fairlv compact soil, which has been well worked with manure, and fertility and productiveness will be maintained by the regular top-dressings. Onion seeds may now be sown for transplanting in the winter ; the most useful varieties are the Brown Spanish and the Early Golden Globe. Specimens of the latter varietv, if well grown and given plenty of room,, may easily be obtained up to one pound in weight. Continue to plant out cabbage, cauliflower and other seedlings. Plant also early peas and broad beans. Flower Garden. The copious rains of February have brightened up the flower gardens wonderfully, and just at this time they should be bright and gay with autumn flowers and foliage. The garden can gene- rally be depended upon to make a good show in the autumn months, provided that the plants have been previously kept in a healthy state by watering, mulching and feeding. The ques- tion of plant foods should be given far more consideration in autumn than at any other time of the year. Not only because the most popular flowers — roses, chrysanthemums and dahlias — are then in vogue ; but more because the soil requires a stimulus and an addition, after the trying, heating weather of summer, and also after the leaching or soil washing effects of the frequent summer waterings. So that, in order tO' impel our rose bushes, our chrysanthemums and other plants to give their 2i8 Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. best results, they should be fed weekly with liquid or chemical manures up to the time of blooming. Then the feeding should cease, as the plants require no further stimulus. For liquid animal manures, one pound of well rotted manure per gallon of water should be used; the directions for preparing this as given in the last month's Journal should have given this quantity, the omission of the words " per gallon " being accidental. The removal of permanent shrubs and palms, and the planting out of evergreen trees, shrubs and herbaceous divisions should not be delayed any longer. The nursery section of this class should be cleared out into the garden at once. It is a mistake to wait, as many growers do, for the removal of such plants until the winter season. If planted out now while the ground is warm, the roots of the plants have a fair chance to grow, to take a considerable hold of the soil, and to establish themselves in their new location, before the growth period ceases. Then, after the winter's rest, they are ready to break away into new growth, both in the roots and crown, with the advent of the first spring weather. When planted in winter, they have no chance to grow, the roots remain as when planted, and with every chance to rot in the cold wet soil ; the foliage becomes yellow and debilitated ; and the plant, if it does not succumb, often takes the whole ensuing season to recover its general health. And then, of course, the season that has been lost can never be regained. Gardens should now be well drained or trenched. This is a feature more often overlooked than otherwise. And yet no garden will produce the results it should produce unless one or both of these very necessary operations be carried out. There is a wealth of plant foods and food supplies below the usual digging depth, and gardeners should never neglect to dig down deeply, so that the roots of their plants may have an in- creased area in which to revel for food and moisture. Deep working is an absolute essential in every garden. It means a saving of water and manures for the grower, and it also means increased growth, health, and blossoms for the plants. The ground should always be well dug to the full depth of the soil once a year, and an occasional stirring of the sub-soil is also invaluable. A mistake often made is that the clay is brought to the surface, and the top soil buried beneath it. Nature's order should never be reversed, and the relationships of top soil, and then sub-soil, should always be recognised. After the autumn digging, the ground may be left in a fairly rough state, as the usual climatic conditions will result in a gradual weathering down of the surface. The autumnal dressing of lime is always beneficial. Bulbs, tubers, and corms should now all be planted. As they appear above ground, they should be protected from the ravages of snails and slugs ; as these pests have a very great liking for such succulent growths. A good surface dressing of broken leaf, or dust tobacco will effectively deal with these pests. In fact, the gardener who constantly uses tobacco, either in the leaf, stem, or dust form, will very soon be in the happy position, that slugs and snails will cause him no anxiety whatever. Be- sides, as previously stated, the tobacco has manurial properties which also are valuable. Pansy and any other seedlings, also rooted layers and cuttings, may now be planted out into their permanent positions. Sowings may also be made of any hardy annuals, such as antirrhinum, aquilegia, correopsis, Canterbury bell, cornflower, dianthus, everlastings, foxglove, gaillardia, hollyhock, larkspur, leptosyne, lobelia, marigold, pansy, petunia, stock, sweet peas, verbena, wallflower, &c. II April, 1910.] Artificial Manures Acts. 219 o ^ ^^ I—I 1 1 S3 03 9 c« 1 0 ^ rS 0 a £ m ^ 1 0 -^d 1 •«■ to asked the Manu per tc Dclive at th Loca Railw Static 1 00 i^^ 0 » a ■« 0 ^ 0 a-s§^ 00 ~Hl3*^ S S g > ^^ =*) ■^ -o ^.9 go C3 0,-2.= ^ 1 a 1 TS 0 ^ ajo,^ ^ 00 0 l>o° s 1 t*» -* H 1 a, " =3 05 s g a „ ?, ■e 5<1 =3 a 1 — a § o-*" eo •— < ■■S|o° .::i =1 ^ W 0 0 < 0 ea'^ • CO 0 0 W 1 0 !•-§? a3 •e 0 0 S. » Ist^ :3 a I> On C3 JD ■■^.«5 0 a "a3 w^° c»» t ^!* r^ CLi 0 c3 "" 1.3 a „ i 1 1 •«■ 0 cS ^Ssi -1 Estim Valu One of t ^.S M-g a3 in g bl dl U C3 C^ ■u ■«• .S ^.Oo^ . 8 >.a|;| «rt , 12; si- Ph 5 cs Mois- ture. Per- 0 a £ i Ss a 1^ 3 c3 Q, 60 s K m a 0. t 13 8 oi S s "^ J3 0 0 ^ ss J3 0. a & ^ 02 1 1 1 .a 1 §£ ^ ^ 5 a« .a 0 ^3 t.1 ca 0 .a WK ] ^ £ £ a S c4 >> J •w gft t*j SOlO 0 , ■ 0 m ga'SSl ^ 1 0 1 pp 1 00 lO 1 PL. 0 f^S^o N«o ^ , , a jj gco.g ^ 1 0 1 « j H Ph ^ CO t-N S . A 2 S 0 la ^ 1 0 1 ^ i lOrH 0 cs PLl S t") 0 " C80 OrH 0 C^^Bc, (U 1 SOUS ^ S a (B S a 1 COIN iz; 0 1 PQ 1 CON 0 0 . 1 g a a"S S g 00 ■*05 .H CO 00 PM g =3 fcpq 0 •* 50 50 CO to 0 Sa a 6 TS 005 3 . a 3 a> 0 ■ 0 « as •"^^3 at:" t^ -•+) CO CO coia oc» 1-9 g s £ ■« ©■* 0 0 !§:«§ .; too J- >i (Mca ;?; g a 8; PM g eS 8§ coco ■si kit 05 0 IN 00 ■*Tj< 1 !^ B •« 3 a ^ •^ 1 •g T 0 0 II 0. ^A-ft, S s a t •s P Si 3 1 a fe; « c 0 0 sa Journal of Agriculture . [ii April, 1910. THE WINE IXDUSTRY IX SOUTHERN FRANCE. {Continued from page 78.) F. de Castella, Government Viticulturist. The Department of Herault. Space will not permit the description of the whole of the Midi — the four departments of Herault, Aude, Gard and Pyrenees Orientales — with its million acres under \ines. Besides, the first named of these, in addition to beino' the most important, may well be taken as tvpical of the whole region. It was, also, the one in which my time in southern France was mainly spent, and concerning the viticulture of which I was able to collect most information. It is proposed, in the next few articles, to describe the viticulture of this department with its several distinct types of vineyards. With the ■exception of the port-like Rancio wines of Banyuls and Collioure in Pyrenees Orientales, Herault produces all descriptions of wine turned out in the Midi ; not that there is any very great variety though, seeing that the great bulk of the wine grown is the " vin ordinaire" or current con- sumption wine described at considerable length in the February issue of the ] ournal. In old days, several special Crus or growths were known, which, though not equalling the celebrated wines of Bordeaux, Burgundy, &c., never- theless enjoyed a certain amount of local fame. Such were St. Georges P'Orgues, a red wine, and Marseillan and Pomerols, full bodied dry whites of the type known as Picardan. Since the vineyards have been reconstituted, the production of these wanes has lost much of its former importance ; the varieties cultivated in olden days, which contributed to the special character of the wanes, were poor, or onlv moderate bearers. In the early days of reconstitution, the large profits to be made by the pro- duction of " vin ordinaire," at that time scarce, and consequently, at a. premium, led to these vineyards being replaced by heavy bearing, " vin ■ordinaire " varieties. The principal sort grown at St. Georges was the Cinsaut, a grape we have long cultivated in Victoria, under other nam'^s, as we shall see when dealing with the ampelography of the region. In addition to these dry wines, a certain number of well known sweet wines were formerly made in fairly large quantities, chief amongst which were the Muscats of Frontignan* and Lunel. Though excellent wines of this type are still produced they are not now grown in nearly the same quantity as formerly. The same decrease is to l^e noted in the wines which formed the basis of the Vin d'imitatioti trade, of which the head- quarters was the town of Cette. Nowadays it is " vin ordinaire" which the department produces in enormously greater proportion than anything else; "vin ordinaire," which varies in strength from a 6" to 6|" wine (10.5 to 11.5 per cent, proof), yielded at the rate of 2,500 to 3,500 gallons to the acre, in the rich * The name Frontignac, commonly used in Victorian wine circles, is a corruption of Frontignan, the name of a village a few miles S.W. of Montpellier, where "the wine of this name is grown. Lunel is a small town 20 miles east of Mont- ^lellier. «i April, 1910.] Tlic Wnic Industry in Southern Fram alluvial flats, to the fuller " ordi- naires" known as Yin de Montague, such as Ville-Veyrac and Cers ; wines containing as much as 11° or 12° (19.3 to 21 per cent, proof), iind which chiefly serve to increase in colour and body, and thus to improve, the lighter wines known ,as Vin de Plaine. Occupying, as it does, the posi- tion of most important viticultural •department in France, the vine would naturallv be expected to v f,ir the most imf>ortant establishment for 4. DIRECTOR S RESIDENCE, MONTt'ELLlER SCHOOL. the teaching of scientific viticulture and wine-making in Prance, and con- sequently in the whole world. It may, in fact, be looked upon as the II April, 1910.] The W'nic Industry in SontJicrn France. 225 \iticultural university of the world. From 1872, wlien this school was founded, to 1899. 1.470 regular students had passed throui^h it. in addi- tion to 635 Auditeiirs Litres. Though a full description of it. is not here possible, brief mention must be made of the great part it has played in placing modern viticulture on a trulv scientific basis, and especially in assisting in the great work of the reconstitution of the vineyards of France on resistant stocks. It was founded in 1872, or shortly .after the fir.st outbreak of Phylloxera in France (1865), and just about the time that the trouble was reaching an acute stage. The now historic struggle with the terrible insect lasted nearly 30 vears, for it is only in the " nineties" of the last century that victory crowned the efforts of the vine-growers of the Midi, who have alwa\'s led the wa\- in the pioneer work of reconstitution. In the final victory, so slowly and laboriously gained, the Montpellier School has plaved a foremost part. Xor has its influence been confined to France — it has been worhl wide, students fiom all parts have flocked 5. THE SILK Bl'TLDING, MONTPELLIER SCHOOL. to Mont]jellier in search of most recent viticultural knowledge. In every part of the world where the vine is grown, one meets its graduates. We have several in Australia who occupy leading positions in the viticultural world, either as teachers or growers. The late G. Foex, whose remarkable Cours Coniplet de ViticiiJinre will long continue a standard work, was Professor of Viticulture here from 1882 to 1897, and for a good many vears Director. He was succeeded in 1897 in the Chair of Viticulture bv Professor L. Ravaz. well known to Victorian growers. Since 1885, the Chair of Technology (chiefly dealing with "Enoiogy in this vine-growing region) has been occupied by Professor Bouffard. The staff includes 11 professors and 15 lecturers, as.sistants and practical instructors, in addition to the supervisional and clerical staff. The photographs reproduced will give some idea of the outward appearance, at least, of this remarkable institution. Xo. i is a general view of the group of buildings of which the school is composed. To the extreme right is seen the main building, shown again in greater detail in No. 2. On the extreme left is the viticulture building (laboratories, &c., 226 Journal of Agriculture. [i i April, 1910. the cellars are not visible in the photograph), shown again in No. 3 in which is to be seen, at the angle of the building, one of the Eucalypts often cut down by severe winter frosts. In this photograph, as well as in No. 4, which shows the Director's (M. Ferrouillat) residence, are to be .seen some palms {Chamcerops excelsa), plants which constitute an unusual feature in most other parts of France. No. 5 shows the silk building {Station Sericicole) also visible in the centre of photograph No. i . It bears testimony to the importance of the silk industry in southern France; an industry which will some day also prove a source of wealth to our Commonwealth. Past failures have caused us. to .regard sericulture as an industry for which there is no hope of success under Australian conditions. It is at best only an auxiliary industry, but one which, in these days of closer settlement, merits attention. By a little extra work during five or six weeks in the year, the women and children of a settler's familv could easily earn their ^20 or ^30 cheque — a sum surely worth considering. The importance given to this branch at Montpellier proves the value of the industry to France and, incidentally, its potentialities in Victoria. (To be continued.) ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Blildixg for Bacon-CURIXG. — ^W.H. asks what class of building is recom- mended. Answer. — A brick building with brick and cement tanks is preferred. The tanks should be built 3 feet under the floor level of and 3 ft. 6 in. above, the inside measurement to be 4 feet square. One tank will hold seven pigs. The front of the building should face the south, and there should be ample provision for ventilation. Bank up the wall on the north side so as to keep out the north winds. Milk for Pigs.' — W.H. asks whether sweet or curdled milk is the better food for pigs. Answer. — Sweet milk. Ascertaining Pregnancy. — W.H. wishes to know if there is any way of ascertaining whether a milking cow is in calf. Answer. — There is no very reliable way until the cow is somewhat advanced when an examination may be made. Some men by constant practice become rather expert. Tympanitis. — R.M.V. writes, '" My neighbour tells me that he has lost a cow through her eating pears. She was 'blown' and he blamed the pears. Is that possible ?" Answer. — An excess of almost any succulent food when a cow is not used to it may produce Tympanitis, so it is quite possible the pears were the cause in the case stated by you. Pony Pawing. — X.Y.Z. asks what is the cause of a pony pawing. Her pony, when standing, soon makes a hole in the ground through pawing. He also trips frequently when travelling. Answer. — Without an examination, it is hard to state the cause of your pony pawing. It may be merely habit, or it may be owing to some soreness in the limbs and aij effort to get his feet on the side of a hole to rest them. More than likely it is habit only. Castor On. Plant. — ].C.W. inquires whether the seeds of the Castor Oil plant are injurious to stock. Answer. — The seeds of the Castor Oil plant [Rici7Uis communis) are poisonous, and castor oil cake is generally regarded as injurious to cattle. Cases are known of cattle being injured or killed by fresh seeds, or the oil cake, and 3 to 20 seeds have been recorded as killing human beings. The pure cold drawn oil is not poisonous, and is only a mild purgative. II April, 1910.] Answers to Correspondents. 227 Growth of Hair in Mane and Tail.- — -W.C. inquires as to best means of improving the growth of hair in the mane and tail of a stallion. Answer. — A mixture of castor oil and methylated spirits in equal parts, well rubbed into the roots of the hair, will be found useful. Blackleg. — R.R. writes, '' Recently, one of my calves seemed to go suddenly mad, tearing around the yard and running against the fences. This lasted for only a few minutes when it dropped down in severe convulsions and died in a few seconds. Another calf has died in exactly the same way to-day. I opened the last one. All organs seemed healthy, except one kidney, which was very much enlarged and congested and nearly black. The intestines were much distended with wind. In the event of others taking bad, can anAthing be done for them?" Answer. — The symptoms as stated are not inconsistent with Blackleg. The convulsions and death may, however^ have resulted from the presence of indigestible material in the stomachs or intestines. Treatment is of little avail when death supervenes so suddenly, but if time permits a laxative dose of castor oil should be given, four to six ounces according to age. Death of Ponv. — W.K. inquires as to cause of death of pony. In the morning, the pony was as usual fed on chaff, and afterwards he had a drink of water. He was then driven 24 miles, being seven hours in harness before taking bad. When the harness was removed, the pony laid down, and although given purgatives, died on the following day. When opened, there was a little iutlammation and a certain amount of bots, but not enough to cause death. The intestines were full of wind and water. Ansiuer. — The cause of death would be impaction colic induced by watering after feeding and then driving a journey. A horse should be watered before feed- ing, and such conditions would then be rare. Ploughing in Stlbble. — W.M. asks whether land is more benefited by burning off the stubble or by ploughing it in. Answer. — Ploughing in is recommended. When stubble is burnt off it is practically lost from a manurial point of view, with the exception of a small percentage of ash. On the other hand, if ploughed in, the dead vegetable matter of the stubble becomes exposed to the moisture and warmth in the soil and breaks down to a form called humus, the factor making for soil fertility. Lucerne Growing. — N.S.W. is anxious to put in 200 acres of lucerne, and would like to know whether it is advisable to sow in new ground. The latter has never been ploughed, and is a light loam with a clay subsoil. Answer. — Preparation of seed bed plays an important part in the successful growing of lucerne. This cannot be too strongly emphasized. If possible, a paddock should be selected with a sufficient slope to effect thorough surface drainage and sufficiently open or porous to provide good under-drainage. Roots will not thrive in a water-soaked soil or in soil with the water level only a few feet from the surface. It is always advisable to sow lucerne seed in ground that has been previouslv well tilled, is free from weeds, and is in good tilth. Write to the Secretary, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Melbourne, for a copy of the bulletin on " Irrigation of Lucerne " recently issued by the Commission. Rape Cultivation. — W.T. desires information concerning the cultivation of rape. Answer. — Rape is generally successful if sown in time to benefit bv the first autumn rains. It mav be fed down from Mav till August. For sheep feeding, sow ^ lb. of mustard seed with 4 lbs. of rape per acre. The mustard minimises scouring of lambs. The easiest manner in which to sow the crop is to mix it with 60 lbs. of superphosphate per acre and sow through the manure box of an ordinarv grain drill. Liming of Land. — W'.S.B. asks a series of questions relative to the liming of iand. Answer. — (i) 5 cwt. of quicklime per acre would not be considered excessive. (2) It would not be a sufficient quantity to injure the micro-organisms of the soil. (3) From three to four weeks, according to the weather, should elapse before sowing seed. (4) Koo-wee-rup soils are very poor in lime. (5) Gypsum would not give better results than the caustic form on land which has hardlv lost the effects of swamp conditions. Onion Seed. — W.H. asks how to harvest onion seed. Answer. — The seed heads are allowed to remain on the plant until they are thoroughly dry. They are then cut down and the seed is lightly threshed out. The "chaff'" and portions of the seed vessels are then easilv blown or win- nowed away from the seed. H 2 Journal of Agriculture . [n April, 1910. Tree Llterne. — S.Y. writes: — "Please inform me as to the proper time to sow Tree Lucerne {Medicago arborea). I wish to plant 2 or 3 acres with it to use for cattle feed when the snow is on the ground. Last year I put in about 1,000 plants, but now find I have got Tagasasir, a shelter tree, and not the fodder plant I required." AnsTvrr. — The seed, which is best soaked before planting, can be planted at any time the soil is moist and warm, preferably in autumn, but spring planting is also good if not delayed too long. Hoeing to keep down weeds and to keep the soil loose is the only treatment necessary. Seed can be purchased for 3s. per lb. _ Plants i-OR Identification.— L.T.R. forwards three specimens of weeds for identification. He states that he has had 300 crossbred ewes in a loo-acre paddock for over two months. During the three weeks previous to writing they have been feeding on a "spring," about 2 acres, where twelve have died. He thinks the plants forwarded are the cause. Answer. — Thev are as follow : — (i) Isotoma fltiviatilis, F.v.AL (2) Hyperi- cum jafonicnm^ Thunb. (3) Dichondra re-pens, R. and G. Forster. All are native plants. No. i is the only one known to have poisonous properties. It belongs to the Lobeliacea, and all species of this order contain a sharp burning or even narcotic milky sap, which, taken internally in excess, causes inflammation of the alimentary canal and even death. An allied species, 7. longifora, is deadly to horses in South America, large doses producing death and small ones violent purging, very small doses merely acting as a tonic stimulant. I. iiitviaiilis is less poisonous, but is not a plant to encourage on pasture land. The plant should be hoed up or pulled up after rain, before seeding, and stock should be kept from land where it is abundant, esj)eciallv if other feed is scarce. Drainage and liming appear to aid in suppressing it. Sorrel. — C.J. asks how to eradicate sorrel. Answer. — The growth of sorrel indicates poor land. Good dressings of lime, or of manures like basic slag containing lime, help to keep it down. The free use of the hoe is advised in ground which cannot be cultivated. French Beans. — J.A.F. requests information relative to bean culture. During the past season much of his seed did not germinate. The .soil is a rather still greyish loam and inclined to be clocMy, re(|uiring a good deal of working to get it into a fine condition. He has no water for irrigation, but depends on dry culture, scarifying, &c. Answer. — The Canadian Wonder is the best variety of French bean \ou can grow. Have the soil well and deeply dug, and before digging give it a good dressing of lime in the autumn. When preparing it for sowing, dig in deeply some well Totteil stable manure. Make the first sowing of seed in September when all danger from frosts has gone, planting the seed no deeper than two inches. Sow the seed in double rows a few inches ajuirt, and keep the rows at least two feet apart, so that you can cultivate frequently. " ViN Ordinaire" Varieties of Grapes. ^ — H.B. (Ruby) asks where he could obtain rooted cuttings of " Vin ordinaire " varieties. Answer. — The main varieties grown for " Vin ordinaire " in Southern France are Aramon and Carignane. These vines are only suited to the warmer regions of the State. Ruby is too cool for them. Other sorts would give better results there, especially the Gamay. Unfortunately, this sort is not obtainable in quantity in Victoria as yet. Ruby, being a clean district, cuttings or rooted vines cannot be sent to it from Rutherglen. Analysis of Water. — H.B. asks where he coidrl get water from a well analyzed. He desires to know whether it is suitable for stock and for irrigation. Answer. — Forward a quart of the water in a clean bottle to the Government Analyst, Public Offices, Melbourne. The fee is los. 6d. per sample. Potatoes Attacked by White Ants. — D.P. forwards some specimens of potatoes which he thinks have been attacked by white ants. They were grown near an old stump. Ans7ver. — It is a common thing for potatoes to be attacked by while ants when planted in newly cleared forest land. Injury is also done by them in passion fruit gardens where they attack the vines. These insects are generally found in places where trees, stumps, and log fences have been removed. When clearing land, all parts of the stump and its roots should be removed, as they harbour the ants. Remove the timber and the\ will soon disappear. When a small area, such as the site of a stiunp, is affected, it could be treated with carbon bi-sul]ihide — 3 oz. jier sfpiare varj for the Show. Show Secretaries will require to obtain evidence of the possession of the •Government Certificate in respect of exhibits at the time of entry, and should not accept entries of other than certificated horses. Immediately after the Show, Secretaries of Societies are required to forward the names of all the horses that have won the prizes in stallion ■classes, together with the names of the owners. B.— That the Society arranee for: — (1) The holdinor of agricultural students" classes ; or (2) The holding of a series of at least four lectures or demonstrations on agricultural or live stock matters. (B.i) Agricultural Classes. — The agricultural classes will last a fortnight, a demonstration being given each morning and afternoon, and four limelight lectures on evenings to be arranged for by the Secretary of ■each Society. Thirtv students at least must be enrolled before a class can be held. The rent of hall and all local charges are to be paid by the Agricultural Society ; all other expenses by the Department. Arrangements must be made to insure the uninterrupted use of the hall during the time ihe lectures are going on. The conditions under which medals and prizes are awarded to the students are to be subject to approval bv the Department. A roll of attendances at lectures and demonstrations shall l^ kept. At the conclusion of each class, a written examination of alx>ut \\ hours duration shall be held, a medal to be awarded by the Department to the student obtaining the highest number of marks for examination work and regular attendance combined. Two-thirds of the maximum mark.s obtainable will be given for examination work and one-third for regular attendance. A special examination for the Gold Medal offered bv the Australian Natives' Association shall be held and only winners of Departmental medals will be eligible to compete thereat. Subjects of First Week. The Principles of Agriculture. Veterinarv Science and Live Stock. Subjects of Second Week. Two or more of the following, to be selected bv the Department : — • (a) Sheep Breeding and Management (including Wool Classing and Lambs for Export) ; {b) Dairy Farming (including Management and Breeding of Pigs) ; {c) Poultrv Breeding and Management ; {d) Orchard and Garden Work. 230 Journal of Agriculture . [11 April, 1910. SYNOPSIS OF LEOTURES AND DEMONSTRATIONS. Principles of Agriculture. 1. The plant food of the soil. 2. Cultivation methods and management. 3. Principles of manuring. 4. Valuation of artificial manures. 5. The management of the farm. 6. Experimental plots and their lessons. Veterinary Science and Live Stock Subjects. 1. The structure and care of the horse's foot (lantern). 2. Brood mares and breeding mishaps (lantern). 3. Colic, constipation, and other bowel complaints. 4. Ailments of dairv cows — milk fever, impaction, udder complaints. 5. Contagious diseases of stock — abortion, blackleg, tuberculosis, anthrax, pleuro pneumonia, &c. 6. Ailments of swine, or ailments of sheep. 7. Unsoundness in horses (lantern). 8. Principles of stock breeding. Sheep Breeding and Management. 1. The breeding of sheep for wool. 2. Wool sorting and classing. No. i. 3. Wool sorting and classing, No. 2. 4. Raising fat lambs. 5. Management of flocks. Dairy Farming. 1. Breeding and management. 2. Dairy buildings. 3. Dairv management. 4. Milk testing. 5. Foods and feeding. 6. Pig breeding, feeding, and management. Poultry Breeding and Management. 1. The poultrv industrv : its importance. Locality — suitability or otherwise. 2. Housing (construction of, materials, insect proof, aspect, &c.). How to select stock. 3. Breeds : payable or otherwise, eggs and table. Breeds adapted for export — modes of crossing. 4. Turkeys : their care and management. Chicken raising and care. 5. Foods and feeding. 6. Common ailments of poultry. Incubation — natural and artificial. Orchard and Garden Work. 1. Fruit growing : sorts and localities. 2. Manuring and cultivation. 3. Pruning and management. 4. Insect pests. 5. Fungus diseases. 6. The farmer's garden. II April, 1910.] Grant to Agricultural Societies. 231 (B.2) Lectures on Agricultural and Live Stock Subjects. — Many of the lectures, are illustrated by limelight views. The hall, advertising, &c., must be provided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Department. The course shall consist of at least four lectures or practical demon- strations during the year (dates to be fixed by the Department) ; and the Society must take sufficient interest in the matter to insure a good attendance, otherwise the lectures will not count for the grant conditions. It is requested that application he made as early as possible, sO' as to permit of a complete syllabus being drawn up, and the subjects of most interest to the district are tO' be mentioned. The Department will arrange for the lecture to be delivered as nearly as possible on the date mentioned by the Society, but modifications may be necessary in order to carry out the com- plete programme. The day of the week and hour most suitable for each locality should be given. Societies may arrange for lectures by experts other than Departmental officers, but the subject and lecturer must be notified to and approved of by the Department. Any of the following subjects may be chosen : — Subjects and Staff. Principles of Agriculture — The Director and Mr. Temple Smith. Veterinary Science, Stock Management, Dairy Sanitation and Educa- tion— Dr. S. vS. Cameron, Messrs. Robertson, Kendall, Griffin, Strong, and Cother. The Dair\ing Industry an. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. 132 32-7.5 5,T 18-27 •28 13-08 21.T 23-42 Umonndness. ,'^idel)ones ... 82 20-35 3 •99 85 9^35 Ringbones ... 9 2-23 4 1-32 2 ■93 15 1-63 Spavin (Bone) 3 •74 15 4-95 1 •46 19 2-06 Bog Spavin & Tlioroughpin 2 •49 4 1-32 (i -65 Curb (i 1 99 6 280 12 1-30 Cataract (eye) ... 1 •46 1 •10 Totals Un- soundness 96 23-82 32 10-63 10 4-67 138 15-04 Below stand- ard for aji- proral 36 8 93 23 7 04 18 8 41 77 8-38 (4 rami totals 132 32 75 55 18-27 28 13 08 215 23-42 In 1908, certain modifications of the scheme, dictated by experience gained during the first season, were adopted. As stated, the scheme was on a purely voluntary basis in 1907. There was no obligation on the part of an owner to submit his hor.se, and the regulations did not provide any disability in respect of horses not submitted, nor indeed of horses rejected. The possession of the Government Certificate was no protection at shows against competition from uncertificated horses. A nurnber of cases occurred in which a rejected horse was placed first by the judges over certificated animals. To overcome this anomalous state of things, it was made a condition of the Government grant to agricultural societies that a II April, 1910.] Government Certification of Stallions. ^35 Government Certificate should be held by all stallions three years old or over competing. The imposition of this condition made the scheme compul- sory in respect of all horses it was desired to show, inasmuch as practically the whole of the agricultural societies throughout the State were receiving a Government subsidy. Along with the introduction of the compulsory condition to the extent mentioned, it was provided that any owner who felt aggrieved at the rejection of his horse should be given an opportunity of appealing against the decision of the examining officer. (See Regulation v., July, 1909, Journal.) Since the regulations providing for an appeal were adopted, 486 horses have been rejected, and in no instance has the opportunity to appeal been taken advantage of. In 1908, 118 inspection parades were attended by the Departmental officers, at which 995 horses were submitted for examination. Of these 742 were certificated and 253 (25.41 per cent.) were rejected. The fol- lowing table sets out detailed particulars as regards the 1908 season : — - Analysis of Defects of Horses Refused Certificates, 1908. Drati yhts. Lights. Poi ies. Totals. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. 50i 341 295 •242 199 1.59 995 742 Defects. Per cent. \o. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. No. Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. 160 31-92 53 17-96 40 20-10 253 25-41 Unsoundness. Sidebones .. 99 19-76 1 -3? 100 10 05 Ringbones ... 20 3-99 / 2-37 3 150 30 3 01 Spavin (Bone) 3 •59 8 2 71 11 110 Bog Spavin & Thoroughpin lo 2-99 3 l-Ol 18 1-80 Curb ... ... 8 2-71 2 1-00 10 1-01 Roarer ... 2 •67 ... 2 -20 Totals Un- soundness 137 27-33 29 9-83 5 2-50 171 17-17 Below stand- ard for ap- proral 23 4-59 24 8 13 So 17-58 82 8-24 Grand totals 160 31 9-2 .^3 17-96 40 20-10 253 25-41 Although, strictly speaking, the 1909-10 season has not been altogether completed, the bulk of the wjOrk has been got through, and it has been deemed advisable in this report to submit the figures up to 31st December, 1909. 36 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 1910.- The number of hor.ses examined this season totalled 751, of which 528^ were certificated and 223 (29.69 per cent.) rejected. The increase in the percentage of rejections has been due to a .somewhat higher standard being adopted as regards breed, type and conformation. The rejections under this heading account for 14.65 per cent, this year, as against 8.38 per cent. and'8.24 per cent, in 1907 and 1908 respectively. The following table applies to the season 1909, and gives particulars identical with those furnished in the previous tables as regards the two- previous years: — Analysis of Defects of Stallions Refused Certificates, 1909. (Up to 31/12/09.) Draughts. Ligrhts. Ponies. Totals. i I (elects. No. Examined. 408 No. Certifi- cated. 273 No. Kxaniined.j 191 ! No. Certifi- cated. 147 .xa^ned. ^ 1.52 108 No. Kxaniined. 751 No. Certifi- cated. 528 No. RejecI.ed. 13.'. 84 11 1 Per cent. Rejected. 33-08 No. Rejected. 44 Per cent. Reje(-ted. 23-04 No. j Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. 44 28-94 No. Rejected. 223 Per cent. Rejected .- 29-69 Unsoundiie.sii. Sidebones ... Ringbones ... Spavin (Bone) Bog Spavin & Thoroughpin Curb 20 59 2 69 •24 3 2 1 (> i'57 ro4 •52 3 14 1 1 "3 •66 66 l-'97 84 15 4 1 9 IMS 1-99 54 •13 1-20 Totals Un- soundness lifJotr. stand- ard for aj>- proval 96 23-5'2 39 9-56 12 32 6-27 16-77 5 39 3-29 25 65 113 110 15-04 14-65 (irand totals 135 33-08 1 4t ; 23 04 44 2S-94 223 33 29 69 Nejn Zealand Exam hi.at ions (Certificated but not in- cluded in above figures^ 32 1 Aggregate Results to Date — 1907-1908-1909. Up to 31st December, 1909, 2,664 stallions had been examined, 1.973' having been certificated (74.07 per cent.) and 691 rejected (25.93 per cent.). Of these, 442 (15.83 per cent.) were rejected on the ground of hereditary unsoundness and 269 (lo.io per cent.) were disa[)proved as being below a- II April, 1910.] Government Certification' of Stallions. -^37 reasonable standard for Government certification. As regards unsoundnesses, detailed particulars concerning the grounds for rejection are given in the following table ; — Analysis of Defects of Stallions Refused Certificates for Seasons 1907, 1908, 1909 (to 31/12/09). Draughts. Li- hts. Ponies. Totals. No. Examinecl. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. Defects. 1,312 885 7S7 635 565 453 2,664 1,973 No. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejec-ted. Rejected. Rejected. 427 32-54 152 19.31 112 19-82 6!)1 25-93 Cidonndness. SideV)ones ... •265 •20 ^20 4 •51 269 10 10 Riiigljones ... 40 3 05 14 1-77 6 106 60 2-24 Spavin (Bone) 7 •53 25 3-18 2 •36 34 1 27 Bog Spavin & Thoroughpin 17 1-29 8 102 25 •94 Curb 20 2^54 11 1-94 31 1-16 Cataract (eye) I •18 1 •04 Roarer 0 ■•2o 2 •08 Totals Un- ' somiclness 3-29 25 ■07 73 It -27 20 3-54 422 15-83 Below stand- I ard for ap- 1 ■proral 98 1-4.1 79 10 04 02 16^28 269 10-10 Granil totals 427 32-54 1 152 1931 112 19-82 691 25-93 Rejections for Unsoundness. Of all horse.s examined, 15.83 have been refused certificates on the ground of hereditary unsoundness solely. This percentage is comparatively small when compared with the results that ha,ve been published as regards hereditary unsoundness in some other countries. But any ground for congratulation in this respect is removed, when it is realised that in respect of draught horses no less than 25.07 per cent., or practically one-fourth of all horses submitted, have been rejected as being affected wdth one or other of the hereditary unsoundnesses. The position as regards draught horses cannot thus be considered as other than serious ; but hope, as regards a quick improvement from the continuance of the present system of examina- tion, may be gathered from the results that have followed on the similar action which was taken 25 vears ago by the Royal Shire Horse Societv of Great Britain as regards unsoundness. At that time, about 30 per cent. 238 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 191 o. of the horses shown had to be rejected for unsoundness. The weedmg out process has been going on ever since, with the result that certain families which were then predominant have been practically obliterated, and the families now responsible for the show stock of horses do not contain more than 5 per cent, of horses still carrying the taint of hereditary unsound- ness. Complete records have been kept of the unsoundnesses for which indi- vidual horses were rejected and of the f amilv pedigrees and histories of such horses. It was realised shortly after the commencement of the scheme that the collection of such information would prove extremely interesting as time went on, as tending to prove or disprove, as> the case may be, the hereditary character of the unsoundnesses in respect of which rejections have been made. In point of fact, a study of these records has proved of greater interest and more importance than ^^as at first anticipated. By them I have been able tO' set forth information of a character such as has not been published in detail before. In a contribution tO' a thesis which I presented to the Melbourne University I was able to furnish particulars of a most interesting character concerning the incidence of unsoundnesses as regards breed and the age period of development of the various hereditary unsoundnesses, as also tables and family histories showing completed evi- dence of the hereditary character of sidebone, ringbone, curb, and bog spavin. As this University paper will be published as an addendum to this report there is no necessity to here repeat the details and conclusions set forth in it.* As compared with the draught horses, it is satisfactory to find that onlv 9 per cent, of light horses have been rejected, and in the case of ponies the rejections for unsoundness have been particularly low, namely, 3.5 per cent. Rejections as regards Standard. On the other hand, more ponies (16.28 per cent.) and light horses (10 per cent.) have been rejected as being below a reasonable standard for Government approval than in the case of draught horses, of which only 7.4 per cent, have been rejected for this rea.son. On this asj>ect of the working of the scheme, it is opportune to again draw attention to the necessity (which, in my opinion, is urgent if the quality of the horse stock of the State is to be improved) of strengthening this side of the scheme. I have previously pointed out that the veterinary officers engaged in the work of examination have had no desire to undertake the function of judging as regards breed, type and conformation, and it may be said that they have only exercised this function in respect of stallions presented to them, which it would have been for them a matter of shame to have signed a certificate in favour of. With a staff of competent judges to deal with this aspect of the matter as firmly as the veterinary officers have dealt with the unsoundness aspect, much needed weeding out of in- ferior sires would be brought about in the course of two or three years. It is idle to say that in respect of type, breed and conformation, matters should be left in the hands of breeders themselves to determine. It is to such a drifting policy that, in a large measure, may be attributed the de- terioration as regards quality that is being complained of on all hands. If quality of progeny is to be maintained, the standard of sires must be kept up. Even with the use of the best sires, there is always a sufficiency, if *\Yant of space precludes the publication of the paper this month. It will appear in the next issue. — Editor. II April, 1910.] Government Certification of Stallions. 239 not a redundancy of mis-fits. Mediocre horses, as regards qualitv, type and power may be, and are, bred in sufficiently large numbers, even when the best sires are used on mediocre mares ; and to add to the trouble by using also a mediocre sire will inevitably result in a still further deteriora- tion. The present position of affairs indicates plainly that the matter cannot be safely left in the hands of breeders. It is too true that many breeders are too prone to patronize inferior stallions, because of their cheapness ; and to sa\'e them from themsehes, it has become necessary that an efficient method of Government control should be fearlessh carried out. Extension of the Scheme to other States. The system adopted three years ago in Victoria has been put into force in the three neighbouring States of New South Wales, Queensland and South Australia. Each of these States commenced to carry out examina- tions under regulations practically identical with those which have been operative in Victoria. So far, however, the system in the sister States has been confined to examination of stallions at shows. Consequently, the numbers that have been examined in the States named have been compara- tively small. Figures are not to hand from South Australia, but tables of results have been published as regards examinations made to date in Queensland and New South Wales. For purposes of comparison, I append a table setting out the numbers of stallions examined and rejected in Vic- toria. Queensland and New South Wales respectively during the season 1909. Thev are as follows: — Class. Number Examined. Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Victoria. Q'land. N.S.W. Victoria. Q'land. N.S.W. Victoria. Q'land. N.S.W. Draughts Lights . . . Ponies ... 408 191 152 751 55 78 32 165 13 14 9 135 44 44 27 13 3 7 2 1 10 33-08 23 04 28-94 49-09 53-84 16 64 14-28 9 37 11-11 Totalb ... 36 223 43 29-69 26-06 27-77 Reciprocal Arrangements with Other Countries. Prior to the commencement of the 1909 season, it was arranged, in order to meet the convenience of importers of horses from New Zealand, that the Victorian Government would issue the Government Certificate of Sound- ness without examination in respect of horses imported from New Zealand which had been there examined by a Government Veterinary Officer and certificated under the conditions laid down in the Victorian Regulations. Altogether, under this departure, 33 New Zealand certificates were accepted and exchanged for the Victorian Go^•ernment Certificate. Doubt- less, prior to the commencement of the forthcoming season, similar arrange- ments will be entered into with the Governments of New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia, whereby a horse certificated in one State will be accepted by the Government of every other State as qualified for certification in such State. Before this can be arranged, however, it will be necessary that the States concerned shall be satisfied as to the uniformitv of standard of examination and as regards the unsoundnesses constituting a bar. 240 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 1910. English Examinations. In order to insure that only sound horses are imported from Great Bri- tain in tlie future, and to avoid disappointment and loss on the part of importers, it was decided before the commencement of last season that certificates issued by certain societies in England. Scotland and Ireland would be accepted here as a basis for the issue of the Victorian Government Certificate of Soundness, without further examination at this end. The societies asked to co-operate in this matter were the Roval Shire Horse Society (England), Royal Agricultural Society (England), Royal Dublin Society's Horse Show (Ireland), Highland and Agricultural Society (Scot- land), and the Glasgow and West of Scotland Agricultural Societv. To this end the societies named were written to some time ago and asked to authorize and undertake the duty. So far, replies have been received from th Royal Dublin Society, the Highland and Agricultural Society, and the Shire Horse Society. The two former letters intimate that tho.se societies are to take the matter into consideration shortly, and the Shire Horse Society, in its letter, states that its Council has decided to accede to the request of this Government, and has authorized for the purpose examination by their Senior Veterinary Inspector (Professor Penberthv). Certificates will be accepted from Profes.sor Penberthy not only in respect of shire horses, but in respect of horses of any breed, as also certificates from the veterinary inspectors of the other societies named, provided such certificates are issued officially on tehalf of the societies. Regulations and List. Regulations governing the examination of stallions, together with list of certificated stallions, have been published each year at the close of the season, and may be had on application to the Secretary. During the season 1907, 56 parades and shows were attended ; during T908, the examinations were conducted almost wholly at parades, of which 118 were arranged for and attended. During the last season (1909), 124 parades have been carried out. Examining Officers. So far as possible, the desire has been in this State to make the examina- tions uniform. To that end, not more than four officers ha\'e l>een engaged each season on examinations. After the first year, however, Mr. Norman McDonald, G.M.V.C., retired from the service of the Department to visit England. During the second season I ceased conducting examinations per- sonally, in order that my position on the Court of Appeal might not be prejudiced. Messrs. W. J. Colebatch, ^M.R.C.V.S.. and W. A. X. Robert- son, G.M.V.C., have been examining officers throughout, and for the past two seasons Mr J. Lyons, M.R.C.V.S., and Mr. E. A. Kendall, G.M.V.C., completed the staff. It is to be regretted that, in future, the scheme will not have the valued assistance of Mr. W. J. Colebatch or Mr. J. Lvons, both of whom have recently retired from the Go\ernment service in this State to undertake more lucrative positions in South Australian and New Zealand resDectivelv. The examining staff hns, however, licen increased by the addition of Mr. R. Griffin, M.R.C.V.S., and Mr. W. J. Cother. G.M.V.C. It is not too much to say that the success that has attended the carrying out of the scheme so far, has been in a great measure due to the high qualifications posses.sed for this class of work by the officers concerned, whereby the fullest confidence of both the Government and the horse-breed- ing public has been established. II April, 1910.] Time Tabic, Stallion Parades, 1910. 241 TIME TABLE. Stallion Parades, 1910.* District and Dato. MEIROPOLITAN. 25th, 26th. 27th, 28th and 29th July Ev^ery Saturday from the 2nd July to 17th December WIMMERA. Xu. 1. July . . Wednesday, 3rd Auw. WIMMERA, No. 2. Tuesday, 9th Aug. . . Wednesday. 10th Aug. Thursday, 11th Aug. WIMMERA, No. 3. Tuesday, 9th Aug. . . Tuesday, 9th Aug. . . Wednesday, 10th Aug. Thursday, 11th Aug. Friday, 12th Aug. MALLEE, X<). 1. Tuesday, 9th Aug. . . Wednesday, 10th Aug. Thursday, 11th Aug. I, Friday, 12th Aug. . . Cit}' H orse Bazaar Agricultural Offices Horsham Miu'toa Ararat (xoroke Edenhope Hopetoun Beulah Warrackna- beal Minyip Stawell Donald Watchem Birchip ! Mildura 10 a.m. daily 10 a.m. to 12 noon 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 ]i.m. 3 p.m. 3 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m 11 a.m. I p.m. II a.m. 2 )i.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. Offiior Arrives. 12.10 a.m. 1.29 ]).m. 1.40 p.m. 12 noon 10.15 p.m. (8th) 12.25 p.m. 8 p.m. (9th) . 4.8 p.m. (10th) 8 p.m. (11th) . 5.15 p.m. (8th) 7.27 p.m. (9th) 12 noon 5.50 p.m. Officer Leaves. 3..32 a.m. (4th) 9.37 p.m. fi.30 a.m. (11th) 2.30 p.m. (12th) 11.30 a.m. 4 p.m., driving 2.55 p.m. 4.8 p.m. 2.40 p.m. 6 p.m. 10 a.m. (11th) driving 8.35 p.m. 6 p.m. (15th) * At centre? where the Examining Officer remains overnight after the Parade, arrangements may be made for a Lecture on some veterinary or stoelj subject if application is made to the Chief Veterinary Officer before 1st Julv. 242 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 1910. Time Table, Stallion Parades — continued. MALLEE, No. 2. Tuesday, 16th Aug. . . Wednesday, 17 th Aug. Thursday, 18th Aug. Friday, 19th Aug. . . MALLEE, No. 3. Tuesday, 16th Aug. . . Wednesday, 17th Aug. Thursday, 18th Aug. Friday, 19th Aug. . . WIMMERA, No. 4. Tuesday, 16th Aug. . . Wednesday, 17 th Aug. Thursday, 18th Aug. Friday, 19th Aug. . . Friday, 19th Aug. . . NORTH-WESTERN, No. 1. Tuesday, 23rd Aug. . . Wednesday, 24th Aug. Thursday, 25th Aug. CENTRAL, No. 1. Monday, 22nd Aug. . . Tuesday, 23rd Aug. . . Wednesday, 24th Aug. Thursday, 25th Aug. GOULBURN VAL- LEY, No. 1. Monday, 22nd Aug. . Monday, 22nd Aug. . Tuesday, 23rd Aug. . Wednesday, 24th Aug Thursday, 25th Aug. Friday, 26th Aug. . Friday, 26th Aug. . ROYAL SHOW. Tuesday, 30th Aug. St. Arnaud Maryborough Inglewood . . Charlton Quambatook Sea Lake Wycheproof Boort Kaniva NhiU Rainbow Jeparit Dimboola Swan Hill Kerang Pyramid Beaufort Castlemaine Bendigo Bacchus Marsh 11 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 10 a.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2.30 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. Elmore 1.30 p.m Rochester . . 3.30 p.m Echuca 11 a.m. Kyabram . . 2 p.m. Tatura 2 p.m. Murchison . . 11 a.m. Rushworth 2 p.m. 7.11 a.m. 5.25 p.m.(16th) 8.40 a.m. 5.10 p.m. (18th) 6.45 p.m. (15th) 12.25 p.m. 10.5 a.m. 4.55 p.m. (18th) 2.28 a.m. 1.24 a.m. 1.15 p.m. 4.40 p.m. (18th) 2 p.m., driving 7.10 p.m. (22nd) 12.4 p.m. 2.11 p.m. 12.27 p.m. 12.30 p.m. 8.20 p.m. (23rd) 12.39 p.m. 1.11 p.m. 2.10 p.m. 6.5 a.m. (18th) 1.57 p.m. 12.25 p.m. 11.10 a.m. 7 a.m. (18th) 11.10 a.m. 12 noon, driving 12.42 a.m. (17th) 7.42 a.m. (18th) 3.30 p.m. 11 a.m., driving 2.18 a.m. (20th) 10.25 a.m. (24th) 12.29 p.m. (25th) 2.11 p.m. (26th) 6.29 a.m. (23rd) 7.5 p.m. 6.50 p.m. 8.57 a.m. (26th) driv- Show Grounds, Flemington I a.m. to 10 a.m. 3.30 p.m ing 10.58 p.m. (22nd) 4.20 p.m. (23rd) 6.50 p.m. (24th) 11 a.m., driving 1.30 p.m., driv- ing 2.30 p.m., driv- ing 10.19 p.m. 2.55 p.m. 4.20 p.m. 5.36 p.m. 12 noon, driving 5.30 p.m. II April, 1910.] Time Table, Stallion Parades, 1910. 243 Time Table, Stallion Parades — continued. District and Date. GOULBURN VAL- LEY, No. 2. Monday, 5th Sept. . . Tuesday, 6th Sept. . . Wednesday, 7th Sept. Thursday, 8th Sept. Friday, 9th Sept. NORTH-EASTERN, No. L Monday, 5th Sept. . . Tuesday, 6th Sept. . . Wednesday, 7th Sept. Thursday, 8th Sept. Friday, 9th Sept. WESTERN, No. L Tuesday, 6th Sept. . . Tuesday, 6th Sept. . . Wednesday, 7th Sept. Thursday, 8th Sept. Friday, 9th Sept. f WESTERN, No. 2. Monday, 12th Sept. . . Tuesday, 13th Sept. Wednesday, 14th Sept. Thursday, 15th Sept. Friday, 16th Sept. . . Saturday, 17th Sept. CENTRAL, No. 2. Monday, 12th Sept. . . Tuesday, 13th Sept. Wednesday, 14th Sept. Thursday, 15th Sept. Friday, 16th Sept. . . NORTH-EASTERN, No. 2. Monday, 12th Sept. . . Tuesday. 13th Sept. Wednesday, 14th Sept. Thursday," 15th Sept. Friday, 16th Sept. . . Place. Cobra m Numurkah . Nathalia Dookie Shepparton . Yarrawonga Tungamah Rutherglen Wangaratta Benalla Coleraine Casterton Condah Portland Hamilton Warrnambool Terang Camperdown Colac fleelong Werribee Daylesford Clunes Smeaton Ballarat Ball an Heathcote Euroa Myrtleford Seymour Kilmore Time. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2.30 p.m. 2 p.m. . . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. . . 2 p.m. 11 a.m. . . 3 p.m. 2 p.m. 1.15 p.m. 2 p.m. 3 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. . . 2 p.m. 11 a.m. . . 2.30 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. Officer Arrives. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 1.57 p.m. 4.28 p.m. (5th) 1.40 p.m 12.52 p.m. 5.8 p.m. (8th) . 2 p.m. 7.45 a.m. 1.48 p.m. 4.30 p.m. (7th) 9.40 a.m. 7.35 p.m. (5th) 2 p.m., driving 11.35 a.m. 1.2 p.m. 5.27 p.m. (8th). 1.57 p.m. 8.13 a.m. 5.5 p.m. (13th).. 6.32 p.m. (14th) 8.50 p.m. (15th) 8.45 a.m. 11.5 a.m. 9.25 p.m. (12th) 1.30 p.m., driv- ing 6.35 p.m. (14th) 12.7 p.m. Officer Leaves. 3.10 p.m. 12.50 p.m. (7th) 3.25 p.m. 4.11 p.m. 5.34 p.m. 7 a.m. (6th) 7.45 a.m. (7th) 3.22 p.m. 9.1 a.m. (9th) 5.'35 p.m. 12 noon, diiving 8.15 a.m. (7th) 11.35 a.m. (8th) 2.30 p.m. 11.50 a.m. (10th) 7.11 a.m. (13th) 4.35 p.m. 5.23 p.m. 6.52 p.m. 8.5 a.m. (17th) 1.25 p.m. 3.40 p.m. 12 noon, driving 3.30 p.m., driv. ing 10.50 a.m. (16th 5.25 p.m. 11.41 a.m. .. 6.10 p.m. 10.24 a.m. . . 6.57 p.m. 10.45 p.m. (13th); 6.4 a.m. (15th) 12.5 p.m. . . I 9.55 a.m. (16th) 11.15 a.m. . . I 9 p.m., driving 244 Journal of AgricJiltiire. [ii April, 1910- Time Table, Stallion Parades — continued. District and Date. , CENTRAL, No. 3. Monday, 19th Sept. . . Tuesday, 20th Sept. Wednesday, 21st Sept. Thursday, 22nd Sept. Friday, 23rd Sept. . . Saturday, 24th Sept. GIPPSLAND, No. 1. Monday, 19th Sept. . . Tuesday, 20th Sept. Wednesday, 21st Sept. Thursday, 22nd Sapt. Friday, 23rd Sept. . . Saturday, 24th Sept. GIPPSLAND, No. 2. Monday, 19th Sept. . . Tuesday, 20th S?pt. Wednesday, 2Lst Sspt. Thursday, 22nd Sept. Friday, 23rd Sept. . . Saturday, 24tii Sept. NORTH-EASTERN, No. 3. Monday, 26th Sept. . . Tuesday, 27th Sept. Wednesday, 28th Sept. §>/' GIPPSLAND, No. 3. Monday, 26th Sept. . . Monday, 26th Sept. . . Tuesday, 27th Sept. Wednesday, 28th Sept. Thursday, 29th Sept. Thursday, 29th Sept. Friday, 30th Sept. . . GIPPSLAND, No. 4. Tuesday, 4th Oct. . . Kyneton Romsey Alexandra Yea Manstiekl Melton Yarram Foster Leongatha . . Korumburra Lang Lang Frankston . . Bairnsdale . . Sale Traralgon . . Mirboo North Morwell Lilydale Wodonga . Tallangatta Corryong Bunyip Warragul . Trafalgar Berwick Cranbourne Dandenong Whittlesea . Orbost Time. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. . . 9.30 a.m. 2 p.m. . . 11 a.m. . . 4 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 2 p.m. . . 2 p.m. . . 11 a.m. . . 3.30 p.m. 2 2 2 2 p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. 1.30 p.m. 2 p.m. . . 3.30 p.m. 11 a.m. . . 3 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. . 2 2 p.m. p.m. 3 p.m. Officer Arrives. 9.24 a.m. 7.57 p.m. (19th) 12.35 p.m. 6.33 p.m. (21st) 2 p.m. 8.35 a.m. 3.45 p.m. 2.1 p..m 3..56 p.m. 9.17 a.m. 9.23 a.m. 9.34 a.m. 3.25 p.m. 12.15 p.m. 5.42 p.m. (20th) 7.35 p.m. 5.50 p.m. (22nd) 1.34 p.m. 1.29 p.m. 4.35 p.m. (26th) 3.30 p.m. 9.56 a.m. 2.56 p.m. 8.8 p.m. (26th) 12.16 p.m. 8.1 a.m. 11.42 a.m. 12.45 p.m. p.m. 5.25 p.m. 5.25 p.m. 4.40 p.m. 10.40 a.m. 3.25 p.m. 1.21 p.m. 10.55 a.m. 2.21 p.m. (21st) 8.41 a.m. (22nd)> 8.20 a.m. (23rd) 6.3 p.m. 1.17 p.m. 9.30 a.m. 4.33 p.m. 5.57 p.m. 4.15 p.m. 6.17 p.m. 6 p.m. 3.15 p.m. 5 a.m. (28th) 7 a.m. (29th) 2.10 p.m. 7 p.m. 10.1 a.m. ( 9.9 p.m. 11.22 a.m. 4.48 p.m. 8 p.m. (20th)-. 28th>' 8.2 a.m. (5th) Ti April, 1910.] List of Certificated Stallions. ^45 LIST OF (CERTIFICATED STALLIONS. (To 3 1 ST Decembkh, 1909.) Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age.* Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. DRAUGHTS. 1 1251 Aboon the Lave 6 years W. T. Cox Maryborough 11.9.08 W.J.C. 969 Acorn Aged T. Naughton Cobram 5.8.08 E.A.K. 731 Adam Bede 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 166/3 Admiral Sperry 3 years Alex Duff Maryborough 11.9.09 W.J.C. 65/3 Advance 3 years J. and J. J. McCar- N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 720 Agent General 4 years ron Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 737 Agitator Yet 3 years J. and W. Freeman Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 490 Ailsa Craig 3 years H. M. S. Cox Davlesford 20.9.07 W.J.C. 205/3 Airedale . . 3 years W. R. Pitman . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 522 Aitkenbrae Aged Summerhill Stud Farm Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 41 Akbar 5 years W. F. Dorman . . Pyramid Hill 3.8.07 S.S.C. 1452 Albert's Prince 4 years Head and Green Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 1638 Albyn's Pride Aged Cameron Bros. Maryborough 11.9.09 W.J.C. 183/3 Albyn's Victor 3 years James Rigney BaUan . . 25.9.09 E.A.K. 1069 Alderman Herod . . 3 years J. Kearney Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 714 Andrew Mac 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 792 Aparima Lad 3 years Chas. McDougaU Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 1441 Argyle 5 years Donald Blair Melbourne 26.7.09 W.R. 56 Ariel Prince Aged H. C. Robertson . . Colac . . 7.8.07 S.S.C. 284 Arthur McBride 6 years W. G. Hicks Tatura . . 24.8.07 W.R. 1210 Athol 4 years A. Mitchell Casterton 26.8.08 W.J.C. 769 Athol's Pride 4 years Jas. Storach StaweU 20.7.08 S.S.C. 313 Avondale . . 3 years J. Walder Birchip . . 21.8.07 W.J.C. 599 Avondale . . 6 years Jas. Harper Murchison Show . . 30.10.07 W.R. 1561 Avondale II. Aged Mrs. A. Guiuene . . Tungamah 24.8.09 J.L. 976 Avondale Oak 3 years A. Johnson Wangaratta 5.8.08 W.J.C. 1729 Baden Powell Aged W. Gould Rainbow 14.10.09 E.A.K. 6/3 Baird's Pride 3 years Wyangarie Com- Newmarket 14.5.09 W.R. 781 Bancor's Chief 3 years panv C. W.Bunbury .. Melbourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. 1475 Bancor's Pride 5 years Fred Hammill N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 71/3 Bancor Yet 3 years W. Dean N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 1539 Barbour II. Aged Joseph Chambers Swan HiU 18.8.09 W.R. 1433 Bar None 5 years Stanley Young . . Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 610 Bar None 3 years D. Stewart Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 17/3 Baron Aldie 3 years G. and W. Lord . . Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. 7/3 Baron Blair 3 years CafTrey and Mur- phy Jno. Burns Newmarket 14.5.09 W.J.C. 735 Baron Faithful 4 years Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 1128 Baron lusch 3 years W. T. Manifold . . Camperdown 19.8.09 J.L. 723 Baron Knight 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 162/3 Baron Mainstay 3 years R. J. Wilson Warrnambool 9.9.09 J.L. 1246 Baron Mitchell 5 years J. P. Arandt Bacchus Marsh . . 10.9.08 W.J.C. 1101 Baron Percival 3 years M. Michael St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K- 60/3 Baron's Champion . . 3 years R. Carroll N.Z. Govt. Cert... —.—.09 727 Baron's Conqueror . . 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 724 Baron's Gem 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 654 Baron's Son 3 years G. J. Butler Maldon Show 30.10.07 S.S.C. 117/3 Baroone Saxon 3 vears S. Wrathall Geelong 19.8.09 J.L. 124 Barrow Admiral Aged P. J. Reid Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 418 Bay Style 3 years W. Anderson Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 142 Belted Knight Aged C. J. Cecil Sea Lake 15.8.07 N.McD. 885 Ben Douglas 3 years A. W. Andrews . . Melbourne 30.7.08 W.J.C. 794 Bengal Premier 3 years A. Robertson Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 1356 Ben Hero 3 years Oliver and Son . . Boort Show 30.9.08 E.A.K. 742 Ben Hur 3 years .Jas. Hamilton Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 1610 Ben Lomond 4 years Stephen Harris . . Royal Show 31.8.09 W.R. 1644 Ben Lomond Aged Doherty Bros. Yea 15.9.09 W.J.C. 1179 Ben Lomond Aged 0. and'M. Bodey Ararat . . 7.9.08 W.J.C. 293 Ben Lomond 5 years J. McDonald Kaniva . . 28.8.07 N.McD. 535 Ben Mors II. 3 years Con. Hogan Horsham Show . . 27.9.07 S.S.C . 1498 Ben More's Pride . . Aged A. Wohlers Beulah . . 12.8.09 J.L. * Age is reckoned a; from 1st July preceding the date of examination 246 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Draughts — continued. 79 1238 1587 729 564 611 1/3 1487 1063 32/2 1222 1120 155 114/3 21 743 997 674 957 1253 200 62/3 1170 1389 162 199 27/3 563 63/3 1476 1351 1603 1034 795 1350 137/3 999 1585 1618 197 184 368 153 1097 1359 746 931 445 1183 179 1719 34 474 333 986 161 226 18/3 30/3 642 43 797 1184 1204 1256 1162 798 Ben Nevis Bernewang Bill Squires Black Champion Black Douglas Black Heather Black Knight Black Prince Black Bock Blackwatch Blair's Pryde Blockader Blue Bonnet Blue Chief Blue Harold Blythe Laddie Bonaparte Bonnie Carlyle Bonnie Champion . , Bonnie Doon Bonnie Doon Bonnie Lad Bonnie Newton Bonnie Scotchman . , Bonnie Shepherd . , Bonnie Star Bonnie Style Bonnie Times Bonny Bray Borderside . . Boro Cashier Botanist . . Botany's Pride Bothwell Bounding Willow . Bounding Willow . Bramliope Monarch British Admiral British Arthur Britisher . . British Hero British Laddie Britisli Lion British Oak British Officer British Wrestler Briton Briton Bruce Hamilton Brutus Buckshot . . Burns II. Cameron's Cliief Cantab Captain Cook Captain Gunn Capt. Seddon Carbrook . . CarUsle Carmyle . . Carol Redwood Castle Craig Cedric Celt Celtic Lad Challenger Challicum Punch . Champ Champion II. Champion Charlie Aged 1 W. Danaher Rutherglen Aged W. McKnight Swan HiU 3 years E. O'Flaherty Warrnambool Aged J. Johnson Wangaratta 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 3 years B. A. Barrett Numurkah Show . . 4 years W. H. Michael . . Ballarat Show . . 3 years J. SmaU Melbourne 4 years J. E. MitcheU . . Casterton 5 years J. Davis Colac 2 years W. T. Gibbs Casterton Aged Executors of T. Brown Hamilton 6 years Coy Bros. Terang . . Aged A. Purcell Yarrawonga 3 years W. Price Pyramid 4 years C. H. Krelle Horsham Aged T. Gregory Horsham Aged A. Mitchell Rutherglen 3 years P. R. Hearn Mansfield Show . . Aged Hay Bros. Numurkah 4 years G. J. Butler Maryborough Aged J. G. Schneider . . Hamilton 3 years J. A. McKenzie . . N.Z. Govt. Cert... Aged John. Storer Condah 3 years R. S. McKenzie . . Numurkah Show 3 years J. Carroll Benalla 4 years D. Fox Hamilton 3 years J. Thornton Melbourne Aged D. CogliiU Numurkah Show 3 years George Nield N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 4 years A. and J. H. Young Melbourne 5 years J. P. Morris Yarrawonga Show Aged David Allen Smeaton Aged E. Black Rutherglen 3 years Quinlan and McLean Melbourne Aged Harry Jeitz Rainbow 4 years — . Weatherall . . Melbourne 3 years A. Cameron Yarrawonga 3 years D. Browning Yarrawonga Aged J. McCartie Rutherglen Aged Evans Bros. Wangaratta Aged Smythe Bros. Daylesford Aged Habel Bros. Hamilton Aged A. Kinghorn Warracknabeal . . Aged — McCulloch St. Arnaud Aged J. Ryan Yarrawonga Aged S. Haire Port Fairy 5 years W. McKay Corryong 4 years G. H. HiU Horsham 3 years McCann Bros. Kerang Aged A. Henderson Warrnambool 5 years T. Falls Sale Aged — MacNab Maffra . . Aged Jno. Egan Ballan . . Aged W. Bolger Traralgon 3 years — Fisher Morwell 4 years H. Boyd Elmore 3 years Matthew Ewart . . Murchison 4 years M. Michael Benalla 6 years W. J. Day Nhill . . 3 years C. H. Feldtmann Melbourne 3 years Jas. Gildea Horsham J. Wallace Pyramid Show . . 4 years Jno. Ervin, sen. . . Pyramid 3 years A. Crystal Melbourne 3 years G. and W. Lord . . Sale 4 years L. E. Walker Royal Show Aged Jno. Young Mil'dura Show Aged P. Laydon Kyabram 3 years Jno. Brown Melbourne 6.8.08 7.8.07 10.9.08 25.8.09 14.7.08 9.10.07 17.10.07 8.6.09 6.8.09 17.8.08 6.8.09 25.8.08 19.8.08 16.8.07 19.8.09 18.7.07 16.7.08 6.8.0s 21.11.07 4.8.08 11.9.08 17.8.07 —.—.09 26.8.08 23.10.08 17.8.07 17.8.07 7.7.09 9.10.07 —.—.09 31.7.09 23.9.08 6.9.09 6.8.08 28.7.08 11.8.08 27.7.08 23.9.08 24.8.09 6.8.08 24.8.09 6.9.09 17.8.07 14.8.07 28.8.07 16.8.07 18.8.08 3.10.08 16.7.08 24.7.08 10.9.07 7.9.08 16.8.07 25.9.09 31.7.07 16.9.07 26.8.07 6.8.08 17.8.07 21.8.07 5.7.09 14.7.09 23.10.07 3.8.07 27.7.08 7.9.08 28.8.08 14.10.08 24.8.08 27.7.08 W.J.C. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. s.s.c. W.J.C. s.s.c. W.E. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. J.L. J.L. S.S.C. W.R. S.S.C. s.s.c. W.J.C. N.McD. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.R. J.L. E.A.K. S.S.C. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. J.L. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. E.A.K. S.S.C. J.L. J.L. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. S.S.C. J.L. E.A.K. S.S.C. W.R. W.J.C. W.R. W.J.C. E.A.K. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. s.s.c. s.s.c. s.s.c. W.R. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. s.s.c. W.R. E.A.K. J.L. W.R. W.R. II April, 1910.] List of Ccriificated Stallions. H7 List of Certificated Stallioxs — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 Draughts — coiitivmd. 83/2 Champion Hero 2 years J. W. Dean Euroa . . 11.8.09 W.R. 5i9 Champion of the North 3 years F. Thonemann Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 473 Champion Scotsman 5 years E. Gamble Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. 951 Charlie II. 4 years C. Warren Nathaha 3.8.08 s.s.c. 220 Charmer . . 4 years F. W. Sallman . . Nhill . . 21.8.07 s.s.c. 1279 Christmas Eve 3 years J. T. Smethurst Lang Lang 11.9.08 E.A.K. 36/3 Clan Garthland 3 years J. J. Vile Agricultural Offices 17.7.09 J.L. 964 Clan McGregor Aged Jas. Clark Tungamah 4.8.08 W.J.C. 965 Clan McGregor II. . . 3 years T. Lewis Tungamah 4.8.08 W.J.C. 37 Clansman II. 5 years H. Curran Traralgon 31.7.07 s.s.c. 850 Clan Stewart 3 years J. Nolan Melbourne 28.7.08 s.s.c. 1730 Clan Stuart Aged Jno. Dart Rainbow Show . . 14.10.09 E.A.K. 159/3 Clem McArtluir 3 years J. Hiskens Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 411 CUfton 4 years H. Ross Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 801 Clontorf . . 6 years J. H. Harrison . . Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 1084 Cluny's Pride 3 years H. Curran Traralgon 17.8.08 W.R. 36 Cluny's Style Aged Lewis Clark Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 799 Clydebrae 3 years Alf. Neave Melbourne 27.7.08 s.s.c. 800 Clyde Lad 3 years Wm. Hercus Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 265 Clydesdale King 5 years Herbert Wright . . Shepparton 24.8.07 s.s.c. 1519 Clydeside . . Aged Garvin and Gray Boort . . 10.8.09 E.A.K. 1675 Cocksparrow 6 years W. A. Wriggles- worth B. Moulsdale Maffra .. 18.9.09 W.R. 1562 Colin Clyde Aged Tungamah 24.8.09 J.L. 176/3 Colonel Melliugton 3 years R. Sheddy Foster . . 14.9.09 E.A.K. 1467 Commander 4 years M. McCormack . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 397 Commander 4 years T. Creighton Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 1657 Commonweal 4 years J. Harper Foster . . 14.9.09 E.A.K. 1499 Commonwealth Aged A. McPherson Beulah . . 12.8.09 J.L. 659 Commonwealth 5 years G. R. McPhail . . Sale Show 31.10.07 W.J.C. 1111 Commotion 6 years Howlet Bros. Bairnsdale 19.8.08 W.R. 328 Cooring Chief 3 years P. J. Hamilton . . Lilydale 23.8.07 W.J.C. 1150 Corporal . . 3 years Geelong Harbor Trust Geelong 20.8.08 W.J.C. 722 Count Fascinator . . 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 802 County Member 3 years W. H. Thomson . . Melbourne 27.7.08 S.s.c. 359 County Member Aged Ross Bros. St. Amaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 920 Craig Albyn 4 years K. Matheson, sen. Birchip . . 21.7.08 W.J.C. 207 Craig Lea 4 years N. McLean Minvip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 1055 Craigie Far 6 years J. B. MarshaU . . Nliiil . . 14.8.08 S.S.C. 1056 Craigie Lea II. 5 years W. H. Treloar . . NhiU . . 14.8.08 J.L. 419 Craigie Le Varden . . 5 years T. Stiles Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 1287 Craigie Mains 4 years Jeffrey Bros. Whittlesea 15.9.08 J.L. 1260 Craigie's Pride 6 years G. M. Gauge Ballarat 11.9.08 W.J.C. 580 Cremoron . . 3 years P. Kelley Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C, 152/3 Crested Knight 3 years Jno. Dugdale Royal Show 31.8.09 W.J.C. 1103 Crown Grant 3 years Jno. Moss St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. 233 Crown Jewel 3 years R. Ward Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 337 Crown Prince 6 years D. Trewick Elmore 26.8.07 W.J.C. 968 Crown Prince 3 years W. E. Taylor and Sons J. T. Murray Cobram 5.8.08 E.A.K. 1009 Crown Prince 6 years Alexandra 11.8.08 W.J.C. 719 Crown Prosecutor . . 3 years B. Chaffey Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 1440 Dalmeny . . 5 years A. Crystal Agricultural Offices 17.7.09 J.L. 438 Dandy Dick Aged M. Ewart Royal Show 9.8.07 S.S.C. 929 Dandy of Kunat . . 4 years J. Roberts, jun. . . Swan HiU 22.7.08 W.R. 1547 Dan's Pride 5 years E. S. Duustan Donald . . 19.8.09 E.A.K. 37/3 Darnley 3 years J. McLeod Melbourne 26.7.09 J.L. 436 Darnley's Best 3 years J. Cummings, jun. Royal Show 7.9.07 S.S.C. 841 Dawni of Hope 3 years E. Francis Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 855 Defender . . 3 years Jas. Hamilton Melbourne 28.7.08 S.S.C. 64/2 Delver 2 years Thos. Bird Warragul 23.9.09 W.R. 1464 Diamond Jubilee 4 years W. Dean N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 122 Diamond Prince 3 years T. Hart Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 186 Dictate 6 years J. Bunge Warracknabeal . . 14.8.07 W.R. 712 Dictator . . 3 years R. Barrons Murchison 14.7.08 S.S.C. 439 Dingly Dell Standard Bearer 3 years P. J. Cato Agricultural Offices 10.9.07 s.s.c. 803 Don Albyn 3 years Wm. Weatlierley Melbourne 27.7.08 J. L. 55/2 Donald 2 years Morrish Bros. Smeaton 6.9.09 W.J.C. 1640 Donald 4 years Jno. Keilor Maryborough 11.9.09 W.J.C. 147/3 Donald McPhersou 3 years Colin Gardner Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 590 Donald's Pride 3 years Maryborough Show 16.10.07 S.S.C. 248 Journal of Agriculture . [11 April. 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. 154/3 15/3 140/3 77/3 53 145 38/3 44 1298 91/3 733 806 39/3 1639 805 804 1468 1035 933 339 143/3 1001 1247 1262 1072 988 807 134/3 152 168/3 71 561 90 178 475 1698 808 258 1230 1289 1112 1396 789 268 174/3 282 49/2 54 301 141/3 1352 88/3 294 112 1427 364 698 109 178/3 362 57/3 96 1018 123 1332 1240 398 1012 518 Name of Horse. Donnybrook's Cham pion Dreadnought Drumcolin Drummer . . Duke of Albyn Duke of Athol Duke of Hamilton Duke of York Dun Craig Dundonald Dunedin . . Dunmore . . Dunoon Dun Robin Dun Robin Dunsmore Patriarch Earl Donald Earl Garthland Earl Grey Earl Jock Earl of C'obram Earl of Dalmuir Earl or Darnley Earl of Dundonald Earl of Roseneath EcUpse Elderslie . . Ettrick Everlasting Everlasting King Experiment Extinguisher II. Falstaff . . Farmer Farmer Farmer's Favourite Farmer's Glory Farmer's Glory Farmer's Pride Fashion Again Federal Federal Federal Charlie Federal King Federal Prince Federal Prince Federal Star Federal Style Federation Federation King Fitz Lion . . Flash Oak Flashwood Flashwood Flower's Fancy Forest Chief Forester . . Forest Hill Forest King Fortune Teller Frogmore . . Gallant Lad Gallant Lad Gallant Lad Gallant Scotchman General Gordon General Grant General Hamilton General McClelland Parade. Draught .s — continued. 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Aged 5 years 3 years Aged 5 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 5 years 3 years 3 years 5 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 6 years Aged 5 years Aged Aged 3 years 3 years Aged 3 years Aged 4 years 5 years 6 years Aged Aged 3 years Aged 5 years Aged 3 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 2 years 3 years Aged 3 years 4 years 3 years Aged 3 years 5 years 3 years 6 years 5 years 3 years 5 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Aged Aged 3 years Aged 3 vears Aged and Vincent Daldy W. G. Parish Quinn Bros. W. Dean L. G. Calvert M. Brown F. Skene A. Wallace J. Russell J. F. Ne^vton Mitchell O'Brien Alex. McCallum M. Domaschenz Henry Harbour J. McDougall Patrick Connell G. Stokes N. G. Crust McCann Bros. D. McNamara R. Parkin F. E. Peake A. Miller Jas. Booth J. Carter Wm. Nelson H. Moss Ed. Looby Jas. Clark Geo. Fraser Shields Bros. Dunning and Shea J. Cockbill G. Missen — Buckley F. G. Fechner A. C. Petras W. J. Hiles H. Curran Wm. Crozier J. H. Poulson Geo. Nixon Jas Kiilmister White Bros. J. Pasco L. McLeod L. McLeod T. T. Mulder F. Hamill D. Trewick E. J. Lewis F. Moar Meyer Bros. Dean Bros Mitchell O'Brien £>. W. Stewart . . H. C. Lees Balmattum District Horse Breeders' Association A. J. Ryan — Stephens J. Giddings J. Hamilton A. Mitchell E. Land A. Skirving R. J. Wilson T. Creighton R. Crafter Healey and wood and Har I Royal Show Newmarket Rochester Melbourne Colac Sea Lake Melbourne Pyramid Hill Smeaton Beulah . . Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Maryborough Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Rainbow Kerang . . Elmore . . Cobram Rutherglen Bacchus Marsh Ballarat Bendigo Numurkah Melbourne Benalla Yarrawonga Ballarat Dookie . . Numurkah Show Melton . . Maffra Morwell Warragul Melbourne Cobram Bunyip . . Whittlesea Baimsdale Orbost . . Melbourne Shepparton Morwell Tatura . . Tatura . . Colac Maffra . . Rochester Yarrawonga Show Kaniva . . Kaniva . . Euroa . . Melbourne St. Amaud Tallangatta Show Euroa . . Bairnsdale St. Amaud Melbourne Murtoa . . Hopetoun Wangaratta Warragul Warrnambool Mansfield Minyip . . Kvneton 31.8.09 10.4.09 30.8.09 30.7.09 7.8.07 15.8.07 26.7.09 3.8.07 17.9.08 12.8.09 14.7.08 27.7.08 26.7.09 11.9.09 27.7.08 27.7.08 28.7.09 11.8.08 24.7.08 26.8.07 25.8.09 6.8.08 10.9.08 11.9.08 19.8.08 4.8.08 27.7.08 23.8.09 16.8.07 11.9.09 27.7.07 9.10.07 10.8.07 16.8.07 16.9.07 23.9.09 27.7.08 23.8.07 9.9.08 15.9.08 19.8.08 28.10.08 27.7.08 24.8.07 13.9.09 24.8.07 26.8.09 7.8.07 16.8.07 30.8.09 23.9.0S 12.8.09 28.8.07 14.8.07 5.7.09 28.8.07 5.3.08 14.8.07 15.9.09 28.8.07 27.7.09 9.8.07 13.8.08 15.8.07 24.9.08 10.9.08 30.8.07 12.8.08 26.9.07 W.J.C. W.R. J.L. W.R. s.s.c. N.McD. W.J.C. S.S.C. J.L. J.L. S.S.C. J.L. W.J.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.R. E.A.K. W.R. W.J.C. E.A.K. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W..i.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. J.L. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.R. W.J.C. N.McD. W.R. J.L. W.R. E.A.K. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.R. S.S.C. W.R. S.S.C. W.J.C. J.L. J.L. W.J.C. N.Mcl). S.S.C. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. W.R. W.J.C. J.L. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. W.R. W.R. 11 April, 1910.] List of Certificated Stallions. ?49 List of Certifi-jated Stalijons — continued. :ert. JSTo. Xame of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 Draughts — continued. 592 Gladbrook 6 years Tippett Bros. . . Maryborougli Show 16.10.07 S.3.C. 1418 Gladiator . . 4 years Caffrey and Newmarket 14.5.09 W.J.C. 858 Gladiator . . 3 years Murphy J. R. Stokes Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 728 Gladiator . . 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C 35 Glancer Aged W. Bolger Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 1421 Glasgow Jock 5 years Thos. Jess Melbourne 8.6.09 W.R. 172/3 Glea Arthur 3 years Sime Bros. Frankston 11.9.09 W.R. 111 Glencoe Aged Jno. Hewlett Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 286 Glencoe Aged David Lindsay . . Wangaratta Show 15.9.08 E.A.K. .442 Glen C'onna 4 years M. Michael Melbourne 26.7.09 J.L. 591 Glen Dhu 3 years J. R. Stokes Maryborougn Show 16.10.07 S.S.C. 779 Glenfleld . . 4 years J. Roberts Charlton 23.7.08 W.J.C. 19 Glengarry 4 years H. 0. Daniel Horsham 18.7.07 S.S.C. L299 Glen Lea . . Aged J. and J. Russell Smeaton 17.9.08 J.L. 214 Glen Lee . . 3 years C. Milburn Castertou 26.8.08 W.J.C. 916 Glenlee 4 years D. Lang Charlton 23.7.08 W.J.C. 109/3 Glenlyon . . 3 years A. J. Glen Birchip . . 18.8.09 E.A.K. 292 Glenoak . . Aged C. Wallis Kaniva 28.8.07 N.McD. 1541 Glen Paisley Aged A. Ward Swan Hill 18.8.09 W.R. 171/3 Glenroy 3 years J. Long Heathcote 13.9.09 W.J.C. 78/3 Glen William 3 years G. Krelle Murtoa . . 6.8.09 W.R. 19/3 Gold Cu]i . . 3 years Alex. Robertson . . Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. 1658 Golden Bell 4 years W. H. Michael . . Foster . . 14.9.09 E.A.K. 677 Golden Gift 3 years Wm. Foubister . . Kyneton Show . . 26.11.07 W.R. 860 Gold Top . . 3 years J. Londen Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 326 Gordon Lad Aged W. J. Murray Lilydale 23.8.07 W.J.C. 1 Governor General . . Aged Jas. Scott Korumburra 29.9.06 S.S.C. 190/3 Grampian 11. 3 years A. Blew Korumburra 22.9.09 W.R. 750 Grand Style 6 years C. KreUe Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 1712 Grey Albans Aged Connor Bros. Bendigo 22.9.09 E.A.K. 370 Halswell .. 3 years Dyke Bros. St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 810 Halyard . . 3 years Thos. Bookless . . Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 315 Hamilton Hero 3 years H. McLure Birchip . . 21.8.07 W.J.C. 1019 Hamiltonian 3 years C. Waser Hopetoun 13.8.08 W.R. 32/3 Hamilton Star 3 years R. Steer Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 31/3 Hampton's Pride . . 3 years Thos. Maddern . . Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 738 Harry Lauder 3 years E. Williamson and Son Abbott Bros. Melbourne 1 14.7.08 S.S.C. 155/3 Hatton Prince 3 years Royal Show 31.8.09 W.J.C. 399 Hawthorn's Pride . . 3 years W. J. Taylor Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 40/3 Hazel Bov 3 years G. T. Chirnside . . Melbourne 26.7.09 W.J.C. 1045 Heart of Oak A:ged C. W. Thomas . . Jeparit . . 13.8.08 E.A.K. 257 Heather Jock 3 years S. M. Brown Cobram 23.8.07 N.McD. 58/3 Heather Lad 3 years M. W^alters Melbourne 27.7.09 J.L. 33 Herald Lad 3 years L. Roach Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 151 Hercules . . 4 years P. Kneeuan Yarrawonga 16.8.07 S.S.C. 1025 Herd Lad 3 years J. Williams Romsey . . 14.8.08 W.J.C. 1647 Herd's Boy 4 years N. G. Tevchenne. . Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. 1732 Herd's Fashion 6 years M. Cunningham . . Werribee 21.10.09 W.J.C. 954 Herdsman . . Aged Alex. Colvin Nathaiia 3.8.08 S.S.C. 1443 Here-I-Go Aged Caffrey & Murphy Melbourne 26.7.09 W.J.C- 8/3 Hero 3 vears Caffrey A JIurphy Newmarket 14.5.09 W.R. 1159 Herod's Boy 3 years Wm. Roberts and Sons E. J. Beer Daylesford 21.8.08 E.A.K. 346 Herod's Knight 3 years j Echuca . . 24.8.07 W.J.C. 925 Hero Laddie 4 years T. A. Kendall . . ! Kerang . . 24.7.08 W.R. 1362 Hiawatha . . 4 years A. L. Hamilton . . Corryong 3.10.08 E.A.K. 1504 Highland Clan 6 years E. J. Vincent Agricultural Offices 14.8.09 J.L. 861 Highland Jock 5 years G. Ritchie Melbourne 28.7.08 J.L. 102/3 Highland Laddie 3 years W. Ramsay Inglewood 16.8.09 W.R. 344 Highland Sandy 4 years J. Crawford Echuca 24.8.07 W.J.C. 73 His Majesty 4 years Geo. Jackson Dookie . . 27.7.07 W.J.C. 1646 Holm Point 5 years R. Hornhuckle Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. 381 Honest Ben 3 years C. Ley . . Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 751 Honest Lad 4 years Donald McLeod . . Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 95/3 Ian Boy . . 3 years D. Kelly Warracknabeal . . 13.8.09 J.L. 124/3 Ian Lad . . 3 years Johns Bros. Dimboola 20.8.09 W.J.C. 18 Ian Lad 3 years P. Hamilton Horsham 18.7.07 S.S.C. 58/2 Ian Mac . . 2 years McMillan Bros. . . Lang Lang 16.9.09 E.A.K. 47/2 Ian Macintosh 2 years Wm. Cameron Agricultural Offices 2.9.09 J.L. 520 Ian McDougall 5 years B. Benton Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 35/3 Ian North . . 3 years Chas. H. Warne . . Horsham 15.7.09 W.J.C. 1042 Ian Russell 5 years W. Moll ; Dimboola 12.8.08 E.A.K. 25° Journal of AgriciiUiirt [ii April, 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — continued,. Cert. No. Name of Horse. 365 305 1057 23 9/3 255 44/2 24 52/2 752 422 1534 1058 1407 74 171 169/3 1007 358 785 812 314 203/3 345 230 813 1245 1661 1422 20/3 74/3 514 1460 1495 86/3 29/3 139/3 222 753 101/3 869 56/2 1531 21/3 786 814 42/3 1093 I 839 138/3 1186 572 870 1369 80/3 1280 448 815 1302 41/3 245 1555 97 60/2 1648 1605 1164 713 Imperial King Imperial Prince Irish Hero Jack Macduff Jack of Hearts Jim Blair . . Jock Jock McGregor Jno. Ballance Jolly Native Kaid Maclean Keithdale Keith's Model Kelmscott. . Kelso Kelvin Craig Kelvin Grove Kelvin Lad Kelvin Lad Kenwyn Jock Khandahar Khandahar Kilmore King King Albyn King Ben King Duncan King Edward King Hero King Lawrence King of Newton King of the Roses King of the Valley Kingsley . . King Stephen Kings way King William King William Kinlock Kintyre Kirk's Pride Knight Commander Knight Dunmore Knight Errant Knight of Quality Knight of Waihi Knight's Royal Laddie's Pride Laird o' Cluny Laifd of Bothwell Laird of Burnbrae Laird of Irwell Laird o' Lanark Laird of Mar Laird of the Mains Laird o' Struan Lancer Lauderdale Laudermark Liberator . . Lieutenant Mao Lion Lion Prince Little Wonder Livingstone Lochiel Lochiel Lochiel Parade. I)raughts — continued. 3 years 4 years 6 years 4 years 6 years 3 years Aged 2 years Aged 2 years 3 years 5 years 5 years 6 years 4 years Aged 4 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 3 years Aged 5 years 5 years Aged 3 years Aged 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 4 years Aged 3 years 3 years 2 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Aged 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Aged 3 years 6 years Aged 5 years Aged 3 years 4 years Aged 4 years 2 years 5 years Aged 4 years Mitchell O'Brien Batten Bros. E. Spinks J. Dufty and Son J. H. Gressels G. Menzies Wm. Williams Jno. Carroll R. H. B. Guest . . Wm. Wood Joseph Tavlor W. Mitchell J. A. Denyer Jno. Bateson H. Alan Currie . . Jno. McDougall . . A. M. Foster R. W. Ham J. D. Tepper and Sons Jas. Barry C. H. Wilmott . . A. C. Ross A. P. Jones Chisholm Bros. . . J. Rousch W. Mill E. Leydon Wilson Bros. S. Marshall J. C. Rockliffe . . J. E. and M. Wal- ters A. McKenzie D. J. Murphy J. Cable Exors. D. Archibald Exors. D. Archibald Alfred Milne Benson Bros. W. T. Bodey Otto Maroske Fred Kirchofer R. T. Anderson . . D. J. Kelleher . . Malcolm McKinnon G. H. Hill and Sons Dookie Agricultural College D. Davies Benj. Merriman . . H. Wright Caffrey Murphv W. Cameron E. Bennett P. Rogers Caffrey Murnhv Grace and Fletcher J. M. Stewart R. N. Herkes Jas. Jenkins J. E. and M. Wal- ters J. and J. Russell . . • R. G. Anderson . . I H. J. Alford 1 Con Murphy A. C. Petrass T. B. Anderson . . I A. Kay ' Jas. CharLson J. T. Ovens and I Melbourne and and S.S.C. St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. Wycheproof 20.8.07 W.J.C. Nhill . . 14.8.08 J.L. Horsham 18.7.07 S.S.C. Newmarket 14.5.09 W.J.C. Cobram 23.8.07 N.McD. Bcnalla 23.8.09 J.L. Horsliam 18.7.07 S.S.C. Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. Kerang . . 17.8.09 W.R. Nhill . . 14.8.08 E.A.K. Camperdown 26.11.08 E.A.K. Dookie . . 29.7.07 W.J.C. Maffra . . 16.8.07 W.J.C. Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. Miirtoa . . 11.8.08 W.R. St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. Melbourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. Birchip . . 21.8.07 W.J.C. Yea Show 18.11.09 W.J.C. Ecliuca . . 28.8.07 W.J.C. Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. Wangaratta 4.9.08 E.A.K. Yea 15.9.09 W.J.C. Melbourne 8.6.09 W.R. Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 Elmore Show 25.9.07 W.R. N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 Agricultural Offices 13.8.09 W.R. Agricultural Offices 13.8.09 W.R. Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. Melton . . 28.8.09 J.L. Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. Echuca . . 16.8.09 J.L. Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. Kilmore 14.9.09 W.J.C. St. Arnaud 17.8.09 E.A.K. Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. Melbourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. Melbourne 26.7.09 W.R. Shepparton 22.8.08 W.J.C. Melljourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. Melton .. 28.8.09 J.L. Sale 7.9.08 W.R. Dimboola Show . . 11.10.07 S.S.C. Melbourne 28.7.08 S.S.C. Ballarat 5.10.08 W.J.C. Edenhope 5.8.09 E.A.K. Lang Lang 11.9.08 E.A.K. Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. Melbourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. Smeaton 17.9.08 J.L. Melbourne 26.7.09 W.R. Yarram 21.8.07 N.McD. Benalla 23.8.09 J.L. Murtoa 9.8.07 W.J.C. Maffra .. 18.9.09 W.R. Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. Smeaton 6.9.09 W.J.C. Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. II April, 1910.] List of Certificated Stallions. -51 List of Certificated St-xllions — continued. Cert. No. Xame of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 1 Draughts — '•ontijjw^d. 110 Lochiel's Champion 5 years Ryan and Cooper Euroa . . 14.8.07 s.s.c. 816 Lochinvar 5 years Jno. Small Melbourne 27.7.08 s.s.c. 322 Locknaw Hero Aged D. Syme Lilydale 23.8.07 W.J.C. 492 Lonsdale 3 years Cooper Bros. Stawell Show 18.9.07 W.R. 1031 Lord Benmore Aged D. Johns Beulah .. 13.8.08 W.R. 1564 Lord Burleigh Aged H. T. Whittv Yarrawonga 24.8.09 J.L. 1303 Lord Carrick 4 years J. Sewell Smeaton 17.9.08 J.L. 1735 Lord Castlereagh . . 5 years Regan and White- head Quambatook 16.9.09 W.J.C. 1733 Lord Clarendon 6 years W. MLssen Werribee 21.10.09 W.J.C. 701 Lord Clifford 4 years A. E. Schotz Tallangatta Show 5.3.08 W.J.C. 198/3 Lord Clyde 3 years Exors. M. Walsh Werribee 21.10.09 W.J.C. 872 Lord Clyde 5 years A. Williams Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 817 Lord Clyde 3 years Jno. McDonald . . Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 818 Lord Cranbourne II. Aged 0. and M. Bodev Melbourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. 1037 Lord Darnley 5 years D. McMillan Rainbow 11.8.08 E.A.K. 696 Lord Dean 5 years W. D. Taylor Lilydale Show 4.3.08 W.R. 1059 Lord Derby 3 years M. Rees Nh'ill . . 14.8.08 E.A.K. 1542 Lord Douglas 5 years J. Hickey Swan Hill 18.8.09 W.R. 928 Lord Douglas 3 years J. Hickey Swan HiU 22.7.08 W.R. 65/2 Lord Dudley 2 years A. Thomson Korumburra 22.9.09 W.R. 1543 Lord Dudley 4 years W. Theyers Swan Hill 18.8.09 W.R. 608 Lord Dunbar 3 years J. J. Downie Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 6O9 Lord Dunkeld 3 years Mrs. Sutheriana . . Ballarat Show 17.10.07 s.s.c. 558 Lord Dunmore 3 years D. McKinnon Wycheproof Show 4.10.07 W.R. 1307 Lord Edward Aged G. W. Ford Melton . . 18.9.08 J.L. 788 Lord Erskine 3 years W. Thompson Melbourne 27.7.08 S.s.c. 133/3 Lord Ettrick 3 years H. Brooker BenaUa 23.8.09 J.L. 1304 Lord Hermiston 4 years R. Cowie Smeaton 17.9.08 J.L. 48/2 Lord Hopetoun 2 years W. Ritchie Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. 42 Lord Hopetoun Aged J. E. Morgan Pyramid 3.8.07 S.S.C. 144 Lord Hopton Aged G. A. Neville Sea Lake 15.8.07 N.McD. 2/3 Lord John 3 years J. Small Melbourne 8.6.09 W.R. 1478 Lord Linlithgow 4 years Petrie and Sons . . Melbourne 27.7.09 J.L. 1325 Lord Lyon 3 years Rd. Fleming Kyneton 24.9.08 W.J.C. 819 Lord Marconi 3 years Martin Egan Melbourne 27.7.08 S.S.C. 691 Lord McDonald 4 years Wm. Foubister . . Bunyip Show 26.2.08 W.R. 820 Lord Montrave 3 years Wm. Crozier Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 732 Lord Mount Stephen 3 years Jno. Dixon Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 1512 Lord Nelson 4 years G. A. Dunnett . . Beaufort 13.8.09 AV.J.C. 1548 Lord Nelson Aged H. Goldsmith Donald . . 19.8.09 E.A.K. 231 Lord Percy 3 years M. Mills Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 787 Lord Roberts Aged P. Moreland Melbourne 27.7.08 s.s.c. 348 Lord Roberts 5 years Thos. Fulham Ecliuca . . 24.8.07 W.J.C. 417 Lord Ronald 5 years A. W. Warren . . Geelong 31.8.07 s.s.c. 87/3 Lord Sheffield 3 years A. Hardres Jeparit . . 11.8.09 W.J.C. 304 Lord Stanley Aged W. Harty, sen. . . Wycheproof 20.8.07 W.J.C. 585 Lord Wallace 3 years E. J. Rickey Maryborough Show 16.10.07 s.s.c. 46/2 Lorryman 2 years W. Grattan Dookie . . 24.8.09 E.A.K. 1046 Lowland Oak Aged G. Eldridge Jeparit . . 13.8.08 J.L. 993 Lucky Willie 3 years Carroll Bros. Euroa . . 7.8.08 W.J.C. 533 Lucky Willie 6 years Otto Maroske Horsham Show . . 24.9.07 S.S.C. 267 MacArthur Again . . Agea A. Kennedy Shepparton 24.8.07 s.s.c. 782 Macdonald 3 years Jno. Bro\ra Melbourne 27.7.08 s.s.c. 587 MacDonald 3 years G. Porteous Maryborough Show 16.10.07 s.s.c. 56/3 McGregor's Fancy . . 3 years W. Vaught N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 1678 McKinley . . Aged F. Hammill Maffra . . 18.9.09 W.R. 10/3 McLeish . . 3 years W. Crozier Newmarket 14.5.09 W.R. 146 Mafeking . . 3 years P. Gottschutzke . . Sea Lake 15.8.07 N.McD. 49 Magnet Aged W. A. MitcheU . . Hopetoun 3.8.07 W.J.C. 160 Major General 4 years D. Kenneally BenaUa • 17.8.07 S.S.C. 1248 Major Grant 3 years L. Dugdale " Bacchus Marsh . . 10.9.08 W.J.C. 1290 Major John 4 years Cornellia Estate . . Echuca . . 15.9.08 W.R. 182/3 Major Mac 3 years Stucky Bros. Traralgon 17.9.09 W.R. 1649 Major Mac 5 years T. S. Hynes Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. 663 Major MacDonald . . 5 years G. Luckie Traralgon Show 13.11.07 W.R. 1165 Major Mills 5 years J. Bail and Sons . . Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. 560 Major Robin Aged J. C. Rockliffe . . Numurkah Show 24.10.07 W.J.C. 1087 Major Taylor 5 years W. Fuller Kaniva . . 15.8.08 E.A.K. 108 Marcellus . . 4 years W. Cayanagh Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 879 Marion's Champion 4 years G. W. Barnett . . Melbourne 29.7.08 W.R. 1702 Marksman Aged T. H. Wilson TaUangatta 21.9.09 W.J.C. 1429 Mark Time 4 years D. Dayies Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. 34 Mark Time 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. Journal of Agriculture . [ii April, 1910. List of Certi FicATED Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. D RAUGHT.S —coidinu 3d. 1470 Marmion . . 4 years C. J. Penrose Melbourne 30.7.09 W.R. 901 Marquis of Albyns . . Aged James Tyers Numurkah 4.8.08 S.S.C. 154 Marquis of Boorol . . 3 years McPherson Bros. Yarrawonga 16.8.07 S.S.C. 1249 Marshall Hard Times 4 years D. Robertson BacchiLS Marsh . . 10.9.08 W.J.C. 1192 Master Carmyle 3 years J. Ellis Royal Show 28.8.08 J.L. 175/3 Master Watty 3 years Brick Bros. Morwell 13.9.09 W.R. 1477 Mataura . . Aged A. J. Walters Melbourne 27.7.09 J.L. 232 Matchless Oak Aged A. E. and W. H. Sambell Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 22/3 May Flower 3 years T. Larcombe Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. 59/3 Melville Lad 3 years F. H. Dunn N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 70/3 Merry Prince 3 years G. Pearce N.Z. Go\-t. Cert. . . —.—.09 5/3 Merry Tom 3 years Capt. R. Clarke . . Agricultural Offices 2.6.09 W.J.C. 821 Merry Tom 3 years Harrison and Hastie Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 822 Middlerigg Royal En- 3 years J. Bourke Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 823 sign Middlerigg Eoyal Oak Middlerigg Uoyal 3 years E. Moreton Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 875 3 years — Waggon Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. Salute 927 MiUfleld . . Aged W. Hercus Pyramid 23.7.08 W.R. 1565 Model 6 years Maher Bros. Yarrawonga 24.8.09 J.L. 1166 Model Aged H. S. Graham Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. 312 Model Aged P. J. Grogan Birchip 21.8.07 W.J.C. 511 Model 6 years A. J. Bodey Camperdown 26.9.07 W.J.C. 75 Model 3 years W. G. Down Dookie . . 27.7.07 W.J.C. 192/3 Modelmore 3 years Colin Wallace Bendigo 22.9.09 E.A.K. 894 Model Oak 6 years Jas. Hamilton Melbourne 28.7.08 S.S.C. 725 Money More 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 1419 Montgomery 3 years Caffrey and Murphy Newmarket 14.5.09 W.J.C. 683 Montrave 3 years J. Wheelan Korumburra Show 22.1.08 W.R. 23/3 Morning Star 3 years J. E. and M. Wal- ters Mitchell and Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. 1496 Morven Prince 4 years Agricultural Offices 13.8.09 W.R. O'Brien 400 Native Blue Aged S. Doak Mansnelu 30.8.07 W.J.C. 447 Native Prince Aged J. Clements Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1021 Navy Blue Aged H. Jenkins Hopetoun 13.8.08 W.R. 287 Near the Mark 5 years W. Hicks Kilmore 27.8.07 S.S.C. 543 Neil Gow . . 3 years J. Hamilton Horsham Show . . 27.9.07 S.S.C. 197/3 New Blood 3 years T. Bagnell Pyramid Show 20.10.09 E.A.K. 72/3 Newton Stewart 3 years G. Devereux N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 886 Newton Stewart 3 years Joseph Brunton . . Melbourne 30.7.08 W.J.C. 895 Nipper Aged Eldridge Bros. Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 1335 North King Aged E. Elliott Warragul 24.9.08 W.R. 1141 Oak Branch Aged F. J. Quick Werribee 21.8.08 J.L. 824 Oakhurst . . 3 years McLauran Bros. . . Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 98/3 Oakland's Pride 3 years Phillips and Hos- ken J. P. Billeville . . Charlton 13.8.09 E.A.K. 308 O'Connell's Pride . . 3 years Birchip 21.8.07 W.J.C. 1444 Old Style . . Aged James Johns Melbourne 26.7.09 W.R. 1144 Old Type Aged A. McKenzie Werribee 21.8.08 J.L. 709 Onward 3 years Jas. Phillips Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 721 Orari 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 225 Orbost 6 years F. G. Allen and Son Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 89/3 Orbost Oak 3 years J. C. Wallace Kaniva . . 12.8.09 W.J.C. 73/3 Orphan Boy 3 years J. Burns N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 1466 Overtime . . 4 years Jas. Danaher N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 1308 Papakaio . . 6 years Robt. Watson Melton . . 18.9.08 J.L. 11/3 Patrician . . 2 years U. McKenzie Newmarket 14.5.09 W.J.C. 89 Pearlstone 4 years Fred. Walsh Melton .. 10.8.07 S.S.C. 756 Percy 3 years Jas. Hamilton Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 1627 Peter II. . . Aged Finlay Paton Coleraine 8.9.09 E.A.K. 83/3 Pimpernel 3 years G. Parker Euroa . . 11.8.09 W.R. 1114 Playmate 5 years P. D. Hanley Bairnsdale 19.8.08 W.R. 1471 Ploughboy 4 years Sullivan Bros. N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 115/3 Powisland Pure Blood 3 years C'has. Mills Pyramid 19.8.09 W.R. 1296 Preferential Aged Mrs. Hugh Rae . . Lilydale 17.9.08 E.A.K. 32 Premier Prince 4 years M. Michael Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 825 Present Times 3 years J. L. Oliver and Son J. McLeod Melbourne 27.7.08 W.J.C. 349 President . . 4 years Echuca . . 24.8.07 W.J.C. 11 April. 1910.] List of Certiiicaied Stallions. List of Certificated Stallions — continued "Cert. No. Name o£ Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. D 1 RAUGHTS —CO «merf. •Cert. No. Name of Horse. i Age. Owner. Parade. Date. OflScer. 1 i ^ ^ Draughts — continued. 739 1 Welcome Jack 5 years J. and W. Freeman 1 Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 700 Werribee Prince 4 years — McKoy Tallangatta Show 5.3.08 W.J.C. 454 Western Hero Davis and Wools- thorpe Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 26/3 Whakanui . . 3 years N. Ramsay Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. .1348 Whanga-nui-a-tara . . 5 years 6. Hopwood and Son A. Price Ballan . . 26.9.08 W.J.C. 1174 Wimmera Aged Condah . . 26.8.08 J.L. 66/3 Windermere 3 years Jno. Gifford N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . —.—.09 296 Wolseley 4 years J. A. Rankin Kaniva . . 28.8.07 N.McD. ,1417 Woodlands 5 years Danl. Vaughan . . Agricultural OflBces 14.5.09 W.J.C. 244 Worrack . . 6 years McLeod Bros. Yarram 21.8.07 N.McD. 1006 Wyore 4 years P. J. Reid Wangaratta 5.8.08 J.L. 1068 Yarra Chief 3 years S. Maxfleld Colac . . 18.8.08 J.L. !45/3 Yorkshire Hero 3 years J. Carter .Melbourne 26.7.09 W.J.C. 1080 Young Acorn 3 years Chas. F. Gourley 1 Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 1663 Young Albyn Aged N. E. Hayes Leongatha 15.9.09 E.A.K. 1493 Young Albyn Aged J. Hennebery Euroa . . 11.8.09 ' W.R. 1310 Young Avondale 4 years W. Dean Melton . . 18.9.08 J.L. 1463 Young Bancor 4 years W. Blakie X.Z. Govt. Cert... —.—.09 765 Young Ben 4 years T. F. CorneU Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 1532 Young Cantab 4 years G. Medlyn St. Arnaud 17.8.09 E.A.K. 1535 Young Champion . . Aged W. G. Hastie Kerang . . 17.8.09 W.R. 254 Young Champion . . Aged R. Blomeley Cobram 23.8.07 N.McD. 1258 Young Champion . . 4 years H. and R. GaUo- way G. H. Grindal . . Maryborough 11.9.08 W.J.C. 1283 Young Champion 5 years Frankston 14.9.08 J.L. Hero 30/2 Young Chieftain 2 years H. Excell Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 507 Young Clansman II. 6 years A. Kellv Camperdown 26.9.07 W.J.C. 392 Young Clifton Aged T. McKimmie Seymour 29.8.07 W.J.C. 1366 Young Coronation . . 4 years E. A. Rangott . . Swan Hill Show . . 30.9.08 J.L. 1538 Young Craigie Aged C. H. Warne Birchip . . 18.8.09 E.A.K. 1434 Young Crown and Feather 4 years J. G. Halbich Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 1311 Young Down with tlie Dust Aged W. Moulsdale Melton . . 18.9.08 J.L. 145/3 Young Federation . . 3 years H. F. Hansen Numurkah 26.8.09 E.A.K. 1119 Youna Flashlight . . 4 years W. R. Chapman . . Bairnsdale 19.8.08 W.R. 1695 Young Forrester 4 years C. Hansen Dandenong 21.9.09 W.R. 1546 Young General Gordon Aged W. Boulton Swan Hill 18.8.09 W.R. 1516 Young Glen 6 years J. Dunne Wycheproof 12.8.09 E.A.K. 1586 Young Gordon's Pride 4 years Wm. Carey Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 1133 Young Grampian . . 5 years E. Cuthbert Camperdown 19.8.08 J.L. 81/3 Young Hamilton . . 3 years Henry Free Edenhope 5.8.09 E.A.K. 578 Young Heart of Oak Aged F. Rodda Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 1175 Young Hercules Aged Ed. Storer Condah 26.8.08 J.L. 1081 Young Herdsman . . 3 years J. McGuigan Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 196/3 Young Highland Lad 3 years N. G. Martin Trafalgar 16.10.09 W.R. 766 Young Ian 3 years Robt. Liddle Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 67/2 Young Kelmscott . . 2 years Jno. Graham Ballan . . 25.9.09 E.A.K. 1177 Young Kilboughie . . 5 years R. Roscoe Condah 26.8.08 J.L. 878 Young Knight Aged H. T. De Little . . Melbourne 29.7.08 W.J.C. 686 Young Loch Gyle . . 4 years J. Henderson Leongatha 11.2.08 S.S.C. 582 Young Lord Byron 3 years A. McCallum Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 1139 Young Lord Dun- donald 3 years P. Sullivan Donald . . 19.8.08 E.A.K. 1023 Young Lyon Aged Anderson Bros. . . Hopetoun 13.8.08 W.R. 1726 Young MacGregor . . Aged John Wood Myrtleford 29.9.09 E.A.K. 675 Young McGregor . . 3 years E. Don . . Kyneton Show . . 26.11.07 W.R. 208 Young Mariner 5 years G. Stokes Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 142/3 Young Model 3 years D. Kennedy Rochester .30.8.09 J.L. 424 Young Model 3 years M. McClelland . . Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 1230 Young Monarch 6 years R. H. Darragh . . Mirboo South 8.9.08 W.R. 227 Young Native Oak 4 years — Irwin Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 1041 Young Oak . . 1 Aged S. McHarg Rainbow 11.8.08 E.A.K. 863 Young Officer 3 years Jno. Grav St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 194/3 Young Peer 3 years Jas. McKimmie . . Agricultural Offices 2.10.09 E.A.K. 1140 Young Pride'oE Clyde 3 years W. Dixon Donald 19.8.08 E.A.K. 655 Young Prince Aged Geo. Dennis Maldon Show 30.10.07 S.S.C. 1244 Young Ranfurly 3 years J. Whiting Warrnambool 10.9.08 W.R. 1680 •■ Young Renfrew Aged S. Farrell Maffra . . 18.9.09 W.R. 1709 • Young Revenue '66. 4 years A. Henry I Korumburra 22.9.09 W.R. 258 Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — oniinued Cert. N-o. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. Drafg hts — continued. 1372 Young Royal Aged R. H. Liddle . . i Portland 7.10.08 W.J.C. 234 Young Royal Oak . . Aged W. Pohlner . . Xhill . . 21.8.07 s.s.c. 187/3 Young Royal Stuart 3 years T. Pollock . . ! Maffra . . 18.9.09 W.R. 1320 Young Russell Aged E. Edwards . . Kilmore 22.9.08 J.L. 12 Young Sir William 4 years Thos. Cain Mirboo . . 25.10.06 S.S.C. 163 Young Sovereign . . 3 years Webster Bros. Benalla 17.8.07 S.S.C. 38/2 Young St. Albans . . 2 years G. R. Goods Minyip . . 17.8.09 W.J.C. 554 Young Stanley 6 years R. Fleming Wvcheproof Show 4.10.07 W.R. 228 Young Struaa Aged Nliill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 882 Young Style Aged A. Oliver Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 1681 Young Tasuian 5 years M. O'Sullivan Maffra ., 18.9.09 W.R. 1228 Young Treasure 6 years T. Boyle Sale 7.9.08 W.R. THOROUGHBREDS. 1219 ; Abaris Aged 1341 Active 4 years 318 Alarm Aged 548 Alva Aged 1481 Arlington . . 6 years 1664 Apex 6 years 842 Askelon . . 4 years 260 Attendant 6 years 1415 Barr Aged 395 Baunmoor 3 years 843 Beechwood 4 years 687 Ben Jonson 6 years 449 Beware Aged 271 Black Stone Aged 1284 Brakpan . . Aged 1630 Britannia's Pilgrim Aged 586 Carlyle 3 years 272 Chestorman Aged 83/3 Count Zeppelin 3 years 289 Crest of the Wave . . 5 years 1285 Cuneiform . . 6 years 1590 De Wet . . Aged 645 Eumarrah Aged 131 Euphorion Aged 463 Falkirk . . Aged 1606 Footbolt . . Aged 626 Freelance 4 years 1397 Fry Pan . . 3 years 270 Gambler ii. Aged 127 Gnarpurt . . Aged 1113 Godwin Aged 1494 Gooram 4 years 934 Gosport Aged 1241 Graftondelle Aged 551 Grand Emerald 6 years 406 Guide Aged 249 Hainault Aged 627 Heather Lad Aged 1381 High Time 3 years 83 Hobson A'ged 1598 Hova Spin 6 years 1152 Invergordon Aged 1731 Junot Aged 1456 Kingski 4 years 1187 Lake King 3 years 1405 Le Var Aged 177/3 Little Gun 3 years 1020 Little Sailor Aged 754 Loch Farran Aged 972 Lonely Miller 3 years 1394 Lord Grafton 4 years 1677 Lord Roslyn Aged 1074 MacClaris . , 4 years 1326 Magister . . 3 years 237 Merriang . . Aged 1486 Monte Malto 4 years 1559 Moriyama 6 years W. Robertson G. G. Auchterlonie Connellv Bros. D. Coutts Goldsborough, Mort, and Co. R. W. Pollock . . J. Widdis T. Hanrahan A. G. Bowman . . H. Saunders Jas. RusseU Percy Rowan J. Jenkins R. Storey Briese Bros. C. T. Lucas E. A. House T. O'Keefe W. Nolle T. Harkness Briese Bros. G. Land. C. Nunn P. Travers D. Jackman H. G. Burr R. Gilder Geo. Nixon Anderson and Sons H. T. Hoysted . . D. Slattery T. J. Killeen S. R. Bloomfield J. Jenkins J. McKenna C. McLean G. Collis, junr. C. R. Davis D. O'Halloran . . C. Edwards J. Williams J. Mitchell N. McDonald H. G. Stansmore W. P. Brennan . . S. P. Mackay J. C. H. Graves . . H. Jenkins W. Reece J. Meusch T. T. Mulder W. H. Lyon T. Bailey J. McCrae D. S. Anderson . . C. W. Kock Wm. Hovsted Hamilton Morwell Birchip . . Hamilton Show . . Agricultural Offices Mansfield Melbourne Cobram Tallangatta Show Seymour Melbourne Leongatha Show Warrnambool Shepparton Waugaratta Show Camperdown Maryborough Show Shepparton t'astorton Kilmore Wangaratta Show Wangaratta PjTamid Show Wangaratta Warrnambool Royal Show Maffra Show Orbost . . Shepparton Wangaratta Bairnsdale Euroa . . Kerang . . Warrnambool Wycheproof Show Mansfield Yarram Maffra Show Bendigo Show Swan Hill Rutherglen Geelong Rainbow Show . . Melbourne Sale Berwick Mansfield Hopetoun Horsham Cobram Colac Show Maffra . . Bendigo Kvneton Niiill . . Casterton Benalla 25.8.08 28.9.08 21.8.07 19.9.07 7.8.09 15.9.09 28.7.08 23.8.07 11.3.09 29.8.07 28.7.08 11.2.08 10.9.07 24.8.07 15.9.08 8.9.09 16.10.07 24.8.07 6.8.09 27.8.07 15.9.08 25.8.09 23.10.07 15.8.07 10.9.07 31.8.09 24.10.07 28.10.08 24.8.07 15.8.07 19.8.08 11.8.09 24.7.08 10.9.08 4.10.07 30.8.07 21.8.07 24.10.07 14.10.08 7.8.07 26.8.09 28.8.08 14.10.09 27.7.09 7.9.08 19.11.08 15.9.09 13.8.08 16.7.08 5.8.08 29.10.08 18.9.09 19.8.08 24.9.08 21.8.07 6.8.09 23.8.09 W.J.C. W.R. W.J.C. N.McD. W.R. W.J.C. S.S.C. N.McD. J.L. W.J.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. E.A.K. W.R. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. E.A.K. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. E.A.K. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. N.McD. W.J.C. E.A.K. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. E.A.K. J.L. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. E.A.K. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. J.L. II April. 19 io.] List of Certificated Stallions. -59 List of Certificated Stallions — continued Cert. No. i Name of Horse. j Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 Thoroughbreds— con< inued. 1454 N0tU3 Aged Geo. Robinson . . Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 336 Pascarel . . Aged A. Fairbanlis Elmore . . 26.8.07 W.J.C. 639 Pilgrim's Rest Aged A. E. Scholz Tallangatta Show 5.3.08 W.J.C. 1408 Portsea 1 Aged E. Manifold Camperdown 26.11.08 B.A.K. 114 Presto Aged G. Washington . . Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 569 Preston Aged ('. Pratt Seymour Show . . 11.1007 W.J C. 1458 Ranfred . . 5 years John Laydon Melbourne 27.7.09 J.L. 974 Rataplan . . Aged Geo. Smith Cobram 5.8.08 E.A.K. 760 Richman . . 4 years J. Cadden Murchison 6.8.08 S.S.C. 1322 Right Royal 5 yeirs J. McKinnon Korumburra 23.9.08 E.A.K. 1227 Rufus 3 years R. Gilder Sale 7.9.08 W.R. 933 Schimmell. . Aged E. Wren Kerana 24.7.08 W.R. 1220 Scot Free . . Aged S. Winter Cooke . . Hamilton 25.8.08 W.J.C. 1724 Sea Lion , . Aged S. Thomas Myrtleford 29.9.09 E.A.K. 1449 Skve 5 years Mrs. A. Hindson . . Melbourne 27.7.09 W.J.C. 1160 Snap Shot 5 years E. A. House Daylesford 21.8.03 E.A.K. 1589 Solano Aged Evans Bro^. Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 903 Steel King 4 years .John Widdis Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 404 Straightfire Aged A. E. Saunders . . Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 537 Straightshot Aged John McDonald . . Horsham Show . . 24.9.07 S.S.C. 1492 Strathallen 6 years M. A. Wignell . . Euroa . . 11.8.09 W.R.. 1342 Symphony Aged G. G. Auchterlonie Morwell 28.9.08 W.R. 1435 Thunderer Aged W. Potter Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 175 Tidegate Aged Thomas Austin Matfra 16.8.07 W.J.C. 29 Trentbridge Aged J. Develin Horsham 18.7.07 S S.C. 1416 The Captain Aged J. C. Hodson Tallangatta 11.3.09 J.L ]94 The Harvester Aged J. H. Darlington . . Hamilton 17.8.07 W.R. nil The Labourer 6 years J. T. Ed'jar " Melbourne 28.7.08 J.L. 236 Vengeance Aged R. Ward Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 1250 Voyou Aged R. GaitskeU Bacchus Marsh . . 10.9.08 W.J.C. 498 Winchester Aged Exrs. Chas. Airey Rupanyup Show . . 20.9.07 W.R. 612 Wotan 4 years T. Dickenson Ballarat Show I 17.10.07 S.S.C. LIGHT HORSES. I Abbey Bells i Aged ! G. and A. Tye . . 1 Mentone 1 1.8.08 S.S.C. Alarm 4 years i Mitchell and O'Brien ' Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. Alarm Gun 6 years John BouUer Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. Alex R. . . 5 years J. E. and W. Wal- ters S. Ritchie Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. Alleviate . . 1 6 years Bunyip . . 20.9.09 W.R. Almo C. . . 3 years J. A. K. C'ark .. Shepparton 24.8.07 S.S.C. Almont Aged A. and J. B. Sharp Agricultural Office.^ 31.10.07 W.R. Almont Ambassador 5 years J. Cameron Maryborouah Show 16.10.07 S.S.C. Almont B. 6 years F. W. Schickerling Warracknabeal . . 14.8.07 W.R. Almont J. . . 3 "years Geo. J. Vagg Camperdown 8.9.09 W.R. Almont Rose 3 years E. Martin Inglewood 18.9.08 W.R. Almont Sharp 4 years W. Hutchinson . . Murchison 6.8.08 S.S.C. Almost 6 years David Lang Charlton 13.8.09 E.A.K. Alonzo Aged R. V. CoUier Lans Lang 11.9.08 E.A.K. Alto 6 years Robertson Bros. . . Melton 28.8.09 J.L. Alto Dick 3 years W. N. Hindhaugh Camperdown 19.8.08 J.L. Applegarth 3 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. Ashplant II. Aged A. Kennedy Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. Aster Aged R. F. Kurrle Korumburra 29.9.06 S.S.C. Athlete 5 years David Lang Charlton 13.8.09 E.A.K. Audacious. . Aged J. R. Maxwell . . Ker.ini 24.7.08 W.R. Austerlitz Aged W. Uebergang Murtoa . 9.8.07 W.J.C. Avon Peer Aged — Boyle " St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. Banker 6 years Speer Bros. Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. Baron Aged Garvin and Gray Boort Show 30.9.08 E.A.K. Barri5ter . . Aged Bell Bros. Murtoa Show 27.9.07 S.S.C. Barwon 6 years H. W. Jaensch . . Beaufort 13.8.09 W.J.C. Battle Aged H. A. Woods Swan Hill 18.8.09 W.R. Bay Bells ! 3 years W. Lamb Geelong Show 21.10.08 W.J.C. Bay Hawk ! Aged E. Hooper Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. Bav Mount .\ged G. Fruland Beulah . . 12.8.09 J.L. Bell Boy . . 6 years John Gribbins Shepparton 24.8.07 S.S.C. Bellfounder 4 years J. T. Ovens Tatura . . 26.8.09 W.R. Bellringer Aged Harry Doig Agricultural Offices 14.8.09 J.L. Belvoir Aged J. Carmichael Melbourne 28.7.08 S.S.C. 26o Jouriml of Agriculture . [ii April, 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — ontinued. Cert. No. Owner. Parade. Date. 1 Light Horses — continued 1 977 Bengal Aged M. and T. Duncan Wangaratta 5.8.08 W.J.C. 1536 Ben Nevis 4 years J. G. Bathe Nhill . . 18.8.09 W.J.C. 1102 Bentwood Aged B. Hayes St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. 458 Best of Quality Aged G. Smith Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1062 Billy .. ..I 3 years A. E. Haywood . . Colac 17.8.08 W.J.C. 1594 Birelifield . . . . i Aged John Williams Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 845 Bismarck . . Aged Alfred Neave Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 461 Black Boy Aged J. G. Cox Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1528 Black Eagle Aged G. Howells Inglewood 16.8.09 W.R. 631 Black Hawk . . 1 3 years G. S. Farrar Colac Show 24.10.07 s.s.c. 577 Blackness . . ■ Aged R. Penny Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 482 Black Prince 4 years T. Mackie MorweU 16.9.07 W.J.C. 1573 Blacksmith . . 1 4 years G. Childs Elmore . . 30.8.09 J.L. 970 Black Turpin . . 1 Aged W. McKellar Cobram 5.8.08 E.A.K. 684 Black Wilks Aged W. J. Wilson Korumburra Show 22.1.08 W.R. 846 Black Wind Aged S. Young Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 847 Blue Peter II. 5 years Alfd. Neave Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 1178 Boatman . . Aged Mrs. Wilson Ararat . . 7.9.08 W.J.C. 147 Bold Harold Aged W. Purcher Sea Lake 15.8.07 N.McD. 1096 Bolinda Aged Jos. Tilley Port Fairy 18.8.08 J.L. 86 Bonnie Lea Aged S. Taylor Swan HiU 7.8.07 W.R. 1321 Bonza Aged G. Whiteman Kilmore 22.9.08 J.L. 745 Boomerang 4 years A. Hutcheson Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 744 Bo Peep . . 6 years J. C. R. Jende Horsham 16.7.08 s.s.c. 1316 Boswell Aged P. Lyons Inglewood 18.9.08 W.R. 1611 Brigadier . . Aged Capt. Phillip Char- ley R. Penny Royal Show 31.8.09 W.R. 579 Brightlight » Aged Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 169 Brooklyn Junr. 3 years E. W. Roscoe Benalla 17.8.07 s.s.c. 279 Brooklyn Peer 3 years W. Mahoney Shepparton 24.8.07 s.s.c. 405 Brown Harold 6 years T. Cain Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 41/2 Brown Owyhee 2 years 0. A. Millard Geelong 19.8.09 J.L. 796 Bundoora 3 years Donald MoKey . . Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 950 Bungarby 4 years E. Brensing NathaUa 3.8.08 S.S.C. 556 Cabena 3 years M. Kinnana Wycheproof Show 4.10.07 W.R. 164 Calliope . . Aged S. Gardiner Benalla 17.8.07 S.S.C. 849 Captain Tracy Aged A. McLennan Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 440 Cheviot 6 years M. Zimmer Agricultural OtBces 11.9.07 W.J.C. 1090 Cliief Justice 4 years A. J. Dunkley She|)parton 22.8.08 W.J.C. 13S0 Childe Osterley 4 years John Mitchell Bendigo 14.10.08 E.A.K. 1028 Ciiiining Bells 3 years A. J. Whitehill . . Agricultural Offices 15.8.08 W.J.C. loyi Ciaredo Aged J. Swindle Shepparton 22.8.08 W.J.C. 1071 Claretonian 5 years H. C. Plainbeck . . Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 1188 Cleve Don 4 years T. Larcombe Royal' Show 28.8.08 J.L. 472 Colleague . . 4 years H. Coller Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 1343 Consequence Aged Hill Bros. Horsham Show . . 25.9.08 S.S.C. 653 Contractor 4 years J. Ovens Murchison Show . . 30.10.07 W.R. 105 Coolgardie Aged Alex. Gunn Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 136 Cornsborough 3 years J. McGuinness Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 616 Cosmopolitan Jnr. . . 6 years A. Wade Ballarat Show . . 17.10.07 s.s.c. 1700 Countersign Aged J. McGill Tallangatta 21.9.09 W.J.C. 1076 Courtly 6 years C. Marchesi Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 603 Crown Derby 3 years Woolcock Bros. . . Ballarat Show . . 17.10.07 s.s.c. 1135 Dan Alto ... 3 years R. G. Hannah . . Donald . . 19.8.08 E.A.K. 104 Dan Cleve 5 years McCubbery Bros. Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 914 Dan Patch 6 years G. and A. Tye . . Mentone 1.8.08 S.S.C. 323 Dan Tracey 5 years J. G. Christie Lilydale 23.8.07 W.J.C. 1665 Darven 4 years J. P. Smith Mansfield 15.9.09 W.J.C. 1716 Dashaway . . 5 years J. T. Forbes Romsey . . 20.9.09 E.A.K. 34/2 Decorator 2 years F. Jennings Inglewood 16.8.09 W.R. 529 Defoe Aged J. Brooks Kyneton 26.9.07 i W.R. 1261 Deisha Aged J. J. ChaUis j Ballarat 11.9.08 W.J.C. 45-. Demonstrator 4 years Jas. Gooden 1 Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1213 Desert King Aged A. Shanks Castorton ! 26.8.08 W.J.C. 81 Dexter Aged T. Wilkins Swan Hill 8.7.07 W.R. 1450 Dicky Whips Aged J. Phyland Melbourne 27.7.09 W.J.C. 153/3 Dictator . . 3 years Bennett and Wool- cock E. Wren Royal Show 31.8.09 W.R. 932 Digitalis . . Aged Keraug 24.7.08 W.R. 648 Digitalis II. 5 years S. Winterbottoni Pyramid Show 23.10.07 W.R. 101 Diogenes . . Aged W. E. TroUope . . Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 925 Director . . 3 years D. Foley Boort . . 21.7.08 W.R. 704 Director . . 6 years W. WilUams Melbourne ; 14.7.08 ' S.S.C. 1075 Director Pell Meli . . 3 years G. R. Greaves . . Bendigo 1 19.8.08 i W.J.C. 1711 Directway . . Aged R. Matehett 1 Bendigo 1 22.9.09 ; E.A.K. II April. 1910.] L'lsi of Certificated Stallions. 26] List of Certificated Stallions — continued Cert. |.No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. 1 OflScer. r Light Horse? — contii lued. ' 354 Dirk Hammerhand 5 years J. M. Campbell . . Echnca 24.8.07 W.J.C. 355 Dirk Hammerhead 4 years — Bowtell Eciiuca 24.8.07 W.J.C. 971 Dixie 3 years J. Donkin Cobram 5.8.08 E.A.K. 679 Dixie Alto Aged W. B. Viers Kvneton Show . . 26.11.07 W.R. 1122 Dixie G. . . 5 years W. Erving Terang .. 19.8.08 J.L. 841 Dixie Tracy 3 years A. Cockroft Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 1129 Donald 3 years Thos. Williams . . Camperdown 19.8.08 J.L. 410 Donald Mac Aeed A. Stewart Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 952 Don Bell . . Aged 0. Baldwin Nathalia 3.8.08 S.S.C. 891 Don Carlo . . Aged E. P. Hood Heathcote 3.8.08 W.R. 1092 Don Cleve Aged John Swindle Shepparton 22.8.08 W.J.C. 1453 Don Juan Aged J. Cliffs Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 1705 Don Harold Aged Wm. Brown Wodonga 20.9.09 W.J.C. 383 Dragon Aged D. Munro Casierton 28.8.07 W.R. 38 Druce 3 years D. Canny Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 247 Dynamo . . 5 years A. Stoner Yarram 21.8.07 N.Mc.D. 129 Earl Hampden 3 years J. E. Kneebone . . Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 1205 Earl Huon 4 years 0. Dutton Royal Show 28.8.08 J.L. 118 Eclipse Aged A. Jobson Eui-oa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 678 Eclipse 5 years Jas. Tranter Kyneton Show . . 26.11.07 W.R. 1368 Edward . . 4 years Simon Fraser Swan Hill Show . . 30.9.08 J.L. 523 Emerald . . 5 years J. Danaher Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 118/3 Emulation 3 years A. McFarlane Geelong 19.8.09 J.L. 1201 Emulator Aged J. B. Zander Royal Show 28.8.08 E.A.K. 1189 Emulator Junior 4 years R. G. Keys Royal Show 28.8.08 E.A.K. 120 Emulous . . 5 years M. Cann Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 856 Era 4 years W. Rogers Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 148/3 Ercildoune Dick 3 years Colin Gardner Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 1064 Errand Boy 3 years R. EUiott Colac . . 18.8.08 W.J.C. 1254 E^roneo^^ Aged A. G. Stewart Marvborouah 11.9.08 W.J.C. 64S Experience Aged J. Rosenberg Hamilton Show . . 19.9.07 N.McD. 1439 Experience II. 4 years R. Mackley Horsham 15.7.09 W.J.C. 748 Experiment 3 years R. Mackay Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 1426 Expert 5 years Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R. 1376 Explorer . . Aged A. M. Grautt Mildura Show 14.10.08 J.L. 749 Exponent 3 years A. McLennan Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 97/3 Fairfield . . 3 years G. Petschel Stawell . . U.S. 09 J.L. 107/3 Fashion Direct 3 years T. F. Hogan Kerang . . 17.8.09 W.R. 201 F.D.B. 3 years M. Vauahan Hamilton 17.8.07 W.R. 613 Fearless 3 years T. Dickenson Ballarat Show . . 17.10.07 S.S.C. 551 Fintonia . . Aged J. White Minyip Show 1.10.07 N.McD. 576 Fire Away Aged W. Habick Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 1666 Fireworks Aged W. J. Nicholas . . Mansfield 15.9.09 W.J.C. 1036 Fireworks Aged P. Gildea Rainbow 11.8.08 E.A.K. 945 First Ribbon 4 years G. and A. Tye . . Mentone 1.8.08 S.S.C. 1451 Fislierman Aged D. McLeod Melbourne 27.7.09 W.J.C. 376 Fitz-James 5 years Dyke Bros. St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 1272 Flying Star 5 "years J. W. H. Wilson . . Dandenong 10.9.08 E.A.K 72 Fontenoy Aged J. Hoolahan Dookie . . 27.7.07 W.J.C. 1533 Four Wings 6 years C. H. Poole Kerang . . 17.8.09 W.R. 352 Frank Harold 6 years D. McLeod Echuca . . 24.8.07 W.J.C. 170 Frank Osterley 4 years G. Ward Benalla 21.8.07 S.S.C. 1722 Freedom . . Aged A. E. Harding . . Myrtleford 29.9.09 E.A.R. 1788 Freemont . . Aged A. J. McClements Traralgon 17.9.09 W.R. 921 Galtee Boy 5 years W. Hedigan Birchip 21.7.08 W.J.C. 1676 Galtimore 5 years W. Marshall Matfra . . 18.9.09 W.R. 525 Galty Boy 4 years A. R. Lawrence . . Kyneton 26.9.07 W. R. 1552 Gambler Dick 4 years C. B. Petschel . . Dimboola 20.8.09 W.J.C 978 Gaylite 4 years E. H. Gannell Wangaratta 5.8.08 W.J.C. 1428 General Babbington Aged D. McLeod Melbourne 5.7.09 W.R.. 857 General 11. 4 years A. Robertson Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 614 General Standish . . Aged J. Davies Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 958 General Tracey II. . . 4 years S. Thompson Numurkah 4.8.08 S.S.C. 966 General Tracy Aged Alex. Parsell Tungamah 4.8.08 W.J.C. 35/2 Gerald Cleve 2 years H. and A. McCub- bery D. McLean Minyip . . 17.8.09 W.J.C. 1597 Ginger 5 years Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 160/3 Glendon . . 3 years Dr. R. I. Loosli . . Royal Show 31.8.09 W.R. 1437 Glen Leith 4 years W. McComb Horsham 15.7.09 W.J.C. 1414 Glen Martin 6 years H. Petersen Tallangatta 11.3.09 J.L. 859 Golden Eagle 5 years J. Small Melbourne 28.7.08 S.S.C. 979 Golden King 4 years M. Nearv Wangaratta 5.8.08 J.L. 1569 Goldie 5 years W. J. Minns Melton . . 28.8.09 J.L. 273 Goldie 3 years H. J. Scott Shepparton 24.8.07 S.S.C. 262 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 1910. List op Certificated [Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. 1 Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. ' 1 ' Light Horses — continued. 1622 Gold Spec Aged P. B. O'Keefe Bacchus Marsh . . 9.9.09 1 W.J.C. 571 Gold Top Aged M. Darcy Seymour 11.10.07 ; W.J.C. 705 Goodwood Aged F. H. Walsh Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 103 Governor . . 3 years — McCubbery DonaUl 14.8.07 W.J.C. 159 Govornor Traeey . . Aged E. G. Gorman Yarrawonga 16.8.07 S.S.C. 5M Grainijebiirn 3 years A. Ballenger Hor?ham Show . . 24.9.07 !-.S.C. 606 Grainser .Junior II.. . Aged Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 396 Grandeur Aged D.Ryan' Seymour 29.8.07 W.J.C. 953 Grand March II. Aged B. Ferrari, junr. . . i Nathalia 3.8.08 S.S.C. 28 Granjcr II. 5 years W. F. Allen Horsham 18.7.07 S.S.C. 1525 Grasshopper 6 years Wm. Cain Echuca . . 16.8.09 J.T. 60 Grey Hawk Aged W. W. Pierce Colac 7.8.07 S.S.C. 213 Grey Royal Aged A. Boyd Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 662 g.t.f. 6 years Glenister Bros. . . Colerainc Show . . 6.11.07 W.J.C. 1255 Guitar Aged J. H. Bruhn Maryborough 11.9.08 ' W.J.C. 356 Haco Aged Curragh Bros. Echuca . . 24.8.07 W.J.C. 946 Hal Zolock 3 years G. and A. Tye . . Mcntone 1.8.08 S.S.C. 670 Hambletonian Bell Boy Hambletonian Boy Aged Gregg and Crowe Northcote 16.11.07 S.S.C. 302 6 years Peter Thompson Wycheproot 20.8.07 W.J.C. 980 Hampden Aged J. H. Mclnnos . . Wangaratta 5.8.08 J.L. 119/3 Happy Bells 3 years F. Cox . . Geelong 19.8.09 J.L. 189/3 Harkaway 3 years M. Harper Warragul 23,9.09 W.R. 809 Harmony Aged A. W. Fletcher . . Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 876 Harold 4 years Alex. Colvin Melbourne 29.7.08 W.J.C. 877 Harold Douglas 5 years Alex. Colvin Melbourne 29.7.08 W.J.C. 100 Harold H. 5 years R. C- Hannah . . Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 211 Hassan Aged E. A. Watson Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 1692 Heather Jock 5 years J. Mason Diiiidciicing 21.9.09 W.R. 1344 Height of Fashion . . Aged T. and V. Brown Horsliani Show . . 25.9.08 S.S.C. 1049 Hero 4 years J. McKenzie Warracknabeal . . 14.8.08 W.R. 1357 Hero Aged John Boyle Boort Show 30.9.08 E.A.K. 1124 Hill Mont 3 years W. Frying Terang . . 19.8.08 J.L. 111/3 HoneU 3 years W. J. Gillard Swan Hill 18.8.09 W'.R. 275 Honest Bert Aged T. Harrison Shepparton 24.8.07 S.S.C. 811 Honest Cleve 3 years 0. Baldwin Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 1026 Honest Jack J. Gallagher Romsey 14.8.08 W.J.C. 115 Honest Lad 4 years F. P. Boyle Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 862 Honest Lad 4 years E. H. B. Young . . Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 1010 Honest Lea Aged D. Ryan Alexandra 11.8.08 W.J.C. 1588 Honesty . . Aged M. Dillon Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 1591 Honesty 11. Aged Jas. Flanagan Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 1693 Honorable 6 years Thos, Mitchell Dandenong 21.9.09 \^^R. 188 Uuon Seaton 0 years Phillips and Dever- Warracknabeal . . 15.S.07 W.R. 1190 Ian Cleve . . Aged eaux Miss Phipps Royal Show 28.8.08 E.A.K. 456 Imperial . . Aged H. W. Adams . . Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 863 Imperial Willie 3 years J. Small Melbounie 28.7.08 S.S.C. 1273 Inform 4 year; G. Crook Dandenong 10.0.08 E.A.K. 132 Intoirity . . Aged J. B. Docker Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 426 Integrity . . Aged J. J. Eadey Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 1105 Integrity .. Aged W. Gleeson. junr. St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. 936 Irish King Aged J. H. Roberts . . Kerang 24.7.08 W.ll. 165 Iroquois . . Aged G. Pearson Benalla 17.8.07 S.S.C. 135 Ito Aged J. Graham Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 1505 Jack O'Lcwy Aged L. Johns Jeparjt . . 11.8.09 W.J.C. 865 Jack W. . . Aged R. Tutty Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 863 Jay Belden 5 years A. Rol)crtson Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 864 JeriU 5 years D. Hislop Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 77 Joker Aged Dookiu 27.7.07 W.J.C. 46 Jonathan . . Aged W. Hiscock Pyramid 3,8.07 S.S.C. 39/2 Jov Bells . . 2 years M. Peacock Kerang 17.8.09 W.R. 157 J. R. Wilk&s A:ged Toms Bros. Yarrawonga 16.8.07 S.S.C. 1207 Judjo Hu5n Aged O. Dutton Royal Show 28.8.08 W.R. 1579 Judge Huon II. 4 years M. H. Collins She])parton 27.8.09 E.A.K. 538 Juniper Aged Langley Bros. Horsham Show . . 24.9.07 S.S.C. 246 Jupiter Junior Aged Rossiter Bros. Yarrani 21.8.07 N.McD. 1180 Justice 6 years Harricks Bros. . . Ararat 7.9.08 W.J.C. 918 Kaaban 4 years M. Kinane Charlton 23.7.08 W.J.C. 1672 Keeper Hill A'ged D. Ryan Seymour 17.9.09 W.J.C. 342 Kentucky 6 years H. C. Johnson . . Elmore 26.8.07 W.J.C. 867 Khakee Aged T. Nolan Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 773 Killarnev . . Aged W. Reece Goroke . . 21.7.08 S.S.C. 618 Killarney II. Aged Grace and Fletcher Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 127/3 Kintrave . . 3 years A. Colvin Nathalia 24.8.09 ' W.J.C. 11 April, 1910.] List of Certificaied Stallions. i6t, List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. 0w7ier. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 Light Horses — continued. 331 Kintyre . . 6 years — McGregor 1 Elmore 1 26.8.07 1 W.J.C. 92/3 King Almont 3 years J. Scott Lyon Beulah . . 1 12.8.0 > J.L. 647 King Bronte Aged C. Hands Pyramid Hill Show 1 23.10.07 W.R. 513 King Draper Victor Edgar Camperdown i 26.9.07 W.J.C. 868 Kingfisher Aged J. S. Orr Melbourne 1 28.7.08 S.S.C. 481 King Harold Aged Francis Bros. Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. 102 King Harold 5 years T. McCubberj' Donald 14.8.07 W.J.C. 937 King Midas 6 years D. Maxwell Kerang . . 24.7.08 W.R. 103/3 King of Bronte Jun. 3 years H. J. Jackson Inglewood 16.8.09 W.R. 602 La Marnie 4 years Gilbert Bros. Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 617 Larrakin . . Aged Mrs. Sutherland . . Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 615 Lernecker Aged C. Lippiatt Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 1684 Leichardt Aged Worsley Bros. Bairnsdale 15.9.09 W.R. 1626 Le Rosier 6 years Glenister Bros. . . Condah 7.9.09 E.A.K. 1465 Lieutenant J. Aged Mitchell and O'Brien N.Z. Go^^;. Cert. . . —.—.09 871 Lieutenant Osterley 5 years A. J. Clark Melbourne 28.7.08 S.S.C. 1073 Little Hambletonian 4 years H. C. Plainbeck . . Bendigo ■ 19.8.08 W.J.C. 1635 Little Osterley 6 years Baxter and O'Keefe Terang . . 6.9.09 \V.R. 1582 Little Wonder Aged John Phyland Agricultural Offices 11.9.09 E.A.K. 1224 Londonderry 3 years John Finney Sale 7.9.08 W.R. 468 Lord Derby Aged A. Douglas Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 884 Lord Harold 3 years A. Colvin Melbourne 30.7.07 W.R. 755 Lord Hope Aged D. Bunworth Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 706 Lord of the Isles 4 years A. D. Gaukroger . . Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 1723 Lord Palmerston 6 years W. Munro Myrtleford 29.9.09 E.A.K. 1295 Lord Roberts Aged H. J. Payne Li'lydale 17.9.08 E.A.K. 873 Lord Vanderook Aged W. Abrams Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 62 Loudoun Squire 5 years J. Dunlop Colac . . 7.8.07 S.S.C. 465 Macquarie Aged T. Aldous Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 960 Major Tracy 4 years T. H. Ford Numurkah 4.8.08 S.S.C. 1689 Man of Honor 4 years W. K. Basset Traralgon 17.9.09 W.R. 892 Maori 4 years A. McDonald Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 630 Maori Chief 3 years L. Strickland Colac Show 24.10.07 S.S.C. 973 March Aged J. E. Turner Co bra m 5.8.08 E.A.K. 137 Marland Derby Aged Stewart and Sloan W^angaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 947 Marvin Wilkes Aged G. and A. Tye . . Mentone 1.8.08 S.S.C. 1613 Mauritius . . Aged J. B. Zander Royal Show 31.8.09 AV.R. 528 Mazeppa . . Aged A. W. Harvey . . Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 1480 Merry Boy Aged M. J. Bourke Murtoa . . 6.8.09 W.R. 1388 Merry Spark Aged Crozier Bros. Lilydale 17.9.08 E.A.K. 428 Merry Speed Aged W. E. Rosling Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 688 Message . . 6 years W. H. Michael . . Leongatha 11.2.08 S.S.C. 303 Metal B. . . 6 years E. Glasheen Wycheproof 20.8.07 W.J.C. 300 Millstone . . Aged J. O'Donoghue Elmore . . 26.8.07 W.J.C. 581 Miss Prize. . 6 years J. F. W. Garvith . . Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 1382 Mistake . . 5 years Robt. Southby . . Bendigo Show 14.10.08 E.A.K. 1566 Molonga . . 4 years Toms Bros. Yarrawonga 24.8.09 J.L. 278 More Huon 3 years T. Moore Shepparton 24.8.07 S.S.C. 1502 Mount Palm Aged T. W. Schickerling Warracknabeal . . 13.8.09 J.L. 195/3 Neptune . . 3 years E. R. Coakes Agricultural Offices 16.10.09 W.J.C. 1263 Nero Aged J. Jopling BaUarat 11.9.08 W.J.C. 923 Never Sweat II. 5 years J. Gilmour . . '• Sea Lake 22.7.08 W.J.C. 488 Nick 0' the Woods . . Aged M. P. Mar wick . . Daylesford 20.9.07 W.J.C. 295 Norback . . 5 years P. Quire Kaniva 27.8.07 N.McD. 1679 Norfolk Swell 6 years W. H. Lyon Maffra . . 18.9.09 W.R. 1637 Norval 6 years Glenister Bros. . . Ararat . . 10.9.09 E.A.K. 1674 Oakus Aged D. Tallent . . \ Bunyip . . 20.9.09 W.R. 943 Obligado . . 4 years G. and A. Tye . . ] Mentone 1.8.08 S.S.C. 1314 Odd Trick Aged Dolman Bros. . . i Coleraine 19.9.08 1 W.J.C. 1634 Office Aged W. J. Trask Colac . . 9.9.09 W.R. 149/3 Ohio 3 years Dr. McCardel Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 919 Olympian 6 years D. Lang Charlton 23.7.08 W.J.C. 189 Olympic . . 3 years Thompson Bros. . . Warracknabeal . . 14.8.07 W.R. 366 Olympic Yet 3 years — Bryce St. Arnaud 30.8.07 W^.J.C. 1455 O.M.L. Aged Josiah Opie Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 76/3 Orderly . . 3 years W. E. Gibson Mell:)ourne 29.7.09 J.L. 1143 Orme 6 years John BaU Werribee 21.8.08 J.L. 1193 Orthodox . . Aged J. Brown Royal Show 28.8.08 J.L. 634 Oscar 4 years Wm. Anderson . . Colac Show 24.10.07 S.S.C. 1713 Oscombe . . 4 years Arthur Lowe Bendigo 22.9.09 E.A.K. 1363 Osman 6 years T. Robertson Corryong 3.10.08 E.A.K. 1085 Osprey 3 years H. G. Staff Traralgon 17.8.08 W.R. 607 Osprey II. 5 years Gilbert Bros. BaUarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 1623 Osprey Junior Aged J. Axford Terang . . 6.9.09 W.R. 264 Journal of Agriculture. [11 April, 1910^ List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. 1142 Osprey Premier LlGH 6 years 646 Ostenesty 6 years 1292 Oster Boccacio Aged 588 Osterfield . . 6 years 652 Osterley 11. 923 Osterley Again 3 years 460 Osterley Again 4 years 26 Osterley Hero 5 years 896 Osterley Junior 5 years 544 Osterley Junior Aged 235 Osterley Wilkes Aged 632 Osterlight 3 years 633 Ostermeyer 5 years 202/3 O.stermeyer Direct . . 3 years 1336 ; Osterwind Aged 434 Ostray 6 years 989 Ostrich II. 5 years 290 Oswestry . . 5 years 93 Othello 5 years 1225 Owhy 3 years 1194 Owyhee . . Aged 1153 Owyhee Junior 4 years 897 Oyama 6 years 1317 O.Y.D. 4 years 1202 O.Y.K. .. 3 years 31/2 Pacific 2 years 1065 Paymaster Aged 605 Pedestal . . 5 years 1445 Penarth . . 6 years 130 Pianola Aged 149 Planet Boy Aged 297 Premier 5 years 117 Priam Aged 926 Prince Bronte Aged 1155 Prince Charman 3 years 206/3 Prince Douglas 3 years 161/3 Prince Harold 3 years 340 Prince Osterley 5 years 546 Prince Osterley 4 years 1614 Prince Rothschild . . 5 years 351 Prince Whips 5 years 532 Principal . . Aged 758 Prior II. . . Aged 1714 Procombe Aged 668 Protest 3 years 150/3 Punch 3 years 1668 Quintore . . Aged 1274 Radiator . . 5 years 898 Radium . . 3 years 1522 Rafyk Aged 1581 Ranji Aged 899 Ratawood 5 years 1446 Red Cloud 5 years 316 Red Light Aged 1116 Red Wind Jun. Aged 1423 Referee 6 years 1574 Result Aged 1125 Rex Osterley 6 years 79/3 Richard Cleve 3 years 1633 Rifle Aged 180/3 Ringer 3 years 770 Ringleader 6 years 1545 1 Rival 5 ye.irs 524 1 Robin's Pride 3 years 126/3 Rockefeller 3 years 250 Rose Musk 4 years 1553 Rosewood Aged 402 . Rufus Aged 1551 Royal Bells 4 years 780 Royal George II. . . Aged 1377 Royal Highlander . . 4 years 942 Royal Roue Aged 343 Royal Whips 4 years 125 Safeguard Aged 644 Sailor King Aged Date. Light Horses — continued. A. D. Rowan F. J. Dorman A. Bond — Willatts W. Hutchinson . . Wm. Hinneberg . . G. Smith E. Koenig Claude Walker G ready Bros. J. B. Marshall G. S. Connor E. Batson N. Sterritt F. McNab J. Fitzgerald J. P. Ovens J. Hefferman A. Shebler C. B. Trood D. Taylor E. Batson A. H. Capron P. Lyons B. H. Palfrey Dr. Marten W. McCombe T. Da vies J. Stein, jun. F. Larkin C. Butcher Jos. Binns L. Cu.sack G. Bottomley Geo. Golightly . . Mrs. Clara White Albert Pardon D. Murphv C. W. Watts, jun. Thos. McCallum . . J. McLeod Glenister Bros. . . Stanley Young . . J. D. b'Shea E. H. Bell Beard and Farley J. Mitchell J. W. Welsby . A. Robertson S. Winter Cooke Chas. Daly A. Robertson C. Ridley Neylands Bros. . J. Williams C. Stocks J. Marks T. C. Blain Henrv Doig H. Fisher W. H. Johnston . Thos. Pearce R. Develine A. Armstrong D . McLeod J- Bland A- C. Mason Smith Bros. W. Sharkey Chas. Grant Thos. Harrop J. Clark A. J. Walter Evans Bros. H. Gibbins Werribee Pyramid Show Elmore . . Maryborough Show Murchison Show Birchip Warrnambool Horsham Melbourne Murtoa Show Nhill . . Colac Show Colac Show Ballarat Show Warragul Geelong Tatura . . Kihnore Melton . . Sale Royal Show Geelong Melbourne Inglewood Royal Show Agricultural Offices Colac Ballarat Show Melbourne Wangaratta Sea Lake Kaniva Euroa . . Boort Geelong Agricultural Offices Dayle^ford Elmore . . Agricultural Offices Royal Show Echuca . . Horsham Show Horsham Bendigo Traralgon Show Wangaratta Alexandra Dandenong Melbourne Hamilton Shepparton Melbourne AMelbourne Bircliip . . Bairnsdale Melbourne Elmore . . Terang . . Agricultural Office.-i Colac Lang Lang Stawell . . Swan HiU Kyneton Kyabram Yarram Kyabram Mansfield Geelong Melbourne Mildura Show Heathcote Elmore . . Wangaratta Pyramid Show 1 21.8.08 J.L. 23.10.07 W.R. 17.9.08 W.R. 16.10.07 S.S.C. 30.10.07 W.R. 21.7.08 W.J.C. 10.9.07 W.J.C. 18.7.07 S.S.C. 28.7.08 W.J.C. 24.9.07 S.S.C. 21.8.07 S.S.C. 24.10.07 S.S.C. 24.10.07 S.S.C. 18.11.09 E.A.K. 24.9.08 W.R. 31.8.07 S.S.C. 6.8.08 S.S.C. 27.8.07 S.S.C. 10.8.07 S.S.C. 7.9.08 W.R. 28.8.08 W.R. 20.9.08 J.L. 28.7.08 S.S.C. 18.9.08 W.R. 28.8.08 E.A.K. 31.7.09 W.J.C. 17.8.08 W.J.C. 17.10.07 S.S.C. 26.7.09 W.J.C. 15.8.07 S.S.C. 15.8.07 N.McD. 28.8.07 N.McD. 14.8.07 S.S.C. 21.7.08 W.R. 20.8.08 W.J.C. 4.12.09 W.R. 6.9.09 W.J.C. 26.8.07 W.J.C. 1.10.07 W.R. 31.8.09 W.R. 24.8.07 W.J.C. 24.9.07 S.S.C. 16.7.08 S.S.C. 22.9.09 E.A.K. 13.11.07 W.R. 25.8.09 W.J.C. 16.9.09 W.J.C. 10.9.08 E.A.K. 28.7.08 W.J.C. 14.8.09 W.R. 27.8.09 E.A.K. 28.7.08 W.J.C. 26.7.09 W.R. 21.8.07 W.J.C. 19.8.08 W.R. 8.6.09 W.R. 30.8.09 J.L. 19.8.08 J.L. 7.8.09 W.R. 9.9.09 W.R. 16.9.09 E.A.K. 20.7.08 S.S.C. 18.8.09 W.R. 26.9.07 W.R. 24.8.09 WR. 21.8.07 N.McD. 24.8.09 W.R. 30.8,07 W.J.C. 19.8.09 J.L. 27.7.08 S.S.C. 14.10.08 J.L. 3.8.08 W.R. 26.8.07 W.J.C. 15.8.07 S.S.C. 23.10.07 WR. II April. 1910.] List of Certiiicated Stallions. 265 List op Certificated Stallions — continued. Dert. No. Xame of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 1 Light Horses — continued. 133 SateUite . . Aged J. Putty Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 554 Saxon 6 years E. Hale Nathalia 24.8.09 W.J.C. 85 Seaforth Highlander 6 years T. McCrae Swan Hill 7.8.07 W.R. 202 Seldom Seen 6 years S. Winter Cooke . . Hamilton 17.8.07 W.R. 330 Selkirk 3 years A. Scott Elmore 26.8.07 W.J.C. 248 Shanet-a-boo 6 years J. J. Sherrj' Yarram 21.8.07 N.McD. 901 Shooting Star 5 years W. Savage Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 903 Silver King Aged John Mason Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 210 Solicitor . . 3 years J. T. Oram Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 939 Sparrowhawk 5 years J. Langford Kerang . . 24.7.08 W.R. 994 Spectator . . Aged W. Shelswell Euroa . . 7.8.08 W.J.C. 763 Spight 3 years G. Haensler Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 128 Stamp Aged Kettle & Moronev Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 257 Standish . . 3 years L. P Davis Maryborough 11.9.08 W.J.C. 70/3 Standish Direct 3 years W. Walter Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. 146 Starlight . . 4 years H. Anderson Berwick 21.8.08 W.R. 212 Steel Arab 6 years JI. McLean Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 91 St. Patrick A. Shebler, jun. . . Melton . . 10.8.07 S.S.C. 84 Strathlodden Aged T. Wickens Swan Hill 7.8.07 W.R. 502 St. Swivan 6 years M. Gargan Mirboo North 24.9.07 N.McD. 275 Sultan 4 years M. McKenna Dandenong 10.9.08 E.A.K. 239 Sunflsh 4 years W. Kennedy Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 67 SunUght . . Aged A. E. Carter Colac 7.8.07 S.S.C. 963 Sunliglit . . 3 years R.. Biggar Numurkah 4.8.08 S.S.C. 039 Swagman . . 3 years B. J. Knott Rainbow 11.8.08 E.A.K. 506 Swivelette . . 5 years R. Penny Jeparit . . 111.8.09 W.J.C. 378 Swiveller Shamrock. . 4 years W. Crosbie Mildura Show 4.10.08 J.L. 702 Sir Harold Aged H. Bainbridge Agricultural Offices 6.3.08 W.J.C. 905 Sir Roger . . W. T. Foster Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 367 Sir Simon _ D. Campbell St. Amaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 61 Sir Wyhee 3 years W. Connor Colac . . 7.8.07 S.S.C. 575 Talk 6' the Hills . . Aged S. R. KUnge Dimboola Show . . 11.10.07 S.S.C. 887 Tallis Pride 3 years D. D. Tuttle Agricultural Offices 1.8.08 J.L. 494 TalUs W. . . 4 years J. T. Smith StaweU . . 18.9.07 W.R. 379 Taradale . . Aged L. W. Lilley Mildura Show 14.10.08 J.L. 940 Tenant . . Aged G. Sharp Kerang . . 24.7,08 W.R. 595 Terrific Aged Jas. Blenheim Marj'borough Show 16.10.07 S.S.C. 503 Testator . . 4 years Arthur Knight . . Agricultural Offices 8,10.07 S.S.C. 686 Texedo Aged F. Hamniil Bairnsdale 15.9.09 W.R. 530 Theatre . . Aged D. McKeuzie Minyip . . 17.8.09 W.J.C. 552 Thunder JeweU 3 years R. Hetherington Minyip Show 1.10.07 N.McD. 206 Togos Aged W. Hitcheson Ballarat 11.9.08 W.J.C. 703 Tom 6 years A. J. Thomson . . TaUangatta 21.9.09 W.J.C. 565 Tommy Huon 4 years J. G. Hodgson Numurkah Show . . 9.10.07 W.J.C. 095 Toxo Aged T. J. Doherty Shepparton 22.8.08 W.J.C. 319 Tracey Alto 3 years I. KeUy Inglewood 18.9.08 W.R. 053 Trickster . . 6 years W. Craig Warracknabeal . . 14.8.08 W.R. 261 Triumph . . 4 years T. Nelson Cobram 23.8.07 N.McD. 59 True Sign Aged 6. H. Hill Colac 7.8.07 S.S.C. 388 Truro 4 years R. Mclnroy Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 198 Tynedock Legislator 4 years R. G. Wilson, jun. Royal Show 28.8.08 W.R. 353 The Brook 4 years, D. McLeod Ecliuca . . 24.8.0T W.J.C. 233 The Cadet 5 years A. C. Bair Leongatha 9.9.08 E.A.K. 404 The Deemster Aged G. E. Kipping Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 526 The Dirk . . Aged W. Martin Echuca . . 16.8.09 J.L. 607 The Draper Aged P. W. C. Palmer Royal Show 31.8.09 W.J.C. 462 The Governor 5 years John Gooden Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 100 The Grader 3 years James Dyson Port Fairy 18.8.08 J.L. 354 The Judge 6 years E. Francis Yarrawonga Show 23.9.08 J.L. 409 The Kaffir 5 years G. B. Mackie Camperdown Show 26.11.08 E.A.K. 027 The Masher Aged T. H. Si>ene Romsey . . 14.8.08 W.J.C. 495 The Merchant 4 years OUver Bodey StaweU . . 18.9.07 W.R. 741 The Pet of the Public 3 years Gus Krause Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 347 The Swell Aged Geo. McDonnell . . Ballan . . 26.9.08 W.J.C. 030 The Toff . . 6 years W. Peacock Agricultural Offices 15.8.08 W.R. 553 The Trick Aged Jas. Fisher Warracknabeal Show 3.10,07 N.McD. 017 Unknown . . Aged T. H. McEwan . . Benalla 3.8.08 W.J.C. 407 U.R.L Aged W. Dovahv Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 662 Velvet Aged E. W. Murphy . . Leongatha 15.9.09 E.A.K. 267 Vendetta . . 5 years R. F. Howard . . BaUarat 11.9.08 W.J.C. 190 Vengeance II. 4 years G. Hausler Warracknabeal . . 14.8.07 W.R. 92 Venture 4 years J. CockbiU Melton . . 10.8.07 S.S.C. 578 Victor Aged A. Cunnington Rochester 30.8.09 J.L. 715 Victor McKinney . . Aged R. Matchett Bendigo 22.9.09 ' E.A.K. 266 Journal of Agriculture. [ii April. 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 r '• Light Horses — continued. 214 Victor's Pride 3 years P. Doyle Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 156 Volant 4 years Jas. Clark Yarrawonga 16.8.07 S.S.C. 425 Von Osterley 6 years F. R. Heard Geelong 31.8.07 s.s.c. 489 Walnut . . Aged G. Burgess Daylesford 20.9.07 W.J.C. 776 Wansoola Aged J. Potter Goroke . . 21.7.08 s.s.c. 1721 Warrior Aged W. S. Riddle Ballan . . 23.9.09 E.A.K. 1276 Warrior King 5 years J. New . . Dandenong 10.9.08 E.A.K. 1199 Waterloo . . Aged J. EUis . . Royal Show 28.8.08 E.A.K. 57/2 Weeho 2 years W. D. McFarlane Lilydale 11.9.09 E.A.K. 1660 Wee Scott.. Aged W. Jones Foster . . 14.9.09 E.A.K. 134 Welfare . . Aged F. Holmes Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 1200 Wenlock . . 3 years A. L. Barclay Royal Show 28.8.08 W.R. 485 We^terley.. Aged F. R. G. Robertson Korumburra 18.9.07 W.J.C. 96/.3 W.F.A. . . 3 years W. Brown Warracknabeal . . 13.8.09 J.L. 195 Whalebone Aged W. R. Cross Hamilton 17.8.07 W.R. 274 Why Not . . 3 years 0. Dutton Shepparton 7.9.07 S.S.C. 1571 Wheatland 4 years M. Carberry Melton .. 28.8.09 J.L. 550 Wildbird .. — H. Bineham Hamilton Show . . 19.9.07 N.McD. 1624 Willie Tracey 5 years T. B. Ward Terang . . 6.7.09 W.K. 158 Willie Wilkes 3 years M. Rowan Yarrawonga 16.8.07 S.S.C. 530 Woodstock Aged A. Dickens Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 1670 Woollamai Aged P. P. Martin Ale.\andra 16.9.09 W.J.C. 374 Yamba 6 years — Smith, junior . . St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 1083 Yelretso . . Aged W. H. Wallis Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 1346 Yendon 6 years W. Payne Ballan . . 26.9.08 W.J.C. 384 Yettendon Aged A. Bond Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 45 Young Ashplant Aged J. E. Morgan Pyramid 3.8.07 S.S.C. 656 Young Bow Boy 3 years T. UpstiU Maldon Show 30.10.07 s.s.c. 1699 Young Cannoneer . . Aged R. H. Elliot Warragul 23.9.09 W.R. 1374 Young Clarendon . . 6 years J. M. Wilson Portland 7.10.08 W.J.C. 1529 Young Cosmopolitan Aged G. Gregson Inglewood 16.8.09 W.R. 324 Young Cureton 3 years Salvation Army . . Lilydale 23.8.07 W.J.C. 1040 Young Dragon 6 years A. R. Lush Rainbow 11.8.08 E.A.K. 1138 Young Grand Pri.x . . 5 years J. McKenna Donald . . 19.8.08 E.A.K. 298 Young Hamlet Aged John Head Kaniva . . 28.8.07 N.McD. 1643 Young Harold Aged M. Kelly Heathcote 13.9.09 W.J.C. 1399 Young Highlander . . Aged W. Hick.< Orbost . . 28.8.08 E.A.K. 371 Young Irrtum — Fithall St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 1167 Young Jester — J. Bourke Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. 82 Young King Louis . . 6 years W. Ross Swan Hill 7.8.07 W.R. 1395 Young Kintore Aged G. Morris Colac Show 29.10.08 W.R. 1168 Young Mjddlemarch Aged J. Bourke Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. 372 Young Osterley Aged N. McDonald St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 924 Young Osterley II. . . 4 years Jas. McDonald . . Sea Lake 22.7.08 W.J.C. 412 Young Pieman 5 years M. McLean Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 325 Young Richmond . . Aged E. Fontaine Lilydale 23.8.07 W.J.C. 1033 Young Swiveller Aged H. Naylor Beulah . . 13.8.08 W.R. 150 Young Tynon Aged W. Rugge Sea Lake 15.8.07 N.McD. 243 Young Vengeance . . 3 years E. Hutf NhiU . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 95 Zouroff Aged J. Minns PONIES. Melton . . 10.8.07 s.s.c. 1237 Admiration 5 years S. O'Callaghan . . Warrnambool 10,0.08 W.R. 622 Admiration 5 years T. T. Taylor Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 512 Aladdin Aged R. Kelly Camperdown 26.9.07 W.J.C. 584 Alma Jimmy 3 years G. Willatts Maryborough Show 16.10.07 s.s.c. 1259 Arabi 3 years G. J. PhiUips Ballarat 10.9.08 W.J.C. 1556 Arab King Aged G. H. Norton IJenalla 28.8.09 PJ.L. 975 Argyle Aged W. Conner Wangaratta 5.8.08 W.J.C. 1252 Badaween 5 years E. S. Herring Maryborough 11.9.08 W.J.C. 635 BaUy Aged J. F. King Colac Show 24.10.07 s.s.c. 1401 Bally Boy. . 3 years W. G. Illingworth Ballarat Show 12.11.08 W.R. 433 Ballv Rogan 3 years J. E. JeUett Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 431 Bally Roy 4 years A. J. Spalding & Sons Geelong 31.8.07 s.s.c. 1048 Baltimore 5 years Jas. A. Johnson . . Warracknabeal . . 14.8.08 W.R. 516 Bay Briton Aged P. Wharton Elmore Show 25.9.07 W.R. 07/3 Beeae Bells 3 years Jas. Egan Colac Show 27.10.09 E.A.K. 306 Bell Boy . . 6 years J. D. Pryse Wycheproof 20.8.07 W.J.C. 696 Bend Or . . 4 years Geo. Borland Warragul 23.9.09 W.R. 400 Bengal Aged J. Ford Ballarat Show 12.11.08 W.R. 791 Berkeley Magician . . Aged R. G. Wilson, jiin. Melbourne 27.7.08 W.R. 391 BiU Aged J. Grinham Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. II April, 1910.] Lht of Certificated Stallions. 267 List OP Certificated Stallions — zoiiixued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. Ponies — continu ^d. 1527 1 Billv 5 years G. H. and F. Leech Ingle wood 16.8.09 W.R. 772 Black Bolt 3 years H. Redford Goroke 21.7.08 s.s.c. 476 Black Boy 3 years F. Bridges Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. 87 Black Prince Aged Staley & Connell . . Swan Hill 7.8.07 W.R. 51/3 Black Shanter 3 years H. Hunt .Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 573 Bobbie Bums Aged R. H. Wright Dimboola Show . . 11.10.07 S.s.c. 1161 Bobs Aged T. A. Mackenzie . . Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. 1682 Bonnie Aged T. Norton Bairnsdale 15.9.09 W.R. 1235 Bonnie Boy Aged W. H. Spooner . . Bunyip . . 9.9.08 W.R. 1683 Bonnie Doon Junior Aged A. and \Y. How- lett Hugh McCue Bairnsdale 15.9.09 WR. 985 Bounding Willow . . 5 years Murchison 6.8.08 S.s.c. 452 Bower Aged M. Quigley Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1110 Boxer Aged E. Glenn Bairnsdale 19.8.08 W.R. 241 Brassey's Pride 5 years A. E. Millar Nhill . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 1479 Brigaway . . 5 years A. L. Harris Murtoa . . 6.8.09 W.R. 1239 Brigham . . Aged J. Jenkins Warrnambool 10.9.08 W.R. 541 Brigliaiu . . 3 years S. Blakeley Horsham Show . . 27.9.07 S.S.C. 1223 Brigliam II. Aged J. G. Schneider . . Hamilton 25.8.08 J.L. 1134 Brigluim King 3 years A. P. Jones Donald . . 19.8.08 E.A.K. 68 Brigliam Young II. Aged A. E. McCure Colac . . 7.8.07 S.S.C. 450 Briaham Young II. Aged J. Hall . . Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 201/3 Briton's Pride 3 years G. S. Kenworthy Ballarat Show . . 18.11.09 E.A.K. 1015 Bronzewing Aged V. Little Benalla . . 3.8.08 W.J.C. 497 Bryce — . C. McKay Stawell Show 18.9.07 W.R. 1070 Bull Jinks Aged F. Osborne Bendigo 19.8.08 W.J.C. 70 By Night . . 4 years Hunt Bros. Dookie . . 27.7.07 W.J.C. 317 Canary Aged G. Gould Bircliip . . 21.8.07 W.J.C. 441 Caractacus II. Aged ' Farrell Bros. Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1148 Caradoc . . 3 years C. D. Hobbs Geelong 20.8.08 J.L. 596 Cardiff 4 years J. L. Edwards lona 21.10.07 W.J.C. 1149 Celtic Chief 4 years C. Grant Geelong 20.8.08 W.J.C. 141 Chief Justice 5 years T. Moroney Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 129/3 Clarion 3 years W. Thompson Nathalia 24.8.09 W.J.C. 1484 Clarionet . . Aged J. R. Mitchell . . Casterton 6.8.09 W.J.C. 1631 Clem 6 years Michael Skeyhill . . Camperdown 8.9.09 W.R. 747 Clem 3 years P. Doyle Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 1121 Clem 3 years J. Crimmin Terang . . 19.8.08 J.L. 1595 Clem Again 6 years H. McConnell Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 14 Clifton Aged L. Lynch Mirboo . . 25,10.06 S.S.C. 1000 Cocaine Aged W. R. CuUen Rutherglen 6.8.08 W.J.C. 1044 Cock 0' the Walk. . Aged R. McKenzie Dimboola 12.8.08 E.A.K. 568 Cocoanut . . Aged D. J. Fergusson . . Seymour Show . . 11.10.07 W.J.C. 636 Combine . . Aged Colac Show 24.10.07 S.S.C. 640 Comet 4 years A. Billings '. '. Colac Show 24.10.07 s.s.c. 429 Comet 3 years Alfred Beales Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 1619 Comet Aged T. H. Goodwin . . Warrnambool 9.9.09 J.L. 692 Comet — W. Ritcliie Bunyip Show 26.2.08 W.R. 8 Comet Aged Talbot Atkins Korumburra 29.9.06 S.S.C. 48 Commander Aged W. Townsend Pyramid 3.8.07 S.s.c. 1011 Commodore Aged Quinlan & McLean Minyip . . 12.8.08 W.R. 432 Commodore Aged Jno. Ince Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 1232 Commodore 6 years Arthur Rickards . . Foster . . 8.9.08 E.A.K. 1390 Commonwealth 6 years E. W. Tremellan Numurkah Show. . 23.10.08 E.A.K. 1393 Commotion 6 years Alex. McKenzie . . Colac Show 29.10.08 W.R. 1557 Coral ite 4 years A. S. Sargent Benalla 23.8.09 J.L. 1294 Courtier . . 3 years R. B. Kelly Lilydale 17.9.08 E.A.K. 1537 Cricket 4 years W. Kennedy Nhill . . 18.8.09 W.J.C. 1211 Crofton 4 years Jas. Hortle Casterton 26.8.08 W.J.C. 509 Crown King 5 years J. Dwyer Camperdown 26.9.07 W.J.C. 204 Cymro Aged J. R. Jackson Hamilton 17.8.07 W.R. 173 Cvndette . . 6 years J. A. Manson Maffra . . 16.8.07 W.J.C. 459 Dan Daphne 3 years J. Stafford Warrnambool 10.9.0? W.J.C 1313 Dandy Aged Dolman Bros. Coleraine 19.9.08 W.J.C 466 Dandy 3 years R. Rennie Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C 666 Dandy 6 years G. Tory.. Traralgon Show . . 13.11.07 W.R. 390 Dandy Aged A. Bilston Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 1483 Dandy Again 4 years Mat. Barber Wycheproof 12.8.09 E.A.K. 1501 Dandy Again 4 years A. Cameron Warracknabeal . . 13.8.09 J.L. 638 Dandy Bell 5 years Jno. James Colac Show 24.10.07 S.S.C. 106/3 Dandy Bones 3 years J. Crosbie St. Arnaud 17.8.09 E.A.K. 1185 Dandy Boy Aged G. & W. Lord . . Sale 7.9.08 W.R. 112/3 Dandy Brick 3 years J. W. Baker Donald . . 19.8.09 E.A.K. 851 Dandy Brush 4 years J. Findlay Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 113/3 Dandy Chief 3 years G. Crombie Donald . . 19.8.09 E.A.K. 268 Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. 1 Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. Ponies — continued 470 Dandy Dick 6 years J. Findlay Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 1151 Dandy Don Aged G. R. Bowman . . Geelong 20.8.08 J.L. 1270 Dandy Hero Aged E. Fontaine Dandenong 10.9.08 E.A.K^ 251 Dandy Geordie 4 years T. G. McKenzie . . Yarram 21.8.07 N.McD. 107 Dandy Imperial 4 years J. P. Morgan Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 1669 Dandy Jack 4 years J. Payne Alexandra 16,9.09 W.J.C. 1448 Dandy Jim 4 years J. Findlay Melbourne 27.7.09 W.J.C. 570 Dandy Jock 5 years A. Ward Seymour Show . . 11.10.07 W.J.C. 1098 Dandy Jock Aged D. Dawe Port Fairy 18.8.08 J.L. 667 Dandy Junior 5 years Widdis & King . . Traralgon Show . . 13.11.07 W.R. 987 Dandy King 3 years E. Mackie Murchison 6.8,08 s.s.c. 1271 Dandy Lad 3 years A. E. Selman and Bros. John Donegan Dandenong 10.9.08 E.A.K. 650 Dandy Lad 3 years Murchison Show . . 30.10 07 W.R. 852 Dandy Lyons Aged J. O'Neil Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 63/2 Dandy O'More 2 years L. Tatterson Dandenong 21.9.09 W.R. 1288 Dandy Prince 6 years P. W. Carr Whittlesea 15.9.08 J.L. 854 Dandy Scott 4 years J. Findlay Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 1704 Dandy's Pride 6 years P. V. Frauen- felder Wodonga 20.9.09 W.J.C. 39 Dandy's Pride 3 years W. Widdis Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 415 Dandy's Pride Aged C. Jones Geelong 31.8.07 s.s.c. 853 Dandy's Progress . . 3 years Frod Jones Melbourne 2S.7.08 s s.C. 50/3 Deroy 3 years J. A. Syme Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 1402 Desert Born Aged A. J. Frisken Ballarat Show 12.11.08 W.R. 624 Desert Lad 3 years D. Shelly Biillarat Show . . 17.10.07 S.s.c. 1212 Despised . . Aged Stock Bros. Casterton 26.8.08 W.J.C. 180 Diagram . . 4 years W. Rainey Maffra .. 16.8.07 W.J.C. 1099 Dingo Aged R. A. Gibson Port Fairy 18.8.08 J.L. 1697 Don IL . . Aged Mann Bros. Warragul 23.9.09 W.R. 128/3 Dontore . . 4 years A. Colvin Nathalia 24.8.09 W.J.C. 253 Duffy 5 years J. McKenzie, jun. Yarram 21.8.07 N.McD. 1734 Electra . . Aged Thos. Smith Agricultural Offices 20.11.09 E.A.K. 51 Emulator Junior . . 5 years Scott, Lyon Hopetoun 3.8.07 W.J.C. 1701 Ensign Aged Jno. Hargreaves, Tallangatta 21.9.09 W.J.C. 62/2 Ensign's Pride 2 years junr. J. J. Egan Wodonga 20.9.09 W.J.C. 1123 Era 5 years E. Boland Terang . . 19.8.08 J.L. 1163 Ethelator . . Aged J. W. West Kyabram 24.8.08 W.R. 949 Ettrickdale 5 years W. Cock Melbourne 5.8.08 W.R. 1596 Explosion 6 years J. McAuliffe Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 262 Fast Time 4 years K. Stewart Cobram . . 23.8.07 N.McD^ 116 Federation 5 years R. Davidson Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C, 1432 Fireaway's Wonder 4 years Fred. C. Smith . . Horsham 14.7,09 W.J.C. 1406 First Clem 3 years D. Rowe Camperdown Show 26.11.08 E.A.K. 64 First Landor 5 years Geo. Connor Colac . . 7.8.07 S.S.C. 375 Flashwood 5 years Jno. Griffin St. Amaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 480 Forest Boy 6 years L. Fawkner Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. 1691 Frisk Aged W. Stewart Dandenong 21.9.09 W.R. 542 Galloway . . Horsham Show . . 24.9.07 S.S.C. 1375 Galway 5 years B. Conole Portland 7.10.08 W.J.C. 547 Garfield . . Aged R. A. Gibson Hamilton Show . . 19.9.07 N.McD. 1024 Garnet 4 years J. T. Ingram Romsey 14.8.08 W.J.C. 1707 Gaylad Aged S. Uren Korumburra 22.9.09 W.R. 164/3 Gay Laddie 3 years Edward Cuthbert C'amperdown 8.9.09 AV.R. 1130 General Aged P. H. Satchwell . . Camperdown 19.8.08 J.L. 281 Gladstone Aged — Collins Tatura .. 24.8.07 W.R. 1708 Glengarry 5 years Thos. Perridgc . . Cranbourne 23.9.09 W.J.C. 457 Glengarry T. W. McCuUough Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 1645 Gold Dust 5 years J. Williamson Ballarat 11.9.09 W.J.C. 188/3 Golden King 3 years J. Simmons Warragul 23.9.09 W.R. 1635 Governor . . 6 years Chas. Bayne Colac 9.9.09 W.R. 959 Gratis R. Crawford Numurkah 4.8.08 S.S.C. 917 Graywood Aged P. Glasheen Charlton 23.7.08 W.J.C. 628 Grey Steel 6 years S. McNabb Maffra Show 24.10.07 W.J.C. 63 Griffo Aged T. Daffy Colac 7.8.07 S.S.C. 1104 Gulliver . . 3 years Rd. Crowle St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. 205 Hamilton Emulator Junior Harlequin 5 years W. H. Horn Hamilton 17.8.07 W.R. 620 4 years J. Daniel Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 444 Heather Jock Aged R. BoUis Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 123/3 Heather Joek 3 years Oscar Thomas Dimboola 20.8.09 W.J.C. 238 Heather Lea Aged Bison & O'Keefe.. NhiD . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 52/3 Hercules . . 3 years S. T. Alford Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 1206 Here It Is 4 years i W. E. RosUng . . 1 Royal Show 28.8.08 J.L. II April, 1910.] List of Certificated Stallions. 269 List of Certificated Stallions — ooniinued. Oert. No. 1 Name of Horse. 1 Age. Owner. Parade. ! Date. Officer. 1 1 i Ponies — continued. 191 1 Here's Luck 4 years F. C. Thomas Warracknabeal . . 15.8.07 W.R. 1333 Highlandman Aged W. Peacock Warragul 24.9.08 W.R. 1488 Ian Dhu . . 5 years P. C. Richards . . Ararat . . 9.8.09 W.R. 1391 Jack Spratt Aged Paterson Bros. . . Numurkah Show 23.10.08 E.A.K. 94 Jimmy Governor Aged Wm. Nosedale Melton . . 10.8.07 S.S.C. 1360 J.M. 5 years Joseph Anderson. . Corryong 3.10.08 E.A.K. 13 John Gilpin 6 years J. Patterson Mirboo . . 25.10.06 S.S.C. 680 .Tohnny O'More 6 years John McDonald . . Grantville and Jee- tho Show 16.1.08 W.R. 193 Joliu Osterley Junior 4 years Thompson Bros. . . Warracknabeal . . 14.8.07 W.R. 49/3 Joy Bells . . 3 years Mrs. E. Montgo- Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 1718 JubUant . . 6 years mery C. Lancaster Castlemaine 23.9.09 E.A.K. 1361 Jubilee Aged T. B. Waters, jun. Corryong 3.10.08 E.A.K. 435 Kaizer II. Aged A. S. O'Keefe Royal Show 7.9.07 S.S.C. 1334 Kelpie Aged G. Freekleton Warragul 24.9.08 W.R. 1136 Kins 6 years W. H. Morgan Donald . . 19.8.08 E.A.K. 619 King BaUy Aged Downey & Lums- den F. J. Ellsworth . . Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 623 King Ballv's Pride . . 3 years Ballarat Show . . 17.10.07 S.S.C. 52 King BiUy Aged H. Jenkins Hopetoun 3.8.07 W.J.C. 1636 King James Aged Beazley Estate . . Colac . . 9.9.09 W.R. 501 King James 5 years Wm. Johnson Mirboo North 24.9.07 N.McD. 1300 King Jimmie Aged P. Pearce Smeaton 17.9.08 J.L. 6 King Jimmy 4 years E. Wilson Korumburra 29.9.06 S.S.C. 593 King Jimmy Aged B. Tankard Maryborough Show 16.10.07 S.S.C. 1387 King Jimmy II. 5 years T. Larcombe Geelong Show 21.10.08 W.J.C. 1629 King Pasha Aged Michael Hickey . . Camperdown 8.9.09 W.R. 1171 Landmark 5 years W. J. Cannon Condah . . 26.8.08 J.L. 373 Larry Boy P. Clover St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 176 Lawyer Aged J. A. Cooper Maffra .. 18.8.07 W.J.C. 1301 Lee Rose . . Aged J. J. Sullivan Smeaton 17.9.08 J.L. 386 Leetch Aged A. Ferguson Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 299 Leopard . . Aged H. Baldock Kaniva . . 28.8.07 N.McD. 1612 Leo's Pride 4 years A. H. Scott Royal Sliow 31.8.09 W.R. 888 Little Bert 3 years A. W. Ragg Agricultural Offices 1.8.08 W.R. 1323 Little JacJi 3 years R. J. Argvle Kyneton 24.9.08 W.J.C. 1685 Little Jack Horner 4 years W. B. Irvine Bairnsdale 15.9.09 W.R. 167 Little Jim. . Aged P. J. McAuliffe . . Benalla . . 17.8.07 S.S.C. 637 Little Jim. . 6 years H. E. Beard Colac Show 24.10.07 S.S.C. 1411 Little Johnnie 3 years Jno. Hancock Colac 28.11.08 E.A.K. 1324 Little Mick 3 years N. Aitken Kyneton 24.9.08 W.J.C. 242 Little Pride Aged W. H. Treloar . . 1 NhiU . . 21.8.07 S.S.C. 521 Little Tich 5 years W. Hogan Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 1558 Little Warrior 4 vears J. White Benalla 23.8.09 J.L. 219 Little "Wonder Aged J. White j Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 707 Little Wonder 3 years A. Wells Melbourne 14.7.08 S.S.C. 403 Little Wonder Aged F. McDonald Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 36/2 Little Wonder II. . . 2 years M. Ryan Minvip . . 17.8.09 W.J.C. 890 Llandor Aged W. Nebel Agricultural Offices 1.8.08 W.R. 740 Llandovery 5 years J. Phillips 1 Agricultural Offices 18.7.08 W.R. 1413 Llewyn True Blue . . Aged G. L. Wilson Melbourne 21.12.08 W.J.C. 156/3 Lou Lou's Dandy . . 3 years C. Jones and Sons Royal Show 31.8.09 W.J.C. 496 Lord Brassey Aged A. E. Millar Stawell Show 18.9.07 W.R. 499 Lord Brassev II. Aged A. Miller Rupanyup 20.9.07 W.R. 40 Lord Dandy 5 years Jas. Alexander . . Traralgon 31.7.07 S.S.C. 484 Lord Roberts Aged J. Biggar Korumburra 18.9.07 W.J.C. 1632 Made to Order 6 years H. Wright Portland 9.9.09 E.A.K. 1013 Mahomet . . A. Brown Minyip . . 12.8.08 W.R. 191/3 Maori 3 years C. Tulloch Korumburra 22.9.09 W.R. 442 Marbro Aged J. Davidson Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 173/3 Mardanite II. 3 years A. Webb Mirboo . . 14.9.09 W.R. 1106 Masher Boy Aged Bilton Bros. St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. 1544 Ma?k Dandy Aged George Neild Swan Hill 18.8.09 W.R. 186/3 Melboy 3 years A. Bikerdike Bunyip . . 20.9.09 W.R. 1215 Mick Aged W. Sealey, jun. . . Casterton 26.8.08 W.J.C. 76 Mickey Free Aged J. Mclnerney Dookie . . 27.7.07 W.J.C. 140 Midnight . . Aged J. O'Brien Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 184/3 Midwinter 3 years Jas. McGill TaUaugatta 21.9.09 W.J.C. 486 Minstrel 4 years R. N. Scott Korumburra 18.9.07 W.J.C. 17 Monowai . . Aged S. Perrin Mirboo . . 25.10.06 S.S.C. 1485 Monte Bells 4 years C. Nolte Casterton 6.8.09 W.J.C. 55/3 Mountain Bells 3 years J. C. Porter Melbourne 27.7.09 W.R. 1312 My Own . . 6 years Jno. Minns Melton . . 18.9.08 J.L. 1107 Xajar Reed 4 years J. Bray St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. Journal of Agriculture. [ii April, 19 io. List of Certificated Stallions — con'innel. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date. Officer. Ponies — contimu d. 320 Nelson Aged White Bros. . . Lilydale . 23.8.07 W.J.C. 341 Newbold . . Aged Thos. Brown . . Elmore . . 26.8.07 W.J.C. 991 Nick-a-Jack 6 years J. Silva . . Tallangatta 7.8.08 W.R. 148 Nigger Aged P. Quirk . . , Sea Lake 15.8.07 N.McO. 108/3 Nipper 3 years W. Kennedy, junr. Nhill 18.8.09 W.J.C. 1264 Orion Aged W. Shaw 1 Ballarat 11.9.08 W.J.C. 981 Parsee Aged Witherow Bros. . . Wangaratta 5.8.08 W.J.C. 106 Pasha — Bones Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 130/3 Patrick T. 3 years A. Colvin Nathalia 24.8.09 W.J.C. 1489 Pearlfisher Aged D. J. Crossley Ararat . . 9.8.09 W.R. 393 Peep of Day Aged W. G. Hiclvs Seymour 29.8.07 W.J.C. 51/2 Perfection 2 veirs G. G. Orchard . . Royal Show 31.8.09 W.J.C. 1457 Petit Maitre A'^cd J. R. Johnston . . 1 Melbourne 27.7.09 J.L. 1403 Pippin A'cd Harrison Bros. . . i Ballarat Show . . 12.11.08 W.R. 217 Planet 5 ^.;jrs Neil McGilp . . ' Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 252 Planet A.ed W. Raven 1 Yarrani 21.8.07 N.McD. Sib Pluto Aged J. M. Scott Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 215 Polo Aged Quinlan & McLean j Minyip . . 21.8.07 W.R. 1436 Polo Clem . . 4 years Quinlan and McLean 1 Horsham 14.7.09 W.J.C. 379 President . . 6 years A. & D. Parry . . St. Amaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 1327 Preston 3 years McClare and Son Kvneton 24.9.08 W.J.C. 1373 Prospect . . Aged Jake Pill Portland 7.10.08 W.J.C. 478 Prince Bally 6 years J. J. O'Meara Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. 204/3 Prince Dandy 3 years F. Irish .Agricultural Offices 20.11.09 E.A.K. 1029 Prince Leo IT. 3 years R. F. Watson Agricultural Offices 15.8.0S W.R. 669 Prince Leo Junior . . 3 years J. E. Phillips Ucidclbcrg 13.11.07 S.S.C. 1567 Prince Rufus Aged A. E. Ambler Vurrawcinga 24.8.09 J.L. 621 Quercus . . 6 years A. E. CaUow Ballarat Show 17.10.07 S.S.C. 694 Quicksilver Aged P. Dore Bunyip Show 26.2.08 W.R. 82/3 Radium 3 years S. Lancaster Goroke . . 4.S.09 E.A.K. 1490 Rafferty . . Aged F. Herbertson Ararat . . 9.8.09 W.R. 941 Ranii Aged J. Sangster Heatcliote 3.8.08 W.R. 671 Reuben Aged R. P. Nicol Yarram Show 20.11.07 W.J.C. 1281 Rhyll Aged McMillan Bros. . . Lang Lang 11.9.08 E.A.K. 65 Rhymney 5 years C. T. Lucas Colac 7.8.07 S.S.C. 1652 Rhysharold Aged A. Hunt Kilmore 14.9.09 W.J.C. 1710 Riza Pasha Aged P. F. Meagher j Kyneton 21.9.09 E.A.K. 601 Robert 3 years Vandamme and Foster j Coburg . . 23.10.07 N.McD. 1550 Robin Aged Jno. Dalmain Geelong 19.8.09 J.L. 172 Rob Roy . . J. R. & H. J. Man- Matfra .. 16.8.07 W.J.C. 192 Rob Roy . . 6 years son W. J. Clarke Warracknabeal . . 14.8.07 W.R. 1392 Rob Roy . . 6 years Hugh Burke Numurkah Show 23.10.08 E.A.K. 1656 Rocket 4 years R. Pinnock Lilydale 11.9.09 E.A.K. 1615 Roman Warrior Aged Capt. Phillip Char- ley A. W. Acocks . . Royal Show 31.8.09 W.R 1364 Rory's Pride Aged Corryong 3.10.08 E.A.K. 139 Rosslyn . . J. B. Bryan Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 199/3 Rover 3 years W. Troup \\ erribee 21.10.09 W.J.C. 531 Roy 3 years Suremerhill Stud Farm Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 113 Roy 3 years A. Robinson Euroa . . 14.8.07 S.S.C. 900 Roy Aged W. Pitcairn j Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 1208 Roy Aged T. E. Smith ! Royal Show 28.8.08 E.A.K. 1108 Rush Harold 4 years W. T. Boulton . . St. Arnaud 18.8.08 E.A.K. 774 Rusty Aged Thos. Grace Goroke . . 21.7.03 S.S.C. 100/3 Royal Dandy 3 years Patrick Furey Boort . . 10.8.09 E.A.K. 1196 Royal Fauntleroy . . 4 years P. D. Ferrier 1 Royal Show 28.8.08 J.L. 1117 Sahara Aged C. L. Green '. Bairnsdale 19.8.08 W.R. 983 Samson Aged J. Simn-on : Wanga'^atta 5.8.08 W.J.C. 467 Sam Weller Aged Jno. Hicks 1 Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 105/3 Sarsficld . . 3 years Thos. Long j Minyip . . 17.8.09 W\J.C. 1217 Seccoloni . . Aged G. McClyon 1 Casterton 26.8.08 W.J.C. 369 Shamrock . . Aged A. Ross i St. Arnaud 28.8.07 W.J.C. 25 Shamrock . . 6 years Gildea Bros. Horsham 18.7.07 S.S.C. 1197 Shamrock . . 4 years Jas. May 1 Royal Show 28.8.08 W.R. 962 Shanter 11. Aged Joe Stephens Numurkah 4.8.08 S.S.C. 771 Shanter Again 6 years Chas. McKay \ StaweU . . 20.7.08 S.S.C. 759 Shanter's Ghost 5 years E. Mclntyre Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 203 Shroff King Aged W. S. Anderson . . j Horsham 17.8.07 W.R. 1126 Shylock II. Aged Fred. Coy Terang . . 19.8.08 J.L. 639 Silverbells Aged W. H. Boston 1 Colac Show 24.10.07 S.S.C. 1014 Silver Boy Aged R. Glover, jun. . . Minyip . . 12.8.08 W.R. II April, 1910.] List of Certificaicd Stallions. 271 List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. OvraeT. Parade. Date. Officer. 1 Ponies — continued. 1500 Silver King 5 years H. Nay lor Beulah . . 12.8.09 J.L. 1592 Silver King 5 years H. Gulliver Wangaratta 25.8.09 W.J.C. 61/2 Silver King 2 year-s B. A. Hall Maffra . . 18.9.09 W.R. 775 Silver King Aged A. B. Burns Goroke . . 21.7.08 S.S.C. 1209 Silver Prince 4 years J. Prout Royal Show 28.8.08 W.R. 181/3 Sirdan . . . . j 3 years k. Ward . . \ Seymour 17.9.09 W.J.C. 409 Siva Junr. 5 years G. F. Elliott Mansfield 30.8.07 W.J.C. 357 Skipper . . 4 years T. Gray Echuca . . 24.8.07 W.J.C. 761 Skylark . . Aged Copping Bros. Horsham 16.7.08 S.S.C. 690 Sloper 3 years T. Patullo Bunyip Show 26.2.08 W.R. 443 Smithill's Fireboy . . 3 years W. B. Harper Warrnambool 10.9.07 W.J.C. 906 Snapshot . . Aged F. H. Walsh Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 1507 Snowball . . 4 years C. Alson Jeparit . . 11.8.09 W.J.C. 168 Soda Aged — • Rogash Benalla 17.8.07 ss.c. 1482 Souter 6 vears Jas. Fogarty Agricultural Offices 7.8.09 W.R. 597 Souter Johnnie Junr. Aged Kelly and Zimmer- Donald . . 14.8.07 W.J.C. 992 Sovereign . . 4 years J. McDonald Tallangatta 7.8.08 W.R. 566 Speculation Aged S. Archibald Numurkah Show 9.10.07 W.J.C. 689 Sprightly . . Aged C. J. Bradbury . . Leongatha Show- 11.2.07 S.S.C. 84/3 Squib 3 years D. Robcrts(jn Ararat . . 9.8.09 W.R. 1655 Starlight . . 5 years G. Faucke Morwell 13.9.09 W.R. 394 Steel Arrow Aged H. Sawyer Seymour 29.8.07 W.J.C. 1514 St. Enuc . . Aged P. A. West Beaufort 13.8.09 W.J.C. 430 Subadah . . Aged R. W. Noble Geelong 31.8.07 S.S.C. 285 Sultan Aged H. Gordon Tatura . . 24.8.07 W.R. 31 Sultan Aged W. Baker Horsham 18.7.07 S.S.C. 1297 Sunbeam . . Aged Mrs. B. FolUott Sandford Lilydale 17.9.08 E.A.K. 1005 Sunbeam . . 3 years W. Church Dookie . . 8.8.08 E.A.K. 515 Sunrise 6 years Blight Bros. Elmore Show 25.9.07 W.R. 1491 Swift 6 years J. Gleeson Ararat . . 9.8.09 W.R. 1583 Sir Charles 6 years L. and E. Harri.son Rochester 30.8.09 J.L. 1337 Sir Fauntleroy 3 years F. A. Gilbertson . . Warrapul 249.08 W.R. 904 Sir Hector Aged T. Pemill Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C 7 Sir Richard III. 5 years Clarke Bros. Korumburra 29.6.06 S.S.C. 1003 Sir Rupert 6 years J. Melnernev Dookie . . 8.8.08 E.A.K. 665 Taffy 5 years A. Williams Traralgon Show . . 13.11.07 W.R. 909 Taffy Aged C. Piffero Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 510 Tarn Aged — Quinn Caniperdown Show 26.9.07 W.J.C. 3 66 Tarn O'Shanter 6 years H. Burness Benalla 17.8.07 S.S.C. 1549 Tam O'Shanter Aged R. C. Hannah Donald . . 19.8.09 E.A.K. 583 Tam O'Shanter Aged A. Haebish Jeparit Show 16.10.07 W.J.C. 1066 Tam O'Shanter 3 years T. W. Constable . . Colac . . 18.8.08 W.J.C. 338 Teviot Aged J. Spark Elmore . . 26.8.07 W.J.C. 479 Timmy Aged G. Bond Morwell 16.9.07 W.J.C. 1653 Tom iloore Aged R. Stubber Mirboo . . 14.9.09 W.R. 471 Tommy 4 years Jno. Turner Alexandra 14.9.07 W.J.C. 1384 Tommy Bent 5 years R. London Bendico Show 14.10.08 E.A.K. 1047 Tommy Bent 4 years Harry Jenz Jeparit . . 13.8.08 J.L. 1601 Tommy Burns 5 years W. Burke Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 47 Tommy Dod Aged S. S. Davey Pyramid 3.8.07 S.S.C. 1642 Trm fit . . Aged R. Jukes Maryborough 11.9.09 W.J.C. 995 Toney II. 4 years M. Hagan Euroa . . 7.8.08 W.J.C. 263 Tony 4 years W. Kennedy Cobram 23.8.07 N.McD. 1172 Trump Aged A. W. Thompson Condah 26.8.08 J.L. 914 Twilight . . 4 years Alf. Neave Melbourne 28.7.08 W.R. 527 Tyrone Aged A. W. Harvey Kyneton 26.9.07 W.R. 487 The Bohemian 5 years C. J. Colgan Korumburra 18.9.07 W.J.C. 157/3 The Colonel 3 years Geo. Woodmason Roval Show 31.8.09 W.J.C- 177 The Count 5 years T. B. Anderson . . Maffra . . 16.8.07 W.J.C. 135/3 The Don . . 3 years E. Ryan Benalla 23.8.09 J.L. 15 The Dude — HaU Mirboo . . 25.10.06 S.S.C. 1410 The Gaffer 5 years Jno. R. Mallinson Camperdown Show 26.11.08 E.A.K. 1509 The Joker.. Aged H. H. WhitHeld . . Kaniva . . 12.8.09 W.J.C. 1600 The Joker . . 6 years W. Whci-liT. jun. Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 1510 The Kaffir 6 years T. N. Skinni-r Kaniva . . 12.8.09 W.J.C. 910 The King . . 4 years J. Widdis Melbourne 28.7.08 W.J.C. 1340 The Lad . . 4 years F. H. Beasley Warragul 24 9.08 W.R. 389 The Masher 3 years Tompkins Bros. . . Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 1234 The Masher Aged Harper Wasson . . Leongatha 9.9.08 E.A.K. 138 The Premier F. W. Briggs Wangaratta 15.8.07 S.S.C. 387 The Souter Aged A. Porteous Casterton 28.8.07 W.R. 1599 The Swell 4 years J. A. O'Dnnnel . . Rutherglen 26.8.09 W.J.C. 697 The Warrior 4 years — McKoy Tallangatta Show 5.3.08 W.J.C. ■Cert. No. Journal of Agriculture . [ii April, 1910. List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Officer. 695 The Welsh Prince 1345 206 1173 1182 1560 915 218 1508 1608 1268 98 967 34/3 1203 193/3 1067 437 1616 1079 512 493 764 69 1306 216 1385 651 7S 604 1132 1617 1145 27 777 240 1717 1278 540 327 1158 956 277 11 1671 1609 408 378 1176 594 1061 1353 889 1231 567 1404 574 767 1331 660 1082 1412 500 1088 1089 1515 Uncle Sol . . Utah Vanity Victor Victory Victory Von Atom II. Wakeful Dick Wallasey Ping Pong Wanrua Lad Wee Gibbie Wee Mick Welsh Flyer Welsh Flyer IV. . . Welslimau Whalebone What's Wanted Who Comes Here . . Wizard Young Aladdin Young Australia Young Bally Gaully Young Brigham Young Brigham Young Brigliam Young Britain Young Briton Young Briton Young Briton Young Clem Young Comet II. Young Dandy Young Dandy II. . . Young Docken Young Doctor Young Emulator Young Fauntleroy . . Young Garfield Young General Young Gladstone . . Young Governor Tracy Young Haukam Young Hero Young Hero Young Hero Young Hero Young Hero Young Kiki Young King Charles Young Leopard Young Lingcropper Young Llandor Young Natty Young Nelson Young Prince Alad- din Young Robin Young Rory O'More Young Rysharold . . Young Sailor Young Sampson Young Shanter Young Silver King Young Texas Young Tommy Dod Young Trafalgar . Aged Aged Aged Aged 6 years Aged 4 years 5 years Aged 5 years 5 years 4 years 5 years 3 years Aged 3 years Aged Aged 4 years 4 years Aged 5 years Aged 4 years Aged Aged 4 years Aged 5 years 5 years 4 years Aged 5 years 5 years 4 years 4 years Aged 4 years 3 years 3 years Aged 5 years Aged Aged 6 years 4 years 5 years Aged Aged 3 years 6 years 6 years Aged 3 years 5 years Aged 6 years 4 years 5 years 3 years 6 years 5 years W. Marshall M. McCartin J. H. Tuckett Jas. Baker Alex. Scott J. B. Wilson T. H. L. Rodda A. J. PhilUps T. Moss S. Winter Cooke E. Culvenoi G. Yetman W. Stewart W. Nebel P. Cain Jno. Paterson R. E. Ralph J. Taylor, jun. Jas. Hamilton J. Brown J. F. Kirby W. Barker P. Ambler A. T. DarUng R. A. Bateson F. Saltmarsh G. A. Dunnett Ponies — continued. Mrs. B. FoUiott Sandford Jno. McDonald Malcolm Bros. D. Coutts C. Young J. A. McLelland Jno. Bell G. Padget Turvey and Son Hope Osborne and Bros. K. Taylor J. Devlin and Son Thos. Haley Jno. F. Beasley . . S.O. and E.N. Wood Wni. Hogan R. Farquharson . . S. O. Wood G. Forsyth Jno. Kendall R. Kelly J. A. Dalgleish . . Mrs. J. C. Bullen A. S. Lucas T. Parkin D. McGilp O. Vegele J. O'Keefe W. G. Ballantyne Heinz Bros. J. J. Wiggins R. Whitechurch . . W. Horswood A. E. Officer M. O'Neil W. Kennedy Skehan Bros. Wm. McCraw Lilydale Show Horsham Show Hamilton Condah . . Ararat . . BenaUa Melbourne Minyip . . Jeparit . . Royal Show Baliarat Murtoa . . Tungamah Horsham Royal Show Kyneton Colac Royal Show Royal Show Bendigo Camperdown StaweU . . Horsham Colac Smeaton Minyip . . Bendigo Show Murchison Show Dookie . . Baliarat Show Camperdown Royal Show Berwick Horsham Goroke . . NhiU . . Romsey. . Lang Lang Horsham Show Lilydale Geelong Nathalia Shepparton Korumburra Berwick Royal Show Mansfield St. Arnaud Condah Maryborough Rainbow Yarrawonga Show Agricultural Offices Mirboo North Numurkah Show Baliarat Show Dimboola Show . . Horsham Kyneton Coleraine Show . . Bendigo Agricultural Offices Rupanyup Show Kaniva . . Kaniva . . ' Beaufort 4.3.08 25.9.08 17.8.07 26.8.08 7.9.08 23.8.09 28.7.08 21.8.07 11.8.09 31.8.09 11.9.08 9.8.07 4.8.08 15.7.09 28.8.08 21.9.09 18.8.08 7.9.07 31.8.09 19.8.08 26.9.07 18.9.07 16.7.08 7.8.0? 17.9.08 21.8.07 14.10.08 30.10.07 27.7.07 17.10.07 19.8.08 31.8.09 21.8.08 18.7.07 21.7.08 21.8.07 20.9.09 11.9.08 24.9.07 23.8.07 20.8.08 3.8.08 24.8.07 29.9.06 17.9.09 31.8.09 30.8.07 28.8.07 26.8.08 16.10.07 11.8.08 23.9.08 1.8.08 8.9.08 9.10.07 12.11.08 11.10.07 16.7.08 24.9.08 6.11.07 19.8.08 3.12.08 20.9.07 15.8.08 15.8.08 13.8.09 W.R. S.S.C. W.R. J.L. W.J.C. J.L. W.J.C. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. J.L. E.A.K. J.L. S.S.C. W.R. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. J.L. W.R. E.A.K. W.R. W.J.C. S.S.C. J.L. W.R. W.R. S.S.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. E.A.K. E.A.K. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. S.S.C. E.A.K. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. J.L. S.S.C. E.A.K. J.L. W.R. W.R,. W.J.C. W.R. S.S.C. S.S.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.J.C. W.R. W.R. E.A.K. E.A.K. W.J.C. flgriealtuFal Edaeation in Victoria. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. H. PYE, Principal. The College offers every facility to students to become competent agriculturists, vigneions, and dairymen. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the ploughing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle, o<) horses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — £28 5s. per annum, payable half-j'early. Sessions begin first week in ^lareh and September. LONGERENONQ AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. G. A. SINCLAIR, Principal. One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demon- strating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vineyard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees — Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum, payable half- jearly. Sessions begin first week in March and September. BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE AND SMALL FARMING. E. E. PESCOTT, Principal. The School Course includes regular lectures in Agricultural and Horticultuial •Science, Veterinary Work and the Management of Animals, Dairying, Pig and Poultry Management, and kindred subjects. Fee — £5 per annum. WYUNA IRRIGATION FARM. G. H. TOLLEY, Manager. Students are admitted for three months' practical instruction in Irrigation Methods, including the Preparation of the Land, Af)plication of Water, Har- vesting and Marketing of Crops, Dairy Farming under Irrigation. Fee— £5 5s. Terms commence at any date. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 1910. Agricultural or other Societies wishing to have one or more jiublic lectures delivered during 1910 are requested to make early application, so as to permit of a complete syllabus being drawn up. Many of the lectures are illustrated by limelight views. The hall, advertising, &c., must be provided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Department. Staff — The Director, and Messrs. Archer, Cameron, Carmody, Carroll, Castella, Connor, Crowe, Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Kenyon, McFadzean, Pescott, Robertson, Smith, and Strong. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1910. At least thirty students, exclusive of school children, must be enrolled at each -centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid by the Agricultural Society under whose auspices the Class is held. Applications relative to the above Institutions, Lectures, and Classes should be sent -to the Secretary, Department of Ag:riciilture, Melbourne. On receipt of Post Card a copy •of the Prospectus of either College will be posted. RECENTLY PUBLISHED. '' The Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Yictoria.'^ By ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., GOVERNMENT BOTANIST AND PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE MELBOURNE UNIVERSITY, ASSISTED BY J. R. TOVEY, herbarium: assistant. 110 PAGES. CLOTH. 33 COLOURED PLATES. Copies may be obtained from T5e: Depaptment of Sgpiealtupe:, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. Price, 2s. 6d.; Postage. 5d. APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering price and postage, to be forwarded to Che Secretary /or )\griculture, jVIelbourne. Remittances from beyond the State to be made by Post '(!> Office Order. " A valuable contribution to the library of the rural producer." — Australasian. "This publication is one worthy of place on the bookshelf of every landholder in tlie State." — Leader. " Without a doubt the most informative book of its kind yet issued by the Agricultural Department." — W&fkly Times. " Although this excellent work applies .i)articularly to Victoria it will be found very valuable to residents in other States." — Paxt07-alists' Review. WHEAT IMPROVEMENT. 7ol. VIII. UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES. Parts. [Ke>;.stered at the General Post Office. Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper,] ■*W«»- \- ■raa^EJ»iWJ'igt-^aB6KU> WHEAT IMPROVEMENT: PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription—Victoria, inter-State, and N.Z., 3/-; British and Foreign, 6/..) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— MAY, 1910. PAOB. Wheat Improvement Committee — I. — Experimental Work at Longerenong Agricultural Col- lege, 1909-10 ... ... ... ... ... J. T. Pridham '27S II. — Rust and Smut Resistance in Wheat and Smut Experiments with Oats and Maize ... ... B. McAlpine 284 The Smut of Maize and its Treatment ... ... ... D. McAlpine 290 A Pioneer Maize Crop in the Wimmera ... ... ... /. 31. B. Connor 299 Lang Lang Fodder Crop Competition ... ... ... J. S. McFadzemi 302 Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard at the Rutherglen Viticultural College: Vintage 1910 ... ... ... ... G. H. Adcock 306 The Wiue Industry in Southern France (continued) ... F. de Castella 311 Orchard Studies — IL— The Laterals of Apple Trees ... ... ... E. E. Pescott 321 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pescott 324 Artificial Manures Acts — Analyses of Samples of Manures collected in the State ... P. R. Scott 327 Hereditary Unsoundness in Horses ... ... ... .f?. iS'. Cameron 328 Maize and Lucerne in Western District ... ... ... A. W. Fisher 348 Answers to Correspondents ... .. ... ... 351 Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates inside Jront cover Publications issued by the Department of Agriculture ... inside front cover Agricultural Education in Victoria — Uookie Agricultural College ... ... ... ... inside back cover Longerenong Agricultural College ... ... ... inside back cover Burnley School of Agriculture and Small Farming ... inside hack cover Wyuna Irrigation Farm ... ... ... ... inside back cover Lectures on .Agricultural Subjects ... ... ... inside back cover Agricultural Classes, 1910 ... ... ... ... inside hack cover Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria ... hack cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Tournal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wi.shing to republish any matter contained in the .Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledgment is made. The .Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; IIL (1905),9parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 1905), out of print ; IV. (1906), V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each, and Vtl. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. A few bound copies of Volumes VI. (1908), and VII. (1909) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume ; postage, Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should lis forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3s. per annum. Post free. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II. , IIL, and IV. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage— Parts I. and IL, 4d. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia, By D. McAlpine. 10s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. By Professor A. J. Ewart, 2s. 6d. Postage, 5d. Year Hook of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d, ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage— Cloth, 9d. ; paper, Sd. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d. per dozen. When ordering, mention "Monthly" or "Weekly." THe JCUHNAb OP ^fie department of Mgncufture OP VICTORIA. iBRARY ;iEW YOkl BOTANICA QAKUJaN. Vol. VIII. Part 5. 10th May, 1910. WHEAT IMPROVEMENT COMMITTEE. I.— EXPERIMENTAL WORK AT LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 1909-10. Mr. J. T. Pridham, Wheat Experimentalist, who is in charge of the wheat plots at the Longerenong Agricultural College, has furnished the Wheat Improvement Committee with the following notes on the work of the past year, 1909-10 : — Field Sowings. The fallow was clean and free from weeds until tlie last week of April, when the unusually heavy autumn rains set in. The sowing opera- tions were a good deal delayed and it was found impossible to cover the weeds which, early in May, germinated very thickly all over the area. The consequence was that the yields were rather poor although the College Purple Straw variety, which was sown under more favourable conditions than the others, at one time promised to yield 20 to 24 bushels per acre. It suffered severely, however, from heavy winds just before harvest and this was the case with other crops of Purple Straw in the Wimmera last season. The following are the yields obtained : — Variety. Bunyip Comeback College Purple Straw Yandilla King ... Federation Area. Acres. 9 8.8:; Sown. nth May 25th May 26th May 7th June nth June Yield per acre, bus. lbs. 14 48 40 45 4 are- 15 5 Federation, The varieties considered most suitable for the district Yandilla King and Bunvip. Federation stands up remarkably well, holds its grain very satisfactorily and matures early. Its chief recommendation to* the grower is its heavy yielding capacity. Attention has been drawn lateix' bv .some millers to 4613. K 74 Journal of Agric2tliure. [lo MAi', 1 910. the fact that Federation produces flour of a yellowish cf/lour to which the l)aker.s object. There used to be a prejudice against an\thing Ijut a perfectly white loaf in New South Wales but on a recent visit to that State it w^as found that a yellowish tint is not now objected to; as a matter of fact, such bread, as a rule, is mo;ie nutritious than bread of a starchy whiteness. It is to be hoped, in the interests of both consumer and fprmer, tliat the colour nufstinn in flour Avill not be too strongly insisted upon h\ the public. In England, America, India and Australia the wheats which produce the richest and best bread ar*- apt to show a yellow tint. Federation is a w"heat which is of good milling quality, as well as being a heavy grain producer, and if its grain be mixed with that of *<» it* varieties yielding weaker flour the Ijgak ' colour objected to can be overcome. TMlk In some country mills, where Fede- W9C ration is almost entirely grown in the njj^K,' district, there will be a difiiculty in HJHf securing a desirable blend until the .^Mf*^' public are satisfied Ayith bread of a less jjjM^rS. blanched appearance and richer in muscle-forming con.stituents. Yandilla King is late in maturing and, as our experiments for the past two vears show, produces a number of sterile spikelets— that is, forms a larger ear than it is able to fill with grain. In sjHte of this w^a.sted energy it is a prolific variety and has straw of medium height and stout quality. It holds its grain satisfactorily and produces flour of medium strength, rather white in colour and with a good percentage of gluten. It is a good wheat for early sowings, while Fede- ration should be sown later and Bunyip last. Unlike Federation, it is a very fair hay wheat and the grain, when mixed with Federation, should find favour with millers. It does not be- come knocked about in rough weather the Purjjle Straw varieties for which it might well be WEEDING. like many of substituted. Bunyip is the quickest to mature of any variety we have \et grown in field trials and it produces a plump grain in almost any season. It should always be sown late and is a valuable ^•ariety to have when sowing is delayed by unfavourable weather ; it is also a very fair hay wheat. Although the straw is not strong, it stands up w^ell enough to be harvested. The experiment was tried of sowing this variety early last season but the straw grew^ too tall and showed a tendency to break down ; when sown towards the end of the season, howeyer. the straw is sliortcr and there is no \-ariety JO May,, 1910. \V/u\i/ I iiiproi'cnicut C ommiitce. 275 that will grow more (juickly and produce a good crop. It does not shake its grain with us and the sample is of very good milling quality. These three wheats should succeed in all wheat-growing districts except those subject to rusty seasons; where this disease is prevalent Marshall's Xo. 3 and Yandilla King will probal.lv give best results. Other \arieties deserving of mention are — College Purple Straiij, a good yielder. but liable to damage by heavy winds from a brittleness of the straw near the top, causing the ears to snap off. Comeback is a variety of the highest milling excellence, but we Cannot recommend it to farmers on account of the relativelv poor return it gi^'es in comparison with Federation, and, until cjualitv in the grain of wlient is recngnised, it will not pay the grower to sow it. -r CROSSBREDS AND THEIR MOTHERS. (The liue stands aj^ninst a row of crosses (first generation). The crosses are the more vigorous.) Daft' s Imperial is a good variety for hav and might be grown to some extent for grain, but the flour it yields is weak and on an average it is certainly not so p.rolific as Federation. Single Row Experiments. Single rows, as opposed to field sowings with the seed-drill, were planted to the extent of nearly 3 acres. They are i chain long and the grains are dropped by hand singly 6 inches apart in the rows. The following- areas were sown in this wav : — ■ Variety. Area. Acres. \ ie!( 13 1 per Acre, ushel.s. Comeback • S 1^5 Bunvip . ^ (h Amarilla Oat .ofay 22i Crossbred Oat " 1^6" .142 10? Pedigree Worhi s Cham P ion ]5arley ... K 2 -.33 19S- 276 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1 910. Oats and Baric v. — The AmarilU Oat closely resembles Algerian but is reputed to be a heavier grain-yielder. Oat No. 136 is a cross between Carter's Royal Cluster and Algerian and appears to yield quite as heavy a crop of hay as Algerian, and almost as much grain as that variety. It should replace the white oats where these are grown, as it produces a plumper sample of grain than the New Zealand and Tasmanian oats when grown in this State. Some 120 rows were sown with a number of varieties obtained from Mr. Peacock of the Bathurst Experiment Farm, N.S.W. ; also with crossbreds which grew here last season. Algerian oats succeeded test on an average. This variety was planted in every fifth row foj comparison with the others. The barley yielded a good sample of grain, but this is not a certain crop in the district and, except on soil of very uniform character, does not ripen evenly. Varietv trial. — In the second week of June. 139 rows were sown as a " varietv trial " with Pederation in every fifth row, the remainder being CROSSING WHEAT. (An anther containing ]iollen is suspended from the end of the forceps.) planted with a different varietv in each. It is necessary to have check rows of a standard variety at regular intervals so that accurate comparisons mav be made. A number of plants selected from field crops in the Wimmera were sown in this section ; a few of them exceeded Federation in vield and will be further used in crossing. In consequence of the crab-holey or uneven nature of the soil, it is found that more reliable results are secured by comparing the yields of a given number of the test plants in a plot, than bv weighing the produce of entire plots. lo May, 19 io.] Wheat Improvement Committee. 277 A few very prolific strains of Purple Straw were isolated, but these, almost without exception, shake badly ; this propensity can be cor- rected by crossing with Indian or Fife- Indian varieties. Indian Wheats. — Of these wheats 55 rows were sown from samples obtained from the late W. Farrer's collertion in the possession of Mr. Sutton, Wheat Experimentalist at Cowra, New South Wales. Although they were planted as late as the 5th of August, they vielded a fair crop and came into flower in time for crossing with late-maturing varieties. Their strong points are earliness, ability to hold their grain well, shortness of straw (which, however, is not strong and is too flexible) and, as a rule, the production of grain of high milling qualitv. A number of rows were occupied b\ unfixed crossbreds whicli are undergoing a process of selection. Imported Wheats. Some Persian va.rieties wer^ grown and found to be almost all of a bearded character with heads unprolTfic in type. Some English and American sorts tried were very late in maturing but mav prove useful when crossed. The Past Season's Crossing Work. Over 100 crosses were made by my- self and my assistant, Mr. Tulloh, who is becoming proficient in the operation. Except where very small, late ears were employed ; there were no failures and the percentage throughout was satisfactory, the weather being favourable. The object in view was to secure wheats on the lines of Federation : prolific yielders with compact heads and short straw, assuming from last season's results that a short-straw variety is able to put more of its energy into grain- formation than a wheat with tall straw. The varieties produced must be of satisfactory milling quality and have no defect in the field which would disqualify them in the eyes of the farmer. Pedigree or Stud-breeding. Until superseded by a new variety we endeavour to keep the best of the old varieties up to a high standard of yield and quality by propagating from an approved strain, much in the same way as poultry breeders do with fowls, which can be traced back to a single prolific individual. The practice of gathering a number of fine heads in a field of wheat, irrespec- tive of the character of the plants from which thev are taken, can only result in an unsatisfactory mixture. Although we have no new ^■a^iet\• as vet which stands out conspicuously from the rest, we have some ])romising material in hand. The work of plant-breeding and improvement is nece.ssarily slow, but its results, if persevered with on sound lines, are none the less sure. crossed head of wheat. Journal of Agriculture. [ro May, 1910^ THRESHING SELECIKD IM.AM The Principal oif the College, Mr. G. A. Sinclair, has shown his sympathy with the work the Department is carrying oiut here, and we are' much indebted to him for facilities afforded. HARVESTING SMALL SAMPLES. so May, 1910.] W'/n'at ////prore/iicnt C onimittee. 279 OOOvOu^ifSCOiOCCOOXOCCCO^COO'OOOOOOOOvftiCi-OOOCOvCC CDCOtOai<3l'NOOCCOiirtCOOOir-iOiO-^ittQOcDiACDvO?0'rfOOTtCCC310 inC^CCCOiriC^lCO'rt.i>c*:)'MCOl>--rit>iCOOOQOQOOt>COC3SC.-iM'— •OOir-iI>0'~rM:DCOOi'MrHCOOO^aO!0'-iX^ '>]'^t^»ncoX'Caursuoco<:DOOi>OOOOiTt^:0'*o»n'*a2':ot^X'^05G'l«t^Ooo5, , ,. . . > „ . . , . . - ^. .,^ ^^ ^ - ., . >.^ w w w- '.-. .-- ^-3 00 ^ 00 !£> • SiO«i<:Dc _ — — — -.-- ._ - ..- — - . __-._ 3'>:)in-^-*»n'Mco'-t*'Tt«-^co»a'*iA'^Ti4^'^coin'^iocoTji(MiQics C0C0C0?OO'*'*C0r-IOXO< r-l,-(,-HC7'Mr-lnHi-H(N CO 3C0CO CO . , I I (M I ^ (M (M CI iM CO 00 Ol 01 1 Ol CO 00 01 coco 00 COCO CO 00 CO I ICOICOI ICOl lOOM 01 oi 01 oi 01 0101 01 be i Is sterile Spike- lets. 6 Fertile Spike- lets. ■w D. hes). w .1 ■• no uO CO I I I I CO -^ -^ 01 X t^ o lO 00 -^ '^ -I* M -^ I 1 I -* I '' •^ Ol CO CO CO I 01 CO CO I Ol Ol iO I> O OSvOI>OSOiOXt*OSOSrHCO'-iX01I^OSt'*XOXi-tI>XOX.aSi-(I>.»-lG 0 ' ' ' '^ '0 '--''''-' -•^'''''''''''■---'^ if3'-l-H«WQ0C<3a0t0lM^O00Oi-l00t-l>t~(MtOa00005rt-.0t~tOI>'MX(MO.-l^l^l(^Jc«mllt>rHlflO.-l(N0iC0Oin'MX(MOi-t05 l>.i-t?DOCOGOiOfM(M»HOi:^iA'-i'*OCOOOiiAOO!D CD GOOa00:i;=300Oir5O-^OOinOm<£'OI>O0ii0O(M0i iOTt*I>O'^CDc0?DOI>?Dt*I>OI>cC>l>I>Ot*00«0t^O00T-H>-0iO'-li-H>JAOO0S- S-C ^-COOlCOfH■rtT-i;r;:DoO'*i>oOi-iosajoo:ooxoocDTt*irtccc ■2^ aS 5S| O Am o 5 S K c CCCCiOl^CC'*^CO"-0^-^-<*<- ■§.•35 ^ o m W's.a S o < fa NN0aMN(N I r I OOOSi-tOt^QOrHOS(NQOIN *00'-t0SXt^00i-<0i(N0005i-lrH0iOit^0S0iO rH|>-H-'*Ot^-^CO(NifteD?Oi«CO^«DO:-t*-*r*l:^ Hei>HN HmHw HWHn H»> '^•^'*C0COtJ*COCOC0COCO-^C0COC0C0COC0C0CO^CCC0C0C0C0COC0C0'«*^C0COC0-^-* k/iift"*C0-tC0COC0COTt*C0COC0C0C0COCOCOCOC0C0COCOCOCOC0C0COCOC0C0C0COCOCOC0 Sf^o (z; 0I2: o izio W'" oS !0 00 to 0 IN 00 t^ (N 00 t~ 00 1-1 (N vn t^ IN C~ IN to «0 0> 00 r-l t- t- t~ i-H 1-1 00 i-l O O (N t~ r- ^i IN INININlNININ INININININNINININININININININININCOCOCOINININ' "=8 ^S HH -^ ^H O 0) o Oi 3 oj 3 If S is s m 0. 0) p, (D D. •gS -ss ^s faPM fa&H fal^ faflj rc3 ^3 r*QOCftOi-HC^CO'*iAcOr-OOOsOTH(MCO'^ir5cDt^xasOi-t(MCC'»tiOCDt*QOa50i-H(>» ao MaY; 1910.] Wheat Improve incut Committee. 281 ,^ ^ O 'd_ ■^OOt^«DO(M00I>t>OO0si>G^IO'^(MvoasO CC'0Di-H'»^O a000OO(©TtOiMO T-l-rtOSO O':0O0S0>00asOtD0SI>OOt'-01ir5OO0Si-HC0G0O00I>O00O OSOOOOOO 5fcct> < 5: "^S ^^ .--. = :::::. = : — ':: — :;:« r^ :.-." : m lO m ^ lo \o "as ClrHrHG1(NrHC^i-l r-li-Hi-li-li-H Oh — H !050!D^^^^^os:DcOtO!OcD:0^^!0!DO:OcOcO:Deo:D^O co^OcDO^ !0 «D«»nC0TjiOin^ Tt< CO M CO 00 CO CO I I I I COCO I I e INN (N ea(N(N « ■* CO IM ,_,rtrH|rHr-l|(Mt-lrHrHrHlrtrHrHi-l(Mlr-llr-lli-H-li-llr-l rHNICNI (N C O 3COCOCOCOCOCOWCOCOOtiCCCCCCCOCOCO«C « CO CO CC CO «o2 M »/5 rH u .-OoO roO ;;::"S°oO :oO"5 ID'S ;0 ;:"o o !z;o!zi o!2i oi^o!^; oszio lz;o ^ o '>;t*(MrHOrHr-lfM(MCOb-xosO'-HCxoOrH 232?2!52 i>t>i>t^i^t^r-xxxxxxxxxxoiOiaioiOiOiaiOioiojoo 00000 282 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. t^ > o Yield best Selected Plant Graded (drams) in CO t^ CO QO in 00 'Yi -n 10 CO CO 0 01 in 00 in t~ 00 00 00 CO OS in 0 0 in OS CO r^ 0 CD OS CO 000s Average Yield per Selected Plant Graded (drams). -J3 -t< t^ -* ^ 0 in S! CO 1-* 01 in CO QO ■* 00 t^ CO Tj^ CO ■* in CO TO CO 0 00 in 0 00 COCO OS OS 00 00 1 CO in Average Yield per Selected Plant Ungraded. 1 iiii 75-08 87-15 88-70 100-00 80-88 102-50 74-77 89-20 100 00 CO 0 OS OS 00 CO 0 r'? 000 000 ■^ 0 coo 00s ll IMCO-*-* 10 lA 0 t^ CO CO I-- CO CO CO — ' ^ 1-^ CO in t- in CO CD m 0 00 in CO 0 CO 0 t^ -t CO CD I- in 't [~ CO Date Har- vested, 1909-10. d c8 ; :; :: 1-5 10 10 in ift , , . J? d in in in 01 in in in in lO in mm 00 1~ Date Ripe, 1909. 0 r^ r* t^ t^ r^ r^ r^ 0 l^ - + <■ - No. 1 Heads No. per '• Plants Average Threshed Plant. 5£)tO;0 50 oco coco CO 0 CO CO coco coco in r^ [- y^ in t^ -f -t^ -.o 2 2 - 7' 1 CO CO m 5- No. Grains per Average Spike- let. CO CO CO coco 1 coco CO « ,« CO CO 1 CO CO 60 a 6 CO 01 01 01 01 CO Ol CO CO CO r-< 01 1 1 0 T-t 0-1 «» 03 (M o rneN 0 OS S>1 00 00 0 ,-H 1 rt rH (N OS OS OS 0 e-i 1 0 ^ 0 01 01 1 1 00s Height of Crop (inches). 0 C-. 05 0 -rcoco^ OS OS Oi X OS CO coco •* CO CO 01 ■^ -0 OS CO CO ■ CO -* 10 S d 1^1 c 0 \_< ^L :d 3 HO' CO CO CO CO cococo n< « CO CO CO CO CO COCO CO CO COCO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ^ Hw-bl CO CO Began to Ear, 1909. 0 " ' ' CO •'^ »n in IN (M e-l (N CO in in (M >n e-l (N O CM = 83 T3 T-~ t4 rr; o) o *3 'O C oj o a s k ^^ ^ >H CJ 3 S ^■5 o ft ■g2 ^2 wt^cox»n>ooooooo 00 (M cc Oioo ■«* 00 <-< (N lO I> O lO r-t Oi !© OS Ol CO J>CI-- u5Til(M(NOi> --toJ CO coc'-'M O CO t- i-l C3S O X G<» OS I>- O 1-1 O -* CO O l> OC0iaO00O0SI>-CDt-)O ■^f:© CD lOOOO OOOOcOOSOiOl'-'^'^O C-lcO CD coom COi-H'MOCOQO'MTi^ai'^Cl CO-* rfj Oi^^ 'MCOCOt^M'^i-lOifMOO COiO O LOtDu^ :Ovo^coo>ocoTfcocox c-iio lo moO"* lOinvCvCXiOOCD^^D^C CD;D CD cDCD^ pp^2 I>CO!Xt— t--CO COCS X® CO cOOi i-HC'lt.-li-lTHCsI f— ,-( I — H _OT be ■ o ca S !- s 50 « --0 « -i :c » --C ffi s ; I = ® ■■D'-O-O t* t^ O (M i-l.-((N>-liO'*tDinlMMO0 :D CO O^ »H • !D -^ CO 05 t~ ►S =s S S -s ■£ Ti< CO »A (M II I ■*■*■* I I COIM ■* rH (M C . .•CO •1- "^ 0 0 ••73 cS cS . 3 . C a ■ as ^5 K* l-^l p^ 0 '^ ^.2 ^ :; c3 (]j ci t.c^WSE't j:^ 5b be S3&,SgS ^ S -5 CT-S PMP-i Ph Sp3 OiOi-H'MCO'^vn:Db-XO:0 i-ifM CO 284 Journal of Agriculture. [10 May, 1910^ 11. —RUST AND SMUT RESISTANCE IN WHEAT AND SMUT EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS AND MAIZE. D. McAlfhie, Vegetable Pathologist. The experiments carried out in connection with the Wheat Improvement Committee relate to Rust and Smut resistance and have been continued and' extended during the past season. But experiments with O.at and Maize Smut have also yielded important results. In 1908, Smut was found on Wild Oats for the first time in Australia and it was important to determine if the smut on the wild and tame oat were mutually infective. Seed of the wild oat was taken and infected' with smut from both the wild and the tame oat, and the result was that 6 out of 19 plants were smutted in the former case and 4 out of 19 plants in the latter, or 31 and 21 per cent, respectively. Seed oif the tame oat was infected with smut of the wild oat {Ustilago avenos), and one out of 23 plants was smutted or over 4 per cent. The same smut therefore occurs on both the tame and wild oat, although it is exceedinglv rare on' the latter. The mode of infection of the smut affecting maize in Victoria was- not known, and experiments were ca.rried out to determine it and treatment of the seed was tried at the same time. A special article is given in this. Journal stating how infection occurs and the best means of preventing it. In connection with wheat, the main objective is to produce a variety which, while fulfilling all the conditions usually required by the fanner, will have in addition the important quality of rust-,resistance. For this purpose it is necessary in crossing to have one of the parents at least possessed of this property, and not only different varieties but different species of wheat are being tested for this purpose. Rust Resistance. Fox these experiments 21 varieties of wheat were used and the different s}jecies or sub-species of Trituum. Samples of all the known cultivated' species and sub-species were obtained from Germany, with the exceolion of Club-head or T. compactum which had been originally obtained from Biffen by Sutton and a ^x)rtion of the seed forwarded to me. The seed from Germanv varied so much in age, that in some cases verv few grains- germinated. However, fresh specimens to l)e tested during the forth- coming season have been kindly supplied by Professor Patrick Wright of the West of Scotland Agricultural College. The classification by Hackel. which is now generally followed, will show the relation of the different- cultivated forms. He recognises three distinct species of Tritirum \'iz-, 7'. monococctim, T. sativum, and T . -polonicum.. Then 7'. sativum i.v further subdivided as shown in the following table : — 711011 crocrjnn L. , Einkorn or One-grained Wlieat ' dirorciiin Sclirank. Eminer. sjy/fa L., Spelt rp . . ; -satirinn, I^am, J (' vidgarc Vill., Common Wheat Jriticum ..,- ^^^^^^^ I po„j^„,,,,,„, Host, Club or Dwarf Wheat j tni-ijidnm L., Poulard or Rivet \\ heat ' durum Desf. , Durum or Hard Wheat liiiloiih-uiii L , PolLsli Wlieat TO May, 1910.] Wheat Imfroiement Committee. 285 The wheats recorded in the table were sown on 28th June, 1909, and generally produced a clean crop, with the exception of Spelt wheat which was badly rusted, the rust even appearing on the ears, and the Polish wheat which was also rusty with a little on the ear. The germination was so uneven, however, that no definite conclusions could be drawn as to relative susceptibility. Of the 21 different varieties or selections sown on 30th June, 1909, 5 were received from Utah, 2 from Sweden, 2 originally from France, 6 from New South Wales and 6 from Mr. Pye, Principal, Dookie Agri- <-ultural College. The wheats from Utah were sent through the United States Department of Agriculture and grown the.re under typical arid conditions. The Station is located in the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of 6,000 feet, and the average rainfall is 15.6 inches. When grown here they were all rusty, some very slight and others bad. Those varieties which were only slightly rusty had very poox ears and were rejected along with the others. The two Swedish wheats were sent from the Experiment Station at Ultima, where they were practically immune towards the Yellow rust (Puccinia glumarum) for some years. This rust, however, does not occur in Australia. Both varieties were tcK^ late and developed rust, one of them being badly rusted on stem, flag and ear. The two French wheats were received from Vilmoiin in 1908 and grown in the plots that year. They were retained for further trial and sown again in 1909. Rieti is a bearded wheat and was free from just, but weak in the straw. Red Egypt is also a bearded wheat and practi- <:all\ clean but inferior to Rieti. There were six varieties sent direct from Mr. Sutton, Wheat Exjjerimentalist of New South Wales. Of the.se Thew, Cedar and Warren were practically clean, while John Brown and Upper Cut were very slightlv affected. White Loaf was such a poor wheat, that although practically free from rust, it was rejected. Six selections from crosses made bv Mr. Pve were sjjecially tested for lust. All had rust more or less, but two selections from Tripola x Tardent's Blue were retained. No. 4 selection was practically free, hav- ing only a few specks, but No. 6 selection, although it was slightly rusty on the stem, was the best wheat of the lot. As the result of the tests during 1909, there was only one absolutely clean varietv. viz., Rieti, and there were five practically free, viz., Red Egypt, Thew, Ceda.r, Warren and Selection No. 4 of Tripola x Tardent's Blue. Smut Resistance. Just as it is neces.sarv to test different varieties in order to discover .1 rust-resistant wheat, it is equally so for a smut-resistant wheat to be used as one of the parents in crossing. There is a great variation among different varieties in their susceptibility, under the same conditions, and different species as well as different varieties were tested. Diferent species and suh-sfecies of Triticum. — The seven cultivated forms already referred to, together with ordinarv wheat, were sown alongside each other, one portion of the seed being dusted with the spores of Stinking smut and the other clean. On account of the imperfect germination, in most of the plots, the results are not comparable, but in the case of Triticum compactum. or Dwarf wheat, there w^as decided su.sceptibility. The .seed was quite fresh, as it was grown at Burnlev 286 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May. 1910. Horticultural Gardens the previous season, and while the uninfected seed produced a clean crop, the infected seed yielded 96 per cent, of smutted plants. Results of Infection in different varieties of W'lieat. — Pederation was rhosen, as being one which is extensively grown, and in some instances, <:'very plant produced by the infected grain was smutted. For comparison, two other varieties were sown alongside. The one, Ohio, had already ];roved itself to iDe highly smut-resistant as well as very rapid in its germination and the other, Genoa, was taken from a plot grown at the Burnlev Gardens in 1908 and found to be perfectly clean, even althouL'h the seed was dusted with smut spores from both the smooth-spored {T . Levis) and net-spored (T. trifici) species. Only one plant was affected in each of these plots as shown in the following table : — R poults of Infection rcitliout Treatment . Sown. (Jraiiis Genniiiated 22 Federation 28 Smiit-Viall ill con- tact with each 74 70 .")!i ()}iin .i7 20 I Genoa 21 ' gram ■-'.") 20 'rUlttla leris 21) 2.") N nihtia /<>■;.. 20 TiUetia tritici 24 2:^ TilhJia kris 24 2.") 22 Tilh'fm hrls Pcrne- taye of t'c-rcentaire of Bunt. '■(■niiiiuition. 1)2 2 jilants 8-7 lOI) •'•' /. = 88 so V.) r -_ !)5 so ] ( )( ) 2 plants = 8 .")(•( 14 ,. = 100 ](l() 2.") r = 100 S(l 20 /. = 100 !)2 1 ])laiit = 4-3 ss 1 p'ant = 4 m In two of the plots of Federation wheat, where the grain was sown without artificial infection, there was 8 per cent, of infected plants, so that the wheat to begin with was not perfectly clean. Selections from Fye's Crosses. — M.r. Pye, of Do^jkie Agricultural College, has been engaged for a number of years in carrying out extensive ■experiments with the object of securing bunt-resisting wlieats. Numerous varieties and crosses have been tested and during 1908, the only variety found to be absolutelv free, after thorough infection of the seed, was ^ledeah, and cros.ses in which ^ledeah was used as one of the parents, .such as Bobs x Medeah and Bobs x Medeah. He kindl\ sui)i)lied nn- Tripola ^\ith samples of each of these, in order to test how far the smut-resistance Avas hereditary. The seed was sown at Donkie, in June, 1908. and the seed obtained from these plots was sown at Burnley in Jui e. 1909. The results are given in the first table on page 287. The percentage of lumt varied from 43 to 100 where the seed was infected and onlv in one instance did the uninfected seed show any trace of the disease. Medeah, which was bunt proof at Dookie in 1908. turned out to be quite sus'-eptilile with us in 1909. ha\ing 46.6 per cent, of bunt. lo -May, 19 io.] W heat / niproieineiit Committee. .87 32 33 34 35 3(3 •"> ( 3S 40 41 42 43 44 4n 4(i (i3 Tripola Me CoMP.\RisoN OF Various Fungicides for Bunt. There are several preparations on the market for smut and other diseases, and it was considered desirable to test them in comparison with such recognised substances as bluestone and formalin. The powder known as " Fungusine " was applied to the seed wheat according to the instruc- tions given and a 2 per cent, solution of phenol was also tried. The varietv of wheat chosen for treatment was naturally infected as it came from the machine, and it was certainly as smutty a sample as had ever come under my notice. The seed wheat was all treated at the same tmie and sown on the same dav (28th June) in ground which was as nearly as possible equal throughout ; 500 grains were sown in each plot, arranged in rows of 100 each, and the results were taken on 30th December, when the wheat was fully ripe. The following table shews the relative efficiency of each of the sub- stances tested, compared with the untreated or check plot, in which there was 88 per cent, of bunt : — Plot. Grains .-own. Grains Germinated. Treatnit'iit. peri entaye of termination. Percentage of Hunt. 1 .500 405 Fungusine ... 81 78 plants = 19-2 .) 500 363 Bluestone ... 73 8 rr = 2-2 3 500 339 Formalin ... 68 28 V = 8-2 4 500 355 Phenol 71 68 n = 16-3 .1 500 428 85 379 „ = 88-0 Apart altogecher from the relative efficiency of the various substances used, the fact stands out prominently of the great saving effected in com- parison with no treatment at all, although, of course, no intelligent farmer 288 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. would ever dream of sowing such a smutty sample of seed, notwithstanding its relatively high germinating power. Relative Effects of Bluestone and Formalin on Germination, Infection and Yield. Five plots were sown under ordinar\ farming conditions at Longerenong Agricultural College, with the assistance of the Principal, Mr. Sinclair. The variety used was Jade, which had a little smut with smut-balls scattered through it. Each plot was carefully laid out and measured and contained .776 of an acre. One portion of the seed was treated with bluestone and formalin respectively on 12th March, 1909, in order to test the effect of treatinjg the grain some considerable time before sowing. Another portion was treated similarly on 17th June, and the whole was sown on 28th June of the same month. The earlier-treated was left in the bags side by side on the barn floor and at sowing time they were still moist, but were dried before being placed in the seed-drill. The seed treated with bluestone solution was mouldy and a la.rge proportion of the grains soft and rotten, while that treated with formalin was a little mouldy, but there were much fewer rotten grains than in the other. The plots were critically examined for Stinking Smut, and afterwards stripped with the following result : — Plot. Seed Treatment. Da'se of Treatment. Gross Yield. Yield per Acre. Percentage of Bunt. bus. lbs. bus. lbs. 1 >2 3 4 5 Blue.stone ... Formalin . . . Untreated ... Bluestone ... Formalin ... 12th March, 1909 i'7th June, 1909 1 3i) 6 59 15 12 11 55 12 47 2 7 9 0 19 35 15 21 16 28 1 plant affected •85 1 jylant only affected The experiments are at least suggestive, if not conclusive, and, as far- as thev go, they are strictly comparative. In Plot I the seed was so rotten that no one would think of sowing it but for experimental purposes. The crop was very inferior, and the plants so scattered that they were only stripped for compa.rison. In Plots 4 and 5 the treated seed was kept for eleven days before sowing on account of the weather. The treatment was practically effective in preventing the Stinking Smut and the germination, as judged by the vield, was in keeping with previous experiments. A special test was made with 1,000 grains each of the same variety of wheat sown at the same time and under similar conditions, with the following result : — Untreated, 88 per cent. ; Formalin, 74 per cent. ; and Bluestone, 60 per cent, of grains germinated. Experiments with Flag Smut. Since it is now known that Flag Smut may arise, either from the soil or the seed, these experiments were mainly designed to test the relative virulence of the disease when seed was sown in clean ground with the spores- of the fungus upon it, and when clean seed was sown in ground containing the disea.sed straw from the previous crop; also, the effect of different :io May, 1 910.] W lie at I inprovement Committee. treatments of the seed both before and after infection. There were ten small plots altogether, each sown with 25 grains of Federation wheat on 30th June, 1909, and three of these were used as a check to compare with the others. Both spores and diseased straw were used for purposes of infection. The following table gives the relative results : — Plot. Grains Sown. Grains Germinated Mode of Infection and Treatment of Seed. ^ Results. 47 25 19 Clean 48 25 24 Dusted with spore-s 20 plants Hag-smutted = per cent. 83 49 25 25 Ousted with spores and dipped in bluestone sohition Clean 50 25 18 Dusted wit'i spores and diseased straw added 15 plants Hagsnmtted = per cent. 83 51 25 21 Diseased straw only added... 1 1 plants flag-smutted = per cent. 52 52 25 24 Treated with bluestone solu- tion and diseased straw added 7 plants flag-smutted = 29 cent. per 53 25 25 Treated with bluestone solu- tion and spores added Clean 54 25 25 Clean 55 25 24 Clean 62 25 25 Treated with corrosive sub- limate and diseased straw added 11 plants flag-smutted = per cent. 44 Wlien seed dusted with spores was sown in clean ground, there was 83 per cent, of infection, and when clean seed was sown \n g.round con- taining diseased straw, there was 52 per cent, of infection. The addition of diseased straw to grain already dusted with spores did not increase the virulence of infection. As regards different treatments, when the seed was dusted with spores and afterwards treated with bluestone solution, the resulting plants were all clean, and when the grain was treated with bluestone before the addition of the spores no infection occurred. If, however, the grain was treated with bluestone and diseased straw added there was infection to the extent of 29 per cent. Even when the grain was treated with corrosive sublimate and diseased straw added there was 44 per cent, of infection. This infection could easily be accounted for, from the young shoots being attacked which had necessarily no protective coating of the fungicide. Thus, the general results already obtained are corroborated, that if the spores are only on the grain and no Flag Smut in the soil, treatment with bluestone solution is a preventive. But if the diseased straw is .already in the soil from a previousi crop, neither treatment of the seed with bluestone nor corrosive sublimate is effective. Experiments will be continued this season in connection with rust and smut. The different cultivated species and sub-species of Triticum will be thoroughly tested, as well as the seed of various crosses supplied by Mr. Biffen, of the Agricultural Department, Cambridge, who has succeeded in breeding wheats immune to the Yellow Rust {Puccima glumarum) but not to the Black Rust {Puccima graminis) whidh is the special scourge of our wheat-fields. 2yo Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. THE SMUT OF MAIZE AND ITS TREATMENT. D. McAlpine. Vegetable Patliologisi. The Smut of Maize is increasing in m.iny of the districts wliert- this crop is hirgel\- grown, and it is becoming too common to escape the notice of the growers, who are beginning to make inquiries as to the best methods, of treatment. Since it was first observed in Xew South Wales in 189 1, practically nothing has been done to check it, because its true nature was. misunderstood, and the consequence is that it is slowly but surely gaining ground. I am indebted to the Commonwealth Statistician for the following table, which shows that while Victoria is very much behind Xew South Wales and Queensland in the total area of maize grown for grain, the average yield is considerablv higher. During the seasOiT 1908-9, there has been the large.st area \et recorded for Victoria, but it is also the smallest average, and attention must be paid, not only to a rotation of crops, but to the prevention of any disease which .reduces the yield. Acifa'fe under Maize. ,A\eia^"e Yield iier aere. S.ate. Victoria Xew South Wales Queensland ,. South Australia Western Australia 10,844 160,980 127,11!* 549 87 BushtN. Bushel> 14.0()t 46-92 46 - '\r^ IM(l,S12 28 1.S 28 - 85 127. <).").") 24 .34 21-68 1.22;! 11-41 l.r." ISl 12 41 11 S«) The smut has not yet found its way into the new districts being opened up for maize-growing, but in the old established districts, it is more or less common in every paddock. I therefore propose to give such an account of this smut, as will enable growers to understand liow it is jiropagated and spread and to adoj)t mea.sures for checking it. Two Maize Smuts. When the , Smut of Maize was first discovered in Au.stralia, it was naturally considered to Ije the Corn Smut common in America and named accordingly, but when its true cha.racter was determined it was found to be quite a different smut. While in some cases the determination of the particuhir fungus will not help us much in the way of treatment, in others, where its nature and mode of attack are known, it mav afford a clue of considerable value. " What's in ,a name? " is a question often asked, as if it mattered little; but in this instance it will be .seen to iia\e important bea,rings on the result. The common maize smut of America, or American Corn Smut, as T have called it, for the sake of distinction, makes its appearance on anv [)ortion of the plant above ground and gives rise to smut-boils which mav .sometimes, as in the ca.se of the cob, attain the size of a man's head. lo ^j'ay. 19 io.] Smut of Maize and its Treatment. 291 'j'his local infection of the voung and tender tissues, whether of the seed- lii^g, or of the leaves and stems, or of the male and female flowers, mav take place at any time during the g.rowing season and consequently cannot be controlled. But, fortunately for us, the .smut so far found in Australia is a different sort. It attacks the cobs and tassels (Figs, i and 2) and is usually confined to them, but in exceptional cases a few patches of smut may appear on the upper leaves or on the enveloping bracts (Fig. 3). This smut also occurs in America, but it is rather uncommon there. As Clinton, an American authority, says of it — "' This is one of our most conspicuous, l)ut rather uncommon, smuts. It has been introduced into this country, p.robablv from Europe." The explanation of this statement is, that the same smut is found in Europe on sorghum, and it was probablv introduced by means of this host-plant. Then it sj)read to maize, as it is found on both plants in the United States, and now it has probablv been introduced here from America, although net a nati\e of that countr\-. The importance of distinguishing which of the two maize smuts we possess is evident, when it is realized that the one mav Ije amenable to treatment and the other not. The two smuts will now be brieflv considered, and naturally the one which occurs in Australia, and is' therefore at hand for investigation, will receive most attention. The descrii)tion of the other will enable any grower to recognize it when he sees it and to -take the nece.ssarv measures for removing the diseased ])lants. I. — Head Smut of Maize. {Sorosporinm reiliau/im {K/ieJiu) MeAIp.) Ti^is smut receives its common name, because it is usually confined to the head or ear. It is enclosed at tir.st in a pinkish or whitish skin which soon ruptures in order to allow the escape of the spores. It is distinguished from the American Corn Smut by not excessi\el\- enlarging the ears and forming large smut-boils, bv generallv confining itself to the cobs and tc'issels and not attacking the leaves and stems, and by the character of the spores. To show how fundamental the difference is, the Head Smut belongs to the genus Sorosporinm in which the spores are arranged in clusters (Fig. 4) forming, particularly in the young stage, closely compacted spore-balls, while the American Corn Smut belongs to Ustilago, in which the spores are all separate and distinct. Diseased and Healthy Plants. When the smut is fully developed, it is very conspicuous, but even before the spore-masses are expo.sed, it may be readilv detected. The .smutted maize plant remains longer green than the healthy plant ; it is also more brittle and easilv broken ; it is more succulent and very sweet to the taste. If it appears on the tassel at the top, all the cobs beneath are usuallv smutted, although in exceptional cases there may be an odd health \ cob. b'ut the tassel mav also be perfectlv clean and all the cobs beneath smutted. When the mode of infection is considered, it will be easily understood how this happens, and not only mav entire cobs be clean on an otherwi.se diseased plant, but only certain grains of a cob may produce spores (Fig. 4). Both the tassel and the cob mav be only partially smutted and even smut-pustules may be developed on the enveloping 292 Journal of Agriculture. [10 May, 1910. I. MAIZE COB WITH HEAD SMUT. (hALF NATURAL SIZE.) lo May, 1 910.] Smut of Maize and its Treatment. 295 2. MAIZE TASSEL WITH HEAD SMUT. (tWO-THIRDS NATURAL SIZE.) >94 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Mav, 1910. bracts (Fig. 3). The healthy cob is sur.rounded by a variable number of leaves (in some cases I have counted 21) and these bracts, as they are called, when surrounding the flower, are l:>urs.t by the swelling smut spores and exposed to view. There is one interesting fact about smutted maize plants which is worthy of mention and that is, that cows are very fond of them. I have seen such diseased plants fed to milking cows and they greedily ate them uj;, smut and all. They preferred them to the ordinary healthy maize and there was often a struggle to get possession of them. I am assured by a grower that he fed them to one milking cow without any injurious effects, either to the animal, or its milk. The American Corn Smut, on the other hand, has similar properties to Ergot, and it would be an interesting sul>ject for investigation, if the Head Smut affected cattle in a different manner from the other.. But, apart altogether Irom their nutritive value, this practice is not to be recommended, since the spores would pass through the alimentarv canal of the animal uninjured, and in this wav become widelv distributed. Germination of Spores. The spores are at lirst in, clusters, but these soon l)reak up (Fit^^ 5). 'J'hey are shown much magnified in Fig. 6 where thev are seen to be generally globose with line warts all over their surface. The maize from which the spores were ob- tained for germination Avas taken from the crop about the midtUe of iNbuch, and the smutted cobs were still contained within their enveloping leaves. The smut spores were placed in tap water on a microscopic slip and jjlaced under a bell- jar and in 17 hours several had formed germ tubes (Figs. 7 and 8) with two to four partitions across. In 21 hours the minute reproductive bodies or conidia were formed, both at the end and sides of the tube, but the co-nidia at the end were always formed first (Fig. 9). Occasionallv the germ-tube may branch as in Fig. 10. Sometimes a .single spore mav produce three germ-tubes as in fig. II, and thus the number of conidia are immensely multiplied. The conidia thus formed bud in a veast-like manner (Fig. 9) and chains arise bv sprouting, J. MAIZE coii I'AHiiAi.LV SO that a single spore may give rise SMUTTED. to innumerable conidia and secondary (two-thirds natural size.) conidia. lo May, 1910.] Smut of Maize and its Treatment. -95 The spores axe not only able to germinate during the same season in^ which thev have been produced, but they have been kept for about eight years and then thev germinated. The sprouting conidia are comparatively deHcate, but they retain their germinating power for several months, if kept dry. Infection. It is most important to know how infection occurs in order to^ prevent it. If the spores, for instance, are on the grain and they germinate wnth it, so that the germ-tube can penetrate the tender seedling, then the evident course is to prevent the germination of the spoTes by some " steep," as in the case of Stinking Smut of Wheat. The first step then was tO' discover how the maize plant became infected and up to the present season no definite answer could be given as to the modr cf infection. There are at least four principal modes of infection known at the present time, and experiments wen^ carried out tO' settle which mode occurs in this smut. 1. The most common mode is that in which the voung seedlings are in- fected as in Oat Smut. (Seedling infection.) 2. Another wa\ is where anv voung and growing jjortion of the ho.st-plant is capable of infection, as in the American Corn Smut, which, how- ever, is not known in Australia. (I.ccjI infection.) 3. Infection may also take place through the flower and the mvcelium nr spawn of the fungus lies doi'mant in the ripe grain, as in Loose Smut of Wheat. (Flower infection.) 4. Infection is also known to occur through the young shoots, as in Carna- tion Smut. (Shoot infection.) To answer this question, maize was planted at the Horticultural Gardens, Burnley, in a plot where this cereal had not been grown before, and the variety known as Hickory King was used. Various plots were sown on 5th November, 1909, in a verv dry seed-bed and each of the above modes of infection was tested bv using smut-spores of the previous season, which still retained their vitality. The spores were germinated and fully 50 per cent, of them put forth a germ-tube which boxe conidia. The plants grew in everv plot, some of them re.-iching a height of over 7 feet, and both flowered and fruited. 4. SMALL COB WITH SCATTERED GRAINS SMUTTED AND SMUT PUSTULE ON OUTER SURFACE OF ENVELOPING BRACT. (nATLIRAL SIZE.) 2g6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. The following table shows the results of the different modes of infection and treatment : — Plot. Grains sown. Grains e-erminated. Mode of Infection and Treatment. Resvilts. 1 20 11 Check Clean — some plants over 7 feet high 2 20 1.3 Seed dusted with spores ... 4 cobs smutted on one plant, tallest about 6 feet high 3 21) 15 Plants dusted with spires in tender C3utre, 17.1.10 Clean — tallest nearly 7 feet high 4 20 11 AH the ta frf)st. The other acre on this farm c<;ntained pumpkins, mangolds, millet and cabbage crops in varied pro]>ortions. The pumpkins and millet had done fairly well, but the ground where the mangolds and cabbage were- grown was very poorly cropped. The vacant part of the mangold area liad l;een recently filled in with transplanted roots, but they had not yet set. This ground had also' been recently worked between the rows, and was in very fair order as regards weeds. There were only two rows of millet, which was about .^| to 4 feet high, and well headed. There was a single roiw of cabl)age, but such hearts thac had formed were small. The pumpkins occupied more than half of this ,\cre and y)romised to be a fair lo May, 1 910.] l^oug Lang Fodder Crop Competition. crop with favourable weather, showing- then eijual to 5 tons 6j cwt. per acre. Tiie ntx: farm in^jjected was that of Mr. D. Gardiner of Lang Lang. The maize crop was of Hickory King and Sydney Fiat Red varieties, sown broadcast at the rate of 2 busliels to the acre without manure at the end of November. There was no noticeal>le difference between the varieties under this svstem of sowing, the crop being about 8 feet high, with close- growing stalks, fine in stem, narrow in leaf, and with almost no .sign of cobbing. The soil here is a rich loam and free in texture; and the seed had germinated well, making a large bulk of fodder, Imt of poor quality. The crop, however, was at its test, and cut equal to 22^ tons per acre. The other acre was of mangolds antl ])umpkins ; both verv fair crops and in good condition. Xo manure had been used on either. The mangolds Avere sown about the end of November, in rows about 28 inches apart, and . t the rate of 3 lbs. of seed to the arre. Long Red, Long Yellow, and •Globe varieties each being tried. The last were, if anything, the best : .and on the whole, the crop showed equal to 21^ tons to the acre at this stage. As on each of the other farms, the pumpkins were a mixed sowing of •different varieties. About ij lbs. of seed per acre were sown, in rcAvs 8 feet apart, and the plants thinned as required t(i give them room. As a crop, thev v.'ere but half grown, but showed e jual tf> 16 tons 8 cwt. yier acre when seen. The farm of Mr. T. Patullo of Yannathan was next dealt with. It adjoins the Lang Lang Creek, and the soil is a dark friabU- loam of exceptional qualitx . The .maize crop was of Svdney Flat Red, sow-n broadcast on 24th November, at the rate of 50 lbs. to the acre, and fairlv evenly distributed. It had made a very ])rofuse sappy growth, running from 10 to II feet high, with thick stalks; but the cobs had not yet developed. Some Ninet\' Day maize sown beside it was about_ 8 feet high with heavy stalks and a fair proportion of cob, .ser\ing to demonstrate the quality and productiveness of the soil. The greater portion of the crop had been beaten down by the recent rain, the big succulent stalks being too heavy for the roots to support in such free soil. For height, thickness of stalk, and evenness, this was an exceptional crop of broadcast sown maize; and it weighed at the .rate of slightly over 21 tons per acre. None of these broadcast maize sowings had been gi\en an\- further atten- tion as regards cleaning either the crop or headlands, and there was a heavy growth of weeds all through them, up to 3 and 4 feet high, and full of .seed. Besides this, both here and on Mr. Wildes' farm adjoining, a large portion of the land is a wilderness of weeds and thistles, tons of which are allowed to ripen their seed and foul the land, when they might Ije advantageouslv ensiled for stock fodder. The land being so extremel\ fertile, it is an impossibilitv under the present working conditions for the weeds to be kept in check over the amount of ground that i.s being culti- vated bv each owner. It is land admirablv adapted to intense cultivation in connexion with dairy farming. Mr. Patullo was unfortunate in having put half of his acre section in with a late .sowing of oats; which, at the time of inspection, had made little headway — not enough to be considered as fodder in such a competition. All crops have to be estimated on their appearance at the time of judging, and not on their future possibilities ; and the more forward a crop is, the better must be its chance of gaining points for its owner. The rest of the acre section was in pumpkins, and this crop was also the least forward of its kind inspected. The fruit, however, had set 304 Journal of Agriculture. [10 May, 19 10.- well, and were developing nicely ; and tlie crop in this stage would weigli about 18 tons per acre. In order of inspection, the next farm was that of Mr. Wildes, of Lang Lang, on the opposite side of the creek. Mr. Wildes' 4 acres of maize were included in a crop of several acres that was being cut and fed to the milking stock. It was of Hickory King, sown broadcast in the second' week in October at the rate of 2 bushels to the acre. It came up thinly, probably not more than one-third of the seed germinating ; but it came fairly evenly, and made excellent growth. It was the best quality maize inspected, being fairly well cobbed throughout, about 8 feet high, and running 20 tons 6j cwt. to the acre. Pumpkins and mangolds made up the other acre of fodder here. Both- these crops were sown at the end of October, and the rows had been kept clear of weeds till the end of the year. The pumpkins were the most forward crop .seen; a good proportion of the fruit was very large and well matured, and they showed equal to 38I tons per acre. The mangolds were the Long Red variety, sown with 3 lbs. of seed to the acre, in drills about 3 feet apart, thinned, and kept clear of weeds. In places, the sowing might have been a little more even ; but the plants were making good growth, the crop being equal to lof Ions per acre. This paddock had been in grass for some six years past, and was broken up for this season's cropping. From the condition of these fodder crops. I would consider that they could be sown earlier than is the rule in this district. Maize sown in drills- parly in October, at the rate of about 35 lbs. to the acre, and kept clear of weeds, would have every chance of cobbing out well before the autumn frosts. Several maize crops have already been slightly affected by frosts, and few of them are showing cob. The last crop to be inspected was that of Mr. Priestly of Yannathan^ This maize was in drills 26 inches apart, and was sown by a lad dropping, it by hand from a potato-planter. The amount used had not been noted,- but it was far too heavy a seeding, for the plants were crowding each other. It was put in on 22nd November, with i cwt. of bonedust and super- phosphate to the acre. It had been horse-hoed once, and hand-cleaned' ^wice ; and it was the cleanest and best cared for crop of maize inspected. Notwithstanding its being too thickly sown, there was still a fair propor- tion of cobs showing. It was about 8 feet high, and weighed out equal to 20 tons 13 cwt. per acre. The acre section was in mangolds, turnips, and field carrots. The first two were splendid crops ; but the carrots were somewhat unevenly sown, and not very forward. This ground was sown with onions in September; but as they did not show up well it was ploughed again, and' Ae several crops sown with a hand-drill. It previously had been given a good dressing of farmyard manure. The mangolds were a very even crop of Long Red. well cleaned, and fairly well grown ; and were estimated to yield at the rate of 29 tons 13 cwt. per acre. Two kinds of turnips were sown. Purple Top Swede and' Purple Top Aberdeen, the latter producing the larger and more even roots. However, both were good, and the crop was estimated to yield at the rate of 35 tons 8 cwt. per acre. Two^ kinds of carrots also were sown, white and yellow, and they gave every promise of a good crop. All the crops on this acre were kept clean, and well cultiwited ; and had a very attractive- appearance. The points awarded in judging each section are given herewith. lo May. 1910.] Lmn^ ^'''^g Fodder Crop Competition. 305 ^''^ M ec ^ 1-0 c^ (^^ 0 0 •35 0 0 1— 1 <— * ■s « , , A HO Oh M C-) Tf ■ 1^ C3 10 X -t (M rt X C5 Ci ^ CO " IM -^ ^ 2 in > > ce !e > ce s ? • c> 0 ■J, ce > 5'° £ is ce ce ce 5 " ■ C- X ~* _^ X Lo' • lO X ■ M • • CO M X Co" "I • ce > • ce > ce ^ 0 ■ r^ c^ tr~ t- t^ no >c Offi ■ LO 10 LO IC ^ — 1 — H ^ "^ ■ "^ ^ — 1 — LO 0 0 0 XO 0 0 itiiod of wing. 0 > ce • > • ce . ce > s s , ■■! -^^ •^->^ ,.^''~^. — ^— ^— • 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 ■ . 0 00c ^ ■^ ,—1 .— 1 ^ ■ ■ "^ — — . ^ CO -* Tf -* Tf Tf ■* ■* -* 10 CO L^ > > > > > go'l in ce J*-, ce ce cS ^ ^.^ .^^ . r^ "^ . /—'''"', . ,— — ' ^ H S • 1.0 in M .7^ • LO ^ • LO Tt< • LO (M Tf — 0 05 « s; (N CJ X 0 •■^ •.r .*^ • '^ C bj"; > > ^> > > te'5 0 cS ce ce ce ce a-S 0-" -< • 0 0 X • 0 X ■ 0 X •00 • 0 (N 0 ■" . -^ ■ "^ • " ^ • '" "^ LO i-O LO LO LO LO LO 10 LO 10 t; (,_. 'C J. •^ fr-' > > ■Eog in ^ ce cS ce ce ■ LO LO LO : 10 'O • 10 LO • ic >n • lo 0 ic »o LO LO II in > te • iffl 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X Prepara tion of Land. 0 s _ 5 > <3 > ce • 0 0 0 0 0 • 00 • 0 0 • X X X X 3- p -0 .S T3 : : : .S -0 g c Ii oj 0 '0 p. _^ 'T^'O •^"o '2, . ^ s 5P'3 0 S ^S-c 0 !^ ■ ce c3 5 H 'ce - ce , ■33=* ce 3 bi ce 3 ^^HO g^S 1 ^PLIg Sp^o Seu ce 6D ^ 1 ce 0) ^ ce =? J2 -C ce h-l •^ ce le >- so c 0 g5 1 ^.0 1 (Ih ^ "^ 5 §1 f^J ^ ^J ce Oh 0 $ +- < d C F^ a 4613. 3o6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. YIELD OF RECO^^STITUTED VINEYARD AT THE RUTHERGLEN YITICULTURAL COLLECIE: YINTAGE 1910. G. H. Adcock, F.L.S., Principal. After the vintage of 1909, at the request of a large number of vignerons and others who were deeply interested in the reconstitution of \'ineyards, a short article was published on the yield of the College \ineyard. In this paper, which appeared in the Mav issue of the Journal for last year, were shown the returns in weight per vine and per acre, and also the cash value) per acre of the crop estimated at the then current local rates, viz., jQ^ per ton. As the publication of those data apparently roused con- siderable interest, it has been considered advisable to give in the present article the experience and results of the current year's vintage. In accordance with the system adopted under the present management, careful records are kept of all experiments made. The results of this year's vintage are submitted to show that the good returns tabulated last vintage were not the accidental consequences of a single successful season, but have been in most cases surpassed bv the yields of the present ^•ea^. It must not be forgotten that the soil of the College vineyard is by no means the best, and that the grafted resistant stocks were planted im- mediately on the site whence dead and dying vines had been uprooted- The site of this plantation, too, was not prepared as thoroughly as is now deemed essential, and it was at first surrounded with infected vines. This was qua;intly compared in a rather mixed metaphor to " an island of vines in a sea of phylloxera." {During the winter of 1909 we had exceptionally heavy rains resulting in floods. For some weeks our vineyard was practically submerged. This gave the subsoil a thorough soaking which has enabled the vines to carry on in the absence of later rains. For, at the most critical time for the crop, we were without any appreciable quantitv of rain for a prolonged period. Had the usual early sumimer rains fallen there is no doubt we should have had even better yields than those recorded. As was the case last year, we have agajn lost heavily of our ripe grapes. Birds have caused serious losses, but can hardly be blamed for helping them.selves to the temptjing, succulent fruit. We had reluctantly to shoot a few, and the rest took the hint. This year the useful magpie rather disgraced himself by his depredations among the grapes, though perhaps he considers himself justly entitled to some compensation for the great assistance he renders during the greater portion of the year in devouring voracious grubs and caterpillars. The peculations of men and boys are much more serious. The same complaint is heard from all whose vine- yards are near the highways. Probably if an example were made of some of the worst offenders by prosecuting, this growing evil might be minimised. In spite of these drawbacks the returns speak favourably for the re- constituted vine, and emphasize the fact that with proper attention and ordinary care there is money in reconstitution. We cannot overlook the fact that thorough cultivation, green manuring and fertilising have all added their quota to the results recorded, and these are not only indis- pensable but form a sound investment. All the growers who have started to reconstitute have proved the value of these operations. The newer lo ^Iay, 19T0.] Yield of Recomiiitifcd Vineyard, Ri(t//:v('Icn. 3oi Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. plantations are generally receiving much greater attention in these re- spects, a,s well as in the initial preparation of the land, than the older ones did, and the results cannot fail to be satisfactory and payable. Too much emphasis, however, cannot be placed on the necessity for constant cultivation in a dry district such as this, to conserve the sparse and erratic rainfall, and also allow the atmospheric agencies to assist in the good work of rendering active some of the dormant constituents of the soil. As the writer has so constantlv insisted, the best land cannot long stand the steady withdrawal of its most important constituents unless some of these are renewed from time to time bv judicious manuring. It is just as reasonable to expect one's bank balance will stand a constant drain with- out corresponding additions. Many vineyards, orchards and farms, by •their impoverished appearance and diminished yields, unmistakably proclaim what the odious letters N.S.F. signify on a dishonored cheque. During the past year, as formerly, we have had a large number of in- terested visitors who watch with the keenest interest the success of our ex- periments and the progress of our reconstituted vineyard. Without a single exception, all have been lavish in their praise of the results obtained which are due largely to :\Ir. H. Wilkinson's unflagging and intelligent interest and energy. To insure a fair comparison with the former records, the value of the crop has again been computed at ^5 per ton — a price that can be rendily exceeded in this district at the present time. Yields, College Vineyard : Vintage 19 10. \:iliet.\, Kattnf l'l;iiitiii^', and Stock. Sp. }.r. Yield YieH Value pel acre Must. ]ier vine. jiei- i 1 ■ re. at £5 per ton. lbs. tons cwt. qrs lbs. £ •'■■. d. Sliiraz ( 1908 1— Hybrid 33(t6 M-2.5 1007 2 8 3 23 12 4 9 E-upestris metallica (Cape) 1 120 8-79 2 2 2 22 10 13 <) A.R.O. 1 1 110 7-84 1 18 0 10 9 10 5 Riipestris rhi Lot 11-20 7 -25 1 15 ] 17 S 17 0 Hybrid 3300 I- 127 7-26 1 15 ] 3 8 1(5 .1 Burgundy (l!MI+i— Hybrid 3,309 1100 7 .39 1 15 3 19 8 19 7 Riparia grand glabre 1)10 7. 14 1 14 2 2.-) 8 13 7 Malbec (igOil- A.R.G. ] llOB 12 ()6 3 1 2 3 15 ~ " Rij^aria grand tilabie 1.110 11.59 2 16 1 ,3 14 1 (i Rupestriis metallica (Cape) 1105 9-23 2 4 3 9 11 4 •2 Hybrid 3.309 1108 914 2 4 1 20 11 2 1 „ lor-i ... 11 10 607 1 9 2 0 t 7 6 Rupestris du Lot 1-103 5-4 1 6 1 0 6 11 3 Cabernet (1904) A.R.(t. 1 1 11,-) 9-4 2 5 2 20 11 S 4 Hybrid 330b 1125 8-43 2 0 3 25 10 4 10 Rupestris inetallira (Cape) 1123 8-21 1 19 3 18 9 19 6 ,. ,, (Fiance) 1 124 7 ■ 9."i 1 18 2 14 9 13 2 Hybrid .3309 1 122 7 91 1 18 1 23 9 12 3 Riparia grand glabre 1115 7-58 1 16 3 12 9 4 3 Rupestris Martin 1 118 617 1 9 3 25 ; 9 10 lo Mav, 1910.] Yield of Reconstituted Vinevard, Riitlierglen. 309 The following show increases Dver the i 909 yield : - - Increase Increase Increased Returns per vine. per acre. per acre. ll,.v. cwt. qrs. lbs. £ .V. d. ■Shiraz — Rupestiis (lu Lot 1-96 9 2 3 2 7 S A.R.G. 1 1-87 9 0 9 2 .') 5 Hupestris inetallica (Cape) 1-43 6 3 18 1 14 7 Hybrid 3306 •71 3 1 23 0 17 3 „ 3309 •26 1 1 3 0 (i .5 Kuiguudy — Hybrid 3309 2-95 14 1 S 3 II 8 Riparia grand glabre 1-9 9 1 2 2 6 4 ^lalbec — A.R.G. 1 3-8 IS 1 23 4 12 3 Riparia grand glabre 3 -.59 17 1 21 4 7 3 Hybrid 1011^ ... 3 01 14 2 14 3 13 2 Rupestris nietallica (Cape) 1-73 8 1 17 2 2 1 Hybrid 3309 1-63 5 3 22 1 9 9 Cabernet — Hybrid 3306 •G.I 3 0 20 (1 15 10 Rupestris Martin 21 1 0 1 0 .-) 1 The following show le.ss crop in 19 10 than at the pre\ ious vintage : — Variety iiul Stock. Decrease per vine. Decrease per acre. Dec rease in Iteturns per acre. Cabernet ~ Riparia grand glal>re A.R.G. 1 Rupestris nietallica (France) ,, ,, (Cape) Hybrid 3309 lbs. •22 •45 1 03 1 39 2^13 CWT. <|rs. lbs. 1 0 4 2 0 18 5 0 3 6 2 11 10 1 7 £ .s. d. 0 5 2 0 10 10 1 5 1 1 13 0 2 11 7 As pointed out in the former article, the vines are planted 10 ft. x 8 ft., are trellised on two wires, and pruned on the rod and spur system. It will be noticed that some of the stocks used when our vineyard was estab- lished, have since been discarded as not altogether reliable. With regard to the returns recorded, it is necessar\- to state that the disparity in the yields must not be wholly attributed to the stocks. For example, in the Malbec, those grafted on Rupestris du Lot appear lowest in the list. The explanation is that these vines are rather unfairly situated, being planted at the intersection of two roads and near a belt of timber. Here the\ suffered more from feathered and human thieves than any other. Till the giapes were nearly ripe, the grafts on this stock gave promise of an ex- ceptional yield, and compared more than favourably with any other. In- creases are shown, except in the case of some stocks in the Cabernet section. It will, however, be remembered that the previous crop was exceptionally good, and required something " extra special " to beat it. 3IO Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 19 1 o. Vines of Aramon, Aramon Bouschet, Alicante Bouschet, Asperan noir, and Grand noir de la Calmette, though onlv planted in October, 1907^ BURGUNDY ON o.^OQ- averaged 6 lbs. per vine, which is equivalent to i ton 9 cwt. 16 lb. per acre and is worth at ^5 per ton the sum of jQ-j 5s. gd. as the return for an acre. -i.\i lii.c o: ao May, 1910.] Tlie Wine Industry in Southern France. 311 THE WINE INDUSTRY IN SOUTHERN FRANCE. {Continued from fage 226.) F. de Castella, Government Viticultnrist. Main Features. The department of Herault comprises that strip of land, roughly twice as long as it is broad, between the Cevennes Mountains, which form tlie southern fringe of tlie great central plateau of France and the Mediter- ranean coastline, which in this part runs approximately from north-east to south-west. This roughly rectangular area, which averages 70 miles long bv 35 wide, is bounded on the east by the river Vidourle and on the west by the river Aude. It is traversed, in a northerly to southerly •direction, by the rivers Orb, Herault and Lez, on the last of which is situated the town of Montpellier, the capital of the department. _ As Professor Crova points out, the department constitutes a sort of inclined plane, falling away from the flanks of the Cevennes to the Mediterranean. The height above sea level thus varies from nothing, to over 3,000 feet, the average for the whole department being 738 feet. In marked contrast to one another are the broken and twisted ranges of the northern portion and the large expanse of level or undulating land, in the vicinity of the sea shore, almost wholly devoted to the culture of the vine. Including, so far as altitude is concerned, so wide a range, nearly every situation and climate in which the vine will grow in France is to be met •with. Nevertheless, the vast majority of the \'ineyards are situated at but a slight elevation above sea level. Orographically, the department may be divided into two distinct regions of approximately equal area, known respectively in the south ot France as La Montagne and La Plaine (see page 72). The former consists of the uplands, more stony and dry, in spite of the more abundant rainfall ; the latter, the level or undulating ground on which are the heavv bearing \ineyards. The former is in a general way, furthest in- land whilst the latter is nearer the sea. It is the coastal portion wath its heavy bearing vineyards to which I propose to devote most attention in the present articles, for it is the one which is truly characteristic of the region and in which intense culture is so admirably carried out. The uplands vinevards are more similar to those of many other parts. In the vicinity of the sea, especiallv along the eastern portion of the •coast, are. large salt lakes or lagoons, known locally as etangs, bordered often by low sand hills, on which ungrafted viniferas can live in spite of Phylloxera, as we shall see presently. Soils. H. Mares, one of the best known writers on the yiticulture of the region, divides its soils intO' three categories — 1. Rich alluvial soils formed by rivers. 2. Soils of the plains away from the rivers. 3. Hillside .soils or Garrigues. It is those of the second group which are of the greatest importance, so tar as the vine is concerned. On them are planted the majority of the heavy bearing vineyards, though some of them are also to be found in the rich alluvial soils. The first and second group between them con- stitute what is known as La Plaine. the 3rd group La Montagne. Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. The most striking difference between the soils of Herault, and those of the vine-growing districts of Victoria, consists in the prevalence of lime in the former case. This is in marked contrast to its scarcity with us. The rocky hills to be seen everywhere are of limestone, chiefly of secondarv geological age, and they forcibly strike a Victorian by their marked differences from our primarv schists so abundantly in evidence in Vic- toria. Vast accumulations of limestone rock are almost e\erywhere in evidence, and it is the prevalence of this element which constitutes the most vital difference between our own and southern French soils, a difference which has an important bearing on the question of reconstitution, and which needs to be thoroughly realized when it is being considered. The soils of the second category are often termed locally Tcrres dc Souhergue. They are intermediate between the other two and, so far as the heavy bearing vineyards are concerned, they play the most important part in the viticulture of the department. Geologically considered, one finds considerable variety in the Herault soils ; the most important formations, in order of area thev occupy in the vine-growing region, are the following : — Tertiary formations occupy a most important place, especially among the soils of the second group. The soils resulting from their decomposi- tion are amongst those most frequently to be met with in the \ineyard lands. They comprise blue and' yellow marls and what is known as Montpellier sands. The latter type, of Pliocene age, covers a large area of country. The soils resulting from the decomposition of this soft sand- stone are very rich in lime and have given much trouble in connexion with reconstitution. In them, the majority of stocks suffer severely from chlorosis. The frequency with which one meets with this word, unknown, fortunately, in Australia, is well known to any one conversant with French viticultural literature. An analysis of a sample of typical soil of this character appears on the next page. This and those following were made bv Mr. P. R. vScott, Acting iChemist for Agriculture. Secondary formations are also largely represented, but chiefly in the higher levels. The hillside soils, knoAvn as Garrigues, belong to this epoch. They are chiefly of Jurassic age and consist of hard, but fissured rock. Ne\ertheless, formations of this description are to be met with here and there in the lower lands of the department, mainly as out-crops, for the majority of them are, more or less, covered by extensive tertiary deposits. The soils resulting from the decomposition of these hard limestone rocks are much freer from excess of lime than those of Tertiary age. Chlorosis is seldom troublesome, so much so that the chestnut is often found grow- ing in these soils, a tree which is as susceptible to excess of lime as an\ American vine. This seeming anomaly is explained by Professor H. Lagatu in the following words : — The upper Jurassic is constituted by hard magnesian Hmestones .... (lithographic limestones). Though these can be broken into fairly large angular fragments, natural agencies fail to reduce them to a state of powder. Hence it is that the soil results solely from chemical attack; progressive removal of the calcareous portion, by water saturated with carbonic acid, leaves a clayey and ferruginous residue, very plastic and containing at most a few hundredths of lime (carbonate) often i to 2 per cent Taken as a whole, secondary formations play a lesser part than Tertiary in the vineyard soils of Herault. Among these, Jurassic pla\ s ro May, 1910.] The W'nic Industry in Southern France. 313 the greatest part, Trias and Cretaceous rocks being less often met with. The vineyards of Frontignan are situated on Jurassic limestone formation. Analysis of Soil from \ear JIoxtpellier School. Chemical. Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash . , Lime . . Magnesia Chlorine Keaction Available — Phosphoric Acid Potash . . Meckaniciil. Mnis. Stones Fine Gravel 2 -1 , Coarse Sand 1 5 Medium Sand . . 0 - 25 Fine Sand "2.5- 1 Very tine Sand . . •1 - 05 Silt . . ■05- 01 Fine Silt ■01- 005 Clay . . iukUt 0(J5 3Ioistiire Xoss on ignition Loss on ignition CO.. . . " Organic Matter, Water, Ac. Soil. Par s per 100.000. 109 200 251 24.420 150 Nil Alkaline 36 80 Loss Dry. Ignited. on Per cent. Ignition. Per cent. Per cent. Xil Xil Xil 2-0 1-3 0-7 2-4 1-5 0-9 2-3 1-5 0-8 11-8 9-4 2-4 33-6 27-5 6-1 2-7 2-2 0-5 28-9 20-7 8-2 14-2 11-2 3-0 97-9 75-3 22.6 2-1 2-1 22-6 100-0 1000 Per cent. 22-6 19-2 Parts per 100,000. 64 210 219 26,650 191 Nil Alkaline 15 67 Loss Dry. Ignited. on Per cent. Ignition. Per cent. Per cent. Xil Nil NU 2-85 1-9 0-95 3-6 2-35 1-25 2-35 1-6 0-75 12-05 9-85 2-2 24-45 20-1 4-35 9-05 6-95 2-1 31-35 21-65 9-7 12-3 9-95 2-35 98-0 74-35 23-7 20 20 23-65 100-0 1000 Per cent. 23-65 21-0 Alpine Diluvium. — The quaternar\- formation, known in French as Diluvium Alpin and also as Diluvium des Cevennes, covers a considerable area of the lower portion of the department and plays a very important part in the viticulture of the region ; especially in the neighbourhood of Montpellier is this type abundant, numerous vineyards being situated on it. The following analysis of a sample of Verchant soil, taken by the writer, will give some idea of its composition : — An.alysis of Verch.\nt Soil. Chemical Analysis. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Lime Chlorine Reaction... Parts per 100,000. 01 62 118 118 Very slightly alkaline 314 Journal of Agricidture. [10 May, 1910. Mechanical Analysis. Con:ains Carbon Dioxide — mm. mm. Fine Gravel ... ... 2 — < Coarse Sand ... ... i — 5 Medium Sand ... .. "5 — '25 Fine Sand ... . . -25 — 'i Very Fine Sand .. 'i — "o; Silt ... ... ... '05 — -01 Fine Silt ... ... 'oi — 005 Ter cent. 3 ■95 T ■77 6- 66 3^ ■61 20 •07 9 •68 I •88 14- •73 97 •35 0 ■H I 79 ^9 ■99 63 ■4 Clay .. ... ... Under 'co; Moisture 1-oss on Ignition (Organic matter oidy) Stones The characteristic appearance of this type of soil, the surface of which appears, in most cases, to be composed almost solely of waterworn pebbles, is not easily forgotten — at Verchant these amounted to no les.s- than 63.4 per cent, of the total soil (see analysis). The following is the analysis of a sample of soil taken from St. Michel, near Lunel, one of the largest " submersion vineyards." An.\lvsis of Soil from St. Michei., Cihcmical Analysis. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Lime Magnesia Chlorine Reaction Available in i per cent Ciiric Acid. — Phosphoric Acid ... ... ... ... 46 Potash ... ■•• ... ... ... 96 Alechanicrd A nalysis. Stones 07 per cent. Contains Carbon Dioxide Very Coar.«e Sand >CKAR LUXEL. P.irts'per ico,ooo. 117 132 297 ... 22,800 1,120 ... Alkaline mm. mm. Coarse Sand ... ... 1 — '5 Medium Sand ... ... .5 — '^j F'ine Sand ... ... '25 — -i Very Fine Sand... ... 'i — "05 Silt" ... ... ... 'Oi— 'OI Fine Silt ... ... -01— ^005 Clay ... ... . undfr ^005 Moisture Loss on Ignition Per Cent. O'fO I "OO 0-85 5-55 2oo<; i6-6,- I9"4'; 12-30 76-35 1-83 21 76 99'94 To qtiote Professor Lagatu, who has made numerous analyses of soils of this type : — ■ They are all poor in phosphoric acid and lime. The non-iiebbly forms contain sufficient proportions of potash and magnesia, whereas the forms composed of lo May, 1910.] TJie Wine Industry in Soiitlierh France. 315 ■coarser elements are poor (in them). On the other hand, in the diluvium, the American vine finds a medium appropriate lo its needs p.nd gives, with abundant manuring, satisfactory yields. This similarity of composition witli that of many Australian vine soils is striking, especially in the direction of freedom from excess of lime and poverty in phosphoric acid. The fact that these \vere the soils which gave least trouble as regards reconstitution is significant and one which should inspire great confidence as to the success of reconstitution in Victoria. Some of the best wines produced in the department, notably those of St. 'George, are grown on this type of soil. Alluvial Soils abound in the department, especially in the vicinity •of the rivers. They may be divided into two classes — ancient and recent •deposits. The former are usually very gravelly and less rich than the latter. According to Professor Lagatu — The richest are those of the River Orb, which are ideal soils. The alluvial soils of the Herault, not so well constituted, are nevertheless rich ; thev respond ■particularly well to nitrogenous manuring. Those of the Lez, though excessively calcareous, are rich in phosphoric acid though poor in potash. Those of the Vidourle, very rich but a little too calcareous, give in the east of the department, articularlv to the town of Montpellier. The climate differs in several respects from any we know in Victoria. Being one of the warmest parts of France, several species of palm grow well, as will be seen in several of the photographs reproduced in the last issue, plants which constitute an unusual feature in most other parts of France. The following remarks by Professor Houdaille might almost be written of northern Victoria : — The general features common to the Herault vineyarrls are the dryness of i;s summers, the prolongation of the high temperatures of that season, the irregularity or its rainfall, the extreme temj)eratures which may be observed in certain years, both in winter and in summer. The ^luscat of Alexandria grape ripens its fruit more easilv than it does in Melbourne. In marked contrast to the above a.re the heavy falls of snow often experienced in winter, and the low temperatures occasionallv registererl. *At Tabilk, Phylloxera made its appearance in rSgq. Within a few years it had destroyed nearly 100 acres of stiffer laud. In the sandy soils, however, but little damage was done at first, the vines recovering entirely as they became accustomed to depend on their lower roots. At the present day, the 200 acres situated in sandy soil at Tabilk are as healthy as ever they were. Thev show no signs of suffering from Phylloxera. + In shape, the department of Herault somewhat reminds one of the 0[)en fan. 30 May, 1910.] The W'nie Industry m Southern France. 317 Winter minima of from 10° to 12° C. (13° to 10.40° F.) are not uncom- mon. So intense is the cold in certain winters that Australian Eucalypts cannot be successfully grown in the open air. At the Mbntpellier school, several species have been tried, but none of these are of any size as they have been cut down to the ground everv fourth or fifth \ear b\ winter cold. A good many have been killed outright. The majority of these trees are Eucalyptus globulus (Blue Gum) ; one species alone, K. urmgera. from southern Tasmania, has so far resisted the cold satisfactorily. As M. Mares points out — As compared with the rest of France, the southern region possesses a climate which is dry and hot, excessive in its variations as regards heat, drought and moisture-. SNOW SCENE AT MONTPELLIER. The following data are taken from an article bv the late Professor Houdaille : — Rainfall. — Careful records have long been .regularly kept. These show that during the course of a century, one may observe alternate moist and dry periods. The observations collected by Poitevin. first President of the Societe Ccntrale de VHerauU. show from 1767 to 1791 an annual average of 820 mm. {^^--Z inches). This average has varied a little during the course of the century, as is shown by the comparison of four different series of rainfall observation made at ^lontpellier : — Observations of J. Castelnau (1835-49) Observations of E. Roche (1857-66) ... Observations of Ch. Martins (1852-72) Observations of Ecole d'Agriculture, Montpellier (187388) 745 ■•• 29.3 Great variations are often observed l>:^tween different years. In 1875 1,037 mm. (40.8 inches) fell, whilst in 1884 only 533 mm. (21 inches) were recorded. mm. iiichc 669 .. . 26.Z 900 ■ 35-4 800 . • 31-5 ii8 Journal of Agriculturt [lo May, 1 910. The distribution of this rainfall fo,r the 1873-88 per iod was as follows : mm. inches Winter, mm. inches. mm. inches Summer, mm. inches December January February 50-1 103- I 4''7 = 2 • 0 = 4' ' = 1-6 li94-9 = 7-7 Spring. mm. inches. June .- 49 0 = %■ 0 July ... 24 4 = 10 August 45-9 = 1-7 J 9'3 = 4"7 Autumn, mm. inche.s ]March ... April ... May 48 ■ 0 c,6-3 49 I = i'9 = 3-« ^ 19 I I 9 3 ■ 4 = 7 ' "J J September 80-7 = 3 '2 October 76-2 == 30 November 77 6 = 30 1 (■2- 1 J 54-5 = 9' 2 For the above period (16 years) the average annual rainfall would thus be 742.1 mm. equals 29.2 inches. This average distribution may vary very much from one vear to another ; the only cha.racter which is at all constant is the scarcitv of the summer rains. In 1884, during the three months of June, July, and August, only 8 mm. (3 points) of rain were recorded. G. Foex gives the average annual rainfall as 651 mm. (25.6 inches), which falls in 53 days of the year only, a lesser number of rainv davs than anvwhere else in France. He assigns the rainfall as follows: — Winter Spring 25 per cent 24 per cent. Summer Autumn II per cent 41 per cent. Moisture of the A.ir and Evaporation. — These are given as follow.s bv M. Houdaille : — Mean Hysrometrir Stale at !) a.m. December January .. February March April May June July ... Augu.st . . . September October ... November . 79-71 . 81 -S- . 76-41 . 69-81 . 67- . 62- j . 58 -S"! . 55-G- . 57 -4 j . 66-4 I 70-7 . 80-2 Winter, 79.3. Spring, 66-:^. Summer, 57-1. 72-4. Mean Daily Evaporation — Mehe's In.strunient. mm. December ... ... ;V 421 January ... ... 3 ■ 23 February ... .. 4 -20 J W^inter, .3 mm. ■ 62. March April May June July August September October November 5 ■ 60 6 -.38 J 7 92 9-35 8-88 6 (»6 4-80 3-52 Spring, 5 mm. ■ 84. Summer, 8 mm. 72. Autumn, 5 mm. • 13. Mean annual hN'grometric state, 68-7 Mean annual daily evaporation, 5 mm. -83 Teniferature. — At Montpellier, the annual average temperature is 14.2° C. equals 57.5" F. At Beziers, a few miles south-west, it is i4-4" C. equals 58° F. The figures given on the next page are from observations taken at the Montpellier School. Here, again, great variations are occasionally to be met with. The January average was 2.90° C. (37-2° F.) in 1893 and 9.21° C. (48.6° F.) in 1899. As regards minima, in a good many winters the temperature does not fall below - 7" or - 8° C. (19.4° or 17.6° F.), but during the course of each century there are some winters during which the temperature falls to - 15° C. (5° F.), sometimes even to - 18° C. ( - 0.4° F.) in certain aspects. The vine, whjich in other regions withstands even more intense cold, may, in Herault, occasionally suffer from winter cold. lo May, 1910.] The Wine Industry m Southern France. 319 Average Monthly Tempeuatures. Series Series 18i0-89. 1890-99. C. F. C. F. [December 6.40=43.6 6.73=44.2 Winter . -I January 5.46=40.0 6.03 = 42.8 [^t'ebruary 7.77 = 46.0 7.74=45.9 1 jlarch . . 9.70=49.5 10.60 = 51.1 Spring . '. April . . I viay . . .. 12.65 = 54.8 14.19 = 57.4 .. 16.70=62.1 17.43 = 63.5 1 J une .. 20.49=68.9 21.48 = 70.6 Summer .-^July .. .. 23.34=74.0 23.99=75.1 1^ August .. 23.00=73.4 23.48 = 74.2 r September .. 19.61 = 67.3 20.56 = 69.0 Autumn A October .. 14.26 = 57.6 15.58 = 60.0 I November .. 10.39=50.6 11.04 = 51.9 Whole \ ear . . .. 14.15 = 57.47 14.8 =58-64 Spring frosts are far more dangerous. Frosts with a temperature as low as - 6° C. (21.2° F.) may damage the vineyards at the end of March or during the first days of April. Less severe frosts may occur until the end of May. A good many spring frosts are caused by excessive nocturnal radia- tion in air already cooled by the north winds passing over the Southern Cevennes Mountains. An observatory at I'Aigoual in these mountains, now telegraphs particulars to Montpelliei', as to probable occurrence of such frosts, in order that precautions in the way of smudge fires, &c. , may be taken in due time. Summer shade maximum may in the vineyards reach as high as 40° C. (104" F.). During the three months of July, August, and September, the maxima may oscillate, almost without interruption, between 30° and 35° C. (86° and 95" F.). In 1899, a dry, warm year, on 23 days out of 30 in July, and on 30 days out of 31 in August, the daily maxima exceeded 30" C. (86° F.). They exceeded 35° C. (95° F.) eight times in July aiid eight times in August, reaching 37.9" C. (100.3° F.) in the last days of July. SunligJit. — Out of 4,330 hours during which the sun is above the horizon, it is obscured by clouds during 2,100 hours, so that the district obtains 50 per cent, of the possible direct stmlight. This proportion falls to T,T, per cent, at the extreme limit of the vine zone (Lorraine) — at London it is 23 per cent. Winds. — Strong winds are frequent in the region. During the winter the cold north-west wind, known as Mistral, or if it comes from, the north, as Tramontane, prevails. Whereas, in spring and summer, sea breezes from the south and south-east are the general rule. These winds plav a most important part in determining the climate of the region ; it is the Mistral which brings from the north, spells of cold weather sufficiently intense to cut down Eticalypts and Pepper trees. There is a vast dif- ference between the situation of Victoria and southern France, which must be borne in mind when comparing the climates of the two countries. The jNlidi is the warm side of a cold continent, whilst we are the cool side of a warm continent. Our cold, winds are tempered by the Southern Ocean by which they are charged with moisture, and thus prevented from causing excessive evaporation, with consequent lowering of temperature. Hence, it is that cold spells, common in Montpellier, are unknown to us in Victoria. Even in our alpine regions, w^here snow often falls, 3^o Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. Eucalypts which fail at Montpellier are indigenous ; a striking example of the difference in the climate of the two countries. These same factors apply to the warm winds and their bearing on the question is of equal, if not greater, importance from a viticultural point (jf view. Our hot winds traverse the heated plains of central Australia, and occasionally bring; us heat waves of an intensity quite unknown in France. But it is in the amount of moisture contained by these hot winds that the leading difference between the two climates lies. In marked con- trast to our dry hot north winds, are the sea breezes at Montpelliex. These, after crossing the Mediterranean (in the northern hemisphere the warm winds come from the south), are charged with moisture. When the sea wind blows it is hot, muggy and unpleasant, although the thermometer indicates a much lesser temperature than a Victorian, accustomed to our dry north winds, would anticipate. At night, the difference is especially noticeable, and cold surfaces, such as the flagstones in the footpaths of the streets, become moist with deposited dew. This moist atmosDhere causes evaiX)ration tO' be much less active than it is witl^ us. When the sea wind blows regularly a short time before vintage, it considerably assists in the swelling of the berries, which seem to be able to absorb some of the dew deposited at night. In this way it enables a good yield to be relied on in spite of a long dry summer, frequently almost devoid of rain. In this manner these moist, warm winds are decidedly useful. But there are compensating disadvantages. The dew drops deposited at night-time, in the warm atmosphere, constitute an ideal hatching grounrl for spores of parasitic fungi, and it is only by repeated sprayings, so as to insure each dew or rain drop being enabled to dissolve its trace of copper salts, that the vine can be protected against fungus diseases, which are prevalent to an extent quite unknown in Victoria. Unless protected by several sulphurings, Oidium prevents the vintaging of anv crop in southern France; yet, in Victoria, during the past few- years sulphiu-ing has been frequently omitted altogether without much damage resulting to the crop. Downy Mildew {Plasmopara) is fortunatelv unknown to us as yet. As this fungus requiies even more moisture for its development than oidium. it is exceedingly doubtful if ever it will obtain a footing in Victoria, at least in the districts where we cultivate the vine. Our dr\ hot winds, so absolutelv different from the moist ones of southern France, are an invaluable natural defence against these insidious pests. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, thanks to energetic and timely execu- tion of spravings and sulphurings. the intelligent and highly trained growers of the Herauh fuid little difificultv in ]n-otecting their vineyards and in \'int:iging, in good order, the enormous> yields already mentioned. {To be continued.) lo jMav, 1910.] Orchard Studies. 321 ORCHARD STUDIES. II.— THE LATERALS OF APPLE TREES. E. E. Pescoit. Principal, School of Horficiilture, Burnley. The question of lateral management is often one of great concern to .apple growers, and the resultant tree and its generous crop depends entirely upon the treatment that the tree laterals receive. In tree-building, there- fore, the studv of laterals is of the utmost importance. First of all, the definition of a lateral must be decided upon. To serve the purpose of the pre.sent study, the wood of apple trees above the trunk may .roughly be classified into two classes, viz., leaders and laterals. The leaders comprise the wood that forms the framework of ■the tree, and thev terminate at the growing points. At various intervals along the leaders, buds a,re placed, and these buds break out into growth, forming much weaker growths than the leading points, and also growing at varying angles from the leaders. Sometimes these buds develop into short fruiting spurs attached immediately to the leaders, but more often they continue their growth until they are some inches, and even feet, in length. These are the laterals, and these are the growths that should carry the crop of the tree. There are very few varieties of apple trees which ca.rry their fruit spurs directly on the leaders ; the majority in general cultivation produce the fruiting spurs on the laterals, and these therefore are a valuable consideration. According to the situation of the lateral on the tree, so is its vigour determined ; the nearer to the termination of the leader, the .stronger l)ecomes the lateral. Laterals in this position often show a desire to become a leader, .so strong does their growth occur. Strong laterals .should never be encouraged on the tree, as the fruiting wood requires to be fairly weak in ■development and in character. All strong growing laterals, therefore, particularlv those near the top of a leader, and which often show an ambition to become a leader where one is not required, may be suppressed or removed altogether. Where the lateral growth is very generous, and where thus an excess occurs, the superfluous ones may be removed. But it should not be for- gotten, that when once a lateral is removed, it can rarel\ be replaced. Apple trees do not always possess dormant buds at the base of the laterals ; and should the lateral be cut out it cannot always be replaced by another lateral, or by fruit spurs. Even should the trees possess the power to spur nt the base of every lateral after its removal, it is an open question as to whether this is an eminently desirable attribute. Suppose these spurs were heavily laden with fruit, and, owing to either the weight of the fruit, or to careless picking, the fruiting spurs were broken off, that portion of the tree would become permanently barren. But such a possi- bility is far less likely to happen when the laterals remain. Assuming then that the trees have a fair amount of weak, angular -or pendant laterals, it may be confidently accepted that these will ultimately bear the requisite crop of fruit. There is no necessity to shorten back these laterals in their early growths. They may be rigorously left alone ■until thev have borne their first fruits. Thev will generally do this towards 3-'-' Journal of Agriculture. [lo Vi AY, Tgro. the end. The weight of the fruit will bend down the lateral, restricting the sap flow, and thus causing spur development gradually along the lateral right to the base. This result mav be actually seen 'in the illustration showing three bearing laterals of the apple '-'Clarke's Seedlinrr." Thp CLARKE :5 :5ELL-L1NG AJ'lLh LAIERALS. lateral in the uppermost part of the illustration is carrying its crop all along its lower region, while during the same season, it has formed its new spurs right up to the base. lo May, 1910.] OrcJuird Studies. 323 ^^hen the lateral has, to use an everv-dav term, "spurred up," it may be shortened back, or it mav be left severely alone, according to the necessities of the situation, the productiveness of the soil, and othei- con- siderations to be studied bv the grower. ■'f''lLl .--■^ -^ -^ ,^ \, ,» - - f/^-^**^^.- <:.'^ ^^''-'^Vy^ ^ ipi^ ' ..^ ' j|gi^' ^ ,'"\ - • ,i/x AiT^- SECTION OK JONATHAN APPLE TREE. There is always the danger that if the laterals are left unpruned for any length of time, the basal spurs, which are the weaker, will gradually lose strength, and ultimately die. This effect is shown clearh" in the 324 journal of Agri.culturc. [10 May, 1910^ illustration showing a section of a Jonathan apple tree. The two prominent laterals in the centre of the picture have produced their spurs along the whole length. The lateral was left unpruned, and the spurs gradually died along the stronger and baqk portion, fruiting only towards the- termination. This, of course, is most undesirable, and the laterals should, be kept undier constant observation to prevent this. Once any signs of weakening! appear in the spurs towards the base of the lateral, it should be considerably shortened back, to conserve strength, and to prevent final barrenness. The illustrations show ist, three laterals of a "Clarke's Seedling" apple, carrying 39, 41, and 51 apples respectively; and 2nd, a section of a " Jonathan " apple tree, eleven years old, carrying a lo-bushel crop. This last-named tree has averaged 10 bushels annuallv since it came- into bearing. The illustrations are from the orchard of Mr. James Cowan, of Bacchus March. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescoit, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Pests and Diseases. All codlin moth bandages should at once be removed ; and if not: destroyed, they should be boiled as soon as they are taken off the trees. As soon as possible the trees should receive a thorough cleaning up, scrap- ing and burning all the loose bark, cleaning out crevices and cracks, and' cutting clean all cracked and broken ends of limbs. Every hiding place of the codlin larv'je should i^e thoroughly searched and every possible grub destroyed. This is half the battle for the coming season. It is advisable to do this in the autumn ; as if it be left until spring, the incom- ing rush of work may prevent the grower from having it done at all. Where growers have sprayed thoroughly to combat this pest during the past season, very satisfactory results have been obtained, and the moth has- been considerably reduced in numbers. At the Burnley School of Horticulture, the spraying during the season was carried out with regularity, most of the orchard being spraved five times. One block of dwarf apples was only sprayed four times, the first spraying being omitted; the result was that nearly one half of the crop' on these trees was destroyed by the attack of the first brood. In all other sections the loss from the first brood was inconsiderable. As soon as any apples were attacked, thiey were picked from the trees, find all fallen apples were gathered and destroyed. Up till tlie middle of January, not 2. per cent, of the crop was so lost. Two sprayings were given after that time, and there was no further loss. Of the resultant crop, not I per cent, was found to be moth-infested; in fact, many trees carrying a crop of one bushel and over were gathered without showing a single infested fruit. The main lesson taught this season is that the early spray should ne\er be neglected'. The first spray is one of the most important, and it should" be put on as early as consistent with the dropping of the petals. Another lo May, 1910.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 325, lesson is the value of gathering affected apples from the trees as soon as they are observed, in preference to using bandages. No bandages were used in the Burnley orchards, the methods of continual spraying, and of gathering infested fruits being relied upon to give good results. And. the satisfactory results show that, if these two operations are carried out thoroughly and systematically, they are all that is needed. Trees should now be sprayed wherever any scale insect, bryobia mite, woolly aphis, or peach aphis has occurred during the past season. The best winfter spray for any or all of these pests is the red oil emulsion'. Some growers prefer the emulsion of crude petroleum ; while others still use the lime, sulphur and salt spray ; all of them are good, and may l)e used with good effects. The spraying should be given as early as possible, so that, if any failure occur, or if the pest spread again duHng the winter months, a second spraying may be given early in August, so as to insure clean trees for the rest of the season. Experiments carried out during last winter seem to show that one of the successful methods of coping with peach aphis is to spray the dormant trees with red oil during the winter. A full account of the experiments will be given in a later issue. Growers should make themselves familiar with an article entitled " Treatment of Orchard Pests," which appeared in the September, 1909 number of this Journal. Copies of the article may be obtained on appli- cation to the Secretary for Agriculture. Cultural and General Operations. The autumn has again turned out generally dry, and as a result plough- ing has been delayed. Wherever possible, all cultural operations should be pushed on, so as to leave plenty of time for spraying and pruning. Leg^uminous plants should now be all sown for green manures, and all preparations completed for planting new areas. Drainage and sub-soiling should still be continued, particularly where young trees are to be planted. Stiff' clay soils, sour soils, and .soils of a firm texture should this month receive a dressing of 4 to 5 cwt. of lime per acre. Lime is a wonderful unprover of .soils, and frequent light applications improve the soil to a great degree. A dressing of stable manure is beneficial at this season, but it should not be u.sed in conjunction with lime. If the.se two substances are used at the same time a certain and sure loss occurs. No manurial substance, whatever, should be applied to the soil until at least three or four weeks after the lime dressing has been harrowed in. If it can be obtained, a .surface dressing of fresh new soil will renovate the orchard .soils tO' a very considerable extent ; top dressings of peat and leaf mould are also invaluable. Wherever wood ashes and charcoal are obtainable, their use in the orchard as a manure is productive of very good results, and these should never be wasted. Vegetable Garden. If no rain has fallen, the seedlings, and young vegetables planted out must be kept watered so as toi keep them in a state of good growth. All beds in preparation should be manured ; and cabbages may be planted out. Seeds of peas, broad beans, parsnips and carrots may be- planted out. Asparagus beds may still be manured ; and wherever possible a good dressing of lime should be applied to all unoccupied vegetable plots.. 326 Journal of Agriculture. [10 May, 1910. This is especially necessary on land that has gxown French beans, tomatoes, or potatoes. The various insects that attack these plants so freely, such as red spider, various caterpillars, aphis, &c., are destroyed by the lime ■dressing. Keep all weeds hoed out, and thin out all seedling vegetables. Flower Garden. The fairly dry season has necessitated an extra amount of autumn watering, and, unless the flower garden has been well trenched or drained, gardeners will have many losses during the winter ; as, owing to the continued waterings, the winter rains on top of these will, provided they come as usual, render the soil to a very sodden condition. Hence, if there are any plants of a delicate nature, or plants that will suffer from an over wet soil, they should be lifted to a drier situation; or they may be even stored in dry sand in a cool place. Even in well drained gardens, it is advantageous to lift and store a large number of herbaceous perenninls, so that the beds may present a more tidy appearance; and also to allow the soil to be thoroughly renovated and ventilated. Wherever possible, a good top dressing with fresh soil is very desirable ; and also an addition of peat, leaf mould, or well rotted stable manure. A dressing of lime is always an advantage ,in the au*tumn ; the value of lime for garden soils cannot be too much emphasized. In addition to its manurial properties, lime improves the physical character and qualities of the soil in many desirable ways. The lime should not be placed in immediate contact with the growing plants, and it should be left on the surface for some considerable time before digging in. Further, lime must never be used in conjunction with stable manure; the .soil should be dressed with lime at least three or four weeks before adding the manure. By this time all bulbs and tubers for spring flowering will be planted ; and in many instances these are above ground. They should be protected from the ravages of slugs, snails, and other pests. Summer flowering txiilbs and allied' plants, such as Iris and Lilium, may now be planted. A planting of seeds of hardy annuals, particularly, sweet peas, may now be sown. In growing annuals, a great mistake is frequently made in sowing the seeds too closely. Plenty of room should be given to each individual plant, and the plants should not be in any way overcrowded. Quick growing plants are generally gross feeders, and to have a large number of plants, all in need of considerable nourishment, will only .return one result — ^stunted plants, and dwarfed blooms. It is better only to have four or five sweet pea plants in one clump, well spaced ; the plants will be more vigorous, and the flowers will be of the finest character possible. All flowering shrubs and trees that have flowered may now be pruned and cut back into reasonable bounds. There are very few shrubs that are not amenable to such treatment ; and they will always repay with good results. Even strong wooded shrubs as Acacias, and such trees as Eucalypts, may be headed back, so as to allow them to branch out and torm a more bushy habit. Chrysanthemums, delphiniums, dahlias, perennial phlox, polygonum and other herbaceous perennials may now be cut down, and if necessary lifted for storing. Preparations may be made for the planting of rose cuttings; these will be planted in June, after the ordinary pruning. lo May, 1 910.] Af7aivses of Artificial Manures. EH O W m< 5^ t-H O I— I fe ^* ^^ P-t o [VjO H CO O o a t-'-l.-. •U05 aad 3.1 ^u-Bw au 1 J. oa T-i (M ?3 _1 00 Ol (Mr-It- t- auiTJA paiTJiui^sg | C^T). ■"^ T-t r-* '"' 1 T)- Tt* -^ Tt-r *t< a 1 a 2"^ i 3 -S 1 o? : t- H 0 0 £3 3 ?!? : r) 0 Tt< E:- c 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 S - 1 3 ^ ^ 1 ^0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 000 0 OOJ 0 10 "0 H (M IM(M (M NCN (Me^--i ■d « 00 ifl ■*lO r-l-HO I> 3 S«iV' 00 r- 0 «,* CO 00-^ 0 fa (M (N -1 e^ 1-1 rH -l(M (Mrt 00 M fa ta a, n 3 0 t- 1^00 T-t 0 CO 1-1 tH T-( I-H rHrt '"' ■^ CO (MOO IM -2 3 .^co ■P '.'~ C-l ^ r— to ^ 0 ttl t- .n to 00 OS fa ^ T-t ^ *** ^ '^ a 0 fe; s? : • -lO » 0 d M ■d S g 0 fa s5 : . .-tl CI O'* T*^ CO 0 r-ira OS (M ii -.^co to ^ T' 0 fa " m Oi (M 00 t^ iO to lO ■•* I> — i f4 .J. - '3 f4 0 . .c e J3 0 S 3 .■s 3 0 ."t^ 3 . 3 0 0 S 9 -i S S ^1 Ow 0 jO "* J5 c-^ 1 St^ ■ fi >. S fc s ^» g g,S ■ X -^^-! 3 .9 r^l •■ 0 -. 0 - : a 1 5 '■J ^^ 0 .£ 0^0 < s t? 0 S tn Lj T3 -■s --4 0. c 0 1 fa c3 6 l2i ' ' : : 3 03 £ 1 c "o 1 I 73 «C^ a* m _o 1 0 ^ 11 tj a. : : =^ - ' - -T3 25 0) c a 0,61; Q !» pq i-:i •Oil iaq«T 1 CO OS fM 0 OS 0-. ca t-QO (M CS OS 0 0 1 Thoroughpin (Bursitis with permanent distension of the sheath of the flexor pedis perforans tendon of the hind limb) ; Navicular Disease (Caries of the bursal surface of the os naviculare ; Nasal Disease (Osteo-porosis), and Chorea. (''Shivering" or "Nervy.") The remarks made with regard to the absence of definite observations concerning the hereditary character of Sidebone may be even more forcibly applied to all but one (Roaring) of the above-mentioned unsoundness. Con- cerning the others, no exact evidence has ever been recorded to my know- ledge. The following references from standard authors, relating to the more important of the.se unsoundnesses, indicate the usual attitude adopted when discussing their hereditary character. The tendency is for each author to launch an ipse dixit, rather than to furnish proof or refer to evidence : — Ringbone Williams {Principles and- Practice of Veterinary Surgery) : — Hereditary predisposition is sufficiently proved and acknowledged. I therefore simply advise breeders of horses never to breed from a sire or dam having ringbones. GouBAUX AND Barrier {The Exterior of the Horse-French) : — The influence of hereditary has been recognised for a long time. Certain families of horses invariably transmit them to their descendants. Axe {The Horse in Health and Disease — vol. 5, page 205) : — Horses with upright pasterns, and animals with pasterns of undue length are specially predisposed to it. MoLLAR AND DoLLAR {The Practice of Veterinary Surgery, page 607) :— ... The existence of the disease in two or more feet suggests hereditary predisposition, and mav often be traced to small badly-shaped joints or defects in the formation of the limbs. . . . Such conformation, being perpetuated in the progeny, renders it easy to understand why the disease is often inherited. 33° Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 19 io. Bone Spavin.— Hayes {Veterinary Notes — 7th edition, 1906, page 254) : — Hereditary predisposition plays a large part in its production. . . . Bad conformation of the hocks has undoubtedly a predisposing influence. MoLLAR AND DoLLAR {The Practice of Veterinary Surgery, page 721):— The intimate structure of the bones and ligaments mav predispose to disease, as shown by the inheritance of spavin, and its occurrence in entire strains whose hock joints appear perfectly formed. Curb.— Axe {The Horse in Health and Disease. — vol. 5, page 300) : — The causes . . . must be considered under two heads, viz., predisposing and exciting; of the former, heredity is a marked factor quite apart from conformation, for it is noticeable that the produce of some horses and mares . . . show a special liability to the disease. Hayes (Veterinary Notes — 7th edition, 1906; page 56): — Animals which have suffered from curb ought not, as a rule, to be used for stud purposes, for the conformation that renders a horse liable to this injury is often transmitted to the offspring. Examinations Made. The systematic examination of stallions organized by me as Chief Veterinary Officer, and carried out under my direction during the past three seasons in Victoria, has afforded an opportunity of ascertaining the pro- portionate incidence of most of these unsoundnesses in the different breeds or classes of hor.ses, and the age-period at which they occur, and also of determining in some degree the extent to which certain of them run in families. The observations which have been made — together with the records of relationship of sound and unsound horses — will, I think, furnish a materia] contribution to the evidence establishing the hereditary character of Sidebone at all events. It is unfortunate that the records in most cases have reference to only the paternal .side of the breeding of the individual horses examined ; for there is no reason to believe that the hereditary influence of the dam is other than equallv as potent as that of the sire. Indeed, the conclusion is almost irresistibly forced that, in the case of some of the families dealt with, the number of unsound descendants recorded would have been much greater but for the prepon- derating influence of " sound " blood on the dam's side. Up to the present, under the Victorian .scheme for the Government Examination of Stallions for Soundness,* a total of 2,636 horses have been examined; 779 light horses, 558 ponies and 1,299 draught horses. Certificates of freedom from hereditary unsoundness have been issued in respect of 1,954 horses (74.5 per cent.), and 417 (15.75 per cent.) have been refused certification as being found affected with one or ocner ot the listed unsoundnesses. The examination has not been confined to high class horses. Practically all horses standing for public service in the State have been examined, and as showing the range as regards quality, it should be mentioned that 265 (10 per cent.) of the total number examined have been refused the Government Certificate on the ground that they were below a reasonable standard for Government approval as regards breed, type and conformation. * What this system is, how it was introduced, and the work that has been carried out under it, may be gathered from a perusal of the three first (1907, igo8, and 1909) Departmental Reports concerning it, which are published in the December, 1907, July, 1909, and April, 1910, issues of this Journal. io May, 1910.] Hereditary UiisoNndncss ui Horses. 33» There has been examined, therefore, it may be claimed, a sufficiency both as regards numbers and type from which to generalize concerning the incidence of the various unsoundnesses in different breeds or types, the age-period of their development and, in a lesser degree, rfieir occurrence in certain families of horses and non-occurrence in others. Incidence of Unsoundness as Regards Breed. An analysis of the unsoundnesses met with in the different breeds of horses will be found in the following tables. The first three tables relate to examinations made in the separate years, 1907, 1908 and*- 1909-; the fourth table gives the aggregate figures regarding all horses examined to date : — Analysis of Unsoundnesses of Stallions Refusfd Certificates, 1907. Draughts. LIGHTS. Ponies. Number Examined, 214. Totals. Unsoundnesses. Number Examined, 403. Number Examined, 301. Number Examined, 91 . Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Number Rejected. J'erceutage Rejected. Number ; Rejected. 1 Percentage Rejected. 1 Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Sidebone Ringbone Spavin (bone) Curb .. Bog Spavin and Thoroughpin Cataract (eye) 82 9 3 2 20 35 223 ■74 •49 3 4 15 6 4 •99 1-32 4-95 1-99 1-32 2 ■ 93 1 -46 ft 2 • 80 1 • 46 - 85 9-25 15 1-63 19 ' 206 12 1-30 6 -65 1 10 Totals . . 9ft 23 82 32 10 tiS 10 4 67 13S 15 04 Analysis of Unsoundnesses of Stallions Refused Certificates, 1908. Draughts. Lights. Ponies. Totals. Unsoumdnesses. Number Examined, 501. Number Examined, 295. Number Examined, 199. Number Examined, 995. fc.'O ll 0.52. 3 » Percentage Rejected. Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Number Rejected, i Percentage Rejected, i Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Sidebone Ringbone Spavin (bone) Curb .. Bog Spavin and Thoroughpin Roarer . . 99 20 3 i5 19-76 3-99 •59 2-99 K -33 7 2-37 8 i 2-71 8 i 2-71 3 1-01 2 -67 3 1-50 2 1-00 100 10-05 30 301 11 110 10 101 18 ' 1-80 2 : -20 Totals . . 137 27-33 29 9 - 83 5 2-50 171 1717 332 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. Analysis of Unsoundnesses of Horses Refused Certificates to 5/10/09 (Figures exclusive of 32 N.Z. Exams.). Drau GETS. iber ined, 5. Lights. Number Examined, 183. Ponies. Totals. Unsoundnesses. Nun Exan 39 Number Examined, 145. Number Examined, 723. Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. •°o a.£. 3 0 55 P^ ■SB OhP^ Sidebone Ringbone Spavin (bone) Curb .. Bog Spavin and Tlioroughpin 81 11 1 20-50 2-80 •25 3 1-64 2 ; 109 5 2-73 1 -55 1 -69 1 -69 2 1-38 81 15 4 7 1 11-20 2-07 •56 •97 •14 T0TAI.S . . 93 23-55 11 (i-(ll 4 2-76 108 14-94 Aggregate Analysis of Unsoundnesses in Stallions Refused Certificates during the Seasons 1907-8-9. Draughts. Lights. Ponies. Totals. Number Number Number Number Examined, Examined, Examined, Examined, 1,299. 779. 558. 2,638. Unsoundnesses. •2-s 3 57 !2iP4 eS73 ■SB Number Rejected. Percentage Rejected. (U 0 •g-g 3-37 ;2;M sB S S II So a.l 3 37 266 S, . C3T3 II Sidebone 262* 20- 17 4 -51 10 09 Ringbone 40 308 14 1-79 6 108 60 2 28 Spavin (bone) 7 -54 25 1 3-21 2 •36 34 1 29 Curb .. 19 244 10 179 29 1 10 Bog Spavin and Thoroughpin Cataract (eye) 17 1-31 8 1 1-03 1 •18 25 1 94 04 Roarer . . 2 -26 2 •08 Totals . . 326 25- 10 72 9-24 19 3-41 417 15^82 * Tliirteen liorses rejected for other causes also had Sidebone. making a total of 275 draught liorses with Sidebone. Among the conclusions to be drawn from the results set out in the above tables, the following are of first importance : — A. — Concerning Breeds of Horses. — 1. That hereditary unsoundness exists in draught hoir.ses to a much greater extent than in other breeds — to two and a half times greater extent than in light horses, and eight times greater than in ponies ; 2. That light horses are much less subject to heredita.ry unsound- ness than draught horses, but much more so than ponies ; 3. That ponies are, of all breeds, least subject to unsoundness of an hereditary character. 10 May, 1910.] Hereditary Viisoiiudness tn Horses. 333 B. — Concerning Hereditary Unsoundnesses. — 1. As regards Sidehonc that — (a) Ponies do not develop sidebone as a form of hereditary unsoundness ; {h) In light horses sidelx)ne is so rare that it may be con- sidered negligible ; (c) This form of unsoundness is i)racticallv confined to draught horses, and is the most common of all forms of hereditary unsoundness in draught horses, and further tha,t its incidence in draught horses is practi- cally six and a half times greater than that of any other hereditary unsoundness, either in draught horses or in any other breeH 2. As regards Ringbone that — {a) In ponies and light horses the occurrence of ringbon is rare ; {b) In draught horses ringbone is, next to sidebone, the most common form of hereditary unsoundness. 3. As regards Bone Spavin — that this form of unsoundness — {a) Is practically confined to light horses. {b) Is the most common form of hereditary unsoundness in light horses. {c) Is so rare in ponifs and in draught horses as to te regarded as practicall}' negligible. 4. As regards C7(rb that — {a) Curb may be regarded as being an hereditary unsoundness in light horses and ponies only ; {b) Curb is the most common form of hereditary unsoundness in ponies ; {c) Curb is rare in draught horses and negligible as a form of hereditary unsoundness. 5. As regards Bog Spavin, Thoroughpin, Cataract, and Roaring, the figures are insufficient for any reliable conclusions to te drawn. Age-period of Development of Unsoundness. No horses under two years old have been examined. Next to aged horses ( six years and over) the age at which the greatest number has been submitted is three years. The excess of three-year-olds over four- and live-vear-olds, is accounted for bv the fact that during the second and third years there was the influx of an additional crop of colts of this age entering on a stallion career. The figures in some cases {e.g. ponies), and as regards the more uncommon unsoundnesses, are scarcely sufficient from which to generalize as to the age-period of development of unsound- ness. As regards the more common unsoundnesses, however, it will -be seen from the tables given below, that the percentage proportion of unsound- ness is least in two- and three-year-olds and increases each year until the age of maturity, at which age-period (six years and over) the greatest percentage of unsoundness is found in all breeds. Indeed, it is quite likely that the proportion of unsoundness in aged liorses is even greater than is shown in the tables, for the reason that a large number of horses past a showing age, and which were known bv their owners to be unsound, have not been submitted for examination. 334 Journal of Agriculture. [to May, 1910. H g T! 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H 00 OS Oi ^ 1 t> cc r^ 00 ■X ■ • • « =3 izi r 1 > ^ Tf 0 CD n. w 00 r)< < 00 OS d 1 02 ^ ^ . - rH CO 03 (2; >H 1 r. 1 m 1 0 "1 •a CI 1 0 0 12; 1 d 00 1 S 1 ^ ^ 1 0 1 0 •d 00 1 1 00 W 1 s§ c ■d a 0 1 a . ca-tr; H PhOmWO (— 1 OJ > fi a m yA Q PQ H ■< M H pa oi X 05 •»*< o "* X o « e-) OS rH o o OIM rH rH rH "5 d 2 t-OTdinos COCD«l(M(N •(N t- 0 d S Os_ CD « CO 1 '^ 1 "^ »0 CO lO lO O ?D CO ?0 00 QOI^ i-t CO W M O OS • (N Oi rH i-H rH rH OJ rH rH » ^ i t^ CO N in CD ■* mint- corH rH I m as g o a D, . ^ t^ coPhmWOOPh T^T^6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910^ Evidence of Hereditary Character of Sidebone. Amongst light horses only four (.51 per cent.), and amongst ponies- none have been found to have sidebone ; so that the records as regards these classes are of no positive value in estimating the hereditary character of the unsoundness. As negative evidence, however, the fact of so infinitesimal a proportion of the light breeds being found affected is of the greatest significance ; especially when it is remembered that these horses are, by the nature of their work and paces, subject in a much greater degree than draught horses to one of the alleged principal exciting causes- of ossification of the lateral cartilages, viz., concussion. No thoroughbred horse and no pony have been found affected with sidebone. The four light horses in which it has been found have all shown some signs in their type and conformation of admixture of draught blood. One notable instance of this was the imported English hackney " X G " rejected for sidebone. His round nuggety confor- mation, broad flat feet, round bone, fetlock tuft, long curly hair growing; from the coronets, and his high but laboured action all proclaimed the bax sinister of draught horse blood to such an extent as to belie his- published pedigree. Another of these sidebone light horses, " M G ," although having " light " characteristics at the time of examina- tion, has been found, according to his bi^eeding, to l>e actuallv a draught horse. By the time the first hundred or so of draught horses had been examined, it appeared evident that valuable information concerning the transmission from sire to son of a predisposition to the formation of side- bone could l)e obtained. To that end, I determined that the pedigrees and relationship of the different horses examined should be ascertained at the time of examination. This has been done, and as a result I am able to present a series of tables of family groups of horses examined — some families in which there is a great preponderance of sidebone in the progeny, and some, the members of which are virtually all sound. In perusing the tables of sideboned families, attention should be given to the ratio of sideboned to sound progenv. Such ratio in each case, when compared with the general percentage (20.17) of sideboned horse.s — - as shown in the previous tables, will be found to be greatly in excess- Similarl)-, in the case of the sound families, only those have been tabulated in w'hich the percentage of sound animals greatlv exceeds the general percentage. For the reason alreadv mentioned, viz. — -that the influence of the dam in any given case cannot be calculated — the deductions to be drawn from these tables are not as exact as is desirable, but there is one family {See Table IX., Family " A ") in which it would appear that when the horse was mated with mares belonging to a sidebone sire family, the offspring developed sidebones, but when mated with outside mares the offspring remained sound. Seven .sons of this sire " T 1 "' have been examined. Three of these, viz. : — " C M ," " I M ," and "I Q ," were ex. "Q of B— " mares, and all of them were rejected for sidebone. The other four were ex. mares of sound sire blood, and were found sound. [Note. — (i) In the tables following, for obvious reasons, the actual names of the horses are not given. The names are indicated by the use of a cipher consisting of initial letters bearing a similar relationship in all cases to the actual names of the horses concerned. A duplicate series 10 May, 1910. Hcrcditarv Unsoinidiicss in Horses. ji'i of tables containing the actual names, together with the cipher kev. has been furnished to tlie Melbourne University examiners, the Minister for Agriculture, and the Editor of this Journal^) Table IX. — Unsound Families. FAMiT,y •• A." -Sire .. .. Q of B (not evaniinecl). Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged 6 years 6 years 5 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Sideboned (24). E U E (■ C z u T H — B — — Q of B Age. Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged 5 years 5 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Sound (15) - N- C - Q- B- W- Remarkg. — 61 •5% of examined progeny sideboned ; 38 '5% sound. 81 -8% sons sideboned ; 18-8% sound. 53-5% grandsons sideboned; 46-5% sound. Tlie influence of sound blood on the dam's side in the case of the grandsons may be presumed, each grandson only carrying one-quarter of " Q of B " blood against three-quarters outside lilood. This family is an instance of what has been obseryed throughout, yiz., that the influence of the foundation sire, whether in the direction of soundne.ss or unsoundness, fessens with each generation, unless there is introduction of sound or of unsound blood, as the case may be, on the dam's side in the younger genera- tions. Eajiily " B" ) (not examined). Aged Aged .\ged Aged Aged 6 years 5 years 5 years 6 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Sideboned (15) — I- M D N 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Aged 5 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years Sound (10). Q T q D D I- L of P ■ n D Uemarks. — 60% of examined progeny sideboned ; 40% sound. 66 "7% sons sideboned ; 33 '3% sovind. 53 '7°^ grandsons sideboned; 46-3''o sound. ■I(il3. M 338 Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910^ Table IX. — Unsound Families — continued. Family " C." Z D I — (not examined). Age. Aged Aged 6 years 4 years Sideboned (5). I D Age. 3 years Sound (1). of D- Family " D." O C fnot examined). Age. Aged 5 years 4 years 6 years Sideboned (4). Age. 4 years Z Sound (1). Sons W C . . c c — c c 0^: X Grandson C X Family " E." T> of the O (not e.\amined). Age. Aged Aged 3 years 6 years Sideboned (4). Age. Sound {nil). Grandsons E N H T X P- D Great Grandson I— Sire F.A^MILY " F." D (e.'camined — sideboned). Age. Aged 5 years 3 years Sideboned (3). O A N D D of the J- Age. Sound (nil). lo May, 1910.] Hereditary Viisouiidncss in Horses. 339 Sire Sons Great Grandson Age. Aged Aged Aged Aged 6 years 6 years 6 years 5 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 2 years 5 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Table X. — Sound Families. Family " A." T M • — (not examined). Sound (35). N S Age. 3 years Aged 6 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 3 vears Sideboned (7). Remarks. — 83 '3% of progeny sound : 16 '7% sideboned. 95% of sons sound ; 5% sideboned. 72 "7% of grandsons and great grandsons sound: 27% sideboned. Clearly the increase in number of sideboned grandsons over sons is due to the introduction of sidebone blood through the dams, especially seeing the preponderance of aged sound horses amongst the sons. Sire Famhy " B." Q — • (not examined). Grandsons Age. Aged 6 years Aged Aged 5 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Sound (31). Age. 3 years Sideboned (1). ;4o Journal of Agriculture. [lo ^[ay, 1910. Table X. — Sound Families — continveJ. Family " B " — continued. Great Grandsons + years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Sound. ■ N M.M D D K - U G J 0- C O . T Sideboned. Remark)!. — The quality of so\mdness must have been particularly " dominant " in this sire, for it is not lilvely that 31 of the 32 dams of liis stallion progeny were free from sidebones. The grandson, " Q of O ■," himself sound, is the sire of ten of the sound great grandsons. M E Family " C." (examined — sound). 5 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 2 years 2 years Sound (19). 2 years H Sideboned (1). Remarks. — It is regrettable that the pedigree of " H ■ " on dam's side cannot be traced. She miLst belong to a pronouncedly sideboned family, seeing that her colt had well-deyeloped sidebones at two years old, although got by sire whose every other son kept as a stallion is sound. Family " D." X (not e.xamined). Sons 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 'years '' 3 ?years ' 3 'years ' ' 3 "years 3 years ' 2Vears 2 years ^\ 2 years J SI 2lyears'"i Sound (12). Z— H— H— D— T— T— L— H- J— M T T P'C - B — - X— L — N -of C- X Age. Sideboned (nit). lo May, 1 910.] Hereditary UnsoiiHditcss in Horses. 341 Sire Table X. — Sound Families — contivued. Family " E." I) tlie T (not examined). Sons Age. Aged 5 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Aged 3 vears 3 years Sound (11). N E- D S M N T- N.H G Age. Aged Sideboued (1). L of L- F.\MrLY ■' F." — (not examined). Grandsons Aged 5 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 vears Sound (10). of L Q D Q C E D Z Age. ^i(l^'ll()ned {nil). F.\MILY ■' G." J I (not exan)ined). Age. 5 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 2 years Sound (10). U— c — I — J — J — J — M— Z — J — J — I- T C M O - T I Q 4 years 3 vears Sideboned (2). Remarks — This may not turn out to be a particularly sound family. The percentage of sideboned sous is already 16-7, and amongst the sound sons there is a heavy proportion of two and three year olds, some of which may develop sidebones later on. 342 Journal of Agriculture. lo May, 1910. Sire Table X. — Sound Families — continued. Family " H." B (not examined). Grandson Age. Aged 6 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Sound (8). Age. i Sideboned {nil). Family " I." Q S 'not examined). Age. Grandsons •1 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years Great Grandson 3 years Sound (7). of H • of H - H . X S Sideboned {nil). Sire Family' " J." of tiie T (not examined). Age. 5 years 4 years 3 years 'Z years Sound (4). D D- Age. Sideboned {nil). Location of Sidebone as Evidence of Hereditary Character. Concerning the frequency of occurrence of sidebone on the inside or outside of the foot, and as to which feet are more frequently affected, the following synopsis as regards the 275 sideboned horses is informative : — Firstly, as to the number of feet affected^ 40 horses had sidebone 1 foot only 214 „ „ 2 feet only 8 „ „ 3 13 „ „ 4 feet Total 275 affected with sidebone. Secondly, as to relative frequency in front and behind — 254 hor.ses had sidebones in front only. 2 ,, ,, behind only. 19 „ ,, both m front and behind Total . . 275, of which 273 had sidebone in front and 21 had sidebones behind — a ])roportion of 13 horses affected in front to each 1 behind. lo May, 1910.] Hereditary Unsoundness hi Horses. 343 Thirdly, as to relative frequency of near side and ofE side affection — Of the above-mentioned 254 horses having sidebone in front — 197 horses had sidebones both fore = 394 feet affected 16 „ „ near fore only = 16 „ „ 41 „ „ off fore only = 41 „ „ Total .. 254 Total 451 „ Of these 451 affected feet, 213 were near fore and 238 off fore, viz. : — 197 + 16 = 213 near fore, and 197 + 41 = 238 off fore. Fourthly, as to the relative frequency of sidebone on the inside and out- side of the foot — Of the above-mentioned 254 horses having sidebone in front only — 147 had 4 sidebones (588 individual sidebones) — 294 inside and 249 outside 32 „ 3 „ ( 96 „ „ ) 36 ., „ 60 46 „ 2 ,. ( 92 „ „ ) 24 „ „ 68 29 „ 1 „ ( 29 „ „ ) 9 „ „ 20 254 horses sidebone (805 „ „ 363(45.1%) „ 422 (54.9%) outside in front (a proportion of 9 inside to 11 outside). Of the 46 horses shown in this Table as having two sidebones in front, 28 were affected on one foot only ; the remaining 18 had one sidebone on each foot, makmg 36 sidebones in all (18 X 8). Of these, 6 were inside and 30 outside. Tlierefore, the number of horses having sidebones on both feet was 197 (18 + 32 + 147). These 197 horses had 720 individual sidebones between them (588 + 96 + 36), distributed as follows : — 7-^0 sidebones i ^^^ °"*'^^^ ^^^ " ^%) /.u siaeoones . . | ^^g j^^.^^ (46-7%). 336 inside (46-7%). 48 more sidebones on outside than inside — a jiroportion of 8 (outside) to 7 (inside). The outstanding features of the above figures are — (a) The great excess of sidebones in the fore foot as compared with the hind — proportion 13 to 1. (b) The preponderance of cases in which both fore were affected as against one-foot affection — proportion 10 to 3. (c) The approximation of the incidence of sidebone in the near and off foot — proportion 9 to 10. (d) The approximation of the incidence of sidebone on the inside and outside of the foot respectively — proportion 9 to 11, in- clusive of single-footed sidebones ; 7 to 8 for pair foot side- bones only. Concerning A, it is reasonable to regard the excess of sidebones in front as positive evidence of the part played by concussion and strain of body weight as exciting causes of sidebone. More weight is borne during rest and greater concussion is sustained during movement by the fore limbs and feet than the hind limbs and feet, for two reasons : — Firstly, the incidence of body weight on the fore feet is greater than on the hind ; Secondly, the column of bones of the fore limbs, being practicallv perpendicular from the elbow down, is more rigid than that of the hind limb, in which the angle formed by the tibio- metatarsal bones tends to lessen iar. The effect of concussion in the production of Splints might be adduced in support of the above conclusion. It is definitely recognised that the greatest exciting cause of " splints " in light horses is concussion. Their occurrence in the metacarpal region is, as compared with the metatarsal, 344 Journal of Agriculture. [ro May, 1910. ill aliout the same proportion as recorded abo\-e concerning sidebones in the fore and hind feet respectively oi draught horses. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that the form of hoof in which sidebone has been most frequently found, is that in which the wall — particularly at the sides — approaches the perpendicular. Such feet are also usually small, narroAv and blocky. Sidebones are seldom associated with large and spreading or broad and flat feet. As .regards B, the fact of the sidebone occurring in both fore feet more than three times as frequently as in a single foot, indicates an intrinsic- causation rather than causation by external yiolence. which would scarcely happen to both fore feet simultaneously. Comment on C may be confined to the statement that the excess ot sidebones found in the off feet, as compared with the near, is so slight (10 to 9) that it cannot lie regarded as of any significance in the matter of determining the causation of sidelione. The observation, hovvever, con- flicts with 'the statement in Mollar and Dollar's Veterinary Surgery, that " the cartilage of the left foot suffers more freauently than that of the right.' Observation D is of considerable importance. The fact that the dis- paxity between the incidence of sideline on the outside and inside of the foot is SO' slight (only as 8 is to 7) would appear to indicate the falsity of a commonly held supposition, viz. : — that sidebone is regularly caused by an injury sustained through the dropping of the shafts on to the coronets when the horse is lieing unvoked from a dray, or from the coronets being trod on when working in a team. In the former case, it is obvious that only the outside coronets could sustain injury, but in neither case can such a cause be admitted as regards the horses under review. Being stud horses and many of them of high value, it may be asserted that not one in ten of the draught horses examined had e\'en been yoked to a dray or harnessed in a team, or even worn a colJai. On this theory of injury as a cause of sidebone, it may be remarked that the number of occasions on which any evidence of external injurx having been sustained, suiii as a scar, is practically negligible; on the other hand, some of the draught sires and many of the trotting sires examined ha\e shown sca.rs over the seat of sidebone but without an\ ossification of the cartilage having occurred. This was notably the case \\ith the pony " D S '' whose near fore coronet outside had apparently at one time been literally cut to pieces, yet w-ithout even stiffen- ing the cartilage. In cases of Quittor it fre<]uently hapjiens that the inflammatory process involves the lateral cartilage to the extent that suppurating sinuses mav pierce it, and the cartilage still remains free from ossification. I doubt whether sidebone is ever caused by external violence per sc, and I do not think that even deliberate bruising of the coronets of a light horse by severe hammering would result in ossification of the underlying cartilage. Amongst hundreds examined, I have never seen any specimen showing evidence of ossification having commenced at the summit or margins of the cartilage. It always comiiiences at the base where the cartilage is joined to and rests on the wing of the pedal bone and gradually extends upwards throughout the substance of the cartilage to the summit and borders. Many specimens are in my possession showing; all stages of growth of sidebone from the very commencement at the base of the cartilage, through gradations in size of the ossified portion to the fully formed sidebone involving the whole of the cartil;;ge. I have never been able to find a specimen of bon\ formation at tlie top of the cartilage lo May, 1 910.] Hereditary Unsoundness in Horses. 345 with normal cartilage in between the summit anil base. I have one specimen in which the sidebone had become detached from the wing of the OS pedis and formed a false joint, but the indications on the bones are that a fracture had occurred sulisequent to the development of the sidebone, and not that the ossification had commenced high up in the cartilage and extended downwards with failure to unite with the basilar process of the wing of the os pedis. It, doubtless, is the case that many draught horses when worked in pairs or in teams abreast are trodden on at the seat of the sidebone and that some of such horses may subsecjuently develop sidebones. Many so trodden on, however, dO' not develo]> sidebones and the logical inference is that when sidebones de^•elop after actual or supposed injury, they develop despite the injury and not because of it. In such cases, sidebones would doubtless have formed whether injury had occurred or not ; but where injury has occurred and sidebones have been noticed afterwards, the injury is credited with iTcing the cause although the sidebone mav have been present but unnoticed at the time the injur\ was sustained. Since the attention of horse-owners has been so pointedly called to the subject of sidebones by the results of the Government examination of stallions, manv of them have given me instances within their own experiences on their own farms which corroborate the conclusions above set out — cases in which certain horses on the farm related to one another have all developed sidebones, but the remaining horses on the farm, worked and treated in exactly similar fashion but unrelated to the sideboned horses, have remained sound. Mr. K C , of Y-— , has five descendants of one mare all bred <>n his farm and all sideboned, while seven other home-bred horses, unrelated to the mare iii questior, but which have been reared and worked under the same conditions as her descendants, have remained sound. Work versus Heredity in the Production of Sidebones. The only set of figures bearing on the incidence of sidebone which I have come across in any veterinary text-book are those by Lungwitz, quoted in Mollar and Dollar's Veterinarij Surgery. Lungwitz examined 1,251 horses, and furnished the following table of results : — Description. Belgian Cart Horse Danish Carriage Horse Heavy Riding Horse Heavy Riding Horses Light Riding Horse Riding Horses (various- weights) Military Horses Officers' Horses (heavy) . . Number of Horses Examined. 98 120 388 132 133 140 200 40 1,251 Number affected witii Sidebone. 68 25 3(5 144 Percent- age. Remarks. 69-5 31 Working onlj' on hard pavements 9 I Working on heavy ground and partly on hard pave- ments ' Working on light sandy soil f) Working on light gronnd Workmg on liglit ground 0-5 7-5 14-4 Working on medium heavj- ground Working on varied surfaces 346 Journal of Agriculture. [10 May, 1910. The figures in this table relate to working horses only, not to stud horses, and do not throw any light on the question of hereditary influence in the occurrence of sidebone. Thev support the conclusion set nut above as to sidelx>ne being essentiallv an affection of draught horses, but one false inference may be drawn from the figures, viz. : — that the development of sidebone is consequential on the character of the work performed bv the horse. Rather is it that the horses which are used for draught work on hard pavements and heavy ground are of the class that are hereditarlily predisposed to the development of sidebones. In support of this latter view the fact must needs be mentioned that all the horses dealt with under the Victorian Government scheme were stud horses. Few of them had done any kind of work, and practicallv none had worked on pavement. The roads travelled bv stallions when doing their season have an earth surface frequently cushioned with dust or grass ; in the vicinity of the larger towns only are the country roads metalled or macadamized. Another interesting fact as bearing on the falsitv of the view that side- bones are caused by the use of calkin or high-heeled shoes, is that prac- tically all the draught horses examined were shod without heels, the practice of shoeing stallions with flat shoes being general throughout this country. Evidence of Hereditary Character of other Unsoundnesses. Table IV. shows the total number of rejections for ringbone, bone spavin, curb and bog spavin to have been respectively 60, 134, 29, and 25, as against 275 cases of sidebone. The difiiculty, therefore, of revealing evidence of hereditary transmission of these other unsoundnesses as com- pared wdth sidebone is in ratio to the lesser numbers available for analysis in each case. There is only practically one-fifth of the number of the cases to work on in the case of ringbone, one-ninth in the case of bone spavin and curb, and one-eleventh in the case of bog spavin. Nevertheless, relationship between a var\ing number of horses found to have these unsoundnesses .respectively may be cited. Ringbone. — Of the 40 draught horses rejected for ringbone, fi\e belong to one family and four to another. The five comprise four sons (M ■ — B , C B , U C and Z Q ■ — of B ) — and one g.-g- son (C — ■ — — K ) of the sire Q of B . In the other familv. the four rejects for ringlx>ne are grandsons through their dams of the sire B , viz., C K , D W , C K 3 and T K . Bone Spavin. — Relationship between the horses rejected for bone spavin has not, up to the present, been found to exist sufficientlv close as to warrant the submission of any instances as evidence of hereditary influence as the causation of this particular unsoundness. Curb. — In regard to curb, seven families have been encountered in wliicli near relatives have been found affected. Particulars of these are — Family 1. — -Sire and one son examined both having curbs, thus — Sire — X U (curb). Son — S D (curb). Family 2. — Three sons (sire not examined) thus — Sire— L (N.E.). Sons— L (curb) ; R (curb) ; I (curb). lo May, 1 910.] Hereditary Unsoundness in Horses. 347 Families 3, 4, 5, and 6. — Four families in which two sons (sires not examined in two cases) were found to have curbs, thus — 1. Sire — B (sound). Sons — H A (curb) ; I (curb). 2. Sire — I A A (sound). Sons — I (curb) ; G (curb). 3. Sire— E (X.E.). Sons— E Q X (curb); E (curb). 4. Sire— T (X.E.). Sons— H (curb); H (curb). Family 7. — One son and one grandson (sire not examined), thus — Sire— H (X.E.) ; Son— I E (curb) ; Grandson — X Q (curb). Bog Spavin. — In one sense, the evidence of hereditary influence in the causation of bog spavin (inckiding thoroughpin) is more pronounced than in respect of sidebone. There are no less than nine families in which a varying number of descendants have been found affected with bog spavin.* In the case of one sire, five sons have had bog spavin, viz. : — Family 1. Sire — P . Sons — X , P . B . S D . Q . In two cases, three sons by the same sire had bog spavin, viz. : — Family 2. Sire — G . Sons — D , H C , G . Family 3. Sire— E I M . Sons— B H . H U . (Two other sons examined — sound.) In one case, two sons and one grandson had bog spavin, viz. : — Family 4. Sire — D S . Sons — Z S , K C . G ranis an — E . In three other cases, two sons of the same sire had bog spavin, viz. : — Family 5. tSire — C . Sons — C Q . D Q . Family 6. Sire— Q D . Sons— U D , G A . Family 7. Sire— Q of B . Sons— T S , B Q . In one case, a sire and son have been examined and rejected for bog spavin, viz. : — Family 8. Sire — C . Son — R C . In one case, a son and grandson of one sire have been rejected for bog spavin, viz. : — Family 9. Sire— Z L . Son— T B . Grandson — C U . * The horses referred to have not necessarily been rejected on account of this par.icular unsoundness — bog spavin. 348 Journal of Agriculture. [10 May, 1910. MAIZE AXD LUCERNE IN THE WESTERN DISTRICT, A. VC . Fisher, Dairy Supcri'isor. In Western Victoria, throughout tlie Casterton district, there are thou- sands of acres of good dairying country that are at present given o\"er to wool-growing and the fattening of stock for market. The high quality of this land may be gauged from the fact that fat stock from estates such as Muntham, ^Merino Downs, Hent\ , Tahara, Cammais, Dunrobin, and many others frequently bring top prices in our leading markets. Land that will grow good beef and mutton will usualh pro-ve to be equalK adapted for dairying; and this country nnlx awaits subdivision and closer settlement to become prominent in the production of dairv produce. There has not in the past been much attention devoted to dairying, but the worry and losses sustained of late years with sheep through the worm trouble among the lambs, as against the large profits that are to be derived frcm dairying, will probablv result in more attention being given to this, latter line of business shortlv. At Sandford, in this district. Mr. Jackson has an estate of some 4,60a acres, which in regard to- fertilitv is fairU t\pical of the surrounding estates. The greater portion of the estate is given over tO' sheep, but a number of fat cattle are turned off yearlv also. The countrv is rathei' hilly and has some steep bluffs rising from the Wannon and Glenelg: Rivers which form the boundary of the })ropert\ on the northern and westenn sides. The soil is of a good depth, principal!) grey and black in colour, while some of the bluffs have a proportion of limestone showing through them. This estate was formerly owned h\ the late Mr. John Hentv, 011,- of the pioneers of Western Victoria, and is now managed bv Mr. J. ]!. Jack.son, the son of the present owner. Prom the accompanying photo- graphs it will be seen that two of the jirincipal dairv fodder croi)s can bt- successfully cultivated in the district. The ground where the maize crop was sown is a grey loam with a fair amount of sand, extending to a depth of 2 to 3 feet overKing a light yellow clay. It has for years been dev(jted to mangohj crops, but has lately become so over- run with hog weed, that last year Mr. Jackson decided to give it an extra working tO' tr\ and eradicate this pest. The soil was ploughed 8 to 9 inches deep in April and harrowed down; ploughed again 4 inches deep in August; and again towards the end of October, when maize was ploughed in 4 inches deep and 3 feet between the rows, at the rate of \ bushel to the acre. During the growth of the crop the land was scarified three times, keeping the ground loose on the surface between the rows and killing the weeds. Two varieties (Hickor\ King and Somerton White) made splendid growth and cobbed well, there being little difference iietween them; individual stalks measured up^ to lo May, 1910] Maize and Lucerne in the ^Yestern District. 349 II ft. 9 in., and the crop averaged well over 9 feet high. Alongside this plot is another of Boone Countv Special, which was not planted till late in Xovember. This crop is just now (4th April) showing tn advantage. SAMPLE S'lOOLS OF MAiZli. (Hickory King, Somerton White, and Boone County Special.) being 8 feet high, and showing a mass of succulent leaves. It has also stooled well and is heavilv cobbed, as many as five cobs being on one stem. ■35° Journal of Agriculture. [lo May, 1910. LUCERNE FIFTH CUTTING FOR THE SEASON. Single stools of Hickory King and Boone County Special weighed 12 lbs. each, and a section of the latter, cut and weighed, showed equal to 20 tons to the acre. Had it not been for bad germination in places, which Mr. Jackson attributed to the superphosphate which was applied to the drills at the jate of 2 cwt. to the acre, the crop would have been much heavier. The ground has been under cultivation for over 30 years and during the last five vears the only other fertilizer it has had was a light top-dressing of manure gathered from the wool-shed and sheep-yards. The prolific crop of maize this year may be attributed to the thorough pulverising of the soil and inter- cultivation, for the rainfall was low, not more than 3 inches being registered from the time of planting until the heavv fall early in March. The lucerne crop is on heavy black soil and was laid down eight or nine vears ago. The sample illustrated was from the fifth cutting this .season and another cutting will be secured before winter. Some eighteen months, ago, Mr, Jackson put the scarifier into the ground, preparatory to ploughing it. as the lucerne was getting a bit thin. However, after the scarifying, it was left for a while, and it made such a vigorous growth that he de- cided to give it another chance, with the result that it is as thick now as ever it was. The plants were over 2 feet high at this cutting and grown without any water other than the season's rainfall. The land has never been manured. -^^^^^^ lo May, 19 1 o.] A//s:ccrs to C orrcspondcnts. 351 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Stomach Worms. — A.C.E. states that two of his draught mares (with foals at foot) are suHering from worms. He asks for a good remedy, and also whether the foals, nearly four months old, are too young to vvean. The mards are in low condition. Answer. — (i) Give night and morning in a damp feed the following powder : ■ — Sulptiate of iron i dram, sulphate of copper 5 dram, gentian 2 drams; continue for a week, then give a couple of bran mashes followed in the morning by a drench of linseed oil (raw) i pint, oil of turpentine 5 ounce. (2) They are too young to wean. Impaction. — J.U.H. writes : — " Four of my weaners have died within the last ten days. On ■post-mortem e.xamination, I found the stomach of the last full of dry grass, and the large intestine contained a quantity of large hard lumps of dry substance that the sheep had been unable to pass. The other organs seemed healthy. The sheep are in fair condition, and have plenty of dry grass and good water." Answer. — The weaners evidently died from impaction of the colon or larger intestine, due to the indigestible nature of the food. To prevent it, either some succulent fodder such as silage, maize, or lucerne should be given, or if these are not available, then a little lucerne hay or bran and chaff twice daily. As treatment, a drench composed of 2 to 4 ozs. of Epsom salts with i oz. sulphur and 5 oz. ginger should be given. From the commencemeni of summer a liberal supply of salt shoulijie ii58 Experiments witli Potato Diseases, 1909-10 ... ... ... G. Seymour .360 Sterilization of Soils ... ... ... W. Laidkiw and C. A. Price .3G.3 The Rearing of Queen Bees ... ... ... ... JL B•«'■«// /u'e-—Cop3rightPro\isions .-inil Subscription Rates in-sidejront cover Puljlicaiions Lssued by the Department of Agriculture ... inxiiU front cover Agricultural lulucation in Victoria — Uookie Agricultural College .. ... .. ... innidi Jiack cover Longerenong Agricultural College .. ... inxii/'- hark cover Burnley vSchool of Agriculture and Small Fiirming ... iiisi'l, fiark cover Wyuna Irrigation Farm ... ... ... ... in-tidt tiark cover Lectures on Agricultural Subjects ... ... ... inside hark cover Aariculluial Cla.sses, 1910 ... ... ... ... i/ixide l>ark cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The .\iticle,s in the Journal of the l-)c[iartmeut ui Agriculture of ^"ictoria are protected b\- the |)iovi.sion.s of the Copyright Act. Propnetor.s of nev\spapeis wishing to republish any matter contained in the .lournal are at libert\' to do so, provided the v-Hiia/ acknoir/cdi/mi'iil is made. The .Journal is issued monthly. 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LIMITING FACTORS IN AGRICULTURE. Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc. Ph.D., b'.L.S., Government Brtan'nt, and Professor of Botany in the Melbourne University. Wherever and whenever the co-operation of several factors is necessary to produce a given result, the non-fulfilment of any one of them invalidates the remainder. For instance, to build a modern steam-ship, various kinds of skilled work are necessarv, and the different workers are not inter- changeable, so that the absence of anv one set of workers may th.row all the others idle and prevent them from w-orking on, or from completing the ship. In the same way, the rate at which a house can be built primarily depends upon the rate at which the walls are constructed, and no number of painters, finishers or decorators can hasten the construction of the house, until the first factor, the building of the walls, is fulfilled. In the ca.se of plants, the factors essential to^ its life all act, for the most part, throughout their whole existence, instead of successively as to some extent they do in the instances quoted above. Hence, any essential factor or condition which is not fully satisfied, reduces the possible action of the others to the same level, or renders them useless if it is not fulfilled at all. The factors essential for the growth of a green plant are — 1. A supply of water. 2. A certain temperature. 3. A supply of air, containing oxygen and a trace of ca.rlxjn dioxide. 4. Exposure of its leaves to light. 5. A supply of mineral salts derived from the soil or elsew-here. Under ordinary circumstances, particularly in the case of plants which staxt from large seeds, these factors are of importance in the order named. That this is so is shown by the following facts. A pea or bean, or indeed, any large .seed, can be grown to a considerable size and will develop a root sy.stem, as w^ell as a stem and leaves, if supplied with water and kept in moderately warm air. In this case, factors i and 2 are satisfied and 5997. N 354 Journal of Agriculture. [fo June, 19 io. factor 3 partly, in so fa.r as the air contains oxygen, but the presence or absence of carbon dioxide, is immaterial so long as factor 4, exposure of the leaves to light, is not fulfilled. If the first four factors are satisfied, that is to say, if the seed is kept u-arm, provided with water, air and ca.rbon dioxide, and if the leaves of the seedling are exposed to light, then the seedling will be found to increase considerably in weight. This is the case when its roots are grown in dis- tilled water and it mav then even carry its development as far as the production of flowers. In this case, the fifth factor is unsatisfied so far as the supply of mineral salts derived from the .soil is concerned. Growth is then onlv possible at the expense of and by virtue of the mineral salts that were stored up in tbe seed during ripening. In this respect, all plants show considerable powers of accommodation, since the smallest amount of a particular essential salt necessary to permit a plant developing, is very much smaller than the amount it would like to have. To put it into plain English, we might say that the 7>lant is like a hov who prefers to have a pound of chocolates a dav but could get on with an ounce. Tn the case of the plant, however, its j)Ower of accommodation is partly due lo the fact that it is able to go on absorbing and accumulating an essential salt which is only present in the soil in extremely small amount. For this to be possible, a large root system and a good supply of water are necessary. For instance, very manv plants can obtain all the salts thev jequire from ordinary tap water, if the roots are grown in it and it is frequently changed, although in such water, certain essential elements such as potassium, magnesium and phosphorus mav occur in the merest traces, almost incapable of estimation bv analysis. Water is the plant's most important requirement, hence, under ordinary cultivation conditions, the physics of the soil, including its aeration and its power of storing and supplying water, is far more important than its chemistry. Plants can adapt them.selves to minimal amounts of salts, without undergoing agricultural deterioration, far more readilv than they can to minimal amounts of water. The essential elements which an ordinary plant obtains from the .soil through its roots are calcium, potassium, magnesium, sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen. A trace of iron is also necessary, but all ordinary soils contain this element in greater amount than the plant requires it. These essential elements are usually absorbed by the plant in the form of salts, such as phosphorus in the form of phosphates, sulphur in the form of sulphates, nitrogen in the form of nitrates, while the calcium, magnesium and potassium are absorbed as salts of these acids or of others. Hence, three salts such as calcium nitrate, magnesium sulphate, and potassium phosphate will provide the plant with these six es.sential elements, and any ordinary plant can be grown to full adult size, if provided with nothing but these salts and distilled water, and exposed to light and air. A point of great importance is that, to .some extent, an essential element can be replaced l>y another which is not es.sential. For instance, a limited substitution of strontium for calcium is po.ssible, that is to say, if strontium is present in the soil, the plant can grow with a less supply of calcium than it otherwise needs. As strontium is, however, rarer and more costly than calcium, this is a fact of theoretical importance alone. The same applies to the fact that calcium mav be partly replaced by magnesium. In the case of cereals, however, it has been found that the presence of soluble silica, or of silicates in the soil, enables the plant to get along with a less TO June. 1910.] Limiting Factors in JigricuUure. 355 quantity of phosphoric acid than it would otherwise need. Now silica or sand is the commonest constituent of all soils. Traces of it are brought .slowly into solution bv the decompositions which are continually in progress in a " live " soil and by the presence of water containing ca.rbon dioxide in solution. Hence, in a well aerated soil, rich in humus, these solvent actions would be especiallv prominent and a less quantitv of phosphoric acid should be necessary than on a dead, inert, or l)adly aerated soil. It is hardly necessary to say that difierent crops have different ash requirements. Grain crops have especially high ash requirements, par- ticularly as regards phosphoric acid. Hence, the use of mineral manures is especially important for all crops where the part removed from the soil and from the farm is the seed. In the case of leafy or .root crops, the ash requirements are not so great relatively to the weight of the crop and the element which is apt to i^e reduced bv such crops to an unduly low ebb, is potassium. Naturally, however, a statement such as this is a general one and will not apply to everv soil and everv crop. In anv case, sufficient has been said to show that the chemistry of the soil, so far as these ash constituents are concerned which the plant uses as food, is less important than the physics of the soil. Chemical deficien- cies in the soil mav be made good naturallv by substitution, and bv the power of selection the plant possesses, or thev may be made good artificially, bv the selection of suitable crops or crop rotations, and bv the use of chemical manures. Nothing can, however, make good a deficiency of water, a low temperature or a deficient aeration in the soil, and these three factors are all capable of considerable amelioration by suitable working of the soil. One of the most important factors in the development of crops is entirely b.eyond our control, that is, the percentage of carbon dioxide present in the air. As this forms the source of the whole of the carbon in the plant, and as carbon is the most important element and forms the greater part of the drv weight of all ordinary crops, this is a fact to be regretted. It has been found that small increases in the percentage of carbon dioxide present in the air, increase the amount of food assimilated, and hence also the amount of growth in a given time. The limit is soon reached, however, at ordinary temperatures. In the same way^ increases in the intensity of the light make the plant feed and grow more and more rapidly. The limit is reached in the case of plants growing in the open when the light has about the intensity of ordinarv bright diffused daylight. Beyond this, no further increase in the rate of feeding is shown. If, however, the temperature is raised and the amount of carbon dioxide increased at the same time, the amount of food assimilated goes on increasing as the light inc.rea.ses in intensity, up to, or even bevond that of strong, direct sunlight. Evidently, the temperature and the amount of carbon dioxide are limiting factors to the effects produced bv increases of light. An analogy with this is afforded bv a locomotive which is stoked up with the steam only partly turned on. No amount of stoking can increase the speed beyond a certain limit, but as soon as the steam-cock is turned fully on, the train may attain its maximum speed. Naturally, if there is no water in the boiler or not enough, stoking is useless just as it is in the plant. The following simple experiments with maize illustrate these facts and show that it is no use attending to a minor factor (mineral constituents in soil) in plant nutrition until the more important major factors, (water, N 2 35(^ Journal of Agriculture . [lo June, 1910. Ill .-^l |-Kkl')i()M'll \ I L, l.N IJAL'LV \v')RKKii .-lOlI, neration of soil, &c.) are ailequately i'uitilled. The maize shown in the first photograph was planted in poor soil which had been ])louL,died once. MAi/,L l>li:il.tV) IN BE li liR WOKKED SOU. WllHOII AlAM k lo June. 19 io.] Limiting Factors in Agriculture. 357 disced twice, and manured with one hundred-weight of superphosphate per acre. It \vas grown at Box Hill on a soil consisting of a fine, dust-hke sand, with a clayey subsoil. The latter has the peculiarity of baking very hard in drv weather, and the former of setting after xain and also bakmg ^•erv hard after dry weather if not worked Hence, as can be seen in the photograph, the soil remained full of clods. It did not retain its moisture well, and the subsoil dried hard, preventing the roots penetrating deeply, and giving a stunted growth of the crop. The land for the maize in the second photograph was similarlv prepared, but in addition, the clods were partly broken and it was hoed thrice instead of once. No manure at all was applied, but it was easy to see the superior effect of the physical treatment on the crop as contrasted with the effect of a mineral manure. In addition, the subsoil remained softer than in the previous case, the soil itself was moister a few inches in. ami the root svstem was larger and penetrated more deeplv. MAIZE (SIBLEV) IN WELL WORKED SOIL WITHOUT MANURE. In the case of the maize shown in the third photograph, these diffexences were still more marked and were simplv and solely the result of continually working the soil so as to keep it open and well aerated, at the same time maintaining a fine du.st-like soil mulch on the surface. As in the second plot, neither manure nor water was given to the maize grown in this plot. The results speak for themselves. In fact, in the case of all crops, the working of the soil to enable it to retain moisture and to maintain its aeration, so encouraging the formation of a large joot system, is vastly more important as a prime factor in plant development than is any amount of manuring wdth chemical manures. Indeed, w^ie.re the supply of water is scanty, the use of a soluble chemical manure may even be injurious, since it mav cause a saline concentration in the soil sufificient to injure the roots, retard their development, and make it more difficult for them to absorb water. Such actions are most shown in sandy soils, and less so in the presence of humus, which is, in fact, one of the best correctives a 358 JouriiA of AgricuItKrc. [10 June, jpio.- soil mav possess, not onlv against actions of this kind, but also against the presence of poisonous or injurious organi : or inorganic substances in the soil. To conclude, the facts mentioned above mav be summarized as follows : — 1. In most soils, and particularly in virgin soils, the proper working of the soil is usuallv far more important than is its manuring. 2. Water is the plant's most important requirement and it cannot be replaced in the slightest degree by any other factor, whereas a deficient mineral food element mav in part be covered or replaced by a surplus cf another substance of which the plant does not need so much as is present, or which it does not use at all under ordina.ry circumstances. 3. Each essential factor can .set a limit to the growth of the crop however well all the others may be .satisfied. Hence, to add mineral manures to a soil where the stunted growth is due to a deficiency of Avater is more likely to retard growth than to increase it. 4. The limiting factors to growth need to be separatelv determined in each case and the answer will depend upon the crop, upon the soil, upon the climate and upon the rainfall. 5. It is when the failure of a crop is due to the deficiencv of a single factor that its satisfaction by irrigation, bv soil treatment, or by manuring^ as the case may be, will produce the most striking and profitable results. TESTIXG POTATO VARIETIES FOR IRISH BLK^HT. D. McAlpiiie, Vegetable PatJwlogist. It is a wise pro\ision of the Federal Quarantine Aei that potatoes are not admitted to the Commonwealth from any country where the Irish Blight is known to exist, and this might seem at first sight to shut out any promis- ing new varieties which it might be found desirable to introduce for experimental purposes. But, from the knowledge we now pos.sess of this disease, it is quite possible to test under .strict quarantine conditions anv new variety, so as to determine whether there is anv risk of introducing the blight with it. It is an established fact that the only known means of importing this disease from countries separated from us by a wide expanse of ocean, is in the potato itself. The spawn or mycelium of the fungus causing this disease must be dormant in the tubers before there is any pos.sibility of its development, and fortunately we are able, not only to detect its presence, but to destroy it even when concealed in the tissues of the potato. The- destructive agent is dry heat and this is applied in such a way that the sprouting of the potato is not interfered with ; in fact, it is rather stimulated than otherwise as numerous experiments have shown. By grow- ing potatoes submitted to this treatment in a quarantine area for at least two years there would be a complete safeguard against any ix)ssible con- tamination from this source. The method has already been tested on the Continent of Europe- by Jen.sen, who used freshlv dug di-seased tubers and found that the fungus was destroyed in the treated potatoes, while those untreated developed a rich crop of the fungus. I have also carried out similar experiments and obtained similax results. Diseased potatoes were placed in an incubator for four hours, kept at a constant temperature of 120 deg. TO June, 1910.] Testing Potato Varieties for IrisJi Blight. 359 V .. and subsequentlv kept moist in a bell-jar to see if the fungus developed. While there was no trace of the disease in the treated lot, those untreated ■de\-eloped the fungus freely. Not only so, but the treated tubers sprouted more readily and better than the untreated, when kept in store and some of them were planted in pots and invariably produced a healthy crop. At a dry heat of 120 deg. to 122 deg. F. the mvcelium of the fungus is destroyed inside the tissues of the p>otato, and there is no development of the disease, unless infection occurs from outside sources. A supply of .seed potatoes of special sorts was obtained from Sutton and Sons' agent in New Zealand, having been growai there from seed sent ■out by the firm in England. They were forwarded to me in a strong box and carefully examined before being planted in pots in my laboratory. In one of the vaxieties (British Queen) the disease was detected and this shows the necessity for treating with suspicion even the best guaranteed samples. There were nine selected varieties altogether, viz., Sutton's Abundance, Sutton's Superlative, British Queen, Windsor Castle, Ninety Fold, S. S. Seedling. Early Regent, Supreme, and Discovery ; and speci- mens of each were planted on loth November, 1909. Sutton's Abundance, Sutton's Superlative, and British Queen, were subjected to a drv heat of 120 deg. F. for four hours, and the rest were planted without any treatment. The results were taken on 31st March, and under the limitations in which they were grown, the tubers produced were mostly small. The growth was closelv watched. In twelve days Sutton's Abundance and Supreme were above ground and in fifteen days all had appeared. The two varieties which sprouted llrst took the lead from the start, and in 31 days, Sutton's Abundance was the best looking of the lot and Suprem.e nearly as good. By the end of March the tops had all withered naturally, and the results are shown in following table : — Pot. Variet\\ Treatment. Disea-ses. Prixluce of Plant. 1 Sutton's Abundance Drv heat Rhizoctonia, a little 12, all small 0 Sutton's Superlative „ Rhizoctonia ... 7, only one medium 8 British Queen „ uite clean 10, only two medium 4 Windsor Castle Untreated Rhizoctonia and Dry Rot 9, all small •5 Ninety Fold „ Rhizoctonia ... 13, only one medium 6 "<.S. Seedlinc( „ Rhizoctonia, very had ... 4, only one medium 7 Early Regent „ Rhizoctonia, bad 1.5, all small 8 ."■Supreme... ,,, Rhizoctonia ... 21, all small 9 Discovery Rhizoctonia ... ?, all small, abso- lutely the poorest of the lot Owing to the restriction imposed bv Western Australia that potatoes will not be accepted when grown within 50 miles of an infected area, I was unable to carry out experiments on a larger scale and in the open field, but the fact remains that potatoes can be submitted to a dry heat of 120 ■deg. F. for four hours and still grow luxuriantly, and that potatoes so treated did not develop the Irish Blight. Some of the varieties, such as Briti.sh Queen, in which the fungus of the Irish Blight was found, did not develop the disease after treatment. Small quantities of potatoes can easily be submitted to drv heat and kept at a constant temperature in the incubator, but arrangements could be made for the treatment of large quantities, so as to insure the destruction of the spawn of the fungus if it existed in the tuber. S6o Journal of Agricidtiire. [lo June, 19 io. EXPERIMENTS WITH POTATO DISEASES, 11)09-10. George Seymour, Potato Expert. During the last twO' seasons much loss has been sustained bv potato- growers through the disease known as " Scab." In some instances, one- third of the crop has been rejected b\' the inspectors, while in others the crop was so bad that it had to be sold for cow feed. Much discussion has taken place on the matter, opinions differing widely as to the nature and cause of the trouble. The term " scab " in its widest sense is used to cover a disordered condition of the tuber, and is used as such in the.se experiments. It is applied by the ordinary grower to half-a-dozen different forms which may at certain stages resemble each other, but are produced by different causes. Some maintain that it has been always present in the potato crops, because they found tubers of a scabby appearance where fires had been made when clearing the land. This is a totally different form, and it does not injure the cooking quality, providing the land is dry. It has also been ascribed to an excess of lime in the soil ; if such were the case it would not be found on soils of an acid, nature, but it is common to everv soil. I . NEW GROWTH OF TUBER ATTACKED BY EEL-WORM. The diseased tubers are said to be as good for culinary purposes as; sound ones ; in fact, at the conference, some growers said they were better. However, if a diseased tuber be cooked and served up beside a sound one, the difference in appearance is most striking. All the outside of the diseased one must be cut away before it can be used. Thev are also said to be " Just as good " for seed as clean tubers, but evidence is rapidly accumulating which goes to prove that the disease is spreading and that soon there will not be a clean district in the State. TO June. 1910.] Experiments 7i'itJi Potato Diseases, igog-io. 361 With reference to the wart-like excrescences or galls on the tubers, it IS believed bv growers that they are due to rain, after a long dry period, which causes the formation of blisters. This may be partly true, but never- theless the appearance is the result of the presence of the Potato Eel -worm, W'hich lies in a desiccated state in the dry soil, and only becomes active after a fall of rain. The accompanying illustration of an affected tuber will show what takes ]>lace under the influence of abundant soil moisture due to^ a fall of rain. The field from which it was taken was carefully inspected on 26th January, The tubers then showed no sign oi eel-worm, but on 6th March and following days upwards of 2 inches of rain fell. The plot was visited again on 31st March, when it was found that manv of the tubers had made a second growth and many entirely new tubers had been formed. In every instance these, as well as the new growth on the old tuber, had been attacked. The left hand or clean portion shows the stem end on oldest part of tuber, the right hand the new. If the weather conchtions had not favoured the development of the worms before the tubers had become firm in the skin, the crop would have escaped the attack. A. — Eel-worm. In this experiment, two pots containing sterilized soil were used. In Xo. I a clean Carman tuber which had been dipped in formalin solu- tion (i lb. to 30 gallons of water) for two hours was planted, whilst in pot No. 2 another Carman tuber, treated in a similar manner, was planted. To the second pot was added a further tuber of the same variety, from which all the eyes were removed to prevent it growing. Thi.s was covered with eel-worm galls. When harvested on 2nd March, no galls had been formed on any of the tubers produced by the plants in either pots, and both appeared clean ; but on examination Mr. Laidlaw, Micro-Biologist, reported that he had found worms in the abrasions of the skin of the tuber and also in the soil of pot Xo. 2, whilst both the soil and tubers of Xo. i were clean. As the weather had been very dry up to the time of harvesting, there is little doubt but that the worms had not developed before the tubers became firm in the skins. B. — Treatment of Seed Tubers with Formalin. This experiment was designed to test the effect of dipping scabby seed in formalin. Two very scabby tubers (Carman) were cut into two sections, each making four sets. One section from each tuber was dipped in formalin (i lb. to 40 gallons of water) for two hours. It was thought the dipping might possiblv injure the cut sets, but such was not the case. Careful notes were taken and the only difference observed was that the germination of the dipped sets was retarded. Thev did not come through the around for more than a week after the untreated, and the growth was slow" for nearlv six weeks; then they overtook the others, and as 36. Journal of Agriculiurc. lo June. 191c evidence that the crop' did not suffer, some of the finest tubers were- produced by tliese plants. The sets were planted on -'6th November in an ordinary garden plot heavily manured two seasons before with farm-yard manure, from which a crop of greeiK peas had been taken the previous season. The plants were lifted on 2ist March last. Many of the tubers were in a very immature state, showing that the rain- which fell on 5th March and following days had exercised a marked in- fluence on the growth o! the crop. All these plants wert- carefully examined on 4th March, when the tubers were apparently sound, showing that the- disease attacked them immediately after the fall of rain ; whether the disease was caused by fungus or eel- worm, the weather conditions would be favourable to either. On lifting the plants it was found that the pro- duce of the plants from the treated sets gave- clean tubers, and those from the untreated were all scabbv ; tho.se under 2 were verv those under but slightly plant No. bad, and No. I affected. C. — Planting "Scabbv" Seed in a Clean Soil. This experiment was carried out in the fol- lowing manner. A- lo June. 1910.] Experiments wifh Potato Diseases, igogio. 36: •quantity of soil was prepared and then sterilized, after which it was placed in pots niiml)ered i. 2. 3. and 4. No. I pet was used for a control for experiments A and B. In this a clean Carman which had been treated with for- malin was planted. Pot Xo. 2 had a similar tubei treated in the same way as No. i. To this was adtied a half section of a diseased N e w Zealand Pink-eye taken from the first truck of the new crop con- demned on ac- count of scab at Melbourne bv the inspectors. From this diseased tuber all the eyes were removed to pre\'ent it growing. Pot No. 3 was an exact duplicate of No. 2 and con- tained the corre- sponding half sec- tion of the dis- -eased New Zea- land Pink-eye. Pot No. 4 had a very badly dis- eased New Zea- 1 a n d Pink-eye tuber of the win- ter crop, also taken from a con- demned parcel. This was planted without any treat- jnent. 3^4 Journal of -ii^ri culture. [lo June, 1910 All of the pots were examineii carefully every week after the tubers began to form. The first indication of dis- ease was noticed on 13th February, w h e n slightly brow n patches made their ap- pearance, and by the :!oth these had l)roken into well- defined blotches. It was noticed that the tubers most affected were those that formed near to. or touch- ed, the blind sec- tions, whilst those furthest awav were hut little diseased. In the case of pot No. 4, the pro- duce of this .«et was all diseased — the plant did not produce a single clean tuber. * * * * -x- Experiments car- ried out during one season cannot be considered con- clusive, and no- more is claimed for them than an attempt to throw some light on this vexed question. They are sub- m i 1 1 ed without any expression of opinion as to whether the dis- ease is caused bv a fungus or a worm. lo June. 1910.] Sterilizaiiou of Soils. 365 STERILIZATION OF SOILS. W. LaidUnc. B.Sc, Micro-Biologist : and C. A. Price, Microscopist. Our experiments in connexion witli tl"ie sterilization of eel-worm affected soils, led to some curious results on plant growth, and was the means of inducing us to undertake some further experiments and research into the cause of the increased productiveness of soils sterilized by steam or par- tially sterilized bv chemical treatment. The effect of heat on the soil was discovered incidentally about 25 years ago, and the action of carbor bisulphide was first noted some years later by a vine grower when using it for the purpose of combating the ravages of phylloxera. In both instances it was noted that the soil which had undergone treatment became more productive and yielded larger crops. Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of this increased productiveness, and the subject has been studied by several investigators, notably Koch, Hiltner, Stormer, Rus.sell, and Darbi-shire. In a paper recently published by the two last named it is shown that this increased productiveness after sterilization is a property of all soils and for all plants, excepting those of the Leguminosa (Pea family). They showed that soil heated to 95 deg. C. (203 F.) had its productiveness increased two, three, and sometimes four times, whilst treatment with volatile antiseptics led to an increase in crop varying between 20 and 50 per cent, this increase taking place in both fertile and exhausted .soils. Theories as to the Cause of Increased Productiveness. Where volatile antiseptics were used it was supposed that a chemical reaction took place between the antiseptic and the soil whereby plant food was rendered more available. This theory was .soon cHscarded but Pickering revived it recently {Journal of Agricidtural Science, Vol. iii.). Koch suggested that the action was physiological, the antiseptic being supposed to stimulate the plant roots to greater activity ; this may have happened in Koch's experiments where the antiseptic was left in the soil. Drs. Russell and Darbishire, however, got the increased results after the removal of the antiseptic from the soil. In our experiments also, the chemicals were allowed to volatalize before sowing the .seed. Hiltner and Stormer ascriljed the increase in productiveness to the changed bacterial flora, and showed that the first effect of antiseptic treat- ment was to reduce the organisms, but when the conditions again become favourable they multiplied with extraordinary rapidity and brought about a more intense production of nitrogenous plant food in the soil. Some observers say that increased nitrogen fixation is the main cause of the increased productiveness. Koch, however, maintains that nitrogen fixation is decreased by partial sterilization. Stormer considers the increa.sed production of ammonia is due to the decomposition of the larger organisms by the surviving bacteria. The dark green colour of plants grown in partially sterilized soils has generally been regarded as an indication that the nitrogenous food stuff in the soil is in some way increased by the treatment. Russell and Hutchinson used heat to 98 deg. C. ; Toluene (4 per cent.) was used and at the end of three days it was allowed to evaporate by spreading out the soil in a thin layer. They found that the difference between toluene evaporated and heated (98 deg. C.) soils was only one of degree. The evidence of the formation of ammonia becomes evident ^66 Journal of Agriculture. [lo JuiVE, 191 o. "earlier in the toluened than in the heated soil but does not last so long; by the ninth day the heated soil contains more ammonia, a superiority \vhich persists throughout. They conclude that the ammonia is mainly the work of micro-organisms. Stoklasa determined that the bacteria in contmon field soils produce daily per hectare (2| acres nearly) to a depth of 40 cm. (about 16 inches) 75 kilos, of CO^ (nearly 2,649 cubic feet) while an equal area of wheat produces only 60 kilos. This carbonic acid before it escapes into the atmosphere will help to disintegrate the rocky particles of the soil, dis- solving carbonates and phosphates of lime and magnesia for the needs of the plant, but, on the other hand, the healthy respiration of the root will probably be interfered with. From this point of view, it follows that the disinfection of a soil overcharged with microbes must have a very bene- ficial effect on the healthy respiration of the roots, and consequently on the well being of the entire plant, since after the microbes have been killed they no longer use up the oxygen and manure. This continuous struggle for air and food between the roots on the one side, and microbes on the other, is thus interrupted in favour of the plant. At 125 deg. C. all organisms are killed. Partial sterilization causes two significant changes (i) An increase in the amount of ammonia (2) Cessation of the nitrifying process. Bacteria reach far higher numbers in partially sterilized than in un- treated soils. Untreated soil contains a factor, not bacterial, limiting the develop- ment of bacteria, this factor being put out of action by partial sterilization (Russell and Hutchin.son). The limiting factor is not a toxin but is in all probability biological. Infusoria, amoebae, and ciliata, are killed by the treatment, and these are all severe competitors with the bacteria by reason of their large size (about 1,000 times that of the soil bacteria). As our experiments are far from being complete we can only make the suggestion that the increased fertility is due to — (i) The new bacterial flora, being more active decomposing agents than the original ones, cause an increased production of ammonia. (2) The large organisms (Protozoa) being killed off by the treat- ment, serve as food for the new bacterial flora. Their decomposition also provides food for the new plant in the shape of ammonia, and as some of these large organisms are known to devour bacteria {e.g.. Colfoda cucidlus and amoeba nitropJiilia), their destruction allows a rapid develop- ment of the new bacterial growth to take place. The bacteria being found in greater abundance after a time in par- tially sterilized soils, Stoklasa's theory that the production of COg by too great a number of bacteria being present in the soil and interfering with the respiration of the roots does not seem to hold good, though of course the killing of the large organisms will greatly lessen the consumption of oxvgen and the production of carbonic acid. A Soil Sterilizer. A very effective plant for the sterilization of soil for the purpose of securing a pure seed bed is at present in use at the nurseries of Mr. R. Cheeseman at North Brighton. As will be .seen from the accompanying illustration, it consists of a shallow pit, 18 inches in depth, floored with bricks. The walls are formed of 9-inch brickwork, and divided into two JO June, 1910. J Stcrilizatioi/ of Soils. 367 compartments by a single-brick partition. Each of these compartments has a capacity of two tons, only one bemg used at a time, so that whilst one lot of soil is being sterilized the other one is being filled. The method adopted for the production of the necessary heat is a simple one. Steam is supplied by means of a small portable boiler worked at a pressure of between 25-30 lbs. ; |-inch piping is led from the boiler to the floor of each pit. where it is joined to a T-piece, and from the T-piece in each of the pits six pipes are let into spaces between the brick- work on the floor, somewhat resembling the prongs of a large fork. The pipes m the spaces of the brickwork are lightly covered with sand. They are 8 Inches apart, are plugged at the ends furthest from the boiler, have a fall of I inch, and are perforated along one side by 3-i6ths inch holes 3 inches apart. To carry off the condensed steam a drain is provided of ordinary tiles. It runs along the whole length of the pits close to the plugged ends of the steam pipes, is buried in cinders an inch below the surface, and has a fall of two or three inches. Two valve taps enable the operator to turn the steam into the desired compartment. SOIL STERILIZATION BY STEAM. The soil or other substance to be sterilized is placed in one of the pits. It 'is then covered with sacking and the steam turned on for a period of about two hours. The sacking prevents the too rapid e.scape of the steam from the surface and raises the whole mass to a higher temperature and in a shorter time than it would otherwise attain were it left uncovered. When the upper layers reach a temperature of 212 deg. F. it is allowed to steam for 30 minutes, the whole of)eration occupying a period of two and a half hours. The second compartment having been prepared during the sterilization of the first one, the steam is cut off from the latter and turned on to No. 2, and in this manner the sterilization of the ."^oil proceeds with- out interruption. As .soon as the .soil taken from the sterilizer is sufficiently cool it is ready as a seed bed. When it is necessary to sterilize cow or stable manure for the purpose of killing weeds, &c.. it is treated in like manner, but on removal from the pit it is desirable to spread it out in a layer of 4 inches to drv it somewhat. Journal of Agriculture. [lo June, 1910. When once a sterilizing plant of this description has been fixed in position, the operation can be carried out at little more than the cost of the labour, for it is a convenient method of disposing of the accumulations of leaves, pieces of wood, and other refuse. A steam steriliz?r similar to the one described has been found indis- pensable by florists, nurserymen, and others engaged in intense culture. We have been informed that without its use it would be quite impossible to place certain annuals on the market, except at prices quite beyond the reach of the general public. For the sterilization of soil and manure not onlv destroys all the forms of life in- jurious to plants in the sliape of insects, worms, fungi, &c., but it also kills the seeds of all weeds present in the soil, render- ing the tedious and ex- pensive operation of weeding PLAN OF STERILIZER. Unnecessary. Professor Stone, of Massachusetts, has estimated that the cost of steri- lizing 1,000 cubic reet of soil with an apparatus of this kind would amount to 8s. approximately. Steam has an advantage over drv heat in two ways; it leaves the soil in a good condition for immediate use and noxious weeds and pests of all kinds are killed more quickly. Professor Stone found that ft was possible to kill eel-worm in the soil by heating it to a temperature of 140 deg. F. This is in contradiction to as.sertions made by .some practical growers to the effect that it is necessary to employ a temperature of 212 deg. F. Tt seems to be a question of thoroughness of application; a temperature ol 170 (U^g. F. will certainly kill all eel- worms of their ova and it only remains to ai)ply steam to the infested .soil so that every portion reaches this or a higher temperature. 3-iii. drain piles THE REARING OF QUeeX 15EES. R. Beulnic, Prcsidoil, Victorian Apiarists' Association. The selection of a queen from which to breed for the purpose of super- seding old or inferior queens, or the queens of colonies showing a preclis position to disease, viciousness or some other undesirable trait, is not only of the greatest importance but also a most difficult problem. It is upon the prolificacy of the queen and the longevity and vigour of her worker progeny that the larger or smaller amount of surplus honev depends; but the most prolific queen is not necessarily the best to breed from. Experience has shown that the queen progeny of an exceedingly pro- lific queen rarely equal their mother ; when they do, they produce w-orkers which are constitutionallv delirate. and these neA-er yield the amount ot I o June. 19 'Q.] Tlic Rcarinii of (liiccn Bee. 369 surplus which one should expect from the great number of bees raised. A prolific queen producing vigorous long-lived workers is very .soon re- stricted in egg production bv the relatively large number of old field bees, the honev gatherers filling much of the comb with honey once the colony has attained normal strength. In the ca.se of a colony having a queen producing short-li\-ed workers the position is reversed. Many of the bees jr. such a colony die soon after reaching field bee age ; therefore the young, the nurse bees, predominate. It is the work of the young bees to feed larvae, prepare cells for egg-laymg, and attend the queen. As the number cf field bees bringing in honey is little more than sufficient to supply w-hat is needed for imm.ediate consumption, the colonv will show a xexy large amount of l)rooil in all stages right through the season but will store less hoxiey for the apiarist than colonies which, with a smaller amount of brood, have far more old field bees. As a breeder, I prefer the queen of a colonv which has the maximum number of bees from a moderate amount of brood during a season. This results naturally in a good yield of honey, and indicates longevity of the bees. There are, however, other desirable characteristics, such as puritv of race, gentleness, and absence of excessive swarming, which are needed. The number of queens which conform to all these requirements is, even in a large apiary, usually rather limited. Important as the .selection of the queen mother is. the raising of the young queens by the best possible method, and under the most favourable conditions, is not less so. Poor queens mav result when queens are raised ■under unfavourable conditions, no matter how suitable the mother queen is. There are man\ different methods of raising queens and good queens may be obtained bv any one of them if everything is just right. The difficulty is, that many bee-keepers fail to ob.serve when conditions are suitable and when not. A prosperous condition of colonies, an income of pollen and honev, and a warm moist atmosphere, are essential. A heavy honev flow is not the best time for queen rearing, particularlv when it occurs during hot dry weather. There may be both pollen and honey coming in. and vet the right conditions mav not exist, even though atmos- pheric conditions appear favourable. This is probably owing to some deficiencv in quality of the stores gathered. It may, however, be taken as an indication that conditions are favourable when the voung larvae are surrounded l)v a plentiful supplv of pure white food. The colonv selected for raising cells from the pgsrs or lar\as of the chosen breeding queen should be strong, particularly in nurse bees. The " Doolittle " m.ethod of transferring young larvae to artificial cell cups and getting the cells raised, either in a queenless colony or over the ■queen-excluding honeyboard in the super of a strong colony, has the advantage of enabling one to know exactly when the queen cells will hatch. The sam.e ad\antage can be obtained by the " Alley " method without disturbing the voung larvae. Queenless bees are compelled to raise queen cells under the impulse of .self-preservation, whether the conditions are suitable or not. Often they appear to raise them rather hurriedly. There is no doubt that good queen cells are produced by bees bent on swarming (in the proper season). They are raised deliberately, and only when con- ditions as to food supply and strength in bees are suitable. But the bees of queens from swarm-cells inherit the swarming impulse, which the best apiarists of all countries are trying to eliminate, and such queens are therefore not desirable in anv numbers. 370 Joitnial of A uric lilt I lo June, 19 io. There is yet another impulse under which bees will raise good cells : the superseding impulse. When a queen is in her third season, and long, before the apiarist can notice any decline in her prolificacy, the bees usually prepare to supersede her by raising one or more queen-cells. They do this- at a time when the conditions are most f a\-ourable ; they are usually better judges of this than their owner, excepting in the case of a queen suddenly failing from disease or accident. If the bees are inclined to swarm there may be a swarm issuing before or after the cell or first cell hatches Where the bees are less inclined, the virgin queen on emerging from her cell will destroy all other cells but will take no notice of the remaining- old queen, her mother. I. COMB CUT FOR QUEEN RAISING. The number of cells raised under the superseding impulse is not large- ■ — from one to three usually ; but they are in\'ariably fine large cells pro- ducing splendid queens. For a number of years I have obtained .some of my best queens in this way. but as the number is limited I could not get suflScient, till I made u.se of the superseding impulse for raising them from larvae supplied repeatedly to the superseding colonies from selected breeding queens. For this purpo.se it is necessary to know the ages of all queens. Colonies having queens in their third year are examined periodic- ally when conditions are favourable. If there are indications of super- seding, the cells are remo\-ed and lar\-as from the breeding queen. o\er which cell cups have previously been started by temporarily queenless bees, are given in place of those remo\ed. The colony should naturally be populous and thriving enough to raise good cells. If the queens which are not up to standard are replaced e^'ery year irrespective of age. these three-year-olds are those which passed all the musters and there will be no lack of the necessary condition. Should none of the superseding colonies be of sufllicient strength other strong ones may be made by exchanging fjueens between colonies with old queens and strong colonies with younger ones. To have all the queen-cells mature at the same time, so as to he able to leave them where they are raised till the day before they hatch, it is necessary for the 3'oung larvae from which the queens are to be raised ta be all of the same age. This is not a difficult matter for any one knowing from experience the size of the grubs at different ages. At eighteen hours old, they are of about the size of the small c of ordinary type and will hatch on the twelfth day. For the purpose of obtaining larvae of the right age in sufficient numbers, I do not find it necessary to insert an empty comb into the brood chamber of the colony with the selected queen, biecause, at a time suitable for queen rearing, sufficient larvae for the pur- pose should be in every hive. To obtain the larvae I cut a piece, four ta six inches long and the width of three rows of cells, out of a comb in a suitable place. By cutting it again through the middle row of cells two single rows are obtained. These are fastened with liquid wax cell end on, to a thin strip of wood. The open row of cells is then cut down to half the depth (Fig. i) by means of twirling a wooden match head first intO' 30 June, 1910.] The Rearing of Queen Bees. 371 the surplus lar\ae. Those of the wrong age and any eggs which may i)e present are removed, leaving as far as possible one larva of the right age in everv third cell. These strips of comb are then fixed in gaps cut into a comb and gi\-en to queenless bees for 6 to 12 hours to mould queen-cups round the larvee. Thev are then fitted into an outside brood comb of the superseding colonies. •ssti' ■''"WW!^; ^•"►•^Ksfisasf. •fruary) various crops were growing or were being fed green to the dairv herd. First, there was a quarter of an acre of Hungarian, French Provence, and Hunter River lucerne. This paddock was trenched 2 feet deep and terraced, the sowing being done during the months of April, Mav. and June, 1909. The owner states that he has already cut the lucernt- seven times to date. During the warm weather it has been irrigated once every fortnight. Of the 5I acres of flat land running along the creek, 2\ acres are carrying a heavy crop of the following varieties of maize, viz. : — Hickory King, Yellow Moruva, Ninety Day and Fjclipse. The maize crop has been watered once a month and is being fed with the lucerne to the cows. For green feed, 2\ acres are sown w'ith Algerian oats. Crops of French beans, broad beans, and potatoes, planted last November, have done remarkably well. Mr. Hyde has in.stalled a 7 2 h.-p. motor engine, with a 4-in. centrifugal pump capable of lifting 1,800 gallons per hour. This is used to irrigate the fodder crops. As the crest of the hill, w^here the lucerne is grow- ing, is situated) 500 feet from the creek, and 36 feet above its level, the resources of the pump are well tried. Mr. Hyde has the low lying portion of the farm ploughed in lands 60 feet wide by 132 feet long and by this means he can give any of them a good soaking in half-an-hour. The milking shed and barn, built by the owner, cost £(iO. The former contains five bails whilst the barn has a capacity of 30 tons. There lo June, 1910.] Closer Settlement Studies. 373 374 journal of Agriculture. [lo June. 1910. I m g # ^ lo June, 1910.] Closer Settlement St/fJies. is a good reserve of oaten h;i\- from last season, and when the motor engine is not in use pumping water the owner remo\es it into the barn and cuts a •supply of chaff. Although the work required to keep this small area in good order takes up most of the owner's time, he also receives a little income from other sources. CROP OF HICKORY KING MAIZE. As evidence of what has been accomplished through intelligent and l)ractical hard work during the past seven years, it is sufficient to state that Mr. Hyde is to-day the ow-ner of the undermentioned property. (The values are those supplied bv Mr. Hvde) : — q acres of land 8 cows I heifer I Jersey bull I draught horse I pony and foal I 75 h.p. electric motor engine and 600 ft. I drav and harness. I American waggon and harness I chaffcutter I plough, harrows and harness ... I separator and dairying utensils Furniture and sundries ... pipmc ^425 So 3 4.5 o 120 26 30 160 £93^ 37^ Jour/ial of Agriculture. [lo June. 1910. THE CORK IXDISTRY IX PORTUGAL. F. de Castella, Government Yiticulturist. Attention has repeatedly .been drawn to the suitalnlity of the climate and soil of the greater part of Victoria for the growth of the cork oak. Its cultivation has been recommended by the late Baron von Mueller and by witnesses before the Royal Commission on Vegetable Products. Practicallv nothing has yet been done, however, by our land-owners, towards the establishment of the industry. Our Forestry Department has distributed within the past thirty years a good many trees in order that they might be practically tested in different parts of the State. Many of these have done remarkably w'ell, and prove conclusively the possibilities there are for cork production in Victoria. Australians, as a rule, think twice before undertaking anv culture which entails a wait of several years before profits are obtainable. This impatience has prevented the utilization of manv plants which have proved sources of wealth in the warmer or sub-tropical countries of Europe, where the climate is in many respects similar to our own. Many of these are shrubs or trees which, although taking some vears to come into bearing, are, owing to their deep roots, well able to withstand, without the aid of irrigation, the long drv summers of Northern Victoria. The Olive, the Chestnut and the Carob are among the principal trees one meets wdth so frequently in the Peninsula, but which are almost un- known to us, in spite of our very similar climate. The Cork Oak is even slower than the olive in becoming productive, hence it is, no doubt, that it has received even less attention from us than the latter tree. Cork plantations, methodically worked, are capable of yielding a return of about jQ2 per acre per annum, in addition to the value of the acorns they bear for pig feed ; and this without any expenditure in the way of cultivation; for the industry belongs to the domain of forestry, rather than to that of agriculture or horticulture. This productiveness mav be con- sidered almost indefinite, since the life of the tree, in spite of regular removals of cork, is generally set down at over a couple of hundred years. Nor does there appear to be any danger of over production; the world "s consumption of cork is increasing more rapidly than the supply, and good cork is becoming steadily scarcer. As a means of turning poor soils to profitable account, and at the same time providing an excellent evergreen shelter tree, few others can compete with it. It is hoped that the following notes of what I saw of the cork industry in Portugal mav cause attention to be once more turned to this valuable but neglected tree. It was in Portugal that the work of my mission brought me most in contact wdth the cork industry, and that I w-as best able to collect informa- tion concerning it. The cork oak is even more largely grown in Spain, and also to a considerable extent in Southern France. The first extensive plantations I saw^ w^ere on the train trip from Oporto to Lisbon. In Northern Portugal, the climate is colder and the profits to be realized scarcely high enough for it to be suited to the economical conditions of the region, which is essentially one of small holdings and intense culture. Further south, where the rainfall is small and the climate w^armer, the properties are larger and much of the land of poor quality from an ordinary agricultural stand-point. Here, the cork oak asserts itself and becomes a feature in the lo June, 1910.] The Cork Industry in Portugal. 377 landscape. North of Oporto, the tree is seldom seen ; shortly after leaving this town foT the south, vineyards are much in evidence, as well as mixed farming. Among the prevailing trees, one frequently sees Eucalypts and Blackwoods {Acacia melanoxylon, which is known locally as " Australia"). These native trees of ours appear to be quite at home, and afford reassur- ing evidence as to the suitability of Australian conditions for the cork oak. It is after passing Coimbra, and when one enters upon undulating country with poor sandstone ridges, in many places planted with Piiiia Maritima, that the first cork plantations are seen. Further south, at Entroncamento Junction (and thence on to Lisbon, wherever the soil is poor enough), plantations or cork are seen from the train, some of them in regular lines with cultivated strips between (cereals, &c.), as is often the case in the orchards of the country. Thev are more often irregularly planted, as is usual with forest trees. These plantations are, in appearance, very striking to the visitor, chiefly by their many coloured trunks. The natural colour of this isi^the silver or ashen grey of the twisted and gnarled surface of weathered cork. After stripping great changes take place. Immediately after this operation, which consists in the complete removal of the bark, right round the trunk, this is of a vivid orange colour. On exposure, and as the new layers of bark form, it becomes darker, passing through different shades of brown to an almost inky black, which is reached in a few months after stripping. This in turn gradually gives place to the natural ashy grey tint. Being worked on a regular system, which provides for the stripping of a certain area of a plantation each year, it follows that, in every plantation, different coloured trunks are to be seen, all of which contrast strangely with the dense, handsome, evergreen foliage above. Within the next few days, in the neighbourhood of Lisbon, I frequently came in contact with cork, either growing or harvested. The plantations usuallv occupv land too poor for ordinarv agriculture, and even too poor for vines. Truck loads of cork are everywhere to be seen on the railways, sometimes in the curled up state it assumes on its removal from the tree, but at others straightened out, by steam treatment, into the flat sheets known to the trade as " cork wood," and made up into bales. On barges in the river, as well as on the railways, these are so much in evidence that the visitor cannot fail to be impressed Avith the great value of this industry to the country. Importance of the Industry in Portugai,. The Portuguese are very proud of their cork industry. Thev claim that,, both as regards quality and quantity, they occupy first place in the world, Spain alone being able to compete with them. It is universally admitted, however, that the highest class champagne corks come from Cataluna (Spain). In ipoOj* Portugal possessed 525,000 acres devoted to the culture of the cork oak. This is an approximate estimate, as allowance has to be made for another evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, with which it is often mixed, and of which more presentlv. It is estimated that the annual production amounts to 50,000 tons of dry cork, of a value of 3,671,736,000 reis, equivalent, at par, to ^^813, 290 of our money. In other words^ the cork forests of Portugal vield, on an average, over 30s. per acre per * Lt- Portugal au Point de vw Ai/ricole liy Don Luiz de Castro ami Sr. Cincinnata da Costa. 378 Journal of Agriculture . [1° June, 1910. -annum ; and these figures are exclusi^•e of the value of the acorns (for pig feed), an important item, as will be seen later. Xaturally, the best situated and best cared for forests yield considerably more than the above sum, ■which is nevertheless a xexy fair return for a form of forestry requiring the use of practically no labour beyond that of removal. It is .south of the Tagus that the great majoritv of the cork forests are situated. They are distributed as follows : — Ac-res. District of Faro ... ... ... ... ... ... 47,r)0O District of Beja ... ... ... ... ... ... 147,. 100 District of Evora ... ... ... ... 190,000 District of Portalegre ... ... .. ... ... :^6,000 Remainiler of Portugal, cliieHy Li>>l)oii, Saiitareiii, ami C'a.stello Braneo 50,000 o-2r),ooo Of the 50,000 tons produced annually, it is estimated that 11,000 tons are •consumed in the country and 39,000 tons exported, under the following headings : — Kilouianmies. Cork wood .. ... ... ... ... •27,6b2,844 Waste cork... ... ... ... ... 7,019,004 Cut corks ... ... ... ... ... 2,817,666 Virgiu cork ... ... ... ... ... 426,016 Cut squares ... .. ... ... ... 278,230 Raw cork, as remove. I from tree ... ... 124,610 Coik dust ... ... ... ... ... 114,11!) Sundries ... ... ... .. ... 1,611 39,844, 100 The metric ton of 1,000 kilogrammes being only 345 lbs. lighter than our ton, the above figures divided by 1,000 give very nearly the quantities in English tons. Endeavours are made to retain the working of this raw material for Portuguese artisans, by restriction on the export of unworked cork, on which export duties are imposed. These are as follows : — Cork wood, 100 leis (Is. 4d.) per ].") kilos (:^8 ll)s>. Undressed cork, as removed from tree, .'iO reis I'l^''-) pt^'' l-J kilos (33 lbs). Cut corks, (free). These fiscal restrictions do not appear, howexer. to have been \-ery •successful in establishing the cork-cutting industry in the country. The •question is one which has given rise to much discussion, the cork cutters asking for even higher protection, which is opposed by growers, as w^ell as by the officers of the Agricultural Department, as an unfair tax on one of the leading industries of the country, and one which defeats its object by •causing foreign buyers to look to other sources for their supplies. The Cork Oak. Botanically known as Quercus Stiber, it is a handsome evergreen tree, very long lived and gro\ving to considerable size. In a general way, it may, as regards size, be compared to our Goulburn Valley grey box {Eucalyptus liemipJdoia), which it somewhat resembles also in habit of growth, our photograph showing a group of cork oaks at Rio Frio near Pinhal Novo, will give some idea of their general appearance. Two very large trees are mentioned bv Don Luiz de Castro,* one at Torre, near Azeitao, 54 feet high, with a tr^unk 30 feet in circumference, its branches covering an area 65 feet in diameter ; the other, at Pereira, near Extremoz, * Lc Porhiijal fi II I'niii/ i1ontaneouslv. As with our Australian gums, it is only necessary to fence off an area, thus protecting it from grazing, and within a couple of years a young forest will have sprung up. By cutting out all other growth, one obtains a forest of cork oak or of this tree mixed with Q. Ilex, as the case may be. It is true that, of recent years, a good many plantations have been artificiallv established. This pre.sents the advantage of rendering artificial selection possible, acorns being onlv taken from trees which produce the best cork. The Lande (mid-season ripening variety), is preferred. The seed is sown in spring, either on land which has been completely or partiallv ploughed. In the latter ca.se, strips 6 feet wide are ploughed at a distance of 25 feet from each other; in the centre of these the acorns 382 Journal of AgricuUurc. [10 June, 1910, are sown in drills. Germination takes place in due course, and no other culture or shelter is given to the voung plants. Occasionally, young trees raised in a nursery are planted. This course is more used for filling up misses — sowing the acorns where they are to- grow is more usual. The distance apart varies a good deal, about 25 feet X 25 feet, or 70 trees per acre, is a usual number. It is rare that the trees are arranged in regular order ; they are much more often planted promiscuously. Sometimes, especially in regions where cereals are produced, the trees are planted verv much furdier apart, the land becween them being ploughed and crops grown on it. The trees benefit by the cultivation and grow more luxuriantlv, but this is not so great an advantage as might be expected, as the quality of the cork suffers. Its grain is not >o good ; slower growtb on poorer soil produces better cork. In the great majoritv of forests, the land is not cultivated, though the ground is kept clear of scrub and rubbish. In addition to promoting better growth, this is necessarv to guard against bush fires which in cork forests are capable of doing very considerable damage. Suckers are usually removed, and a certain amount of pruning is practised, to let in air and promote the formation of acorns. Of all forest trees grown in Portugal, this is the one which is best looked after and which vields the most handsome returns. The cork forests of Portugal are nearlv all private propertv. either worked bv the owners or leased for a period of 20 to 40 vears. The con- ditions of these leases ^^arv a good deal ; sometimes cultivation is required, more often not. The obligation to remove virgin cork from young trees and to cut out dead wood, &c., from old ones, is often provided for, and in- nearly all, the need for careful stripping .so as not to injure the liber or cork-producing layer is insisted on. Stripping. The first operation, termed in French Dcmasclagc , consists in the removal of Avhat is known as virgin cork {Cortka virgem in Portuguese). This is necessary in order to allow for the rapidly increasing calibre of the trunk and larger branches. The age at which it is performed varies a good deal. If growth has l)een exceptionallv good, it may be executed as early as ten years after planting, but this is rare; it more usually takes place- between the fifteenth and twentieth \ear. Sometimes, a small crop of bark for tanning purposes is removed when the trees are alx)ut four years old. The first real stripping is known in Portugal as Secundaria. It takes place some eight or ten years later than the removal of the virgin cork. After this, the tree mav be looked upon as thoroughly established ; it con- tinues, almost indefinitelv, to vield its regular crop of cork at intervals of nine or ten years. No fixed period can be laid down ; the interval depends on the rapidity of growth and the thickness of cork required — sometimes it is eight years, at others twelve years. Once in production, the trees are worked on a methodical svstem, one-ninth or one-tenth of the plantation being stripped each vear ; a regular and uniform annual production is thus assured. The stripping season is from ist June to 30th August (ist December and 28th February in Australia) ; sometimes, but rarely, it commences as earljr as 15th May (15th November). The best strippers come from the Algarve district, in the extreme south. Skill and great care are required in order lo June. 1910.] Tlie Cork Iiidnsirv in Portugal. 583 to avoid damagin,i;- the tree. Althouf^h. to outward appearances, strippinp^ seems to be executed in much the same way as a sheet of Ijark is remo\"ed from a gum tree (see Journal for January, 1910), the operation is a far more delicate one. The whole of the tree is not usuallv stripped at one time ; this might give too great a shock, and besides, the cork takes a different time to form on the trunk and on the branches. Xevertheless, it is removed from right around the trunk at one operation. Circular incisions are made above and below, care being taken that they do not penetrate quite as far as the cambrium layer. These are joined by a longitudinal cut of same depth (two are made if the trunk be a very large one). By smartly tapping the edges of the incisions with the axe, the bark is detached sufficiently from the liber to permit the introduction of the chisel-shaped end of the axe handle. The sheet of bark is thus removed without damaging the Mac, as the liber is known in Portuguese. The removal of its bark does not appear to injure the tree in any w^ay — it immediately proceeds to grow itself a new laver of bark, the outer surface passing through the colour variations already described. STACK OF STRIPPED CORK.. As soon as it is stripped, the cork is roughly graded and provisionally stacked in the forest. From these stacks, one of which is shown in the photograph, it is very often sold, the unit on which transactions are based being the Arroba, of 15 kg. (33 lbs.). From the stack, it is taken to the factory, where it is converted into the flat state in which we know it as cork wood. In the factories, it is further graded, and the rubbish and portions damaged by insects (the cork oak has many enemies), are removed. After boiling in special boilers, to render it elastic, the outer woody laver is scraped off. It is finally graded according to its thickness : — mm. Inches. 10 lines 22 -6 •9 10 to 1.3 lines 22-6 to 33-8 •9 to 1-3 Jo to 20 lines 33.8 to 45-1 1-3 to 1-7 384 Journal of Agriculture . [10 June, 1910. It is then placed in cases im.50 x .72 x .60 (4ft. j lin. x 2ft. 4in. x 2ft.), compressed, and made into hales of from 60 to 70 kilos (132 to 154 Ihs.)- In this form it is shipped to ail parts of the world, and known to the trade as cork wood. As showing the suitability of e\en the cooler parts of Victoria for the growth of this tree, photographs are reproduced of a cork oak growing in the suburbs of Melljourne — in the garden of Mr. Theyre A'B. Weigall, Alma-road, East St. Kilda. This tree must be about thirty years old. Its main stem was accidentally broken off 25 years ago, causing it to fork at a lower level than is usu:il. '["he photograph taken at closest range : A MELBOURNE CORK OAK. shows the characteristic appearance of virgin cork, for this tree has never been barked. Had it been thus treated some ten years back, a smoother surface would now be presented, and the laver of cork would be more even in thickness. It is fully \\\o inches thick in places. The white disc, repre.senting a half-crown, will give .some idea of the scale. I am informed that a \ery fine specimen of Quercus Suber is growing near Beech worth. THE SMUTS OF AI STRALIA. The attention of readers of the Journal is drawn to the notice on the back cover regarding Mr. D. McAlpine's latest work, " The Smuts of Australia: 7 heir Structure, Life History, Treatment and Classi- fication. " [o June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Season' s Results, 385 MAIZE FOR FODDER-LAST SEASON'S RESULTS. I.— IX THE BALLARAT DISTRICT. A. J. Ross. Dairy Supervisor. The crop of maize shown in photograpli was planted on the 23rd day of December, 1909, mider my supervision. It is on Mrs. J. Hartley's dairy farm, Ballarat. The land was a mixture of grey soil and quartz gravel, which was ploughed the full depth to the subsoil, about 6 inches, early in the spring and worked up to a very fine tilth. The previous crop had been barley, rye, and tares mixed. The plot was liberally supplied with cow-yard manure, this being supplemented by superphosphate at the rate of i cwt. per acre, \\ hich was sown in the plough furrfnv with the seed 3 inches deep in every third furrow and 30 inches apart. I TO RIGHT. HICKORY KING ; T TO 2. ECLIPSE ; AND 2 TO 3. VKLLOW DENT. The seed was sown at the rate of half a bushel per acre. \Vhen we finished sowing the land was well harrowed and worked down to a fine tilth to conserve the moisture in the soil. The seed germinated quickly and when about 3 inches overground was hand hoed, and at different stages of its growth the intertillage was attended to with the hand hoe till a height of 4 feet was reached. The photograph was taken on the 26th March, 93 days from date of planting. The average height of the different varieties were : — Hickory 5997. o 586 Ji)iiriial of Agricultur c J o June, 1910, King (from Xo. i to the right in illustration). 10 ft. 6 in. ; Eclip.se (i to 2),. 9 ft. ; Yellow Dent (2 to 3). 8 ft. 6 in. Hickory King shows a very prolific growth of green succulent foliage with tRree and four stools from each seed and two and three cobs on each stalk. A patch of this strij) was weighed and calculated to give a return of 33 tons of green fodder per acre. Eclipse stooled out three and four •Stalks to the .seed and a heavy profusion of green succulent foliage and thick heavy stalks, well cobbed. This crop worked out at 28 tons per acre. Yellow Dent grew to a height of 8 ft. 6 in. with |)lenty of green leaf and a heavy stalk. It stooled out fairly well and had two and three stalks, with large full cobs, to the majority of seeds. Estimated weight nf this varietv. 2^ tons per acr* . HICKORY KING. » FEET HIGH. AT THE B \LL.\RAT HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. The maize crop is being chaffed and fed to the cows, the balanced ration being made up of bran and good hay chaff. Mr. Green, the manager, informs me that he can always increase the supply of milk by a lil)eral supplv of green maize. Besides, the herrl are in better health, and it minimizes the risk of impaction when the pastures are dry. A cro]) of barley, rye, and tares, and a strip of Chou Moellii-r. were sown directly .some of the maize had been cur out Hv intense culture of her small area of land the owner has a fairly constant supply of green succulent fodder for feeding the dairy herd. Mr. Green is very pleased with our combined efforts, and intends in future to cult'ivate the land and .sow the crop under similar conditions. The following dairymen, in the Ballarat district, have grown maize successfully in the past season, viz.. P. Rettallack, E. Whiteley, A. Kenny, lo June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Season' <; Results. 387 T. Mason, G. Shearer, T. Clemence, R. Tsbel. J. E. Jones, J. S. Douglas. Thomas Bros., J. Hill, J. Woods. C. Reeves. P. Fisher. R. Hanrahan. On these farms, the maize was sown in drills, the majority about 2 ft. 3 in. apart. Where horse or hand hoe tillage was carried on between the rows, the crops were far superior in height and weight of fodder per acre to some of the crops sown broadcast or with .seed drill when every coulter was used. These were, on an average, only 2 ft. 6 in. high, which compares badly with tho.se sown a distance apart and horse- or hand-hoed. Varieties which seem to do best in the Ballarat district are : — Hickory King — A very hardy and fro.st-resisting variety. Stands frost better than most other varieties ; Red or Early Hogan — Grows well, not too coarse in the stalk, and stools out well j Sydney Flat Red — A similar variety ; grow.s high and produces a heavy crop of green fodder ; Eclipse — Grows well and produces a heavy crop of succulent fodder and a large heavy stalk. An ideal maize for making silage. :iri llU-SPIXAL FOR THE INSANE. Mr. J.J. O Meara, farm bailiff, has furni.shed the following particulars relative to the crops grown at the Ballarat Hospital for the Insane — " The crop illustrated was drilled in about the middle of November, 1909. Hickory King at the rate of i bushel per acre being the variety sown. Upwards of 100 loads of stable manure were carted on to the land — 5 acres of poor ironstone-gravel country. Three waterings were giwii. At the time of cutting the crop for silage it averaged 8 feet high, and yielded about 25 tons to the acre. It was badly damaged by a hailstorm on the 3rd January but made a good recovery. The same land is now growing a very nice crop of black oats, rye, vetches and barley. This will be cut during June, and then manuring ;ind ploughing for the spring crops will be carried out instead of allowing the weeds to spring up." 02 ■ ■- Journal of Agriculture. [lo June, 1910. II._IN THE LILYDALE DISTRICT. /. S. McFadzean, Dairy Supervisor. Some interesting photographs in connexion with maize cultivation are here presented. In some parts of the State the past season has not been 1 YELLOW MORUYA IN MESSRS. NEWMAN AND SPAVEN's EXPERIMENTAL PLOT. lo June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Season' s Results. 389 .at all favourable for the growth of this fodder, for at planting time several weeks of drv weather intervened ; and in several places the germinationl of the seed was uneven from this cause. However, those who practise the principles of dry farming in connexion with their summer sowings have got fair crops, and in some cases very good ones. Messrs. Newman and Spaven had a very fine crop on their farm at \\'est Warburton. This property, " Yarra Lea," contains 100 acres, and is situated within half-a-mile of the railway station. Being on rich friable river-flat land, with a fine frontage to the Yarra. it is exceptionally suitable for dairv farming ; for at verv little cost the water from the river could be made available for irrigation. Since purchasing this farm early last year, the owners have made good progress in improving it. The cultivation area has been largely increased, new ground has been cleared and broken up, an overground silo has been erected, and nineteen cows are now in profit. BROADCAST SOWING ON NEWLY CLEARED LAND. This season eight acres were sown Avith four varieties of maize, \-iz., Flat Red, Hickory King, Yellow Moruya, and Sunshine. About half of this area was sown in drills from 2| feet to 3 feet apart ; and on the rest of the land the seed was sown broadcast and ploughed in j the latter sowdng was on the newly cleared land. When clearing, some of the heavier timber was left standing, to be dealt with later on when it would burn more easily. In the meantime, the intervening ground was broken up and sown. This serves to check the growth of scrub, bracken, and burr ; and at the same time a fair return is obtained. Potatoes may be frequently seen planted under such conditions, and at times almost as much bracken as potato-haulm will cover the ground on this first breaking up ; but the har- vesting of the crop considerably reduces the vitality of the fern. The accompanving photograph shows a first sowing of maize on newly broken 39° Journal of Agriculture. [lo Jur-IE. 191C. jIo June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Season' s Results. 391 392 Journal of Agriculture. [lo June. 1910. TO June, i 910.] M aizc for Fodder— Last Siasoii' s Rcsidts. 393 ground without manuring ; and the poorest patcli of the sowing. The drilled crop was also sown without manure in the beginning of November, the seed germinating well and the plants making good headway. Average sections of the Hickorv King and Yellow Moruya sow- ings were cut and weighed on 29th March. The former was then about 10 feet high, and weighed equal to 2-1 tons 13J cwt. of green fodder per acre. The Yellow Moruya was over 12 feet high, and very heavy in stalk, as .shown on pages 388 and 390 ; ^md it gave an estimated yield of 55 tons 15 J cwt. per acre. The Sun.shine and Flat Red .sowings were sampled on 9th April ; the former at 8 feet high weighed at the rate of 16 tons 4 cwt. per acre ; and the Flat Red at over 12 feet high yielded equal to 41 tons 8J cwt. per acre. All cobbed well ; but the Sunshine made a very poor showing beside the others for fodder purposes. A crop of potatoes near the maize gave promise of digging about 8| tons to the acre. A .small sowing of cow-peas was also made here. They came up well, but were fancied by rabbits, which destroyed manv of the young plants, checked the growth of others, and also i very materially reduced the number of pods on the plants that reached maturity. (2) Mrs. Buchanan's crop, illustrated on page 392, is at Launching Place. This crop is being grown for grain, and when seen it was about 8 feet high and well cobbed. After it had made a good stalk it Avas top-dressed with mixed fertilizer in order to increase the grain. 394 J our not of Agriculture . [lo June, 1910. On this farm some seven acres of peas and French beans are also growing, and the produce from these, as well as the butter from about 20 cows, is sent to the Melbourne market. (3) On page 393 is a photograph of a fine crop of maize grown on Devon Park," the dairy farm of Mr. Wm. Towt, at Coldstream. This lo June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Season' s Results. 395 sowing was of Hickory King in rows 28 inches apart; and from a sample cut it was estimated to yield 27 tons i2| cwt. per acre. It ran from 11 feet to 12 feet high, and is the second sowing on new ground without manur*-. Tn the foreground is shown a dense mass of thistles and tussocks, such as occupied the maize land prior to its cultivation ; and it is intended to hreak this part up during the coming year. Journal of Agriculture [lo June. 1910.- A good portion ol' the maize land was sown on the broadcast system, and on the lowerdying places it made \ery rank growth, running to 12 feet high, and weighing up to nearlv 31 tons per acre. On other [jarts. however, the yield would not ije more than half this and in places it was very short. It was sown at the rate of about zh bushels to the acre, and the stalks were conse- quentlv too close wherever there had been even fair germination. Where the growth was heaviest the stalks w^ere very fine, and sparsely cobbed, weighing only about f lbs. each on the average. In the drilled sowings, on the other hand, the stalks were very well cobbed, and averaged about 2;i lbs. each. From Warburton to here, the- Varra flows for some 25 miles or more through first class river flat lanfl that is capable of being made very productive by cultivation ; but so far very little of it has been broken up. Here and there may be seen a fevv acres sown with a Ijroadcast crop of maize, which gives a good bulk of fodder if there is a favourable rain- fall, and very little otherwise. It is quite a rarity to see a good even crop, such as results from a proper^ svstem of sowing and cultivation. Hundreds of acres of the.se flats are within a few chains of a first class water supplv that could be u.sed for irrigation, yet they lie there unim- pro\ed, co\'ered with scrub and tus- socks, harbouring snakes, rabbits, and foxes, and keeping a compara- tivelv small number of cows in milk for six or se\en months of the year. Very few owners indeed are making any effort towards bringing this valu- able land under cultivation. Many are doing ab.solutelv nothing. Un- questionably, it must be good coun- ■ try where dairy-farming can be made so profitable that the advantages of ])ossessing good cultivatable and irrigable land can be .so completely ignored. (4) On pages 395 and 396 are shown photographs of maize and potato lo June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Seasofi's Results. ^g-j crops grown on " Flowerfield. " the dairy-farm of Mr. F. E. Lithgow, which is also at Coldstream, but nearer to the station. This farm is on the rich black flats of the Olinda Creek ; and these, too, are possible of being irrigated by gravitation. Excepting that in an exceptionally drv ^iinimer the grazing paddocks on these flats may be flooded, very little use is made of the water supply. The crops shown in the photograph have had neither water nor manure applied to them. Flat Red and Hickory King maize were sown at the end of November. Both varieties made good growth, for, when weighed at the end of March, the former showed equal to 21 tons i2f cwt. per acre, and the latter, to 24 tons 6J cwt. per acre. When the photographs were taken neither crop was nearly matured, and there still was a lot of growth in the Flat Red when It was weighed. Mr. Lithgow keeps a very good class of York.shire pigs, with which he has taken numerous prizes ; and a few acres of his flats are usuallv planted with jjeas and potatoes for their use. Both Mr. Lithgow and Mr. Towt make a specialtv of pure Avrshire cattle, and a photograph of some of Mr. Towt's stock is shown on page 394- III.— LN THE YARRA GLEN DISTRICT. IF. YoKJiger, Dairy Supervisor. There has been a decided improvement in the methods adopted in the cultivation of maize throughout the Yarra Glen district during the past two seasons. In order to encourage dairy farmers to adopt the inter-cultivation of this fodder the Dairy Supervision Branch of the Department of Agri culture in 1908 dfstributed several varieties of seed maize to dairymen, gratis, on condition they were drilled in 3 feet apart and cultivated at intervals as required during the growing period. In .some ca.ses artili'.i?! manure was also distributed free of cost. In that year only three dairy men in this district (Messrs. Hunter, Boyd, and Downer) accepted this offer, and their crops turned out highly satisfactory. On adjoining farms, crops sown on the old-fashioned broadcast system were practically failures in almost every instance. This season, at least half the dairymen here drill-sowed their maize, and although in many instances the work of inter-cultivation has not been carried out as regularly as desirable, still the results all go to prove the advantages of up-to-date methods. On those farms where thorough inter- cultivation has been practised excellent crops have been obtained. The best crops are those of Messrs. A. M. Boyd, " Tralee," Yarra Glen, and Mr. P. Downer, Steel's Creek. Mr. Boyd has 5 acres of maize of different varieties, including Hickory King, Yellow Dent, Victorian Flat Red, and Y'ellow Moruya. These were sown in drills 3 feet apart in November and Decem.ber, and cul- tivated at intervals of two and three weeks — until the plants had reached a height of 4 feet. No manure was used. The several varieties have now reached a height varying from 6 to io| feet, and the whole are thick-stemmed and well cobbed, making an excellent crop. Fifty pounds 398 ] our rial of Agriculture. [lO JUNE,I9IO, oi this green maize per cow have been fed daily during the past six weeks to the milking herd of 15 cows, and after filling his 50-ton silo Mr. Boyd estimates he will have from five to six weeks' green fodder still to use before commencing on his silage. Mr. Downer has five acres of Yellow Dent and Hickory King varieties that were sown in November in drills 3 feet apart. Two cwt. of superphosphate and bone manure to the acre were put in with the maize, which was sown at the rate of 20 lbs. to the acre ; the ground was inter-cultivated at intervals of ten days, and the crop is now from 6 to 10 feet high. The stems of the.se maize are particu- larly thick and heavy, weighing up to 3^ lbs. each. The success of this crop may be claimed to be wholly due to Mr. Downer's systematic method of cultivation, as the land on which it is growing is com- paratively poor. In the same locality, maize crops sown broadcast are almost without exception so poor as to be prac- tically worthless. Satisfactory results have also been ob- tained from drilled maize grown on high land on which in previous years under the old broadcast system failures were the rule. Mr. B. Sadlier and Mr. N. White each had two acres of Hickory King sown with I cwt. superphos- phate to the acre in drills 30 inches apart HICKORY KING AT " TRALEE. ' and Cultivated twice Heiglit, lOi ft. -4 months' growth. jj-, December. These reached a height varying from 6 to 8| feet, which is considered very satisfactory. Messrs. Fletcher, J. Scott, Hubbard, Ellis and others have also adopted this system of maize sowing, and recognise it to be the only sure means of obtaining a crop. [o June, 1910.] Maize for Fodder — Last Season' s Restdts. 399 The accompanying photographs show the crops of Messrs. Downer and Boyd, which have just been referred to. Less than two years ago Mr. Downer was a resfdent of Melbourne, and was engaged in one of the city banks. Finding this occupation was in his case not satisfactory from a health point of view he purchased his present farm of 97 acres at Steel's Creek, which is about 6 miles from Yarra Glen station. Dairy farm work Avas new to him, and he was of anything but a robiust phvsique ; but he had the will for his work, and he set about it in as methodical a manner as he could. Aided by .such knowledge as he could gather bv reading and bv timely advice from the Dairy Supervisor of that district, he is now makinJ; 400 JoiiTiial of Agriculture. [lo June. 1910. very satisfactory progress in his work. He has a small herd of cows that are well cared for, and the place is kept in neat order. Mr. Boyd and his family, until recently, were also residents ot the city, and were professionally engaged with brush and pallette. Under the imited hands of the family, howeyer. the farm they haye owned for the last two and a half years is now coming gradually into proper and profitable condition, and the work has proyed congenial. By this, it is not to be supposed that any and every one who may find that city life does not suit them should turn to dairy farming, but rather that any who.se fancy does tempt them to take up country life should not be deterred by lack of experience. Many a city business man makes an exceptionally good farmer, for he has not only no faulty teachings to hinder him, but. by following the adyice freely giyen' by the Department of Agriculture, he can make best use of whatever advantages are presented in his surroundings. RARE PROFITS FROM SOWS. /. S. McFadzcan. Dairy SufervisoT . Prolificacy of production is a most desiral)le (juality in all utility stock, and as this trait is largely hereditary it is from highly productive stock that breeding animals should be chosen. As an instance of this principle of hereditary fecundity in pigs, the following facts are related: — Mr. J. Williams, Warburton-road. Seville, has a breeding sow, a grade Berkshire, which farrowed 10 1 pigs within four years and reared 91 of them. A young .sow was purcha.sed from him by Mr. John Smith, Avon, Ea.st Warburton. This .sow had her first litter of eight pigs on loth Sep- tember. 1908. These, when fit, were sold as baconers for ;£,2o os. id. Concentrated food, such as bran, pollard, and biscuit refu.se. was pur cha.sed for them to the value of £fi 6s. pd.. and on this was also fattened a 260-lb. pig that was killed and cured on the farm. A second litter of ten was farrowed on 25th April, 1909. Nine of these were .sold for ^18 9s. 6d., anrl one weighing 121 lbs. wa.s, killed for home use. Feed to the further cost of ^6 6s. was used in growing these. The sow had a third litter of fifteen on 28th .\ugust. Of these ten were well grown when seen on 3rd February, T910. and two had been sold for ^-i^ 9s. 2d. This sow, therefore, farrowed 30 strong pigs within twelve months, seventeen of which were sold at a profit of ^23 9s. 2d. Besides this, she paid for the raising of the household sppply of 380 lbs. of pork and bacon, and her second year's work begins with twelve young ones to sell against eight of the previous year. With such breeding stock as this, and reasonable care, pigs can be made a very profitable side issue on the dairy farm. -^rc^^^^^ 30 June. 1910.] Register of Veterinary Surgeons, igio. 401 VICTORIAN RECtISTER OF VETERINARY SURGEONS FOR 1910. Abbrevia TIOXS. Nos. R.V.S. . . Registered Veterinary iurgeon .. 41 G.M.V.C. . . Graduate Melbourne Veteiiuary College .. 60 M.R.C.V.S. . . Member Royal College Veterinary Surgeons (GreafBritain) 14 F.II.C.V.S. . . Fellow Royal College Veterinary Surgeons (Great Britain) 1 D.V.Sc. . . Doctor of Veterinary Science i Date of Registration. Name. Address. Templeton-street, Maldon . . Quali- fications. '21 Jan.. 1889 Adams, William Julian R.V.S. 17 Dec, 1902 Adeney. Alexander William Cotham-road, Kew G.M.V.C. 19 June, 1907 Allen, Kobeit Parker Benalla . . G.M.V.C. 18 Dec, 1901 Anderson, John Reginald . . Tower Hill, lUowa G.M.V.C. 19 June, 1889 Baird, Robert Faudie Little Malop-street, Geelong R.V.S. 19 June, 1907 Barbeta, Augustus J. Terang G.M.V.C. 20 Dec, 1899 Barl)eta, Estevan Hamilton G.M.V.C. 15 May, 1889 Barnes, James Minyi]) R.V.S. 21 Dec, 1904 Barnes, James, jun. Horsham . . G.M.V.C. 9 Nov., 1909 Beaumont. Joseph Henry Yarrawonga G.M.V.C. 21 Jan., 1889 Beckwith, William East Malvern R.V.S. 21 Jan., 1889 Bodey, ^Matthew 31() Dove ton-street, Ballarat R.V.S. 4 July, 1902 Bordeaux, Edward Francis Mt. Alexander-road, Moonee G..Ar.V.C. Joseph Ponds 19 Dec, 1900 Bruton, William Henry ('heltenham R.V.S. 19 May, 1909 Burns, Jerome Lawrence . . Stock Department, Perth, W.A. G.M.V.C. 7 Dec. 1898 Burrage, Thomas Allen St. Arnaud G.M.V.C. 21 Dec, 1892 Callow, Andrew Edward . . 23 Doveton-street, Ballarat G.il.V.C. 17 June, 1908 Callow, Charles Napier Colac G.M.V.C. 15 May, 1889 Cameron. Samuel Sherwen Department of Agi'iculture, M.R.C.V.S Melbourne ei D.V.Sc. Melb. 17 Oct.. 1894 Campbell. William 138 Camberwell-road, Haw- thorn R.V.S. 30 Mar., 1889 Chatto, Thomas . . Bridge-road, Richmond R.V.S. 16 Mar., 1898 Cherry, Charles Cummings Hawthorn G.M.V.C. 24 Nov., 1897 Christensen. Charles Josejdi Peter 305 High -street, Prahran . . G.M.V.C. 9 May, 1907 Colebatch. Walter John Depai'tment of Agriculture, Adelaide, S.A. M.R.C.V.S 19 June, 1895 Corrigan. James . . North Brighton R.V.S. 18 Dec, 1891 Cother, William John Department of Agriculture, Melbourne G.M.V.C. 17 May, 1905 Crisfield, John Corowa, N.S.W. . . R.V.S. 1 Dec, 1888 Desmond, John . . Government Veterinary Siu-- geon, Adelaide, S.A. G.M.V.C. 18 Dec, 1891 Edwards, Henry H. Western Australia . . G.M.V.C. 20 Nov., 1895 Fletcher. Stanley Beech worth G.M.V.C. 19 June, 1907 Fyans, Harold Napier Kyneton G.M.V.C. 20 Dec, 1905 Geddes. George Grant Majorca . . R.V.S. 3 May, 1909 Gilruth, John Anderson University, ^Melbourne M.R.C.V.S e< D.V.Sc. Melb. 17 July, 1889 Goule, Arthur South Africa M.R.C.V.S. 19 Nov., 1890 (iray, Achilles Wedderburn R.V.S. 16 Mar., 1908 (^reen, William Bertram Lloyd Moonee Ponds G.M.V.C. 18 Dec, 1889 Harrison, William Ascjuith Bendigo . . R.V.S. 19 Mar., 1902 Hay, Adam Wangaratta M.R.C.V.S 4o: Journal of Agriculture. [lo JuNE; rp I o. Victorian Register of Veterin.4_ry Surgeons for 1910 — continued. Date of Registration. 19 June, 1889 21 Jan., 1889 1.5 April, 1891 18 Dec, 1891 Ifi .Mar., 1908 21 Dec. 1904 15 Aug., 1889 18 Dec, 1901 18 Sept., 1889 16 June, 1897 25 Dec, 1908 17 Dec, 1902 20 Nov., 1899 14 Nov., 1888 24 Nov., 21 Jan., 20 Nov., 18 Dec, 16 Mar., 20 Nov., 24 Nov., 18 Dec, 16 Dec, 17 June, 1897 1889 < 1895 1891 1908 1895 1895 1901 1903 1901 30 Mar., 1889 18 Dec, 15 May, 7 Dec, 21 Dec, 17 July, If) Mar., 21 Dec, 20 July, 16 July, 21 Aug., 20 Dec, 21 Jan., 20 Dec, 20 Dec, 17 Sept. 21 Nov., 21 Feb., 17 July, 7 Dec, 3 Jan., 20 Dec, 18 Feb., 5 Dec, 1891 1889 1898 1904 1889 1892 1892 1904 1890 1889 1905 1889 1905 1905 , 1889 1906 1889 1889 1898 1889 1899 1891 1894 Xanie. Address. Quali- fication!!. Haygarth. George Mont- Inverleigh . . R.V.S. gomery Hepburn. Thomas John Echuca . . . . R.V.S. Hill, William H. Stawell . . . . R.V.S. Hollingham, f](l\vard Arthur South Africa . . M.R.C.V.S Holt. Henry James Government Abattoirs. H o- G.M.V.C. bart, Tas. Humm. Charles . . Warrnambool . . G.M.V.C. Hunter. Williaui Camberwell-road, Hawthor-u | R.V.S. Jones. David T. . . Warragul . . G.M.V.C. Keene. Joseph Horatio Nel- Tasmania . . 1 R.V.S. son Kendall, Ernest Arthur Department of Agriculture. G.M.^■.C. Melbourne Kendall, Hector . . Brunswick-street, Fitzroy . . G.M.V.C. Kendall, John Shepparton . . G.M.V.C. Kendall, William Augustus 323 High-street. Prahran . . G.M.V.C. Kendall, William Tyson . . Brunswick-street. Fitzroy . . M.R.C.V.S. et D.V.Sc Melb. Kerr, David John McConnell Auburn-roatl. An )UI11 . . G.M.V.C. Kings. Richard Taplin Lilydale . . . . R.V.S. Kyle, Herbert Seton Stewart Christchurch. N./' . . G.M.V.C. Leitch, John Black Geelong . . . . I G.M.V.C. Lerew, William Margrave . . Hamilton . G.M.V.C. Le Souef, Ernest A. Perth, W.A. . . G.M.V.C. Le Souef. Sherbie Albert . . Sydney, N.S.W. . G.M.V.C. Loel. Bertram Benjamin . . Sydney, N.S.W. . . G.M.V.C. Looney, Henry Michael Sunbury . . . G.M.V.C. Loxton, Charles Arthur Department of Adelaide. S.A. Agricultui e. G.M.V.C. Mansergh. Fredk. John 122 Chetwynd-street, Nor th R.V.S. Melbourne Melhuish. Frank Whiddon Sydney, N.S.W. . M.R.C.V.S. Miller. Robert Charles Casterton . R.V.S. Mitchell. Ernest Wilfred . . Bendigo . . . G.M.V.C. Morgan, William S. L. Ballarat . . . G.M.V.C. Moore, John Maldon . . . R.V.S. Morris, Patrick Francis 90 Hope street. South Yarri I R.V.S. McCure, Alfred . . Colac . R.V.S. ^MacDonald. Norman Casterton . G.M.V.C. Nicholls, Robert . . Rushworth . R.V.S. Ogburn, Joseph . . Charlton . R.V.S. Page, George Charles Bairnsdale . G.M.V.C. Parker, Edward . . Bendigo . . . R.V.S. Paterson, Lawrence Liudk'\- Numurkah . G.M.V.C. Phelan, Denis Werribee . R.V.S. Phillips. John Easy-street, Colli igwood . R.V.S. Reid. Belle W hi tehor se -r oa d . Balwyn . G.M.V.C. Rivett, Ernest . . New South Wale.- . M.R.C.V.S. Robertson, Stewart Argj'le-street, St. Kilda . R.V.S. Robertson, William Ap^ier- Department of Agi'icultur e, G.M.V.C. ley Norton Melbourne Rogersoii, William Dunk . . Middle Park . M.R.C.V.S. Runting. Hector George Moreland . G.M.V.C. James 1 Russell, James T. Upper Hawthorn . R.V.S. Rudduck, Harold Sugden London, England . G.M.V.C. lo June, 1910.] Duarf FruitTrees for Small Gardens. 403 Victorian Register of Veterinary Surgeons for 1910 — continued. Date of Registration. Name. Address. Berrigan, N.S.W. . . Quali- fication.s. 18 Dec, 1897 Ryan, Joseph R.V.S. 17 July, 1889 Rye, Harry Elizabeth-street, Melbourne R.V.S. 21 Feb., 1906 Schiller, Charles . . Waanyarra R.V.S. 21 Jan. 1889 Shaw, Charles Wilhain Riddell's Creek R.V.S. 19 July, 1899 Sherloc'k, Samuel Frankston R.V.S. •2^ Nov., 1908 Shew, Wilham Dunbar Camjierdown G.M.V.C. 16 Dec, 1903 Smith, Adam WilUam "The Meadows," Alberton.. G.M.V.C. 22 Nov., 1888 Snowball, WilUam Dempster Dunedin, N.Z . M.R.C.V.S 18 Dec, 1901 Scott, Cathcart . . 141 Auburn-road, Auburn . . G.M.V.C. 16 Mar., 1898 Strong, Charles Dennistdn DeiJartment of Agriculture, Victoria G.M.V.C. 5 Dec, 1900 Symonds, Stanley L. Malay States G.M.V.C. 30 Mar.. 1889 Thompson, Joseph C. England . . M.R.C.V.S. 12 July, 1905 Thwaites, Alexander Tallangatta G.M.V.C. 19 June, 1907 Tomlin, Ernest John Leongatha G.M.V.C. 17 July, 1895 Tuck, Arthur W. K. Warrnambool G.M.V.C. 15 May, 1895 Utber, Robert Ashwell Auburn . . R.V.S. 17 April, 1889 Vyner, Charles James Health Department, N.S.W. M.R.C.V.S. 17 May, 1905 Wagstaff, Rufus . . Maryborough R.V.S. 19 Oct., 1892 Wallace-Dunlop, John An- thony Glen Wallace, Poowong R.V.S. -21 Nov.. 1888 Weir, Robert E. . . Stock Department, Perth, W.A. Launceston, Tas. . . M.R.C.V.S. 5 Dec, 1900 Weston, Edward Alexander G.M.V.C. 21 Dec, 1904 White, Augustus Kyabram G.M.V.C. 21 Aug., 1889 White, Henry Innell Princes-street, Prahran R.V.S. 12 July, 1905 Whitfield, Leslie Charles . . Tasmania G.M.Y^C. 27 April, 1892 Willmot, Robert Hobart, Tas. F.R.C.V.S. et M.D. 19 Mar., 1902 Wilson. Albert Charles Williams-street, Brighton G.M.V.C. 20 July, 1904 Wood, Ernest Nonus Caulfield G.M.V.C. 20 Nov., 1895 Wood. Samuel Octaviu.s Caulfield G.M.V.C. 19 June, 1907 Worthington, Harry Echuca . . G.M.V.C. 17 Aug, 1892 Younghusband, Thomas . . Brownsville, Newtown R.V.S. JAMES C. HA TTON, Melbourne, 1st May. 1910. Registrar. DWARF FRUIT TREES FOR SMALL GARDENS. A. S. Neil son, Orchard ist, School of Hortlcidtiire , Burnley. Not only in the metropolis and its suburlj.s. hut in the cities and large towns in the country, there are many people who are often heard to ex- claim " If I only had a larger plot of ground, I should like to grow a few trees, from which I could pick fruit as fresh as I wanted it." Yet, doubtless, such people are unaware that for small gardens, there are trees obtainable that are suitable for their wants; viz., those that are worked on the dwarf system in order to produce small trees. Apples. — With apples this is done by first grafting the Doucin or French Paradise on to the Northern Spy, so as to give the tree a sound blight-proof root system, and then working the particular variety desired on to the Paradise. 404 Journal of AgricuUurc. [lo June, 1910. Pears. — The quince is used as a root stock for pears. On to that is worked any of the following pears as an intermediate stock; viz.. Beurre- d'Amanalis, Louise Bonne of Jersey, or Jargonelle; and then on to the intermediate stock is worked the particular variety desired. Cherries. — In the case of cherries, the Mahaleb stock is used, as it is of a dwarf nature in it.self. The varieties selected are grafted or budded straight on to it. Plums. — Bv a judicious system of root pruning, plums can be kept down and thus dwarfed to a certain extent. This treatment should also be applied to the other fruits mentioned. The plan laid down for such treatment is to dig a spade-wide trench about 18 ins. from the stem of the tree all round, and to the depth of about 18 to 24 ins. Chisel in under the tree so that the ball of earth containing it will swing as if on a pivot.; thus cutting all the roots and checking the growth for the purpose required. The .soil should then be replaced and well trodden in; the addition of a handful of bonedust or superphosphate will be an advantage. This procedure should be followed every .second or third year, according to the growth the tree makes. The trees can be planted at a distance of 6 to 8 feet apart, thus allowing a great number of trees to be placed on a .small space. Thus, m, a garden plot containing one-eighth of an acre it is easily possible to grow 85 trees at a distance of 8 feet apart or 155 trees at 6 feet apart. Other advantages in these dwarf trees are that they are easy to prune, and 10 spray. To gather the fruit no ladders or steps are required, and, if birds are troublesome, the trees are easily netted over. Enthusiasts in Pomology with only limited space at their command, can thus have plea.sure and profit during their spare time ; a few trees so planted and looked after will well repay the grower. For tho.se who may contemplate trying a few trees and are not sufficiently well versed in the names of varieties, the following lists are furnished. The particular varieties mentioned are those that have succeeded well in the Royal Horti- 'ultural Gardens, Burnley, where the writer has had many years of ex- perience with them: — Apflcs. Jeratrice Iko Botan Imperial Gage *Imperiale de Milan *Isabella *Januar\- Prolific ^Japanese Large Red *Jefferson *Jodoigne Cireen Gage Julien Kanawaba *Kelsey *Kirke's La Delicieuse *Lafayette *Large Black Imperial *Late Black Orleans Late Harvey *Late Rivers Lawrence Orleans Lincoln Lombardy Lord Kit( hener *McLaughlin Madiera *Magnum Bonum Red *Magnum Bonum White Marianne Masu Maynard Meredith's *Mikado Mirabelle Jaune *Mirabelle Tardive *Mirabelle Von Flowtow's- •■'Mitchelson's *Monarch *Movola Mussel Newman's *Normandie *Xouvelle de Dorelle *October Green Gage *October Purple *Oregon Silver *Oullin's Golden Gage *Overall *Peach Plum *Perdrigon Violette Hatif i'ershore Petite d'Agen Petite d'Ete *Pond's Seedling Pourparts I'recoce de Berthgold Precoce de Tours *Prince Englebert *Princess Alexandra Prunus pisardi *Purple Gage *Quetsche St. Martin's '^Red Nagate Reine Claude Boddoert Reine Claude Braunau *Reine Claude de Bavay *Reine Claude Rouge Reine Claude Victoria *Reine Victoria * Rivers' Early Favourite Rivers' Early Prolific *Robe de Sargent *Roval Dauphin Roval de Tours 4i6 Journal of Agricitlturc. [lo June., 19JO. Royal Hative Royal d'Braunau Rubio Rutland Plumcot *Sans Noyeau Santa Rosa *Satsuma or Blood Plum Spinosus or Black Thorn Splendour Prune *Stan(lurd of England Stint Sugar Prune *Sultan (Knglish — Rivers') Sultan (Japanese) Takajnina Drop *Tardive Musque *'J'he Czar Traged}- Prune ^Transparent Gage Victoria Victoria Gage Violette de Galopin *Violette Hative *Washingon White Bui lace *Wickson Wild fioose Wilrnot's Late Winesour *Woolston Black Gage *Wright's Early *Yabose *Yellow Gage *Yellow Imperatrice *Yellow Japan Yellow Victoria QriNCKS. *Angers *Apple Shaj)ed ( "hinese Tom m on French *Hertfordshire *Manning's Seedling *Master's Early Orange *Pear Shaped ^Portugal *Rea's Mammoth Rivers Vines. Ale]i])o Almeria Alnwick Seedling *Bashan's Mammoth Beau Noir *Blue Imy,erial (CTlUiade) *Black Tonstantia Black Frankenthal *Black Grenache *Black Hamburgh *Black Jiily (European) *Black Muscat *Black Prince *Black St. Peter's *Black Tripoli Bouzzv Noir *Bowood Muscat *Braddick Hambro' *Buckland Sweetwater Rurchardt's Amber Cluster *Cabernet Sauvignon *Calabrian ■^Cambridge B(jtanic Canlen *Canon Hall Muscat *Caracossa (Jarignane *Centennial (Victorian) ^Champion Hamburg *Champion Muscat *Chaptal Chardonette *Chasselas (iolden *("hasselas Musque *Chasselas Musqut^ de Sillery *Chasselas Noir *Chasselas Parsley Leaved *Chasselas Rose *Chasselas Vibert *Chavoush (Chaouch) Clairette Ptnnceau *Cornichon Blanc Finger) *Cornichon Red Finger) ^Crystal *Dr'. Hogg Dolce Noir Dolcetto *Doradillo Due de Magenta *Duchess of Buccleuch *Duke of Buccleuch *Dutch Sweetwater ^Early Auvergne Frontignan *Sultan;! *Malaga Muscatel *Mataro *Medoc *Melville Castle *Meredith"s Alicante Mesnic Blanc Meurthe Frontignan Middlemiss" Seedling Miller's Burgundy Millhill Hambro'' *Mrs. Pearson "Mrs. Pince's Black Muscat ^Morocco Prince Muscat d'Aout *Muscat of Alexandria *Muscat Hambur'j;h *Muscat Houdan Muscat Lierval Muscat St. Laurent Neri *Pedro Ximencs *Pitmaston White Cluster *Raisin des Dames *Red or Grizzly Frontignani [Ladies' *Red Prince *Reeves' Muscadine Pink *Reissling Black Spanish *Reissling Red Rochelle *Royal Ascot *Roval Muscadine *Royal Vineyard *Ryton Muscat St. Giovette *Shepherds' Reissling vSherry *Sicilian *Early Black Bordeaux *Earlv Golden Frontignan *Early Malmgre *Early Saumur Frontignan *Early Silver l-'rontitjnan ^Earl'y White Malvasia Esperionc Fieldinger *General Delia Marmora *Golden Queen Graham's Large Black *Grand Turk *Gros Colman Hambro' Francais *Hermitagc *Hunter Riyer Pineau Blanc *Icy *Tngram's Hanlx- Prolific Jura Muscat *Kesh Mish Knight's Large Black La Bruxeloise *Lady Downe's Seedling *La Gloire I-a Mamelone *Lombardy *Madeline Royale *Madresfield Court Muscat *Sweetwater *Syrian *Ta.sca de Lorca *Thompson's Golden Cham- pion *Thomy)son's .Seedless Tinto *Tokay Frontignan *Trebbiano (Curno\v's) *Trentham Black *Troveren Frontignan ■*Verdelho *Victoria Hamburg *Waltham Cross *Wantage Wax nVest's St. Peters *While Corsican *White Frontignan *White Hermitage *White Morillon *White Tokay g White Zante *Wilmot's Sweetwater *Winter Muscadine *Woodward's Black *Wortley Hall Black*Xeres *Zante Currant lo June, I9IO-] List of Fruit Trees, &^c., at Burnley. 417 Phylloxera Resistant Vines. This list has been fully elaborated by Mr. F. de Castella, who has furnished the pedigrees, as well as the degrees of resistance, of the various vines and hybrids. The letter R signifies phylloxera resistance in accordance with Vialla's scale, which ranges from o to 20. Adirondack. Isabella seedling. R. 3-4. Allen's Black. Alvey. Complex .'Estivalis hybrid. R. 7. Anna. Catawba seedling. R. 3-4. Canby's August. Labrusca hybrid. R. 3-4. Catawba. Labrusca hybrid. R. 3-4. Clinton. .(Estivalis-Labrusca hybrid ; grown in some parts of France in sandy soils as a direct producer. R. 8. Cordifolia. Vitis cordifolia is very resistant. R. 18. Delaware. Vinifera-Labrusca hybrid. R. 3-4. Devereux. In France synonym of Black July. R. 11. Diana. Catawba seedling. R. 4. Elsinburgh. ^Estivalis hybrid. R. 8-10. Flowers. Variety of V. rotundifolia ; very resistant. R. 19. Genevieve. Goethe. Labrusca hvbrid. R. 3. Holding. Hybrid Fenouil. R. 8-10. ? lona. Catawba seedling. R. 3. Isabella. Very old Labrusca hybrid. R. 3-4. Israela. Isabella seedling. R. 3. Ive's seedling. Labrusca seedling. R. 3-4. Lenoir. In France known as Jacquez, formerly much grown as a direct producer, and also as a stock. R. 12. Lindley. Labrusca x Vinifera. R. 3. Logan. Labrusca x Vinifera. R. 3. Martha. Concord seedling. R. 3. Maxatawney. Labrusca hybrid. R. 3. Miles. Labrusca x .Estivalis. R. 3-4. Monuka. Pearson's Ironclad. Perkins. Labrusca hvbrid. R. 3. Rebecca. Labrusca seedling. R. 3. Rowland's Perkins. An improved variety of Perkins, raised in Melbourne. Salem. Labrusca x Vinifera. R. 3. Solonis Othello. R. 10-12. ? Thomas. Variety of Vitis rotundifolia ; very resistant. R ig. Tokayion. Labrusca hjbrid. R. 3. "Wilder. Labrusca x Vinifera. R. 3. A.R.G. 2.t Aramon x Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2. 41 B.t Chasselas x Berlandieri. 1202. t Mourvedre (Mataro) x Rupestris. 601. t Bourrisquou x Rupestris. Gamay Couderc.t Colombeau x Rupestris. For these five vines marked t, which are Vinifera x American hybrids, it is difficult to assign resistance exactly ; authorities differ. The best of them have now been proved to have resistance ample for all practical purposes. The first three are excellent stocks. 1616. Solonis X Riparia. R. 16-17. 34 E. Berlandieri x Riparia. R. 17. Rupestris des Causettes. R. 17.? 420 A. Berlandieri x Riparia. R. 17. 3306. Riparia x Rupestris. R. 18. 5937. 4i8 Journal of Agriculture. [lo June, 1910. Bramble, Himalayan *Bramble, Lawton Chestnut, Downton Chestnut, Marion's Large Fruinka Citron, Knight's *Currant, La Versaillaise *Dewberry, Lucretia *Ciooseberry, Billv Dean Gooseberry, Bottle *Gooseberry, Heart of Oak *Gooseberry, Ploughboy *Gooseberry, Roaring I^ion *Gooseberry, Sir H. Robinson Miscellaneous Frlits. *Gooseberry, Warrington Guava, Aromaticum *Guava, Purple *Lemon, Lisbon *Lime, West Indian *Loganberry *Loquat, Common *Loquat, Earlv (loMen Medlar, Dutch *Medlar, Monstrous Medlar, Nottingham *Mulberry, Black Mulberry, Indica Mulberry, Macrophylla Olive (variety from Spain) *Passillora edulis *Rhubarb, Topp's Winter *Rluibarb, Topp's Winter Im- proved *Rhubarb, Wilson's Early *Shaddock, Common *Strawberry, Up-tut-Mark *Strawberry, White Chilian *Walnut, Dwarf Prolific Walnut, Pecan '^Walnut, Santa Barbara THE CllOr MOELLIEH. /. M . B. Connor. Agricultural Superintendent. That the writer's recommendation of the growing of the fodder plant '•■ Chou Aloellier." which appeared in the October, 1908, issue of the Journal, has provetl to have been justified is borne out by the many letters received from dairy farmers throughout the States who have secured excel- lent returns by the growing of this valuable fodder plant. The latest to hand is from Messrs. Thompson and Anderson, of "Koongal," Harcourt, who intend putting iti a larger area this coming season. Thev write as follows : — " We are forwarding to you three Chou Moellier plants, weighing 17, 16, and l6 lbs. each respec- tively, and we think you will admit for new ground the result is distinctly good. We have already had three cuttings of leaves giving an average (total of three cuttings) of 14 lbs. per plant. The .seed was planted in May last year, but we cannot say when the young plants were AVEiGHT : 17, i6, AND ^6 LBS. bedded out. The method Owing to some days having elapsed the plants were of planting was as fol- somewhat wilted when photographed. lows " The Daddock when cleared was ploughed, then left to fallow for about a month, then cross ploughed and harrowed. The young plants were put in rows three feet apart and eighteen inches between each plant. A small quantity of stable manure was applied as a mulching ; at a later period when the plants were about 12 inches high bone manure was applied, a dressing lo June, 1910.] Statistics. 419 equal to half-a-ton per acre. Each row was hilled up .so that when irrigating the water could run down between each row of plants, the method of watering being the '' Chinese Garden" style. Four waterings were given during the summer, hand cultivation following each watering. Leaf cutting resulted in an average of 5^, 4^, and 4 lbs. respectively being gathered from each plant. Some of the leaves weighed as high as i\ lbs. each. The total yield for the three cuttings works out at the rate of 603- tons per acre." STATISTICS. First Qcartkr, 1910. Bainfall in Victoria. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting tlie State of Victoria for each montli and the quarter, with the corre spending monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available records to date. Janu a is points. ary. February- March. 1.1 Basin or District. 1 < 's is -<2 > points. c 3 V 1 0 3 j Average. <0 3 points. points. points points. points. Glenelg and Wannon Rivers ]1G 121 43 89 459 149 618 3n9 Fitzroy, P^umeralla, and Merri 1J4 147 50 164 415 165 579 476 Rivers Hopliiiis River and Mount 148 145 4S 104 496 160 692 409 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 168 153 32 107 400 170 600 436 Corangamite Cape Otway Forest ISo 211 67 147 415 258 667 616 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 122 146 38 116 3.32 177 492 439 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers IIG J 44 35 134 250 183 401 461 Yarra River and Mount ID- 2i0 85 172 289 277 571 679 Dandenong Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp IOT 242 79 158 273 270 f.49 670 South Gippsland 268 224 87 171 171 315 526 710 Latrobe and Thomson Rivers 240 231 11! 166 160 288 5)1 685 Macallister and Avon Rivers 3(i.S 116 39 149 79 209 481 504 Mitchell River 423 237 51 219 65 223 539 679 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 406 200 35 163 55 282 496 645 Snowy River 539 252 71 217 141 273 751 742 Murray River 158 111 30 101 205 \m 393 .371 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 185 169 23 142 251 308 459 619 Ovens River 149 174 13 131 190 290 352 595 Goulburn River 169 133 21 102 262 176 452 411 Cam pat pe River 111 116 43 94 342 149 496 359 Loddon River 145 96 35 83 269 116 449 295 Avon and Ricliardson Rivers 59 71 3 62 327 98 389 231 Avoca River 128 67 22 62 370 107 520 236 Eastern Wimmera ... 73 86 27 72 469 119 569 277 Western Wimmera ... 45 69 17 61 498 83 ,560 213 Mallee Country 79 55 16 57 418 79 513 191 The whole State ... 169 131 37 109 320 170 526 410 100 points = 1 inch. H. A. HUNT, Commonwealth Meteorolot/ut. 420 Journal of Agriculture. [lo June, 1910. Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State. | Deliveries from (Oversea). i ! Government Cool Stores. Description of Produce. Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended i Quartej ended 31.3.1910. 31.3.1909. 31.3.1910. 1 31.3.1909. Butter lljs. 9,357,852 3,577,404 6,971,720 2,627,688 Milk and Cream cases 66 141 10 96 Cheese lbs. 52,200 44,520 94,580 29,750 Ham and Bacon " 480 1,440 Poultry head 1,080 1,948 397 Eggs... . . . dozen 9,506 3,819 Mutton and Lamb carcases 26 i, 902 191,297 39,952 17,193 Beef ... quarters 5,283 3,125 543 Veal... carcases 919 608 53 301 Pork... „ 37 50 876 Rabbits and Hares pairs 179,592 503,616 32,016 149,638 Sundries lbs. 38,924 10,454 R. CROWE, Superintendent of Exports Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports. Exports. Description of Produce. Imports. , Exports. Description of Produce. Inter- State, Oversea. Inter- State. Oversea. Inter- State. Oversea. ■ Inter- State. Oversea. Apples 935 26,315 109,587 Mace 17 26 Apricots . . 58 — 2,786 — Maize — 1,451 — — Bananas, bs. 87,592 21,246 — — Mangoes . 29 — — — Bananas, cs. 5,678 2,615 574 — Malt 13 — — — ■ Barley 54,399 2 — — Melons — — 0 1 Beans 25 181 — — N'ectarines 1 — 88 24 Blackberries 385 — — — Nutmegs ... — 100 — — Black Cur- 2,225 — 6 — Xuts 1,363 5 — rants Oats 38,.331 300 — — Bran 1 — — — Oranges ... 220 .3,160 207 — Bulbs 11 133 12 21 Passion fruit 1,-5.39 — 107 1 Chaff 2 — Peaches 17 — ,3,731 27 Cherries . . . 5 — 193 — Pears 119 — 41,211 4,902 Chillies ... — 283 — — Peas, Dried 9,925 50 — — Cocoa beans — 987 — — Persimmons 68 — — — Cocoanuts.. — 24 — ~ Pineapples 24,229 — 532 245 Coffee beans — 325 — Plants, Trees, 493 254 43 10 Copra Cucumbers 16 225 — 9 I &c. Plums 8 10,174 433 Currants ... — 1,069 — — Popcorn ... — 52 — — Dates — 4,405 — — Potatoes ... 6 — — — Figs 2 123 582 — Prune.s — 601 — — Fruit- Quinces .. — — 4 — Canned... — — 1,339 Raisins — 6,075 — — Dried ... — — 22 277 Rice 1,579 22,130 — Mixed . . . 14 — .368 — Screenings 2 — — — Grapes 16 — 1,700 413 (C4rainl Green ginger 1 269 2 — Seeds S12 2,693 — — Hops Jams, Sauces, 147 — — Strawberries 1 — — — — — 1,107 Tomatoes ... 194 — 196 — &c. Turnips 1,681 — — — Lemons 56 5,765 873 — Vegetables 677 193 2 — Lentils 28 ^ — Wheat 39 85 — — Linseed . . . — 452 — — Yams 39 157 76,744 89,747 — Totals ... 151,646 38,054 33,442 112,744 Grand f Totals ( 231,747 118,387 Total number of packages inspected for quarter ending 31st March, 1910 = 516,62.5. J. G. TURNER, Senior Inspector, Fruit Exports and Imports. ftgrieultaral fidueationinVietoria. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. H. PYE, Principal. The College offers every facility to students to become competent agriculturists, vignerons, and dairymen. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the plougliing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle, 50 horses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fkks — £28 5s. per annum, paj'aljle lialf -yearly. Sessions begin first week in March and September. LONGERENONQ AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. G. A. SINCLAin, Principal. One aim of this institution is to till in the gap between the State Scliool and Dookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,:i8(i a(-res, and is admirably adapted for ilemon- strating what can )>e done in farmuig witli irrigation. Tliere is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vineyard cover an area of 30 acres. Fkks — Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum, iiayable half- yearly. Sessions begin first week in Marcli and September. BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE AND SMALL FARMING. E. E. PESCUTT, Principal. Tlie School Course includes regular lectures in Agricultural and Horticultural Science, Veterinary Work and the Management of Animals, Dairying, Pig and I'oultry Management, and kindred sul)jects. Fek — £5 per annum. WYUNA IRRIGATION FARM. (L //. TOLLEY, Malta;), r. Students are admitted fur three months' practical instruction in Irrigation Methods, including the Preparation of the Land, Application of Water, Har- vesting and Marketing of Crops, Dairy Faiining under Irrigation. Fee— £5 5s. Terms commence at any date. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS. Agricultural or otlier St)cieties wishing to have public; lectures delivei-ed are requested to make early applii/ation. The liall, advertising, Ac, must he provided locally, free of cost, Ijut all other charges are borne by the Department. Start" — The Director, and Messrs. Archer, Cameron, Carmody, Carroll, Castella, Connor, Crowe, Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Kenyon, McFadzean, Pescott, Robertson, Smith, and Strong. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1910. At least thirty students, exclusive of school cliildren, must Ije eiu-oUed at eacli centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to lie i).iid by the Agri(,-ultural Society under whose auspices tiie Class is held. Classes will be opened at tlie following centres on tlie dates mentioned : — Violet Town ... 1.3th June I Bacchus Marsh ... 1st August. Tallangatta ... 20th ,, I Dookie ... ... Sth ,, ^Vhite Clitt's ... 4th July 1 \Varracknabeal ... 15th ,, Mildura ... lltli ,, I Minyip ... 22ud „ Devenish ... bSth ,, 1 Colbinabbin ... 29th „ Huckrabanyule ... 25th ,, | Applications relative to the above Institutions, Lectures, and Classes should be sent JUST PUBLISHED. '' The Smuts of flustpalia : THEIR STRUCTURE, LIFE HISTORY, TREATMENT, AND CLASSIFICATION." D. McALPINE, GOVERNMENT VEGETABLE PATHOLOGIST. 288 PP. CLOTH. 57 PLATES. 312 ILLUSTRATIONS. »-^^^«ar-c-3e^ >«<-• Copies may be obtained from T5e^ Depaptment oj^' Sgpiealtape:, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. Price, 4s. ; Postage, 9d. APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering price ^ ^ and postage, to be forwarded to Z\\z Secretary /or )\gricullure, jVIelbourne. Remittances from beyond the State to be made by i'ost g Office Order. TREE PLANTING. Tol. VIII. THE DAIRYING SEASON, 1909-10= Part 7. (Registered at the General Post Otfire, Melbourne, for transmission bv Post as a Newspaper.] PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription—Victoria, Inter-State, and N.Z., 3/-; British and Foreign, 6/-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— JULY, 1910. PA6B. Tree Planting for the Beautifying of Cities and Towns A. W. CrookeandJ. BhicMurm 421 The Genuine Locust Fungus {t'ln/msa Grijlli, Frcs.) ... ... D. McAljnne 434- The Purification of Muddy WateT-3... ... ... ...A. C. H. Rothcra 437 Artificial Manures Acts — Supplementary Li.st of Unit Values, Season 1910 ... P. R. Scott 443 Review of tlie Dairying .Season and Butter Export Trade, 1909-10 ... ... ... ... ... ... R. Crowe 444 Sensible and Profitable Dairy Farming ... ... ... J. S. McFadze.an 455 Dairying in the Winchelsea Shire ... ... ... ... J. M. Kerr 465 Subsoiliiig ... ... ... ... ... ... A. S. Kenyon 467 The Wine Industry in Soutliern France (co;i'h';i«f''Z) ... ... F. dt CcultUa 470 Orchard Studies- Ill. Shelter Belts ... ... ... ... ... E. E. Peficott 474 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. K. Pt.'^cott 4:11 Hou.sehold Insect Pests ... ... ... ... ... C. French, jiui. 480 Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... ... .. 483 Journal ofAr/ricn/ture — Cop3'rigl)t Provisions and Subscription Rates in-ndeJrotU cover Publications i.'isued Ijy the Department of Agriculture ... insidtfrovt cover Agricultural Education in Victoria — Dookie Agricultural College ... ... .. ... in^iide hark cover Longerenong Agricultural College ... ... ... inaide back cover Burnley School of Horticulture ... ... ... inside hark cover Wy una Irrigation Farm ... ... ... ... i)i-nrj,e hark cover Lectures on Agricultural Subjects ... ... ... inside hark cover Agricultural Clashes, 1910 ... ... ... inside hark cover The SmutH of Australia ... ... ... ... ... ... hack cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Journal of the J)epartment of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the [jrovisions of the Coi)yright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter contained in the .Journal are at liberty to do so, provided the usual acknowledipnent ?'s made. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payalde in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and Xew Zealand, and OS. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threejjence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (190.3-4), 10 parts; III. (1905), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 19U5), out of print ; IV. ( 1906), V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each, and \ll. (1909), 11 pjarts, e.xclusive of Part 2 •'February, 1909), out of print, are at pi-e.^^ent in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. A few bound copies ot Volumes VL (1908), and VII. (19U9) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume ; postage. Is. 4d. additional. Subscri[)tions should bs forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture. Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Deparln.ent of Agriculture, ."id. per month, .3.s. per annum. Po.st free. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., If., III., ami IV. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage — Parts I and II., 4d. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungus Di-seases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. Mc.Alpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., 10 coloured plates. 2.s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Austra ia. By D. McAlpine. 5s. ' Postage, 8d. Smuts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 4s. Postage, 9d. Australian Fungi. By "Dr. Clooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, Poison Plants, and .Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. By Professor A. J. Ewart, 2s. 6d. Postage, .5d. Year Book of .-Vgr-culture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d, ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage— Cloth, 9d. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d. per dozen. When ordering, mention "Monthly" or "Weekly." THe JOURNAI9 OF Yfie department of NEW yoKK °*' BOTANICAL VICTORIA. ^^.n^^f^' Vol. VIII. Part 7. Uth July, 1910. TREE PLANTING FOR THE BEAUTIFYING OF CITIES AND TOWNS. A. W. Crooke, late Acting Conservator of Forests, and J. Blackburne, Inspector of Forests. Although the adornment of our streets and roads with shade trees may not strictly be called forestry, we crave the indulgence of our readers when we place before them a few remarks and suggestions upon what is really a very important matter, bearing, as it does in so many directions, upon the comfort, health, and happiness of a large proportion of the inhabitants of this State. Many mistakes have been made in the past by planting unsuitable and unsightly trees in the streets of our towns, but it may safely be assumed that the lessons taught by such errors should only lead to future successes. Then, again, if failure has come in some instances, magnificent results have been achieved in others, as may be seen from the accompanying photographs. And what of the men who planted these trees? Their good work is. we know, fully and gratefully appreciated by the present generation, and they have also created for future ones " the joy that unborn eyes shall see." Surely the memory of these benefactors will always be kept fresh and green in the hearts of the people they have done so much for. Have shade trees an influence in moulding the character and habits of the populace ? Some scientific writers assert that they most assuredly have, and maintain that the quiet, contented and social manners of the inhabitants of tlie Dutch and of some German cities, are caused, in a measure, by the planting, long ago. of trees in the streets. These trees are often surrounded by a railing or seat, and here on the hot summer evenings, in the grateful shade afforded, the father of the family may be seen comfortably smoking, holding friendly confab with his neighbours, and discussing with them the politics of the day, while the housewife still keeping a vigilant eye on her children, is busily work- C:^ ing at her knitting and gossipping with her cronies. Everything breathes cri peace, contentment and happiness. There is none of the feverish fight for " appearances "' .so characteristic of treeless towns in other lands. 7782. Q CD 422 Journal of Agricidture. [ii July, 1910. The green lustre of trees takes away the hardness of city life and tends to make it more endurable, pleasant, and healthy. The reason that large trees in the streets of thickly populated cities promote health, is easily understood. The more foliage for evaporation, the more oxygen, the more shade, the more even temperature. Here, in this happy State of Victoria, making due allowance for the good work already done, we have yet opportunities enjoyed by no other .southern land to carry on a project so beneficial as is tree planting, not only to our physical, but to our moral health. It should be remembered that the effective planting of street trees, trees that may last many generations, is not a matter in which cheapness and economy should be allowed to mar effective work. Cheap planting is usually bad planting. " Select the strong, the fair, Plant them with earnest care, No toil is vain." Hott- TO Plant. If a street or road is a chain and a half (or more) in width, it can be effectively ornamented with large trees, such as the Plane, Elm, or Poplar, and they should undoubtedly be planted on the road, 5 or 6 feet from the gutter. For narrow streets, smaller-growing species must be .selected, and they may be set out on the footpath, if the same has a reasonably sufficient width. The distances apart must be regulated by the ultimate sizes to which the trees will attain. This subject will be dealt with later on in the article. One of the greatest charms of a leafy avenue is regularity and uniformity of growth ; therefore, if in parts of the street to be planted the soil is poor and shallow, make the holes larger and deeper, and add good, rich soil copiously, with a liberal admixture of bone dust. A hole for a plantable street tree should never be dug less than 6 feet in diameter, and 3 or 4 deep. In a wide road or street, it is pre- ferable to thoroughly trench a strip light along the same, and pro\ide, if possible, for effective drainage. Trees .should eitner be specially grown by the Council controlling a town, or selected from the stock of some reputable nurseryman. They must be clean, well-rooted, and healthy, and have a strong, sturdy stem at least 6 or 7 feet in height. The head — i.e., the branches springing from the tn\) of the stem — should be of uniform growch and evenly balanced. (See Fig. i.) The planting is a very importai.t matter, and the employ- ment of skilled labour is a sine qua non if successful results are to be hoped for. The roots must be spread evenly, neither too deep nor too shallow, and should l)e covered up and packed between with fine soil l-ires.sed down firmly with the foot of the operator. After the tree guard is placed in position, a good watering can be given, and the tree secured from blowing about by three strong cords affixed to the uprights of the guard. (See Fig. 2.) Place .some bagging, a strip 6 inches wide will do, around the stem, so as to prevent any chafing by the cords. It is better for a tree to be able to sway about a little than to be tied up too rigidly. If possible, never fasten to a stake, such a process being harmful and unnatural. During the -first year espe- cially, newly-planted street specimens should be carefully attended to in the matter of mulching, watering, and cultivation — i.e., stirring and keep- ing loose the surface of the soil around them. II July, 1910.] Tree Planting for Cities and To-ans. 4-'3 m Z '.Z ^] aino pay |^ ,V'^^, '■. — K- TTT'v l--M->-^- m 424 Journal of Agriculture. [11 July, 1910. Tree Guards. Under present conditions, tree guards are a necessity, and will remain so while boys continue to be mischievous, and cattle are permitted to wander in our streets. They are, however, rather a disadvantage to the well-being of the tree itself, which probably would do much better if held by a cord, as described herein, to three posts standing at a couple of feet each way from the tree. Guards create draughts, and these are as hurt- ful to trees as to human beings. But since guards are, as stated, under existing conditions, a necessity, we have given the matter consideration with a view to recommending one that is cheap, durable, strong, and effective. We are of opinion that the guard illustrated on page 423 more nearly meets these requirements than any other, but it is not without its draw- backs. To a certain extent it is clumsy, unlovely, and obstructs the light from street lamps. The appearance can, of course, be improved by dressing the timber and painting it, but, after all, the purpose of a guard is to protect the tree during its youth. The tree itself is the ornament. Guards made of rod iron overcome, to a great extent, both of the fore- going objections, but they have the .serious defects of being costly, easily injured by ill-behaved persons, and badly barking the trees should the lashings break. Lashings, with all classes of guards, should be periodi- cally inspected. Too often they are only attended to when serious mis- chief has been done. For those, and they are many, who have a strong (jbjection to the wooden guard, one made of expanded metal might be tried, similar to those recently erected in Queen-street, Melbourne. They are light, and seem suitable for elms, planes, &c. With some trees, it is well to erect the guard first, leaving the pickets off one side until the tree is planted, and it is well in all cases to keep the bottom rails and pickets a few inches above the ground level in order to allow of the soil being cultivated around the tree without removing any portion of the guard. ^^'hen the great importance of growing street trees is more generally recognised, when citizens are educated to care for, protect, and take a pride in them, and cattle are restrained from wandering, guards will no longer be necessary. Pruning. Street trees, if properly selected, require very little pruning after being planted, other than the removal of branches that may be growing too low down on the stem, or the shortening back of any that may have a tendency to make the head of the tree uneven or badly balanced. This operation should be accomplished with a sharp pruning knife when the trees are young. Any work with the axe or saw in after years is thus rendered unnecessary, and, at all events, it should be carefully avoided, as the ruth- less cutting away of large limbs and branches has not a tendency to pro- mote health and longevity. Watering. When gutters are formed in the natural soil, or pitched with blue- stone, or granite cubes, enough water generally soaks through to keep the roots of street trees fairly moist. When the channels are of asphalt or cement, through which no water can penetrate, provision should be made to allow water to percolate through the gutter opposite each tree. A gcod method of watering is to put down, to the level of the ground 3 1 July, 1910.] Tree Planting for Cities and Towns. 425 just outside the tree guard, an earthenware pipe, 6 inches in diameter. This ■can be done at pLinting time, and a cover fitting on the top of the pipe does away with any liability of accident. If filled with water occasionally during the summer UKjnths. the bottom of the hole will be kept moist, and the roots of the tree encouraged to strike downwards. Light surface watering has just the opposite effect. In the snvered streets of the city and suburbs of Melbourne, the trees are sufi'ering from want of water, some of them are gradually dying, and unless artificially watered, will not survive many years longer. What to Plant. We are here again indebted to the men of the " old brigade " for many useful object lessons scattered about our towns. It mav be laid down as a broad general rule that deciduous trees are more suitable for street- planting than those which retain their foliage all the year round. In the winter months, we want sunshine, not shade, and in atldition the autumn leaves add a new tone to Australian landscapes, while we mav *' rejoice and be glad '" when the breath of spring brings again to our view the tender cff'^n '^f bud and folincre. I. ORIENTAL PLANES. L\ 1 ILETUN .MRLi:i. C ASl LEAIAINL. In Melbourne, Bendigo, Castlemaine, and other districts enjoying a temperate climate, the Oriental Plane {Plataniis orientalis) makes an ideal street tree. (See illustration, Xo. i, of I>yttelton-street, Castlemaine). The Castlemaine streets were planted in the years 1872-3 by Mr. P. Doran, curator of the local Botanical Gardens. Mr. Doran still holds this impor- tant position which he has adorned for .so many years. The Planes were put in 60 feet apart, with a Bluegum {Eucalyptus globulus) in between each of them. The gums eventually became diseased, and were removed some years ago. Many of the planes are now 50 feet high. The one at the right hand corner of the photograph is 50 feet high, has a head diameter through branches of 60 feet, and a trunk girth at 3 feet from 426 Journal of Agriculture. [i I July. 1910. ihe ground of 6ft. 3 in. It will thus be understood that this species must be set out at least 50 or 60 feet apart, to allow of full development, but 2. ELMS, CAMP RESERVE, CASTLEMAINE. to produce an immediate effect such trees as Cootamundra Wattle {Acac'ur Baileyand), ] acarandra mimosifolia. Flame tree {BracJivcJiiton acerifolius)- 3. — ELMS, WILLIAMSON-STREET, BENDIGO. Currajong {BrachycJiiton populneus). Scarlet-flowering Gum {Eucalyptus ficifolia), or even the Silky Oak {Gremllea robusta) might be placed between? each permanent tree and graduallv removed when necessary. Ti July, 1910.] Tree Planting j or Cities and Towns. 427 Next in importance come the Elms, and we consider the three best to be Ulmus stiberosa, U . canadensis, and U . campestris. Photograph No. 2 4. ELMS, KING-STREET, BENDIGO. shows a double avenue of U . suberosa at the Camp Reserve, Castlemaine : these were planted in 1884. No. 3 gives a view of elms in Williamson- 5. SILVER POPLARS, SHERIFF' S BRIDGE, CASTLEMAINE. Street, Bendigo ; whilst No. 4 illustrates the appearance of King-street, a narrow street running at right angles to Mitchell-street. In the one all is glare, life, and bustle ; in the other, on the hottest day, quietude, peace, 421 Journal of Agriculture [ii July, 1910. i: JULY, 1910.I Tree Planting for Cities and Tonns. ^29 xind grateful shade. The green branches of the trees meet, and hiter- jiiingle overhead, forming a perfect arboreal sanctuary, and certamly here '■ From the burning heat of summer, Is offered cool retreat." The trees of the Elm family like a fairly deep, cool soil. In many places in Bendigo, where they ha\e been very extensively used for afford- ing street shade, they are already showing signs of decadence, chiefly caused by desiccation and the want of adequate root room. Many fine .specimens of this family are to be met with in the cooler and wetter parts of Victoria. In a porous, deep, moist soil, Populus alba is quite at home, and makes a splendid street tree. View Xo. 5 shows a fine avenue at Sheriff's Bridge, Castlemaine. P. Fremontii and P. angidata .succeed well in moderately temperate localities. It may be mentioned here that P. alba, like the Oriental Plane, requires plenty of room for full development — not less than 50 or 60 feet — and therefore a suitable temporary tree can with advantage be planted between each permanent .specimen. The Oak {Quercus robur) does well in cool districts. It is, however, subject to the attacks of a species of .scale {Planchonia Quercicola), that often kills back the young branches. Q. rubra and Q. palustris are Lonsidered to be eminently adapted for street decoration south of the Dividing Range. The foliage is large, handsome, and Ijeautifully tinted in the autumn. Illustrations are also given of a beautiful road scene approaching the township of Gisborne,. and of a charming street scene in the township of Camperdown. Trees for Narrow Streets. When streets are only a chain, or less, in width, it is perhaps advisable to plant on the footpath, 3 or 4 feet from the gutter. It is necessary to avoid putting in any species that will eventually attain large dimensions. As suitable, we may mention Catalpa sfeciosa, a tree not much known here, but verv highlv spoken of in America. Magnolia grandif-ora grows in Victoria to a moderate size only, but in Porto Santo, in the island of Madeira, it attains the size of timber trees, and the large wax-like flowers shed, it is needless to say, a delicious fragrance. They have also, we note, Magnolia a\enues in some American cities. Some of the Oak family, the Almond {Prunus Ajnygdalus), Scarlet- Flowering Gum {Eucalyptus ficif alia), White Cedar {Melia Azedarach), Tree of Heaven {Ailontus gl'andidosa), Spani.sh Chestnut {Castanea vesca), Pyra- mid Tree {Lagunaria Patersonii), Jacaranda mimosifolia (should be planted in sheltered situatons). Tulip Tree {Liriodendron tnlipiferd), Paulownia imperialis. Pitta spar urn undidatum, Tristania conferta, and many others Tnight be planted with advantage in thoroughfares of limited width. Some of the Queensland cedars are also worthv of a trial, as they are doing well in shelte'red places at Maryborough. They must, however, be pro- tected from frost when young. Trees for Dry, Hot, Districts. The Locust Tree {Robirtia pseudacacia) makes a good, lasting street specimen, and can with advantage be planted about 30 feet apart. It succeeds well in hot, drv localities, provided the soil is fairly deep. In Kerang, Swan Hill, and other northern towns in Victoria, where other trees fail, the Pepper {SrJiinus .Voile) grows with great rapidity, and must 43° Journal of Agriculture. [ii July, i9:o_ II July, 1910.] Tree Planting for Cities and Toivns. 431 therefore be accorded due prominence as suitable for similar localities. It is, however, a great " robber," and the roots of it travel long distances intelligently in search of moisture. Instances of what may safetv be termed intelligence in plants are numeroues. They are of common occurrence in •every suburban garden. Erect a post in the garden within, say, 10 feet of a Morning Glory, and see what will happen within a few days. Do trees feel pain when struck with the woodman's axe? Do they enjoy sunshine and rain, calm and storm ? Do they feel life circulating through their stems and branches in the spring time? Have they likes and dislikes to trees of different species, and, but for the "tragedy of the tree," — its inability to move — would not many of them seek other neighbours.,? We certainly think so. " There lives and breathes a soul in all things ^ And that s.Oul is God.'' — -Cowfer. Even the old Roman, the elder Pliny, pagan although we may deem him, .places^ on record his belief that " Trees have a soul, since nothing on "^ . j^nSH^^^Qjfl^^^^^^^^HH^^^^H&^^i^^l^^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^^H ' >i-'J^^.- *r% \ ' ■■'■ ' .• i^^'^Sa^jtl'-i^ " ' -■^aiF?--"'^ ^^.!jBlr| "'- -'V ;'|t;t||! ^■mv^ ^ '^ •■ '^"^fflllPI^^^ ' i-i'^^i b. PEPPER TREES, SWAN HILL. •earth lives without one." {See many articles — now published in book form — by Maurice Maeterlinck, but particularly one entitled, " The Intel- ligence of the Flowers." in Harpe/s Monthly Magazine for December. 1906.) Although an evergreen, the Carob Tree {Ceratonia siliqua) is suitable for hot localities. An illustration is given of a specimen at Swan Hill ; this particular tree is 27 feet high, diameter through branches 40 feet, girth of stem 2 feet from ground 5 ft. 3 in. The Silky Oak (Grevillea robusta) is a shapely tree, and is adapted for northern district planting. Much that is good can be said of the Currajong, which makes a splendid avenue tree. for hot, dry districts; on account of its pyramidal habit of growth, it should he planted not more than 25 feet apart. The Sugar Gum {Encalvptus corynocalyx), brought into prominence and ■distributed largely by the late Mr. G. S. Perrin, Conservator of Forests, •stands drought well, and a Western Australian species {E. salmonofhloia), recently introduced into Victoria by the writers of this article, is being grown largely at the State Nursery, Macedon, for distribution amongst 432 JoiiniaJ of A gri culture. [i I July, 1910. public institutions. Tliis species flourishes in Western Australia in places- where an annual rainfall of only 11 inches exists, and it is to be hoped that it will prove to be a valuable acquisition for arid Victorian territory. We are not at all enamoured with eucalypts for street planting, but where the choice of other trees is exceedingly limited, some plea can be urged for not overlooking the merits of the two species we have mentioned. 9. CAROB TREE. .SWAN HILL. Piitosporum undulatum and Melia Azedaracli also do well in hot localities if a supplv of water can be occasionally afforded to them in dry weather. It must not be assumed that the trees we have mentioned under the above heading will only flourish in arid places. Many of them do well in the temperate parts of Victoria. EXPERIEK'CES IN CALIFORNIA. Strange to say, in this progressive land, the results achieved are almost identical with tho.se accomplished in Victoria. We find pride of place given to the Oriental Plane, Cork Elm. Silver Poplar, and Locust Tree. The Carolina Poplar {P. angulata) and the Lindens {Tilia europcea), and' II July, 1910.] J'rce Planting for Cities and Towns. 433 {Tilia americana) are highly spoken of. Our climate is generally too hot for the Lime Tree (Linden), but we have seen them doing well at Daylesford and other cool places in Victoria. Overhead Telegraph Wires. One great drawback to successful tree growth in many of our cities and towns is overhead telegraph, telephone, and electric-light wires. In order not to interfere with these by contact, the trees have to be continually headed back. Notable examples of this disfigurement are to be seen in Collins and Flinders streets, Melbourne. Contrast the appearance of the Oriental Planes there with those growing in Castle- maine. In one case, you have noble well developed specimens with — " The shaft of beauty towering high," In the other, mutilated round-headed examples of everything that a tree should not be. In America they manage things better. Mr. Ernest Braunton, the talented horticultural editor of the Calif ornian Cultivator, in an able article on " Street Planting," published in that journal on 22nd November, 1906, advises thus :— Don't permit telegraph or telej)hone linemen to mutilate street trees. Secure the passing of ordinances forcing wires and cables underground wherever practicable. Telegraph and telephone wires are unsightly and interfere with all schemes of street improvement and tree planting. The wires are fast going underground in the Eastern States and in California. When will a beginning be made in Victoria generally ? Conclusion. We would also recommend intending street decorators to keenly ol)serve what trees succeed best in the districts they wish to adorn, and also to obtain expert advice before buying trees and planting them. Do not leave everything to City, Borough, or Shire Councils. Individual effort can do much in the required direction, and the force of example w'ill lead others to follow. What nobler gift can a rich man leave to posterity than a row of fine shade trees? We do not know of anything in this life more elevating or interesting than to watch trees that our own hands have planted years ago. growing and thriving and gradually mounting skyward, until the tiny sapling is a transformed, stately tree, admired by all. Quietly the years and seasons come round one after the other, and pass aw ay unnoticed and unmarked ; but the growth of a tree at once brings the relentless march of time forcibly home to us. In America we have many object lessons and fine examples of indivi- dual effort in connexion with arboriculture. Julius Sterling Morton's Arbor Day crusade in favour of tree-planting has resulted in hundreds of millions being set out on the plains of Nebraska. Nearly fifty years ago Mr. C. M. Loring settled in what was then the small village of Minneapolis (Minnesota), now a prosperous and large city. It is asserted that Mr. Loring made Minneapolis by the interest he took in street and park tree- planting, and the vigour he infused into everything connected with this im- portant work. He undoubtedly inaugurated the feature that made the city attractive, and people of taste and culture sought it for their homes. Business increased, Minneapolis flourished, and to-day it is one of the most beautiful places in the great republic. Hartford (Connecticut) is stated to be the loveliest city in America. To Mr. Horace Bushnell is due the credit of this proud distinction. For nearly fifty years he has given most of his time gratis in the work of clothing the place he loves so well with arboreal verdure. 434 Journal of Agricidture. [ii July, 1910. In our own State, we have reason to be grateful to such men as Baron Von Mueller, Messrs. Hodgkinson, Guilfoyle, Doran, and many others who have planted for us delightful gardens and shady streets. We shall be gratified exceedingly if this article pushes forward and helps the good work of tree-planting on streets and roads. Our school children are now .being taught that trees are something more than encumbrances on the land, that must at once be destroyed by ring-barking. In this connexion it is well to point out that the State Forests Depart- ment, in an unassuming way, has been growing and distributing hundreds of thousands of seedling trees to Councils, Churches, State schools, public institutions, &c. One hears a good deal from time to time of successful arbor days. It is not generally understood that, but for the generosity of the State Forests Department, there would be practically no arbor days in Victoria. With the gradual spread of arboricultural knowledge amongst both young and old, we look forward with confidence to the dawn of a better day, when trees will be universally regarded as es.sential to human existence, comfort, and happiness, and therefore duly reverenced as one of the best and noblest gifts of the Creator. THE GENTINE LOOFST FUNGUS. (Empusa Grylli, Fres.). D. McAlpini\ Vegetable Pathologist. While investigating the plague of locusts in New South Wales during 1907, Mr. Froggatt found a large number clinging to the grass and weeds, with their legs spread out, dead and dry. They had crawled up to the top and remained there long after they were dead. For six months, swarms of them had been devouring the grass and herbage, and considerable loss had been caused by their ravages. These plague locusts are popularly called " grasshoppers," and their scientific name is CEdaleus sencgaleiisis, Kraus, being originally described from Eastern Africa. Some of the dead locusts were forwarded to me by Mr. Froggatt for examination, and on placing them in a moist chamber, a fawn coloured furry fungus i)rotruded from between the joints of the abdomen and produced the various reproductive bodies shown in the plate. The fungus was determined as Empusa grylli , Fres. and is recorded in the 1 1 JrLV, 19 1 o. lln- Ciontitic Locnsf Fungus 435 A LOCUST-KILLING FUNGUS (EMLUSA GRVLLI. FRES.). 436 Journal of Agriculture. [11 July, 1910. Agricultural Gazette of Neiu South Wales, p. 41, 1907. It is well known in America and South Africa as producing disease and death among the locusts there, and has also been found in Europe. As a locust destroyer, this fungus is of special interest, but only brief reference will be made to the fungus itself. There is a well-known and closely related example which is parasitic on the common hou.se fly and known as Emfusa rnusccc. Every one is familiar with the dead fly stuck to the window pane and a white halo round its body — the shroud which has also been the cause of its death. The tubes or hvphas of the fungus are inside the body of the locust, as shown in Fig. 15, and when they have u.sed up all the nutrient material in the tissues, they project at the sur- face and produce the pear-shaped conidia (Fig. 2). When the conidia are ripe they are shot out as if from a pop-gun, and if they strike the body of another locust they may infect it, and in this way the disease is spread. These conidia are produced in countless myriads and scattered, so that the fungus is not only widely distributed, but also rapidly reproduced. The locusts have all disappeared during the winter months, and so the fungus has to provide for a period of rest, which it does by means of the resting- spores (Fig. 20). This fungus will only grow on the living tissues of the locust, and has never been cultivated on dead substances. The " South African Locust Fungus," which is the same as the Aus- tralian one, has attracted considerable attention, because it was at first thought to be capable of being artificially cultivated and used for getting rid of the destructive locust. But, by an unfortunate mistake, the locust fungus which was sent out in tubes with gelatine was not that fungus at all, but a species of Mucor or a mould which is not a parasite. The parasitic fungus which killed the locusts was Empiisa grylli, but Muccr was also present on the dead locusts and so it came to be mistaken for, and cultivated and sent out as an insect destroyer which it really never was. Cultures from the Cape were received by me in 1899 and determined to be a Mucor as described and illustrated in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, p. 184, 1900. Now that we know the true state of affairs that we have been importing the spurious article from the Cape, while the genuine article was produced within our own borders, it behoves us to .study the natural conditions under which epidemics of the locust disease occur, and .see how far the true locust fungus can be utilized and controlled by us. EXPL.^NATIOX OF PLATE. [Em-piisa grylli, Fres.) Fig. I. Locusts killed by the fungus... ... ... ... n.Tt. size Fig. 2. Conidiophores or conidia-bearers projecting from the junctions of the abdominal segments, two loose conidia above ... ... Xioo Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. Successive stages in the development of conidia within the conidiophore Fig. 7. Conidiophore after ejectment of conidium I'^ig. 8. Conidium on left forming a secondary conidium, upper half pro- jecting Fig. I). Secondary conidium escaping from tiie mother-cell Fig. 10. Conidium beginning to germinate Ficrs. II, 12, 13, 14. Various stages in the development of secondarv coni- diophores and conidia from a conidium. Culture in moist air... Fig. 15. Mycelium in abdominal cavity, showing commencement of aggre- gation of contents in the formation of mvcelial bodies Fig. 16. Mvcelial bodies, two pale immature resting spores at right Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20. Successive stages in the development of resting spores from mycelial bodies ... ... ... ... X250 . y 2:;o . X250 X2iO . X250 . X250 • X250 X250 . X250 II July, 19 io.] Tlic Piiriiicatioii of Muddy Waters. 437 THE PURIFICATION OF MIDDY WATERS. .1. C. H. Roilicra, ]\l.\., J/.R.C.S.. T.ccinrcr in Bio-Cliemistry, Melbourne University. Much of the water available in the State of Victoria is rain water stored in open tanks with puddled clay embankments and floors. Such water is practically never clean, but generally discoloured, with a fine suspension of mud. This mud is so finely divided that it does not sink under the force of gravitv nor can it be separated under the greater force exefted by the centrifugal machine. In the language of physical chemists, it is in a con- dition of " colloidal suspension," and its separation from the water requires either an effective filter, or the use of a chemical reagent. Filters. An effective filter is. however, generally speaking, a slow filter, and will not allow large volumes of water to pass in short ]nter\als of time. Further, they are costly to buy, and unless treated with care, and regularly cleaned, thev may signally fail to purify water which contains hiirmful bacteria. In fact, a badly cared for filter mav be a source of actual danger, for bacteria may thrive in countless numbers amongst the material collected in the filter, and may later be washed through into the filtered water Chemical Precipitation. By the second process of purification, namely, chemical precipitation, no expensive initial plant is required, large rolumes of water may be satisractorily handled, and any one with good common sense can control the process, whereas the management of a filter requires a skilled and in- telligent man. It is this second type of process which will now be discussed. The visible impurity in "muddy water" is, as already mentioned, a fine "colloidal suspension" for which the silicates of the puddled clay floor are largely responsible. On the addition of certain chemicals this fine suspension alters in character. The extremely minute particles, which, owing to their smallness, were able to float in the water, begin to collect together until they fonn large flocculent masses. These masses, which are easily seen to form a bulky precipitate, settle to the bottom of the water at a speed depending on their weight, and the manner of their formation ; but the important point is that they do settle to the bottom, and at a rate which is perfectly satisfactory from the practical standpoint. When the precipitate or flocculi have thorough' y sedimented the water above is perfectly clean and sparkling. The whole process, to make a comparison, is exactly similar to the clearing or " fining " of wine, whereby after the sedimentation of flocculi the wine is lett bright and sparkling. The clean water above the suspended mud is completely free from even the finest suspended particles. Its Bacterial Purity. — It is a well-known fact that bulky flocculi, separating in a fluid, enclose and carry down with them, the micro-organ- isms present at the time. In this way, the falling mud removes from the water, the bacteria polluting it. 43^ Journal of AgricuUure. [ii July, 1910. A number of Australian waters cleared by chemical means have, through the kindness of Dr. Bull, been examined at the Bacteriological Laboratory of the University of Melbourne, and the reduction in the num- ber of organisms present has been most pronounced. Not onlv dees the settling mud remove bacteria, but it also carries down the eggs of hydatids, thus giving the means of protecting stock against the most fruitful source of hydatid infection — dirty drinking water. It is only the actively swimming water Crustacese which escape the precipitating action of the mud, and they do not live long in the clean water, owing to an absence of food supply. Tlie Water is also Chemically Pure. — None of the chemical added to the water remains in it. It separates completely with the precipitate, and the most delicate chemical tests fail to show a trace of it in the clean water after the sedimentation is completed. The Action of Chemical Precipitants (Theoretical). The change in the muddy water produced by adding certain salts is not that a combination or insoluble chemical compound is formed, but the action is more difficult to explain, and requires certain theoretical assump- tions. The e.xplanation which most satisfactorily meets the known facts is as follows : — The fine mud particles are assumed to have minute negative electrical charges associated with them. These negative electrical charge.s^ keep the tiny particles asunder and prevent them uniting t(j larger and heavier masses. If, however, the negative electrical charges are removed, or, better, neutralized with equal positive charges, then fusion and collec- tion of the fine mud into large flocculi occur. This explanation makes it possible to understand the enormous effect produced by the small amounts of chemicals usually employed in the chemical purification of water. The Action of a Chemical Precifitant. — This is determined by the fact that the fine mud suspensions, met with in tank waters, carry electrical charges of a negative character. AVhen a given salt M X is added in solution to such a water, the negatively charged mud particles absorb or attract to their surface the M or metal half of the salt which is electrically positive in character. Thus is formed a mud particle of electro-negative character, as.sociated with a metal " ion " of electro-positive character, and if the proportions be right negative and positive neutralize one another, and the mud particles being now without an electric charge to keep them apart, run together and coalesce to large flocculi. Now it is found that, in such a ca.=e. the metal M is more efficient in its action the higher its valency. A metal M^^ is better than M^ and better still is a metal M^'^ The M^'^ metals are iron, a'uminium, and chromium, and it is salts of these metals which act most efficiently. Thus ia) I !b. .Alummium Chloride will clear 2,500 gals, muddy water. (b) I lb. Ferric Chloride will (dear 1,000 — 2,500 gals, of muddy water. (/■;) I lb. Chromium Chloride will clear 1,000 — 2,000 gals, muddy water. {d) I lb. Alum will clear ?oo — i,oco gals, muddy water. Salts of the divalent m.etals, such as those of calcium, copper, zinc, barium, magnesium, and ferrous iron. are. in terms of their chemical equivalents, onlv about one-fourth as effective as the salts of the trivalent metals. Also, several of them are poisonous in character, e.g., copper, zinc, and barium amongst those mentioned. Calcium as lime may. how- ever, be used, and owing to its great cheapness it dees not matter thnt it II July. 1910.] The Punjication of Muddy VJaters. 439 takes rather more of it to be effective. The sahs of monovalent m.etals, such as sodium and potassium, are of no use. An interesting observation which was made was the power of acid to reduce the quantity of chloride of iron, otherwise necessary to clear a given volume of water. It was found that \ lb. of ferric chloride + \ lb. of 30% hydro- chloric acid was as effective in its action as i lb. of ferric chloride by itself. Acid has a similar beneficial effect upon the action of alum, though the degree of improvement is not so marked. The Geological Factor. — As the precipitation of the mud from any water by the addition of a chemical is a physical process rather than a -chemical one, the method is of wide use; and can be applied to waters of different geological regions. Samples of water have been collected from districts representing many of the chief geological formations of Victoria, and in every case the chloride of iron acted rapidly and well. Alum was not tried in every case, but may be definitely assumed to act well also. The samples were obtained in March, when the water dams were nearly dry and the water at its worst. Here are some of the results: — Cranbourne. — Water polluted by cattle ; growth of weeds. i lb. iron chloride per 1,000 gals. River at Dandenong. — Dirty water. ^ lb. iron chloride cL^ared i,ooo g.als. Excellent bacterial purity of clear water. Cemetery. — Water fair. 5 lb. iron chloride per i,ooo gals, immediately cleared it (15 min.). Two Milei. N. of C am f bell field. — Very dirty water j cattle. i lb. iron chloriile per 1,000 gals. Campbell field. — Water fair; from clav i>its. 5 lb. per 1,000 gals, quickly successful. Temflestowe. — Water witli thick red mud. i lb. ]>cr 1,000 gals, cleared splendidly. Warrandyte. — Typical niuddv water. ^ lb. per 1,000 gals. These waters are from country whose geological nature comprises the Tertiary formations, occurring in patches in Southern Gippsland {e.g., Oranbourne) ; the Silurian formations, which are very extensive and cover Anglesey, with the western half of Wonnangatta ; and the Neiver Basalt of the great Western districts. Not examined as yet are waters from the Ordovician, the gold-bearing country of Bendigo, Ballarat, or the Bacchus Marsh region ; the Jurassic of Southern Gippsland ; and the Receipt formations of the north and north- ^vest. There is no reason why these waters should not behave as uniformly as those already examined. The Selection of a Chemical Precipitant. — From what has been shortly stated in the previous paragraph, the ideal substance w^ould be a cheap salt of aluminium, iron, or chromium. From the practical point of view, the cheapness is almost as important as the chemical-efficiency, and consequently for actual u.se only the following need be named, viz., alum, chloride of iron, lime. The last of these is able to compete only on account of its cheapness. It is especially to be noted that it is not nearly so " brilliant " in its action as either alum or chloride of iron. It is. however, a practical .substance to use. 440 Journal of Agriculture. [i I July. iqto. In choosing between alum and chloride of iron, the price is at first sight in favour of the former. Weight for weight, however, i lb. of chloride of iron is worth 2 lb. of alum, and this fact, together with its easy solubility, turns the scale in its favour. The " brilliancy " of the action of iron chloride, that is, the efficiency with which it acts, the rapidity with w^hich it causes the mud to settle, and the ease with which it can be handled owing to its solubility, make it ideal, and it is most desirable that it should be on the Australian market at as cheap a rate as possible. In Germany, it is advertised at about 2|d. per lb., and this price doubled would still leave it a cheap chemical for clearing water. Chloride of iron is not merely harmless. It is more, it is a most valuable mineral constituent for all animals. There is consequently a distinct gain, even if too msuch is added to the water. As previously mentioned, however, the added chemical (if not in^ larger quantity than required) is thrown out with the mud. Experiments on a Practical Scale with Chloride of Iron. These consist of the clearing of large volumes of water (a) in \xon tanks, (b) in the open field. TanJi Experiments. — A large cylindrical tank fitted as in the accorn panving diagram was kindly supplied by Messrs. Felton, Grimwade, and Co., of Melbourne. It is suggested, however, as the result of experience gained with this one, that the elbow piece inside is not necessary. For a tank, which it was in- tended to use continuously, a wide outlet, with tap in the- centre of the floor, would V)e useful for flushing out de- posited mud. The dimensions of the- tank were — height 7 feet, diameter 5 feet. Calculated total capacity, 850 gallons. At 2 p.m. (20th April) a I lb. bottle of chloride of iron was opened and filled with water up to the neck. All the solid dissolved in this Syphon For 'Sr ?//»/? /7 wafer ^f clean water. w ^^ 7.' Mud ;-, j Suggested outlet Tor removing mud cylindrical tank. volume of water, and at 4.30 p.m. half the bottle was emptied into the tank which contained 600 gallons of muddy pond water. The water was stirred njund with a short stick for half-a-minute in order to uniformly distribute the iron chloride solution. Next morning, at 9 o'clock, water was drawn off from the bottom of the tank by the tap and syphon. It proved perfectly clear and clean,, and the photograph on page 441 shows it contained in a large bottle 10 inches in diameter and standing between a like bottle containing Yan Yean (at its" t)est), and another containing the muddy water as it was- prior to treatment. Thus, overnight, 600 gallons of dirty muddy water not fit for drinking, for use in the dairy, or the holise, were converted. II July, 1910.] 77/t' Purification of Muddy Waters. 441 into so much clean and attxiactive water, of good bacterial purity and uncontaminated by any chemical. And this result was obtained by the use of only half-a-pound of iron chloride without the need of any ex- pensive plant, such as a large filter, or of any skilled labour. A second experiment proved an equal success, and a description illus- trates a further practical detail. This time the tank was filled to its full capacity (850 gallons), and i 11). of iron chloride in solution stirred into the water at the top (2nd May, evening). Xext morning the water drawn off at the bottom still showed a slight opalesence, and had not the perfect cleanliness and brightness which it has when enough of the chemical is added. In con- sequence, a further i-6th of a pound of dissolved chloride of iron was added, and again the water allowed a night in which to clear. The fol- lowing morning. 4th May, the water drawn off proved perfect. This experiment well illustrates how the addition of insufficient chemical in the first place can be rectified by a further small addition afterwards. In this way, just the right amount necessary is added, and no waste occurs through adding too much. EXPERIMENTS WITH CHLORIDh Oi- IRON. Jars 10 inches diameter with vertical iron rod, and printed label behind. A. Pond water. Opaque and yellow brown. B. Same after treatment, 600 gals. -|- 5 lb. iron chloride. C. Yan Yean from tap in Melbourne. Far inferior in brightness and cleanness to B. [a) Pond water (Mr. Ross, Deep Creek). Thick ^•ellow-red mud. {b) Same after treatment in open dnm (i lb. iron chloride per i,ooo gals.). It will be noted that in this experiment the precipitated mud had settled through 7 feet of water during the night. The actual deposit of mud was not more than half-an-inch in thickness. The bacterial count of the water before treatment was 22,000- organisms per cubic centimetre. After treatment, the count was 240- per c.c. 44- Journal of AgricuUurc . [ii July. 1910. Experiments on Open Dam Water. — A small water hole, containing an estimated 1,000 gallons of a thick and dirty muddy water, situated on the property of Mr. Ross, of Deep Creek, Templestowe, was treated on the evening of 2nd May. with i Ih. of iron chloride. The concentrated iron chloride solution was diluted, and just thrown out over the surface of the pond, keeping the distribution as uniform as possible. The water was not stirred at all, though it would have been more advisable to have stirred the surface layers, so as to insure a regular distribution of the chemical. Next morning, 3rd May, the water was clean, and every leaf and twig could be seen on the bottom of the tank. A second experiment with a water hole on the property of Mr. Neil- son, Warrandyte, was equall\ successful. The water had a surface area estimated at 400 square feet, and an average depth of 9 inches. Capacity, 1800-1900 gallons. At 4 p.m. on 7th Mav 2 lb. of iron chloride in solution were thrown out as evenly as possible o\er the whole surface of the dam. ^Vith a long pole the surface layers were then gently stirred. The water was next seen at 9 p.m., when it was perfectly clean and all the mud had settled out to the bottom. The bacterial results with these waters were just as satisfactory as with the tank experiments. It should, however, be borne in mind that in clearing an. .open water hole n heavy rain may wash fresh mud m, and so undo all the good work accomplished. CONCLUSION.S. The chemical precipitation of the mud in storage tank waters has not been found to fail in a single instance, so that the method should be of general utility, no matter what is the geological nature of the country in which the water dam is situated. In a country like Australia, where a clean water supply is often not to be had, the case for a general use of chemical precipitation methods is a very strong one indeed. Alum and lime are widelv obtainable, but if arrangements can be made for a cheap supply, it is chloride of iron that is most strongly recom- mended. From what has already been said, it is apparent how easy and how eminently practical is its use. If the water prior to treatment is from a doubtful .source, such as a .storage dam to which cattle have access, then it is recommended that it should be either filtered or boiled before bemg used as drinking water in the house. But if the water dam is in an enclosure and kept free from pollution by cattle, precipitation alone yields an excellent water. It may further be added that, if desired, the flocculent mud could be separated by running the water through a centrifugal machine, after the addition of the chemical. This treatment, however, is hardly likely to be necessary, seeing that the precipitated mud will settle down through 7 feet of water in a single night by the ordinary force of gravity. It is especially thought that clean waters so obtained should be valuable in butter factories and dairies, or for use in steam-engines. Also, stock are the better for a supply of clean, rather than dirty water, and a liberal .supply of clean water is often acceptable for domestic purposes. It is for those who use or would use clean water if they could, butter factory managers, dairymen, stock-owners, and others, to give precipitation methods a fair trial. II July. 1910.] Supple meniary List of Unit Values, igio. AA3 1 1 1 1 c 1 ti 1 ts s ,2 1 1 _9 s "k 1 s 1 1 S s "" 1 _- — " i; 1 i § r;r (5 K < < ■e 1 0® o3 tlie Manure per ton Delivcre at the Local Railway Station. "^ to S3 t»! cc r: 2 = 0 n ■a 050 1-1 cc 0 -- — ^ ^H ^H 00 cc ?? a'' ^ — Ui ^ ^ « 1^ i-i n •5S CiO a t rt « a S 3 0 *^ s «c ft f-H xa 5=1 ■ 0 a^ ■ 41 COM ;~i S W) __ IN 00 aj CM 0 ce ffl>o aj c; s 0 ^ 0 -^ — ^ ^ 0 r i§:5 5 00 ■5 1>5^ 5 s M m r Pi to '^ r- ... ■^•-" G 5i £ ■» 0 :S »i *.£ c 3 1 Bstim ValiK One of t 1 M 0 0 < 0 5 0 *^ -t 0 c; mated j uc in e ton the 1 ■^ -* +^ — 6 X C3.g p5 = S VI « 1 INIM t^ o 444 ] ournal of Agriculture. [ii July, 1910. REVIEW OF THE DAIRYING SEASON AND BUTTER EXPORT TRADE, 1909-1(1. /?. Crowe, Suferiniendcnt of Exports. Production. The production for the season 1909-10 has been creditable, a total of 16,200 tons being exported as compared with 9,402 tons for the previous year. As regards shipments, it has been the fourth largest season in the history of the export trade. Although the season was favourable, it could not have been expected that a record would be made, for the reason that there were 76,000 cows less than when the record w-as established in 1906-7. The following table gives the number of cows in Victoria for the past .seven years : — 1904 ... 515,179 1907 ■•• 7oi)309 1909 ... 609,166 1905 ... 632,493 1908 ... 709,279 1910 ... 625,063 1906 ... 649,100 No figures or facts ought to be more suggestive of the necessity for growing and conserving fodder ; too, 000 dairy cows at a moderate estimate represents half a million sterling. But that is not all ; the produce of that number of cows is sacrificed for the first year, and since it is impos- sible to replace them within three years, the yield of 66,000 cows is lost for the second year and 33,000 in the third year. At the low average return of ^5 per cow the death of 100.000 means a loss of ;;^i.495.ooo — a sum that would pay for a lot of ploughing, seed, and labour, and net a few mowing machines and silos. Although many dairymen have gone out of dairying into sheep farming and wheat growing, there are evidences on all hands that dairymen are taking steps to tide over the periods of scarciiy. The recent weather has again proved the uncertainty of our climate. The total arrivals fif butter and butler ex. cream in Melbourne by rail for 1909 were as follow : — District. Western ... North Eastern Xorthern ... Gippslaiid <^)iiaiitities. Pe rcentaji'e Whole. of Average Peifentage for 8 Years. lbs. I 5,072,960 9,142,560 5>255,o+o 17, 171,840 33 1 1 37 3i 19 10 35 ... 46,642,400 From this it will be seen that Gippsland is increasing slightly in pro- duction as compared with the Western District. Exports. The total quantity exported, 226, 743^ tons, is about equal to one season's imports of butter into Great Britain. For the year 1908 the United Kingdom imported ^24,082,537 worth, and of this Victoria con- tributed 5.14 per cent.; for 1909, Great Britain's imports were valued at ^^22,425,067, and Victoria's quota 5.97 per cent. It will thu.'; be seen that whilst our production is creditable the proportion it forms of Great Britain's imports is as yet comparatively insignificant. XI July, 1910.] Revieiv of the Dairying Season, igog-io. 44! The following table shows the exports since the commencement of the industry : — Exports of Victoriax Butter. Saason. Quantity. Value Season. Quantity. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1889-90 369* 50,300 1900-01 16,163 1,664,790 189C-91 7 59i 91,200 1901-02 11,152^ 1,226,775 1891-92 2,i39i 225,400 1902-03 8,565 1,278,059 1892-93 3,6. 3i 404,432 1 1903-04 14,736 1,444,167 1893-9^ 7,6521 761,273 ' 1904-05 i6,iSi 1,666,714 1894-95 11,5845 1,081,243 1 1905-06 18,140 1 ,9 50,090 1895-96 9,386 901,000 1906-07 21,562 2, 1 56,200 1896-97 9,895^ 942,247 1907-08 15,216 1,749,840 1897-98 7,175 670,000 1908-09 9,402 1,081,230 1898-99 1899-00 9,744 974,000 [ 1,604,600 '• 1909-10 16,200 1,814.400 i 226,743^ ■£21,738,360 Prices. The prices realized for butter have been higher on the average than for any preceding season during the history of the export trade — .some factories have averaged over 117s. per cwt. I have placed the average for all the exi)ort butter at 112s. per cwt. c.i.f. On this basis, the value of export butter totals ^1.814,400. Whilst prices were low, the difference between superfine, ist grade, 2nd grade, and 3rd grade butters was pronounced and in harmony with the relative qualities. When the demand was keener, and prices advanced, these differences clo.sed in to almost vanishing point, and secondary butter realized nearly as much, in .some ca.ses. in fact, as much, as the very best. Quality. The qualitv of Mctorian butter for the season was lower than for the preceding year. The percentages of superfine fell from 29.02 per cent, to 25.96 per cent.; that of first grade from 53.17 per cent, to 52.85 per cent., whilst the second grade butter increased from 16.7 per cent, to 19.28 per cent. ; the third grade butter from 1.05 per cent, to 1.8 per cent., and the pastry grade from 0.003 per cent, to o.ii per cent. It is a matter worthy of most serious consideration that the standard of Victorian butter improved and reached the maximum quality when grade- stamping was in vogue. In the year 1904 the Department gave exporters the option of having their butter graded and grade-stamped. This was when the State Exported Products Act governed exports. There was then no choice between the grading and stamping. The two proposals went together and shippers had to accept both or none. The grading system was gradually adopted until, for the .season 1905-6, over 90 per cent, of butter exported from Victoria was graded and grade-stamped at the volun- tary request of butter factories. The percentage of butter which scored superfine points for that sea.son was 36.90 per cent. For the following season the Commerce Regulations came into operation and grading and grade-stamping were made optional, and classification without grade- stamping was offered to exporters. The percentage of superfine for 1906-7 was 34.87 ; foi 1907-8. 34.45 ; for 1908-9, 29.02 ; and for this .season 25.96 per cent., as alreadv stated. 446 Journal of Agriculture. [ii July, 1910. Points and P EKCENTAGES Scored, Season 1909-10. Points -100. No. of Boxes Peicentages. Points— 100. No. of Boxes. Percentajfes. 99 14.0 80 32,265 98 I 5,066 88 20,985 97 26,779 87 15.376 96 34.396 86 I 1,850 95 64.059 85 84 83 8,685 8,229 6,9:6 140,44.0 2596 104,316 1928 82 4,561 81 2,095 80 1,595 79 338 94 61,529 78 254 93 67,169 77 400 92 59,201 76 5" 9' 51,278 75 34 9-0 46,782 9,788 I -80 285,959 52-85 Pastiy 601 oil Total Boxe.s- 541 , 104. Moisture. The average moisture contents of the 1,509 samples analyzed was 13.97 per cent., as compared with 13.69 per cent, for the preceding season and 13.44 per cent, for 1907-8. The increase in two years amounts to fully half of I per cent. It should be stated that samples are taken of all butters which, upon examination, appear to contain much moisture, and ]mrticular attention is paid to brands found to approach the maximum, and also to parcels discovered to exceed the standard. All those samples are included in the average ; therefore, to some extent, the average figures 4ire inflated in consequence. However, the same practice has been adopted as in all previous seasons, so the comparison holds good. The question of moisture in butter came into prominence during the past .sea.son, and 2,107 boxes or 0.38 per cent, of the butter presented for shipment were detained and had to be brought within the standard, as ' ompared with 776 boxes or 0.028 per cent, for the year before, and only 0.08 per cent, for 1907-8. The following is a summary of moisture percentages: — Nu.MiiER of Samples Containing Various Perckntacks ok Moistcke Percentages. No. 1 Percentage. ( Perce;itag-es. No. Percentage. 8 to 9 I ■08 14 to 15 3'4 26-99 9 /' 10 10 •86 15 f 16 209 J7'97 10 // II 26 2-2;|- 16 „ 17 63 5'4« 11 // 12 12 „ 13 13 „ 14 69 156 288 5-93 13-41 24-76 17 „ ,8 ,8 . 19 2 I 6 ■ ■8i ■52 Total — 1,163. II July. 1910.] Review of tlie Dairying Season, igog-io. 447 Journal of Agriculture. [ii July, 1910. Weights. The number of boxes detained on account of short weight was 610 out of consignments representing 2.100, or equal to o.ii per cent., of the total exports, as compared with 520 or 0.193 per cent, for the previous season and 10,840 boxes or 2.24 per cent, for 1907-8. Upwards of 50,000 cases were weighed here. Three boxes are taken out of each consignment, and when the weights are bare an additional three are selected. The larger proportion is also taken from consignments which prove irregular in weight. Notwithstanding the vigilance of the Department, in intercepting butter short in weight, many complaints were made in Great Britain regarding the unsatisfactory way in which butter scaled at the other end. Dissatisfaction must continue until some alteration can be made either in regard to the regulations on the subject here, or the method of purchasing our butter at the other end. It is well known here that exception can be taken only when the contents of a box fail to take up the beam at 56 lbs. Needless to say, butter found below 56J lbs. cannot be depended upon to turn out full weight at the London end, whilst all between that and 56 lbs. are almost certain to be short. When butters weigh 56I lbs. no entry is made on the certificate which has printed on it " Sample boxes weighed and found correct." However, with the weights below ^(ii\ lbs. and not under 56 lbs. the weight of each box is entered on the certificate. It was thought that this would serve as an indication to purchasers in London as to what the real weight was here prior to shipment. Notwithstanding the fact that the regulations provide that as long a.- butter scales 56 lbs. prior to shipment no action is taken, the Home and Foreign Produce Exchange Limited in London adopted the following Rules of Arbitration in 1909 : — • Butter — Landed Sales. General Rules for Weighing and Averaging. 21. Packages containing net weight of 30 lbs. and under to be weighed to 5 lb. Packages containing net weight of more than 30 lbs. and up to 60 lbs. to be Aveighed to 5 lb. Packages containing a net weight of more than 60 lbs. to be weighed up to i lb. Packages of irregular weights to be weighed gross and tare. IT,. Overweight on packages of uniform marked weights can neither be included in the average nor charged for. Should any package taken in average prove to be more than i lb. below the average short weight of the parcel, the loss will be allowed and another package substituted in place thereof. 26. Ten per cent, of the bulk to be weighed if required bv buyei or seller, Imt in the case of hot weather not more than live per cent, to be taken. Australian and New Ze-Aland Butter .and Cheese. Loss in W eight and Method of Weighing. [a) Bi/tter.^Bnttei shall be packed 565 lbs. per box, exclusive of paper, to cover shrinkage, but shall be invoiced as 56 lbs. per box. Average loss shall be calcu- lated on the basis of 565 lbs. per box at the time of shipment, or when averaged, which shall be done not more than fourteen days prior to the date of shipment, and the Government grader's certificate of weight attached to each invoice shall be accepted as final. id) Butter and Cheese. — Should no Government grader's certificate of weight be furnished with the other documents or produced for inspection on demand, the goods shall be averaged within three business days after landing at the port of discharge, or if the goods be landed before the buyer has sighted draft, and, or, received invoice, then within three business days after such sighting or receipt ; the cost of weighing 10 per cent, for the purpose of averaging shall be paid by the seller, and the buyer shall be entitled to an allowance for short weight (if any). {e) When butter or cheese is so averaged at port of discharge the standard shall l)e 56 lbs. per box for butter and marked weights for cheese. (/) The seller may be called upon for proof of original invoice weights. II July, 1910.] Rczitiv of the Dairying Season, igog-10. 449 (g) In the absence of manifest error, the weights of all goods averaged at any public wharf, quay, or railway depot, shall be accepted as final between buyer and seller. Standing beam shall be considered as short weight, but should standing beam occur more than once in weighing the same parcel it shall be, in the first instance, as short weight, and in the second as full weight, and so on alternately. [h] For the purpose of this rule, butter shall be weighed one box at a time, and cheese in drafts of six cheese at a time. From these rules it will be clearly seen that those in the trade in Great Britain did not understand the position here, and they will have to alter the rules, or the regulations here must be changed before a satisfactory solution can be arrived at. It seems a great pity that regulations cannot be altered, in the interest of the trade. If the opinion cannot be modified " that it is impossible under the Commonwealth Act " I consider the matter of sufficient importance for an amended Act. Boric Acid. The average percentage of boric acid found in samples of butter analyzed was 0.18 per cent., as compared with 0.17 per cent, for the year before and 0.23 per cent, for 1907-8. The number of boxes held up on account of having been found to contain more than 0.5 of boric acid was 388 or 0.07 per cent., as compared with 38 boxes or o.oi per cent, for the season before and 180 boxes or 0.03 per cent, for 1907-8. Butter Fat. The average percentage of butter fat and casein was 83.71 per cent. ; and 2,376 boxes, or 0.43 per cent., were detained from shipment on account of having been found to contain less than the standard 82 per cent. The average of all samples analyzed for the previous season was 84.65 per cent, of butter fat and casein (ca.sein below i per cent. — the average casein contents of samples analyzed was 0.78 per cent.) ; for the year 1907-8 the average percentage of butter fat only was 84.1 per cent. It will be seen therefore that Victorian butter contains 0.94 per cent, less butter fat than for 1908-9, and 1.17 per cent, less than in 1907-8. In other words, if butter of the same composition were made last season as for the season 1907-8 there would have been 7,528 boxes or 188 tons less shipped; and if smiilar to last season 6,065 boxes or 151^- tons less. Butter Analyses. Altogether, 1.509 samples were taken for analysis or an average of one sample to every 358 boxes. In the report of the Dairy Division in New Zealand for 1908 it appears that 132 complete analy.ses were made and 1,005 for moisture contents only, making a total of 1,137, whilst 519,918 boxes were exported or equal to one sample to every 458 packages. New Zealand is recognised as having a more thorough check over its export butters than any other country in the world. Therefore, some other means appear to be necessary to keep the composition of butter within bounds than by simple official analyses. The time has arrived when much heavier penalties must be enforced in order to keep the composition of butter within the standard. In the United States the penalties inflicted for .some offences, particularly excessive moisture, are 10 cents per lb. or equal to 23s. 4d. a box; therefore, for a consignment of 100 boxes, the penalty would be ^116 13s. 4d. In the report of the principal chemist of the Government Laboratory in Great Britain, on the work of the laboratory for the year 1909, it appears that 1,185 samples of imported butter were analyzed for the season and 1,486 for 1907-8. Only 81 samples were from Australia. 450 Journal of Agrictilturt. [ii July. 1910. The following is an extract from the report: — There has been a further reduction in the number of imported samples taken for the year. Since it has not been considered necessary to sample with such frequency consignments of butter arriving from sources which are under Govern- ment control or inspection in the country of origin, particular attention has, how- ever, been paid to those sources of supply which experience has shown have been con- nected with sophisticated butter, but as buyers are purchasing less of this class of butter, the number of samples taken is consequently reduced. There has been a further decrease in the number of samples found to contain water in excess of the legal limit. In the present ve.ir the number is nine as against si.xteen for 1907-8 and thirteen for 1906-7. From this it will be seen what advantages are gained hv taking steps to secure and retain the confidence of countries to which our butter goes. Instructional Work. During the slack of the season, officers of the Department who examine the butter for export devote their attention to butter factories and give advice upon the buildings and plant; water supply and its suitability; drainage and provision for its sanitary disposal ; cream collection and its relation to quality ; cream cans, their cleanliness and condition ; methods of grading, sampling, and testing of cream; the cooling and maturing of cream ; temperatures of churning and means of controlling same ; manu- facture and packing of butter, and the over-run. Rusty Cans. Last season, I had occasion to emphasize the amount of damage incurred through the use of rusty cans by dairymen. Much good has been done by butter factories since then with the assistance of officers of the Depart- ment. By taking up the task of repairing faulty cans and debiting owners without consulting them many factories have overcome the difficulty. Not- withstanding the good work done, much more remains to be accomplished. It is quite a pleasure to visit some dairy farms and see the 10 or 12 milk cans nicely ranged under a verandah, spotlessly clean, in striking- contrast with other places where the cans are used for holding slops, sour skim milk, and for carting water in cases of emergency. Hundreds of cans are ruined through being used for water carting. By this means a new vessel can be rendered unfit in less than a week, and made a contaminating medium for all milk or cream subsequently put into it. I strongly recommend factories that have not already done so to take up the firm attitude of having all faulty cans repaired at the owner's charge. pending legislation on the subject to force such damaging utensils out of use. Milking Machines. The milking machines in ^'ictoria have now been running for half a dozen years with varied results. As was anticipated by some at the beginning, many plants are rusting, whilst in other places they are regarded as an unqualified success. Strange to say, the successful asers are to be found in groups, due most likely to careful instruction by experts when installed and to continued attention by the users. To run milking-machines properly requires a rare combination of qualifications, but first and fore- most the user must be a dairyman, and understand cows thoroughly. The udders must be carefullv washed, and each quarter checked before attaching a machine. The work must be re-checked immediately after detaching and before the cows are dismissed. The user of a milking-machine must also be a mechanic and a resource- ful one at that. He should undergo a thorough training if complete II July, 1910.] Rcviciv of the Dairying Season, igog-io. 451 success is to be achieved, and lie siiould realize to the full the necessity for taking all parts of the machine to pieces, cleansing and sterilizing it after use and keeping it free from contamination until it may be required again. A ^ high standard of cleanliness must be continuously observed. Some time ago the Director of Agriculture requested me to inquire and ascertain what effect the use of the machine had on the quality of the milk. I was able to get monthly tests from a herd for four years prior, and for four years subsequent, to the installation of the machines. I found that the averages were quite as good with the machines as they had l)een before. Payment for ^VINTER Milk. Dairymen are being constantly taken to task for not producing heavier supplies in the winter time. It is regarded as a reflection on them not to have more milk from their herds during the autumn and winter months. Some enthusiasts go so far as to regard it as possible to produce butter for the London market all the year round. Whilst I do not take such an extreme view, it is certainly advisable that all herds be kept in condition. by growing and conserving fodder, and in a state of profit to supply our export connexions with Africa and the East, as well as local requirements. As a commencement, any class of fodder will do so long as it is luscious and nourishing. The particular method must be determined by environ- ment. One has a block suitable for irrigation ; another, in the same dis- trict, is not able to irrigate. Elsewhere, a dairyman may have an abundance of maize coming in immediately the pasture is exhausted ; this he can feed direct to the cows from the paddock, and also have plenty of j^reen oats and hay for the winter. On such a farm, even a silo is hardly necessary, whilst a farm in the same district not so favourably situated would have, no matter how well the plans were made, a gap of three months between the pasture and the earliest green stuft. On such a farm, a silo is indispensable. There are, however, two very important determining factors which should receive consideration. One is, that short leases discourage winter dairying ; it is not considered worth while to erect silos or pay much attention to cultivation, and the farm is exploited to the fullest extent from the grazing point of view. This may be a short-sighted policy, still the facts remain that such is the case to a very noticeable extent in dairying districts. The other factor is. that butter factories handle only a frac- tional part of the turnover in the winter time to what is manufactured in the spring months. The dairyman who produces butter to enable markets to be retained for patrons who supply in the spring is penalized for their benefit. His cost of production for every pound of butter is greater than that of the spring producer, and yet he is charged a great deal more for his manufacture. Some system is recommended to butter fac- tories that would enable the cost of manufacture to be averaged the year round, or better still, the debit for manufacturing should be in an inverse ratio to the cost. In paying for spring supplies a sum should be set aside each month to enable the cost of manufacturing debited in the winter time to be reduced. The policy of the butter factories in the past has actually discouraged winter dairying ; yet those connected with the factories blame the dairymen for not going in more for dairying at that time of the year. The small difference in price is certainlv not sufificient to pay those who provide for winter dairying for their greater increased cost of pro- duction. 45- ] ournal of Agrictdiure. [ii July, 1910. II July, 1910.] Revietv of the Dairying Season, igog-io. 453 Butter Boxes. The price of butter boxes was a matter that called for attention. Boxes for approximately 16,000 tons, for export, and 12,000, for local trade, or a total of 28,000 tons, with 40 boxes to the ton, are required annually — in round numbers, over a million boxes, after allowing for many of those used in the local trade to be filled two or three times. The Hon. the Minister, when satisfied that an understanding existed to unduly keep up prices, announced that unless reasonable charges were reverted to, some decisive action would be taken. The contract price was is. 6d. per box, and as no notice was taken an officer was sent to Queensland to make inquiries with a view to securing supplies at a lower cost. He submitted a report showing that any amount of timber was available, all that was needed being some organization amongst the butter factories to insure supplies at bedrock prices. Recently, however, it has been announced that box-makers had agreed to reduce the price to is. 4d. and the butter factories had taken steps to supply their own requirements at prices which are believed to be even lower than this figure. The difi^erence between IS. 4d. and is. 6d. on 1,000,000 boxes per year comes to over ^8,300, and the dairying communitv is indebted to the Minister for his share in bringing about the reduction. A new wire-bound box, made of just half the thickness of the ordinary box, came into use last year and passed through the preliminary stages, satisfactorily. A thorough trial lasting throughout the season was given and the results were closely watched at the London end. The Agent- General has reported that there were fewer breakages than with the plain boxes, and on the whole they compared more favourably with the other packages. On account of their thinness and mode of construction they are not so likely to be u.sed the second time for inferior butters or mar- garine. At the moment, there are different classes of butter boxes being introduced. Milk Preservation. A report recently appeared in the daily press giving particulars ot die Pusey process of milk preservation, an Australian discovery originating in Western Australia. A bottle was tested by Dr. Ham, Chairman of the Board of Public Health, and Dr. Bull, Director of the Bacteriological Laboratory at the University. The milk examined was reported as sterile and was bottled last September in Western Australia. Samples of preserved milk were purchased by me in Singapore in July, 1908. It is not known how long before the milk had been bottled in Holland. According to the label "the contents are guaranteed to be pure rich cow's milk, cleansed from all bacteria and flisea.se, free from any kind of preservatives and unadulterated, and keeping good for any length of time and in any climate." On the way down through the Straits of Sunda, and rouncl the north of Java, the milk was carried in a cabin adjoining the boiler room where the temperatin-e was continually about 100 degrees Fahr. for fully a fortnight. As far as can be gathered the method of preparation consists of nothing more nor less than a high standard of cleanliness and sanitation at the source of production. It is immediately strained to a degree amounting almost to filtration, after which it is subjected to hydraulic pressure for the purpose of subdividing the butter fat globules into minute particles. This renders the fluid more homogeneous, and reduces the buoyancy of the butter fat particles. The tendency to come to the surface is also brought 7782. R 454 Journal of Agriculture. [ii July, 19 io. to vanishing point. The milk is then bottled and submitted to intermittent pasteurization until absolute sterilization is achieved. A temperature of 150 degrees for twenty minutes is sufficient to kill all ordinary organisms and some of the spores. By leaving the milk at a favourable temperature for a time, the remaining spores germinated are destroyed by subsequent pasteurization, and the produce will naturally keep for an indefinite period " in any climate " as per the label. It is well to know and be reminded of these points, as it enables one to appreciate the value of cleanliness in dairying operations. The discovery is not new. There may be in the new process an economic method of applying it, and under that heading a claim may be legitimately made to something original. T remember sterilized bottled milk that would keep indefinitely being prepdred at Tooram, near Warr- nambool, over twenty years ago. Dried and Concentrated Milks. Practical measures have been taken during the past season for the establishment of dried and concentrated milk factories. According to a recent report, the concentrated milk factory at Rosebrook is to take up the manufacture of dried milk. Another company, it is announced, has taken setps to commence operations in the same direction at Glenormiston ; whilst there is approaching completion, what is reputed to be, the finest milk condensing building and plant in the whole world — Nestles Limited, at Bennington, near Warrnambool. This factory will embody every re- quirement and improvement in vogue in their other factories. The whole of the plant was manufactured specially and fitted up before being sent to this country and it is expected to be in operation by next October. This business will form an additional arm to our already extensive dairying industry. Cheese Exports. Early last spring it was recognised that a considerable surplus of cheese would be available for shipment on account of the increased attention paid to cheese making. A few factories started in addition to quite a number of dairy farmers. An attempt was made by circular to induce each large cheese-maker to contribute small consignments to one or more of the ship- ments, but only a couple of tons were offered. Almost without exception, those who were approached agreed that it was an excellent idea to export some of the surplus, that the chance of a payable price on the export market was good, and that it would be the means of keeping the local market in a healthy condition. But some excuse was always offered as to why they particularly should not contribute. The result is that more matured cheese remains in stock in Victoria than has ever been the case in the history of the State. This has exercised a prejudicial effect on cheese making generally since the beginning of the year which is likely to continue for months. It might have paid the dairymen to sacrifice one or two hundred tons in order to improve the market for the balance, but no such suggestion was made or result likely. Although the export market is a comparativelv profitable one each man thought that if others could be persuaded to send sufficient away to relieve the local market he would benefit; and so all suffered. This continued shyness does not necessarily mean large losses, as nearly all the factories making cheese have dual plants, and divert the milk into butter instead of cheese when there is a congestion of the latter commodity. IE July. 1910.] Sensible and Projitablc Dairy Fanning. 455 The only regret I have is that we cannot establish an export trade in cheese in addition to butter. New Zealand last year exported 22,089 tons of cheese valued at ^1.186,708 and 16.103 rons of butter valued at ^i,-635-373- SENSIBLE AND PROFITABLE DAIRY FARiMING. /. S. McFadzean. Dairy Supervisor. Success in dairy-farming is almost without exception the result of good management. Without method, dairy farm work can easily become both laborious and unprofitable. With systematic breeding, culling, and feed- ing, a dairy herd may be improved yearly in both appearance and milking quality; but without such attention no advancement can be expected. Throughout the whole State striking instances are to be found of success following on methodical dairy farm practice ; and in the same districts others may usually be seen where lack of such system is the drawback to progress. Dairying with poor milking stock is drudgery. Propositions for the improvement of the dairy herd which involve the recording of each cow 's milk production are often put aside on the suppo- sition that they would take too much time to carry out ; yet many dairymen will waste double that amount of time each year attending stock sales in the unsuccessful attempt to buy good cows. A considerable percentage of sale-yard cows are cull .stock ; and every buyer gets his share of them. The dairy farmer who endeavours to maintain a good milking herd solelv by purchasing stock soon becomes more or less a cattle-jobber ; whereas, those who breed their own stock seldom have need to go off their farms. No farmer can do justice to his work if he wastes much time in the saddle or on sale-yard fences. By keeping a good dairy-bred bull, and raising the heifer calves from the best cows each vear, every dairyman can soon place himself in the position that he has no time for such lotteries as stock sales. Almost every farmer who keeps cows has surplus milk in the spring that can most profitably be utilized in the raising of a few picked calves. On most places a few calves are raised each flush season ; but, being bred indiscriminately, these have no special value, and they are sold as vealers or stores, according to their condition, when it is decided to dispose of them. The profits from such calf-raising are comparatively small, and beyond the few shillings resulting from each sale the farmer derives little benefit from his work. On the other hand, each heifer bred from good milking stock, and raised to the profit stage, will probably bring in a substantial return for several years. Consistent breeding from heavy milking stock will soon even up the quality of the herd as producers ; and if by breeding and culling it is possible to increase the average yield of the herd by even a few gallons each year, it will amount to just so much more clear profit. On many dairv- farms in Victoria where good management prevails the milk yield is over 500 gallons per cow ; but there are others on which the average yield is less than 300 gallons. It must therefore be possible, with proper management, to increa.se the milk yield on such farms by fully 200 gallons per cow. A dairy-farmer selling cream would, by doing this, increase his returns by at least ^3 per cow. without allowing any value for the extra skim Journal of AgricuUitre [ii July, 1910. ;^ I July, 1910.] Se/is/l'Ic and Profitable Dairv Faniii)!^:^. 457 milk ; and. if he were selling milk for the city retail trade, his profits would be almost double this amount on account of the higher selling price per gallon. As 50 gallons of average quality milk will produce approximately 18 lbs. of butter-fat, it is easy to estimate a milk yield from cream returns. Unfortunately, however, the owner of poor m.ilking stock is .seldom anxious to know, or say, too much about them. If he cannot conceal their meagre yields, he will make any apology for them ; and the locality, the grazing, or the weather, is asked to carry the blame for the unprofitable cow . The figures used in the above estimate do not by any means present this variation in milk yields at its full limits, for there are farms where the cows average as much as 600 gallons each per year ; and that standard is .still being raised. Practical Proof on a Mooroolbark Farm. At Mooroolbark. a small siding on the Lilydale line. 21 miles from Melbourne, and about half-a-mile from the station, is the dairy farm of Mr. Robert Blair. Much of the land in this locality has not yet been cleared ; but a few of the farms were settled on upwards of 45 years ago, and some of them have a fair proportion of their areas broken up, and sown to grass. Of the.se, Mr. Blair's farm, " Blairgowrie." is one of the best. It contains 136 acres, subdivided into 12 paddocks, and about 100 acres of it has been ploughed and sown down at various times. About 20 acres are now cultivated each year, and of this about equal acreage is sown with oats and maize, the l)ulk of both crops being harvested for :silage, and fed to the milking stock as required. The oaten silage, har- vested in December, is used till the maize is fit to cut, which is about the ■end of March or beginning of April. The pits are then filled with the maize, and the supply usually lasts till well into October, when the spring grow'th of grass needs no further assistance in upholding the milk flow. The silage accommodation consists of two brick overground pits, that also run a few feet below the ground surface, and their combined capacity is estimated at no tons. At the beginning and end of the feeding season the cows take very little silage per day ; but in the colder months of autumn -and winter the amount eaten is as much as 45 lbs. per cow daily. Oaten chaff and bran are also mixed with the silage when the condition of the cows calls for such extra feed. The stock now on the farm are principally grade Ayrshires, but some of the older cows have a Shorthorn cross in them. Mr. Blair has been dairying on this farm for some eight years past, and by using Ayrshire bulls From milking strains, and raising a few heifers from his best cows each season, he has rapidly increa.sed the milk production of his herd. In this work of improvement, a long-continued milking period was especi- ally sought for, and in order to qualify for a place in the herd every cow- had to keep in profit for at least ten months per year. This standard is now very consistently maintained, tliere being seldom more than one dry -cow in the herd for every eight that are in milk. The farm buildings are very compactly arranged. The stabling and barn, with engine and chaffcutter, are on the higher ground. A little below the level of the.se are the silos, which are filled from the cutter by slat elevator. Below the silos the feed and mixing rooms adjoin ; and, from the latter, a door opens to a passage-way in front of the milking stalls. 458 ] ounial of A grit 111 lure [ii July, 191c, On the further end of the milking- shed, and across another passage way,. is tSe can room and wasli-up place, and adjoining it is the cooling room. The water for the cooler is piped from a spring in the valley above the steading, the pipes being laid under- grtjund to maintain the low tempera- ture. The same source provides a suf- ficiencv for the stock, as well as all other requirements at the .shed and dairy. Outside the cooling room door the hillside position allows of the cans being loaded from the platform without any lifting, w^hile below the shedding are the calf pens and pad- dock in a nicely sheltered position. The stock are kept in good condition ; "■•■ roads, fences, and gates are in- ^'")d repair; and the place is being still further improved — the extension of the present milking shed is set flown for early attention. As showing the progress made here by careful dairy farm methods, the- milk yields for the past few season.s- are interesting. From ist July. 1906. to end of June. 1907. the total herd of 28 cows averaged 580 gallons of milk each. In the year 1907-8 the same number of cows averaged 588- gallons per head. During 1908-9 the herd was increased to 30 cows, and they averaged 601 gallons each. There are now 32 cows on the farm,. and for the nine months ending in March of this year, they had given; an average of 476 gallons per head, which is equal to 625 gallons per cow for the full year, and there is every possibility of this being exceeded. It should be mentioned that thi.s farm was the winner of the dairy f arnv competition held last year by the Lily- dale Agricultural Society. However,^ the above figures .speak for themselves. They will demonstrate to some people- what they are losing by indifferent management ; and they will show those who are improving their herds what they may expect. Most men would change their seed or fertilizer if they did not get good' crops ; they would not keep a sow thai had rroly four or five young at a. 11 July, 1910.] Soisible and Profttable Dairy Fanning. 459 460 Journal of Agriculture. [11 July, 1910. litter; they believe in good machinery because it saves time ; yet many still allow themselves to be kept poor by the 300-gallon cow. Another Lilydale Instance. In connexion with the subdivision of the St. Hubert's Estate at Yering early in 1907, mention was made in the March Journal of Mr. J. Gilbert'.s farm. This block of 164 acres, without improvement, was then purchased by him for ^20 per acre, and good progress has since been made in turn- ing it into a profitable dairy farm. Dwelling, shedding, silo, milk-room, barn, &c., have been erected, and over 50 acres brought under cultivation. About 30 acres are sown with oats and 20 acres with maize. As previously mentioned, the oat crop- is put in as early as possible, and is kept fed off by the dairy stock till .September. It is then allowed to make its full growth, to be used for hay^ or silage as required. ON THE YARRA FLAT.S AT KEW. As will be seen from the photograph on page 459, the cattle are big- framed stock of Shorthorn-Ayrshire breeding, and they do well on the Engli.sh grasses and clover that grow profusely in the spring and summer on these rich river flats. Throughout the winter months this pasture is sup- ported by hand-feeding the stock with silage, hay chaff, and bran at each milking. Thirty-five cows are kept on the farm, and of these 25 is the usual number in profit. During the year 1908 this herd produced rather more than 17,980 gallons of milk, the bulk of which was sold for the Melbourne retail trade at an average price of 8|d. per gallon. This allows for a yield of 513 gallons per cow for the year, and a gross return of ;^i8 3s. 4d. per head. In 1909, the average yield increa.sed to 536 gallons per cow, and during; the latter portion of the year the milk was sold to the St. Hubert's cheese- 11 July, 1910.] Sensible and Profitable Dairy Farming. 461 factory. The factory price is a little below the Melbourne wholesale rate, but there is a saving both in railway freights and loss of time that is taken in journeying to the station twice daily, the factory being close at hand. On the whole, therefore, the year's work shows very satisfactory progress. The maize shown in the photograph is a drilled crop that has made very even growth. Some heavy rain and wind the day previous laid it over con- siderably, which somewhat re- duces its apparent height. A Metropolitan Dairy Farm. One of the neatest, best situated, and most ujj-to-date dairy farms in the metropolitan area is that of Mr. C. Rout, of Willsmere Park, Kew. This property comprises 258 acres, and is on a very picturesque bend of the Yarra river, which forms about a third of the boundary. Together with the retail round attached to it, Mr. Rout purchased this farm of 165 acres from Mr. Wills in May, 1908. Since then, an additional 93 acres have been purchased, as well as another milk round, and the milking herd has been increased from 2,Z to 50 head. A fair proportion of the farm is river flat land, but this had previously been mainly used for grazing, and much of it was in a rough condition. This is now gradually being broken up, with the intention of sowing it down with lucerne after it has been cropped a few times and cleaned. Some very fine maize has been grown on these flats, as will be seen from the photo- graphs on this and the opposite page. Mangolds and pump- kins are also grown here, and oats and peas on the higher 462 Journal of Agriculture [ii July, 1910- groun.l. A pumping plant for irrigation has lately been purchased, but it is not yet in use. iii/cil iron, with brick A steam boiler, with aV one'' end of the chaff house, driving the cutter^ The milking shed and dairy buildings art- ol gah flooring, and the plant is very compactly arranged 7 horse-power engine .11 July, 1910.] Sensible and Profitable Dairy Fanning. 463 delivers the chaffed green-stuff by sh^t elevator to the silo outside at the •other end. Below the cutter a shoot delivers to the mixing place, which adjoins the side of this building 0:1 a lov.-c: levtl. A shoot from the silo also runs to the Indck mixing vat. and a pipe from there to the boiler ill lows of the feed being steamed if required. The 28 bails are in a double row. and, by working a lever in the centre of the shed, the cows on each 464 Journal of A.zriciilii(rc. [11 July, igio- side can be bailed jp or released bv one movement. The washing-up- room adjoins the end of the milk- ing shed furthest from the yards. With doors on all sides, it is kept well ventilated and clean, and it is neatly fitted up with galvanized- iron troughs, steam-pipes, and ran racks. Off this room, and beside the large outer doorwav where the carts >'• take deliverv of 5 the milk, is the - entrance to die • cooling room, ^ with refrigerating Oh chamber, which a is kept to the re- ^ quired tempera X ture by a 2-ton J Atlas machine. '^ Rain water for - the dairy use is stored in a large underground tank, while water for flushing and general shed work is pumped by windmill from the river to storage tanks above the steading. The- drainage and flu.shing water are- carried by piping to a cultivation paddock some distance below^ the yards. The- rijadway for the cows, and yard adjacent to the- II July, 19 io.] Dairying in the W'iiicliclsea Shire. 465 sheds, are pitched with stone, which, combined with the good natural drainage of the site, keeps the place clean and dry. In all there are 15 paddocks, about six of which are usually under cultivation. One of these, containing 15 acres, has recently been let for market gardening at jQz per week. From the herd of 50 cows an average of 350 quarts of milk is distributed daily to some 230 customers. Two carts are used in this retail work, which is concentrated as far as possible in the adjacent suburb. From its proximity to the citv, the good quality of the land, and its facilities for irrigation, this farm is particularly adapted for the profitable production and distribution af fresh milk. And with well-fed cows, strict cleanliness, the use of the refrigerator, and other up-to-date methods of dairy management, it is an object-lesson in metropolitan dairying. DAIRYING IN THE WINCHEL8EA SHIRE. Report to the Thief Veterinary Officer. /. i\I . Kerr, Dairy Supervisor. Having now completed the second inspection of Winchelsea Shire I am enabled to furnish some information as to the state of the dairying industry in this district. Hostility to the Act — never very pronounced — has entirely disappeared, and the opinion was frequently expressed that the new order of things must be preferable to the old. The need for fairer collection of fees, and for more effective supervision, was generallv recog- nised and my recommendations were accepted almost invariably in good spirit. This favourable attitude ,Jed me to anticipate that necessary structural improvements would be speedily disposed of, but on my second visit I found that, owing to the coal miners' strike making the price ot bricks prohibitive, instead of the impervious floors being completed they were only being commenced. However, I am confident that, at the third inspection, there will be very little at fault as far as sanitation is concerned. The most suitable portion of the shire for dairying extends along the- Barwon River from the Ingleby Estate — a few miles below Birregurra — up to Barwon Downs, and it is at the latter place that one sees the best dairy herds. Only a .small proportion of the rich Barwon flats is devoted to dairying and the reason is not easilv explained, unless it be that land- owners choo.se to accept .smaller returns and escape the more arduous and incessant work which dairying entails. For a couple of miles on either side of the railway line, between Deans Marsh and Barwon Downs, almost every holding is a dairy farm, and many of them are very choice little properties, extremely well adapted naturally for the purpose. On a few of these, summer crops are grown but not in quantities to be conserved. Some good crops of maize were seen, but very wasteful use was made of this valuable fodder ; the practice being either to turn the herd on to the crop or to cut portions of it daily and throw it to them whole, in the paddocks. The only silo I came across was at Pennyroval, on the property of Mr. Norman. It is square in shape and the walls are of plain galvanized 466 Journal of Agriculture. [ti July, 1910. iron. Mr. Norman has been ensiling his crop for .some years and his belief in the system has become, yearly, more confirmed. Unfortunately, his farm contains no flat land, in fact, is steep hilly country. Thus handi- capped, Mr. Norman finds the growing of sufficient stuff to make th3 necessary bulk his greatest difficulty, but as the pioneer of the system in that district his enterprise commands commendation. His enthusiasm is remarkable, situated as he is in a community of .sceptics, and is in contrast to the distrust which I found prevailing throughout the shire with regard to the economy of silage-making. Approximately, one-half of Winchelsea shire is mountainous, Vjut this rugged country varies greatly in quality : that in the vicinity of Angle.sea River is little better than sand-dunes but the quality improves towards the westward, which portion is very heavily timbered, and fertile to the hill- tops. The road from Forrest to Skene's Creek follows the summit of the range and dairy farms abound along the route. On these holdings, very little clearing is yet done. Thr milking cows graze among the scrub and timber and, owing to the regular rainfall, are at their best during the summer months. There is a life-tim.e of work ahead of these settlers, in clearing alone, and with them a slower rate of progress in making the improvements is to be expected. At some of the farms, less accessible than others, the owners are unable to get the product from the farm to market except by pack-hor.se, and this necessitates its being first made into butter; but most of the farmers sell the cream. The local butter factory at Deans Marsh receives a large proportion of the cream from the dairy farmers in the shire, but there are al.so two cream-receiving depots at Birregurra — one controlled by the Colac Dairying Co. and the other by Holdenson and NielsMn- -which receive a fair .share of patronage. There are 230 dair\ Farms in the shire and the total number of cows milking during my first inspection was slightly over 3000. Very few calves are reared, therefore no importance is attached to the class of bull used. Pigs are kept to consume the skim- milk, the return being more direct than when fed to calves. The dairy cows generally are of short- horn type, and it is uncommon to find a Jersey or Ayrshire given a place. The preponderance of shorthorn blood is due to the fact that the supply of dairy cows comes principally through the Colac market, in which district the shorthorn was always .so popular. Seeing that it has been the practice to allow the cows to forage for themselves the year round, I wonder that the superiority of the Ayrshire under the.se conditions has not forced itself irresistibly into the notice of dairymen, more especially as much of the country is very steep, necessitating a large expenditure of the cows' energy in climbing twice daily to the milking shed. I could not fail to notice the effect of this on the condition of the heavy-framed shorthorns and it did not require much persuasion to convince their owners of its reducive effect on the milk-vield also. Already they were beginning to see it them- selves. During the course of the inspection I found ocrasion to temporarily prohibit 35 cows from being milked. At the subsequent examination of these by Veterinary Officer ('other, 16 were branded as being permanently' unfit for milking, two had the prohibition extended, and the remaining 17 were not seriously enough affected for Mr. Cother to feel justified in allowing a further continuance of the prohibition. In some ca.ses, however, the ailment, though not detrimental to the milk sujjply, miijht become a source of infection to other cows, and where there was a II July, 1910.] Subsoiling. 4^7 likelihood of this the owner was advised to kill the cow accordingly. Of the 17 permanently prohibited, only one was tubercular, 16 being acti- nomycotic. The Winchelsea dairy farmers have been satisfied in the past to depend on the natural pasture alone, and when this fails, to allow the yield to cease; in many instances drying the cows off, that they may the better retain their condition during the scarce season. This is as an alternative to growing and conserving fodder enough to meet their needs during the time when the natural pasture is an almost negligible quantity. Many of the dairy farfners recognise that the latter is a more economical policy, but they also recognise that it needs m.ore application and they excuse themselves by claiming that they are not dairy farmers in the proper sense and cannot see that it is worth the trouble. A large proportion, however, are on the land for all that it will return them, even if extra work is required, and they welcome any suggestion of a practical nature which is likely to increase the monetary' return from their cows. I am satisfied that, in most cases, a substantial increase could be brought about, without undue expense, and with the co-operation of a few of the whole-hearted dairymen referred to, I hope for sufficient to be achieved to demonstrate to the many that the complaint. " there is nothing in dairying " is not justified, but is due in a great measure to the half-hearted methods of dairymen themselves. I look forward to an increased interest in dairying, due to the greater comfort and convenience of the improved milking-.sheds and dairies which the Act requires. The discomforts of the old system made the work a drudgery, and many of those engaged in the business longed for the day when the dairy herd' could be dispensed with, and hay-growing or sheep-farming indulgea in instead. Any suggestion towards increasing the profits from the cows was unwelcome, becau.se its adoption would render more unlikely the possibility of a change to the less laborious callings mentioned. Increasea profits w'ere right enough, but unless the work could be robbed of some of its unpleasantness they did not appeal much to the dairyman's family. With the improved conveniences the drudgery has at least been reduced, and I have little doubt that the increased returns will follow when the farmer — beginning to suspect that milking cows are not being given a chance on grass alone — engages more in cultivating for fodder crops, adopts a better system of fodder conservation, and, through the agency of the Babcock tester, keeps only those cows in his herd which yield suffi- cient butter- fat to prove that they have the capacity to turn to the best account this home-grown fodder when fed to them. SUBSOILING. .4. 5. Kenvon. C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. There is a growing belief that subsoiling our northern plains for wheat growing will be of great benefit, not only by giving a much greater water- holding capacitv to the soil but also by unlocking large quantities of plant food which analysis shows occur in the subsoil, practically as abundantly as in the surface. In addition to the naturally stiff and pugged con- dition of most of our clays, there is. in practically all old cultivation 468 Journal of Agriculture. [ii July, 1910. paddocks, a layer of "plough pan" formed by continually ploughing at the same depth. But, apart from the northern areas and their possibilities, there is a large present demand for subsoilers for the sugar beet cultivation. To meet this demand, the Department has ordered fifteen subsoilers of a well-known American type, but with what are considered to be improve- ments. The original subsoiler imported from America has a solid foot; whereas, in the ones now being made, the foot is in two pieces, a sole plate and a removable share, thus avoiding the trouble of drawing out the foot as it wears, and considerably lengthening the useful life of the implement. The subsoilers are being made in Melbourne, at a cost of II July, 1910.] Subsoiling. 469 ^4 17s. 6d. each. As there are no special difficulties in making these implements, drawings and specifications are published herewith. This subsoiler is of course only used after a single-furrow plough and in suitable .soil mav be used 12 inches below the bottom of the furrow or. say, 18 inches from the surface. The draught is comparatively light; two horses are sufficient in easy ground, but four are necessary in stiff er soil. For shallower work, under 12 inches total depth, the Kemp subsoil foot, •described in the Journal for April, 1908, is a useful attachment, especially as it may be used with a multiple furrow plough. Specification for Subsoiling Plough. The ploughs are to be of the best material and workmanship through- out, to be of good finish and to be painted in the usual manner. Beam. — The beam is to be made of 5 in. x 3i- in. dressed blue gum, tapered from coulter to 3^ in. x 3^ in. at the nose. Coulter and Stay. — The knife coulter is to be of steel 3 in. x | in. drawn out to a knife edge making it 5 inches wide for a height of 12 inches above the sole plate and to be 19 inches in length from underside of washer or plate at beam to top of sole plate, and to be of necessary extra lengths to pass through sole plate and to be securely riveted thereto and to pass through beam tapering to f in. round screwed for nut and secured by nut and flat 3 in. x 3I in. washer. A shear steel cutting edge is to be let in and welded to coulter. The stay is to be steel 2\ in. x. \ in., i ft. 8i in. length, to be riveted to sole plate at a distance of 7 in. between outsides from knife coulter, to pass through beam tapering to | in. round screwed for nut and secured by nut and 2| in. circular washer. The plate washer 18 in. x 2^ in. x § in. on the under side of beam is to be secured to it by two § in. bolts. Foot. — The subsoiling foot is composed of a .sole plate and removable share. The .sole plate is to be of the dimensions shown, to be of the best annealed crucible cast steel and to have the coulter and stay riveted to it. The share is to be of the dimensions shown, to be of | in. shear steel drawn out with a gradual taper to the cutting edge and is to be accurately fitted and secured to the sole plate with five best steel countersunk \ in. bolts. Draught. — The draught consists of shackle, drawbar and regulator. The shackle is to be f in. iron 4 in. over all and secured to coulter by a | in. bolt passing through a hole ij inch below shoulder and i inch back from front edge of coulter. The drawbar is to be of f in. iron, 3 ft. 5 in. over all and with welded eyes 2 inches internal diameter. The regulator is to be of malleable cast iron as figured and is secured to nose of beam by a \ inch bolt secured by sunken nut. Depth Regulator. — The wheel is to be 8 inches diameter by 2 inches tread and attached to arms of i^ in. x ^ in. iron of the shape figured which pass through malleable cast adjusting clamps, as figured, secured to beam by f in. bolt. Stilts. — Stilts are to be of iron of ordinary type with wooden half handles and secured to beam in position shown by two | in. bolts. The handles should be about 4 feet above the bottom of the foot. Cast Steel Share. — The cast steel share is to be of similar shape to the wrought steel shares but with a least thickness of | inch and thickened out to give 2 inches at the nose of solid metal and to accurately fit sole plate. 470 Journal of Agrictdiurc. [ii July, 1910. THE WINE INDUSTRY IN SOUTHERN FRANCE. Department of Herault. {Continued from page J20.) F. de Castella, Government Viticultnrist. Ampelographical Notes. Situation, soils and climate having been dealt with in previous issues, the not less important factor of variety, must next be considered. We have already seen how different is the Vin Ordinaire of Herault from the wines we produce in Victoria. The influence of the varieties of vines grown has a considerable bearing on this difference. Reconstitution has somewhat complicated the question, and in the vine- yards of the present day we have not only to consider the varieties which yield the wine, but also the resistant stocks upon which these must hence- forth be grafted. Stocks. The leading stocks in use in the Midi have already been dealt with at length {Journal for November, 1907). The vital importance of this phase of the question led me to make it the subject of my first progress report. Before proceeding to consider the scion varieties of the region a few addi- tional notes must here be made concerning resistant stocks. Shortly before my return to Montpellier, in January, 1908, I received copies of the Journals in which my first progress report had appeared. I was thus able to submit it to recognised authorities and obtain an expression of opinion as to the accuracy of the views expressed. The only point to which exception was taken was the manner in which I had summed up the evidence concerning Rupestris du Lot. In the opinion of several leading viticultural men I had been unduly severe on this well-known stock. M. Richter, in particular, was of this opinion. Being one of the leading vine nurserymen of Europe, his opinion is of great value. From orders re- ceived, he is in an excellent position to gauge the popularity of the different stocks. The relative proportions of the leading ones ordered from him in 1908 were as follow: — On Rupestris du Lot ... ... ... ... 65 per cent. On Riparia ■ Rupestris hybrids — mainlv 3309 ... 18 per cent. On Riparia Gloire ... ... ... ... 10 per cent. On other stocks ... ... ... ... ... 7 per cent. The tendency was for the orders for vines grafted on other stocks to in- crease, and for those on Riparia Gloire to decrea.se. This rough analysis of orders received is eloquent testimony to the wonderful popularity of Rupestris du Lot, not only in the neighbourhood of Montpellier, but else- where also, for, as has been already stated, the orders received come from all over the world. In soils which suit it, and, judging from its marve\- lous popularity near Montpellier, the .soils of this neighbourhood suit it admirably, it is a stock of undoubted value. Thrifty and doing well in poor .soils in which, owing to its great vigour and powerful root system, vines grafted on it can continue to produce sufficient crops for many years with the aid of less abundant manuring than is required by several other stocks. It is an ideal stock for poor soils, provided they are sufficiently penetrable for its root system to become firmly established. II July, 1910.] Tlic W'liic Iiiditstiv in SoutJiern France. 471 We must not overlook its faults, which are, in rich soils, the frequent non-setting of the fruit, more especially when grafted with scion varieties liable to this defect, and its unsuitability for shallow soils where its root system, intended by nature to dip deeply into the ground, is forced to re- main near the surface. The increasing popularity of the Berlandieri Hybrids must also be re- corded : — 41B, 34E, 157-11, 420A, and last, but not least, 161-49. The remarkable qualities of the Berlandieri parent, which possesses most of the virtues of V. Riparia without its defects, with the added advantage of a decidedly favourable influence on the quality of the wine yielded by vines grafted on it, is characteristic of these stocks. 161-49, ii^ particular, is in great demand ; this is a Riparia x Berlandieri, and not, as are 420A, 34E, and 157-11, a Berlandieri x Riparia. In other words, the Berlan- dieri was the male or pollen parent, and, as is frequently the case in vine hybrids, the prepotency of the pollen parent is marked. Scion Varieties. The reconstitution of our Victorian vineyards is entering on its most active stage. It is obviously very desirable that re-plantations should be made with no varieties which are not thoroughly well adapted for the pro- duction of the type of wine each vineyard is best suited to produce. In other words, Victorian vinegrowers, like their European colleagues before them, will find it to their undoubted ad\'antage to specialize. Whether this be in the direction of quantity, or of quality, or of any particular type, must depend on the special conditions prevailing in each vineyard. Among the varieties peculiar to the Midi there are several which possess features well calculated to interest our growers. A few notes concerning the most important of these will therefore prove of interest at the present juncture. Some of these have long since been introduced to Victoria, but, with few exceptions, we do not know them under their true names, nor are they to be found in our vineyards unmixed with other sorts in the same block. This is the cause which is chiefly responsible for our lack of knowledge ot their real value under Victorian conditions. It is strange that our pioneer vinegrowers .should have so generallv adopted the sorts of the cooler regions of France — Hermitage, Medoc, Burgundy, &c. — which, in our warmer climate, yield wines of higher alco- holic strength and fuller body than the very light Vin Ordinaire which has, centuries since, become the usual beverage so necessary for the every-day life of the temperate Latin races of Southern Europe. {Journal, loth Feb ruary, 1910, p. 71). Will Vin Ordinaire ever be in large demand here? Time alone can tell. In a general way, growers will do well to bear in mind the difference between it and the wines for which there is an estab- lished demand at the present time, and exercise caution in planting any large area with the heavy-bearing varieties of Herault. These remarks apply more particularly to red sorts. It is remarkable that, notwithstanding the extent to which modern scientific viticulture has been brought into practical application during the whole period of reconstitution in Herault, there has been no marked alteration in the varieties of vines grown, at least in the direction of intro- duction of new sorts from elsewhere. The varieties adopted after centuries of practical experience, have formed the basis of re-plantation. Never- theless, without going outside of the district for new varieties, a change 472 Journal of AgricuUiire. [ii July, 1910, is noticeable in connexion with the selection of sorts grown. The tendency during the past twenty or thirty years has been to substitute for the choicer but less prolific kinds formerly popular such heavy-bearing \ines as- Aramon, Carignane, &c. The leading varieties may thus be divided into two groups, viz., heavy bearers, and choicer sorts. Such a division cannot be looked upon as abso- lute— between the extremes of either group are to be found intermediate sorts. Again, the same \ariety which on rich alluvial soils can yield very heavy crops of light Vin Ordinaire, may, on stony uplands, give a moderate yield of superior wine. It is worthy of note that what are looked upon as choice varieties near Montpellier, are very different from the choicer sorts of more northern districts which we have so largely adopted in Victoria. According to Foex, the former group comprises Aramon, Petit Bouschet. Carignane, Brun Fourca, and Calitor for red, and Terret Bourret for white; whilst in the second group we find such red sorts as Cinsaut, (Eil- lade, Aspiran, Piquepoul, and Terret, and for white wine the white and pink varieties of Piquepoul and Aspiran. as well as Clarette, Picardan and White Muscat. A few other sorts are also cultivated which may be con- sidered to occupy an intermediate position between the two groups. These are chiefly Grenache, Espar (or Mataro, as it is better known here), and Morrastel, and Ugni Blanc for white wine. Jacquez, a direct producer of American origin, also deserves mention, though the area planted with it is steadily decreasing. Complete ampelographical descriptions of each of these varieties cannot be given here. The following notes concerning the most important of them, are limited to the part they play in the viticulture of Herault and. their probable utility under conditions prevailing in this State. Aramon, syn. Ugni Noir, Burcliardf s Prince, Fontainehlcau (in West Australia), &c. — This remarkable, black variety certainly occupies first place among the vines of Herault. Its main characteristic is its fertility — it can pro- bably claim to be the heaviest bearing variety in the world. In exceptionally rich soils near Montpellier, yields of up to 3,500 gallons per acre have been obtained from it ; whilst yields from 2,000 to 3,000 gallons are quite com men. The correctness of these yields, which to an Australian appear extra- ordinary, are proved beyond question. It responds, perhaps, better than any other variety to soil fertility and heavy manuring, and is therefore admirably suited for the production of enormous quantities of the light type of wine so abundantly produced in the Midi. Aramon may, in fact. be looked upon as the basis of Vin Ordinaire. On stony uplands this variety is also cultivated ; the yield diminishes greatly, but quality increases. In spite of its extraordinary fertility the tvine made from it is not devoid of quality, and even where the crop is very heavy and the alcoholic strength correspondingly low (14 to 15 per cent, proof), it is always well balanced, brisk, and agreeable ; whilst, on poorer soils, it produces light wines of really excellent quality, of course from a Vin Ordinaire standpoint. It would be no use for our present ex- port trade. The vine is an exceedingly \igorous spreading grower with characteristic large dark green three lobed or entire leaves (see photograph), reminding one a good deal of the Sultana, though darker in colour and less glossy It can be easily recognised towards vintage time by its long cylindrical hunches, well filled with large berries and supported by a green stalk, the tenderness of which is one of the characteristic features of the variety. II July, 1910.] llic W'uic Indiistrv in Southern France 475 It is. in fact, one of the few sorts whicli it has been found practicable to vintage without knife or secateur. The large round berries are not un- pleasant to eat, though scarcely fit for packing, owing to the facility with which they are crushed. This vine has, in fact, long been known in English ^•ineries under the name of Burchardt's Prince. Strange to say, Aramon has not, until quite recently, been tried In Vic- toria. In Western Australia, it is known under the erroneous name ot Fontainebleau, and it is said to produce a light red wine of claret type. It has been .seen by the writer amongst other vines in several Victorian vineyards, but separate plantations have not yet been made. It is cer- tainly well worthy of careful trial. Though useless tor the production of LEAF OF ARAMON. (Two-fifths natural size.) export wines, if e\er we are to become a wine drinking people and a de- mand arise for a light wine at a cheap price, no variety is better qualified to produce it than Aramon. For brandy production, it is also worthy of consideration, though for this purpose the Terret Bourret may be found" superior, as we shall see presently. In addition to the black type, a pink or grey variation is known as Aramon Gris, differing chiefly in the colour of the berry and producing a rather more alcoholic wine, for which reason it may be useful for distillation purpo.ses. There is also a white variety. {To be continued.) 474 journal of Agriculture. [ii July, 1910. ORCHARD STUDIES. III.— SHELTER BELTS. E E. Pescoit, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. Notwithstanding the fact that tlie type of fruit tree generally in culti- vation in thi.s State is one that has been framed with a low crown, partly with the object of placing the fruit where it would receive protection from Avinds, there is a necessity in many districts for still further protection ; and this necessity can only be met by the planting of shelter belts. There are also many soils, especially in the level northern areas, and wind-swept plains, where fruit-growing would be impossible but for such plantations. The presence of irrigation channels, intersecting orchards and orchard dis- tricts, provides suitable land for planting hedges, in addition to those which may be planted on the outside boundaries of the estate. In some districts, the Osier Willow has been planted on the channel banks for shelter pur- poses, but in the space of a \qx\ few years, the roots become a serious menace to the waterflow. Shelter belts are of two classes, viz., those planted purely for shelter, and those which, in addition to providing shelter, also are of some profit to the grower, by the producing of a commercial product. Of the latter class are the Almond, the Fig, and the Black Achan Pear. The most essential point to be considered in planting shelter belts, after their u.se as shelter has been decided, i.s the question as to whether the plant ■or tree selected requires much or little feeding; or, in other words, whether the growth of the shelter belt will reduce the production of the fruit trees adjacent to it. Pepper trees, Pine trees, and the African Box Thorn are undoubtedly excessively gross feeders, and should never be planted in close proximity to the orchard. The rdSts of these trees and plants will extend and feed at a distance of 30 or. 40 feet from their base ; and they considerably deplete the soil of large quantities of organic plant foods. The Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynocalyx) is a considerably less gross feeder than these, but it is more difficult to manage, and unless topped and thinned in its early growth, it is not clothed with foliage and growth where these are necessary. Among the useful plants for hedge and shelter purpo.ses is the Kaffir or Kai Apple. This is a native of South-eastern Africa, and is not at all difficult to grow. It rather requires a small quantity of water, and is not a gross feeder. Unfortunately, it is not always of a quick growth, but it is of a sturdy habit, and is densely covered with long firm thorns ; by reason of this feature, it is very valuable as a protection to the orchard. In some localities, it yields a golden-coloured edible fruit. The Tagasaste, or Tree Lucerne, is also a useful hedge and shelter plant, but it is liable to be destroyed by stock, and this reduces its value as a shelter belt, unless it can be effectively protected. A most useful plant or tree for shelter and protection purposes is the Osage Orange. This tree is a native of North America. It easily becomes a fine spreading tree up to 60 feet in height ; but it may readily be kept at any required height by cutting. When grown as a hedge, the occasional cuttings cause it to produce a very, dense, impenetrable growth, the annual growth being sometimes 4 and 5 feet in length. The plant carries very numerous large spines, which add to its value as a hedge. It is not at all exhausting on the soil. At Bacchus Marsh, both apple trees and lucerne ^row successfully in close proximity to a wind-break of osage orange which J I July, 1910.] Orchard Studies. 475 is fully 60 feet in height. It is easily grown from seed ; and if grown in seed beds or boxes, inav lie plan^^fd out the first year after .sowing. Before planting out any hedge or break wind it is absolutely necessary to deeply trench and subsoil the land. If this be done, the roots have a freer running space, and are able to penetrate and travel quickly through the soil. 476 Journal of Agriculture. [ii July, 1910. II July, 1910.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 477 Thus the plants will rapidly establish themselves, and will soon put on a sturdy and vigorous growth. After planting, the young trees should receive effective protection from stock, and hence they should be well fenced in. While growing, the soil surface should be frequently stirred, especially in summer, so that the roots may be kept coo\ and healthy. Every care possible should be given to each plant in the belt, so that their growth may be rapid and regular ; and so that they may quickly establish themselves for the fulfilment of their purpose. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. The month of July is generally one of the busiest months of the year. Winter spraying and winter pruning must be carried out, and where orchard areas are being increased, all the work incidental to the establishing of the young trees must be completed. None of these works will admit of delay, and all require to be finished before the time for spring sprayings comes- along. Among the first works will be the planting of young trees. The ground has already been prepared, and should be now well aired and mellowed, and in a fit condition to receive the young stock. The young trees should not be planted too deeply ; and generally they require to be planted at the same (iepth as they grew in the nursery beds. The roots should be well shortened back, and all broken and bruised roots removed. The soil should be well and firmly packed around the young trees, and where the orchard is at all exposed, the trees may be staked, the stakes having been well driven into the ground previous to the planting. The selection of varieties is very often a matter of local expediency; care should be taken that varieties subject to bitter pit, and cracking, are not planted in cool or moist climates. Grievous mistakes have been made in past years by planting out such varieties as Munroe's Favourite, Annie Elisabeth, and Cleopatra in unsuitable zones ; whereas, when planted 'm climates suitable to their successful growth, they are most profitable varieties. The Jonathan still holds sway as the most popular apple, and it is at pre- sent hard to find a more profitable fruit. Local conditions, and local market requirements, will always be the determining factors in planting out new orchard areas; and new growers will do well to consider these before- planting out. Spraying. The woolly aphis, bryobia mite, and the various scale insects may now be more readily combated than at any other period of the year. So far, the most successful remedies have been the sulphur, lime and salt wash, or one of the oil emulsions. Growers are questioning the wisdom of annual oil washes on trees ; the opinion being expressed that frequent coatings of oil may injure the bark or close up some of the pores and cells. For this reason, and also for the reason that a weak emulsion is often as effective a.s- a strong one, red oil need not necessarily be used any stronger than one in 30. With good pressure on the pump,' this will be thoroughly effective against most scale and aphis pests. 478 Journal of Agriculture . [ii July. 1910. Peach Aphis. The life history of peach apliis ha.s never been thoroughly understood in this State. It was always considered that either the insects or their eggs were to be found during winter under or around the roots near the main stem of the tree. To eradicate these, it was at one time thought a satis- factory mode of treatment to mulch well the ground all round the tree with tobacco, or to place in the soil either kainit or muriate of pota.sh. The rationale of this treatment was that the .soil would become saturated with nicotine or potash salts, whichever material was used, and that this would act in a corrosive manner on the bodies of the insects, and so destroy them as soon as they came into contact with the caustic substance in the soil. This method of eradication was not found to be definitely a success. Then a suggestion came that possibly the insects laid some eggs on the trees, and that these hatched in early spring. To determine this, as well as to endeavour to find a successful method of coping with the pest, trials were made last winter in a 35-acre peach orchard at Diamond Creek, belonging to Mr. A. S. Lowe. In the spring of 1908 the whole orchard was severely vi.sited by the peach aphis, and two double hose spray pumps were constantly at work for many weeks, spraying with tobacco and soap sprays. At the end of November, and early in December, the aphis was as pre^■alent as ever, even with all this .spraying. The whole orchard was sprayed during the following winter, early in July, with a red oil emulsion at a strength of i in 25. Some trees were also treated with muriate of potash at the roots, and others with a tobacco mulch. The experiment was varied as much as possible, such as spraying different plots before and after pruning. The result was that, during the following spring, 1909, comparatively little spraying was necessary. One pump was never used, and the other only on occasional days for a few weeks. The season was a fairly normal one for peach aphis, and in other orchards it was far more prevalent. One year's experiment does not indicate permanent results, and it is intendeu to further investigate on these lines, under the supervision ot the Vegeta- tion Diseases Inspectors. During the season, many interesting features became prominent, and there is still a great deal to bi- learned al)Out the habits of peach aphis and also regarding the action of red oil. On some trees the aphis would appear in small clusters, and after a few- days every insect would entirely disappear. The results were quite the reverse of negative, and it is hoped that we are on the verge of a successful method of dealing with the peach aphis trouble. One feature was entirely overlooked in establishing the experiments, and that was the spraying of a plot with red oil as the sole treatment. In each plot, some root treat- ment as well was adopted. It is intended this season to spray with red oil. without any tobacco or potash treatm.ent of the soil. Pruning. Orchardists will now be busy with the most interesting work of the year. The old haphazard methods of pruning are passing away gradually, and growers are beginning to prune, with a knowledge and a reason for every ■cut made. A model tree will always be light on its topmost leaders, bearing the major portion of the crop in the lower regions of the tree. The main point to be noted is that a heavy wood growth in the upper portion of the tree tends to reduce the bearing capabilities of the tree in its most useful parts. II July, 1910] Orchard and Garden Notes. 47> Mr. Quinn's work. Pruning of Fruit Trees, should be in the hands of every fruitgrower. Not the least important feature of it is the number of valuable illustrations, by which the method of education by concrete examples is thoroughly taught. Prunings should not be allowed to accumulate, nor should they be stacked in heaps on vacant parts of the orchard. The most economical method of dealing with prunings is to destroy them in a burner, which is either specially constructed by a blacksmith, or which may consist of an old square tank on a small truck. This is drawn around the orchard by a horse, the prunings being thrown in and destroyed as the burner is token up and down the rows. Vegetable G-arden. A number of vegetables may now be planted for summfer u.se ; such as broad beans, a few early potatoes, parsnips, lettuce, radish, leeks, artichokes, &c. Asparagus may still be planted, and also a plentiful sowing of peas. The vacant spots should be kept loose and well worked over, and no weeds should be allowed to accumulate. Onions, leeks, and other seedlings now^ require to be planted out. The general crop of tomato seeds will now be sown. These should be sown in boxes, under glass, and in very light loamy soil. As soon as their secondary leaves appear the seedlings may be pricked out into beds- ir the frames, and allowed to remain there till all danger from frost ha& disappeared. Care should be taken that frost does not reach them inside the frames, coverings being provided to protect them. They should also- not be allowed to be " drawn " by an excess of warmth, and the frames, shculd always be ventilated on sunny and warm days. The beds should now be very deeply dug over and fairly heavily manured, in anticipation of planting out the young plants later on. It is well to let any humic manures well rot and become incorporated with the soil. The useful; varieties are Earliana, Large Red. Key's Prolific, and Ponderosa. Flower Garden. July is also a busy month in the flower garden. The beds must all be well manured, and dug over, the ground being left in a fairly rough con- dition so that the soil mav become aerated and sweet. New and vacant plots should be manured and trenched ; and a good dressing of lime may be given all over the garden. Where slugs or snails are prevalent, a good surface dressing of tobacco dust or stems will be very efficacious. This is the month for planting roses and also \arjous deciduous shrubs. Before planting, these should mostly all receive a judicious root-trimming, and after planting they may be suitablv pruned back. Ro.ses may now be pruned, and the cuttings planted, if this has not already been done. Perennial deciduous shrubs will also need thinning out and pruning. Gladioli, Iris, and other tuberous and bulbous spring and summer flower- ing plants may now be planted out. while a few late sweet pea seeds may still be sown. 480 Journal of Agriculture. [11 July, 1910. HOUSEHOLD INSECT PESTS. C. Frenc/i, juu., Assistant Entomologist Common House Flies. The most common of the house flies is the Musca domestica, whicli i»reeds in manure and any filth or garbage allowed to remain near dwell- ings. According to Professor Howard, of the United States Department of Agriculture, the periods of development are as follows: — The eggs from deposition to hatching, one third of a day ; hatching of larva to first moult, one day ; first to second moult, one day ; .second moult to pupation, three days ; pupation to issuing of the adult, five days ; total life round, approximately ten days. Thus, in Victoria, we probably have a dozen or more generations every summer. The number of eggs laid by an individual averages about 120. The house fly is a well known means of spreading such diseases as typhoid, anthrax, tuberculosis, and dysentery. In his recent report on '■ The Pollution of New York Harbour " Dr. D. D. Jackson pointed out that typhoid and other such disea.ses were found to be most prevalent in districts where the sewer outlets reach the harbour. In such localities flies in large numbers were found to be carrying germs of diseases. They were also more numerous in infected than in clean areas. Our civic authorities should take up the question of destroying the Tireeding grounds of the house fly. now that its habits, and the danger to man from its presence are .so well known. United action is necessary. Remedies. — All bins or other receptacles containing hou.se refuse should be covered over. I have seen a heap of fresh manure bought for gardening l)urposes simply alive with larvae of the hou.se fly. Thousands of flies are bred in this way, eventually finding their way into houses. This shows the necessity of covering the manure or treating it frequently with kerosene or chloride of lime. Kerosene sprinkled over the floor in stables, &c.. is said to be an excellent remedy. One of the best methods of keeping flies out of the house is by the use of wire gauze windows and doors. Various insecticides and fly papers are also very useful in suppressing flies, and formalin is said by many to be verv effective. Mr. Froggatt recommends the following formalin treatment : — Take a soup plate and cut a couple of sheets of thick blotting paper to fit into the bottom, and sometimes half-an-inch of clean, damp sand under the blotting paper will help to retain the moisture on a hot day. Saturate the paper ■with water, and sprinkle it over, first with sugar, then with a quarter of a tea- spoonful of formalin (diluted with a spoonful of water so that it will spread all over the exposed surface). Place the plate in a well lighted spot on the floor for preference, and the flies, attracted by the sugar, are quickly affected by the formalin, and usually drop dead on the side of the plate. Formalin, however, •evaporates after a time, so it may be necessary on a hot day to renew it at intervals. Another mixture which has been used with success in America is car- bolic and camphor, the recipe for which is as follows: — One pound of car- bolic crystals is dis.solved in a bottle placed in hot water. While liquid it is poured over one pound of camphor, which is first broken up into small bits. The resultant mixture is a thick yellow liquid, which is secureh" l.)Ottled up, and must not come in contact with the skin. An ounce of this placed in a shallow dish over a spirit lamp will kill all the flies in the Toom. Three ounces will fumigate a thousand ctibic feet. II July, 1910.] Household Insect Pests. 481 The Blow Fly is another annoying pest. It i)reeds in decaying animal matter, depositing on meat either raw or cooked, or even on wounds on living animals. On damp wool on the rumps of sheep, there may be seen great numbers of eggs, known as " fly blows " which will issue as maggots. Cocoons of blow flies ha-\e been found in sand in Victoria. A few years ago my brother, Mr. G. French, came across some hundreds ■of cocoons in a heap of sand. On my placing them in a breeding cage the flies emerged. There was no animal matter of any kind whatever on the sand, and so the question arises as to how the maggots fed. The remedies suggested for treatment of the house fly may be carried out for this fly also. Meat .should be placed in safes, but .should also le wrapped in calico or thin papeer. I have seen meat blown in a meat safe when left unwrapped, as the ovipositor of the fly is fairly long and can protrude through the small holes in the wire netting. Sprinkling pepper on the meat is also a preventive ; it can easily be washed oft" before using. Mosquitoes. We ha\e in Victoria a fair number of species of these troublesome insects, principally Culex ; also the Malarial Mosquito and Anopheles. The distinction between Culex and Anopheles is that the former has clear wings whilst the latter has dark spotted wings. Fortunately, we have no malaria in this State. It may not generally be known that it is only the female mosquito that bites. The eggs of Culex are laid on stagnant water ^ and it is estimated that up to 400 are deposited at a time. In V. arm weather, eggs hatch a few hours after they are laid. They spend usually 6 or 7 days as larvae, and a couple of days as pupae, so that their complete life history cycle covers 10 days in all. If the weather is cold, it takes much longer to develop ; but in this State, with our mild winter, the mosquitoes no doubt emerge the whole year round. Remedies. — Undoubtedly, the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are those which result in the destruction of the larvae, or their breeding places. Kerosene, i oz. to 15 sq. ft. of water surface, is very effective. It may be undesirable to so treat some places, especially water for domestic purposes, although this has been done without harm where the supply is drawn from the bottom of the tanks. If mosquito larvae are noticed in still water in tanks, tubs, and the like, it is advisable to agitate the water by stirring ; this will destroy the eggs and any larvae that are being luitched. If this is done regularly it will certainlv lessen the increase of these insects. In America, some persons keep their tanks free by putting in a little wheel, which is turned by the windmill and keeps the water con- stantly agitated. Mosquitoes fortunately have natural enemies ; amongst these are the larvae of the dragon fly, commonly, but erroneously, called Horse Stingers." The larvae of water beetles also eat an enormous quantity of mosquito larvae. Stocking the water with fish (the common goldfish being one of the best) is a valuable means of keeping this pest in •check, as the fish destroy great numbers of larvae. Our insect eating birds, such as the swallows, reed warblers, fly catchers, and grass birds, play an important part in mosquito prevention, and these birds should be afforded every protection. If mosquitoes invade a bedroom mosquito cones may be used. The fumes from these soon rid a hou.se of them. Various insecticides are also greatly used. Receptacles difiicult of removal, such as water tanks and barrels, should be tightly screened to prevent the female insect from reaching the water to deposit her eggs. The water should be drawn ofi^ for use from below. ] ottr)ial of Agriculture . [i i July, 1910. Clothes Moths. All of these moths belong tf) the family Tineidoe and most of them to the genus Tinea. They embrace such insects as carpet moths, fur moths, and other destructive species. Their larvae cause considerable damage to clothes of all kinds, the webbed case of the common clothes moth con- taining the caterpillar and the pupa being only too well known to need description here. Any clothes, furs, woollens, or feathers, left exposed for any length of time are almost sure id be attacked in the .warm weather. Remedies. — It is adxisable to fretjueiitlv examine and thoroughlv brush all fabrics, especially in the summer, as this will destroy any eggs or larvge that happen to be on them. If clothes are to be stored it is ad^•is- able to put them in a close-fitting box, in which camphor or naphthaline should be placed, and spray .some benzine on the clothes three or four times during the summer. Cloth-covered furniture is often attacked by this moth, but a thorough spraying with benzine will have beneficial results. As benzine is highly inflammable it should be used with great care. Some writers recommend that the furniture should be sponged very carefully with a dilute solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol, made just strong enough so as not to leave a white stain. If furs are attacked fumigating n airtight boxes with bisulphide of carbon is an excellent remedy ; but care must be taken when using this chemical, as it is highly combustible. Cool storage has also been tried with excellent results. Moths can alwavs be attracted by a light at night, and in this way destroved. Where moths are found in- festing warehouses this method might with aination of the size, weight and substance of the Shire with the quanty, hardness of bone, and acti\ity of the Clydesdale. The greatest prospect of the production of the ideal lies in the direction of evolving it from one or other of tne present distinct breeds by either mating together pure Shires that have the Shire qualities of size, weight and substance, but that show a tendency to tine quality of hair and bone and lissomeness of movement ; or by the mating together of the more weighty and .solid individuals of pure Clydesdale origin. TATTOX IJRAV KING. Champion Shire (I.omlon), 1908. Realized the record price at auction, 3,700 gns., in 190C). In which of these two ways the end can be attained is for the future to decide. Certain it is, that looked at from either a scientific standpoint or in the light of stern practical experience, it is like following a will-o'- the-wisp to expect to quickly get the combination of good qualities that will breed true by direct crossing. It is true that distinct breeds have been created by the breeding together throughout a long series of generations of the progeny of crosses, but the process has always been of a hit-or- miss character, and has involved long periods of careful control and ruth- less cullings. Even the new light that has been thrown on the subject during recent years by experiments under the Mendelian law seems only to unveil the diflficulties of the problem rather than to reveal the means of its solution. Everv experienced breeder knows that for utilitarian purpo.ses the pro- geny of a first cross between two breeds is frequently excellent as an individual, but has no value at all for propagating its own type when lo Aug., 1 9 10.] Tin- Ovens River Valley. 503 bred from. Take the Shorthorn- Ayrshire cross or the Ayrshire- Jersey cross in cattle, or the Merino-Lincohi cross in sheep. The individuals of such crosses are often excellent in themselves, but no stud breeder would use one of them as a sire. Furthermore, if amongst draught horses cross- ing the Shire and Clydesdale produces the best draught geldings, it is necessary to keep the two breeds pure and distinct so as to alwavs have the essentials for crossing. Finally, all evidence and experience appear to point to the folly of con- tinuing on the unknown road at present being followed by Victorian breeders, and to indicate that the same course .should be followed in draught-horse breeding as has been followed with such conspicuous success in the breeding of other classes of stock, viz., to breed to pure and con- stant blood lines, insuring such purity and constancy by the keeping of breeding records in the form of a Stud Book, registering the two breeds distinctively. The advantage of the entry to such a .Stud Book would prove an effective discouragement to the (continuance of the present " lucky bag ' ' practice. THE OVENS RIVER VALLEY. Report on St. John's Wort, Dredging, and the Fore.st Flora of tfir District. Alfred J. En^art, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany in ^Jie Melbourne Universitv. These three matters are so closely connected that it would be best to discuss them simultaneously. For instaiK^e, any measures taken to deal with St. John's Wort must take into account the condition in which the land is left by dredging. Further, the dredging operations require the use of large quantities of timber as firewood, hence the forest resources are of importance. Finally, the only use to which land which cannot be culti- vated can be put in districts infested by St. John's Wort, is to grow timber, but such use will only be profitable when the timber is grown under proper forestry conditions and suitable trees selected and planted instead of the matter being left to chance. St. John's Wort. To the account of this weed given in the Weeds and Poison Plants of Victoria, pages 17 and 18, a few additional facts can be added. As previously stated, it is easily suppressed by cultivation and gives little or no trouble so long as the land is kept under crops. It is a common practice, however, to crop the land year after year without manuring until it is exhausted, then allowing it to run wild. On such land, in a year or two, the weed is naturally more vigorous and abundant than anywhere else ; but if the land is allowed to lie idle, it might just as well grow St. John's Wort as any other weed. The tiny, black, hard seeds appear to be able to lie dormant in the .soil for a few years, the limit being probablv eight or ten years. At any rate, twelve year-old seed failed entirely to germinate. Fresh seed can, however, be carried on the feet of stock or other animals to uninfested ground. The seed is not carried by the wind to any extent, and it is doubtful whether birds aid in its spread. The following special points are worthy of mention : — The weed vrill not grow under pine trees, especially when planted at the distances usual in forestry. In thin scrub it will grow, but is neither abundant nor 5°4 Journal of A^riculturt . [lo Aug., 1910. luxuriant. In dense scrub it grows little or not at all. Practically the whole of the land affected by St. Jrihn's Wort in the Ovens River Vallev^ would grow g(X)d Conifer timber. Stock will apparently eat a certain amount of the weed when it is- young, but it is stated locally that it affects the flavour of mutton and that cows and bullocks get a peculiar irritation of the skin when brouglit on to land affected by St. John's \\'ort. The skin becomes red and in extreme ca.ses peels off. causing the cattle great agony, especially in summer time, when, mad with pain, they will gallop wildly through the scrub. Curiously enough, the disease mainly affects white animals,* whereas black, brown, or red stock suffer from it hardly at all. In varie- gated animals, the irritation either begins on the white patches or is con- fined to them. This predilection of the disease or irritation for white animals or white patches on the skin, has been confirmed by personal observation, although the cause of it is not easy to grasp. In addition, it is not possible 10 say definitely in the absence of direct experiments, whether the irritation is really due to the St. John's Wort or is only accidentally connected with its presence. The Hypericum oil was formerly applied externally as a cure for rheumatism, and probably when continually ajjplied would pro- duce an irritation of the skin. A white patch on an animal is the result of the non-formation of pigment and this is presumably as.sociated with the lesser vitality of the skin, as when the hair turns grey in old people. This might explain why the white patches are more easily irritated. Poisons are quite u.seless to suppress St. John's Wort when it is deeply rooted, since the doses required to kill it are not only prohibitive in cost, but leave the land useless for growing other \egetation for many years.. On several of the poisoned plots near Bright, nothing is growing except a .scum of Algje and Moss. In others, the first plant to appear is the St. John's Wort itself. The only possiljle use of a poison would be to keep down the weed while cultivated land under crop rotation was temporarily laid down in pasture. For this purpose, a poison is required which is. cheap, easily applied and more poi.sonous to St. John's Wort than to pasture plants. After testing a variety of substances, the only one which fulfilled these conditions \vas found to be Phenyl. When added to water in the proportion of i to 40, this forms a milky liquid readily sprayed over the plants to be tested. This leaves grasses and clover unaffected but causes most of the leaves of the St. John's Wort to turn brown and kills the majority of the young seedlings, if a fine, evenly distributed spray is used. Sorrel and other weeds are practicallv unaffected, as is also Couch grass. Using a strength of one gallon of phenyl to twenty gallons of water, the St. John's Wort was somewhat more strongly affected though still not entirely killed ; Grass and Clover plants had their leaves slightly browned and spotted. Sorrel was unaffected, Couch grass was slightly browned but not permanently affected. The leaves of the Tree Tobacco showed many brown spots, but were not killed. Old, deeply rooted plants of St. John's Wort are merely checked by this treatment since they send up fresh shoots from below. When infested land has been cultivated and is then laid down in pasture, the St. John's Wort seedlings are at first small and grow with low trailing branches more or less prostrate. If unchecked, within a year or so they will ruin the pasture, but if, while they are young, the pasture is * Professor Gilnith informs me that white animals are more subject to such diseases as canc'er, and' also to sun scald. Possibly St. John's Wort may predispose white or variegated animals to sun scald. lo Aug.. ipJ^o.] The Ovens River Y alley. 505 finely sprayed with one to two gallons of phenyl to forty gallons of water per acre, they will be sufficiently checked or destroyed to enable the useful pasture plants to get the upper hand. It is for this purpose and in this way only that any poisoning methods will be of the least use for St. John's Wort. The concentration, used should not exceed one in twenty or be less than one in forty, and the spraying should be done in warm, dry weather. At 4s. 6d. per gallon of phenyl, the cost of the treatment, including labour charges, should lie between 8s. and ,12s. per acre, accord- ing to the strength used and the local conditions, since on some soils, 8o- gallons per acre might be required for efficient spraying. The Dredged Flats. As is well known, in the process of dredging for gold, the whole of the alluvial soil in the valley bottom, dow-n to the bedrock, is drawn up by means of water passed through the sluice boxes and deposited behind the- dredge which steadily eats into new ground. The water flows back again into the pond in which the dredge floats and is used over and over again, only a small supply being required to allow for wastage. The modern type of dredge has a short sluice box from which the coarser material falls and a longer one projecting further behind which drops the firier sand and gravel on top of the coarser stones and pebbles. When the dredge is pro- perly worked, a fairly even surface is left, but this is in the condition of the sandy or gravelly bed of a stream and has about the same agricultural \alue. Where the levellmg is badly done, pools of fine mud which bake- hard in dry weather are left behind. In other words, the soil is left in the worst possible agricultural condition, its constituents being sorted out in layers of particles of approximately equal size, instead of being mixed together as they should be in a good soil. Even where care is taken to deposit the fine material on the surface, the land is left in a condition useless either for grazing or cultivation. In the Ovens River Valley, the deeper layers consist of sand, gravel and rounded water worn stones covered, for the most part, by a layer of fine alluvial and humus soil varying in thickness from a fev/ inches to one or more feet. This surface layer is entirely lost in the process of dredging. Hence, without special treatment too costly to be worth consideration, it will not be capable of supporting good pasture plants for generations to come. A few fodder plants, such as Bird's-foot Trefoil and some of the less useful grasses., might gain a precarious foothold, but would ultimately be sup- pressed by St. John's Wort and other weeds. As the pasture yield would be trifling and cultivation out of the question, it would not pay to keep the weeds down. Other countries are actively engaged in adding to the agricultural land by reclaiming swamps, bogs, sand-flats, &c., whereas Victoria is dredging^ away some of her best agricultural land such as is found in the alluvial soil of valley bottoms. It must be remembered, that gold dredging can only be done once, and is a temporary occupation. Agriculture is a per- manent occupation. The only profitable use to which the dredged flats could be put would be to use them for forestry purposes and the Bright district is admirably suited for the growth of coniferous wood. The planting of trees could take place immediately behind dredges while the soil is still moist, loose and Avatered with what is practically a nutrient solution. There would then be no need for clearing or cutting weeds around the voung trees, and as. 5o6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 1910. soon as their roots have penetrated to any depth, the trees would do as well as in soil apparently ten times more promising. Far more unpromising soil has been .successfully and profitably afforested in the Black country of England and in .some of the mountainous districts of Scotland and France. The timber used by the dredges is causing the sides of the valley to V)e rapidly depleted of their native timber, with the result that, before long, the mountain sides will be denuded of their soil and landslips of soil and loose rocks into the valley below will become of common occurrence until £ amygdahna £ mminalii I L paucdlora ^^^? M' FeallieiHop pauCjflora ^ £ pauclflora Jf yar alpina. L JJUUCL rar olp una '''hlli-r^^^^W^ '"''' "'P' I. flora DISTRIBUTION OF ACACIAS AND EUCALYPTS IN THE OVENS VALLEY. the hillsides are practically bare. One difficulty in the way of profitable tree planting would lie in the distance from an open market, but it would be an easy matter to construct a water flume down the whole length of the Ovens River Valley so that sawn timber could be easily conveyed to the rail head at Bright. In any case, the tree planting would not be for the present but for the next generation, and would provide an occupation tor a portion of the population, when all the profitable ground has been dredged. The only part where any large area of big timber exists at present is at the lo Aug., 1 910.] The Ovens River Valley. S°l extreme head of the Ovens River Valley beyond Harrietville, and this timber will probably be used before any new plantations come into active bearing. The re- afforestation is only likely to be carried out on proper permanent lines if it is entrusted to the Forests Department, for forestry from its very nature is more essentially a State function than almost any other. Where the land is not on lease, but has been sold outright, there might be some difficulty as to tenure. Dredging is a modern occupation with ill- defined legal obligations. The social aspect of the question is a simple one. Land sold for dredging purposes is, when dredged, useless for an\ other purpose than forestry in the Ovens River Valley. Forestry is a State function and when land sold for dredging has been rendered unfit for any other use it should revert to the State. It would be a simple matter by enforcing the Thistle Act to bring about a voluntary relinquish- ment of the land, since it would not pay to keep land idle and at the same time free from weeds. On some of the older dredged flats, the commencement of a natural process of re- afforestation can be seen, some of the older tailings heaps being abundantly self-sown with the Silver Wattle mixed with occasional Gum Trees. It has, in fact, been suggested that the land might be used to grow wattles for wattle bark. Unfortunately, the more valuable Black- wood, although it grows in the district, does not appear to thrive, and profitable forestry cannot bt- left to chance but depends mainly upon svstematic planting and the .selection of suitable trees. Forest Flora. The trees of the district are comparatively limited in numVjer, and are mainly confined to nine species of Eucalypt and three species of Acacia. A few other shrubs or small trees are present, but do not attain suflicient size to be of value for timber. A list of these, together with the other non- economic plants of the district, will be i)ublished elsewhere. The list of the Acacias and Eucalypts is given beneath : — Acacias. Acacia dealbata, Link, " Silver Wattle." Acacia melanoxylon, R. Br., " Blackwood.'" Acacia fravissima, F.v.M., "Alpine Wattle." Eucalyfts. Eucalyptus amygdalina, Labill, " Peppermint Gum." Eucalyptus Gunnii, Hook, f., " Swamp Gum."' Eucalyptus Stuartiana, F.v.M., "Apple Gum." Eucalyptus paucijiora, Sieber, var. alpina, "Weeping (".um. Eucalyptics Sieberiana, F.v.M., " Mountain Ash." Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill, " Manna Gum." Eucalyptus stellidata, Sieber, " Black Sally." Eucalyptus dives, Schau, " Dwarf Messmate." Eucalyptus rubida. Maiden and Deane, " Candle Bark." Eucalyptus elceophora* , F.v.M., [E. Cambagei, Maiden and Deane). On the sides of the vallev of the Ovens, most of the good timber has been cut awav and used as fuel, leaving a thin covering mainly of poor, irregu- lar, dwarfed, twisted or diseased trees useless for timber. In a forest kept under proper control, the reverse .should be the case. The first thinnings, This species grows near Sriyht, aiirl becomes more abundant to\vi>rds the Buffalo ifountains. .5°^ ]our)ial of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 1910. mainly of use for firewood only, should remove all crooked, diseased, 'dwarfed or spindled timber leaving only the strong, straight trees to attain maturity. As these are harvested, fresh plantings should be made between the old stumps, so that once it has matured, a forest should yield a con- tinual supply of timber for an indefinite length of time. To leave a forest which has been cut over to re-establish itself naturally is a long and wasteful process, and in many cases, the forest will never return to its original condition, since the useless trees left standing may largely j^revent the development of strong, new saplings. In the Ovens Valley, many of the older and weaker trees are in- fested by an injurious lichen (JJsnea barhata). The Hanging Mistletoe {Loranthus fendulus) is abundantly present on Eucalyptus Stuartiaua. L. celastroides also occurs on both Acacias and Eucalypts, but is less abun- dant. In a properly maintained forest, badly infested trees are the first to be removed, whereas in a forest left to re-establish itself naturally, the old diseased trees left standing transmit these parasites to the new timber. For the most part, the good timber is confined to the margin of the district. A particularly fine forest, principally of Mountain Ash {E. Sieberiatia), occurs to the west and south of Harrietville, and extends throughout the greater part of the ascent from Harrietville to the Mount St. Bernard Hospice. It consists chiefly of young, erect trees of from ^o to 130 feet in height, some of the diameter of 3 feet at the base. Well up in the ranges, diameters of 5 feet were found. A saw mill is at work in the district and seems likely, before long, to exhaust the better timber. A certain amount of E. faucifiora and E. Gunnii is also present. The alpine variety known as the Snow Gum extends to very high eleva- tions but is then much dwarfed. The detailed distribution is given on the accompanying plan, which gives the predominant species in a particular •district. THE POTATO EEL-WORM. {Continued from fage 90.) TF. Laidlaw, B.Sc, Micro-Biologist. In a preliminary article on the Potato Eel- worm in the February num- l)er of this Journal I endeavoured to point out some of the differences be- tween it and the Onion worm. A more extended study of this nematode, and others affecting plants and found free in the soil, has convinced me of the need there is, both from the standpoint of scientific interest and from the standpoint of practical economy, for continued observations. There are many problems connected with these almost microscopic worms that, in the present state of our knowledge, we are unable to solve. Com- paratively few species have been studied and named and a much smaller number can be identified. Little is as yet known concerning their dis- tribution or the part they play in the economy of nature, or of their re- quirements in the form of food, climate, moisture and temperature for multiplication and growth. Their powers of endurance, their relations to JO Aug., 1910.] The Potato Eel-ivorm . 509^ one another, their rehitions to phmts and the fertility of soils are all points requiring further research. To show the practical importance to the farmer and, indeed, to the whole community of the Nematoda, it is only necessary to refer to one or two cases. Crisp estimates that Syngamus trachealis (the cause of gapes) is responsible for the death of half-a-million pullets in England every year. Megnin states that in a single pheasantry 1,200 victims died daily. The loss of one-third of the crop of sugar beet is by no means uncommon when it is affected by Hcterodcra schachtii ; again it is no uncommon thing in certain districts of Victoria to lose the bulk of the onion crop by the ravages of Tylenchus devastatrix, and many bags of potatoes are con- demned every year on account of their being affected by anotlier species of the.se small worms. These cases show the practical importance of what, at first sight, seem quite insignificant animals and the necessity for the minutest observations ; for only when we are fully acquainted with the life history of a parasite are we in a position to successfully combat it. Since time immemorial, crops of various kinds have died suddenly ; so suddenly. Dr. Cobb remarks, "as to justify the expression ' struck by lightning.' The unknown cause in some such cases has probably been the gall worm. Many an agricultural or horticultural failure attributed to the use of improper fertiliser, to poor soil, or wrong culrivation, has been due to this insidious foe attacking the very fountain head of vegetation. Were it possible in pounds, shillings, and pence, to sum up the damage done by eel-worms, the total would probably amount to a fortune for a nation. How little Ave know of the microscopic enemies and friends of vegetation that ply their vocation in the vicinity of those important organs, the root hairs."' Characters common to the Nematoda. Before going further it will be well to point out a few characteristics common to the Nematoda. Von Linstow says that the only taw that can be derived inductively from the study of the life history of nematodes is " that those which live in animals never pass through all their stages of development in the same organ." While this cannot be said of those para- sitic on plants, still we often find something analogous ; for instance, Tvlenchus tritici migrates from the stem and leaves up the plant to its flower. We do not find the degenerations so commonly associated with para- sitism in the nematodes affecting plants, there is no degeneration of the- various organs necessary for a free life, nor is there any multiplication and development of the organs of adhesion. The reproductive powers do not seem to be increased ; thus we do not find the enormous numbers of eggs commonly seen in some of the clas.ses of parasitic worms — they never reproduce, so far as is yet known, a-sexually by budding, or fission, or parthenogetically. The nematodes show less difference between the free livmg and parasitic members of the group than obtains in any other class. With few exceptions the parasitic forms have undergone little degeneration. It is true they have no eyes such as some of the free forms possess, but in other respects they do not show any marked retrogression ; further, the mouth armature is developed in many of the free forms and is not confined to the parasites. With one or two exceptions the nematoda are bi-sexual, and although the males are as a rule smaller than the females, they show no trace of degeneracy. 5IO Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 1910. There is a certain polymorphism amongst the males, especially in size and form ; smaller forms with mature reproductive organs exist. This may be due to defective nutrition. In .some worms (Gordius) this polymorphism is due to the parasitic stage lasting longer in some than in others. Effect of Changes in the Food Supply. Like many of the lower forms of life, nematodes tend to become vege- tative when the supply of food is restricted. As was pointed out in the article on the Onion Eel-worm in the March number of this Journal, all the group are to a certain extent restricted in their choice of food, and, when their natural nutriment is withheld and .something else substituted, they become sluggish, for a time at least ^ reproduction may entirely cease and many of the weaker forms die. They all become more attenuated in form, the cuticle thinner and more transparent, and in many little node- like swellings composed of rounded cells arranged in clumps make their appearance here and there throughout the entire length of the worm ; after the appearance of these swellings, death very soon ensues. Many of the embryos ne\er Ijecome fully developed sexually at all ; they become quite as long, indeed longer, than the fully developed worm, but they remain much thinner. The length of the potato worm was incor- rectly given in the previous article as one-fiftieth of an inch. The sentence ought to have read " the embryos are one-fiftieth of an inch in length, while the adults are one-twentieth of an inch." The length, of course, depends a good deal on the quantity and quality of the food supply. The non- sexual forms, so often seen when food is restricted, frequently reach one- fifteenth of an inch or more in length ; thev are always, however, more attenuated in form. Advantages of Rotation. The great death rate, the sluggishness of the survivors, the cessation of reproduction, and the fact that many of the embryos never develop sexu- ally, all point to the great advantages to be derived from changes in the food supply, such as takes place when rotation of crops is practised. I sowed onion .seed in soil badly infested with ])Otato eel-worm ; it germinated freely, and the plants were not attacked at the end of two months. The clean potatoes grown in the experimental plots at Bellarine showed the same freedom from attack by the onion eel-worm, though the ground in the neighbourhood of the plots was so badly infested that all the onion plants were carried off by disease. Life History. The statements, that " The larvae only live in the earth where the females shed their skin, make their way into the tubers and then become citron shaped." " The males undergo a change, and after a period of rest seek out the females," are quite erroneous, for worms of all ages are found in the soil. Copulation takes place there and then the impregnated females bore their way into the tubers where, by the maturation of the eggs, the uterus becomes greatly distended, the worm finally becoming a rounded sac, full of eggs. The accompanying micro-photograph shows a female worm taken from a recently dug potato. It is interesting, showing, as it does, the commencement of the distention of the worm by the maturing of the eggs in the uterus. I have seldom found a sexually mature male in the tissues of a potato. The usual life cycle of the potato worm is therefore quite simple. A potato is planted with the female in the cystic or rounded form ; the death lo Aug.. 1910.] The Potato Eel-worm. of the worm occurs, the eggs and embryos becoming free in the decaying " set " ; the eggs hatcli out and the young worms find tlieir way into the soil, wliere they live till they are sexually mature ; conjunction of the sexes takes place and the females bore their way into the young potatoes of the new crop, there to encyst themselves again. It must be borne in mind, however, that this worm can pass through its whole life cycle without be- coming encysted in a tuber, as it is able to live on the decaying \-egetable matter in the soil. In this case, the female does not become distended with eggs, fewer being produced. To obtain a pure culture of potato worms an affected potato was carefully washed and planted in sterilized soil. After a time, the worms were collected from the soil and the decayed " set," care having been taken during the period of growth to water with nematode free water. By feeding them on small pieces of boiled potato and onion, I was able to keep the worms alive and healthy ; they went through their whole life cycle while in the free state, and slowly increased in numbers. The females did not become citron shaped and were quite as active as the males. There were never any " non-motile " larvae seen ; here again mv observations are at variance with the usually accejjted views. Conclusions. As no experiments that we have yet tried have been successful in killing the eggs and embryos, the life of the growing plant at the same time beuig preserved, I can only recommend rotation of crops and pure seed as a means of minimizing the ravages of this worm. No doubt, a time will come when we can successfully cope with this disease, but until that happy consummation of our labours is accomplished, and until we see the results of the experiments at present being carried out, the above advice will keep the pest in check. For not only is it good agriculture, but as the worms can only change very slowly from one variety of plant food to another, many of them dying in the process and many failing to beconie sexually mature, and as the females produce far fewer eggs when deprived of their natural food and habitat (this applies to many of the nematodes), it fol- lows that by means of a suitable rotation and pure seed we will modify considerably this serious problem. It must always be borne in mind that organic substances in the form of farmvard manure are favourable to the development and spread of eel- FEMALE WORM AT lliK COMMENCEMENT OF THE CYSTIC STAGE X 1 60. To give a detailed description of the many varieties of eel-worm (num- ers of them new to science) found in the samples of soil and vegetation submitted to me from time to time would lengthen this article^ unduly ; a full account will therefore ha\e to be deferred to a future occasion. Journal of Agriculture . [lo Aug.. 19 io. A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARMER. /. M . B. Connor. Agricultural Superintendent. The improved methods of modern agriculture, marked by the economy and the production of feed materials, mean increased profits : hut keenness •of competition establishes the price at which the farmer must market hi.s produce, whether farm products or milk. Milk production for consump- tion in the metropolitan area is an important industry, and I know of no farm where better conditions for a clean, and wholesome milk supply prevail than those existing at Mr. William Woodmason's Melrose Dairy Farm, Malvern-road. East Malvern. One of the principal object lessons to be learnt from the successful working of Mr. Woodmason's small and intensely cultured farm and system of rotation of fodder crops, is that no great success can be attained THE SIRE LADY SUPERIOR S PROGRESS. in this line of business without constant, unremitting, arduous wo.rk. To look back at the conditions prevailing on this farm some five years ago, and contrast them with those of to-day, is sufficient evidence of hard work. The modern sanitarv dairv, the refrigerating chambers, milking shed, and magnificent herd of 70 Jersev cows, all testify to the close and incessant personal attention to detail which has been shown. This attention is absolu'telv necessary in the important industry of retailing milk. Mr. Woodmason's life-long connexion with the Jersey breed, and his practical knowledge of cattle breeds generally, have justly won for him the honour of frequently adjudicating in the show ring of the Agricultural Societies throughout the S'tates. TO Aug.. 1 910.] A Successful Dairy Farmer. 513 The Herd. The Jersey herd is a striking illustration of what one man can accom- plish in the way of developing cows possessing the characteristics of the ishow-yard animal, combined with the necessary rich and deep-milking -qualifications of the profitable dairy cow. The Melrose herd was founded by the purchase of a choice collection of pure bred animals, procured .at the sale of the present owner's late father's herd in 1892. The first sire introduced was the celebrated Jersev bull, " Progress 3rd." (imp., 1575, H.B.), and the cows " Graceful Duchess," '-Wilful Beauty," " Neat Lass," " Neat Girl." and " Queen of the Jerseys," all afterwards notal)le prize takers at the Royal, and principal shows throughout the State, for their general symmetry, and pure Jexsey characteristics, combined with their milking qualifications. " Lady Superior's Progress," a son of " Progress 3rd," has proved himself to have been one of the most satisfactory intro- ductions into this herd, as his stock have all turned out to be true to tvpe ■and acquisitions to this beautiful herd of cows. WILFUL BEAUTY. A NOTED PRIZE WINNER. In building up his present herd, Mr. Woodmason has adopted the sound principle of only saving for future use. the heifer calves from cows that have proved their sterling worth at the pail. ^IlLKING AND SHELTER ShED. The cow b\ re is arranged with a view to cleanliness, perfect drainage, abundance of light and air, and comfort of the cows. It is of the utmost importance that proper shelter should he provided for the dairy herd whilst being fed and milked. Warmth economises food, a matter of great importance at all times, but especially when food stuffs are dear. Experi- ■ence has incontestably proved that animals exposed to the cold without a 5M Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 19T0. A .SA>arARV MILKING AM' SllZI/lF.R SHED proper warm shelter shed, require much more feed to maiutain them in a thriving condition tlian others provided with sheher and warmth. The PORTION OF THE DAIRY AND STABLING. milk-producing capacitv may be reduced quite 50 per cent, during the milking season owing to neglect to provide suitable shelter for the cows, during the winter months. lo Aug., 191C.] .4 Siiccessfitl Dairy Farmer. 515 5i6 Journal of AgricuUiin [lo Aug.. 1910. The Dairy. The new brick dairy is modelled on the most modern lines, every pos- sible provision being made for cleanliness and economical working, and the admission of sunlight and fresh air. The jefrigerating plant and cool storage rooms have proved their value during the summer months. Inci- dentally, it may be stated that it is not possible to successfully carry on such a big business as is done by this dairy, without adequate provision for cool storage of the milk. Milking operations are carried out under the owner's personal supervision. The udders and teats of the cows are washed and dried before milking, the milker's hands are washed at regular intervals and the milk is taken away in protected vessels to the refrigerating chamber until ready for delivery to customers. Fodder for the Herd. The 70 Jersey cows are practicallv hand fed all the year round, the area of their exercise paddock being only 10 acres, situated about half-a- PUMPKINS, 24 TONS TO THE ACRE. mile from the homestead, where they are fed daily with green fodders,, in season. Mr. Woodmason grows the bulk of his crops on a 15-acre paddock known as " Coolgardie," situated about i mile further out on the Malvern-road. There is no small area of land around Melbourne that is worked to better advantage than this paddock. Mr. Woodmason secures- from each acre, 5 crops of green fodders every two years, by judicious manuring, cultivation and irrigation. On 5th Januarv of this year there was a splended 5-acre crop of Stout White oats being fed as green fodder, 5 acres of maize which would yield over 30 tons to the acre, 3 acres of pumpkins which would average 20 tons. per acre, and 2 acres of mangolds which .should average over 20 tons per acre. Maize is usually sown during October, and fed to the dairy herd ir January; the same land is manured with ^2 loads of stable manure to the TO Aug.. 1910.] A Successful Dairy Fanner. 51; 1 4: 1 8845. 5i8 ]oiir)idl of AgricuUnrc. [lo Aug., 1910. acre and xesown with maize, which is fed to the cows in April ; then it is again manured w'ith 8 cwt. of bonedust to the acre and sown with Stout White oats for early spring feeding. The owner states that the first cutting of maize usually goes over 30 tons tO' the acre of green fodder, the second cutting 15 tons, and the third cutting of oats over 15 tons of green stuff. By this system of intense culture, over 60 tons of green succulent fodders are taken off each acre of land. Pumpkins and mangolds, which both yield at the rate of over 20 tons to the acre, are grown yearly in the xota- tion of crops and are found to give excellent results in the production of milk. Dairy farming is becoming intensive rather than extensive in our metxopolitan areas. It is not uncommon now to hear of persons raising profitable crops from apparently poor land, while other people receive no return at all from land of a similar texture. The value of the manure made from good feeding is more and more appreciated by the farmer who uses it to renovate his depleted soil, robbed of both its humus and Us nitrogen by continued cropping. This loss can be avoided bv raising more fodder crops as Mr. Woodmason is doing, bv keeping more cows, thereby making and conserving more manure. Care must, however, be taken to provide a sufficientlv rapid rotation of crops to insure good soil texture. It is also advisable to follow Mr. Woodmason's example and .select or build up a pure bred herd of dairy cows, either of the Jersev, Ayrshire, Guernsey, or Hoistein strains of proved milking qualities, and not be led astray by the dual purpose cow craze. Returns. The returns from the cow^s in milk during my inspection (Januarv, 1910) were : — 70 Jersey cows producing a Jaily return of 500 (|uarts, retailed at 4d. per quart, giving a return uf £8 6s. 8d. per day, or ... £58 6 8 weekly 40 pure-bred Jersey heifers averaging £7 7s. per head, giving a return for the year of £294, or an average of ... ... 5 13 o „ Total weekly returns ... ... ... ... £6319 8 Expenses. The cost of concentrated foods and chaff, purchased outside of what is grown on the farm, fed to the herd at the time of inspection, was : — 12 cwt. chaff per day at 2S. 6d. per cwt. ... ... . , £10 10 o weekly 20 bushels of bran per day at is. per bushel ... ... 700 ,• Salt, 3d. per day... ... ... ... ... „, . 019 „ Cost of purchased feed ... ... ... ... £17 11 9 rt WagcH, SfC. 3 milkers and i feeder ... ... ... ... ... £5 o o weekly 1 farm hand ... ... ... ... ... ... 200 « 2 drivers for delivery caits ... ... ... ... 3100 // Horse feed Manure ... Sundries Water ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 Total expenses ... ... ... ... ... £32 14 9 „ It will be seen from the above return that a weeklv profit of over ;^30 is being secured. 2 10 o 15 S lo Aug.. 1910.] Analyses of Artificial Manures. 519 Q y ^ Q W u^ Jot CH 00 .r< ^^r. 02k Do3 ^b -^/^ s-< 5 ^§ < foO ^ -" H^ % -3 p^<1 '^ rv^ =c coM u WH < J, D-,C=^ S^^ ^-^ Cl, o m O I— I O H CO Estimated V'alue of the Manure per Ton. 1 4 8 5 4 7 9 4 15 4 4 10 1 4 9 2 4 11 5 4 3 6 4 1 2 4 2 0 4 3 7 4 13 4 4 5 3 3 16 11 3 16 4 4 9 9 4 6 0 4 7 5 Phosphoric Acid. c3 0 H ts % 3*1; _o _ ■d a 3 0 0 0 00000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOi-HrHOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOO 0 '*'ioa5s-*ooi^aii>.-ioioooQO oofMrHotNoooooooO'-HOr^r^^oo 3 "3 X 0 CO OJ cS Cm .4.3 5 _V 3 0 :« -d 3 -t- 0 0 1 000000000000 000 000000000000 • -ooo ») IM (M !M C-l (M rt rt r-. ,-. ■M -M !N eg (N OS 1 v^Vfl rH r~ ;o CO 00 f-i in t- t^oi woa -^ 0000 ■^OicO(M:DQO^O •oxt^cO"*mcgcD i-li-l-*MN-*00 O0OCCt^QOi-ti-l^t*inW OE^t^fN01»Ot>lA05iOX00C005IMOlO rHOOrtOOOOOi-HO'-lrHr-li-li-IO 3 "o (3 . 5 0 00000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOiOiftOOO I>r-t~I>C~t^XXK0Dt~t^cO^t^I>t- 3 0 1 t- xt^t^iflccfMoomwiftoooooinifto X«XOe0OI>in-*rH(M5Dt~O(N0-)OT i>[^t~tt>i^«i>r-i~t^xioioior-tot~ J a 3 0 0^00 m 01 -■ -M t^ lO 0 t~ t^ -.0 X t^ T-i m X >o X CS^OOOOSO^COCCW— OO^C0inXO(M-'OOOMlC>n 0 Cl-MO'MMTjioOOCOCO^^Tt.^rtr* 3^ 1 H 0 < c» 0 :z: 4J hH OJ Ph ^o >i^ i^ o ] ouniaL of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 1910. THE FRUIT EXPORT TRADE TO THE UNITED KINGDOM AND EUROPE. Review of Season 1910. Ernest Meeking, Inspector under the Commerce Act, and R. T . Booth. The season under notice has been, from many points of view, the most satisfactory since the inception of the trade. Tlie quantity exported was, with the exception of 1909, the heaviest on record. The average prices have been the highest yet reaUzed, and the fruit arrived, generally, in better condition than ever before. These results are particularly gratifying, coming as they do after the rather unsatisfactory returns of the past two seasons and especially so to those who have been wise enough to stick to the business in spite of discouragement. These have realized that in this, as in most other lines of business, the bad must be taken with the good and that the man who perseveres is the one who usually comes out on top. It behoves all who are interested in the fruit export trade to discover, if possible, the reason or reasons why the returns this season should have been so much better than those of preceding years, in order to maintain a con- tinuance of this desirable state of affairs throughout future seasons. It would appear that the success attained has been chiefly brought about by more careful attention to the following : — Harvesting and packing. The elimination of undesirable varieties. Handling and transportation. In addition, there has been a marked diminution of '' Bitter Pit," the quantities shipped have been more judiciously distributed throughout the season than has been the case formerly, and the fruit has appeared to be of unusually good keeping quality. Harvesting, Packing attd Grading. — Evidence of improvement in these respects has been afforded the Departmental Inspectors, during their examination at Port Melbourne and Williamstown, by the absence of " slack " cases; the uniform grade of the fruit in the various packages; and by the small percentage of over-ripe, under-ripe, bruised or otherwise damaged fruit which has come under notice. Even in the selection of wrapping paper and the manner in which the fruit has been wrapped, evidence of the display of greater care has been abundant. The paper has generally been of better quality and the wrapping has been more neatly executed. These show that the importance of attention to matters of detail is becommg more widely appreciated among the exporters. The Elimination of Undesirable V arieties. — This is shown by a glance at the varieties set out in the list below. It is well that the exporters are realizing the necessity of shipping only the more profitable and proved varieties, as sending varieties unknown to the consumer at the other end is, at best, only an experiment and one which, moreover, is often not worth the labour and expense involved. The profitable varieties do not number more than half-a-dozen at most. The manner in which the Jonathan variety has more than upheld its high reputation is a noticeable feature of the season. This old favourite so far surpasses all others in its consistent profitableness that it stands in a class by itself. It brings equally good prices both in the Briti-sh and Con- tinental markets and is, moreover, one of the best cold storage apples. As lo Aug., 19 io.] T lie Fruit Ex fort Trade. 521 an apple for local sale and Inter- State trade, also, it stands without a rival and may, therefore, be considered the best apple yet grown, both from a grower's, exporter's and local salesman's point of view. Though not gene- rally known, it is also not only one of the best dessert, but one of the best culinary apples. In localities suitable for its culture, no intending grower who planted all his orchard with Jonathans, and grew a few other varieties merely for the purpose of cross-fertilization, could go far wrong. Cleopatra, Prince Bismarck and Munroe's Favourite are varieties which stand out prominently on account of the high prices which they have realized. Cleopatra and Munroe's Fa\ourite should only be grown north of the Dividing Range. The trade badly needs a good tirly export variety which would be available for first shipment about tlie middle of January. We cannot ■extend our seasons any further towards their close, as our fruits would then come into competition with the soft fruit crops of the Northern Hemisphere. We could, however, with decided advantage, commence our shipments some three or four weeks earlier than w^e do, as the American apples and European oranges have usually been disposed of some weeks before our first shipments arrive. The chief drawback to this is the want of a good variety which would be available at the required time. Several varieties have been mentioned in this connexion, but their claims remain to be proved. The export of pears has not been quite so profitable as during former years, but the prices obtained quite justifv a continuance of the export of this fruit. Handling and Transportation. — These are now receiving more careful attention on the part of the Railway Commissioners and the Shipping Companies. The old time-honoured practice of dispatching fruit from country stations in tarpaulin-covered " I " trucks, was happily less in ■evidence this year ; the fruit as a consequence arrived at the inspection sheds in better condition. There still remains much room for improve- ment ; as the rail transportation can never be considered perfect until the present style of truck is replaced by refrigeration cars. In fact, if the present movement towards the provision of cool storage accommoda- tion in the various fruit-growing centres rapidly spreads (and there is ■every prospect that it will), the refrigeration car transport of fruit will become pressingly urgent, as one is the corollary of the other. The ocean transport, too, judging by the results, has received more careful attention than formerlv. The average temperature at which the fruit is •carried is, however, still higher than those which experiment has proved most suitable. It is pleasing to note that the question of installing " tell- tale ' ' thermometers on the fruit-carrying steamers, which has been advo- cated in this Journal for the past three seasons, is now being taken up by the leading Fruit Growers" Assopiations. Bitter Pit. — The absence of this enemy of the exporter is difficult to account for ; but it is maintained in many quarters that altered methods of pruning, whereby lateral growth is not unduly interfered with and a more even distribution of the sap is obtained throughout the tree, is largely responsible. Whether this is so or not is an open question, but it is certain that manv growers, who during recent years have pruned their trees in such a manner as to induce the growth of long straight spurs, have now altered their methods. Cases. — The quantity of hardwood cases used for the export of fruit is still on the increase and bids fair to supersede the softwood case 5-2 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug.. 1910. entirely in tlie near future. This is a matter for congratulation, as the hardwood case, being a local production, provides more employment for our own people than does the softwood case. An indication of the rapid increase in the use of the hardwood case is shown by a comparison of the figures for the two seasons 1909 and 1910 as follows : — 1000 (Hnrdwoorl cases ( Softwood , , ,q]^ (Hardwood ,, \^ Softwood ,, 71,550 115,020 101,750 41,140 Grapes. — As far back as 1902, 801 cases of grapes were exported frorrr this State and averaged varying prices throughout. Some few lines were sold at 27s. 6d. per case (between 25 lbs. and 30 lbs. of grapes) ; but the others were in such poor condition that the results did not justify a continu- ance of the experiment through lack of suitable varieties for export. As the outcome of his recent mission to Spain, the Government Viticulturist (Mr. F. de Castella) strongly advocates the planting of the Ohanez variety, and, as his advice is being largely acted upon by growers, Victoria- should soon be in a position to export grapes to the London market. Citrus Fruits. — The raising of citrus fruits for export is a matter to whicj-i fruit-growers and intending fruit-growers could profitably turn their attention. These remarks apply particularly to citrus growing in the Northern portions of the State, especially in the irrigable areas border- ing the River Murray and its tributaries. Here citrus fruit rivalling those raised in any part of the world may be grown in profusion, and the earlier varieties of orange (Early Valencia, St. Michael, etc.) could easily be grown in time to catch the British and European markets at a period when they are practically depleted of stocks. A commencement has been made in this direction in the Cohuna district, where some thousands of citrus trees have recently been planted. With careful handling and packing, and the maintenance of uniform temperature during transit, the risks attendant on the shipment of citrus fruits are very small. California is a striking example of what can be done. Starting with 300 l)Oxes some 30 years ago, the State mentioned now annually exports citrus fruits valued at about ^,^6, 250,000. The following returns are representative of the shipments made at different periods of the season : — Prices Realized. s 0 _^ OJ 0 0 0 c3 0 ^ W ^ < s. d. S. (I. s. d. Variety of Fruit. Per Ostedey (London), sailed 23rd February. 1910. (Arrived in excellent condition, only 3 cases affected with Bitter Pit. Temperature, 37 to 40 d? grees.) Arpi.Ks. Adam's Pearmain . . 19 10 6 10 Alfriston . . 8 6 0 6 Cleopatra . . 492 12 0 Cock Pit . . . . 3 6 6 Cox's Orange Pippin 128 20 0 Dumolow'rt -; > i-^stmu 193 14 6 Green Up Pippin . . 9 8 0 garcourt Pippin . . 3 8 9 oover . . . . 18 8 0 Jonathan .. 261 15 0 A'ariety of Fruit. Apples— C6/1. Lady Daly Lord Wolseley Luscomhe's Seedling Munroe's Favourite Prince of Pippins . . Purity Reinette de Canada Ribston . . Rome Beauty Various . . Pears (Trays). Napoleon Beurre d' Anjou . . Various . . Prices Realized. s. d. \ 75 9 3 7 8 6 25 6 6 818 15 6 52 7 6 19 9 6 204 8 9 33 7 6 200 8 0 56 10 6 27 5 6 2 5 9 2 6 0 4 0 5 9 6 0 s. d. 9 2 8 6- 6 6 9 8 7 1 9 3 8 0 6 6 7 6 8 9 5 0 5 9 6 0- 3 0 Aug.. 1 910.] Tlie Fruit Export Trade. 5-3 Variety of Fruit. Prices Realized. s. d. s. d. s. d. Per Bremen (Hamburg), sailed 9th March, 1910. (Delivered in good condition temperature.) Cleopatra Five Crown Jonathan McLean's Favourite Munroe's Favourite Beinette de Canada Rome Beauty Wellington Pippin Prince Bismarck . . Various . . 1^0 record of 11 8 9 9 13 9 9 6 14 9 69 12 9 10 0 122 10 6 8 6 392 18 3 8 6 10 9 t) 9 6 111 18 3 11 0 177 9 () 6 0 47 8 0 7 6 2 11 0 11 0 10 12 3 12 3 22 8 6 7 6 11 0 12 3 7 10 Per Orontes (I, ndon), sailed 9th Marcli. 1910. (Fruit arrived n good condition. No ''ecord of temperature.) Apples. i Adam's Pearmain 32 8 3 7 6 8 0 Cleopatra . . 190 11 6 8 3 10 2 Cox's Orange Pippin . . 8 15 6 15 6 15 6 Dunne's Seedling . . 5 9 3 9 3 9 3 Dumelow's Seedling 56 13 6 9 0 9 10 Esopus Spitzenberg 105 9 6 6 6 8 1 Five Crown . . 40 8 0 7 9 7 11 Jonathan . . 505 11 6 9 0 10 8 Munroe's Favourite 25 9 3 8 9 8 11 Reinette de Canada 30 76 63 611 Rome Beauty . . 239 8 9 8 3 8 5 Rymer . . . . 20 8 6 8 6 8 6 Statesman . . 10 7 0 7 0 7 0 Sturmer Pippin . . 30 8 9 8 9 8 9 Various . . Pears (Trays). Beurre Capiaumont Eyewood . . Madam Cole 2 I 7 3 7 3 7 Vicar of Winkfleld 221 | 8 3 6 0 7 Winter Nelis Per ScAwaften (Hamburg), sailed 12th Marcli, 1910. (Condition and quality were satisfactory ; best fruit, however, was ratlier scarce. Xo record of temperature.) Apples. ALfriston ■Cleopatra Esopus Spitzenberg Jonathan London Pippin McLean's Favourite Munroe's Favourite Reinette de Canada Rymer Shepherd's Perfec- tion Sturmer Pippin Prince Bismarck . . Pears (Trays). Vicar of Winkfield 3 9 0 9 0 9 0 37 12 9 10 6 11 10 11 12 0 9 6 9 11 671 15 0 9 5 12 3 42 12 6 10 9 11 5 10 7 6 7 6 7 6 102 15 0 9 6 12 11 297 11 6 8 6 10 2 5 9 6 9 6 9 6 37 12 0 8 3 9 10 14 9 6 9 0 9 3 9 11 9 11 9 11 9 42 7 3 6 9 7 0 Variety of Fruit. Prices Realized. s. d. s. d. d. Per Moldavia (London), sailed 15th March, 1910. (Fruit was delivered in hard, dry, and clean condition, and was generally satisfactory. Tem- perature, 36 to 38 degrees.) Apples. Adam's Pearmain.. Cleopatra Dumelow's Seedling Esopus Spitzenberg Five Crown Jonathan Kentish Codlin Munroe's Favourite Newtown Pippin . . Prince Bismarck . . Reinette de Canada Rome Beauty Sturmer Pippin Various . . 1 8 0 8 0 264 10 6 8 0 71 11 6 10 6 43 10 6 7 0 224 9 0 7 0 800 12 6 8 0 23 7 0 6 6 141 11 0 8 0 31 10 0 8 3 3 8 0 8 0 158 7 9 6 3 37 8 3 7 9 76 8 6 7 3 205 8 6 6 6 8 0 9 5 11 2 8 3 7 9 10 0 6 9 9 3 9 3 8 0 7 0 8 2 7 7 7 3 Per Koenlgin Luise (Hamburg), sailed 29th March, 1910. (The condition left much to be desired ; many lots showed signs of decay.) Apples. i p Adam's Pearmain . . 1 10 12 3 12 3 12 3 Cleopatra .. i 23 12 0 11 0 11 7 Dunne's Seedling .. : 6 11 3 11 3 11 3 Jonathan . . j 243 13 9 5 6 9 11 London Pippin .. 174 10 9 8 9 9 10 Munroe's Favourite 123 10 0 6 3 9 9 Newtown Pippin . . 8 10 3 10 3 10 3 Reinette de Canada 9 10 0 10 0 10 0 Stone Pippin .. 110 14 0 7 0 9 11 Sturmer .. .. 54 11 0 7 9 9 11 Stewart's Seedling 17 ! 10 0 10 0 10 0 Per Marmora (London), sailed 12th April, 1910. (With the exception of a few boxes, fruit was delivered in a dry, clean, hard condition.) Apples. Baldwin . . Ben Davis Bismarck Buncombe Cleopatra Chandler Dunne's Seedling . . Esopus Spitzenberg Five Crown Hoover . . King of Pippins Jonathan Munroe's Favourite Nickajack Northern Spy Rome Beauty Reinette de Canada Rushock Pearmain Rymer Stone Pippin Various . . Pears (Trays). Winter Nelis 32 8 3 8 3 33 7 0 7 0 7 8 3 8 3 7 8 3 8 3 58 9 6 8 9 15 9 9 9 0 37 8 9 8 6 22 10 0 8 6 181 9 0 7 6 25 8 0 7 6 5 8 9 8 9 163 10 0 8 0 35 9 3 8 6 93 8 0 7 9 11 9 3 9 3 806 9 9 7 9 14 8 3 8 3 3 8 3 8 3 31 8 3 8 3 99 8 9 8 3 37 8 9 8 6 66 9 0 3 0 8 3 7 0 8 3 8 3 8 11 9 6 8 8 9 10 8 5 7 9 8 9 9 9 9 0 8 10 9 3 8 10 8 3 8 3 8 3 8 6 8 8 4 10 On the whole, the season may be considered the most satisfactory to -date, and engenders the hope that in the near future the export of fruit may take its place as one of the leading industries of our State. The prospects for a good market next sea.son are very bright, as reports just received show that the blossoms of the incoming American crop have been, to a large extent, destroyed by some late frosts. Therefore, should the local crop be prolific, the next season should prove even better than the one just ended. 524 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Aug., 1910. THE WOOL INDUSTRY. The flocks in Australia and New Zealand have increased during the year by 6,179,614 head, the total being now 115,525,581 head, a higher number than at any period during the past 16 years, and approaching the record of the year 1891, when the figures reached 124,991,920. Not only have numbers increased, but the sheep continue to improve, as is shown by the fact that though there were more sheep to shear 16 to 20 years ago, the past clip has easily exceeded all previous records. The actual oversea shipments of wool during the twelve months have amounted to 1,921,705 bales from Australia, and 512,938 bales from New Zealand, a total of no less than 2,434,643 bales, or 816,861,665 lbs., valued at _;^33, 128,496, an increase of 146,539 bales, or 60,271,502 lbs., and in money value of ^7.177.584. as compared with the record clip of the pre- vious, 1908-9. season. This result is all the more striking when it is realized that the 2.000,000 bales limit was reached for the first time in the year 1906-7. and that the past year's figures are nearly double those of the year 1903-4. There could be no better proof of the marvellous recuperative powers of this country, from which the exports of other products have increased in almost like manner. Buyers should be in good heart to lift the coming clip, and Australasia will put a good one before them. The outstanding features of the buying for 1909-10 were undoubtedly — 1. Support accorded to crossbreds. 2. Scope of the American demand. 3. Concentration of the world's buying power in these markets. It is believed that every manufacturer of wool throughout the world now realizes that — 1. Australasia has attained the position of the principal wool pro- ducing country of the world. 2. The selection of wool submitted to public auction at the colonial centres is greater and better than in any other market, no less than 77 per cent, of the total production having been sold locally during the past season ; and that 3. To .secure a satisfactory share of the Australasian clip he must be represented by some buyer on this side. He is also aware of the Australasian facilities for inspecting, purchasing and shipping wool, which it is claimed are more up-to-date than at any other centre. While it is advisable to warn our flockmasters that they must go on improving their flocks, because to stand still is to go back, woolgrowers can still congratulate them.selves upon Australasia producing a greater quantity of wool than any other country, and, further, that for all round excellence and value per lb. the production of Australia and New Zealand is as yet not approached by any other country. It is also flattering to know that other countries are endeavouring to emulate Australian and New Zealand methods. Argentine breeders are now good buyers of stud sheep, mostly British breeds, from New Zealand, while Uruguay and South Africa have come to Australia for merinos. Wool warehouses on the colonial plan are being built in America, and an attempt is being made there to sell wool on Australian methods, instead of on "sheep's back" or country railway platforms. Wool manufacturers are continually advising growers in other countries to class their clips as is- done in Australasia, not to tie the fleece with string, &r. lo Aug., 1910.] Hie Wool Industrx. 525 Considering how far Australasia is ahead of all other countries in the preparation of wool for market, the flood of literature from Great Britain which has been poured in here in reference to jute fibre in wool, tar brands, &c., is surprising, for it is doubtful whether wool is shorn, classed, baled and sold in a less primitive manner in Great Britain to-day as compared with a hundred years ago. The handling of Australasian wool at the London docks leaves much to be desired, for it is there that most of the jute fibre trouble is caused, owing to the manner in which the packs are torn by hooks and then ruthlessly hacked about when being opened for inspection on the show-floors. A great many growers with comparatively small clips do their own classing, and in a highly satisfactory manner, as is proved, year after vear, by the high prices obtained for their clips. As we have previously pointed out, when it comes to returns per head the flockmaster who dips and feeds his sheep and skirts his fleeces carefully, not necessarily heavily, invariably outdistances his neighbour who does not do these things. Overclassing of wool is almost as bad as not classing at all ; nor is heavy skirting of the majority of fleeces necessary. It is advisable when the wool permits to make the lots as large as possible, while woolrollers should be made to use some judgment as to the skirting of fleeces, and not be allowed, as is too often the case, to tear the wool oft" whenever it happens to be hanging over the table. The rolling of the fleece is also most important, and it is desirable not to tie same even by twisting up the neck wool, while tying the fleece with any kind of twine is of course unpardonable, and. we are glad to say. now practically unheard of in Australasia. It is frequently argued by growers that their neighbours who do not skirt their wool at all get equally high prices per lb. This may, and does occasionally, occur, but it must be remembered that the man who does not class his wool as a rule does not attend to his flocks. They are frequently underfed, and consequently produce hunger-fine, light-conditioned wool, which may bring an even higher price per lb. than that from well-attended sheep ; but the price per lb. is not the test of merit. It is the average return per sheep. Taken collectively, the Victorian clip was a splendid one, the outstand- ing features being good length and body, with softness of handle. As compared with the previous season's wool, it was not so fine in quality. The Western District, which produces year after year wool which is incomparably superior to any grown elsewhere, on this occasion supplied rather a patchy clip ; while some wools were faultless, those from the wetter areas were not so well grown as usual, on account of excessive winter rains. Western Wimmera wools are second only to those grown in the Western District proper, whilst the Eastern Wimmera clip was well grown, sound and cleaner than usual ; in fact, this great cereal and fat lamb district pro- duced a much better clip than usual. The North-East is now so closely settled that most of the clips from that district are small, but with care really good wool is produced. Wools from the Central District were quite up to the average, whilst the Gippsland clips have not been so good for years, those from the north and east of this district having been particularly dry in condition. It is a great pity that so many of the Gippsland wools are ticky, but now that dipping is compulsory in Victoria, there should be a marked improvement in this respect in future. — Dalgetv' s Annual Wool Review for Australasia, 1909-10. ^26 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug.. 1910.- BUILDIXG HINTS FOR SETTLERS. The series of articles under the heading of " Building Hints for Settlers " has- proved, by the numerous letters received, of considerable interest. There are, however, many farmers and intending farmers who are not quite up to all the details of the work necessary for building, generally. A series of articles dealing with tools and their uses in the various branches of construction has been arranged, and the first of these, on Plumbing, appears below. — Editor. IX.— FARM PLUMBIXG— SELECTIOX OF TOOLS. C . 11 . Wriglii, Instructor in Plumbing. Eastern Suburbs Technical College. On a modern farm, improvements and breakdowns in connexion witii water supply and general plumbing work are of such frequent occurrence that the farmer has often to fall back on his own resources and effect the necessary repairs himself. It is surprising how the call for this work increa.ses, and such being the ca.se he must realize the fact that certain tools are necessary, and a little trouble taken in the selection and care of these will amply repay him. Good tools not only do better work than inferior ones, Ijut reduce the time taken on it. Remember, that just as a farmer must attend to his stock so should he give at least a little attention to his plant and tools ; for even good ones, if neglected, have a habit of falling into a state of rust and decay. It is also most important that he should be able to place his hand directly on the tool he requires, and not interrupt his job to look for it. That being so, have a place for tools and try to keep them in their places. To this we will refer later. Water pipes and fittings play such an important part in modern farming: that we will give the selection of water tools first consideration. Vices. — A pipe vice that is .strong, light and reliable, will be wanted. To .select a heavy cast metal article is to go back thirty years, for there are several modern vices that fill these requirements. The Chain Pipe Vice, costing 15s., is the latest idea, and is very quick in action. The Footprint vice made by the same firm as the well-known Footprint pipe wrench, made entirely of wrought iron and steel, takes up to 3-inch pipe and costs 17s. 6d. A popular vice is the Sectional Jaw pipe vice. It is made in three sizes, quick in action, and the teeth have four cutting edges. ^Vhen these are worn they can easily be removed from the body and ground straight again. The.se vices are all light and reliable and can readily be carried along with other tools. Stocks and Dies. — There is a fairly large variety of stocks and dies, both solid and adjustable, on the market. The latter are very u.seful tools in the hands of experts, but for several reasons the solid die is the type that the farmer should .select. The Walworth stocks and dies are light and strong, have a good cutting edge and are capable of doing a large amount of work. The handles can be unscrewed, and most important, the price is low, 27s. 6d. for the largest make, which screws from ij-in. to 2-in. pipe. The ChatwiiT .solid die, for .smaller work, screwing up to i inch, costs 47s. 6d. The Oster adjustable stocks and dies are u.seful tools in the hanrls of an expert, and are in fact the best threading tools obtainable, hut might only add to a farmer's worries ; for parts easily get lost, and rough handling may put it out of order. However, to any one who cares to give it fair play, it reduces the labour in threading pipes, e.specially in 2-incb TO Aug., 1910.1 Bi(ildi)!'-: Jrlinis for Sftilers. S'-l and upwards. Different sizes screw from ^r-in. to 4-in. pipe, and the prices range from 50s. to ^8 5s. Cutters. — Pine cutters are necessary and may consist of eitlier one wheel or three wheels. The advantage of three wheels over a single wheel is that one can cut a fixed pipe in an awkward corner, which is impossible with the single wheel. The Barnes cutters, in three sizes, cutting from •^ in. to 3 in. cost from 14s. to 27s. 6d. each. I. SET OF TOOLS FOR PIPE WORK UP TO 2 INCHEb. I. ^^■;^l^vorth stocks and dies i^-in. to 2-in. 2. Walworth stocks and dies, g-in. 10 I in. 3. Footprint pipe vice. 4, v Barnes pipe cutters. 6. Combination wrench. 7. Footprint pipe wrench. 8. Governor pipe wrench. Wrenches. — The Footprint is the universal w^rench of to-day, but it hat> one disadvantage — the screw eosily gets lost. An improved style is th ■ Governor pipe wrench, which has an adjustable nut to take the place uf the easily lost screw. Footprints are made in six sizes taking from i/i6-in. to 4-in. pipe. Prices run from is. 3d. to 9s. 6(1. The Governor, 9 inches Jong, grips up to 2\ inches, and costs 3s. 6d. 528 J.mniai of AgricuIiurL\ [lo Aug.. 1910 The combination wrencli is a strong serviceable wrench, combining all the qualities of a pipe wrench with the requisite combinations of a regular nut wrench, and a most useful tool for form work. It grips up to 2j-in. pipe, and ( (:)sts i is. 2. GENERAL PLUMBING TOOLS. I. Shavehook, used for cleaning old work, scraping solder, &c. 2. Twist drills, 5-in., 3/16-in., and g-in. 3, 4. Soldering irons. 5. Rivet set. 6. Prick punch for piercing sheet iron. 7. Dresser, for turning sheet iron. 8. Mallet. 9. Snips. 10. Gas pliers, 8 inches long. 11. Bell pliers for wire work. 12. Compass. There is a host of other pipe tongs, wrenches, &c., but a description of more of them is liable to confuse a beginner. It. however, must be understood that for pipe work it is necessary to have, at least, two pipe wrenches — one pair to hold the fitting and another to screw up the pipe. When screwing up large pipe, say from 3 to 4 inches, a pair of chain tongs gives the best grip and purchase; or a short piece of i^-in. to i|-in. pipe mav be slipped over the handle of the ordinary pipe grips. The latter will give a good leverage and make the work much easier. The lo Aug., 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 529 accompanying illustration shows a set of tools capable of doing pipe work up to 2 inches. General Plumbing Tools.- plumbing and odd job work, work can be done with a few several of those illustrated (p. The actual number of special that are not generally known their use. -Next come the tools required for general It is surprising what a large amount of plumber's tools. It will be noticed that 528) are required for carpentering as well, plumber's tools is about a dozen. Those are numbered and brief mention made of 3. TOOL CUPBOARD. Care of Tools. — Xow we come to an important item, the care of tools. To save time and annoyance each must have a place. A good method is to have representations of them painted on the wall where they hang, and have them arranged as shown in the illustrations on pages 527 and 528. A glance now and again will enable a constant check on them to be kept. We all know how easv it is to leave a tool behind after doing a job ; how a tool may be lent to a neighbour and forgotten until wanted in a hurry, and then when sent for, the neighbour has likewise forgotten it. He cannot find it, in fact he says he does not remember borrowing it; and so you manage with the next best thing you have, to the detriment of your work. Do not wait until this takes place. Keep your eye occasionally on the tool board and directly one is missed trace when and where it was last used. A still better plan is to make a cupboard out of |-in. T. & G. flooring, as shown in Fig. 3. Here, the water pipe tools can be arranged inside .similarlv to method illustrated on page 527. whilst the tools for general work can be hung on the doors. A cupboard of this description will keep the tools clean and under better control, as you can see the tool vou require at a glance and obtain it quickly without turning over a host of others to get at it. If it is not convenient to have a cupboard, fix a board of some sort, as large as possible, on the wall ; and any little time or trouble taken in arranging the tools will be amply repaid. 53° Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 1910. A word about the care of tools. The best plan is to oil them, not over the dirt — wipe that off first, and don't " spare the oil and spoil the tool," especially if they are rusty. All sorts of small material accumulate on a farm or in any workshop ; and a few hints on storing it may be useful. A good and cheap plan is to obtain some kerosene cases, place a partition in each and arrange them 4. BINS, MADE OF KEROSENE TINS, FOR SMALLER ARTICLES. like a cluster of pigeon holes. Cheaper still are kerosene tins ; cut one end out, turn cut edges inside and dress them down. Then arrange as in Fig. 4, and l)ind them together with 6-in. x i-in. flooring. X.— SHEEP DIPS. .4. S. Kcnvon, C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. The coming into force of the Sheep Dipping Act will render advisable, in many cases, the construction of dips. The accompanying illustrations show a variety of baths and yard arrangements, each of which has its good points and mav prove suitable to the special requirements of the case. Few detail drawings are given, as the arrangements shown may be varied to suit individuals. Many useful pamphlets on the subject are issued by the proprietors of the various dips on the market and some details have been borrowed from them. Except when it is desired to have a portable dip, it is advisable in practically all cases to make the swim or bath of concrete, and better still, of reinforced concrete. Concrete, although simply made and very effective, is only so when careful attention is paid to the details. The proportions of the various materials (metal or gravel, sand and Portland cement, depend upon the air voids or spaces in the metal or gravel, and upon the strength of concrete required. The mortar or " compo " of sand and cement should be sufficient in bulk to fill all the voids in the metal, preferably somewhat in excess. The voids can be found by filling a kero.sene tin with the inetal or gravel, which makes a bulk of four gallons; the whole is then weighed. Water is poured in until flush with the surface and the whole is again weighed. The difference in the two weights will give the void spaces in lo Aug., 19 io. Building Flints for Settlers. 531 532 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug., 19 io. 14? II I 1 i CO ^ Qi ^ f f I lbs. ; as a gallon of water weighs 10 lbs., the proportionate bulk of void spaces is thus arrived at. Great care should be taken in the selection of materials. The metal or gravel should be fairly strong, soft sandstones and lime- stones being avoided. The sand should be clean, sharp and coarse. Clay and loam intermixed are seri- ous drawbacks. Most brands of locally-made cement are reliable. A cask of cement contains slightly more than four cubic feet. As a rough and ready rule, one barrel of cement goes to the cubic yard of concrete. It must be borne in mind that practically one cubic yard of gravel or metal is required for one cubic yard of concrete, the cement and sand serving only to fill up the voids. For mixing, a platform or smooth space is re- quired. The sand, which should be dry, is first put on the mixing board and then the cement is added. The two are thoroughly mixed by being turned over with shovels. The metal is then added. jNIixing by shovelling is thoroughly done, after which water is added ; a watering can with a rose is best for the latter purpose. Shovelling is continued until the whole mass is sufficiently wetted, that is, when it is in a pasty condition, but not enough so as to run or be sloppy. Concrete must be used immedi- ately it is mixed. Care should be taken in ramming not to keep it up longer than the commencement of setting, a matter of a few minutes only. Any old work, including that finished the previous day, should be well wetted before add- ing fresh concrete. Except in very moist weather, the concrete should be kept damp by wetted bags or other means for a few days to allow the setting action to proceed properly. With the exception of the floor of exit slope, the concrete should have a smooth surface. To lo Aug.. iqio.] Building Hints for Settlers. 533 obtain this it may be necessary to use a mixture composed o£ two parts of sand to one of cement, filling in any voids and spreading the plaster evenly over the surface. This should be done as soon as pos.sible after the concrete is laid, first wet- ting the surface. Concrete may be greatly strengthened, and conse- quently thinner walls may be used, if it be rein- forced with iron or steel. One row of No. 8-gauge black fencing wire placed every 6 inches in height, and vertical wires about one foot apart, are all that is necessary. Walls thus strengthened need not b? thicker than 3 inches. Double this thickness would be necessary with- out the wire reinforce- ment. Boards must be used for forming the walls. Where boards are plentiful, a wall should be built in one day, add- ing board after board as the concrete is filled in to the top of each. The boards can be removed the following day and used for wall on opposite side. The top 6 inches of wall should be made about 9 inches wide to form a kerbing round bath, and the top of this should be at least 3 inches above the surrounding ground level. Of course, when cir- cumstances preclude, or sand and gravel are unob- tainable except at pro- hibitive cost, timber fram- ing and lining of good 534 Journal of Agriculture . [to Aug., 1910- thickness may be used, but it is perishable and may give trouble. A better plan is to use iron of i6-gauge or thereabouts on a timber or iron frame with tarred felt joints. As to the form of bath the general opinion seems- to favour a narrow swim, forcing the sheep to move in single file. For small flocks, however, there is much in favour of the circular bath ; any- how, whatever shape the bath there should be no corners. The circular bath is difficult to build and the one with curved sides is particularly so. The short iron bath of ri\-ete(l iron, which is portable, is very simple, but requires care in its u.se to insure complete dipping of the sheep. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of the sheep being an adequate length of time in the dip. It is also well to bear in mind when constructing that most dips require stirring up at intervals ; whatever design of bath is adopted should permit of this being done easily. No. I drawing is the plan of a long swim bath with " walk in "" entrance. This bath is suitable for a large flock. The race, which is level with the ground and connected with the " walk in," is 8 feet long by 16 inches wide. The " walk in " has a fall of one in two, ending in a drop 12 inches above bottom of bath. Its width, where connected with race, is same as race, 16 inches, and this gradually widens to 24 inches. No. 2 is a " long swim " bath with a slide entrance ; the race, starting from ground level and rising to a height of 3 feet, is 10 feet long. This ends in a slope having a fall of one in one, down which the sheep, being unable to obtain a foothold, slide gently into the bath. The end of bath bemg a continuation of this slope enables the sheep to slide down to the water-level without undue shock, whatever quantity of liquid may be in the bath. A curtain should be hung across the entrance to the bath, so as- to prevent the sheep from seeing the liquid. No. 3 is a long swim bath with slide entrance and decoy pen. The race rises in a similar manner to No. 2, but is continued for a few feet on the level and leads to a slide at right angles to race with a decoy pen on the opposite side. The decoy pen, being filled with sheep, induces the other sheep to come forward, and in trying to pass to the decoy pen they slide backward into the bath. The bath in this case is not in the same line as the race, and the width at the entrance is made somewhat larger to give more room for the entrance of the sheep. No. 4 is a circular bath. This is very suitable for .small flocks and can be worked by one man. The floor of catching pen should be laid with battens having a slight slope to bath; this will assist the operator in gently pulling the sheep into the bath. The sheep are kept in bath until thoroughly dipped, when a sliding gate at exit is pulled up and the sheep escape into the draining pens. No. 5 is a circular bath with a centre ]Mllar. This is suitable for a large- flock. The approaches to it are similar in all respects to those described in No. 3. The advantages claimed for this type of bath are that the .sheep, not being able to see the exit, do not make a wild rush to get out. Also, if the sheep has not been sufficiently dipped by the time it reaches the exit, the gate can be kept closed and the .sheep sent round again. No. 6 is a portable bath, suitable for the smallest flock, but capable of dipping a large number of sheep with a small amount of labour. It is constructed of 14-gauge galvanized iron ; the joints are double .soldered and riveted, i^-in. angle iron is riveted around the top to stiffen it, and 3-in. X I -in. battens are bolted to the exit slope to give a foothold to the .sheep.- lo Aug., 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 535 ^ = o to :::) - Q:) - ^ =: .^ : ^0. - ^ ^ - 1 u, ^ .-J t/3 ^ . 0- LONG 536 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Aug. 1910. ^^>^ J/DL //£h^ rzzi Ground Plan 0 10 2.0 30 40 50 K.J-'-Lhi..,.Hd-^THfaiJ-fciiHfciHid-^>kKii^ JC/JLf OF FEET 4. CIRCULAR BATH FOR SMALL FLOCK. JiDE View k5'4^'-^-i2^-'-4^ 24 f^f -^ I I /'Decoy pen Ground Plan 10 20 30 40 50 Scale of feet 5. CIRCULAR BATH WITH CENTRE PILLAR. lo Aug.. 19 io.] Biiildi II g Hints for Settlers. 537 THis bath should be tarred inside and out to preserve tlie iron. The entrance end is steep enough to prevent the sheep from getting a foothold, yet allows them to slide in gently when pushed backwards and is wide enough for the sheep to turn round and swim out after ineffectually trying to get out at that end. When dipping only a small number of sheep the draining wells mav be dispensed with, and the floor of draining pen made of solid board laid with a slope towards bath. No. 7 is a detail drawing of a slide and decoy pen. This is said to have worked very satisfactorily with the minimum amount of handling. The race, 16 inches wide with battened floor, rises to a height of 2 feet; it then has a slight downward tendency for about 5 feet, and the floor is covered with galvanized iron. About 2 feet before it reaches the slide, the race gradually becomes wider till it reaches the slide, which is at right angles to the race. The race is continued by a narrow footway at top of slide, starting with a width of 6 inches and widening to 15 inches as it reaches the decoy pen, which is on the opposite side of slide ; this footway and the slide are covered with galvanized iron. The sheep are prevented from seeing the liquid by a curtain hanging across the slide. It is not advisable to make the curtain out of material that will flap about in the wind, as this is often the cause of the sheep becoming frightened. The best way is to make a door of |-in. lining boards and hang it from a hori- zontal beam fixed at one end to race wall and continued in same line to decoy pen. This door can be easily pushed aside, as the sheep slides into the bath, and immediately comes back into position when the sheep has passed by. It is claimed for this slide that the sheep will move forward in the race without trouble and in attempting to get with the sheep already in the decoy pen will slide back into the bath. The narrow footway at top of slide seems to give confidence to the sheep and to work more satisfactorily than when the slide is continued right up to the back wall. The slide should be carried down as close to the lowest dipping level as possible. Draining pens are absolutely essential to every dipping bath. There should be two so that when one is full it can be closed and the other one worked. If it is intended to make a permanent floor, it should be of con- crete raised about 3 inches above surrounding ground level, its surface sloping from the centre line to the gutters formed on the outside of the pens. It is not advisable to have the floors very smooth, as the rough surface will prevent much of the droppings from being carried into the gutters and choking them. The gutters discharge into a well about 2 feet square, having a strong perforated zinc strainer fixed diagonally across it to intercept any droppings which may be carried into the well. The bottom of well should have a fall of 2 feet from entrance gutter to exit pipe. This pipe should run from bottom of well into the dipping bath below lowest dipping level. If a permanent floor is not required, a floor may be formed of battens, constructed in sections and raised about i foot above the ground. The battens should be laid across the direction of the swimming bath. Under the battens, corrugated iron is fixed sloping from the centre line to the outsides and draining into galvanized iron gutters fixed on the outside of pens. These gutters discharge into wells as above described for concrete floors. If the draining pens are not in a sheltered position, the posts should be suflSciently high to carry a temporary covering to protect the sheep, when standing in the draining pens, from the sun in hot seasons. No. 8 drawing shows sections of the various baths, detail of draining; well, and dipping utensils. 538 Journal of Agriculture [lo Aug., 1910. ^ 5-G -^ 3'. 6 ^¥r --y 0 0 ^ '3 0 5? 0 S CJ > > -*J 0 0 0 « 0 <1 < < < points. < < points. B^ some of tbeir lllses. 2s. 6d. Postage, Is. 2d. Second S\?stenmtic Census of Bustralian plants, witb Cbronolooic, Xiterar\?, an^ Geoorapbic Bnnotations. Part I., Vascuhires. 2s. Gd. Postage, iSd. Bative plants of Dictoria. is. 6d. Postage, 3d. Applications, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering Price and Postage, should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne, or to the Government Printer, Melbourne. Remittances from beyond the State to be made by Post Office Order. JUST PUBLISHED. ''The Smats of flustpalia: THEIR STRUCTURE, LIFE HISTORY, TREATMENT, AND CLASSIFICATION." D. McALPINE, GOVERNMENT VEGETABLE PATHOLOGIST, VICTORIA. 288 PP. CLOTH. 57 PLATES. 312 ILLUSTRATIONS. ►*»-e>«oooe»s»»s- Copies may be obtained from T5e: Depaptment of Hgplealtupe:, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. Price, 4s. ; Postage, 9d. APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering price . \) and postage, to be forwarded to *''?f y Z\\z Secretary for )^gricullure, jVIelbourne. (^ Remittances from beyond the State to be made by Post [g Office Order. "Is especially valuable." — Tonm and Country Journal. "A very comprehensive study of the whole subject of smut as it affects cereals and grasses." — Qitfenxlander. " The Department of Agriculture in Victoria deserves well of the Commonwealth for its detailed dealing with vegetable pests." — Adelaide Observer. "Mr. McAlpine's contributions to the scientific knowledge of Australia will prove a histing monument to his ability and diligence." — Western Mad. "The book, which is splendidly illustrated, supplies a felt want." — Hohart Mercury. " Gives a full history of each of the various smuts, which are the bane of the farmer's life." — Caiderhury Times. " Should pi-ove to agriculturists an invaluable book," — Life. Vol. VIII. SPRING FROSTS. ABORTION IN COWS. Part 9, [Registered at the General Post OflRce, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] DAIRYING WITH PURE STOCK. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription— Victoria, Inter-State, and N,Z., 3/-; British and Foreign, 6/-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— SEPTEMBER, 1910. PAGE. . Handling Grain in Bulk ... ... ... ... ... W. G. McRohtrb 549 Value of Pedigree in Seed Wheat .. ... ... ... J. T. Pridham 553 Dairying with Pure Stock ... ... ... E.J. Twrner 554 Abortion in Cows ... ... ... ... ... J. A. Gilruth 559 Checking and Controlling Swarming ... ... ... R. Beuhne 566 Pump and Water Measurement ... ... ... ... A. S. Kenyon 568 " .^cah " and Eel-worm in Potatoes ... ... ... E. S. Holmes .570 Building Hints for Settlers — XL Farm Plumbing— Odd Jobs ... ... ... C.H.Wright 583 Household Insect Pests (condMfZerf) ... ... ... C. French, jun. 5S8 Testing Lucerne Seed ... ... ... ... A. J. Eivart avd B. Rees 592 The Protection of Fish and Game ... ... .. ... J. M. Semmi'iis 595 Spring Frosts ... ... ... ... ... ... F. de Castella 597 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pencott 605 Answers to Correspondents .. .. ... ... .. 609 A Labour-saving Contrivance ... ... ... ... E. A. Ryland 610 Statistics— Quarter ended 30th June, 191U — Exports and Deliveries of Perishable and Frozen Produce... R. Crowe 612 Imports and E.xports of Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &e. ... J. G. Ttirner 612 Journal o/Ar/riculture — Copyright Provision.s and Suljscription Rates inside front carer Publications issued l)y the Department of Agriculture ... inside front cover Works by the late Baron Ferd. von Mueller — Revised Price List inside back cover The Smuts of A uslralia ... ... ... ... ... ... hade cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republiish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided th^ Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of tlie is.sue.s comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; III. (1905), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 19U5), out of print ; IV. (1906), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 7 (July, 1906), out of print; V. (1907), and VL (1908), 12 parts each, and VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. The parts forming the current volume may also be obtaineH. A few bound copies of Volumes VI. (1908), and VII. (19U9) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume; postage. Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Departnient of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3.s. per annum. Post free. Destructive Insects of Victoria. Parts I., 11., III., and IV. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage — Parts I. and II., -jd. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit- Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 165 pp., JO coloured plates. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia, By D. McAlpine. 5s. Postage, 8d. .Smuts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 4s. Postage, 9d. Systematic Arrangement of Australian Fungi. By D. McAlpine. 3s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Wj-eds, I'oison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. By Professor A. J. Ewart. 2s. 6d. Postage, od. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d. ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, Od. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d. i^er dozen. When ordering, mention "Monthly" or "Weekly." TH6 J0URNAI5 LIBRARY NEW YOkK BOT>AMCaL OARDHN. OF Y^e department of Hgricufture VICTORIA Vol. VIII. Papt 9. 10th Septembep, 1910. HANDLING GRAIN IN BULK.* ir. G. McRobcrt, Boidigo. The question .of handling grain by a better and more economic system than at present obtains not only in Victoria, but also in the Commonwealth, is an imperative necessity. If we intend to settle, with a vigorous and hardy population of wealth producers and real nation builders, also to develop with the best results the hidden wealth lying untouched in our almost limitless and unequalled agricultural areas ; if we intend to successfully compete with other grain producing countries in the effort to supply the human race with that important natural food product ; we must adopt the bulk and elevator system of our competitors, which has built up their immense trade and made them so successful in settling and developing their agricultural lands, and by means of which they are leav- ing us far behind, although we enjoy much better and indeed, unsurpassed natural conditions of life. Again, there are local impelling influences that are demanding better facilities, such as our great distance from the markets of the old world, the increasing price of land, the coming dual land tax of the State and Federal Governments, low yields per acre, the increasing cost of all kinds of labour, with shorter hours in the harvest field, and the annual loss on bags to hold each year's produce. All these conditions at once reduce the benefit of our cheap system of harvesting, as well as affecting and increasing the cost of production, and they can only be met by a saving in handling the grain. Our chief competitors are Canada, United States, Argentina, and Russia. All these countries handle and ship grain in bulk, using the eleva- tor system. The United States have solved, and Canada is rapidly solving, the question of settling their immense arable areas, under adverse condi- tions unknown to us, by aiding the settler in every possible way, and * Pa]3er read at the Convention of the Victorian Chamher of Agriculture held at Ballarat. 10446. U 550 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. getting his grain to market with the least expense and labour. The farmer there has to cut his crops with the reaper and binder, then thresh it mostly in the field, and cart the grain loose in a box waggon to the barn, where it is stored in bulk, bags being used only to convey it from the thre.sher to the waggon, and often dispensed with altogether, the grain being elevated direct into the waggon. The box waggon is simply a large box, strongly made, with a shoot in the side or bottom, capable of holding 100 bushels or more, and bolted on to the platform of the ordinary farm waggon. The barn is strong, wheat proof lined, and may be built on the silo prin- ciple, or square, according to suitable conditions, with a raised roadway on one side, so that the grain can be shot in from the box waggon near the roof. On the other side a sunken roadway is required to fill the waggon by gravitation from the shoots near the bottom of the barn, when carting the grain to the railway station. These two roadways do away with the need of machinery, to elevate the grain. Barns may be divided into bins, and a movable shoot directs the grain into any bin required, according to quality and cleanness. A country railway station has either an elevator capable of storing from ten to fifty thousand bushels, some with cleaning and automatic weighing machines, or raised platforms with sloping ends so that the box waggons may be drawn on to them; the shoot is then adjusted, and the grain runs by gravitation into the truck, emptying in a few minutes. The length of these platforms depends on the traffic at tlie station. The terminal elevator is at the port of shipment, and is capable of storing immense quantities of grain. Most of the cleaning is done there. The giant elevator of the world is at Port Arthur, on Lake Superior, in Canada, and is owned by the Northern Railway Company. It is capable of storing 7,000,000 bushels, and able to unload 30 trucks of 1,000 bushels each per hour. The charge for unloading, reloading, cleaning, weighing, and storing for fifteen days is half a cent or ^d. per bushel ; after that :^d. per bushel for every 30 days. The cost of an elevator depends on the storing capacity, and 6d. per bushel of storage will build a country one. The pneumatic system, which elevates the grain by suction, is considered the better and cheaper method, as the working cost per bushel is very small. The bins in this system are made of steel and are circular, thus giving perfect safety to the grain from fire and insects, while the loss of weight by evaporation is hardly noticeable. The Manitoban Grain Act, which is a masterpiece of legislation in the producers' interests, practically governs the handling of grain in Canada, and it requires the owner, lessee, or manager of any elevator, warehouse, or mill, al.so grain commission merchants and track buyers, to have an annual licence, find security bonds and keep books of all transactions in a form approved by the Commissioner. The charge for storage, cleaning, handling, insuring, receiving, and delivering is subject to such regulations or reductions as the Governor in Council from time to time deems proper. All grain is graded and weighed by officials, who fix the dockage and give a certificate showing the grade of the wheat. The dockage is the esti- mated loss on a bushel through cleaning. Wheat must be cleaned before shipment to Europe. In Canada in 1 900-1 901 there were 421 country elevators and five ter- minal elevators, with a storage capacity of 19,000.000 bushels. In 1909-10 country elevators had increased to 1766, and terminal, milling, lo Sept., 1910.] Hajidling Grain in Bulk. 551 and transfer elevators to 36, storing a total of 94.000,000 bushels. Canada, by tliis method of handling grain, is fast becoming the great wheat pro- ducer of the Western World, despite her rigorous climate. For the last five years her wheat yield axeraged 124,000,000 bushels, and in 1909 it was 166.000.000 bushels — 58,000,000 bushels more than in 1905. Of this loi.ooo.ooo were exported in bulk. Great Britain taking 77.000,000. It must be remembered that Canada makes good use of her lake system, for the lake boats come down through the Welland Canal to Montreal, where transfer elevators put the grain into the ocean-going steamers. The distance from Fort William or Port Arthur, on the north-western end of Lake Superior, where the chief ter- minal elevators are. to London, is 4,100 miles, and Canada lands her wheat in England for 8| cents, or 4^d. per bushel, from out West. We have better natural facilities for handling grain in bulk on our railways than our competitors and the first great advantage of this method to our farmers would be the saving of the purchase of bags to hold each year's produce. The loss on bags on this year's yield of 28,800.000 bushels, at 4d. per bag, is ^155.000 for wheat bags alone, and the loss on bags for oats and barley should be considered, as all cereals would be handled by this system; that is averaging the bags at 5s. 6d. per dozen to hold 186 lbs. of wheat, .selling it at 3s. 9d. per bu.shel, and allowing 2 lbs. for each bag. This is a fair estimate, I think, and it means a loss of ijd. per bu.shel, or ^17 per thousand bags, to the farmer. This money would be much better spent in building a wheat and vermin-proof storage barn on the farm than in the bag-maker's pocket ; and while admitting that the present small bag has made handling easier, it has really intensified the evil, as outside of wheat it is a useless bag to the farmer for his other work. The second is the saving of human lab;jur in the field by doing away with bag-.sewing and the work of carting the bags to the farm yard and stacking them there for safety after or during harvest. This is over- come by the team in the morning taking the box waggon to the field and the driver emptying the bags from the harvester into the waggon. The team pulls it to the barn at the dinner hour, and the wheat is shot in, and so on every dav. This practice safeguards the grain of each day. Again, in carting to the railwav station, the waggon is fibed from tbp shoots or spouts in the barn, and at the station the wheat is either .shot straight into the truck from an elcA'ated platform or into a ground-level bin at the elevator, the loading and unloading of a waggon taking only a few minutes, with no delay to other teams. A third saving is, or should be, a lower scale of freight and handling charges, through quicker loading and unloading and despatch of trains, with little chance of a grain block at country or terminal railway stations, also in the loading and despatching of vessels. A fourth is a better price for wheat through its being a cleaner and a uniform sample. Again, a buyer has a much better chance of judging the wheat in bulk than in bags, and it dees away with the antiquated f.a.q. standard. A fifth is a saving in the loss of grain by leakage from bags and from stacks ; also freedom from damage by exposure to the weather. Bulk wheat keeps better than bagged — the greater the bulk the less shrinkage in weight and damage by insects or vermin. A sixth saving is the doing away with u 2 552 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. the present method of truck weighing, which is as unsatisfactory as the single bag method of former years. All these benefits are possible, and the primary producer is justly en- titled to specially favourable consideration from the Railway Department for on his success its success depends. One of the main questions that greatly concerns us, and on which the success of the system depends, is the practicability of shipping bulk wheat over a great distance, but Argentina adopted the system in 1900, and last year exported in bulk 70,000,000 bushels of wheat and 18,000,000 bushels of oats, against 23,000.000 bushels of wheat and 6,000,000 of oats in bags, the latter going to ports with no elevator accommodation. Another important question is the value of wheat in bulk and in bags. The Commonwealth Year Book for 1907 gives the following average prices in London : — Per Quarter. ^ s. d. I s. d. Bagged wheat (Australian)... i 13 8 Atlantic Coast ... ... i 13 9 Pacific Coast ... ... i 11 9 Argentina ... ... ... i 11 6 Bulk wheat (Canadaj ... i 14 o The advantage, if any, is in favour of bulk wheat. Again, the Royal Commission which, ten years ago, took evidence on this system of handling grain, admitted the efficiency and economy of the method, also the improvement effected in the quality of the wheat, but reported that " In- sufficient wheat was produced. Ports possessing facilities for handling wheat in bulk too limited, and its effect on vested interests too great." However, all these objections are now, or should be, obliterated, as the improved methods in cultivation have increased the yield, so as to leave an average exportable surplus for the five-year period ending 1909-10 of 14,000,000 bushels, equal to the whole average production for the five- year period ending 1901, when the Commission sat, and the Common- wealth yield has increased from 48,000,000 bushels in 1901 to 91,000,000 in 1909 ; also, owing to the growing trade in bulk wheat, all the principal ports in importing countries have elevators, while there is now among ship- ping companies an eagerness to cater for Australian trade, which did not exist ten years ago. In conclusion, it is with great pleasure that I now quote the Minister for Public Works in his address to his constituents at the Echuca Town Hall, on the 24th May last. He said : — " We recognise it is the duty of the Government to create the best facilities for shipping produce, and to enable the producers to put their stuff on the markets of the world at a rtiinimum of cost, so that they will be able to compete with producers in other countries. The Government is alive to this responsibility." Here is a recognition by a Minister of the Crown of what the farmer has been urging for many years, and it is earnestlv hoped that the first facility to be created will be the handling and shipping of grain in bulk. lo Sept., 1910.] Tlir \alue of Pedigree in Seed Wheat. 553 THE VALUE OF PEDIGREE m SEED WHEAT. /. T . Pridliam, \Ylicat Experinieiifalist. A prominent feature of the work of the Wheat Improvement Committee at the Longerenong Agricultural College is the production of selected or pedigreed stocks of grain of the best varieties. While it is proposed to increase the average wheat yield by breeding new varieties, we cannot over- look the importance of maintaining the best of the old varieties up to a high yielding standard until their place is taken by superior kinds. The sowing of wheat more or less thickly in rows by means of the modern seed-drill makes individual differences in the wheat plants by no means easy of detection. Where improvement is sought for, the individu- ality of the wheat plant is often overlooked and the selection of a number of large ears gathered here and there through the crop made the basis of a fresh start with the variety. Large ears do not always spring from a prolific plant so that mere size of ear is not a safe guide. In the case of maize, more attention has been given to seed selection than with the wheat crop, and growers readily agree that the best practice is to pick out the finest cobs for a seed plot to provide for field sowings. Even better results are secured by sowing the grains from each of the best cobs separately, thus securing a high-yielding strain from a single individual. The best results of all are obtained when the alternate rows are detasselled, thus preventing possible self-fertilization, and all barren plants in the field cut out to prevent their pollen inoculating prolific plants. If wheat plants be isolated, each grain being sown separately as peas in a row, the individual differences at once become apparent ; and wheat lends itself more easily than maize to improvement as each plant inocu- lates itself and reproduces its own characteristics without being affected by its neighbours. Cases of natural cross-fertilization are known to occur, but where pure pedigree seed is used little harm will result. In the moist climate of England natural crossing is extremely rare — only three cases have been re- corded ; but on the Continent of Europe it occasionally happens in warm weather, and in India, Howard*, of the Department of Agriculture, says five cases have recently come under notice at Lyallpur. Last season, no less than six cases were detected at Longerenong, the seed having been obtained from plants growing in field crops the previous season. New light is thus thrown on the notoriously impure nature (to the trained eye) of seed which has been left to reproduce itself year after year without selection. On most farms, two or more varieties of wheat are grown and, unless the drill and har\ester are thoroughly cleaned out before starting on a fresh variety, there will be admixture. Other sources of im- purity are the transference of grains from one part of a paddock to another in the process of harrowing after the drill when the soil is sticky ; catching the edge of an adjacent variety in the harvester comb when turning; the carrying of grain by birds ; the u.se of bags which have held wheat before and have not been turned ; and the bagging up of loose grain from the floor of the shed where wheat of more than one variety has been stacked. Any variety of wheat will become more or less mixed unless the stock of seed is renewed after a time from a pure source. * Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India.— A. Howard, M.A., and Col. C. Howard, M.A., May, 1910 554 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. In 1908. when the work was started by the Department at this College, a crop of Federation was thinned out to single plants standing about 6 inches apart to the number of about 2,500. From these at harvest time the best six plants were selected and their weight of grain in each case recorded. In 1909 the produce of each plant was sown separately in rows I foot apart, the grains being planted at every six inches. From these six strains of Federation the best plants were respectively chosen and weighed separately as before, the strain showing the highest average yield being retained for sowing. This season we have enough seed to sow at least three-quarters of an acre, so that next harvest we should secure, given a fair season, enough seed to put in 10 — 15 acres with the seed- drill, all descended from the single plant harvested in 1908. In order to test the value of the selected seed, it was determined to sow alongside it samples of seed from a crop that had not been subjected to the process. Mr. D. Jones, of Haycroft, Nhill, had a fine crop of Federation in 1908 and some prolific good plants were marked in his paddock and harvested separately, taking care to obtain in each case only the stalks springing from a single set of roots. These were sown in 1909, with the result that only two out of the eleven strains compared favourably with the selected Federa- tion in adjacent drills. Hays,* of Minnesota, considers, from the results of his experiments in the improvement of Bluestein wheat, that a 25 per cent, increase in ten years is by no means unreasonable to expect in a gwen district. Yandilla King and Bunyip are going through this process and to a small extent, College Purple Straw and Comeback. While we aim at increasing the yield, the grain must also be of sufficient apparent milling quality. It has been shown that .selection, as thus practised, has far greater value than change of seed from one district to another. No amount of change of seed would account for the increase in yield of the improved varieties of maize that have been produced of late years. Neither would heavy manuring, nor the most admirable methods of cultivation, have produced the increa.se without the process of selection. It has been often claimed that good cultivation and judicious manuring are the main factors for success in wheat-growing. Admitting this, it must be acknowledged that the seed itself is a very important factor, for with the best methods of farming it is impossible to obtain maximum yields from a crop of wheat plants which vary more in productiveness than the men of a country do in height. The principles of breeding in plants are fundamentally the same as in the case of animals, and while no farmer would be indifferent to the mating of his stud draught mares, or to the selection of stud rams for his flock, it has not yet occurred to him to give the same consideration to the raising of a stock of prime seed wheat. DAIRYING WITH PURE STOCK. E. J. Turner, Dairy Supervisor. Of the farms in the Fern Tree Gully Shire which supply milk to Mel- bourne, for retail distribution, Messrs. Selman Bros., Willow Vale Farm, near Lower Fern Tree Gully, is conspicuous. This farm is situated in a * Bulletin No. 29. U.S.A. Department of .\i,Tioulture. Plant-liieedinff, by W. M. Hays. lo Sept., 1910.] Dairying with Pure Stock. 555 556 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept.. 1910. fertile valley between the township of Fern Tree Gully and Lysterfield, and viewed from the surrounding hills makes a very pretty picture. There are in all 922 acres in this property, which is divided into several pad- docks ; 200 acres are rich black creek flats, and the remainder is more or less hilly country and poorer in quality. The hilly country is still in its natural grass, but the flat land has been sown with English grasses ; rye grass and white clover now predominating. About 7 acres of the flat land are in lucerne and 60 acres of oats are grown every year on the poorer hill land towards Lysterfield. By manur- ing and early .sowing, the crops obtained are very fair, averaging 50 cwt. of hay to the acre. Maize is sown each year on the creek flats and, as might be expected, some very heavv yields are obtained. Several varieties ■ ■ A.WKll A .^ I'i'JIDE. of maize have been sown, and no great difference is noticed in the growth, the average of which will run from 15 to 20 tons per acre. The lucerne is cut, and fed to the cows in the stalls, as soon as the grass is getting dry, and this keeps the milk supply up till the maize is fit to cut. When this latter crop is matured, it is harvested to the silos of which there are two overground, with a combined capacity of 120 tons. The maize is chaffed and delivered into the silos by elevator, the power being provided by a 6 h.p. oil engine. It is within the last three years that the silos have been erected on this farm, and as the silage has gradually done away with the necessity of growing mangolds this latter crop has been gradually reduced. Mangolds constitute a splendid standby on the farm where no silage provision is made, but the length of time they take in maturing, and the work of cultivating and harvesting root crop-s, is so much more tedious than with a fodder crop, like maize, that to some extent the mangold is gradually being superseded, for dairy stock. 10 Sept., 1910.] Dairying luith Pure Stock. 557 Following on advice from officers of the Dairy Supervision Branch, one silo was erected in 1907, and another in the following year, and the results from their use have been very satisfactory. No concentrated food is found necessary with this silage, and in July last 55 cows, on pastures and maize silage alone, were giving 103 gallons of milk daily, which speaks well for the quality or the fodder. Besides growing all the fodders re- quired for the farm use, there is usually enough hay to allow of a surplus being sold; in the autumn of 1908, the cash receipts from this source ran into a substantial amount. The creek running through the property provides permanent water for the stock, and as the Dandenong service pipe from Monbulk passes through the farm, this supply is made use of for the requirements of the farm. MADGE II. The work of the farm is mainly dairying, but the stock kept are all high-class Ayrshires, and considerable trade is done in the sale of pure stock of this breed. The " Willow Vale" cattle have a very wide, and sound reputation, both for show purposes and milk production, and about 30 calves from the best stock are raised each year, to support this out- side demand for breeding stock. Some idea of the robust type of this strain of Ayrshire stock can be gained from the accompanying photographs. With the assistance of two employes, the work of the farm is carried out by the Selman family, and each section of the work is under the direct supervision of one of the firm. A herd of 90 cows is kept, and of these, 70 are usually in milk. During 1908 the milk produced by the whole herd amounted to 42,057 gallons, or an average of 467 gallons per cow, which for the number of cows, inclusive of heifers, is a very creditable yield. The cash return from this yield amounted to £,1,6^^^ 2s. 7d., or an average of about ;^i8 2s. Jo anal of Agriadture. [lo Sept., 1910. 559 lo Sept., 19 io.] Aboriiofi in Cows. per cow. When it is remembered that this was obtained in an exceptionally dry .season, and without purcha.se of any foodstuff and was thus practically all profit, it is a striking example of what can be obtained from dairy farm- ing with pure-bred stock. ABORTIOX IN COWS. At the recent Convention of the Victorian Chamber of Agriculture, held at Ballarat, Professor Gilruth, of the Melbourne University Veterinary School, delivered an address on Abortion in Cows. A report bv our representative is here given. — Editor. Professor Gilruth introduced the subject by remarking that although all animals might abort from various causes such as injury, excitement, digestive arrangement, diseases of the womb (especially tuberculosis) and fever conditions, yet as far as the cow is concerned, in the great majority of cases, abortion is due to a specific microbe, and is a contagious disease ; that in fact, whenever a cow aborts, no matter how evident the cause may appear to be, it is the safer plan for the farmer to treat the animal as if she were affected with the contagious form. So far as the history of the disease is concerned it appears to have been well known as early as the eighteenth century, for we find writers of that date speaking of it as being so contagious, that in certain parts of Europe every precaution was taken to prevent pregnant cows even walking over a place where an abortion had lain or been carried. Curiously enough the theory of contagion seemed, during the first three quarters of the nineteenth century, to have been entirely discarded, and the old theories as to causation, such as bad odours and improper feeding, reverted to. In explanation of the evident fact, that where one cow aborted others in the same herd or shed were almost certain to soon follow suit, the theory of a "sympathetic imitation" was propounded. Thes^ theories, however, were seriously upset thirty years ago, when it was demonstrated that the discharges from an affected animal, if introduced into the vagina of a pregnant animal, would produce abortion in her almost without fail. Later on a commission of scientific men, who were intrusted with the investigation of the disease in Scotland, at the instance of the Highland and Agricultural Society, repeated these experiments with success, and further proved that the disease could be transmitted by the injection of a small quantity of the discharges from an aborted cow under the skin of a healthy pregnant cow. In 1897, Profes.sor Bang, of Copenhagen, after much experiment, finally succeeded in isolating and cultivating on artificial material, the actual cause — a small bacillus — and reproducing the disease at will by means of artificial cultures. Further, during the past three or four years, the Board of Agriculture in Great Britain has been conducting an important series of investigations regarding the disease, and has thrown much light upon the subject. Prevalence. The disease is very prevalent in all parts of Europe, particularly in those di-stricts where the dairying industry is extensively pursued. Even in Australia and New Zealand it is by no means unknown. In the latter country, the lecturer had observed its spread throughout the length and breadth of the country, and had seen how much harm it could do to the 560 journal of Agriculture. [10 Sept.. 1910. dairying industry, although, fortunately, the disease is now completely under control there, and now does little damage. Animals Affected. The disease, as a contagious disease, chiefly affects cows, although outbreaks are noted from time to time amongst sheep, and occasionally epidemics of abortion have been recorded in studs of mares. As to whether it is the same microbe that produces the disease in each of these animals is not yet known, but experiments have proved that the bacillus which causes bovine abortion will actually produce the same disea.se in sheep. Symptoms. The symptoms manifested by an animal about to abort are extremely slight ami indefinite in the majority of ca.ses. Often none whatever are manifested, and this may even apply to experimental cases, for fre- quently the only evidence of the trouble is the presence of the aborted foetus found lying behind the mother in the morning. At other times, however, a general uneasiness may be observed, there m.ay be a rapid swelling of the udder, a slight discharge of slimy, sometimes blood-tinged material from the vulva, but generally nothing more definite. As a rule, the owner of animals which are not housed is made aware that a case of abortion has occurred by finding the immature foetus on the ground, or by noticing a cow with an unexpected flow of milk and .some discharge from behind, staining the tail. The general condition of the animal is .so little disturbed that otherwise she remains quite normal. The reason of this is not difficult to find. If an animal which has just aborted be slaughtered, and carefully examined, it will be .seen that the only disease changes which have occurred are in the lining membrane of the womb. Even then one only observes a small quantity — sometimes so small as to be readily overlooked — of a !ight-browni.sh or dark coloured sticky semi-fluid material. Sometimes the "cotyledons" or raised areas mav be pulpy looking and yellowish, but this is not always to be ob.served. Shortly, the conditions that exist are simply due to a slight catarrhal inflammation of the womb. Even the aborted foetus is usually quite normal, as are the covering membranes. Occasionally, however, the foetus may be partially mummified, due to the fact that it has been dead some time before expulsion. Methods of Infection. T\\n microbe which causes the disease is practically only to be found in the sticky exudate which covers the inside of the womb and the surface of the membranes or cleansings. It will therefore be seen that the chief means whereby the disease is spread are the discharge which is apt to be persistent for some time after the cow has aborted, and the [jortions of the abortion, particularly the cleansings. It has been proved that the microbe may retain its vitality and virulence for a period of six months, provided it is kept moist and away from the sunlight. As the membranes may lie upon the ground in a shady place and not become thoroughly dried, it is obvious that unless they are discovered and destroyed they may remain for a considerable period a source of further infection. Under experi- mental conditions it has been proved that one very certain means whereby the germ may gain entrance into the system is along with the food supply, and as cows are very prone to chew all sorts of material, and particularly liable to congregate where any blood-stained matter is to be found, the danger of leaving the membranes undestroyed becomes doubly obvious. lo Sept.. 1910.] Abortion in Coivs. 561 One point of great importance is tiie fact tliat cows wliich abort when they are well advanced in calf are apt to retain portions of the cleansings, and these portions are expelled at irregular intervals as they break down within the womb. This is accompanied by a more or less continuous slimy discharge. Such a cow naturally becomes for a long period a source of infection for others, and not only that, but she is almost certain to contaminate the bull, who although himself not suffering from any diseased condition, .thus becomes the carrier of the germs to other cows. The result is that other cows served by such bull, very often either fail to conceive, or having conceived, abort at such an early date, that this is only shown by their manifesting again a desire for the bull, when that is unexpected. In other words, the disease is very apt by this means, to develop into what may be termed a contagious form of sterility, or barrenness. The lecturer detailed what he had found to be a common history of the introduction and the result of the disease in various herds : — A dairy factory becomes established in a district where formally dairying was not actually much in vogue. Various farmers agree to supply the factory with milk, and it becomes necessary for them to increase their herds in order to do so. The sale yard is visited and cows purchased from various sources. Shortly after the introduction of these cows to the herd one aborts ; other cases, at various intervals, may follow. As the cows are perhaps near the time of calving, the exact date of which is not known, and they give a certain supply of milk, probably little atten- tion is paid to the circumstance, especially as the calves may be of little value to the owner. The aborted cow or cows, in due course, are put to the bull ; they do not conceive, but come in heat again later on. Meanwhile, other cows have calved in the natural way. These are served by the same bull, and also become barren, or abort within a few -weeks of conception. The result is that the owner sees a bad outlook for next year, for although some of them may ultimately get in calf, many do so at such a late period that it means a loss of the milk supply for next year, through the cows calving late in the season. Too often the owner considers the fault to lie solely with the bull. Imagining he is impotent, the owner turns him into the sale yard, where he is bought by some other unsuspecting dairyman, and so spreads the seed of trouble in a new herd. This phase of the contagious form of barrenness, or sterility, becomes thus, m many dairying districts, a more serious condition than the phase of actual abortion, for the season's milk supply of a cow is often worth as much, if not more, than the cow herself. The lecturer had known of cases where farmers had found it impossible to get more than 20 or 30 per cent, of their cows in calf, entirely as a result of this condition. Natural and Acquired Immunity. Returning to true abortion, or the actual expulsion of the immature foetus, it was pointed out that apparently no pregnant cow was naturally immune, or free from the possibilities of aborting as the result of infection. It had been observed, however, that after one and especially two attacks had been completely recovered from, the animal was very unlikely to abort for a third time, this being evidently due to a definite degree of immunity having been acquired. Experimenters had thought that it might be possible to artificially confer such immunity, and experiments were now under weigh to test a definite plan of so doing. It has been found that an empty non-pregnant cow may withstand with impunity enormous doses of artificial cultures of the abortion bacteria, introduced by the mouth, or under the skin. He ^62 journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 19 io. himself had injected several ounces of cultures containmg myriads of germs under the skin of non-pregnant cows without producing the slightest evidence of any disturbance. Experiments were at present being carried out in Great Britain and to a small extent here, with the intention of pro- ducing an immunity by such injections. It was of course necessary to treat the cows .some months before they were served, otherwise barrenness might result before the animal had time to completly get rid of the germs introduced and so become immune. Nothing definite could be said at present further than that from the reports he had received the indications were hopeful. Segregation of Infected from Non-infected. Another point of importance was the fact that an animal on being contaminated by the germ of abortion might not abort for a ^■ery long period afterwards. As a matter of fact it had been shown that as a rule a month elapses between the time of actual infection and actual abortion, and that in some cases several months might elapse. It is clear that there must always be a great diflficulty in knowing which cows are likely to abort and which are not. In other words, it becomes impossible to separate those which are actually clear of the disease fiom those which may contain the germs. Yet, were such a separation possible, manifestly much could be done to stamp out the disease in a herd Recently, the British investigators have prepared a material which they term '' abortin, " which the'y hope may be used for this purpose. Abortin is prepared from sterilised cultures of the abortion microbe, much in the same way as tuberculin is prepared from sterilised cultures of the tuber- culosis microbe. Abortin is applied much in the same way as tuberculin, that is, it is injected under the skin in small doses. ]f the animal has aborted recently, or if she contains the germs of abortion, and so is likely to abort in the near future, the injection of the abortin is followed in from six to twelve hours by a definite rise of the body temperature, which can be detected by the thermometer. Animals which have not aborted, and which do not contain the germ of abortion are totally un- affected in any way by the abortin. It will be seen that if further experiments bear out these conclusions, a definite means will be placed at our disposal, by the use of which a herd may be divided into two groups at any moment, and so at least the further spread of the disease may be stopped by the prevention of fre.sh con- tamination. Treatment of Infected Animals. As to treatment of animals which have been exposed to infection, that is to say, the treatment of a herd in which abortion had appeared, atten- tion has been drawn to the supposed value of carbolic acid, administered either by the mouth, or under the skin. The lecturer failed to see how much good could be expected from such treatment. The germ, to be killed, is present in the womb. It is more resistant to the action of carbolic acid than are the cells of the blood of any animal, yet, either from the intestine, or from the tissues under the skin, the drug can only reach the womb by way of the blood stream, in which it must necessarily be so diluted as to be harmless at least for the blood. In other words, if any antiseptic were strong enough to kill the germ in the womb, it should be likely to do harm to the system before reaching there. In experimental cases, where it was known the microbes were actually present — having been artificially introduced — the carbolic acid treatment had failed. In one case the administration of a total quantity of 8 ozs. of pure carbolic lo Sept., 1910.] Abortion in Cows. 563 acid, distributed over a period, liad failed to prevent the animal aborting. Nevertheless, it was admitted that in some experiments made by the Veterinary Department here, under the direction of Dr. Cameron, the in- dications were, that direct injection into the blood stream of small quan- tities of carbolic acid was of some value. So that at present the use of carbolic acid could by no means be condemned. Prevention. The lecturer was of opinion that those who at present had no ex- penence of the disease, should take every precaution to prevent its intro- duction. This could be best done by being extremely careful in the purchase of bulls and cows. As to those in whose herds the disease had appeared, with his present experience of the disease, he could not, he felt, do better than recommend in their entirety the methods which had been found to be successful in New Zealand, where the disease was reduced to a minimum, although it w^as estimated at one time that the annual loss to dairymen in that country was between ^100.000 and ;^200,000. The treatment recommended had now^ become part of the usual routine of the vast majority of dairy farmers in New Zealand, there being few who do not keep in hand the necessary appliances, and who do not treat — especially all newly purchased cows — in the manner indicated. The following is an extract of a leaflet prepared by Profes.sor Gilruth, when Chief Veterinarian in New Zealand : — Treatment. 1. Whenever a cow actually aborts, search immediately for the foetus and destroy it by burning it on the spot where it lies if possible. If this is not feasible it should be buried deeply. 2. Thoroughly dig up the ground on which the foetus has lain, together with an area of say 3 yards on every side of it, and saturate the surface with a liberal quantity of non-poisonous .sheep dip, or other safe disin- fectant. 3. Isolate the cow and keep her isolated for at least two weeks, using a temporary bail, if necessary, for milking purposes. Meanwhile remove any remains of cleansings from the womb, and apply treatment by irriga- tion as described hereinafter. 4. In the case of a cow failing to conceive and returning to the bull after short intervals, treatment by irrigation should be applied, as de- scribed later. 5. Where several cows in a herd abort, or keep returning to the bull, it is found to be absolutely necessary, in order to prevent the spread of the trouble, and to insure its complete eradication, that not only these cows, but every cow in the herd should be treated. 6. /;/ all cases the bull shoidd be treated. Material Required. From our experience the antiseptic drug, which best combines efficacy with simplicity of application is mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate). This drug is for such purposes as this put up in flat circular pellets, each containing a definite quantity (8.75 gr.). We have found the " soloids " prepared by Messers. Burroughs, Wellcome, and Co., to be undoubtedlv reliable, having now despatched from this laboratory nearly 100,000 of these, and up to the present the few complaints we have received have been undoubtedly traced to improper or careless administration on the part of the operator. 5^4 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. In addition to the pellets of mercurial chloride, it is also necessary to be provided with a 3-/6'6>i; length of stout india-rubber tubing of h-inch diameter and a small funnel either of glass or enamelled metal. Neither the drug nor its solution must on any account be allowed to come into contact with plain metal on account of its strong chemical action on sucli material. Also, for use in the treatment of the bull, an ordinary enema syringe with vulcanite fittings should be obtained. IRRIGATING VAGINA OF IN-CALF COW AS A PREVENTIVE OF ABORTION. IRRIGATING WOMB OF COW WHICH HAS ABORTED. ENEMA SYRINGE FOR IRRIGATING SHEATH OF BULL. The Strength of the .solution of mercurial chloride to be used is as follows: — {a) For cows ivliich are repeatedly returning to the bull, or are appar- ently .sterile, i in 1,250. This can be conveniently prepared by dissolving one pellet in an ordinary {clear glass) whisky bottle of water, which has been boiled and allowed to cool to about blood heat. {b) For a bull, a solution of the same strength (i in 1,250) should be used. (c) For cows w'hich have just aborted, a weaker solution (i in 2,500) should be used and applied once daily for three successive days, and at bi-weekly intervals afterwards if there be any discharge from the vagina. This solution can be made by dissolving one pellet in two ivhishy bottles- full of water. (d) For in-calf cows more than tlirec months pregnant which are to be treated as a preventive measure, the solution (i in 2,500), as in paragraph (c) should be used. lo Sept., 19 io.] Abortion in Cows. 565 Unless in the case of an actually aborted coiv 07ie application only is necessary if properly carried out. 7' he Method of Procedure in Treating Cows. 1. Boil for five minutes the tube with the funnel inserted into one end, and then apply to the outside of the tube a dressing of salad oil or good lard. 2. ^^'ash the hands and arms thoroughly in hot water to which a disinfectant has been added. 3. Place the free end of the piping by means of the hand gently into the womb (or in the case of an in-calf or sterile cow, as far up the vagina as possible without undue force being used) taking care not to injure the lining membranes. During insertion, the curve of the tubing is better turned downwards. 4. Hold the outer end of the tubing with the funnel about 6 inches above the root of the cow's tail. 5. Pour the solution of mercuric chloride, as described, gently into the funnel and so thoroughly irrigate the parts. If the fluid does not run fairly freely from the tube the inner end need only be moved gently to and fro to secure a free flow. The intention is to thoroughly irrigate every portion with the solution. 6. Thoroughly wash down the parts from the root of the tail to the bottom of the udder with some of the same solution at that used for irrigating. 7. Release the animal immediately after irrigation so that excess of fluid may not be retained. TJie Method of Procedure in Treating a Bull. Place the animal in a crush-pen or otherwise secure him in such manner that he may be readily handled without danger. Then grasp the prepuce (or sheath) by the left hand and pass the nozzle of the syringe inside the sheath, afterwards holding it in position with the same hand, then with the right hand pump into the sheath a quantity of the solution, sufficient to thoroughly irrigate the parts. Note. — Be certain that the whole of the pellet is thoroughly dissolved before using the solution as any undissolved particle lodging in the lining membrane of the vagina or womb would cause intense irritation. Caution. — In connexion with this treatment it is necessary to re- member that 7nercuric chloride is a highly poisonous drug if swallowed, and therefore every care should be exercised in order to prevent accidents. 5^6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. CHECKING AXD CONTROLLING SWARMING. R. Beuline, President, Victorian Apiarists' Association. The swarming season is again close at hand and bee-keepers should take steps now to prevent as far as possible excessive swarming of their colonies. One of the greatest inducements to swarm is the want of addi- tional comb space in colonies which have bred up early. Where supers have been taken off for the winter, as they should be, it is necessary to replace them on the hives as soon as, or even a little before, all the combs of the brood-chamber are covered with bees. If supers have been left full, on the hives, some of the combs heavy with honey may be removed and replaced by empty ones. In most localities it is best not to insert honey boards between brood chambers and supers till the swarming season is over. The queen-exclud- ing honey board checks the expansion of the brood nest by restricting the queen to the combs of the lower story. As bees do not readily pass into combs from which the queen is excluded the brood chamber becomes too crowded with bees and swarming results. The greater the comb sur- face available for brood rearing, the less inclination there is to swarm. But this comb surface must consist of finished empty combs; giving ^t super of frames with starters, or even full sheets of foundation, has very little effect in checking swarming. A sufificient supply of drawn combs is a valuable asset in an apiary during a honey flow ; but particularly at swarming time. When drawn combs are not available and bees require additional combs, the check to expansion, resulting from putting a set of empty frames over the brood chamber, may be minimized to some extent by taking one or two combs from the lower box and putting them into the centre of the upper story with the frames of foundation alongside ; brood should not, however, be shifted up into the super unless the colony is suflficiently strong and the weather mild. As the combs required for supering and for hiving swarms are wanted before the conditions are favourable for drawing foundation into combs, a supply for the next season's requirements should be created during the summer or autumn honey flow. If done then, in the right way, it may be accomplished without adversely affecting the development of colonies and the yield of honey. Whatever may be done to prevent excessive swarming by the timely addition of supers of empty combs there will still be a considerable number of swarms, when the strain of bees kept is of the common black variety or of a mixed description. The percentage of swarms to the number of colonies is also largely affected by the nature of the .season, and the climate and bee flora of the locality. But even when the percentage of swarming is high, much may be done by the bee-keeper to prevent the development of what is aptly called "swarming mania." When an apiary gets into this condition hives will throw swarms without having made any preparation in the way of raising queen cells ; and swarms which were hived will swarm again within a month, or turn out repeatedly a day or two after being started in a new hive. Bees from some of the swarms which have scattered and joined other hives are the principal cause of this abnormal swarming. This frequently happens when clipped queens are not at once picked up when the swarm issues, or when the queen fails to come out with the swarm or returns to lo Sept.. 1910.] Checking and ControlUng Swarming. 567 the hive without taking wing. Swarms which turn out after being hived are particularly inclined to scatter, and the bees which joined other stocks set up the desire to swarm in the hives they entered. To prevent this troublesome turning out of hived swarms, or rather to compel them to return, many bee-keepers fasten queen-excluding zinc over the entrance, but while this prevents the queen from leaving the hive the obstruction of the entrance interferes with and annoys the bees, particularly when there are many drones with the swarm. To prevent the absconding of natural swarms, or of bees which have been shaken off their coml)s in the treatment for foul brood, I keep the queen for several days in a special cage suspended from the top bars of the frames. Fig. i is a side view and Fig. 2 an end view of the cage, while Fig. 3 shows it with the thin board of one side removed. The QUEEN CAGE WITH FREE- WAV FOR WORKER BEES. cage is 5 inches high by i^ inches wide and |-in. thick. The narrower ends are covered by a movable slide {a) made of queen-excluding metal, such as is used for honey boards. At the bottom end of the cage is a square hole \ in. x -^ in. and |-in. long ; this is closed by a tin slide {cL) and like the slides (a) runs in a fine groove made with a tenon saw into the thin pieces covering the sides of the cage. The neck of the cage {e) is only \-\x\.. thick and wdll therefore go evenly between the wide top bars of Hoffman frames without departing from the normal spacing. When the queen of a swarm is thus caged between the frames the worker bees have free access to her and will start drawing foundation near the cage, or commence getting cells ready when empty combs are given. As the queen has been attended to just as if she were at liberty, she will commence laying as soon as released, whereas a queen in an ordinary cage is generally out of condition and the bees are discontented during her captivity. 568 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Sept., 1910. When a swarm issues and the queen is seen she may be caged, the cage left on tlie alighting board till a few bees have collected on it. It should then be carried to a convenient place where it is desired the swarm should settle, that is, if the swarm is to be hived on a new stand. To hive it on the old stand it is only necessary to remove the parent colony to a new location and put the new hive in its place, the cage with the queen being left on the alighting board till the swarm commences to return when it is placed between the frames. This free-way cage may also be u.sed for caging the queen of a hive before swarming till all brood is sealed ; after breaking out all queen cells, the queen is released. When superseding queens it is advisable to keep the old queens till new ones are safely introduced. In these cages queens may be kept for weeks between the super combs of any strong colony, having an old queen below the excluder. During swarming time it frequently happens that a number of fine virgin queens are found hatching in a swarmed colony which would often be very useful to supply to other stocks a few days later, or to nuclei the queens of which are not yet laying. When caged in the hive they hatched from, or one in the same condition, any number of virgin queens may be kept in perfect condition for four or five days, and they will be fed and attended to by the workers. To introduce strange queens or virgins the queen-excluding slides {a) are removed and slides ib) and {c) in.serted instead. The queen to be in- troduced is put into the cage alone, the square hole in the lower end of the cage being filled with queen candy. The only means of communication between the queen and the workers is through the wire screen {b), from which the queen can withdraw should the bees be hostile to her at first. The cage is suspended between the centre brood combs of the hive and the queen soon assumes the odour of the hive and is accepted by the bees when they release her from the cage by eating out the candy. W'hen in- troducing virgin queens to colonies from which a fertile queen has only just been removed, it is best to cover the candy with the slide {d) for two days as virgin queens are not .so readily accepted. The cage described is not sold by supply dealers but is easily con- structed by any one at all handy. All that is needed i.s — Wood — one piece, 1^ x jh x ^ (e) ; two pieces, f x f x ^ (/) ; and two pieces, 4^ x i| x ^ (g) ; with a shallow groove on three sides for the slides. Metal — two pieces, queen-excluding zinc, 3I x ^ (a) ; one piece wire screen, 3I x ^ {b) ; one piece, tin or zinc, 3j x -^ {c) ; one piece, i| X ^ {d) ; and one piece i\ x \ (/;). PUMP AND WATER MEASUREMENT. On receipt of the following queries from G.C.B. relative to Pump and W'ater Measurement they were referred to Mr. Kenyon, Engineer for Agriculture, who has furnished the replies given hereunder: — (i) How to tell the depth of water in an overhead tank? (2) How to measure volume of water flowing in a V-shaped flume? (3) About packing glands of oil pump in an oil engine? (4) How to measure brake horse-power of an engine? lo Sept., 19 io.] Pump and Water Measurement. 569 1. A double pulley fastened on top of rim of tank with a large wooden float in the tank and a heavy — on account of wind action — indicator running down the outside. When full, the indicator will be at the bottom. 2. Unless the flume is running very fast, a system of float measurement should be suitable. Float a piece of wood along a length of, say, 100 feet. Take number of seconds and thus find feet travelled per minute. Reduce this by 20 per cent. This, multipHed by the square feet in section, will give cubic feet per minute. Each cubic foot equals 6^ gallons. For instance, suppose a triangular flume 12 inches wide at surface of water and 6 inches deep, the area is | x | = \ ; and suppose that float travels 100 feet in 55 seconds, then 55:6o::ioo = 109 feet per minute, deduct one-fifth or 20 per cent., the velocity is 87 feet per minute, and this multiplied by the area, ^ sq. foot, gives, say, 22 cubic feet or 137 gallons per minute. For weir measurement, the area of the notch must be not more than one-sixth, say, of approach channel and, the depth passing over the notch, must be measured to still water. The discharge in cubic feet per minute equals length of notch in feet by the square root of the cube of the depth in feet by 200, or in symbols Q = 200 Iht For instance, notch is 18 inches or ih feet long and depth flowing over is 3 inches or \ foot then — Q = 200 X i^ X g = 375 cubic feet per minute. 3. The soap used in packing will not repel kerosene for any time. Get asbestos packing, but see that it is somewhat larger than space between spindle and gland. It should be well rubbed with powdered graphite and packed into space tightly a little at a time. Coiling it on the spindle and trying then to put all in at once will not give ^. ^ _^ satisfaction. 'll'>'~^'i' ~~? 4. There are several methods of which the most f q 1 ^ practicable, in your case, is the Prony brake, which ^V_v^ ^ consists of a square frame with shaped brake blocks - -' surrounding the circular shaft or pulley with a long lever arm. The brake is screwed up by the bolts till the engine is exerting its full power, a weight on the end of the lever keeping the brake from revolving round the wheel. Sand poured into a box is a good weight as it can be added gradually. The formulra is: — W = weight in pounds at end of arm. d = length of arm measured from centre of wheel in feet. R = revolutions per minute. X.TTP ,T> , , V W X r 14- X 2d X R rJUf (Brake-horsepower; = — 33,000 Gradually screw up brake, adding sand as found necessary. We cannot, however, recommend you to take on the testing yourself, unless there are special reasons. A considerable amount of experience is required to provide against unforeseen events, which may affect results seriously. ^^^t%^^ 570 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 19 io. " SCAB " AND EEL-WORM IN POTATOES. Results of Experimental Plots. Report by E. S. Holmes, Assistant to Chief Inspector of Produce. The experimental plots for the purpose of testing means for the pre- vention of Scab and Eel-worm in potatoes were situated in various parts of the State — two in Gippsland, two in the Warrnambool district, one at Lancefield, and two at Wallace, near Ballarat. It will thus be seen that the experiments extended over a very wide range of potato-growing country. Of these seven plots, four were satisfactorily carried out, and gave reliable returns. I refer to those of Mr. Crowe, at Koroit, Mr. Summers, at Lancefield, and Mr. Shearer and Mr. Downey, at Wallace. The plot at Mr. Gummisch's farm at Bunyip, although well looked after, was finally destroyed by "Sore-eye" disease, and no reliable results could be obtained, whilst the plot at Illowa gave no results, as it was neglected, and the cows obtained access to it. The plot on Mr. Morton's farm at Drouin became more or less overgrown with bracken fern, and being in hard ground, the results were poor. Classifying the five plots from which results were obtained, three (those of Messrs. Downey, Shearer, and Summers) supply returns for Scab treatment, whilst those of Messrs. Crowe and Morton give data for the treatment of Eel- worm. The scheme of treatment was the same for both. The plots in every case were situated on portions of land which were known to be more or less subject to either one or the other condition, and as the experiments were thus carried out under exacting conditions, the benefits derived from any line of treatment are worthy of full consideration. Taking the plots for Scab first, we find that whereas some so-called reme- dies did not fully justify their u.se, others again were very satisfactory. The latter was the case with the formalin treatment of Scab. Experimental Plots for Scab Treatment. Formalin Treatment. — Formalin, as is well known, is a strong fungi- cide, being often used in place of bluestone for the pickling of wheat to prevent smut, and it was thought that probably its use would result in the restriction of a disease like Scab,* which in one form is caused by a minute fungus living on the substance of the potato. For the pur- pose of testing this idea, two plots of six rows each were taken side by side. In one plot, scabby seed was sown without any treatment, while in the next the seed was treated before sowing with a solution of formalin of a strength of i lb. to 30 galls, of water. The seed was soaked whole in the .solution for two hours, and was then dried before cutting. As shown by the following table, No. i plot at Mr. Downey's, which was sown with untreated scabby New Zealand Pink-eye seed, returned only 45.7 per cent, of clean potatoes, while in plot 2, which was sown with similar seed which had been treated with formalin, yielded 74 per cent, of clean tubers, or a gain of 28.3 per cent., equal to 5^ cwt. in each ton of produce. Further, the rejected sample from the untreated seed was badly scabbed, whilst that from the treated seed was compara- tively lightly scabbed, and many of the potatoes could have been included in a marketable sample; this also applies to Mr. Shearer's plot. * Whilst the Potato Scab known to science is caused by the fungus Oospora scabies, otlier agencies, even mechanical injuries, may produce a " scabby " appearance of the tubers. In this report the term " scab " has been used in its widest sense.— Editor. lo Sept., 19 io] " Scab '' and Eel-worm iti Potatoes. 571 Name of Grower. Plot 1. Scabby Seed. Not treated. Plot 2. Scabby Seed. Treated. Gain by use of J formalin- treated Clean. Scabby. Clean. Scabby. Seed. Downey Shearer 45°7 56-7 % 54-3 43-3 74° 76-5 % 26 23-5 28° 3 19-8 Note. — The percentages recorded throughout this report were obtained from the weighed produce of the row or set of rows as the case may be. Taking the corresponding two plots at Mr. Shearer's farm, the one sown with untreated scabby seed returned 56.7 per cent, clean produce, whilst the other which was sown with formalin-treated seed, returned 76.5 per cent, clean potatoes, a clear gain of 19.8 per cent., or 4 cwt. of clean potatoes in each ton of produce. The cost of the formalin is trifling — is. 6d. per lb., and as i lb. is sufficient to treat seed for about two acres, the return for the outlay is immediately seen. At Mr. Summers' farm, Lancefield, Carman seed was sown in the two corresponding plots, but at the time of digging, the results from the treated and untreated plots were about the same. The Scab in this district, how- ever, does not resemble the "pitted " appearance of the Ballarat disease, but resembles more a " scab " caused by the bursting of blister. If it is caused by Eel-worm it is not, as Mr. Crowe's plot at Koroit shows, amen- able to formalin treatment. To test whether any good results were obtainable by the use of for- malin where clean seed was employed, two more plots were sown, one with clean seed which was soaked in the formalin solution for two hours, the other with clean seed that was not treated. At Mr. Shearer's farm the results were about equal for both plots, but at Mr. Downey's farm, the untreated seed returned 59.5 per cent, of clean tubers, where the treated seed returned 74 per cent, clean potatoes, or a gain of 14.5 per cent, by treatment. Mr. Summers' plots, on the other hand, showed a slight decline in the formalin-treated seed, and taking his plots right through, the form of Scab occurring on this farm seems to offer little, if any, response to formalin, and, as stated before, is probably not due to a fungus disease. Use of Chan as against Scabb v Seed. — During the course of the experiments, it w'as often stated by the farmers that they could grow just as clean a crop from scabby as from clean seed. Some useful light is thrown on this point by these experiments, which certainly do not lend much strength to this argument. By comparing plot i, which was sown with scabby untreated seed, with plot 3, which received clean untreateu seed, the difference in favour of using clean seed is evident. Name of Grower. Plot 1. Scabby Seed. Not treated. Plot 3. Clean Seed. Not treated. Bifference in favour of Clean. 0/ 45°7 56-7 Scabby. Clean. Scabby. Clean Seed. Downey Shearer % 54-3 43-3 59°5 67-3 % 40-5 32-7 13°8 10-6 572 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. As seen by this table, scabby seed produced 45.7 per cent, and 56.7 per cent, clean potatoes on two farms, whereas clean seed produced" 59.5 per cent, and 67.3 per cent., or a gain of 13.8 per cent, and 10.6 per cent, respectively. As 10 per cent, represents 2 cwt. per ton of produce, the gain by use of clean seed would be considerable in, say, a twenty acre crop. Green Manuring. — At the time the experiments were inaugurated it was decided to put in a plot at each farm for testing the action of green manuring in relation to these diseases, but as no area of suitable size carrying a crop of green material was available, only one row in each plot received green manure. Besides increasing the yield it was often held that green manuring produced a cleaner crop. In many parts of Victoria it is customary to plough in a crop of oats or barley at the time of sowing the potatoes with the special object of increasing the yield, and it was thought by many farmers that this also resulted in the crop coming off a cleaner sample. The greater yield was fully borne out by the experiments, an increase taking place of from i to i| tons per acre, but the cleanness was a very variable quantity, increasing in Mr. Shearer's plot by about 8 per cent., and decreasing about the same per cent, in Mr. Downey's plot ; while Mr. Summers' plot, where spear grass was used as green manure, the decrease was considerable. The following is a table .showing the increase in yield due to green manuring and its effect on Scab:- — Name of Grower. Downey Shearer Summers Plot 1. Plot 1. Green Manure. Clean. No Manure. Clean, Difference. % 41 62 51 % 49-7 54 83 % 8 •? decrease 8 increase 32 decrease Plot 1. Green Manure. Yield. tns. cwt. 4 2 6 0 2 13 No Manure. Yield. tns. cwt. 2 17 4 19 1 2i Increased Yield by Green Manure. tns. cwt. 1 5 1 1 1 lOi Iron Sulphate. — The use of iron sulphate has been recommended for the treatment of fungus diseases, as it possesses a slight antiseptic action. It resembles, though in a much lesser degree, the action of copper sulphate or bluestone, which is used as a fungicide in Bordeaux mixture ; it was therefore decided to give it a trial against the Scab in potatoes, and for this purpose it was sown, at the rate of i| cwt. per acre, with the seed at the time of sowing. Two rows at each farm received this substance ; in one it was sown on top of the land after scabby seed untreated wit^^ formalin had been covered, while in the other it was sown in the manure section in the furrow with the formalin-treated seed to try its eftect amongst the special manures. In both cases, however, the results from the use of this substance were poor, no improvements taking place on the general sample of pota- toes ; this may have been due to the fact that iron sulphate is easily soluble in water, and might thus be washed out of the soil, or it may undergo chemical change in the soil. ^Vhatever may have been the cause, no good results followed its use, the potatoes from these rows being badly scabbed and about equal in sample to tho.se which received no treatment. lo Sept., 1910] " Scab " a/id Eel-icorm in Potatoes. 573 The following table gives the results from the use of this substance: — Plot 1. Plot 5. Iron Plot 1. — Name of Grower. Sulphate, sown on No manure. Difference. Sulphate, top of Ground. Clean. sown In Furrow. Clean. Clean. % % 0/ % Downey 42-5 49-7 7 '2 decrease 62 Shearer 57 54 . 3 increase 66 Summers 85 83 2 70 As seen, a slight increase took place in two plots which, however, is so small as to be negligible, while in the third a decided decrease took place. The sample from plot 5 was in two cases cleaner than that from No. i, and this was no doubt due to the fact that the first named received clean formalin-treated seed, whereas plot i was sown with scabby seed un- treated. Here, again, Mr. Summers' plot fails to agree with the results from the plots in the Ballarat district. Spraying. — As spraying is becoming a general practice with potato growers in New Zealand and countries where Irish Blight and other fun- gus diseases are prevalent, it was decided to obtain a spraying machine in order to try the effect of sprays on the general health of the potato crops. A Victorian pump, kindly lent by Messrs. Langwill Bros, and Davies, was mounted on a Tasmanian carriage capable of spraying five rows at a time. The power for driving the pump was obtained off the main axle by a clutch and crank connecting with the handle of the pump by an iron rod. This machine was .sent to the various farms, and certain rows of each plot sprayed with Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. In some cases, also, a small area was sprayed for those farmers who were desirous of testmg the machine. The .spray used was Bordeaux mixture (bluestone, 6 lbs. ; lime, 4 lbs. ; water, 50 galls.) ; with the addition of Paris green. It was made in the usual way by pouring the dissolved bluestone and lime water slowly to- gether into a third ves.sel and stirring well ; to this was added 4 ozs. of Paris green and the mixture carefully .strained into the barrel on the machine. The action of the spray seems to have been to increase the general health of the plant to some extent. After spraying the plants looked fresh and healthy, and as the returns in most cases show, a small increase of yield took place, no doubt owing to the increased vigour of the plant. The beneficial effect of the spray on an under-surface disease Tike Scab seems to be very doubtful, and it is difficult to see how it could affect it unless the disease had its origin at or above the surface of the ground. No doubt spraying would yield much better results where the leaves or stalks of the plant were attacked by disease. As will be seen, there was a slight increase of clean potatoes in all the sprayed rows at Mr. Downey's farm, while at Mr. Shearer's a small de- crease took place. Mr. Summers' plots show great variation, the average working out a slight increase. One or two of the farmers expressed the opinion that the patches sprayed for them looked cleaner and healthier during the growing period, but that the yield of clean potatoes was about the same as the unsprayed part of the field. 574 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept.. 1910. The following is a table of the results obtained from the sprayed plots : — Plot 2. Plot 3. Plot 4. Name of Grower. Three rows sprayed. Clean. Three rows not sprayed. Clean. 72 79 82 Three rows sprayed. Clean. % 60 63-6 78 Three rows not sprayed. Clean. % 59 71 87 Tiiree rows sprayed. Clean. % 75 63-5 84 Three rows not sprayed. Clean. 73 67 70 Remarks. Cleanness. Downey Shearer Summers 76° 74 82-4 Slight increase Slight decrease Variable totals show slight increase. Artificial Manure. — A plot of six rows was put in at each farm for the purpose of trying six different manures, not .so much for their yielding capacity, but to test the theory that Scab is caused by strong alkalies or acids in the soil. For this purpose several specially strong manures were prepared and sown alongside those of normal strength. Thus, a potato manure con- taining a double quantity of potash was prepared and used alongside a row receiving a normal potato manure. This was done, as it has been contended that where rubbish had been burned the extra supply of potash conferred on the adjacent .soil a power of producing Scab. Likewise, an extra acid superphosphate was prepared and sown alongside a row receiving a normal superphosphate to test the theory that where a stack had decayed and left the soil acid. Scab was more strongly marked. The other two rows were manured with nitro-superphosphate and iron sulphate respectively. All the manures were applied as heavy dressings, namely, 4 cwt., except in the case of iron sulphate, which was applied at the rate of 1 1 cwt. per acre. Taking the following table and comparing the results, it would appear that the extra-strong manures lose little, if anything, by the comparison, and certainly do not uphold the theory of the causation of Scab by strong alkalies or acids in the .soil. It is true that a slightly alkaline medium is favourable to the growth of low forms of life since it neutralises the aci<:ls which they produce as waste products of their life processes. These acids, if allowed to accumulate, would tend to the destruction of the organi.sm; but in a slightly alkaline medium, such as calcareous soil, the acid is neutralised almost as soon as formed and the organisms have a better chance of increasing. It is in this way that the increase of Seal) in limey soils, and in patches where wood ashes have been spread, is accounted for, and it is not due to the action of lime on the skin of the potato. Manure. Shearer. Clean. % 66-5 74 60 67-3 80 66 Downey. Clean. Summers. Clean. Average for Three Plots Potato Manure A Potato Manure (Double potash) Superphosphate (Normal) Superphosphate (Extra acid) Nitro-superphosphate . . Iron sulphate . . % 76 75 76 63 80 62 % 84 73 74 89 77 70 % 75-5 74 70 73-1 79 66 lo Sept., 1910] Scab " and Eel-worm in Potatoes. 575 Taking the average of the three plots, the very slight decrease in the case of the strong potash manure over the normal potash is not sufficient to prove a harmful effect, just as in the case of the superphosphates the small increase for the use of extra acid manure is not suthcient to prove a beneficial effect. No matter how closely the figures for these manured plots are scrutinized the fact remains that the plots turned out a clean sample in every case. The rejected potatoes were comparatively lightly scabbed, except in the case of iron sulphate, and the marketable tubers were of much finer quality than those from unmanured portions. It may be contended that this was due to the use of clean formalin-treated seed, but that some of the manures plaved an important part in producing cleanness, is seen by a study of the" figures in the last column of the table. It will be readily seen that between the lowest average in the three plots and the highest, there is a difference of 13 per cent., and this can only be put down to the value of one manure over the other, or if we leave iron sulphate out as not being a true manure, a difference of 9 per cent, between nitro-superphosphate and superphosphate must be accounted for in the same way. It is a convincing fact that where clean seed, formalin treatment and artificial manuring were resorted to, by far the best results were obtained, and it is reasonable to expect that a much smaller dressing of manure would have the same good effect as the larger quantity. Increased Yields from the use of Manures. — Although the plots were not put in primarily for the purpose of testing the yielding capacity of the manures, still some useful information was gained on this point by weighing the produce of each row and comparing the results. The following table demonstrates the relative value of different manures and also their value over no manure on five different farms : — Name of Grower. Potato Manure A. tons. cwt. 5 0 3 2 6 7 4 5 7 10 5 5 Potato Manure (Double Potash). tons. cwt. 5 0 3 2 6 2 4 10 8 8 , 5 8i Super- phosphate (Normal). Super- phosphate (Extra- Acid). Xitro- super- phosphate Iron sulphate. tons. cwt. 2 16 1 4 5 4 2 10 6 0 Average of un- manured portion of Plot. Downey Summers Shearer . . Morton . . Crowe . . tons. cwt. 5 0 2 7 6 0 4 10 8 4 5 4 tons. cwt. 4 9 2 12 5 4 4 10 7 0 4 15 tons. cwt. 5 4 2 18 7 6 4 10 7 0 5 7i tons. cwt. 3 Oi 1 7 5 1 2 5 6 18i Averaae of Fi\ Plots . . e 3 11 3 14 A glance at the table shows that the double potash potato manure gave the best results, returning an average of 5 tons 8^ cwts. per acre, while it also had the highest aggregate yield of 8 tons 8 cwts. at Mr, Crowe's farm. Its extra yield over potato manure A does not, however, compensate for its extra cost, as it is quoted at £■; los., whereas potato manure A mav be obtained for ^6 los. per ton. The cheapest manure would appear to be the ordinary superphosphate. It gave verv creditable vields, returning an average of 5 tons 4 cwts. per acre on five farms, and it has the additional advantage of being much cheaper than the potash or nitrogenous manures, as it is quoted at £4. 7s. 6d. per ton. Experimental Plots for Eel-worm. As Eel-worm is prevalent in the Warrnambool and Gippsland districts, plots of \ acre each were obtained at Koroit and Drouin respectively for 5/6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. the purpo.se of carrying on experiments against this pest. The line of experiment was the same as that for Scab, the land being .selected from areas that were known to be badly subject to Eel-worm. As comparatively little is at present known about the nature and habits of the Eel-worm, it was rather a difficult matter to suggest suitable means for its prevention, and so the methods of treatment followed were more or less speculative in character, and were not in any sense tests of already recognised remedies. This being the case, it was to be expected that these two plots would in all probability yield mostly negative results. Although this proved to be so in one or two cases, still some very useful information, mainly relative to the action of manures, both green and artificial, was gained from these two plots. Green Manuring. — That green manure* acted in a beneficial way could not be doubted when the produce from the manured row was gathered together and compared with the unmanured rows next to it ; not only did it show a higher percentage of clean potatoes, but the whole sample was less blistered than the unmanured produce. The green manure was simply cut in the paddocks and filled into the furrow along with the seed at the time of sowing. The following table gives the actual gain due to use of green manure in these two plots: — Name of Grower. Green Manure. Clean. No Manure. Clean. Gain by Green Manuring. Morton Crowe 60 62 % 50 57 % 10 5 As will be seen, the gain in absolutely clean potatoes was not very great, but a comparison of the total sample had much in favour of the green manure. Artificial Manuring. — The best results in these plots for Eel-worm were obtained from the use of artificial manures. The manures used were the same as those in the plots for Scab, the object being in both cases the same — to test extra strong manures against those of normal strength to ascertain if strong acids or alkalies in the soil were conducive to their production. As in the case of Scab, the manured section gave very satisfactory results, the returns showing a large advance in cleanness over those plots which received no manure. The following table shows the relative value of five different manures over plots receiving no manure: — Name of Grower. Nitro- superphos- phate. Clean. Super- pbospha^e (Normal;. Clean. Super- phospliate (Extra Acid). Clean. Potato Manure A. Clean. Potato Manure (Double Potash). Clean. No Manure. Clean. Iron Sulphate. Clean. Crowe Morton Per cent. 68 83 73 Per cent. 70 73 71-5 Per cent. 71 66 Per cent. 72-2 73 Per cent. 67-5 60 Per cent. 56-75 54 Per cent 53-6 48 Average ... 68-5 7-2-6 63-75 55-4 cO-8 * Although green manure gave slightly beneficial results, other experimenters, both local and foreign, hold that it is favourable to the development of the Eel- worm . Growers should therefore awai further experiments. — Editor. lo Sept., 1910] " Scab '' and Eel-ivorm in Potatoes. 577 As will be seen from a study of the figures in the above table, there was an average increase of cleanness due to the use of one or other of the manures varying between 8.3 per cent, and 17.6 per cent. Nitro-super- phosphate again came out on top though potato manure A is practically on the same level with it. In this case, strong potash manure fell con- siderably below the manure of normal strength, but it must be remembered that although this decline took place with the strong manure still it shows a consideraljle increase in clean potatoes over those rows which received no manure. When a strong manure like the above is applied in as heavy a dressing as 4 cwts. to the acre, and produces a cleaner crop than where no manure is used, it can scarcely be contended that its presence in the soil is highly beneficial to the increase of Eel-worm. However, as the table shows, a moderate strength manure is to be preferred to a strong application in the case of this pest, both from the point of view of cleanness as well as cost. The same may be said in the case of the extra acid superphosphate. Here, the difference is not very great in favour of the normal manure, but still as the normal manure is more efficient it needs no further recommendation. The results from the use of iron sulphate have nothing to recommend it for future use. It cannot be classed as a true manure and gave no increase in yield or cleanness. Formalin Treatment and Spraying. — The treatment of the seed with formalin, used at the same strength as in the case of Scab, was not attended with any remarkable results. This pest, not being of a fungoid nature, would scarcely respond readily to a fungicide, and even if the seed were rendered free from the living parasite by immersion in a formalin solution, it could hardly be expected that the action would continue over several months in a soil which was at once the home and breeding ground of the parasite. Taking the above into consideration, it is not a remarkable fact that the formalin-treated seed turned out, taking an average, practically the same percentage of clean potatoes as the plots which were sown with untreated seed. What has already been said respecting spraying in the plots for Scab applies equally in the case of Eel-worm. The spray used was the same, namely, Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. As before, in most cases the yield was slightly increased, but the average percentage of clean potatoes was about the same as where no spraying was given. Summary. Taking a general review of the plots, I think that it has been demon- strated that the treatment of seed with formalin was efficacious in prevent- ing Scab in that form at least in which it occurs in the Ballarat district, while clean seed and artificial manures were also factors worthy of notice as aids in the production of a clean sample. As regards Eel-worm, green manuring and the use of artificial manures and especially the latter, are worthy of consideration for future experi- ments. Formalin treatment did not prove as efficacious as in the case of Scab, but as in the case of Scab the use of clean seed is to be recommended. The following is a full tabulated return of the results obtained from the five experimental plots. 57< Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. s^ a °-S ; « i-nXf ^ ^. <^ ? ^ 5-S S.P' «^S^ ^•^ n =« ^■SN !£ 5 ;i -a S » c I 5 I 0 S^o ift lO G-l lO "* lO gsllgsis ^ ^ 5?5?^ ^ 5? jS CC I'- "M f- t-H 05 ^ CO o VI a XI o XI a 01 m C3 G3 TO ""' .-y; O M 000 0 ^ \^ ^ 0 m in 0: 03 w '/i 1-5 t*5 tn 0 stS 0 J3 0.a 0 J3 CO CO CO ^- o^->- 0^-^ 0 C " « ^•- « g- « "- tHT:j--- '-•'wZ^ ^t3 *H f« Pm a ,r. & a .S~£o CO 2«S"^='^«'Sco_g Z K Z Z is 5 ^ = 1, : "". c 'I S 'I S '^. ,0 ""1 o fe pi, fe fn ftn N CO 02 CO ts; S] SI N S! SI SI NJ SI tS3 fei s^ 1^ 2; !?; 2; rt (M CO :;8o Journal of Agriculture. [lo Sept., 1910. 1^ QO i-l lO •* 00 rt X rH OO1-1X1-I : ?: = -^ c - w -yj O 73 3 m S tc ■* a> 00 g.= 3^2 gj2 g.o g.Q g^ S-^SxQ7;3a;3o20tc t^ 'M t- Tl t^ CC X r^ 00 ^ t" M ^ o ac5 — — 1 .r.^" g O CS 5gS.g 2^ a; " ca o :; C -yj Cli 00 cc:co 00 -^ -* ... -^ -r " -r . r-H ■* "^ >ri • • • • -t iri -1- lO • "-t 10 25 ^ Z; Z .3 .:: .0 ;?; Z; ^i !2; — So— op's g c8 a « g ca a =« a x/i ^n m « a"=i q ::r a — ^ C 9 ^ ^ 3 C3 cS C3 C3 CS 0 — i i « a a g a a a g g a g g a a a lo Sept., 1910.] " Scab "' and Ecl-ivorvi in Potatoes. 581 _!, g_^ g-l. O ?o M CO CO in -^ 10 "* cot- y >n in y * • ? ■ - > r-oi o 02 Tf in in -* ■* to P ^ to P to CO to CO O fi5 O W ^^-S g ^5? £ O H 5O5O ^■^o^^oto ■* 9 (M 00 P -^-^in in C01>OOC0:0 Mt^ rH05C^(M tocoi>-coin-* t^fM t^o^jtoco 0 !=■ 0 0 S £ -J: •* 0 a* p. ft, fo fe piH fe « S r S t- ? >- 5 /!! i^ .^ SI S) ^ I?; .-• 01 CO 1U446. 2 '^ ]oiir)ial of A^'ricidtur^ a a a a Q o o o -(5 -*j -M +^ CD'*OO C p. „ -< _ . .... .. 20)-.. ooi .... . . o .t-* o ^ .k^ I- I 2 -a ^ ;- 3 J a ^ S • .... . . 03 g-S- J O ft O S § fl ■ .... ' ■ g g S-g, es g "So — aig— ____ __ .E O<0— *^ ft +^ p. Iz; !z; ^ S5 ^ !z; bD bc be be be be CO CO CO CO ^i ^ Z '^ "3 °J c3^ • S « £ '^ ' t^ fe n te_ _ fe fe Z Z j:' ^ j= ji C3^c!^ «iirt^ci;^c3°ic3_2ic3, SesS'^ S==2=2S«3^3=sa" 00 000000 n 1^ n n « « 3 5 & O ^ C 5 O O S p & O ^ w M S ; as as a a a :0 CO O I I I T)" r-l T)< 3 0 Sept., ig^o.] Building Hints for ScHlers. 583 BUILDING HINTS FOK SETTLERS. XI. FARM PLUx\IBING--ODD JOBS. C . H . Wright, Instructor in Plumbing. Eastern Suburbs Technical C ollege . The selection and care of tools, having been described in the previous article, the use of them will now receive consideration. Although amateur plumbing may lack some of the charms of carpentering and engineering, it is none the less u.seful ; and if the farmer were able to do a little himself, it would often add greatly to the domestic comfort of his family. Those living close to townships are in a position to engage qualified mechanics, but others are inconveniently situated and unable to meet this expense. The soldering of galvanized sheet iron will receive first attention. This metal is used to a. great extent in farm dwellings and buildings. Inferior soldering is so frequently met with that it is considered best to describe the process in detail. Galvanized sheet iron consists of iron rolled out into thin sheets, those in general u.se being 26 and 24 gauge respectively. It is then galvanized by being dipped into molten zinc. The solder used, whicli should consist of equal parts of tin and lead, melts at 370 degrees Fah. This heat is appliea with a soldering iron, which has been made hot in a firepot made of an old white-lead tin or nail can. If, while one is being used, another is getting hot, no time will be wasted in waiting. A flux is required to make the solder adhere to the metal ; for galvanized iron use raw spirits of salts, which is applied by means of a brush. As brushes wear out quickly, it is well to know how to make one. This may be done in the following manner: — Cut a piece of tin 6 inches by | inches, and bend it double; this will then be 38 inch wide. Before tightly closing it place some horse- hair insid*^. so as to leave a tuft projecting from one end. Then compress the sides together, and finally trim the hair with the snips. When the soldering iron is hot it must be tinned (juickly as follows: — First file the four tapered sides bright towards the point. Then insert the bright point in a piece of sal-ammoniac and then rub on a piece of solder, and the iron will, if hot enough, show a brightly tinned " face." Failing the sal-ammoniac, a piece of galvanized iron and a little spirits of salts may be used to tin the filed surface. By rubbing the soldering iron in the sal-ammoniac at frequent intervals a good face will be retained on the iron. With a little practice the right working heat will be readily ascer- tained ; if too cold the solder will not flow freely, and if too hot the tinning will be burnt off. With the actual soldering, first see that the lap fits well, and then run the spirits along the seam with the brush. Melt a tack of solder here and there to hold it in position. Then hold the face of the iron well on the lap, and feed it with solder as you draw it along. This will sweat the solder underneath and make a strong joint. Should it appear rough, run the iron over it the second time, only do not add any more solder — just a little spirits to help it to flow freely while you hold the lap down with the point of a file or some similar tool. Then wash it with a piece of rag, as any spirits left on will deteriorate the material. When soldering tin, some pieces of zinc must be clipped into the spirits to "kill " it. X 2 584 Jdiiriial of .\griciiliurc. [10 Sept., 1910. 5. SPOUTING. a, S])ike ami tube; b, bracket; c, stO]> em d, down-pipe socket ; e and /, angles. iron. (\it same to the pencil line, hut leave ahout \ inch to turn around the back. (5^.) Sockets for down pipes are made as follows : — First cut off 6 inches of down pipe; break the joint, and refix, giving it a slight taper. Next place it on the bottom of the spouting and mark around with a lead pencil. Cut out the hole neatly to the line, and insert the socket from the inside, and trim off so as to allow i-i6th inch lap inside. Turn this over at right angles, pull well down, and, after seeing that the socket is square with the spout, it can be sol- dered, {s^-) Angles in spouts are so diffi- cult to make that it is better to buy them ready made. Hints on Fixing. — First drive in a carrying-spike or long nail at each end of the building, giving the necessary When repairing a tank or any other galvanized article, see that the joint is clean, and, if painted or discoloured, scrape it well with the shavehook. Apply spirits freely, and wipe it with a cloth before attempting to solder. In repairing old spouts, &c., one may have some trouble in getting the solder to take ; but in soldering new material it will flow easily enough, so clean the surface well, and scrape till the material is bright, and use a hot iron. Spouting. — Thi.s-j js sold in 6-ft. lengths, 4, 4^, and 5 inches respectivelv wide. These are joined together to make up the length required to suit a building, each joint having about 2 inches of a lap. Spouting is fixed by the aid of spikes and tubes, or Itrackets. (Illustration No. 5 — a and b.) Stop ends are fixed liy first marking the print of the spout correctlv on to a piece of plain 6. DOWN PIPE.S. lo Sept., 1910.] BiiUdiiig Hints for Sctllcrs. S^S fall to the outlet. Then .stretch a chalk line from nail to nail, driving additional .spike.s under it at intervals of about 4 feet. Then lav the .spout on, and fix with screws and tubes, but, if brackets are u.sed. they must be fixed before the spout is placed in position. But above all. if you are anxious to make a creditable job, see that it is straight. Do not attempt to join more than four lengths together on the bench or ground. If you require a longer length, have a slip joint in the centre, cutting the back on the bevel for convenience oi .soldering. Tiiis joint can be made A\hen the spouting is fixed in position. Many farmers will find it to their advantage to collect the rainfall and convey it into storage tanks. AMien erecting new buildings, arrange the catchment areas of the roofs so that the rainfall is not split up into small sections, and not worth collecting. But, in any case, if the water is wanted, store it, for tanks are cheap, and can be had to hold from 50 gallons upwards. Rain water may be conveyed from the spouts to the storage tahks"by the aid of down pipes. These are sold in 6-ft lengths, from 2 inches to 4 inches in diameter, and are fixed to wood-work by the aid of straps (6(3) and to brick-work by hooks {6b) or straps. Change of direction and branches can be made on the job. On perpendicular pipes seams are kept to the back ; on horizontal pipes, to the top. I,ap all joints and elbows the same as the flow of water, or they will catch and retain any obstructions that may be washed down. Elbows. — First mark l)evel required on a board, then cut pipe as shown in 6c. Mark the point A with a pencil, and trim with the snips to the line. X^N-^xJl 7. CHIMNEY FLASHING. Tai ) edfre slu ^htly over at A. Place it again in position and mark back, as shown in b. {6d . ) Tap back over about i-i6th inch and .solder. Always give an elbow as much fall as possible, see 6e which shows a good fall ; Xo. 6/ shows a bad fall, likely to get stopped up. Brandies are more easily made {dg). First fit pipe a to pipe b, then mark around pipe A on pipe b. Cut hole to mark, fit, and solder. Do not allow pipe a to project inside pipe B. With all work try to keep it straight or plumb, or it will n(;t be worth looking at. Roof Flashing is used to prevent water finding its way in between an upright wall and the roof covering. A chimney may be flashed in lead, iron, or zinc (Xo. 7). An iron roof must be cut to fit tightly against the chimney at A, and the sides must be turned up 2 inches at b. A small iron gutter can be fixed at c, and allowed to project 4 inches past the sides of the chimnev at each end. The joints l)etween the course of S86 J.iiirihil of Agriculture [lo Sept.. 19 ic-. lo Sept.. 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. ■Si bricks of the chimney can be fixed as follows: — At A turn I inch in the brick-work and 6 inches on the iron. The flashing is held in position by hoop-iron wedges, and a few spring-head nails driven into the roof bat- ten through the apron. For step flashing at b. laps are arranged as shown at E. The back of the chimney gutter should also be fla.shed, and the en(is of the gutter and apron will require cutting down and soldering. A "lean-to"' roof mav be flashed in lead, galvanized iron, or zinc, as shown in No. 8. with 4-in. or 5-in. lap at A and 3 inches turned up at b. Step flashing with iron between a weatherboard wall and an iron roof may be done as in No. 9. Water Pip es , Fittings , and Taps. — Galvanized wrought iron pipes are made in sizes from \ inch to 4 inches, and are be then raked out, and the iron flashing can a 0 ^ C f e * i 0 ,y 1* ,' n \2. SOCKETS, ELBOWS, BENDS. TEES. ETC. i7, Pipe socket ; b, pipe elbow ; c, pipe bend ; d, pipe spring; e, tee or branch; /, cross; g, flange: h, reducing socket ; /, lock nut ; 7, plug ; k, nipple 'J, nipple (short); m, barrel union; «, long (ion thre IT^. TAPS — LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH PRESSURE. a, L.P. bib; b, L.P. stop; c, L.P. ball ; (/, H.P. bib; e, H.P. stop. joined together by sockets. Changes of direction are made by the aid of elbows, bends, and springs. Branches are made by the aid of fit tings called tees. Other useful fit- tings are given in No. 12. Cutting and Screwing Pipes. — First fix vour ^•ice on a bench as shown in No. 10, or on any suitable post or rail. To cut a pipe it must first be fixed in the vice. Then fix the cutters on tlie mark, and slowly revolve them around the pipe, tightening them downi and adding a little oil from time to time until the cut is com- pleted. To thread a pipe set up the right size guide and die, then place the stocks on the pipe (guide first), turn them around, keeping a constant direct pressure against the pipe until the dies grip. Do not have too much 588 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Sept., 1910 pipe projecting from the vice or it may twist and split. After revolving them two or three times, remove the dies, and oil the thread ; then replace, and continue screwing until the end of the pipe projects through the face of the die. Up to ij inch screwing is easy work for one, but for larger sizes assistance will be required. A connexion to a tank is illustrated on page 586 (Xo. 11). All the finings required are named. These will need to be bedded with white lead or paint. Keep the end of the pipe up from the bottom of the tank to prevent sediment getting into it. If necessary to run the pipe to a draw-off tap for domestic, dairy, or other purpo.ses, or to a water trough, proceed as follows : — First open your trench, if any, aljout a foot deep or deeper where under cart tracks. Then get the length from tank to ground and cut and screw the pipe to suit. Place a bend at the bottom, or a tee plugged one end would be better to allow for future extensions. Work from this to the trough, screwing up all joints firmly on the way — a little hemp on the threads will assist in making them water-tight. Should a ^ branch be required, use a tee. It would be as well to consider whether one is likely to be required for future use; if so. fix it now, and plug up. for it is very troublesome to insert one afterwards. When .screwing up small pipe, say f inch or \ inch, a little caution i.> necessary to prevent splitting the fitting ; so for small work do not use the powerful wrenches or long levers suitable for heavy strong pipe. When entering the thread let it find its own way just as in screwing a nut on a bolt. Keep the pipe straight and do not use force or you may cross the thread and strip it. When once it has entered it may be screwed up with the pipe wrench. It would be wise to fix a stDp tap (13/^) just below the tank. A ball tap similar to that illustrated {\ T)C) can be used for the troughs. The other taps shown in Xo. 13 are suitable for farm, dairy, domestic, and other uses. HOUSEHOLD INSECT PESTS. {Coniiuucd from fagc 482.) C. /''renc//. juh-ii>r. Assistaut Entomologist. Cockroaches. Cockroache.": are. usually found in cre\-ices near fire places. They are omnivorous, their food consisting of any dead animal matter, cereal pro- ducts, and other kinds of food. It is also stated that they will eat woollens and leather, frequently causing extensive damage to books. The eggs, instead of being deposited separately as with other in.sects. are brought together in the abdomen of the female irito a hard horny po;] or capsule, which often nearly fills the body of the parent. The number of eggs in the capsule varies in the different species. They are arranged in two rows, the position of the eggs being indicated on the exterior ot the capsule by transverse lateral impressions. The capsule is oval, elon- gate, or somewhat bean-shaped ; and the young when hatched pass through a number of moults. It is stated by some entomologists that It takes four or five years for a cockroach to reach full growth, but this is not yet con- firmed. The general opinion is that one generation per year is produced. Remedies. — Powdered borax sprinkled into crevices is an old fa.shioned but reliable remedy. Mr. Tepper, Entomologist of the Adelaide lo Sept.. 19:0.] Homc/iold Insect Pcsis. 589 Museum, recommends a rather novel method. He places a saucer con- taining one part of plaster of Paris to four of flour, well mixed, and close to it, another saucer full of water, with a few sticks resting against them, so that they can easily get to the food and water. The cockroaches be- come thirsty after a flour and plaster diet and then drink the water, with fatal results. Pyrethrum powder (in.secticide) blown into crevices soon rids a house of the.se pests. Fumigation by hydrocyanic acid gas is ab.solutelv the most effective remedy, but owing to its dangerous nature, it should only be used by experienced persons. Bisulphide of carbon has also been tried with success, but this also requires the utmost care in handling, as it is highly inflammable. Phosphorus paste has been found of value. It must. however, be u.sed with great care; it should be placed in position the last thing at night, and the remains removed in the morning before the children are about. Ants. Several 'species of ants are found about houses, the small Black Ant, the Sugar Ant, and the small Red Ant being the most troublesome. The first named often make their nests in the walls, and are sometimes difficult to find ; but when once located it is an easy matter to destroy them. Syringe the nest with strong benzine, kerosene, boiling water, carbolic acid, or bisulphide of carbon. The last named is one of the best remedies, but, as stated before, care must be taken when using it. Sprinkling insecti- cide about the crevices by which they enter is also a good method of exterminating them. The so-called Sugar Ant {Camfonotiis nigrice-ps) makes large mound- like nests. When the.se are noticed, procure a stout stick, and make a hole about a foot deep. Into the centre of the nest pour about half-a-cupful of bisulphide of carbon, and immediately close the hole over with clay or some other heavy soil. The fumes from the carbon will penetrate through the nest, and will not only kill the ants, but destroy the eggs as well. This remedy has also been tried for the common Bull-dog Ants {Myrmecia), Jumping Ants {Myrmecia nigrocincta, M. pilosula, 6^c.), and the small Red House Ant {M ononiorium -pharaonis), with much success. The so- called White Ant {Termes sp) is perhaps the most serious pest. In some houses joists, uprights, and verandah posts are completely hollowed out by these insects. A great mistake is often made by people when building in a white ant-infested district. When clearing None . . 25 Queensland 92 3 Nil. 26 Tuikestan 71 9 1 1-5 27 Hungary 91 4 0-4 1 28 France 64 6 1-8 1 2!) Hunter River . . 64 28 1-2 1 30 Australia 49 46 Almost Nil. " • 1 '41b. 31 Hunter River . . 33 56 4 „ 32 Warwick 82 7 .", 33 Im]iorted '.' 94 1 1 ,, 34 Imported '.' 82 ^ i Uredosp an s • 1 • Percentages of AVeed Seeds in Samples. Sample I. — 2.2 per cent., including White Goose-foot [Chcnopod'ntm album). Plantain (Plantago lanceolaia). Red T'lover [TrifoUitm fratense). Dock (Rmnex), Charlock (Brassica Sinafis). 2. — 1.7 jicr cent., including Plantain, Red Clover, White Goose-foot, Dock (2 species). 3. — o. s per cent., iniluding Plantain, PJialaris (species), Fielrl Chamomile (M atricaria inodora). 4. — 0.81 per cent., including Plantain, White Goose-foot, PJialaris (species), Dock. 5. — 1.7 per cent., including PJialaris (species ?), Dock, Black Mustard (Brassica nigra). 6. — o I I'cr cent., including Dock, White Goose-foot, Red Clover, Com- posite (Chicory ?), Linseed, Plantain. 594 Juunial of AgricultuTC. [lo Sept., 1910 19.— 2Z- 24.— , — 2.5 per cent., chiefly Plantain, also Red Clover, White Goose-foot, Dock, Campion [Lychnis species), Pltalaris (species?) Com-positcel — o.i per cent., including White Goose-foot, ComfesitcE. — 2.3 per cent., including Dock, Plantain, Red Clover, Wild Caraway [Carum Cartel), Campion. — 1.6 per cent., including Red Clover, Plantain, White Goose-foot, Dock. — 0.4 per cent., including White Goose-foot, Plantain, Phalaris (species?), Com-positcE (species ?), Dock. — 6 per cent., chiefly White Clover [Tri folium re fens), also Plantain, Red Clover, Dock, White Goose-foot, Com-positce (sjiecies ?), and one also of Dodder. — 0.4 per cent., including Plantain, Phalaris (species?), Compositce (species?). Rye Grass [Lolium ferenne), Black Mustard. — 0.3 per cent., including ComfositcB (species?). Black Mustard, White Goose-foot. — 0.3 per cent., including Plantain, Mustard, Dock, White Goose-foot, C om-positcE (2 species?). — 0.2 per cent., including White Goose-foot, Dock, Plantain, Comfositf?. (species ?), also Fly sent to Mr. French and identified as a small wasp, one of the Chalcidea. — 0.9 per cent., including Plantain, Phalaris (species ?), White Goose-foot, ComfositcE (2 species ?). -- jDi. — 1.5 per cent., including Plantain, Phalaris (species ?), ComfositcB (species), Red Clover, Umbellifercz (sipecies ?), Dock. 2 per cent., including Dock, Plantain, White Goose-foot. Good sample, seed well ripened and no weed seeds present. No weed seeds present. Not so good as previous sample. -Seeils unevenly ripened, and many had shrivelled appearance. Practically free of weed seeds. Only a few seeds of an Umbellifer, pro- bably Wild Caraway. Practically no weed seeds present. Foimd one Dock, nnd one Plialaris (species ?), but many seeds of sample were imperfectly ripened, so appeared greenish and shrivelled. Practically no weeds, few Dock, Umbellifer (species?), and Phalaris (species?). Seed fairly well ripened, but many lacked plum])ness. Good clean seed, few broken or pierced. No weed seeds in sami)le. I per cent., including Plantain, White Goose-foot, Dock, Phalaris (species ?), Comfosita (3 species), Umbelliferce (2 species ?) White Goose-foot, Dock, Phalaris (sj)ecies ?), Red Clover, Plantain, Dock, Comfosita: (species), Dock, White Goose-foot, Umbellifer (species ?), fairly rermi- 0.4 per cent., including Comfosita (species?). 28. — 1.8 per cent., including Umbellifer (species). 29. — 1.2 per cent., including Comfosit(2 (species ?). 30. — Sample almost free of weed seeds' — a few of White Goose-foot evenly ripened, but contained a number of shrivelled seeds. Lo\ nation due to presence of hard seeds. 31. — Practically free of weed seeds. Sample appeared good, but contained a very large proportion of hard seeds. 32. — Practically no weed seeds. Sample not well cleaned, contained scrajjs of foreign matter of different kinds, dust, bits of husks, &c. 33. — Few weed seeds of Plantain, Comfosita (species ?), Plialaris (species ?), Red Millet [Panicum miliaceum). Dock. 34. — Included a small proportion of weed seeds. Dock, Plantain, Umbel- lifer (species). Sample contained a number of broken seeds, bits of husks and other foreign matter. ioSept., 1910.] Tlie Protection of Fish and Game. 595 THE PROTECTION OF FISH AND GAME. /. .)/. Siinmens, Chief Inspector of Fisheries and Game. Some months ago, whilst driving along a country road with a young farmer who considered himself a sportsman, we were discussing the never- ending question of Close Seasons for Wild Duck and Quail. On turning a corner of the road we saw a number of Straw-necked Ibis in a paddock, apparently engaged in eating as much of the grass as possible. My com- panion at once found a text for his arguments, saying: — " Now, there is a bird which is protected during the whole year. If I had my way they would all be shot on sight." On being informed that the ibis is a great eater of grubs, etc., and that a party of them will go systematically through a paddock and clean it up in this regard, he became a little less confident, and promised to look into the matter. When I saw him again recently he was not only satisfied regarding the ibis, but having gone into the matter he had found that quite a number of other birds were worth pro- tecting because of their assistance to farmers. Generally speaking, these "Farmer's Friends" are protected during the whole year. Other birds and animals are protected for other reasons, e.g., some beautiful birds such as the Lyre Bird are gradually becoming extinct in spite of protection, but without it they would share the dodo's fate in double-quick time. Then take the Native Bear {Koala), often called the Monkey Bear and, more recently, the " Teddy " Bear. He is an inoffensive animal whose food is the leaves of the Eucalypt. Surely it is a sin, as well as an offence against the Game laws, to kill him I The birds and animals which are protected for only portion of the year are those which are considered worth retaining, but which can fairly hold their own by having a close season which corresponds to their usual breed- ing period. I say " usual "" advisedly, because many species of birds are very erratic as regards a breeding time. Among these may be included wild ducks of various kinds, and also quail. The close season is designed to give the birds a rest, and also to cover the " average ' ' breeding time of the birds for an " average " year, so that each bird may have a reason- able chance of assisting in the work of procreation. Coming to fish, the like applies. Some female fish produce millions of eggs. It is not contended that in any instance every egg would be hatched, but when the mother fish is killed while carrying spawn every one of her eggs is lost. Another method of conserving fish is the minimum legal w^eight provision. The weights are designed, generally speaking, to protect the fish until they are old enough or large enough to spawn once. The legal weights vary from i oz. for Garfish to i^ lb. for Murray Cod and 3 lbs. for Yellowtail. Following are lists of the various close seasons for imported and native game and the minimum legal weights for the various species of fish. Other methods of protection are in force, e.g., native game sanctuaries, waters closed against all fishing in some ca.ses and against netting in others, &c. It should be particularly noted that the only legal method of fishing in inland waters is by rod and line or hand line. Any information regarding the Fisheries and Game Acts may be ob- tained from the Chief Inspector of Fisheries and Game, Railway Build- ings, Flinders-street, Melbourne. 596 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Sept., 1910. List of Game and Native Game Protected Third Schedules to 1 The Whole Year. All Australian Fauna (with the excep- tion of Snakes) in the National Parks and Public Gardens. Acanthizae or Tits. Babblers. Bee-eaters. Bitterns. Bustard or Wild Turkey. Caterpillar-catchers. Coach-whip Birds. Cockatoos, Black. Cranes — all birds known as Cranes, such as Herons, Egrets, &c. (except the Native Companion or Australian Crane). Cuckoos. Cuckoo-shrikes. Deer. Doves, Java Turtle Doves, Wild Emus. Ephthianuras or ( hats. Fan-tails. Fly-catchers. Frogmouth or I'odargus and Mo[)okes. Graucalus Family, all members of. Ibis. Kangaroos, Black-faced or Mallee (Macrofus melanofs). Kangaroos, Large Grey [Macro f us giganteits). Kangaroos, Large Red (Macro f lis rufiis). Kingfishers, all kinds, including the Great Kingfisher or Laughing Jack- ass. IN Victoria undkr the Second and HE Game Act 1890. Larks (including ("incloraui pJiiis) and Pijiits. Lyre Birds. Magpie Larks (Pied Grallina). Mallee Hens. Native Bears (Koalas). Nightjars. Owls. Parrakeets, Swamp or Ground. Parrots, Black-tailed or Rock-Pebbler. Petrels — White-faced Storm, on Mud Island in Port Phillip Bay. Pheasants. Pigeons, Wild, including Bronze. winged. Platypus. Plover, Southern Stone or Curlew. Quail, Californian. Robins. Seals. Shrike-tits. Sittellas or Tree-nmners. Skvlarks, luiglish. Southern Stone Plover or Curlew. Spoonbills. Swallows and Martins. Swans, Black. Swans, White. Thick Heads. Thrushes. Thrushes, English. Tree-creepers. Warblers. Wedge-bills. White-faced Storm Petrels on Mud Island in Port Phillip Bay. Wood Swallows. Wrens. From the 1st day of f uly to Half-fast Five o^clock in the Morning of the 1st day of February next following. Avocets. Ducks. Wild and Teal. Gang Gang Cockatoos. Geese, Wild of all kinds. Honey Eaters, all kinds (except Wattle Birds and Leather Heads). Magpies. Native Com]ianions or Australian Cranes. Land Rail, and all other members of the Rail Family — Porphyrio, Coots, &c. Plover, all kinds (except the Southern Stone Plover or Curlew). Stilts. Wild Ducks and Teal of all kinds. Wild fieese of all kinds. Front the 1st day of August to Half- fast Five o^lock in the Morning of the ist day of March next follotv- ing. Quail (excej)t Californian Quail). From the ist day of March to the ^\st day of October. Ojiossxuns. From the 1st day of May to the 2,1st day of October. Wallaby, Black-tailed (Macrofns iiala- batus). Wallaby, Red-bellied (Macroliis Bil- 1 tardier i). From 1st day to Tpth day of K ovember. White-faced Storm Petrels (see also the Whole Year on Mud Island). Note. — The commencinj: and terminatin close se dates are included in the period of the ason. lo Sept., 1910.] Spring Frosts. 597 Close Seasons for Fish. Black Fish. — From ist September to 15th December in each year (both dates inclusive). The whole year for all less than 9 inches in length, and for Female Cray- Cravfish fish from the ist June to the 30th November (both dates inclusive in each vear). 'From i^th September to 15th November (both days inclusive) in the English - River Yarra, from the Roach Johnston-street Bridge to the place known as Dight's Falls. English Trout Gippslam Perch Murray Bream Murray Perch Murray Cod' (¥rom the ist May to the 31st August in each year [ (both dates inclusive). From ist August to the 3otli November in each vear (both dates inclu- tiive). From the ist October to the 30th November in each fear (both dates in- clusive). Barracouta Blackfish Bream Bream, Silver Butter fisli .. Cat fish Crayfish — leng Flathead Flounder Garfish Grayling or V; Ling Luderick Mackerel Mullet Murray Cod .. Murray Perch Perch Perch English Pike Minimum Weights of Fish. Red Mullet ... Rock Cod ... Rough or Rough v Salmon Trout th rra Herrinf 4 oz. 4 » 5 .. 5 .. 4 >. 4." g ins. 4 oz. 6 ,, 6 ,, 5 >3 2 ,, li lbs. 8 oz. 5 >. 4 ,, 6 „ Salmon, California Salmon, English Sand Mullet or Poddies Schnapper Silver fish or Silver Perch Skipjack Snook Sole Stranger Travale or Trevalla ... Trout of all kinds, not indi- genous to Victoria ... Trumpeter Whiting Whiting, Sand Yellow Tail 3 lbs. SPRING FROSTS. Some Reminders and a Recent Development. F. de Casiella, Government Viticulturist. Our mild climate render.s us safe from the severe winter frosts which, in many less favoured climates, may even in midwinter kill vines outright. At 15 deg. C, =5 deg. F., vines suffer severely ; considerably less intense cold may do damage to young grafted vines unless the union be protected by a mound of earth. In such countries as Bessarabia (Southern Russia) intense winter cold necessitates complete burial of the whole vine in order to protect it; this is, in fact, one of the cultural peculiarities of the region. Even in France, winter burial is u.sual in the coldest parts, such as Cham- pagne, which is situated at the northern limit of the vine-growing climatic zone. In Victoria, it is only spring frosts that we need consider. Serious damage is occasionally caused by these, especially in the more inland dis- tricts where the regularizing influence of the sea is no longer felt, and 598 Joitriial of Agriculture. [10 Sept., 19; o. where the extreme dryness of the air causes evaporation to be active. In some of our most northern districts, though the summer is very warm, severe spring frosts during October and November ha\e occasionally to b'._' reckoned with, visitations which may in a couple of hours destroy the result of a whole year's work, and by damaging the pruning wood even injuriously affect the following year's crop. Nor are vine-growers the only sufferers ; orchardists, tomato-growers, and all culti\ating tender plants are equally interested in the 'question. Anything that can be done to prevent, or e\en to reduce, such damage is well worthy of consideration, and there is no doubt that much can be done in various ways. In the Journal for September, 1902 (Vol. I., p. 877) and November, 1903 (Vol. II.. p. 342) much valuable information is given concerning the question by Messrs. R. Dubois and G. H. Adcock respectively — to these growers are referred. It is to be regretted that more has not been done on the lines therein indicated, for with few excep- tions our vine-growers and orchardists pay but little attention to fro.st prevention anfl the closely allied question of frost prediction. Conditions Controlling the Occurrence of Frost. Before recalling the leading preventive and palliative mea.sures it is well to briefly review the causes which contribute to the general fall of tem- perature which constitutes the phenomenon known as a frost. Cold is the absence of heat. When the loss of heat is sufficient for the tiiermometer to fall below 0° C. or 32° F. water freezes and we have a frost. It is to the sun that we owe the heat that is manifest in every object around us. The surface of the earth absorbs this during the day and during the night it Icses it by radiation into space. The rapidity of radiation varies enormously according to circumstances ; if sufficiently active or, in other words, if it be not checked by adver.se atmospheric conditions, enough heat is lost foi the temperature at the surface of the soil to fall below freezing point. The following are the principal causes which prevent a rapid fall of temperature: — WitiJ . — Spring frosts do not occur on windy nights. The soil loses heat by radiation more rapidly than the air, the lower layers of which cool down by direct contact. This cold air being heavier settles in low places v.'here a frost occurs. Wind, by mixing the different layers, prevents this. Opacity of the Atmosphere to Heat Rays. — It seldom freezes when the sky is overcast. Clouds constitute a screen which prevents radiation in much the same way as the loss of animal heat is prevented by a rug or blankt-t. Den.se clouds are not necessary for this result — a slight haze, even, may be sufficient to prevent a frost. This is one of the ways in which smudge fires act, as we shall see presently. Latent Heat given off by Water on Condensation and Congelaiioti. — - Whenever water changes its state the change is accompanied by either absorption or liberation of heat. The fall on evaporation is particularly well known. We have practical illustrations of it in our water bags and butter coolers — a like absorption takes place on liquefaction (freezing mixtures). The inverse changes, viz., tho.se from the gaseous to the liquid and from the liquid to the .solid are accompanied by an exactly equivalent heat transaction ; only in the contrarv direction — instead of heat being ab.sorbed and the temperature falling, heat is liberated. This cannot, for obvious reasons, bring about a rise in temperature such as would be manifest to our .senses. Hence, this change is not so readily realized as the fall of temperature on evaporation ; nevertheless it constitutes a most valuable check. Once dew commences to deposit, a further fall of any consequence TO Sept.. J910.J Spritig Frosts. 599 ■IS not to be feared, since the latent heat liberated counterbalances further loss by radiation. A similar liberation of heat takes place on congelation or. in other words, the change into hoar frost of the water first deposited as dew. Hence it is that, even though the temperature may fall sufficiently for there to be a frost, disastrously low temperatures will not be reached if abundant moisture be present. White or Black Frosts. Thus is explained the well known popular distinction between white and black frosts. In the case of the former, the moisture deposited from the atmosphere, at first in the form of dew, has gradually frozen into the white hoar frost so well known to all. Such frosts are seldom very severe •owing to the liberation of heat during the changes in state of the deposited water referred to abo\e. The general temperature can only fall very gradually and it is rare for it to reach a point sufificiently far below freezing for really grave damage to be done. In the ca.se of a black frost, conditions are very different. They can only occur when the air is so dry that there is not sufficient water \apour to condense and thereby check a further fall. If the other conditions permit active radiation there is nothing to hinder the steady fall of tem- perature which may thus reach a disastrously low jioint. although there is practically no outward visible manifestation. Indirect Preventive Measures. In addition to the obvious course of only selecting as a site for a vine- yard a locality little exposed to frost,* thei'e are several cultural methods by which the vine may be caused to delay coming into leaf for a few- days and in this way damage by frost may often be avoided. These methods may be briefly recalled. Selection of Late Budding Sorts. — Different \'ines vary greatly in their susceptibility to frost; late sorts often escape when earlier ones succumb. The severe frost at Mildura in September, 1908, did much damage to the Sultana crop, whereas Zantes and Gordos were practically unharmed. Again, several sorts possess the peculiarity of producing fruit on the laterals thrown out as the result of damage to main buds. Late Pruning.— ^y delaying the pruning until the buds are about to burst, sprouting may be delayed a week or even two. which may be suffi- cient to tide over a critical time. This method cannot well be applied to a whole vineyard, but it is always safer to lea^e the pruning of low-lying parts of a vineyard to the last. The provisional pruning practised in many parts of Europe consists in the removal of all useless wood and the leaving of spurs two or three times the required length, at the first pruning. When the buds are about to burst, these can be rapidly shortened back to the length required, the commencement of vegetation being thus almost as effectivelv retarded as by late pruning applied to the whole vine. Sometimes extra rods are left on the vine ; the.se are tied vertically until danger of frost is passed. Should no frost occur, they are removed. In case of frost, they bear the crop, the rest of the vine being shortened back. Sometimes, where vines are trained on cordons, the whole of this is tied vertically until danger of frost is past, and afterwards brought to its horizontal nosition. • Hillsides are well known to be less frosty than lev -lyingr flats. The niodorating influence of large bodiesof water is cinsiderable ; in northern Victoria vineyards situated close to the Murray Biver art much less liable ti frost than those 10 or 12 miles from it. 6oo Journal of Agriculture . [lo Sept., 1910, Sulphate of Iron Treatment. — Many ingenious methods have been: devised, by means of which a few days or even weeks in the commence- ment of active growth may be postponed. It has been noticed that the acid sulphate of iron treatment against black spot delays the st irting of the buds and its application has thus a dual effect. Ground Condition. — Keeping the vineyard clean and free from weeds and avoiding cultivation of the soil at the time frost is to be feared serve the same purpose. Weeds and freshly moved soil evaporate moisture actively and thereby accentuate the fall of temperature. It has even been recommended to roll the ground, it having been proved experimentally that such treatment causes the soil to lose several degrees less heat than if left lumpy, owing to the lesser surface exposed bv the rolled land. Direct Measures. Several direct means of combating frost have been employed with more or less success. Chief among these are direct heating, smudge fires or the use of .smoke, and irrigation. It is not proposed to say anything here about the straw, cardboard, or other movable shelters, which in some parts of Europe are extensively employed, nor the use of white powders, lime washes, &c. Their cost and the amount of labour they necessitate render them unsuited for Australian conditions. Direct fieating. — At first sight, it might appear that the simjilest and most logical method of fighting frost would be by direct heat from fires, and yet, until recently, this method does not appear to ha\'e been trietl, or even thought of. Smudge fires and protection of various kinds have been recommended and practical use has been made of them since the remotest times, but it is to our American cousins that we have to look for the practical application of direct heating, as a method of fighting frost, and with them its u.se on a large scale appears to be quite recent. Even in France, many districts of which are frequently devastated by disastrous frosts, I have ne\"er heard of recourse being had to the direct heat from fires. It is onlv indirectly, as a means of producing smoke, that fires are ever referred to. Direct heating seems to be a comparatively recent intro- duction in America, and to be the result of a disastrous frost in the orchards of the State of Colorado in the spring of 1907. In the following spring, a few orchardists adopted what are now largely used under the name of orchard heaters or fire pots, in order to avoid a repetition of the- catastrophe. The success was such that their use has become very general ; so much so that in 1909 hundreds of thousands of heaters were employed for protection against frosts on the Western Slope. Various types have been patented, some burning oil. others coal or charcoal. The writer is indebted to Cr. \\'. H. Lloyd, of Mil dura, for prospectuses of several different types of orchard heaters. The following details as to oil heaters are taken from the advertising booklet of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, publi.shed" in 1908 : — The oil burning orchard lieater costs about 22 cents (iifi.), and it takes 100 of them to each acre. It is a pot of sheet iron, about the size of a ten-pound lard bucket ; a lid of sheet iron slides across the top. The fruit-grower . . . places one in every sj)ace between the rows of trees. A gallon of crude oil is put in each heater and a small lump of waste floats on top of the oil, serving as a wick. The height of the flame can be regulated by sliding the cover open or nearh- closed. , . . Soon after lighting. . .vapour pours out . . .and mixes with the air in burning, producing a large volume of heavy warm vapour. ... By keeping up the fires the orchard can be kept above freezing point, even through an outside temperature of 20 degrees F. The cost of equipping an orchard with the heaters is TO Sept.. 1910.] Spri)ii^ Frosts. 60 E about $25 per acre. The cost of operating is about $5 ])er acre per night, iujlud- ing labour and oil. Another type uf lire pot burning coal is the ' IdeaU"' in which 15 lb.s. coal will burn for 3I hours, and 25 lbs. 5^ hours. According to the prospectus the Olson coal orchard heater is a sheet iron pot measuring 18 inches across the top, 9 inches on the bottom, and 12 inches in depth. ... It burns from 15 to 50 lbs. coal per night, depending entirely on service required. Two men can charge 50 pots in 40 minutes, and one man can light them in three minutes. In a reasonably close orchard 40 to the acre will do the work and save the crop with a temperature of 10 degrees below freezing. These few extracts, as well as the photograph reproduced from the " Olson '" prospectus, in which the pots' are much closer to one another than is necessary, will give some idea of the practical results alreadv obtained by this novel method of frost-fighting, in which the heat directly radiating from the fire pots makes goofl the natural loss by radiation into- space. COLORADO FIRE POTS OR ORCHARLi llIiAlERS. In the 1 910 edition of Calif ornio. Fruits and Hoic to Groiv Theniy Profes.sor Wickson refers to orchard heaters, quoting Mr. E. W. Holmes. Satisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, burned in wire baskets suspended under or beneath the trees. When 20 to 40 of these to the acre were used, we occasionally raised the temperature from 3 to 5 degrees. More has been claimed ; but this is all that I am sure has been achieved. However, in a. section where the temperature would not go below iz, degrees or 26 degrees for a few hours, this method was ample. The outfit costs about 10 cents a basket, or 4 dollars per acre if 40 baskets are used, and the coal about 2^ dollars per acre per night. Smudge -fires, or artificial clouds, as they are picturesquely termed iir French, are not. like the last-mentioned method, in any way a novelty ;. thev have been known and used for manv centuries. Plinv recommends; 6o2 Journal of Agricultu?c [lo Sept., 1910. them ; they were also used in Carthage of old, and even in Peru the natives had recourse to them before the Spanish Conquest. Much valuable infor- mation concerning their use will be found in the article by Mr. R. Dubois tbe Bt>joining 5slanC>s. Decades 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 2s. 6d. each. Postage, 3d. each. jfraomenta pb^noorapbia: australi^c. Vois. vi., vii., viii., IX,, X., XI. 5s. each. Vol. XII. (Part XIV.), Is. Postage, 4d. each. IRe^ to tbe S\>stem of Dictorian plants. Parts i., ii. 2s. 6d. each. Postage, I., 5d. ; II., 3d. Select Bjtra Uropical plants reabil^ eligible for 3n&ustrial Culture or IRaturalisation, witb JnMcations of tbeir IRative Countries, an^ some of tbeir xases, 2s. 6d. Postage, 7d. Secon^ Systematic Census of Bustralian plants, witb Cbronoloijic, Xiterar^, anO Geoarapbic Bnnotations. Part I., Vasculares. 2s. 6d. Postage, 8d. IRative plants of IDictoria. is. 6d. Postage, 3d. Applications, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering Price and Postage, should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne, or to the Government Printer, Melbourne. Remittances from beyond the State to be made by Post Office Order. JUST PUBLISHED. ''The Smats of flustpalia: THEIR STRUCTURE, LIFE HISTORY, TREATMENT, AND CLASSIFICATION." BY D. McALPINE, GOVERNMENT VEGETABLE PATHOLOGIST, VICTORIA. 288 PP. CLOTH. 57 PLATES. 312 ILLUSTRATIONS. ■.&o<By D. McAlpine. 5s. Postage, 8d. Smuts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 4s. Postage, 9d. Systematic Arrp.ngement of Australian Fungi. By D. McAlpine. 3s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. By Professor A. J. p]wart. 2s. 6d. Postage, 5d. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d. ; paper, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, 9d. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d. per dozen. When ordering, mention THe JOURNAL T^e department of OP VICTORIA NEW \OiiK BOTANICAL QAROEN. Vol. VIII. Part lO. 10th October, 1910. THE POSITION OF APICULTURE AM0NG8T THE RURAL INDUSTRIES.* R. Beuhne, President, Victorian Apiarists' Association. The position of bee culture in its relationship to other industries has xmdergone several changes since bees were first introduced into Victoria. It commenced as a side issue of other occupations, developed into a separate calling but is now again gradually, to some extent, reverting to the first position. Thirty to forty years ago bees in box hives were found on almost every farm and bees' nests in trees were very plentiful. Bee-keeping was then entirely a side issue. All that was necessary in keeping bees was to hive swarms into any odd boxes and when these were full of honey to drum the bees out into an empty box, cut out the combs, put them after crushing into bags and hang these up to drain. The honey which at times con- tained the juices of young bee larvae sold readily at from 20s. to 25s. per kerosene tin. The drained comb remaining in the bags, as well as any CI r^ c »c o 'd < v^O • CD CO I> GO (M fM — ' C-5 O'^-^vOCOOOt^'^ iMClOOdf-HOt-GO ■^QOi-iOCOO^iMin I-^ C^ O"! O l> O Ci --H vO CCI^OXI>[>000 00 CO Ot^ • (M (M CO O ooocc»oooo»n> OcCOiTSinOlOOrH TtClI>'*^ eocoi>ooicoi>coi> C^IXiOOCOQOQOr-O H CI CO CJ 0-5 C-] r~. CI CI coco •p89:ju^i'Bno Tt'Tt'Oio vnioocoooooo 000000000 -^o • 00 00 vO I> 00»H o t-t^irtoooioioioo looiovomoioioo OOOi-Hr-Hi-lOOi-l JCOCOCOCOCOCOrH 00 10 o o e3 =3 •puno^ •paaiuBJUtio •pnnoj •paa^u'BjBno •pnnoj •punoj •ON i8q«7 •OOQOiH 05 OOCOO 00 00 t- vTi 1 00 t^ t~ 01 o i O rH O ■* Oi in in (M lo (Nc^oO'-'ooooooooin t-COrHOOOl^OOCO (Mi-ioO'-io>mo(Noo CO.>tOt~QOO>rH X c] in^ CO .-< CO i^ c^'o t^ (M CO -^ .^ "c.; (M in i^ o\ ^r^ CO-^COt^ COQO^COC^-^CNin • I>CO(NOO^OOOin 00000000 ooooinooo coincococoincoco C-rtrHrtO OOrti-nfflfH^r-l in 06 '^ 0000 ^ocC'tciinfM.^i ^ CO 01 CO -^^ CO c ) — . — o in - uoo OrHOO incoi-HcDinoo-^t-in "©oor^cii-ocoC'c oo t^oooco r^coosooinoinoci r-coccr^crjincccr. =^ X3« s s -S - - '^ ^ 6 o gp^ s « ^ m 60 s .^ 1^ - 0) oooioco cO'-'covnoi^-'^t^t^ cO'^t-c-it^-oococO't* oir-i I— iCOC^l •-sC'lCOCOOCOi— I'^O COtJ t* r- i> t^ t- 1^ t* t^ ^- 1^ ^- 1^ ts-i>t--i>i>t^t^t^ lo Oct., 1910.] Analyses of Artificial Manures. 64: p . O *■* •pnnoj t to CO •*co Mois- ture found. ^0 lOrt 1 1 c u u i 0 - 1 = £ 1 u i 3 •3 0 - a - 0 n •OJJ laqt^ rt 00 o ^ O J3 ^ 2* 5.S O r2974. 646 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Oct., 1910. THE INFLUENCE OF STUBBLE BURNING ON THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc.. Ph.D., F.L.S.. Government Botanist and Profcssor of Botany in the Melbourne University. The statement is frequently made that burning off the stubble after a grain crop improves the fertility of the soil and favours the growth of the succeeding crop. This effect is generally ascribed to the alkaline ashes left behind after burning, but since these ashes are no greater in amount than what is returned to the soil when the stubble is ploughed in, the only difference could lie in the fact of their being immediately available for absorption by the plant, instead of being slowly set free as the stubble decomposed in the soil. The experience of others has led theni to deny either that stubble burning does improve the fertility of the soil, or that if there is any effect, it can be due to the ashes of the crop. Mr. Herbert {Journal of Agricul- ture of South Australia, 1910, page 791) compared the effects of scatter- ing ashes over one plot and burning rubbish on another. The experiment, though a very crude one, showed in favour of the latter plot. In the same Journal, page 967, the explanation is suggested that where stubble burning exercises a beneficial effect on the succeeding crop, this may be due to the effect of the partial sterilization of the soil by heat. Recent investigations have shown that steaming soil, or heating it to 180° Fahren- heit, temporarily destroys the minute animal organisms which feed ui)on the nitrate-producing and nitrogen-fixing organisms in the soil. As the result, the bacteria increase in numbers and make more nitrogen available for the use of the crop. As against this explanation, we have the fact that burning off stubble only heats the immediate surface of the soil and does not appreciably affect the temperature of the deeper layers below the surface inch or two. Even in burning off dense scrub, it is surprising to how small an extent, the .soil below the surface layers becomes heated. It is only when thick roots smoulder away underground, or when the soil contains so much peat or humus as to burn itself, that it becomes strongly heated to any depth. The explanation therefore, though ingenious, cannot be regarded as definitely established without further proof. It should be remembered that three classes of bacteria, which render jjUiogen available for the use of the plant, exist in the soil. The first group, which we mav generally term Nitrate bacteria, are concerned in converting the organic nitrogen of the humus in the soil (which ordinary plants cannot use), into nitrates, chiefly of Calcium and Potassium, which they can freely ab.sorb. This action can only go on when alkaline or alkaline earth bases are present such as Calcium, Potassium, Magnesium, &c. The addition of such substances in the form of ashes, even if the amount was slight, might temporarily increase the production of nitrates, particularly in acid soils. At the same time, this means that more humus is oxidized and the nitrogen capital of the soil reduced. Further, it is only where the soil contains nitrogenous humus, that any such action is possible. Hence, stubble burning not only decreases the amount of humus returned to the soil, but also accelerates the exhaustion of that already present in it. Owing to their high mean temperature, the oxidation of humus is already sufficiently rapid in most Victorian soils. lo Oct.. 1910.] Tltc lufiitcucc of Stubble Burning. 647 The .second and third classes of bacteria bring the nitrogen of the air, which is useless to the ordinary plant, into combinations which are, or become, available for the plant's use as nitrogenous food. Of these nitrogen-fixing bacteria, one is that which grows in the root-tubercles of Legumii/oscc and which gives to these plants their special value for enrich- ing the soil with nitrogen. The third group, of which the best known is perhaps the form called Azotobacter, grows free in the soil and is in part responsible for the maintenance or increase of the nitrogen content in virgin soils. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which grow free in the soil, can, however, only flourish when they are supplied with carbohydrates such as are provided under natural conditions by the slow decomposition of the plant-remains returned to the soil. If the soil is cropped and, still more, if the stubble is burnt, the supply of humus soon becomes so small that these nitrogen-fixing soil organisms diminish to a minimum and the soil loses more nitrogen by waste and drainage, than it gains from the air. In this case also, therefore, burning off the stubble is bound ultimately to produce a diminution in the amount of nitrogen added to the soil by these nitrogen-fixing soil organisms, since it decreases the supply of carbo- hydrate material on which they live. Steam sterilization by destroying the small animal organisms which eat these bacteria along with others, might temporarily increase their activity, but such treatment is not of course practicable on a large scale. When steam sterilization is used by horti- culturalists for destroying weed seeds in manure and potting soil, it appears to cause an increase of nitrogen available for the plant's use and this may be sufiicient to cau.se excessive leafy growth. Apparently, this is the result of an increase in the bacteria which produce nitrates from humus, and not in the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Hence, the action will be best shown where large quantities of humus are present, as in stable manure or rich garden soil. Here, a little waste of humus is a comparatively small matter, whereas on an agricultural scale, maintenance of the humus content of the .soil is one of the most important factors in preserving its fertility. The burning of the stubble destroys a few weed seeds but. at the same time, the warmth and the resulting ash favour the germination of any hard seeds present in the soil and also provides precisely those con ditions which aid in the spread of fire weeds, some of which easily become troublesome. It makes the impoverishment of virgin soils cropped without manuring take place more rapidly than would otherwise be the case, and it does this without producing any commensurate increase in the crop to compensate for the loss of the capital stored in the soil in the form of nitrogenous plant- food while it was in a virgin condition. It is the act of a spendthrift to burn away in a year or two the capital which was accumulated for him by nature without any effort on his own part, and which might, when properly husbanded, have lasted him his whole life- time. The use of fire to clear the ground in preparation for cultivation is common among all savage races who practise a more or less rudimentary kind of agriculture, but with the .scientific advance of agriculture fire plays less and less part in its daily doings. Even in a garden, the less the amount of ' ' rubbish ' ' that is burnt, instead of being rotted wherever sufficiently soft and free from weed seeds, the less the amount of manure that will need to be carted in to keep up its fertility. Preci.sely the same thing applies on a large scale, and to an even greater extent, to Agri- culture. z 2 648 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Oct., 1910 BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. XII. FARxM SANITATION. C . H . WrigJii. Instructor in Plumbing, Eastern Suburbs Teclmical C allege. The climatic conclition.s of Victoria are sucli that, naturally, no un- healthy district exi.sts throughout the whole State. Seventy years ago- our rivers antl creeks were of pure running water, while the earth's sur- face was undisturbed by miners, woodmen, farmers, manufacturers, and others. Generally speaking, such is the case now, but not everywhere; for to-day one can visit many farms and country dwellings, where the occu- pants, instead of enjoying the best of God's good gifts, are placed, through their own neglect and ignorance, in a condition of life far worse than the city^ dwellers. For in towns and cities, puVjlic bodies look after matters relating to water supply, sewage, and garbage disposal ; whereas the farm and country dweller has to do the best he can, and, in many cases, it is among his least concerns. Pure air, pure .soil, and pure food are necessary to a healthy life. in choosing a site for a home, avoid a clay soil. Build on gravel or porous, light .soil, which will allow water to filter through; clay always retains a certain amount of water. Dampness in the air is caused by evaporation of moisture, and damp surroundings have a bad effect on the occupants of a house so situated. Let the .source of the domestic water supply be pure — a spring or deep well for preference. Contaminated rivers, creeks, and shallow wells should be avoided. Each room should be ventilated, and a free current of air allowed to pass through the house, while the maxim that " Sunshine is God's scavenger '" must not be held too lightly. The following points should be remembered : — That it is quite possible for a thinking man, with limited means at his disposal, to build a house high enough to allow the air to pass under- neath. That domestic conveniences, such as sinks, wash-troughs, bath. cScc, may be fitted up for domestic use. That a scullery sink with a waste-pipe is a great improvement on the habit of throwing waste water just outside the door. That to be able to turn on a tap over these fittings is far more con- venient than to carry buckets of water from the tank or pump. That to have a decent bath at one's disposal is often appreciable. That a drainage system free from smells is a guard against ill-health. That the closet .should not be an abomination. Physicians may cure di-sease ; but perfect sanitary conditions will pre- vent it. As sanitary science has now reached a stage that provides the same domestic comforts for country residents as for town folk, the follow- ing instructions will enable readers to effect improvements them.selves, or encourage them to design, in a simple and complete manner, what they require, and supervise the work should it be done by others. Sculler V Sink. — Sinks may be purchased in cast iron, enamelled stamped steel, or fire-clay. They may also be made in sheet copper or galvanized iron. Illustration No. 15 shows a pattern for one with tlie sizes marked. If thinking of making one of these, and you are not used to the work, first set it out on paper as shown; if correct, mark it on a lo Oct.. 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 649 sheet of 24-gauge plain iron 36 inches wide. Allow about J -inch at the corners marked A to turn round. Make a cut with the snips on the bevel as shown at B. The rim (C) is I inch wide, and, when turned outwards, the cut (B) will provide corner pieces and strengthen the whole sink when it is soldered up. Before this is done, turn up the four sides along the dotted lines marked D. First place a piece of sharp-edged hard wood along the line and pull up the iron. Keep the wood in a firm position and beat the sink into shape with a dresser. When that is done, turn up the other side. With a shorter piece of wood now turn up the ends. See that all is square and true, and solder after the manner already de- scribed in the previous article. Then make a stand out of 3x2 timber, and a frame to go around the rim, the back of which can be nailed to the wall, while the front rests on two legs as shown If the timber is dressed the space under the sink need not be closed in, which is better. The run of the sink is covered with i-inch capping. A piece of plain iron placed against the wall at A and turned down into the sink as shown will prevent any splashing finding its way between the sink and the wall. The waste-pipe is made of 2 -inch galvanized iron down-pipe; and \i the room containing the sink is dis- connected from living rooms, it need not have a trap. But if not, a trap with a water seal as illustrated in Nos. 16 and 17 will be required to prevent any smell entering the room. The waste-pipe should enter at one end of the sink, and, if a little fall be given, the water will drain to it. To do this, cut a hole the right size and solder the waste-pipe to it. _ A plug and wa.sher with a grating should also be fixed, when the iron 14. SCULLERY SINK. 9 15. PATTERN FOR SCULLERY SINK. 650 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Oct., 1910. around the outlet should be tapped down so that the sink bottom will be flush with the top of the washer. The waste may be kept above the floor and discharge through the wall into the drain (as shown by dotted lines in the drawing), but in that case three elbows are required instead of one. But it has this advantage, that the whole of the waste is exposed ; and in case of a leak it is detected at once. In anv case, should it be necessary 16. 2-INCH LEAD 17. 2-INCn LEAD to make the waste in more than one piece, use a slip joint ; that is, a joint giving about 3 inches of lap that you can slip together in its place and solder after lixing. Let the waste-pipe di.scharge into a half-round stone- ware drain. Should the closed drains be used, let the length between them and the waste-pipe be a half-round open drain. This will form a disconnection and prevent the drain ventilating into the house, to a far les.ser extent tlian it otlicrwise would. COPPER AND WASH TROUGHS. In cases where septic tanks, .sewerage system, &c., are in use, special disconnecting traps must be used, and they play a very important part in preventing sewer gas from finding its way into the dwelling. This, however, need not be considered, unless it is intended to instal a septic tank system; then, by all means, have the waste pipes completely trapped and disconnected. lo Oct., 1910.] Bidlding Hints for Settlers. 651 Wash jyoHgJis. — Any one who has had a set of wash troughs knows what a convenience they are. It is indeed a very poor tenement within a •city boundary that does not possess them, and their use and benefits would be none the less appreciated in the country. No. 18 shows a set of troughs and a portable copper fixed in position. They may be placed in any outbuilding. The copper should stand on an earthern or brick floor, and the flue pass through the roof. A portable copper will last much longer under cover than if exposed in the open. The flue hole may be made watertight as in No. 19, the lead being dressed around the pipe as shown. Wash troughs in kauri timber or galvanized iron may be purchased. Timber troughs should be kept full of water to prevent them splitting. Iron troughs will answer very well, if they are wiped out, and not allowed to rust. It is desirable that there should be a wooden floor for the person using them to stand on. The troughs can be placed in position in like manner to the sink, with a piece of iron flashing fixed against the back, and the water pipe in front of this. The waste-pipe can be made similarly to that of the sink; but a branch is required for the extra trough. To make and fix a waste to the trough, first solder a tapered socket to the bra.ss washer. In all purchased iron troughs this should be already fixed. Then make an elbow on a length of pipe with a suitable fall. Next mark the position of the branch on the waste-pipe after you have temporarily placed it in position. Remove the pipe, cut out the branch hole and solder as previouslv directed. Then finally solder the .sockets, washers and pipes in position. Fix any clips on the pipes that mav be required to keep them firm. If these troughs are in a detached hiuilding. they will not require trapping. For ordi- nary work, down - pipe may be u.sed for wastes, but if a first- class job is wanted, lead or wrought iron must be used, and this can only be handled by expert tradesmen. Baths and Bathrooms. — The bathing of the body is necessary if one wishes to keep in good health. The luxury of bathing is not monopolized by the rich ; it is within the reach of all who have the planning and design- ing of the farm homestead or country residence in their own hands. They can have a bathroom fitted up, ranging from the simplest type to the twentieth century bath, which embraces a plunge, hip-spray, and other luxuries. A common gahanized iron bath with a 2-inch galvanized iron waste discharging into a 4-inch half-round drain is illustrated on page 652. The water supply is drawn from an outside tank, and, in this case, would be limited ; care should therefore be used to avoid waste. In common with the usual practice this bath is encased in woodwork and has a fall of about |-inch to the outlet. The rim is covered by a capping, and flashing should be fixed over this and against any wall the bath adjoins. The Avaste-pipe in this case goes under the floor, and, if entirely disconnected from the living rooms, a trap is not necessary. This waste can also be FLASHING TO COPPER CHIMNEY. 652 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Oct.. 1910. 20. GALVANIZED IRON BATH AND WASTE. made in 2-inch do\vn-pii)e with, the usual sheet iron .socket, and grating and plug to fit. The plug should be fastened to a chain to prevent it getting lost. 21. ROLLED-EDGE BATH AND WATER- HEATER. A rolled-edge porcelain enamelled bath and a water-heater (wood fuel) in position are given in No. 21. Baths of this type are best fixed without being enclosed with woodwork. If the bathroom opens into a living room, a brass trap can be used, provided you see that the thread in the plug and waste fitting is of i|-inch or 2-inch wrought iron-pipe thread. The lo Oct., 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 653 BRASS P. TRAP brass trap can then be attached to this and the outlet extended as shown in No. 20. When selecting a water heater (wood fuel) ask the maker to supply a lead connection and union to fit i-inch or f -inch iron pipe ; also any lead or compo pipe that may be necessary for delivering the hot \vater into the bath. Also ask to have all outlet unions soldered on to the lead pipes. Select a con\'enient position for the heater to stand in, making sure that the water supply, if from a tank, is high enough to keep the heater full. Then place the heater in position, carry the flue pipe through the roof, as described for the copper chimney, cutting the wood lining of the ceiling 3 inches clear of the flue, and keep |SE from touching any woodwork by sheet iron cut to fit. Next extend the wrought iron water pipe from the bath tap to a convenient position for the heater stop tap. Then -connect up with the lead connection already mentioned. Finally, continue the discharge pipe from the heater to the bath, working from the union end first and cutting off the 22. waste to rolled-edge surplus pipe. bath. Makers supply a card giving complete instructions for fitting up the heater supplied. " How can the water supply for the fittings mentioned be obtained? " may be asked. Well, there is first the roof catchment; that may De stored without loss. Then there is the excavated or bore well supply which may be tapped. Or, if resident in hilly districts, it may be possible to take advantage of springs or running creeks. Generally speaking, Victoria enjoys a good average rainfall com- pared with the other States, and there are natural water resources which only need to be taken advantage of. Bathing Tray. — For manv reasons it may not be con- venient to have a plunge bath fitted up. But it is quite possible to have a bath without one. Through- \^.^^ out India there are thou- _:;~^_AjV sands of bathrooms after \ \ the style illustrated in 23. SIMPLE BATHING TRAY. No. 23. The bath is simply a tray made of timber, cement or brickwork. If in the city it is supplied with a bib-tap and shower; but if away from the water supplv, the water is stored in large jars and dipped out and poured 654 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Oct.. 1910. over the bodv In- the bather. In No. 23 a canvas bag is shown which will give \ex\ cold water, and the contents of a few dippers poured over the body will prove most refreshing. The tray can be made of galvanized iron by the same method as the sink, with the top edge turned over the outside timber as shown in tlie marginal sketch A. The outlet is at the corner. Where water is scarce, this style of bathing could be made to fill a great want and be adapted to suit requirements of homes, permanent or temporary. Wafer Supply. — In the days of primitive man, those living in the vicinitv of rivers drew water above and returned it, after use, along with sewage and other refuse, to the stream below their habitation, to con- taminate the water for their neighbours low'er down. This sort of thing^ 5.till goes on. Old Avells will become polluted by surface or underground drainage, containing sewage or other objectionable matter, if the site has not been carefully selected. The following paragraph is extracted from a recent issue of the Age : — Mr. H. H., of Bordertown, was seriously poisoned Ihrousrh drinking water from a well which had been sunk into an old discarded station dip, used 40 years ago. Two of his sons were slightly poisoned through the same cause. 24. ROOF CISTERN AND UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK. Surface drainage should be kept out of wells and underground tanks- Ijy brick and cement work. Bored or drill wells are better and safer than excavated wells, as a greater depth can be secured at far less cost. Smaller and poorer farmers might do better if they would only con- sider the difference between bucket and hand pump work, and the up-to- date windmill. A small mill with stand, pump and 30 feet of pipe, capable of pumping 900 gallons per day, can be purcha.sed for about ;£i2, and an 8-ft. mill, capable of pumping water from a well 100 feet deep and delivering 900 gallons i)er day, for about ^23. So great has been the demand for Australian-made mills that one Melbourne maker in 1909 turned out 1,800. many of which went to Queensland and Western Australia. Illustration No. 2_j shows how roof water may be conveyed into a watertight underground tank, where it can be kept cool ; and from thence pumped up into a small tank on the roof which need not hold more than lo Oct., 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 655 100 gallons. The water can then be conveyed by pipes to any household fitting, such as sink, bath, troughs, filters, &c. The top of the under- _ground tank should be lighted, vented and guarded, and the contents kept pure, for typhoid, cholera or dysentery may result from drinking impure water. Beware of the old style dripstone germ-breeding filters ; there are many up-to-date and safe filters now on the market. A few remarks on closed drains for domestic use may not be out of place. They should not be larger than actually necessary for the duty they have to perform; and should have a fall from i in 30 to i in 60. If foul, the interior of a drain often smells more offensively than the matter passing through it ; therefore, see that they are kept clean. Never lay them inside an inhabited building if it is possible to get them outside. Always use Y junctions for connecting branches to main drains. The pipes should be laid perfectly straight from point to point, and an air current should be constantly passing through them; and all joints must be made water-tight. If a septic tank is in use, all waste pipes from baths, sinks, troughs, &c., should enter the drain through a disconnecting trap. Disposal of Garbage. — Constantinople relies on its dogs as scavengers ; India depends on kites and crows ; v.'hile the aborigines of Australia simply move their camp to a clean spot. As already mentioned, city authorities in Victoria deal with the disposal of the garbage, and, in many cases, it gives them grave concern. To throw refuse into a running creek is little short of criminal, and to leave it about until the dogs, &c., re- move it is to descend to the level of the Asiatic. A good plan is to have a tightly covered barrel or large oil drum near the house, and into this all refuse may be dumped. This receptacle can be carried away when full ; and the contents trenched into the garden. Household slops should also be treated in the same way, and many experienced gardeners can testify to their manurial value. Ventilation. — Every compartment of a building should be separately ventilated. The outlets should be through the outside wall close to the ceiling line, and protected on the outside by a small plain iron cover, and finished on the inside by a plaster print, which will allow a free circulation through the house all the year round. Closets. — A clean and well kept earth closet is the best available sub- stitute for the sewered water closet. Below the seat is placed a box hold- ing earth or ashes. A hinged door at the back of the building permits the frequent removal of the box, which is set upon wheels so as to be easilv drawn away to the fields. Ventilation and light are most impor- tant in building a closet ; and the site should be selected .so as to insure a certain amount of privacy. Sczvage Disposal by Biological Treatment. — This system has of late years rapidly advanced. Before sewage can be thoroughly purified by this process it must undergo two changes ; first the aerobic bacterial treatment which liquefies the solids, then the further anaerobic bacterial treatment which finallv converts it into harmless elements. The result of their com- bined work is an effluent free from danger. This system can be installed in any country home or farm, large or .small, where there is an adequate water supply, and brings the latest sani- tary water closets within reach of those whose lot it is to develop the re- sources of the country. But it is a system amateurs should not attempt to carry out. A competent sanitary engineer or plumber who completely understands this class of work .should be employed, and whatever reason- able expense is undertaken, the result will justify the outlay. 656 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Oct., 1910 THE CHESTNUT. F. de Castella, Governnierit Viticulturist. The Sweet, or Spanish Chestnut, Casianea vesca, as it is chiefly known to botanists, is one of those numerous valuable trees which are as yet unfamiliar to the majority of Victorians. That some trees are grown here and there, is evidenced by the chestnuts to be occasionally seen exposed for sale at different fruit shops in the city. In fact, according to the latest returns of the Victorian Government Statist, 5,003 lbs. were harvested this year, an increase of 1,648 lbs. on the previous year's crop, though in 1908 5,000 lbs. were also harvested. Attention has already been drawn by the writer to several other neglected but valuable trees such as the Olive, the Cork Oak, anrl the Carob. (/I IK SI M IS NKAR AN! 'I /A'.. The suitability of both the climate and soils of fully one-half of this State for the subject of the present article is so marked that it is well to once more draw attention to its claims, in spite of their having been frequently urged in the past, notably by the late Baron von Mueller. several witnes.ses before the Royal Commission on Vegetable Products, and more recently still by Messrs. Crooke and Blackburne of the Forests Department, who include it among the trees they recommend for street planting. The chestnut is Avell worth cultivating as an orchard tree, and is recom- mended as such by no less an authority than Profes.sor Wick.son, of Cali- fornia University. It would then, of course, be submitted to intense- culture, and, in consequence, capable of giving abundant returns, but there is another purpo.se for which it is well worthy of attention. Shelter trees are becoming a vital necessity with us. Wholesale, and often ill-considered, clearing, has turned immense areas of what were- lo Oct., 1910. The CJicstiiut . 65: once sparse forests into open country, rendering the use of breakwinds and .shelter belts a more and more widely acknowledged necessity every year. In the planting of these it is well that preference should be given to trees which, while providing shelter, should also be productive. Many tine .shelter trees are now being planted, notably our own eucalypts, the rapid growth of which renders them special fa\ourites in this country, where we are usually in a hurrv. Eucalypts, unfortunately, apart from their timber value, bring in no revenue. As a tree, which, in addition to providing abundant shelter, aLso yields valuable crops, few have more to recommend them than the chestnut. The tree itself is too well-known for much description to be necessary. It attains a height of 50 feet, and its graceful and characteristic habit of growth makes it one of the most ornamental of deciduous trees. The photographs reproduced of chestnuts at Anduze, department of Gard, France, will give some idea of the general appearance. Its abundant (^hl. CHESTNUTS NEAR ANDUZE. foliage, composed of large, bright green, lanceolate, sharply-toothed leaves, similar in shape to those of the Loquat, though finer in texture and lighter in colour, enable it to provide dense shade. Coming into leaf early in spring it blossoms about November, the nuts ripening in March or April. As regards climate, its requirements are very similar to those of the vine, with, perhaps, not quite such a wide range ; whilst it will thrive in regions rather too cold for this plant to be profitably grown. The warmer portions of Victoria, such as the Murray and Mallee, where the vine does so well, are rather too warm for it. In Spain, it is in the northern pro- vinces— from Catalufia right across to Galicia— that it is most frequently m.et with, being scarcer in warmer parts such as Valencia and Murcia ; whilst in France, it is the cooler parts of the south, such as the flanks of the Cevennes Mountains and the Pyrenees, where it finds it^vlt most at home, although it also does remarkably well in Corsica. 658 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Oct., 1910. It is not difficult to please, as regards soil, provided this be neither stiff, swampy, nor too rich in lime. Its powerful, deeply plunging roots enable it to thrive in poor and rocky land. Granitic, as well as loamy soils of schistose origin, .so abundant in A'ictoria, are particularly suitable for it. The Chestnut in France. The following notes collected recently in southern and south central France, in many districts of which the chestnut has for thousands of years been the main source of food, both for man and beast, will serve as a reminder and also, it is hoped, as a plea for greater attention being given to this tree than it has yet received in Australia. Though commonly known as the Spanish chestnut and cultivated on an enormous scale in Italy, as well as in most southern European countries, it was in France that my viticultural investigations brought me most in contact with it. Even in southern France its area of usefulness is limited, being specialized in certain districts, and this for reasons which are of special interest to Victorians. So far as climate is concerned, the greater part of France is eminently suited for it. It is peculiarities of French soils which limit its adaptation to certain localities. The fundamental difference between the soils of France and those of Victoria lies in their respective lime contents. The vast extent of limestone formations to be met with in France strikes the Australian visitor very forcibly. The chestnut will only do well in soils free from lime; should the percentage of this element, calculated as carbonate, exceed 4 per cent., it will not thrive. Now soils containing less than this proportion are as scarce in France as they are plentiful in Victoria — they are, in fact, in that country, limited to certain regions. Wherever such regions occur, however, one finds the chestnut asserting itself and becoming the main standby of the inhabitants. In such districts as the Cevennes, many parts of the Central Plateau, and the Pyrenees, this is more particularly the case; so much so, that in the Cevennes it is often referred to as Varbre a fain (bread tree). Other factors, no doubt, also contribute to its popularity, notably its rusticity, which enables it to thrive in soils too poor for other crops. In mountainous regions large tracts of poor, stony, uncultivable land are to be met with, on which, prior to modern transport facilities, the inhabitants largely depended on the chestnut tree for their sustenance. Of later years cereals and potatoes have taken its place as human food, so it no longer occupies the position it once did in this respect. In J 881, the seven most important chestnut-growing departments of France, viz., Dordogne, Card, Lot, Ardeche, Aveyron, Correze and Tarn, included, between them, 645,000 acres under chestnuts. In Corsica and other parts the tree is likewise very largely grown, so that, if we allow a rather lesser acreage for the remaining 79 departments of France, a very moderate estimate, we find that the total area occupied by it cannot be short of a million acres. The Ardeche department is one of those where this tree is to be found in great abundance, and where, in former times, it formed the main support of the population. Large areas of rocky land, too^ poor and too rough for anv form of agriculture, can thus be utilized. Accustomed, as Victorians are, to the large expanses of excellent land, almost every acre of which is fit for the plough, it is not easy to realize this sort of country. Nor is it easy to represent it pictorially — nevertheless, the photograph taken near Rioms, on the road from Aubenas to Vallon, which it has been lo Oct.. 1 910. Tlie Chestnut. 659 nece-ssary to tunnel out of the rock, will give some idea of what rough country this really is. In the Cevennes and other parts of the flanks of the central plateau of France, thousands of square miles of this kind of country have for centuries past supported a fairly dense population — hardy, happy, and contented, in spite of the difficulties of raising the necessary food supplies. It is such districts as this which are the home of the chestnut. \\'here\er the lime percentage of the soil is sufficiently low to permit of satisfactory growth, and the underlying rock is at all penetrable, plantations are to be seen in abundance, becoming the main feature of the landscape. As well as supplying food for man and beast, its power- ful roots bind the scanty soil together on the steep hillsides, counteracting the erosion of heavy winter rains which would otherwise most certainly have long since transformed the greater part of the country into a rocky desert. In the department of Ardeche alone it is estimated that 82,000 ROAD NEAR RIOMS, FRANCE. acres are occupied by chestnuts, an area considerably less than what it was a few years ago for reasons that we shall consider presently. In Victoria, apart from our mountain regions, we have little country of the same type as that above referred to. Even in our poorer districts the hillsides are usually covered with soil, hiding the rock, the presence of which in a bare state, as a leading feature of the land.scape, strikes the Australian visitor to Europe very forcibly in many hilly regions, especially where timber is scarce. Nevertheless, there are thousands of acres of our mountain valleys too steep for the plough, and. as a means of utilizing these and, in fact, any odd bits of waste land, this neglected tree will no doubt some day have its value thoroughly recognised and be largely planted. In the valleys of the North-east district of Victoria, running right up into the high mountains, are enormous areas, much of which is too steep for any form of agriculture. In any such land, and more par- ticularly where the soil is supported by fissured rock, as is very often the ca.se, the chestnut tree will thrive, and in such cases enable profitable use 66o Journal of Agriculture. [lo Oct., 1910. to be made of otherwise valueless land. Its value for preventing erosion would be equal to the disappearing eucalj'pts, which we have so largely to thank for the absence of bare rock referred to above. So far as climate is concerned, the greater part of Victoria is admirably suited for it, perhaps excepting the warmer parts such as the Murray valley, the Mallee and Wimmera. As regards soil, the freedom from excess of lime of almost the whole of the eastern half of the State should render this tree of special interest. Variety of Its Products. Though known chiefly in this State on account of its fruit, this is by no means its only utility. In the past, no doubt, it has been mainly grown for this purpose, which is the one which has earned it the name of bread tree in many parts of France. Though, as a staple article of human food, it has no longer the importance it once had, good quality chestnuts will always be in demand. The bulk of the trees to be found in France are ungrafted seedlings, most of which produce fruit of poor quality. High grade fruit is yielded by trees grafted with better sorts such as Marron, Sardonne, Combale, Merle, Marcols, &c., the produce of which meets with a ready sale. In fact, the demand for high grade chestnuts is on the increase in France for cooking and roasting, as well as for confec- tionery— the manufacture of Marrons Glacis, the well-known French sweet, constituting an important and increasing industry. For these pur- poses, in 1881 Paris alone consumed 6,000 tons of chestnuts. M. J. Farcy {Revue de Viticulture, 3rd September, 1908) estimates that over a ton of chestnuts can be obtained from an acre of trees (in this case receiving some slight cultivation), worth about ;^5 after deducting about 35s. for cost of gathering. Under these conditions, the tree would be worth treating as an orchard tree and not only as a forest or shelter tree. This is a higher yield than the ordinary run of plantations of poorer sorts, the average yield of which would amount to about one-third of the above estimate. The higher grade chestnuts, such as are in demand at present, are always consumed ui the fresh state, for which they keep for a period of several months. In districts where they constituted the food of the people they were dried, in which condition they could be kept almost indefinitely. Sometimes the dried nuts were ground into flour, which is still a marketable commodity in many chestnut-growing countries. As feed for pigs the chestnut has a high value. In the department of Ardeche poor grade fruit is often utilized for this purpose, the better quality being used for human food, whilst the best grade is sold in the neighbouring towns at good prices. For fattening pigs, picking is of course unnecessary ; the animals can feed on the fruit as it drops from the tree in the same way as on acorns in the Portuguese oak woods. As food for almost any domestic animals, the chestnut has a high value. Horses are fed on it in Spain, in which country even the burrs are fed to cattle. As food for poultry it is highly esteemed, both in France and Spain. In the chestnut regions of France the foliage is u.sed both for fodtier and bedding. As a timber tree, it is of great value ; for this purpose alone, it is worthy of consideration. Its wood lasts particularly well under water. It is, after oak, the best European timber for coopering purposes and is largely used in countries where readily obtainable, more especially for the construction of large casks. In the armazens of Portugal, in lo Oct., 1910.] The Chestnut. 661 particular, the writer frequently met with storage casks made of this wood. Its high tarmin contents cause it to be esteemed for the storage of young wines, on which this substance exerts its well-known preservative action. This high tannin percentage brings us to the most recent use of the chestnut tree in Southern Europe, a use which bids fair to lead to the ultimate extermination of this beautiful tree in many, at least, of the regions where, since time immemorial, it has been the main supporter of the population. Unlike so many tannin plants, in which the bark is the portion containing tannin, as is the case with our own wattles, the whole wood of the tree is rich in this substance, varying a good deal according to circumstances. The older the tree, the richer the wood in tannin — up to about forty or fifty years. Young wood contains comparatively little. According to analy.ses made by M. Muntz,* the percentage varied be- tween 8 per cent, and 16.17 per cent, in the wood; in the only analysis of bark given it was 6.6 per cent. The highest proportion of tannin was contained by the heart wood. So far as tannin contents are concerned, it seems to be second only to the South American Quebracho {Asfidio- sfermum Quebracho), which contains from 16 to 23 per cent, of tannin, f The average percentage of tannin in the cliestnut wood treated in French factories is between 8 and 10 per cent. The wood is cut, against the grain, into thin shavings, from which the tannin is extracted by Avater. The preparation of this extract is now a very considerable industry in France, where numerous factories have recently been established. In the department of Ardeche alone, with its 82,000 acres of chestnut trees, there are five factories which between them treat 150 tons of wood per day. In order to supply this it is necessary to cut down no less than 750 acres of plantations every year. In most of the chestnut-growing departments, the same destructive agency is at work, and it is feared that the tendency is towards even greater activity if one can judge by the price paid for wood, which has rapidlv risen from iis. 2d. to 13s. 7d., and even 14s. 5d. per ton. The Decline of the Chestnut in France. It is thus evident that, in spite of its many precious qualities, the area under chestnuts is gradually declining ; nor is this due to any fault of the tree itself. It cannot, of course, claim to yield anything like the profits to be expected from most of our fruit trees and other plants usually submitted to inten.se culture. No doubt, .seme French plantations have been established in rich soil and in these, now that means of communica- tion have been opened up. other products giving higher returns per acre are being substituted for it, but this would not account for anything like the areas which are yearly being grubbed out. It is the recent impetus given to the tannin extraction industry which is the rnain cause of the decline. Apparently the poor quality of the fruit produced by many of the trees is responsible for the willingness of their owners to thus sacrifice them. M. Farcy points out the desirability of planting only trees grafted with Ijetter varieties, leaving the old and faulty ones for tannin extraction. There is also another cause, in the shape of a disease of somewhat recent origin, which is in some districts working considerable havoc and which is causing many owners of trees to sell them to the tannin factories. These different causes are responsible for a decline concerning which French agricultural journals are loud in their lamentations. * L. Mangin, Revue de Viticulture, i8th February, 1904 + L. Manjin, Revue de Viticulture, 31st December, 1903. 662 ] ouriial of Agriculture . [lo Oct., 1910. It would appear that the depopulation of some of the poor rocky districts of the central plateau of France, where scarcely any form of agriculture is possible, is directly due to the disappearance of this tree. M. J. Farcy, writing in la Revue de Yiticiilture, 3rd September, 1908, says : — Meanwhile, Ardeche is advancing at a rapid rate towards its ruin and its de- population. The chestnut is, in fact, an extremely precious tree for the peasant of our mountains, and one which it is difficult to see how he will ever be able to do without. It furnishes him with food for himself and his pigs, leaves for winter feed for his goats and sheep, firewood to warm himself with, and now gold (louis d"(jr) b}- sale to the factories. After gK 9 imrts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 1905), out of print ; IV. (1906), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 7 (July, 1906), out of print; V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts €ach, and VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. The parts forming the current volume may also be obtained. A few bound copies of Volumes VI. (190S), and VII. (1909) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume; po.stage, Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, .Ss. per annum. 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THG J0URNi\l9 OF Tfie department of Mgricufture w^ ^ --IBRARY OP '^EW YORK BOTANICAL VICTORIA. lARDBM. Vol. VIII. Part 11. 10th November, 1910. o IRRIGATIO?^. G. H . Tolley, Manager, W yiiiia Irrigation Farm. In most countries pursuing a policy of development by irrigation, centres for instruction are established with \ery little regard to expense of upkeep, the main object being to teach and to determine, by continuous I. RIVER MURRAY AT MILDURA. experiment, methods of irrigation and cultivation, varieties of products, efficiency of implements, etc., most suitable to different localities; and, by means of demonstrations and lectures, to provide such information for the agriculturist as by reason of his circumstances he is in most cases unable to determine for himself. In addition, extensive trials are con- ducted in scientific methods of feeding stock and in preparing and market- ing products. 14024. 2 A 678 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Xov.. 1 9 10. U^^Z^'T'T""' M^ ^''"^'f ' ''"■' equipped the Wyuna Irrigation Farm (situated about 9 miles north of Kyabram and 8 miles north-east of r^^rhed' ^^'^^"V '''''°"?- ^ • *^'' P^^P'^'^^" ^^"•' ^^^ development has now reached that stage at which its usefulness mav be availed of and where practical instruction may be obtained at moderate rates. To the intend- mg irrigationist and especially to immigrants, such an opportunitv should be inx-aluable and shou d assist largely in opening up a wav for settlement of a considerable population on the land and eventually lead to the estab- lishment of manufactories and many new industries. ' In presj^nting my personal experiences and observations on this subject J^ haA-e endeavoured to write so that everything may be made clear to the man on the land. ' Close contact with inquirers and students and much correspondence has enabled me. to some extent, to anticipate manv ques- tions which might not otherwise have arisen and cau.sed me to 'include 2. THE HOMESTEAD, WArXA. matter which an expert might hastily conclude was redundant. As to how lar I may have succeeded I lea\e my readers to judge, at the same time assuring them that their correspondence will be valued and that every endeavour will be made to assist them, when necessary, bv wav of further explanation. To those who may di.scos-er anomalies or errors I shall feel deeply obliged for correction and principallv with the view of amplifying and p( rfecting the work when, at a later date, it shall appear in book form. Technical work, which the ordinary reader more often than not is v/illing to '■ take as read.'" has iieen simplified as much as possible and a little careful study will, it is hoped, obviate unnecessary thought and argument. The work has l>een arranged to accord with the sequence of events from clearing the land to marketing some of the products. It may be noted that the m.ethods of irrigation hereafter described have been in actual operation in several Australian States, at least since TO Nov.. 1910.] I rrieaiioii. 67? 1887, when the irrigation settlements of Mildura and R.enmark on the River Murrav were started, and there has been very little alteration since, although the practice is looked upon by so many as an entirelv new depar- ture. Though irrigation methods, perhaps, do not leave much to be desired, there can be no question that we are woefully unprogressiw in developing irrigated culture. A variety of causes have led up to this state of things, but there is no doubt much discouragement has ari.sen from badly arranged systems of irrigation, deficient supply of water. itLDIXG STOCR AT \VVL.\A. applying water to unsuitable land, and want of knowledge and experience in making such application ; other factors are the profitable returns from grain products and the desire of most rural Australians to increase their holdings and become largelv pastoralists. ('onfining irrigation in the 2 A 2 68o Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov., 19 lo. initial stages to small areas will go far towards popularizing the practice, and it is generally conceded that the policy of the country towards that end is a wise one and calculated to have a very considerable influence in securing substantial additions to our very sparse population. Soil Conditions. No matter what branch of Agriculture may be undertaken, the first and greatest consideration is the adaptability of the soil to the object con- templated, and in irrigated culture the aspect and configuration of the natural surface as well. I propose to deal chiefly with those soils of Victoria where my irrigation experience has been obtained and where similar conditions have presented themselves to me. These localities are Mildura on the River Murray, and Wyuna on the Goulburn, the latter being included in the lands embraced in what is known as the famous Goulburn Valley. The geological formation of the country about Mildura, and indeed of the greater part of that vast and for a long time neglected portion of the State known as " The Mallee," is chiefly calcareous, light sandy soils overlying lieds of niarly limestone, rich in carbonate of lime, much of which under irrigation is readily soluble. The soil varies from a depth of 3 or 4 inches to at least 1 5 feet, and on the shallow areas is generally much clo.ser in texture than the deep soils which are largely composed of moderately fine sand. The greater areas under consideration are of a rich red colour, chang- ing to grey in the lower levels, and particularly where the herbage consists of " Bluebu-sh." The character of the land is easily determined from its natural vegetation, the higher lands being clothed with Pine {Callitris robusius), Belar {Casuarina glauca), Sandalwood {EremofJiila longifoUa), Hopbush {Dodonaa viscosa), etc. ; that somewhat lower with Mallee {Euculyptusi incrassata, E. oleosa, E. gracilis, E. uncinata) and Sandal- wood, below that again the Bluebu.sh {Acacia hakeoides) and Green Blue- bush {A. osswaldi), while the flats adjoining rivers, beds of old water- courses, and flats where water lies, is covered with a more or less dense growth of Redgum {E. rostrata), and Yellow Box {E. largif.orens) trees and Polygonum {Muehlenbeckia Cunningliami). The limestone sub.soil carries magnesia and other harmful salts in greater or less degree, and while it is no great difficulty to one having experience of these soils to know^ from inspection where these are likely to occur in quantities dangerous to agricultural operations, yet it is difficult to define it in writing. Generally speaking, there is little to be feared on the higher, and particularly, pine covered, land, but it is well to be cautious in respect of bluebush areas. Some of these, even after moderate irrigation, soon reveal the presence of this deleterious matter in the form of a white efflorescence on the surface, in some extreme cases giving the impression that it had been strewn with fine salt. It may develop slowly at first, and if not checked will certainly kill most plants with which it comes in contact. The exi)en.se of leaching the ground is considerable and is one that an owner will do well to avoid. The mechanical composition of these soils is very favourable to agriculture and they are readily and effectively worked with light implements. The Goulburn Valley soils are an altogether different proposition, being of much closer texture and overlying a stiff retentive clay containing in parts a small amount of scattered pieces of limestone, mostly insoluble with irrigation. The pre.sence of hurtful salts is a negligible quantity, thouorh occasionallv a close observer mav detect a faint efflorescence in ic Nov.. 1910.] Irrigation. 681 isolated spots. Broadly speaking, the soil is classed as timber land and plain land, the former having at some period been more or less thickly covered with box trees. Sandy ridges with pine are of infrequent occur- rence and are generally too high for irrigation unless by pumping. Although analysis does not reveal any marked difference, the plain land is of a more friable nature and easier worked, but it gives up its moisture too quickly to allow of continuous successful irrigation. Whether this defect will be remedied by subsoiling remains to be proved. Isolated experiments have been made on small areas of both classes of soil, but the results so far are not sufficiently definite to admit of any conclusive opinion. Sys- tematic treatment in tins direction is being undertaken but the results must be awaited with patience. AVALY.SES OF SoiLS. Soil. Subsoil. Locality. OJ 0 ^0 0 b£ -^ ■S •g. ■S p I2 1 s 2 o3 C3 S X. ^ 0 0 2; 1 - '^- A< '- 21 oi-s; ^ h-; Tootslopes of Grampians 66 \ 20 29 66 66 23 54 40 If II 73 20 45 61 44 21 37 20 II II 55 33 41 78 33 29 33 68 II (Valley soil) 193 123 98 173 196 121 188 100 Ararat 81 43 450 144 " 154 21 48 1.34 115 1-^ "54 ""84 " 93 49 183 152 73 49 139 1.32 "... 148 80 346 200 56 36 269 160 Wyuna, Plain ... 71 52 251 134 64 52 609 190 // Timber 96 66 459 174 88 68 1,080 182 Edi 81 70 14 126 28 29 29 110 Colbinabbin 56 80 160 110 39 70 360 120 Moormbool Forest 179 57 431 120 110 38 422 130 Dandenong 110 16 38 58 20 13 37 36 Werribee Sewage Farm original soil ... 126 45 154 60 95 61 457 230 Werribee .Sewage Farm 11 years' sewage 171 53 299 170 109 77 343 230 Fern Tree Gully 389 102 167 540 252 127 104 300 Kinglake 152 41 116 178 Croydon 120 39 139 161 Springvale 37 10 19 64 26 "10 18 "'78 Rosedale 61 17 109 80 37 10 121 32 Tra walla 210 61 94 122 78 45 48 48 II 93 25 64 136 70 28 50 1.32 -Condah ... ... 1 162 28 47 150 39 14 29 36 Moolap 130 38 277 488 100 19 795 352 /' ... ... 210 20 141 292 140 19 498 992 Oeelong 150 24 78 244 120 20 332 348 II ... ... 1 90 15 93 104 90 19 .303 134 In-ewarra ... ... 176 65 349 144 101 98 425 180 Yeo 269 44 39 1.54 146 21 21 144 ■Cobden ... ... 204 24 157 208 143 15 55 214 Loch ... ... ... 266 53 127 220 112 35 42 120 Leongatlia 241 14 195 320 106 40 197 100 Mallee, Kow Plains 77 26 498 11,420 , 32 17 661 12,250 II heavy Mallee scrub ... 81 36 612 380 ' 62 34 772 1,370 II pine country 75 22 253 2-28 42 29 346 600 // porcupine ridge 43 12 191 164 49 18 478 1,.300 68: Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov., 1910.. Clearing. The preparation of land for irrigated culture cannot be too thorough . Necessarily, where there is standing timber the first operation is clearing. 5. PULLING DOWN TREES WITH ENGINE. In the Goulburn Valley the proportion of growing timber is small, the- original pastoral holders ha\ing rung \'ast area.s to insure the growth of natural herbage. 6. THE RESULT. ^o Nov.. 1910.] I rrizatio)i. 68^ The most economical way of proceeding in the case of green timber is to kill it by ringing and remove it when dead. The standing dry timber can be made a very simple proposition h\ means of a traction engine, which ■can usually be hired. If attacked after the soil has been well saturated, and the surface is yet hard enough for the engine, a day's pulling with a team of three men who know their work will be about 10 acres of average country. Except in the ca.se of very large trees, there will be no neces- sity for grubbing round the butts and cutting roots. Generally, the tree will yield, roots and all, and very little running of roots will be after- w'ards necessary. It remains then to bum off all rubbish and remove the serviceable wood for future conversion into fencing or other material, or if the owner .sO' wills the whole may be burnt and done with, a course which is by no means recommended. Failing an engine, hand-grubbing is the most primitive method, but it may be shorn of much of its labourious- ness by using a good double-purchase '"jack." In addition, there are 7. STEAM PLOUGHING. many forms of effective stump-pullers on the market, or explosives may be used ; as to their relative merits, the reader is left to the advice of his friends or to manufacturers. In the Mallee country much of the scrub can be rolled down with rollers specially made for the purpose and moved -either by steam or animal power, but where the growth is too large for the roller, the traction engine well handled will make a most effective job. Bushes are easily dealt with, for which the mattock will be found a most effective tool. Ploughing and Cultivating. Once the surface is clear the soil should be ploughed to a depth of about 18 inches or such lesser depth as the proximity of the subsoil to the surface will admit, care being taken thai in no case shall the subsoil l)e iDrought to the surface. Where large areas are to be dealt with considerable 6§4 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov., 1910. economy is achiexed by ploughing with steam or other motive power, but for the ordinary farmer the day of horse teams is not yet past. When 8. SET OF HARROWS. thus broken up, all roots and burnt, or otherwise ; ^ *««i^ ^ ^ i; r J7 IS: ^ K^i^iiP BlL. ' H Wm ^ |2|i^^ //^ PflHl ■ 1^ 3 US -)-i ^•'^■4 K ^fl ^^^ 9. DISC l!\l! Stirred at intervals after much opposition in my of this kind, but I am confident, when familiarity with the turning and regulating of the machine is attained, its popularity will be very much greater. At the same time, I am perfectly willing to accept any other machine that will do better work, other things being equal. exposed in the operation must be gathered disposed of. Subsequent work depends- so much on the result of the ploughing that no general rule may be laid down, but by means of harrows,, rollers, disc harrows, scarifiers and other pulverizing tools the whole surface should be brought to as nearly the consistency of coarse sand as may be attainable, and there- after, until sowings rain has fallen. I have been met with advocacv of double disc harrows for work o. sriKE l;ollkr. lo Nov., 1910.] Irrigation. Levelling. The next operation is one tliat the average farmer not only cannot do, but seems to have a superstitious dread of attempting, and yet it is easily within his power, that is. using a surveyor's level to ascertain the lay of his land for' grading. He will find it very much easier to mani- pulate than a binder, and be more successful than he was in his first attempts at setting a plough. There are no castings to break, or bolts to wear out, besides other little annoyances that a far- mer experiences with II. SCARIFIER. his own tools of trade. Long association leads me to have a \ery high opinion of the mechanical ability shown on a farm where a man is remote from stores and tradesmen, and has often to venture a lot of repairs with little else than fencing wire, " cockle's friend," as it is facetiously called, as a stand-by. Let it be understood, however, that I am speaking of the level only from a mechanical standpoint ; the scientific side may be left to the professional man. The average cost of a good second-hand level and staff is about ^10, and if that is distributed amongst a few neighbourly neighbours no one is hurt. Ability to set the level up, and read the staves, keep a proper level book and make a working plan may be acquired with a few weeks' instruction and practice. If anything is wrong with the machine a friendly shire engineer will soon remedy the trouble, and his services may generally be relied on to assist in selecting a reliable instrument. A I co-link measuring tape and set of arrows may be bought at any large store for about 20s. However, whether the farmer does the work for himself, or employs another, the following plan of operations may be confidently recommended. Setting Out. — Chain out the land to be graded in a series of squares, similar in appearance and plan to a chessboard, marking each chain point with a small peg. The attached plan is from an actual example. What is known as " section paper " may be purchased cheaply from a bookseller, and will save work in making drawings to scale. If none is available scale drawings may be made with an ordinary carpenter's rule, but pre- ferably with what is known as a surveyor's 20-40 scale, which may b>e bought for 2S. 6d. It will be noted that the plan refers to a square paddock having its south and west boundaries fenced, and therefore providing good base lines to work from. In other cases it may be desirable to set out .some square line as a base, and it is not often that there is not some fence to set out from. The old 3, 4, 5 rule is a good method of setting off a square, and is readily understood. Measure along a base, as shown in .sketch, a distance equal to 3 links, feet, vards, miles ; it does not matter which. Then as nearly square as can be estimated, measure 4 along the line A C. Then, if B C measures 5, the line A C is square to the 686 Journal of Agriculture. [jo Nov., 1910. © 1 © © © © .'\'' ' .-^ I nO -© "ili I •? \0^ ,0^ — r .A^ VO^ ^ Channel ^ s 12. DIAGRAM OF CHESSBOARD SURVEY. base or fence. If it does not, make it do so by shifting C. With sight sticks at A and C the line may be projected indefinitely. In place of 13. SETTING OUT A SQUARE. ,.—-y 14. USING AN OPTICAL SQUARE. 3, 4, and 5 a better result will be achieved by using 30, 40, and 50, 60.. 80, and 100, or other multiples, the sight sticks then being further apart- insuring greater accuracy. ao Nov., 1910.] Irrigation. 687 Better than all this, is a small scientific instrument about the size of ..a large watch called an "optical square,"" and costing aljout 12s. 6d. It will save many a land-owner a lot of trouble in settmg out lines for his buildings, yards, fences, &c.. and. with the chain, will enable him to •do mostly all the surveying he is likely to require. The instrument comprises a set of mirrors so arranged that, on looking through the apertures provided for the purpose, square lines are at once apparent, and all that is necessarv is to fix a peg where the instrument indicates, and proceed as before. For example, let it be recjuired to set out a square line, B x, from the point B in the fenced line A B C. Stand at the point B and, with the right hand holding the instrument to the eye in a horizontal position, gaze .as nearly as mav be estimated in the direction of x. Slightly move the instrument horizontally with a circular motion until it reflects the fence A B, and makes it appear to be on the line B x. Though not -absolutely essential, it is well to send an assistant a few chains along the projected line, and move him back and forth until the instrument .shows that he coincides with it. \Vhen that occurs, he should drive in .a peg, and if the instrument is in order it will indicate the desired line. If the instrument is out of order, the point x will be made to appear at y. To correct this, fix a temporary peg there; turn the instrument upside down and proceed as before, and it will reflect the fence B C along the line B z. Fix another temporary peg at z. Half the distance between these two pegs will give the point x which will Ije at light angles to A B. The instrument should l)e tested from time to time in this way to ascer- tain if it is correct. Should it at any time be badly in error, take it to the shire engineer or send it to the instrument maker. Set up the level at or about the point x shown on the plan, and having •carefully levelled it proceed to read the staff at each peg, having pre- viously ascertained, either by ohservation or otherwise, that the lanrl to be graded is below the level of available water supply. The Tevel. — A description of the level, as a preliminary to explaining its uses, will be of .some assistance, though, as in most other cases, an -ounce of practice is worth a ton of theory. In any case it will serve as a reminder when doubts arise due to the .somewhat long intervals that may occur between successive usings. Most levels, in addition to the level placed longitudinally above the 'telescope, are furnished with a short transverse le\-el near the object end of the instrument. Its purpose is to serve as an assistance in .setting the "instrument up, after which it is not referred to. Having screwed or -clamped it upon its stand or tripod, it will be found a good plan when netting up to firmly plant two legs of the tripod first. Then, with the telescope pointing over the remaining leg, move that leg in or out, and right or left, until the bubbles of both levels are near the centre of their run, taking care to keep the point firmlv pres.sed into the ground. Then proceed to centre them by means of the levelling screws. Some levels are provided wdth three and others with four levelling screw\s. and for ■simplicity of working and booking alone the former is to be preferred. In the four-screw instrument bring the telescope over two opposite screws, having previously slackened all four screws to prevent jambing. Revolve these screws in opposite directions until the bubf)le comes to its centre and the screws are felt to slightly grip. Bring the tele.scope over the •■opposite pair of screws and repeat. Continuing to move the telescope in 688 ] ounial of Agriculture. [lo Nov., 1910. the same horizontal direction until it comes over the first pair of screws but pointing in the reverse direction, again adjust the bubble. Repeat over the second pair of screw^s, and if the instrument is in adjustment, the bubble will now remain in the centre in whatever direction the telescope may be pointing. Should this not be so, the instrument may be adjusted as described later, but being a little out of centre will not vitiate results so long as the bubble is brought to the centre when making the first and final observations at any one station, and when taking readings on any fixed points. Readings on ground surfaces do not, as a rule, matter to half an inch. If running a line of levels as for a channel or drain, the error of the instrument wdll l.>e corrected by setting it midway between each backsight and foresight. yrans usAS^ Kvef /IJ/us^mg Scrgtr 15. DUMPY LEVEL. The foregoing remarks apply equally to a three -screw instrument, only when levelling the telescope, bring it first over a single screw, then over the remaining two and repeat. It will also make it more convenient for correcting the bubble when levelling along lines, to set a four-screw instrument up with two of its screws approximately pointing in the direc- tion of the survey ; and with a three-screw instrument, one of the screws and the axis. No matter how carefully an instrument may be adjusted, slight corrections of the bubble by means of the levelling screws will constantly be required. The diaphragm of the telescope is furnished with one horizontal and two vertical W'ires or cross-hairs as they are commonly called. In some instruments these are made of fine threads taken from a spider in the act of spinning, stretched across a metal ring and fastened with shellac. In others, the diaphragm consists of a glass disc with similar lines marked thereon and set in a metal ring, and are much to be preferred, especially for amateurs, on account of their permanency. Spider webs are easily lo Nov., 1910.] Tlic Spread of Weeds and of Plant Diseases. damaged and are affected by atmospheric conditions and sometimes broken, and replacing them is a tedious job even to an expert. The "eye" end of the telescope is fitted with a small microscope which is slid in and out of its tube by the hand with gentle force and with rotary motion. Point the telescope to some well defined object, such as a house or tree, or to the sky, and operate this micro- scope until the cross-hairs appear quite clear and devoid of any apparent shake. At the same time, focus the telescope Telescope fube also by means of the milled head screw at its side so that clear vision of the object observed is obtained. It would be well to do this before levelling the instrument to avoid disturbing it, and as a rule, once the cross-hairs are in focus the microscope will not require any further attention during the day's work. A very considerable range of tem- perature, or sudden change from sunlight to cloudy conditions, will be the most frequent causes of re-focussing. The telescope will require focussing for nearly every reading of the staff. All readings are made with the horizontal hair; the staff should be read between the vertical hairs. If there is any suspicion that these hairs are not vertical, sight to a fine string carrying a heavy phimbob and suspended where it is not affected bv wind. If in error, correct by loosening the diaphragm screws, when the diaphragm may be moved a little to right or left as required and with a rotary motion, the holes in the telescope tube through which the screws pass being slotted for the purpose. Doing this will derange the adjustment of the instrument so it will be wise to verify it prior to adjusting. When these hairs are truly vertical, the horizontal wire will be true also. {To he continued}) D/ofihro^m 16. DIAPHRAGM OF TELESCOPE. THE SPREAD OF WEEDS AND OF PLANT DISEASES. Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany in the Melbourne University. There are many facts in regard to the spread of weeds and of plant diseases which are little known, and others, the precise bearing of which io not generally correctly understood. Hence, it may be of interest to give a general account of the chief factors responsible for the spread of vegetable pests and at the same time to mention a few illustrative cases which are of special interest or which have come lately into prominence. The old idea in regard to pests and plagues, whether of animal or vegetable origin, was that they were to be regarded as visitations of God to punish the wickedness of man. This view is well illustrated in the Biblical accounts of the plagues of Egypt. Such puni.shment, of course, falls on both innocent and guilty alike, and .sometimes indeed with greater weight upon the former. Among Mahomedan countries, the old idea is 690 Journal of Agriculture . [10 Xov., 19 10. not yet dead and the attempt to check the spread of plagues and pestilences is largely regarded as an irreligious interference with the decrees of Providence. A partial survival of the same view is evidenced by the undue import- ance attached in comparatively recent years to natural agencies as being responsible for the spread of weeds, pests and diseases, taking the term ■' natural agencies " to mean all factors not connected directly or indirectly with the presence and activity of man, that is to say, those factors that would act in his absence as well as in his presence. Among such agencies, wind, water and animals are the most active agents in dispersal, and to any one familiar with the minuteness of the germs of most animal diseases and of many plant diseases, as well as the special adaptations of the seeds of many weeds to suit them for aerial navigation, it w'ould, at first sight, not seem necessarv to look further for an explanation of the spread of pests and plagues. When, at the same time, it was assumed that such diseases as consumption and cancer in animals and rust and smut in plants were hereditarv in the sense of being transmitted directly to the offspring, while still attached to the parent organi.sm, the outlook seemed indeed to be a liopeless one. As a matter of fact, although natural agencies do take part in the spread of weeds and diseases, they do so to a much less extent than might be expected. It is for the most part, by the ill-regulated and unscientific activities of man that most weeds and diseases are spread or that the conditions are ])rovided for Iheir excessive development. Under natural conditions, in the absence of man, there is much less migration of living organisms than might be expected and the term " living organism " of course includes all disease organisms and pests. Were this not the case, no continent could have tleveloped an endemic fauna and flora largely peculiar to itself, and instead of the native flora of Australia being quite distinct from that of any other part of the world, it w'ould have merely n-peated that of corresponding regions in the Northern Hemisphere. That migration has taken place in the past in the absence of man is quite ■certain, hut it probably has always been an extremely slow and gradual process requiring thousands of vears for the introduction and naturalization of a few plants and animals in a new continent. When we compare with this the fact that, during the short period of occupancy of Victoria by civilized man. not far short of four hundred foreign weeds have succeeded in permanentlv establishing themselves in the country, it is easy to see how relatively unimportant are natural agencies for dispersal when unaided or unaffected by man. In other words, man himself is largely responsible directlv or indirectly for the luxuriance and spread of the pests and plagues luider which he suffers, and it is in the intelligent and scientific control of his activities that the best remedies for these evils will be found in the future. In this connexion it mav be of interest to mention a few specific instances showing that weeds do not invade an untouched native flora •until man provides the conditions for their development, as well as carrying their seeds or causing them to be carried to the new soil. In the National Park at Wilson's Promontory, along the tram track used by the saw- millers manv vears ago at Sealer's Cove, thistles grow in abundance -without being a!)le to spread into the untouched native flora right and left of the track. The track is some miles in length and at its upper end in several cleared spots and where fires have been, thistles have entered and ]0 Nov., 191 o.] The Spread of Weeds and of Plant Diseases. 691 hold their own without spreading further. On Doughljoy Lshmd, wliere formerly a small residence stood, the ground is largely covered with alien weeds, whereas on other of the islands round the Park, which have not I ten occupied or are little visited, the native flora holds its own, although many alien weeds with air-horne seeds grow on the mainland within the distance the seeds may be carried by the wind. In addition, in many parts of Victoria, it has often been noticed that on cleared ground subsequently left to run wild, an originally luxuriant crop of the .so-called Scotch Thistle may gradually thin out and ultimately almost disappear as the land reverts to its natural condition. Onion Grass again, actually follows in man's footsteps, since it flourishes in the hard soil at the borders cf paths and in uncultivated overgrazed pastures in which the continual trampling of the stock has made the .soil hard and given the Onion Grass tiie conditions it needs to enable it to suppress useful grasses and clovers. Travelling stock are common agents in spreading weeds to new districts Jind in providing the conditions which will enable them to gain and main- tain a foothold, but even irrigation channels may aid in the spread of certain weeds. For instance. Stink wort has in .some cases been spread from one district to another by means of irrigation channels, the seeds floating on the surface of the water, and many other .seeds could be spread m the same way. In this case, fixing a board across the channel so as X) hold back the surface scum, would prevent this source of spread. The reticulation channels themselves, f)eing moist and not under crop and usually composed of worked and fertile soil, are localities specially suited for the growth of weeds, and the running water is admirably adapted to provide for the dispersal of floating weed seeds. The influence of animals, particularly of stock animals, upon the spread of weeds and also upon the spread of disease, is very pronounced, and this fact is recogni.sed in the regulations for the prevention of the spread of certain contagious diseases. Such regulations are not un- natural interferences with the order of nature, but are rather attempts to bring our artificial conditions into harmony with nature again. In nature, sick or diseased animals are immediately killed by carnivorous animals or are thrust out by the herd and left to die in solitude. The only improvement man has made upon the natural conditions is by destroy- ing or segregating animals which have been sul)jected to the chance of infection, as well as those which are actually diseased, whereas the natural conditions for extirpation only come into play when the disease has advanced sufficiently far to aff^ect the strength and vigour of the animal. The way in which stock, and particularly sheep, carry the seeds of Barley Grass and Spear Grass is sufficiently well known to need no com- ment, but even here it is possible in the simplest of ways to lessen the spread by such means. For instance, suppose that a run contains ^ tract covered with any of the troublesome species of Aristida, " The Three- awned Spear Grass." Left to indiscriminate grazing, this will soon be carried all over the run as the better grasses are eaten out, but if the in fested tract is fenced off and the sheep crowded in while the grass is young or while it is shooting after being burnt off, and if they are taken out before it flowers, its spread may l)e prevented or the total amount of it even steadily decreased. To take another instance, the hard seeds of the Onion Grass lie on the surface of the ground in abundance from October to December, and are commonlv carried on the hoofs of stock from one place to another. 692 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Nov., 19 10. stuck in adhering mud or soil. If a farmer has a good paddock free from Onion Grass, it would be worth his while, when placing stock in it at that time of the year, to see that they do not walk across ground where Onion Grass is abundant before entering the field, or if that cannot be avoided, to make them walk through water to clean their feet. If a patch of Onion Grass appears in a paddock, its further spread may often be pre\-ented by fencing it off for a time and merely loosening and manuring the .soil on and around the patch. Dozens of similar instances could be given w'hereby the exercise of foresight and by trifling immediate exertion great future trouble could be avoided. The influence of animals on the spread of weeds is not of course con- fined to stock. Mistletoe, for instance, is carried by small birds. Many small weeds are carried by ants from place to place and other instances could be given. A curious instance of the action of fowls in favouring the survival of weeds may be mentioned. A particular plot of ground, overrun by a few fowls, contained mainly Rye Grass, Dutch Clover and Prairie Grass with small amounts of Couch Grass, Plantain, Dock, and Burr Clo\er. Although the ground was too hard to scratch or break in summer, and the turf too thick in winter, within one year both the clovers and the two first-mentioned gras.ses had practically disappeared leaving mainly Plantain with a little Dock and Couch Grass. Hence, although fowls may destroy insects in a pasture, their general action will be to cause it to deteriorate, particularly if allowed on it in spring when young grass and clcn-er seedlings are endeavouring to establish themselves. The origin and incidence of the diseases of animals and particularly those of man, have been more closely studied and more fully investigated than the diseases of plants have been as yet, but it is not so long ago that very vague and, in part, erroneous ideas were prevalent as to the spread and transmission of such common animal diseases as consumption and typhoid fever, for instance. To some extent, this lack of knowledge is compensated by the greater facility with which many plant diseases could be attacked or even extirpated, if a tenth of the attention devoted to the diseases of man and other animals were paid to them. It is not, for instance, possible to collect all patients showing signs of consumption and subject them to cremation, but this can be done in the case of diseased plants and usually at less cost than when, for instance, the destruction of stock animals is rendered necessarv by the spread of swine fever or anthrax. In very many cases, simple and effective means of treating plant disea.ses are already known, which do not involve the destruction of the diseased plant or part, and which are comparatively inexpensive. There are, of course, certain obscure di.seases of plants such as bitter pit in apples, certain cancerous growths in trees and many other little known diseases of cultivated plants, of which little is known and for which no effective cure or remedy has as yet been found. This is, however, hardly surprising when we consider that Plant Pathology is one of the youngest of the sciences and that as yet ^•ery little work has been done in this direction on an experimental, scientific basis. There are few departments of human knowledge which offer as great opportunities for scienitific research and in which the economic value of the results obtained is likelv to be .so great. It is, for instance, within the lifetime of an individual that the cause, spread and modes of treating many of the most injurious rust and smut fungi have been exactly determined, that the existence of bacterial diseases loNov., 1910.] Tlic Spread of VCeeds and of Plant Diseases. 693 of plants has been definitely proved, and that the previously unexplained losses to which various crops are subject ha\e been shown to be due to various injurious plant organisms. It has, for instance, been recently shown that the mvcorrhiza fungi which develop on the roots of many forest trees and are generallv supposed to aid them in obtaining food from the humus in the soil may. under special circumstances, become para- sitic and cause the death of the tree, particularly when in the young seedling state. Large losses of one and two year old oak seedlings are reported to have been produced in Russia in this w-ay and this may be one of the causes of the hea-\-y losses which sometimes occur in forest plan- tations without apparent cause. Even in the case of such a well-known disease as the common potato disease, PhytopJitlwra infestans, wrong ideas as to its spread were long prevalent. 1 he spores were .supposed to be carried any distance by the wind, that is to say, by natural conditions which it was impossible to control. It is now known that, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, the disease is conveyed from one district to another by means of infected tubers which formerly were supposed not to be able to carry the disease. The spores are apparently responsible for the local spread of the disease over small areas from each centre of infection so that a careful farmer using clean seed mav keep his fields free from disease for a considerable time in the middle of an infected area, particularly if his land is surrounded by a belt of timber and his fields by good hedges, and may escape infec- tion if timely measures are taken to suppress the disease in the surround- ing districts. Half a century ago belts of timber were found to delay for a time the spread of the terrible coffee disease {Hemihea vastatrix) which rapidly wiped out the coffee industry in Ceylon, and it is possible that, if a suffi- ciently broad quarantine belt had been maintained and proper regulations enforced, the plantations might, in part at least, have been saved. Without regulations to restore the balance of nature, and to counteract the artificial conditions which favour the spread of disease in any widely cultivated plant, a similar history is capable of repetition at any time and in any country. Many other instances of similar character could be given, but sufficient has perhaps been said to emphasize two points, which are of great im- portance. Firstly, that the spread of weeds and of plant diseases takes place to a far greater extent as the direct or indirect result of the activities of man than it does by uncontrollable natural agencies. Secondly, this being so, very much more can be done to prevent the spread of weeds and disease by the increase and spread of knowledge, and by suitably directed regulations for bringing that knowledge into play, than would otherwi.se be the case. It is easy, for instance, to prevent the sale and planting of diseased potato tubers, or the sale of wheat or other seeds infested with the spores of parasitic fungi or mixed with the seeds of injurious weeds, but it is not possible to any extent to prevent the spread of spores or seeds bv the wind, although it is of course possible to give them no opportunity of developing. It has been possible in man by suitable precautions and regulations to practically suppress certain diseases, and there can be nO' doubt that the same will ultimately be found possible in the case of certain at least of the more injurious diseases of plants. 694 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Nov.. 1910. WILD ''GRASSES" FOR AVEAYING. Alfred J. Eicart. D.Sc.. Ph.D.. F.L.S.. Govenuucut Botanist and Professor of Botany in the Melbourne University. The American Consul. Mr. J. F. Jewell, writes as follows: — " I have the honour to state that I am in receipt of a letter from the- United States forwarding the enclosed sample of grass, with the request to ascertain whether similar grass is procurable here and, if so, whether it would be possible to obtain regular supplies of at least 5,000 tons per year. My correspondent is a manufacturer of grass rugs and carpets and desires to establish the industry here which is successfully carried on in the United States, if the right kind of grass is procurable in sufficient quantities and at the price of, say, from ^2 to ^3 los. per ton. The grass, he states, is grown in marshes or waste land, is cut with an old- fashioned reaper, and is bound in bundles by hand after lying long enough to get dried or cured. I would, therefore, appreciate your courtesy if you would kindlv furnish me with the desired information." The specimen accompanying the letter does not appear to agree exactly with anv Victorian gras.ses or .sedges. l)Ut since it consists simoly of the stems and leaves used in manufacture, it cannot be identified with cer- taintv. We have, however, certain grasses and sedges growing wild in Victoria which approach the present sample, and which might prove valu- able for the purposes mentioned, if an abundant supply of them could be assured. Judging from the sample, the conditions required are: — 1. The stems or leaves must be slender, about the thickness of a steel knitting needle, of nearly the same diameter throughout,, and from 18 inches to 3 feet in length. 2. Thev must be tough and fibrous and must remain flrxiblr when dry. 3. Thev should not become discoloured in drying. 4. A steady supply in fair quantity should be obtainable. A temporary or an occasional supply would be of little value. 5. The surface should be smooth, but the edges may be rough, as. in the present sample. As the quantity required, 5.000 tons, is considerable, and at ^3 per ton would represent ^15.000 per annum, it may be worth while to find whether a supply could not be obtained from Victoria, as plants of this character grow wild in swampy places, which are often of no agricultural value. Onlv the cost of collecting the material would come into considera- tion, so that if a suitable nati\e plant could Ije found to satisfv this demand, a fair profit might be possible. Samples of the material in question can be .seen at the National Herbarium, or will be forwarded on loan if desired, and specimens of any grass sent in as a suitable one could be forwarded to the manufacturer in question for his approval, provided' the requirements mentioned above leem likely to be satisfied. PLANTS IXDlGEXOrS TO \ I(JTORL\. The attention of readers of the Journal is drawn to the notice on the back cover regarding Professor A. J. I'.warts latt-st work. Plants In- digenous to Victoria, Vol. II. lo Nov., 1 910.] Xuclei for Mating Queen Bees. 695 NUCLEI FOR MATING QUEEN BEES. R. Biulnie. President, yierflriun Apiarists' Association. In the raising of queens for the purpose of superseding those which are either too oM. or otherwise inferior, bee-keepers often encounter diffi- culties in any one of a num!)er of metliods employed to get the voung cjueens safely laying. The most direct, but also the crudest and most wasteful way, is to kill the old queen and either let the bees raise cells themselves or supply them with a queen-cell previously raised elsewhere. If the queen killed were old, but had been a good one in her time, thr bees may raise a good young queen from her brood, but in the case of an inferior queen no improvement, except in age, need be expected. When a queen-cell of good stock raised under the jiroper conditions is given, the result will be as good as b} any other method, so far as the vitalitv and prolificacv of the voung queen are concerned. In either case, however, there is a considerable loss in the reproduction of the worker-force of the hive, much less certainly, but still considerable, when a cell, ready to hatch within two days, is gi\en. When allowing the bees to raise a new queen themselves after destroying or removing the former queen, it will be at least 21 days before the young queen commences egg-laying; when a cell is gi\en it will be twelve days during which repro- duction is at a standstill. Now, as good queens cannot be raised, except- ing under the very conditions which cause brood-rearing to be at its best, it follows that breeding is interrupted just when it should be at the maxi- mum. Even a poor or old queen will at such a time lav 500 eggs per day, representing for 21 days a worker force of 10,500 bees and 6,000 for twelve days, but as young bees continue to hatch for 21 davs after the old queen is remo\ed, the weakening of the colony does not become e\ident till a month afterwards, by which time the circumstances have probablv passed from memory. It is a generall)- understood fact that there can be only one queen in a hive at a time and, with the one exception referred to further on, that holds good, as, on the average, from the time the young queen hatches till she Ijegins to lay, ten days elapse, and a break in egg-laying for that period must of necessity occur. To reduce this interruption of breeding to a minimum, or to do away with it altogether, different methods have been ■evolved and practised, principallv bv American bee-keepers in the first instance. The plan which does away with stoppage of egg-laving altogether is to confine the queen to the combs of the lower chamber bv means of a queen-excluding honeyboard. About half of the combs of brood are placed in the upper story, to which a separate entrance is provided. A queen-cell is given above and the young queen will take her mating flight from the upper entrance, and in due course will commence to lay while the old q\ie*;n in the lower chamber still continues. The voung laving queen may be remo\-ed and used elsewhere and another cell given. This is an ideal method in theory, but success depends upon a com- bination of circumstances. These are: a colonv covering the combs of two stories ; a queen in the lovver chamber at least two, but better three years old ; a free use of the upper entrance by the worker bees, and a 696 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Nov., 1910. continuance of favourable conditions of weather and of income of honey and pollen. If one of the four conditions is absent the young virgin queen will either be destroyed or mauled by the workers, or on returning from her mating flight will enter by the lower instead of the upper entrance and kill the laying queen. In the hands of some of the most expert bee-keepers it was successful some sea.sons, but with the average bee-man it was a failure. To reduce the total interruption of breeding to a minimum for the number of queens required, the ordinary practice is to divide one colony into a numljer of nuclei of two or three combs, each being given a queen- cell and stood apart from others. Many of the bees will, however, return to the former stand leaving but young bees behind. These are unable to properly take care of the brood and queen-cell and to defend the little hive against intruders. NUCLEI HIVES FOR MATING QUEEX BEES. There are .several ways of overcoming this difficulty. The bees for each nucleus may be taken from any hive which can spare them, and they are shaken into a small empty hive, such as the first one shown on the right of the illustration. A wire screen is fastened over the top of the box and it is placed in a dark, cool, and well aired position, such as under the floor of a building on blocks. On the evening of the day following, that is, about 30 hours later, the box is taken to the spot where it is to be located. A comb of brood and one or two combs containing honey and pollen without bees are taken from some strong colony and given to the nucleus, a ripe queen-cell in a protector or a newly-hatched virgin queen in an introducing cage being inserted at the same time. Another way of making nuclei is to break up, into lots of two or three combs each, a colony which has just thrown a swarm. As a number of bees will return to the old stand, only one comb of brood should be left in each nucleus. Select for the purpose those combs containing the greatest amount of sealed brood, and place the combs of young brood in the hive on the old stand where it will be cared for bv returned bees. lo Nov., 1 910.] .Y/icIci for Mating Queen Bees. 697 A swarm may also be divided into nuclei. It is best to allow it to cluster somewhere j then hive it in an empty box and about sunset divide it amongst a number of nuclei hives, each containing a comb of the brood from which the swarm issued and one or two combs without brood. As bees which have swarmed and clustered will stay in any new stand, a greater number of nuclei can be made out of a swarm than a swarmed stock. The queen of the swarm should, however, be removed, otherwise the bees are likely to crowd to the particular box she is in. By any one of these methods from four to ten nuclei may be made out of a single stock, and thus brood-rearing is interrupted only to the extent of one queen for four to ten new queens. In order to still further economize, American bee-keepers some years ago adopted a system of very small nuclei with miniature frames and only a tea-cupful of bees in each. These are known as Swarthmore nuclei. Owing, however, to the liability of such very small hives being robbed out when near an apiary, and the erratic behaviour of these small communities in frequently swarming out, the few Australian bee-keepers who experimented with this system have abandoned it. For the raising of the best type of queen, it is essential that from the first start of the queen-cell to the commence- ment of laying of the young queen, the most favourable conditions should exist. In the case of very small nuclei these conditions are absent during part of the chrysalis and the adult stage of the queen's life. Even in nuclei on standard combs in thin walled boxes holding two or three frames, the period between the hatching and laying of the queen is often unduly extended by climatic influences and the vigour of the voung queen impaired. The influence of extremes of heat and cold may be reduced to a mini- mum by having three or four nuclei in an ordinary hive body, as shown by the uncovered hive in the centre of the photograph. A ten-frame body will hold four, an eight-frame three nuclei of two combs each. The com- partments are made by thin, tightly-fitting division boards, extending up- wards to the level of the top of the hive. Each has a separate entrance facing in a different direction and a separate thin cover board independent of the ordinary hive roof. As it is always desirable to have some spare queens at the end of winter, to make good any losses of queens, these nuclei grouped together in one hive may be carried through the winter, provided there are enough bees in each to nearly cover the combs. When queens have been removed, the divisions may be withdrawn and the bees united under one queen. Nuclei may ue grouped in yet another way by standing, close together, two boxes of two compartments each, as shown in the second hive from the right in the illustration. The advantage of this method is that, after one queen is removed from each box and the bees united, a four-frame super may be put on each, allowing an extention of the brood-nest upwards, as shown on the left. When all combs are occupied, an ordinary hive with entrance in the same position may be substituted for the four-frame boxes, the hives moved apart by degrees, and run as independent colonies. For convenience the nuclei are numbered, the numbers being painted on tablets secured by a nail in the centre and used to indicate the state of each. The number is in normal position for queen laying ; upside down, for queenless ; diagonal upwards, for queen-cell; horizontal, for virgin; and for queen-fertilized but not laying yet, diagonal downwards. 698 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Nov., 1910. TOMATO (IROWIXCI IX THE XORTH. L. Macdonald, Horticulturist. Dookie Agricultural College. As yet we ha\e only two districts in the North that may be considered important as tomato-producers, viz. : — Bendigo and Ech'uca. In these two districts the soils, situations, and cultural methods differ widely. Yet, on comparing results, they are found to be approximate. It is mani- fest, then, that the three things essential are: (i) A warm sun, (2) plenty of water, (3) good drainage. In the places mentioned we find a good practical representation of two methods of tomato-growing probably the mo.st suited for Northern Victoria. The clo-se-planting, single-stem, stake system prevails at Bendigo. where the growers are mostlv European ; while at Echuca the growers, chiefly Chinese, adopt the flat system on raised beds. Culture. At Bendigo the growers generally start their plants about the middle of Julv. When the plants are large enough to move they transplant them, about 3 inches apart, into larger frames. The latter are previously filled up close to the glass with well-prepared fresh manure, which is thoroughly tramped down as it is being filled in. When the whole mass is well and evenly compacted i't is levelled off and is ready for the plants. The manure is usually about 18 inches to 2 feet in thickness and care is taken to get it of even density and quality so that there will not be a great variation in temperature due to irregular fermentation and conse- quently an uneven growth of plants in the frame. The plants are grown in the frame until the frosts are over, planting out taking place early in October ; in the more favoured places it is begun late in September. ' In growing the plants in the frames unremitting attention is necessary and careful judgment must be exercised in the control of air and water, otherwise damping off, lanky growth, or lack of growth will result. The plants should be kept growing slowly and should V)e in firm, stocky condition for planting out. In lifting from the frames a ball of the material in which they are growing is cut out and left adhering to the plant ; consequently the plants do not receive such a severe check as they would if planted out with bare roots. Watering takes place immediately after planting, to settle the soil well round the roots and force the air out ; this prevents evaporation and consequent check to the plants. The plants are put about i foot apart in the rows, the distance between the latter being about 2 feet. Between each pair of rows a shallow gutter is shovelled out for irrigation, the removed earth being ridged up around the plants. Under the staking system each plant is trained to a single stem, the side shoots being nipped off. The stakes are obtained from gum saplings that grow plentifully in the neighbourhood and are about i or 2 inches in thickness and 2 ft. 6 m. m length. They last for a number of years. The plants are tied to them with one to three ties of about 4 inches in length, which are obtained by unravelling old iute or "sujee" bags. Some of the growers give the .stakes m each pair of rows a lean towards each other; this, it is contended, provides more freedom for picking between each pair of rows, and also has a ten- dency to retard growth and thus favour fruit production. Drainage is recognised as one of the most important factors m the success of the tomato crop. A full appreciation is given to this matter TO Xov ]Q lO. Tomato Groiviiii- in the XortJi. 699 by Bendigo growers. Although situated mostly on the slopes of hills, the gardens are a network of surface drains. So important is the effective carrying out of this work that some of the growers would not have them more than 15 feet apart. This matter, however, is governed to a great extent by the nature of the .soil. Loose, porous, sandy soils do not require ra£a ^S(^ iI^^K fc ^ jA B ^ m Bl tftf U^ Ai i.U M.A^ . . j^Wa JWh ^^^k * tF ^ vJ*^ ^KMbjb ■ t ^^(^r^^/*" nflMMdM^f' -- H^lTIfl ;,/■■ ■ '' '',.'■ r V v. \ 1 ..-..1 ..^ ^l^'^M^gi^gi R^-^ -JS^^dE^^Ev 4^i^''l-;-;"tf- ' i ■-wSfeSp^''^ 'v'^-* '^'^^KUk « -^ mSI^^B^I ■^-i-p IRl^" TERRACING. MR. PUIGH S PLANTATTOX. BENDIGO. the drains so close together as those of a retentixe nature. The drains are about 2 feet deep and run with the fall of the land ; they cut the field up into narrow lands and make horse tillage practically impos.sible. Such drains are, however, not the most economic ; they hamper operations, and take up as much land as would grow sufficient produce to pay in a few seasons for the initial cost of effective underground drainage. STAKING SYSTEM. BENDIGO. In irrigating, the water is brought to the head of the field and worked down the narrow lands, zig-zagging across them, and filling the gutters between the rows. No hard and fast interval between watering is fixed ; it depends on the weather, .soil and condition of the plants. Excessive watering is almost as detrimental to the success of the crop as the lack 700 Journal of Agriculture . lo Nov., 1910. of water. The grower has to use his judgment as to when the pLmts require watering and in this matter it is largely responsible for the success or failure of the crop. The methods of culture at Echuca differ considerably from those adopted at Bendigo. However, growers place as much stress on the importance of the two cardinal requirements of the plants ; judicious watering and effective draining. The young plants are started in the latter part of June for early crops, or in July. Planting out takes place in the latter part of August or September ; this is somewhat earlier than at Bendigo, but provision is made for sheltering the plants from frosts and cold winds at Echuca, which is not done at the former centre. The shelter is provided by planting the young plants a little below the surface ; the earth that is taken out from the shallow hole is thrown up on the windward side, and a redgum board is then placed in an oblique position over the plant. The board is so placed that it will admit as much sunlight as possible throughout the day, prevent frosts PLOT SYSTEM, ON RAISED BEDS, WITH GUTTERS lOR I KRIC.AI ION, ECHUCA. from affecting the plants at night and give as much shelter from_ prevail- ing winds as possible. The boards used are about 2 ft. 6 in. in length and 9 in. in width. They last for a number of years. The flat system of culture adopted at Echuca lends itself to early planting and the adoption of some shelter against frosts. _ At Bendigo, under the stake system, sheltering is not considered practical owing to the great number of plants per acre. Under the flat system the plants are encouraged to develop a number of branches and spread out over the ground. Thinning out is adopted, however, but is intended to assist more in the ripening and setting of the fruit. At Echuca the gardens are cut into small sections for convenience in irrigating. In these sections narrow beds are cut out j each bed holds one row of plants and the plants are put in about 2 to 3 feet apart in_ the rows. An early maturing companion crop, such as lettuce, is sometimes grown on the same beds. A liberal system of manuring is generally adopted^ by all growers. Heavy dressings of stable manure are given in conjunction with artificial manures to the land in autumn, being well incorporated with the soil ; if the land is fallow over the winter, it is kept in good order, being turned over frequently. In many cases, as soon as the tomato crop is done, the lo Nov., 19 lo.] Tflijiaio Grozviiig in the North. 70T plants are ripped out and young cabbage or cauliflower plants are put in ; these mature by early spring and are sold out in time to get the land ready for tomato planting again. In this manner two valuable crops are grown on the land each year. The returns from some of the well-managed plantations last year were among the very highest of those obtained from any agricultural crop, and when one views the unkind, sterile-looking hills around Bendigo, and the uninviting bush at Echuca, and sees the conquest that has been won in the face of such conditions, by labour, fertilizers and water, he cannot be other than hopeful regarding the future of this industry, when there are thousands of acres of fertile land veined with brimming channels, in Rodney alone, ready to respond to intensi\e culture. Some growers claim to have obtained 1,000 cases per acre; however, one of the oldest and largest growers in Bendigo informed me that he usually expected au average ranging between 600 and 800 cases per acre. Even if a very low market price is put on these it will be seen that the profits are very large. BOARDS USED FOR PROTECTING PLANTS FROM FROST, ECHUCA. Last season was a good one in many districts. The early tomatoes suff'ered a good deal from frosts and floods, but the market was lively and maintained a good firm tone throughout. Varieties. It has been found by growers that many of the varieties catalogued by our leading seedsmen are practically worthless for commercial purposes. Most of them are fickle as to soils and situations and will only do w-ell under certain conditions. These conditions are apparently not found in the Nortli ; the consequence is that their culture has been abandoned or restricted to a few isolated patches. Some are of such variable type and poor setting qualities that they cannot be depended on ; w^hile others are of such character and flavour that they only command a very limited sale. The "Selected Large Red" and others known as "French" and " Spanish " are the most favoured by Northern growers. Owing to its vigorous constitution, uniform prolificacy, and early maturing qualites, the " Selected Large Red " easily holds pride of place. Growers generally select their own seed from the most prolific and typical 702 ] ournal of Agriculture . [ro Nov., 1910. plants, thus tending to perpetuate and improve the best features of the type. Although meeting with general fa\our with the public, being mild and uniform in quality, it sometimes exhibits a lightness or puffiness that is objected to by consumers. Some growers mix the more solid varieties •with them to give weight. It is manifest, therefore, that there is yet abundant scope for the hybridist in the impro\ement of our tomatoes. Pests. Of the many diseases that attack tomatoes, only a few have proved themselves seriously troublesome in the Xorth. The Victorian Locust {Pachytalus australis) does great damage in places some seasons when they come in large swarms. Burning smudges on which an occasional handful of sulphur is sprinkled is found a good remedy in such cases. The Tomato Moth {Heliothis armigera) is also doing great damage, parti- cularly with the early tomatoes; while the di.sease known as "Sheath •Calyx " has assumed threatening proportions. As yet it has not seriously affected yields, appearing more towards the latter end of the season. It manifests itself in the blooms towards the terminal points and also in immature wood. Th? t-r-rm'nal points of the shoots, the peduncle and pedicel of the late blooms become swollen ; the calyx becomes enlarged and the flowers fail to develop. If this disease becomes so virulent as to attack the plants in the early stages of growth it will be a serious menace to the industry. I have found it has a wide distribution, being especially prevalent in the old tomato plantations. I have also found, in plants severely attacked, that there w-as a complete absence of fruit. The Crab Grass {Panicum sanguinale) is also found a trouble.some pest; irrigation and lack of cultivation favour its development. FUTURE PROSPECTS. Despite the difficulties that confront the grower in the shape of pests, the tomato is destined yet to play an im[)ortant part in the industrial de- velopment of the irrigable areas. It is to some quickly-maturing crop that will yield ready return that we must look to solve the difficulties that confront the tree planter in these areas. The finances of the average .settler will not bear the long wait of four to fne years till the trees begui to return some of the initial outlay. Owing to the advertised success of the Bendigo growers, the stress laid on their sun heat, methods of irrigation, culture, etc., it is thought in many quarters that tomatoes could not be successfully grown in the North unless their methods of culture were adopted. The tomato is not a fickle plant ; although half-hardy in our climate and unable to withstand severe cold, at the same time it has a robust constitution and a wonderful faculty of adaptation. Yield.s are, however, in other places, as great under entirely different methods of culture. Many hesitate to launch their all in an industry that they only hav-:; a vague knowledge of and from which, in the ordinary course of events, they can only obtain results after a lapse of time that is almost sufficient to change the whole trend of events. Quite a number of crops may be grown without injury to the trees, and these will assist the orchardist in tiding over the first few years of fruitlessness. In this respect, the tomato probablv off'ers the greatest inducement in our irrigated areas. It is an adaptable and vigorous plant and an early and profitable cropper. It may be contended by some that much further planting would cause a JO .\o\'.. 1 910.] Dairy Yahie in SJion' Slock. 703 slump in the tomato industry. It is consoling to know that the same thing was said in respect of fruit-growing a few years ago. but that in- dustry was never in a more flourishing condition than at present. Toma- toes may be used in such a number of ways as a hdusehold commodity that they will command a sale where many other fruits would fail. Com- mercially, they may be canned, jammed, sauced, dried or sold fresh. So as soon as a surplus of production occurs over local demands the way will be open for the manufacturer to compete in the world's markets. DAIRY VALUE IN SHOAY STOCK. /. S. M c F adzean, Dairy Supervisor. A very common comment heard this year at the Melbourne Royal Show had reference to the apparent slump in the selling prices of .some classes of dairy cattle. Good show stock in good condition found ready sale at satis- factory figures. That there was other stock hard to quit was no doubt true; and many good reasons might be found for this. Throughout the whole of Victoria the dairying industry is flourishing. It has come to stay. During a few years past there has been more or less of a boom in some classes of dairv stock ; and many very ordinary animals, from a show point of view, have changed hands at prices beyond their value for dairying. Many people a!v slow t(^ discriminate l)et\veeii good and inferior stock. Every roan is not a Shorthorn ; everv red-and-white is not an Ayrshire ; and every fawn is not a Jersey. Each mav have something in its appearance that warrants the supposition that it has de.scended from the breed that its colour is distinctive of ; but that does not class it as " pure-bred." Every breed has peculiarities of form, as well as colour, that mark its individuals: as., its own; and, even though their breeding may conform to recognised lines, there are manv animals whose shape does not approximate the standard set for their particular breed. Again. e\erv cov»- of each milking breed is not a good producer. There are many culls to be met with in every breed — animals that are almost worthless as dairy stock. Such cows should not be sold for dairy pur- po.ses ; but should be fattened for the butcher. If this were done the milking qualities of our pure-bred herds would improve rapidly. At the Royal Show a lot of rough-looking cattle were brought forward for sale. Among them were many well-bred animals ; but. compared with other stock of the breed that were shown in good condition, these rough- coated, badlv-fed specimens looked — to the uninitiated — the veriest of scrubbers. With every kind of stock, appearance and condition go a long wav towards bringing satisfactorv selling prices ; and the breeder who over- looks this fact stands to lose therebv. Ill-conditioned animals will only bring their full value under some extraordinary demand. Everv vear those engaged in dairying are becoming better \ersed in what are known as the milking points, as well as in the show points, of dairv cattle. An animal that two or three years ago might have found a buyer on account of its colour now requires something more than that to command attention. Few dairymen will bid for coarse, leggy, or slab-sided cattle, no matter what their colour mav be ; for these conformations are now- 704 Journal of Agriculture . [10 Nov., 1910. universally considered as serious faults in any dairy animal. The question then arises as to what qualifications in a pure-bred cow should entitle her to be considered as good " dairy value," when sold by public auction at a pure-stock sale. Some people — and breeders at that — would say that if a cow was apparently sound, and of a recognised milking breed, she should be qualified to be sold as dairy slock. A better recommendation than this should, however, be required ; for, as already stated, every pure-bred female of a dairy breed is, unquestionably, not a good yielder. It may possibly be every breeder's ideal to have them so; but there are very few men, even amongst the high class breeders, who take the trouble to demonstrate effec- tively that heavy or consistent milk production is given more than a passing thought in their herd management. Every cattle-owner knows that, outside the question of the escutcheon, there is no way of estimating the possible bulk or continuity of the milk yield of a cow from her appearance. Even if it were accorded its full weight at the hands of the judges, the escutcheon with its variations, is still almost an unknown problem among dairymen. In the show ring it is safe \r say that the escutcheon of a cow or bull is seldom valued as highly as the .set of the animal's horns ; so we may leave this key to production out of present consideration. The one infallible guide to a dairy-cow's quality that is understood alike by all — if obtainable — is that represented in her combined milk and butter- fat yield, as determined by records and tests taken during her full season's lactation period. The breeder possessing a knowledge of his cattle to this extent has somethiiig definite to place before an inquirer who is out to buy dairy stock ; and such a guarantee of quality is the only one that is really worth considering by the dairy farmer. Yet how seldom is, this obtain- able? Nine out of every ten dairymen, before buying a cow, will make some endeavour to learn what her milk yield has been ; yet ninety-nine out of every hundred of those selling cows cannot truthfully supply this information. The animal under offer may have been bred by them; or may perhaps have been in their possession for two or three seasons ; yet they are ignorant of the actual quantity of milk or butter she has yielded. Tl can easily be understood that, where an inferior animal is being disposed of, the seller would not be willing to proclaim her deficiencies; and the absence of a record in such a case needs no further comment. With the established breeder of pure stock, however, the case is alto- gether different. Where he has to make or maintain a reputation for good milking stock, nothing will assist him to this end so surely as the furnishing t.) the buyer, with every cow sold from his farm, of a guaranteed record of her yield in milk and butter-fat. Each year room must be found for his growing heifers. If he is breeding on right lines, his herd will be improving in quality annually ; and, if he were to sell his young untried stock, he might be parting with some of his best ; so whatever he sells will come from among the older cattle. And here he will find the utility of inDking records ; for an aged cow, if a good yielder, will have a special value for breeding purposes ; and will find ready sale accordingly. Young stock also, bred from cows with recorded milk yields, would command the competition of buyers at much higher prices than now have to be often- times taken by the breeder, solely becau.se he cannot, in other than general terms, guarantee the milk-yielding capacity of the parent stock. 10- \ov'.. 1910.] Dairv Valne in SJioif Stock. 705 Dairy stock, at the Melbourne show, are judged on appearance only. It would be equally reasonable to judge hunters or trotting horses in the same way; but, while the horses are put to a practical test, the cows are judged on their apparent possibilities. Does this make for progress in produc- tion? At Victoria's premier show, of all places, one would expect to see dairy cows judged according to their actual production. There, also, we might expect to find young stock being sold on the reputation of their parents as dairy cattle proved by milk and butter-fat records. A farmer, purchasing a pure-bred bull at that show, should be able to get with it something more than a verbal assurance that it has been bred from good milking stock. A prize-taking pedigree is of little value to a dairyman as compared with one demonstrating practical results. While we all appre- ciate the cow that '' fills the eye," the one that '' fills the bucket " regularly will give still more genuine satisfaction. A cow that does both is a very valuable asset. In neglecting to keep records of the milk and butter yields of their stud cows our breeders are overlooking one of the most profitable points of their business. It pays to supply what a customer wants ; more especiallv if it can be done with practically no outlay. Half-a-minute per cow at each milking for one day per week — or e\"en one day per month — will be more than sufficient time in which to weigh and record her milk yield. A test of the butter-fat in her milk for one day in her second, fourth, and sixth months of lactation will give her average quality. With these items noted her value as a dairy cow is no longer mere guesswork. Every good cow .so tested has her \alue accentuated ; for every calf from her — male or female, irrespective of colour — has an increased value for breeding pur- poses. Upwards of 300 dairv stock were brought forward for sale at the Royal Show ; and milking pedigrees were conspicuous by their absence. In the sale catalogues the annual milk yield of the dam of either heifers or bulls was seldom referred to. Mention was occasionallv made of the yield or test of a cow's milk, covering a period of a few days only, showing that the breeder felt the necessity for some reference to this qualification in his stock. Probably he will be better posted next year. There are a few breeders in the State, however, ^vho have given special attention to this point for years past ; and, in consequence, their cattle have a reputation that insures them ready sale always. In fact, when it comes to selling pure-bred dairv stock, such breeders are in a class by themselves. Thev need no special effort to bring buyers for their surplus calves. In most ca.ses these are bespoke before their birth is assured. The demand for such stock is in no danger of being over-supplied. There is plentv of room for others to profit bv this work. Buyers want milking pedigrees, and are prepared to pav for them. It is therefore a sound business proposition with everv breeder of milking stock to keep records of his cows' individual production. 7o6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov., 1910. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. XIII. CONCRETE FENCING POSTS. T. J. Sledge, hiitructor in Carpentry and Joinery, Eastern- Suburbs Teclinical College. A number uf cuiurete J)0!^ts were made, on the lines described, by Mr. Sledge and his pupils at the Eastern Suburbs Technical College for this Department. Some of them were used at the Royal Agricultural Societ\ s recent Show to fence in the stand of the Engineer for Agriculture. Much credit is due to the College for the practical and useful work it is doing in training young men desirous of going on the land. Concrete fencing posts made on much the same lines as de- scribed have been in use at the Cowra Experiment Farm, New South Wales, for over twelve months. The Manager, Mr. G. L. Sutton, writes that the concrete fencing posts have been very satisfactory. — Editor. Farmers could utilize concrete in the construction of manv things on the farm, that are noAV made of wood and other materials which break or decay or are destroyed by bush tires. For instance, there is generally a certain amount of fencing to be done; either old fences need to be re- newed or new padi locks require to be fenced, and before doing either the farmer should consider which is the best fencing post to u.se, and ask himself the (juestion " Shall I use the old style of fence, or .some more economical and up-to-date kind?'" Concrete fencing posts ha^•e many important features that should re- commend them to the farmer. The wood posts rot and must be renewed- from time to time, whilst they are always liable to be destroyed by bush fires and in some localities are expensive. The concrete post will last in- definitely, its strength increasing W'lth age. It is practically fireproof, white ant proof, costs nothing for maintenance, and if there is a supply of sand and gravel near at hand the expense of making it l)ut little. Construction is not difficult; probably the greatest difficulty at first will be in judging the right i")roportions of sand, gravel and cement, but by adopting a systematic method of measin-ing the different materials this will be overcome. It is very important to ha\-e good clean gravel, and clean and sharj) sand. These must l^e free from all loam or \-egetal)le matter, and the gravel not too coar.se. A good place to get the gravel is from a creek, taking it from the banks, rather than the bed as that from the latter is more likely to contaiiT. vegetable matter. Any large pieces of gravel slvjuld be broken or re- moved and nothing larger than would pass through a |-inch mesh should be used as large pieces of stone woul|d cause weak places in the posts. Any good brand of Portland cement will do-. Care must l:)e taken to keep it in a dry place and well off the ground. If placed on the ground it will absorli moisture from the earth and its strength will be im- paired ; if in a wet place the cement will set and become u.seless. Attention to what may appear to be insignificant details is necessary if good posts are to- be made. The purpose for which the fence is to be u.sed should l)e taken into consideration w^hen deciding the size of the posts. If a light fence for sheep is required it would be a waste of material lo make heavy posts. A good strong light post is obtained by making it 5 inches x 3 inches at bottom and 3 inches x 3 inches at top and reinforcing it with four pieces of No. 8 fencing wire. A stronger one would be 5 inches x 5 inches at bottom and 3 inches x 3 inches at top. using the same reinforcement,. io Nov., 1910.] Building JJiiiis for Sctilers. 707 whilst a very strong ont- should be 5 inches x 5 inches at bottom -and 5 inches x 3 inches at top with the same reinforcing wires as the others. The best plan is to have single moulds, that is, a separate mould for each j)ost, as they can be taken apart more easily and the posts removed from them nmch sooner than when several posts are made in one large mould, and with less risk of damaging the posts. Also, the moulds are more easily handled and can be stored away in a much smaller space than large •ones when not in use. A simple mould would consist of a bottom board, two side boards, two ■end pieces, and .seven short pieces to be used as cramps, and six pieces of fencing wire or ] round iron about 8 inches long. Dressed Oregon timber should be used ; hardwood would do if Oregon is not obtainable. For a 6 ft. 6 in. post 5 inches x 5 inches at bottom and 5 inches x .3 inches at top, the bottom board should be 7 feet long, and 9 inches wide, and ih inch thick and should be prepared as follows. Mark a line down the centre of boar a with a straight edge or with a fine piece of cord wiiich has been whitened with chalk or blackened with charcoal. When strained taut between a point in the centre of one end and a point in the centre of the other end, it will, if lifted and suddenly released, niake a straight and fine line. Six inches from each end and 3I inches on each side of centre line bore a ^-inch hole about | inch deep, and half way betwen the ends and 3f on each side of centre line bore two more, making in all six holes. Now take three strips of wood about 12 inches long about i inch x i inch (pieces split out of the end of a kerosene case will do) and bore two |-inch holes in each, the distance between the holes to be equal to the dis- tance between the holes in the bottom board. Next prepare the sides. The.se should be 7 feet long, 5 inches wide at one end, and 3 inches wide at the other, and j\ inch thick; |-in. holes should be bored in them in positions to suit the number of wires to be u.sed in the fence. For a seven-wire fence they could be placed as shown in sketch, that is, from end of mould to first wire 6 inches, then 12 inches, 9 inches, 7 inches, 6 inches, 5I inches. Cleats should now be nailed on the ends of side moulds. lea\ing 6 ft. 8 in. between the cleats as shown on sketch. Round wooden pegs will be required ami should be made about 9 inches long and I, inch thick at one end and tapered down to § inch at the other. If the first size po;t (5 x 3 — 3 x 3) and the last size (5 x 5—5 x 3) aie adhered to and made the standard size, the same moulds and boards can be used for both posts, it only being necessary to bore three holes on one side of the bottom mould 2 inches nearer the centre, and corresponding holes in the cross piece. End pieces will be required — one piece 5x5, one 5 X 3, one 3 x 3, and i inch thick. The moulds should be well oiled or grea.sed to prevent the concrete sticking to the wood — any oil or grea.se will do. Care should be taken of the moulds after using them. They .should F)e scraped and brushed with a stiff brush to remove any particles of stuff adhering to them and greased again. When not in use stack them care- fully out of the sun and wet. If thev are stood up against a wall or fence, or thrown carelesslv about and left lying just where they happen to be throwai. they most likelv will twist and s]ilit and become almost ?o8 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov., 1910 PLAN OF MOULD. M OBLIQUE VIEW OF MOULD. fC/y TFt£ Z/rvL ^v BOTTOM BOARD. SHOWING POSITION OF rUM.LS. —7 feef 1 1 7 ■^ 1* 6'-^- 12- - - ■^ -9- -^ -7-->- 6->^ 5i"„ <,,> . SIDE BOARD, SHOWING POSITION OF HOLES OR STAPLES. m '^ Ai^-^^^r-.£_ — -^ ^ — ZTTf ENLARGED DETAILS. SHOWING CLEATS NAILED ON SIDE MOULD. 3>5M 12' >i ^ END PIECES. CROSS PIECE BORED FOR WIRE. lo Nov., 1 910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 709 useless. When taking the moulds apart, all the different pieces should be carefully laid where they may be found, without a lot of hunting for them. A little care in this direction will be amply repaid by the ease with which the moulds can be set up. The proportions of the materials used is an important point in making concrete posts. A good post is made with 4I parts gravel or broken stone, 2f parts sand, and i part cement and reinforced with four pieces of Xo. 8 fencing wire. The more cement there is used the stronger the post will be. The abo\e proportions make a post strong enough for all ordinarv purposes. Gate-posts and straining posts might be made with li cement to 4f gravel and 2f sand, and the gate-post should be rein- forced with |-in. iron rods. For mixing the concrete on, a box should be made, say about 4 ft. 6 in. square. This should be made of tongued and grooved floor boards ;. twelve pieces 4 ft. 6 in. long would be required for the bottom, using three of the pieces for nailing to the others like a ledge door. The sides should be about 6 inches wide and i;^ inches thick. This sized box is large enough to holfl material for about six small or four large posts which is quite enough for one man to handle at a time. It is important that the box should l)e as nearly watertight as possible, otherwise a lot of the cement is lost, bv running away m the water that may leak out. resulting; in weaker posts being made than was intended. Onlv enough concrete to fill the moulds should be mixed at a time, as anv left over will be wasted, so it would be advisable to find out how much will be refjuired. In measuring the materials a household bucket or a kerosene tin could l;e used. To find out the quantity required fill the bucket or kerosene tin (whichever is to i)e u.sed — do not use both), with giavel and count how much is required to fill the mould. The sand and cement must not be taken into account, only the gravel, as the cement and sand will onlv fill up the spaces betw^een the stones. Having ascertained the quantity of gravel required to fill the mould, calculate how much sand and cement will be required according to above proportions. The posts shoulil be moulded in a horizontal i)osition. that is. the mould .should be lying level on the ground. In making the pests it is as well to adopt a i)lan and keep to it as there will be less risk of emitting anything than if they are made in a haphazard wav. Xo. 8 fencing wire makes a good reinforcement and each post should ha\e four wires placed about i inch from the outside. Thev should be bent at the ends to prevent them slipping in the post when it is under strain. In making the posts, a good plan would be to first cut off sufficient wires 6 ft. 6 in. long, straighten them and l)end each end over about I inch. [ J(iet the moulds ready, and care must be taken to have the top edges of the sides level. If they are placed in a sloping position and the concrete mixture is very .soft, the cement will run to the lowest end or side and run awav. Having got the moulds in a con- venient position, not too far away from the mixing box ('which also should be laid as nearly level as possible or the cement and water will drain away to the lowest side), measure the sand and put it in the mixing box. Xext measure the cement and put it on the san;] and mix both thoroughly by turning it over about three times in a dry state. The gravel should now be watered and afterwards measured and put in the mixing box with the 14024. 2 B Journal of Agriciilfurc. [ro Nov.. 1910 mixed sand and cement, and the whole thoroughly mixed by turning it over about three times. dr\ . I'he mixture should now be watered Irom a watering can and turned over while being watered and until the whole is well mixed. Next place sufficient of the concrete in the mould to cover the bottom about i inch deep, and rake it up and down near the corners to work the concrete into the corners of the mould. Now place in two of the reinforcing wires, keeping them about i inch from the sides. Put the round wooden pegs after greasing them through the holes in the side moulds, keeping the small ends all one way, and fill in the concrete to within h inch of top mould. Now place in two more wires keeping them i inch in from the sides and fill in the mould level with the top; gently tamp the concrete till the mould is properly filled. If the end of the mould is lifted up a little and gently bumped on the ground two or three times the cement will become nicely 1p\el at the top. Having mixed all the parts together dry, only sufficient to fill one mould should be wetted at a time and then the risk of the remainder setting before it can l)e got into the moulds will be avoided. If an ordinary household bucket is used to measure with, for 4f buckets of gra\-el, 2f of sand, and i of cement, about 4 gallons of water will be required, in addition to the water used previously for wetting the gravel. The posts should not be moved in any \va> for three days; then the side moulds may be carefully removed and the post allowed to remain on the bottom board for about a fortnight, when it can be placed in as damp a place as possil)le and left for three months or longer before using. If the posts are watered daily for the first week or two they become much stronger than if allowed to dry straight away. Staples made from No. 10 galvanized wire could be used, if preferred, instead of making holes in the posts. They may be inserted in the post after the mould is filled. Marks should be made on the side of the mould to show the positions and the staples should be pushed into place before the concrete begins to set. Gate-posts should be made about 8 feet x 6 inrhf^^s x 6 inches. The moulds could be similar to others, excepting that the sides would be parallel. The gudgeons for hanging the gates should be put in the post at the time of making or holes left in the post for them. .Ml tools used in making the posts should be washed directly aft.^r use. especially the bucket, as the cement will set on them and it will be next to impossible to remove it without spoiling the tools. The mijiing box should be scraped out clean after use A barrel of cement will make about 30 posts and with gravel and sand nrar at hand T think these posts could be made for about 8d. to lod. each. Concrete posts, if properly made, will give entire satisfaction and will last an indefinite time. They are used in a large number of places in preference to wood posts, for instance by such companies as the Great Eastern Railway Company and the London and North -Western Railwav Company in England. Bv the.se companies they are considered to be cheaper than wood. loXov'.. 1910.] P('iato ExpLrimental Fields, igog-10. POTATO EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS, 1909-10. G. Seviiiour, Potato Expert. The experimental work for the past year embraces a continuation of the previous year's operations at Cheltenham. Fields were also estab- lished at the following centres: — Broadford Colac Daylesford Mr. A. Zwar. Messrs. Rankin Bros. Mr. H. M. S. Cox. Dean Leongatha Romsev Farm of — ■ Mr. I. Bousted. >Ir. Geo. WiUiams. Messrs. Robb Bros. The fields at Broadford, Colac, and Leongitha were primarily variety tests, whilst the plots at Daylesford, Dean, and Romsfc\ were designed to test the relative value of artificial manure in the form of phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen, when applied .separately and in combination. Table A sets out the quantities of the various dressings applied. The plot was I acre in extent ; each .section was therefore one-seventh of an acre. Table A. — Manurial Dressings. =3 oi . •a .a s — M 3 _^ P. . 2 ^ S'S'S OS o .3 02 a '1% iM a:- i-H o i-iGC %%%<%■% An effort was also made to discover what influence pasture has on soil fertility and what assistance it renders, if any, to artificial manures on volcanic soils. The seed was supplied by the farmers, and was grown the previous year on the farms where the experiments were carried out. The soil in each instance was alike — chocolate volcanic — and tvpical of the best potato lands in the district. The plots w^ere selected with due regard to the system of rotation followed in each case. The Daylesford field, which had been under pasture of English grass and clover for eight years, was ploughed up in the earlv spring and tilled for the potato crop. At Dean, the previous crop was wheat tollo\ving four years' pasture under grass and clo\er. The field at Romsey had been under culti\ation for over 50 years continuously, without pasture, and practically without the addition of manure of any kind. The operations on this field may be divided into three periods, the first extending from 1859 to 1869 during which the crops were potatoes and cereals ; the second from 1870 to 1899 ; the third from 1900 to date. At the commencement of the second period the Dun field pea was introduced ; it then became a rotation of potatoes, cereals, and legumes. Since 1899 the pea crop has proved a comparative failure, so much so that on many farms their culti\"ation has been abandoned. Accompanying the discontinuance of peas in the rotation has been the failure of the Brown's River and similar varieties of potatoes to yield a profitable crop. •2 B 2 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov.. 1910. The experiments on the three fields under re\ie\v are designed to throw some light on the causes leading up to the failure of two of the staple crops. Answers are sought to the following questions: — 1. What influence has pasture on the renovation of these soils? 2. What part can artificial manures play in restoring their fertility? 3. Is their action favourably influenced by pasture in the rotation? With regard to the failure of the pea crops the answer by some is, ^' want of rain.'' Doubtless, with abundant .seasonable rains, the crops would be much better than they are. In the case of potatoes, the light yields of Brown's River and other old varieties are ascribed to deterioration or running out, brought al)Out by continuous production by the vegetati\e method. But careful experiment and observation go to prove that it lies more with the condition of the soil than the seed as the following experiments will show. In 1902, a parcel of Brov.n's River seed, which had been grown con- rinuouslv for over twenty vears, on the same farm, was divided into three lots. Xo. f was planted in a field which had been cropped for 40 years without manure, No. 2 was planted on part of a well-manured field, and No. 3 on a plot which had been under grass for upwards of twenty years. All the sections were prepared in the same manner. The returns Avere as follow : — Plot. Yield. No. I ... ... ... ... 3 tons per acre. No. 2 ... ... ... ... 4 tons per acre. No. 3 ... ... ... ... 10 tons per acre. A further test was carried out in 1907 by sending a parcel of seed to Tasmania, where it gave a yield of 13 tons 18 cwt. per acre, whilst that planted on the farm where it had Ijeen grown for over twenty years re- turned onlv 3 tons. Pasture Rotation. If satisfactory yields are to be obtained and a payable crop assured in adverse .sea.sons, it can only be done by adopting a proper system of rotation embracing pasture. Professor Storer, in his work Agriculture in sofuc of its relations wit/i C Iicrnistrv. when dealing with this subject says : — It may be conceived that, as i)opulation and the conse<|uent demand for grain increased, the pastures in fertile districts were gradually ploughed up and con- verted into arable lands, and that, as a consequence, comparatively few cattle could be supported. Hence, so little manure was obtained that the crops suffered ; the land was after a while run out, and emigration was necessary. But, on being left to itself, the land reverted to the state of pasture. Cattle were again kept, and dung was again produceil. To maintain the cattle, the significance of which as producers of dung and flesh was now apparent, regular fields of sown grass were established. The rotation of crops is acknowledged to be die fundamental jirinciple tmderlying the maintenance of soil fertility and ihe renovation of ex- hausted lands. The continuous growth of anv one crop, especiallv cereals, has a xexy exhausting effect on the most fertile soils and has produced the same results in every country, inclufling the rich volcanic soils of this State. In the pioneering days the practice was. in these areas, to plant potatoes under virgin .soil, followed bv wheat and cats alternatively, until there was no more virgin land to break up. Then followed potatoes in fallow. This course ultimately reduced the yields of grain and potatoes to such a degree that many of the best farms were regarded as worn out. lo Nov., 1910.] Potato Experimental Fields, igog-io. 713 Then came a change in the rotation b\- the introduction of tlie field pea. Heavy yields of these were obtained and the benefit to the land was evident in the heavy crops that followed. The following rotation be- came established: — i, potatoes; 2, barley; 3, peas; 4, wheat or oats for hay, frequently followed by a crop of peas for green manure. This ■system obtained on the volcanic soils along the Dividing Range from Mt. Buninyong in the west to Mt. William, east of Lancefield. The satisfac- tory yields were no doubt due tO' the legumes, but this rotation ultimatelv broke down as a period was reached when the pea crop was abandoned on most of the farms. Since then, the returns from the potato crop have been very unsatisfactory. That the.se decreased yields are not due to the lack of plant fond, is proved by the analyses of the .soils of the three ■fields set out in Tables B and C. These show that even the lowest average may be considered a good agricultural soil. The soil and sub.soil of each plot WLte anal\zed. Table B .shows the -chemical analysis and Table ( ' the mechanical analysis. T.\BLE B.- Chemical Ax.\lysis. Jfitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Xime •Chlorine . . Phosphoric Acid Potash Daylesford. Parts per 100,000. Subsoil. Dean. Parts per 100,000. Soil. Subsoil. 318 176 297 233 175 127 450 184 7 2 372 291 454 480 253 197 500 470 5 Available in 1 per cent. Citric Acid. 78 I 66 I 28 I 9 1 39 25 31 17 Romsey. Parts per 100,000. Soil. 198 259 145 320 Subsoil. 123 209 112 260 Table C. — Mechanical Analysis. -Moisture Loss on Ignition Fine Gravel Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Silt Fine Silt Clay Baylesford. Parts per 100,000. Soil. Subsoil. 5.03 11.70 .80 3.19 1.48 3.31 13.39 10.06 25.29 25.73 5.01 14.77 .58 2.37 1.16 4.44 11.79 11.07 23.86 24.90 Dean. Parts per 100,000. Soil. Subsoil. % % 4.18 4.49 14.63 11.34 .14 .49 2.17 1.63 1.42 .97 3.48 2.55 17.52 12.42 7.62 7.18 28.04 20.96 20.23 37.89 Parts per 100,000. Soil. % 2.26 7.46 .16 1.71 1.33 3.49 16.24 12.20 31.95 23.14 Subsoil. 2.35 5.98 .25 1.56 1.52 3.90 11.08 15.88 28.91 28.45 It must not be thought that the failure of crops and shortage in yields are entirely due to the .system of farming practised in these districts. A survey of the register of the rainfall (Table D) during the growing period of the potato crop and embracing the most critical period of the pea crop shows that 1909-10 was abnormallv drv. ■14 Journal of Agriciilturt: . [lo Nov.. 1 9 TO. Table D.— K.uxfall. 1909-10. Daylesford. Dean. Points. Points. 1909— November . . December . . 1910— January February March April 9.3.5 1.26 .83 1.14 .44 4.10 ■ 84 8.61 Romsey. Points. .44 1.25 1.07 .16 2.94 in cunnexiou with the above it should be pointed out that the January and March rain.s were each followed by very hot weather, accompanied by drying winds ; also that a heavy fall of rain often does more harm than good, especially when the precipitation is of only a few^ hours duration. -Had the total February and March falls been divided into two equal amounts, spread ever a week in each instance, more benefit would have resulted. However, there is every reason to believe that had a system of rotation embracing potatoes, cereals, legumes, and pasture been adopted for the last 30 years on all these plots it would have made all the dif- ference in afherse seasons between a profit, though perhaps a small one. and an absolute loss. Bv a glance at the chemical analysis, gi\en. in Table B. of the three soils under review, it will be noted that they are all of fairly high standard- Romsey showing the lowest, especially in nitrogen, lime, and chlorine. It must be borne in mind that the mechanical condition of a soil has an important bearing on its fertility and that the above condition is promoted bv agencies altogether apart from the amount of tillage the land receives. It is a Avell-known fact that these soils, when iirought to a fine tilth, are bv a heavy fall of rain converted into a brickdike mass. So compact is this, when dry, that the air is excluded. Consequently, the action of bacteria in the soil, which play such an important part in the formation of nitrogen, is diminished or destroyed altogether. And probably the exclusion of oxvgen fnjiii the soil ma\" favour the development of organisms destructive of. or injurious to. plant life. Common salt or, better still, lime, has the effect of flocculating such a soil and, in a measure, prexenting it caking, but the mo^i important factor is the amount of organic matter which it contains. The soil most abun- dantly supplied with this is the one that ab.sorbs. and retaias the greatest amount of moisture. This fact is shown in a mo.st striking manner by the mechanical analyses of the soils of the fields under review (Table O. Those having the greatest loss on ignition have the highest percentage of moisture. It has been demonstrated by experiment that the soils which are abundantly supplied with phosphoric acid, potish. and all the mineral constituents are not benefited to any extent by the application of these forms of manure, whereas if they are liberally dressed with farmyard manure, results are obtained far beyond what a similar amount of plant food supplied bv artificials would give. A glance at Table C will show that the insoluble silicates and sand of plots i and 2 are almost the same, whilst plot 3 contains upwards of to per cent more. The difference is accounted for liv the lower percentage of moisture and organic matter in lo Xov.. 1910. J Potato Experimental Fields, igog-10. the latter, and these, coupled with the ])roper aeration of the soil, are the controlling factors in its fertility. The percentages of loss on ignition and moibtiu-e represent the amount contained in 100 lbs. of the soil in an air dry condition, and shows its power to retain the moisture it has receiyed. The difference in moisture ■content between 4.16 in plot Xo. 2 and 2.30 in plot No. 3 does not appear very great, but it represents nearly double the amoimt and is still more striking when shown in lbs. per surface foot per acre. The same applies to the organic matter. This difference is still more striking when plots 2 and 3 are compared with No. i. The relatiye position of these fields as regards moisture, organic matter, and yield is shown in Table E : — Table E. — Moisture Coxtents. Plot 1. Plot 2. Plot 3. 8 Years" P;istiire. 4 Years' Pasture. 4 "16 per cent. 166,400 lbs. 13 -03 per cent. 4 tons 6 cwt. No Pasture. Moisture Weight of water per acre in surtaoe loot . . Loss on ignition Average yield per acre . . 5 '02 per cent. 200,800 lbs. 13 -23 per cent. 4 tons 18 cwt. 2-30 per cent. 92,000 lbs. 6 '62 per cent. 3 tons :i cwt. There is no doubt that, if plot 3 had received the same treatment as No. I and No. 2, it would have shown a higher percentage of organic matter, with a correspondingly higher percentage of moisture and a hea\-ier Yield. Experiments with Aktii-icial Manures. Table F.— Manures and Y'ields. Manures. Yields. Section. Manure used. ' Weight. Cost. g. d. Daylesford. Dean. Romsey. cwt. t. c. qr. lb. t. c. qr. lb. t. c. qr. lb. A. Superphosphate 2 8 9 5 2 0 7 4 14 2 0 3 0 2 24 B Sulphate of Ammonia . . 1 15 0 4 1 1 24 4 9 10 3 7 0 5 (■ Sulphate of Potash 1 13 7i 5 2 0 10 4 3 0 14 2 17 3 26 D 'So Manure 3 11 0 6 4 4 3 14 3 3 1 21 ^' I Superphosi)hate 2 23 9 5 12 2 26 4 7 2 0 3 11 1 24 Sulphate of Ammonia . . 1 , ^ -! Superphosphate - t 22 n 5 13 1 21 4 1 1 14 3 1:! 0 16 Sulphate of Potash 1 , 1 Superphospliate - 1 "1. Sulphate of Amiuonin . . Sulphate of Potash 1 , 1 37 74 5 10 7 4 4 0 0 3 11 1 24 Turning to the eftect of the different manure dressings on the three plots it will be evident that the one containing the highest percentage of phosphoric matter responded most evenly to the manures. Section i of plot No. I shows an increase of i ton 1 1 cwt. per acre for a dressing of 2 cwt. superphosphate, and section 2 only of 10 cwt. per 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia. Tt was noted during the growing period that this section had a more luxuriant growth of foliage, and these tender plants evidently gave way under the influence of a prolonged dry spell. In connexion with section 3, i cw^t. sulphate of potash gave the most satisfactory returns obtained during five years. This may be attributable to the character of the .soil, its high percentage of moisture and the presence of a larger amount of lime than is generally met with in these soils. Section 5 has 7i6 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Nov., ipio^ the same dressing as No. 2 with 2 cwt. of superphosphate added, and give.5 a yield of 10 cwt. per acre more than that section. This would indicate- the necessity of combining phosphoric acid with the ammonia salt, so that the growth of the tubers may proceed concurrently with the improved growth of the plant. It is a well known fact among potato-growers that liberal dressings of nitrogenous manure often produce a heavy crop of tops with a light yield of tubers — this is evidently what happened on .section No. 2. The results obtained on section 6 show the advantage of combining phosphoric acid with potash. In this instance, it resulted in an increase of over IT cwt. of tuliers per acre. Section 7, which received a dressing of the complete manure — phosphoric acid, potash, and sulphate of ammonia — gave a lower yield than .sections t. 3, 5, and 6. This section was remarkable during the early growing period for the rich growth of the plants and gave promi.se of a heavy yield. This was not realized. The section was on a slight depression which ran across the field and the crop was cut by frost in the middle of tubering which accounts for the light yield. The results from plots 2 and 3 are in .some respects similar, as sec- tions B and E show an increase and C a decrease. The outstanding difference is the hea\ier yield on all sections in plot 2, showing the benefit of pasture in the rotation. It will be noted that section B, dres.sed with sulphate of ammonia in these two plots, gave 5 cwt. in plot No. 2 and nearly 4 cwt. in plot No. 3. Section E, with the addition of 2 cwt. of super])hosphate, shows a very slight increase, plot No. 2, 2 cwt. 3 qrs. ;. and plot No. 3, 8 cwt. With reference to the potash dressing on section C, both plots show a decrease. In the ca.se of plot No. 2 it amounts to- 3 cwt. 3 (|rs., and plot No. 3. 5 cwt. 1 (|r.. thus showing that these plots are in accord in sections B, C, and 1>. The most striking difference in the two fields occurs in section A. Plot No. 2 shows an increase of nearly half-a-ton to the acre, and plot 3 a decrease of nearly 3 ' cwt. This" difference is, no doubt, due to some fa\ourable condition of the soil not present in the other sections, and might have been produced \\\ the presence of organic matter, the result of refuse left after threshing. Mr. Bousted states that such was not the ca.se. At the commencement it was pointed out that the rotation on two of these plots was similar, inasmuch as they had both lieen under pasture for varying periods ; the other. No. 3, was given for a period of 50^ years. The operations on this plot may be described as a continuous drain on the .soil's fertility, everything out and nothing back. The only period when renovation of the soil was attempted was that devoted tO' peas. Complaints are sometimes heard from growers that yields of pota- toes are not greatly benefited by pasture. They forget that continuous cultivation has depleted the land of its store of organic matter, making il physically unfit to produce a satisfactory crop. " One swallow does not make a summer." One term under pasture is only the first step in the direction of improvement, and cannot be expected to restore the soil to anything approaching its virgin condition. If much benefit is to be obtained from pasture in the rotation, it must be followed systematically. The following conclusions may be drawn from the foregoing: — I. That a proper system of rotation must embrace pasture, resulting in more stock on the land and the consumption of more of the produce on the farm. lo Nov., 1910.] Potato Experimental Fields, igog-io. 717 2. That pasture improves the mechanical and physical condition of the soil, making it more friable, enabling it to absorb more of the rainfall, and making it more retentive of moisture. 3. That it improxes the fertility of the soil chemically by increas- ing the amount of available plant food contained in it. 4. That artificial manures will improve the yields on chocolate volcanic soils, when supplied with sufficient moisture. 5. That the action of artificial manures depends upon the rainfall and is favourably influenced by a large supplv of organic matter in the soil. A Suggested Rotation. It may not be out of place to give an outline of a definite svstem of rotation to comply with the practice suggested. It will be noted that the accompanying table is for a four years" pa.sture course which will require ten fields. Of these Xos. 2, 3, 4 and 5 are under grass, Xo. i is just broken up from sod and sown with oats, No. 6 has potatoes after oats, No. 7 barley after potatoes, No. 8 peas after barley, No. 9 potatoes after peas, and No. 10 barley or oats after potatoes, then under grass. It .should be mentioned that wheat or oats will do equally as well as barley if the district is not suited to that crop. Should the four vears' course be too long for the pasture three years may be adopted. The fields may then be reduced to eight, which would give three-eighths under grass, and one-eighth each under oats, potatoes, barley, peas, and v/heat. It will be noted that the first crop after grass is oats or other straw crop. This prepares the .soil and fits it for the potato crop, which should not be planted on sod land, because if scab or eel-worm is present in the soil their ravages are always greatest in .sod land. Table G.— Plan of Rotation. 1. 2_ 3. 4. 5. Oats. Pasture 4th year Pasture .3rd year Pasture 2iul year Scheme No. 2 (3 Years' Pasture). Pasture 1st year Oats Pasture 3rd year Pasture 2ud year Pasture 1st year 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Potatoes Barley Peas Potatoes Barlev Scheme No. 2. Potatoes Barley 1 Peas Wheat or Oats Cheltenham (Mr. J. Wedd's Plot.) The work of planting this plot was delayed three weeks owing to wet weather. The first section, composed of four drills each of Carman, Clarke's Main Crop, and Up-to-Date, was planted on 26th July, the soil temperature at 3 p.m. being 46 and the atmosphere 53. The second section was planted 14th September; soil temperature at 3 p.m. was 57, atmosphere 6;^. The germination of the seed was satisfactory. A test of cut versus whole seed was carried out with two xarieties, viz., Up-to- Date and Clarke's Main Crop. A section of the plot was sprayed with cop- per soda solution. The manure dressings were the same as last year, viz., eight lorrv loads of dung per acre over the whole plot, with the following artificial manures : — Section No. i — Bonedust and superphosphate, equal parts, 6 cwt. per acre. Section No. 2. — Bonedust and superphosphate, 6 cwt. ; sulphate of potash, i cwt. per acre. 7i8 Journal of A.griciiltitre . [lo Nov.. 1910. Section No. 3. — Bonedust ami superjihosphate, b twl. : sulphate 01 ammonia, I cwt. ])er acre. Section No. 4. — No artificial manure. Section No. 5. — Bonedust and superphospliate, 6 cwt. : suli)hate of potash, I cwt. ; sulphate of amnionia, i cwt. All the manurial tests were carried out with one \ariety of potatoes — Up-to-Date. The seed was grown on the same plot the season before. The most satisfactory results were obtained from the dressing of bone- dust and superphosphate on section No. i. which gave 7 tons 2 cwt. per acre. In order to test this a section in another part of the tield on similar land with the same dressing gave 8 tons u cwt. per acre. The section with dung onlv returned 5 tons 5 cwt. In section 2. with the addition of I cwt. sulphate of pota.sh. the yield was 17 cw^t. per acre less than sec- tion \ in section 3. An addition of i cwt. sulphate of ammonia further reduced the yield by ir cwt. per acre. The lowest vield was from the complete manure on plot No. 5 — 6 tons per acre. Table H. — Sprottted venus Uxsprouted Seed. Eiirly fiiin. t,iite Crnii t. r. qr. 4 14 :? 4 19 l> 8 -l U t. c. qr 7 2 (1 (j IS (1 6 1) 0 Up-to-Datf Clarke's Main Crop Carman Variety. \ iLsproutecl. t. <■ 4 14 4 19 8 l qr. 3 1) 0 S|iRuitecl. TiK-reasod Vield. Decrease. Up-to-Date Clarke's Main Crop Carman The season for the early crop was the most favourable experienced for several years. There was no frost during the growing period sufficiently heavv to cut down the plants of the early crop, whereas in 1908-9 they w ere cut down twice with the result that the sprouted seed gave a very heavy increase, amounting in some varieties to 5 tons per acre. Owinn; to the mild season and favourable growing weather during 1909-10, the increase was only a little over 2 tons per acre. In one instance Carman sprouted gave a lower return than the unsprouted by over 2 tons per acre. This was due to some form of disease attacking this variety. It was first noticed on 2_|th November, 1909, and every effort was made to discover the cause. Specimens from the plot were taken to Mr. McAlpine, Vege- table Pathologist, and his assistant, Mr. Brittlebank. visited the plot and obtained plants and tubers, but no disease was found in either that would account for the falling oft. It should be stated that up to the time the plants were attacked this variety promised a very heavy yield — anything up to lo tons per acre. The above results compare very favourably with those obtained in simi- lar experiments in Great Britain, and go to prove that it will pay to box seed at all timt^s. Sfruyhig. — The spraying did not have any appreciable effect on the yield. The only noticeable feature was that the sprayed plants kept green longer than the unsprayed. ioXo\'.. 19TO.] Potato Experiniciital Fields, igog-io. 719 Cut versus Wliolc Seed. — As stated above a test was carried out with two \arieties. Up-to-Date and Clarke s Main Crop being selected: — Table I. — C'vt versus Whole Seed. Ditt'ereuce iu favour of Cut Seed. t. r. qr. lb. Up-to-Date . . . . 5 12 2 0 Percentage . . 17-9 per cent. Clarke's Main Cioji . . 5 0 2 24 Percentage, small .. .. 13 i)er cent. t. c. qr. lb. I t. c. qr. lb. 6 16 04 1324 22 '2 per cent. 4 '3 per cent. 6 18 0 24 1 17 2 0 30 per cent. 17 per cent. In the abo\e test a few sets missed in the cut only, but not sufficient to make any appreciable difference on the yield, whilst in the whole sets there were practically nu misses. The most noticeable feature was the large proportion of small tul)ers unsuitable for market in the whole set section. Table J. — Peopoktion op Small. Up-to-Date .. .. .. .. .. .. j 17-9 per cent. i 22 2 per cent. Clarke's Main Crop .. .. .. .. . . i 13 percent. '30 percent. The above returns correspond with previous experiments. Varieties. — The following varieties were used in the plot: — Carman, Up-to-Date. Clarke's Main Crop, Sutton's Abundance, and Bismarck. None of the foregoing can be considered early when compared with Early Rose, or Beauty of Hebron. An effort has been made to discover a good yielding extra early potato and to that end five varieties, which in previous plots in other districts had given promise of meeting the above require- ments, were tried. They are as follow : — May Queen. — A true kidney variety, white skin and flesh. In Great Britain this has proved a prolific early cropper. The yield, considering the seed used, may be regarded as satisfactory, viz., 4^ tons per acre. They matured very rapidly and were fit to market in cases by i8th Novem- ber, or nine weeks and three days after planting. Thorburn. — An American \ariety resembling Beauty of Hebron in many respects. Skin white, with a blush of pink; rather deeper in the eves than the Beautv ; flesh white and finer in texture than May Queen. This \arietv also matured in nine weeks and three days. Uncle Sam. — Also an American variety. Pink skin, resembling Early \"ermont ; good flavour ; flesh white, of very fine texture. Yield rather light in field plots, but very satisfactory results from garden culture. Noroton Beauty. — An American variety resembling New Zealand Pink- eye. A little later than the other ^•arieties. Only a medium cropper. Leongatha Plots \^Mr. G. Williams'). This plot was primarily a variety test, although manures were applied. It must be stated that the manure dressings were all round heavier than was intended through an error in laying out the plot, which was situated on a' o;rev soil flat. The results indicate that heavier dressings of manure Journal of Agjicultiire. [lo Nov., ig^o^. are required on such a soil. The 1908-9 plot at Mr. Gooch"s farm was on a chocolate soil on a hillside. A minimum and a maximum dressing of phosphoric acid was supplied by a dressing of 2 cwt. on section A and 4 cwt. on section B. In this case it was found that the most satisfactory returns were oVjtained from the lightest dressing, whilst in this season's plot the dressing of 270 Ihs. of superphosphate on section A gave a return of 4 tons 8 cwt., and the heavier dressing, 540 lbs., on section B was 5 tons 2 cwt., equal to a gain of 8 cwt. of potatoes per acre, or 1.18 cwt. per acre o\er the unmanured section. These results show that the red and the grey soils require different treatment in manuring, or that the grey loamv soils are more retenti\e of moisture, and conseduently artificial manures give a better return than on the red soils, which are so liable to drv out unless abundantly supplied I'y rain. The manure dressings on this plot were as follows: — Section A. — 270 lbs. superphosphate cost 10s. 6cl. per acre. ,, B. — .540 lbs. superphosphate cost 21s. per acre. ,, C. — No manure. ,, D. — 270 lbs. superphosphate ^ cost -'Ss 6d ,, 135 lbs. sulphate of ammonia ( E.^270 lbs. superphosphate 1 ^ .,- , , 135 lbs. sulphate of potash j ^""^ "' ' ^''' From the following tal)le. giving the vields on sections D and E, it- is apparent that this .soil has ah-eady sufticient nitrogen and potash and that the onlv form of plant fof)d required is phosphoric acid: — Table K. — REfrnNS of Leongatha Plot. A - C E. Manure dressinas . . i cwt. 4 cwt. Xu m;inu 2 cwt . Su- 2 cwt. Su- Super. Super. pci cwt. 1 ^•uip. per. ; 1 cwt. Pot Am. Snip. Cost of do. 8*?. 9d. 17s. 6d. 2.3s. 9d. 22s. 7Jd. ~ Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Carman No. 1 . . 2-6 •6 21 ■0 1-3 4 2-2 •5 1-4 4 Brownell's Beauty .5-4 1() 40 1-2 3-9 2 4-5 1-3 4-7 •9 Fox's Seedling 4-3 1-8 3 0 21 2-3 8 30 19 3 3 1-7 Carman No. 3 . . 55 ■8 50 10 3-9 8 51 ■ / 5-5 •6 Scotch Grey 41 2-5 2-3 2-8 20 7 31 2 0 2-4 1-9 New Zealand Pinkeye . . 30 •() 4-3 •7 1-9 9 3-2 •8 3-4 •9 Bruce 4-8 2-4 5' 7 1-8 3-9 5 3-4 1-8 30 21 Adirondak 5-8 1-5 7 0 1-5 50 9 0-3 •9 51 11 Up-to-Date 6-6 2-5 8-9 1-3 51 6 4-7 2 0 0-3 2 3 State of Maine . . 50 1-6 5-4 11 3-4 8 5-8 ■8 4-0 •7 Green Mountain 71 1-3 7-9 10 0-2 6 71 21 5-8 21 Vanguard 10 11 1-8 12 0-5 2 2-5 1-3 1-5 1-5 Vermont 71 1-3 7-2 ■8 30 7 5-5 1-9 4-4 •8 Delaware 41 21 4-4 21 31 2-4 30 1-5 3-7 1-3 4-8 1-5 5-2 1-4 3-3 1-2 4-2 1-4 3-9 1-3 Varieties. — The plot contained the usual early and main crop varieties. The earliest among the former is Vanguard, very similar to Early Rose. It is a very small plant, fine quality, but a poor cropper, doing best in garden culture. One peculiarity of this variety in this plot is its response- lo Xov., 1910.] Potato Exp-:riinciital Fields, igog-10. 721 to manure. ^Vhilst most of the other varieties derived little if any benefit from the addition of nitrogen to the dressing of phosphoric acid, this variety was more than doubled. This was no doubt due to the fact that the production of tubers took place early in the spring when the soil con- tamed abundant moisture and may in a measure explain the reason why the nitrogenous manure does not give more satisfactory results on main; crop and late varieties. It always has a marked influence on the growth of the plant and foli.ige, which is not always reflected in the crop of tubers. The following varieties gave the most satisfactory retuins. the heaviest yields for each being as follows: — tons. cwt. tons. cwt. Adirondak 12 Green Mountain 7 18 BrowiielTs Beaiitv ^ 8 State of Maine s 16 Carman No. 3 ^ 12 Up-to-Date 8 18 Adirondak is identical with the variety grown under the name of Excelsior. It is a medium early, produces very few small tubers, is a good keeper and very suitable for export. Brownell's Beauty is also an earlv variety, good quality, and is de- serving of more attention than it recei\es for early crop. In connexion with this variety it may be stated that one or two late maturing varieties are often supplied in error for Brow-nell's Beauty, with the result that growers are disappointed with the crop and give the potato a bad name. The heaviest return from all sections was obtained from Green Moun- tam, a white potato very similar in appearance to Carman. This variety has proved itself a consistent cropper in every test and in a great variety of soils. In comi^arison with potatoes of the Up-to-Date type it has manv points tO' recommend it. It is whiter in the flesh, finer in texture, doe.s not produce .so many small tubers, and is not so liable to second growth. Broadford Plot (Mr. A. Zwar'sV This plot was planted on 29th October, 1909. The .soil was volcanic of rather clayey nature. The .seed was not in good condition at the time of planting owing to having sprouted and receiving a check. This resulted in a large number of misses, averaging in .some sections 50 per cent. The calculations of yields are based upon the number of plants per acre. T.\BLE L. — Eeturns of Broadford Plot. Sections A. B. C D. E. Manures 2 cwt. super- 4 cwt. sui)er- No M anure 2 cwt. super- 2 cwt. super- phosphate phosphate phosphate, 1 cwt. sul- phate of am- monia phosphate, 1 cwt. sul- phate of potash Cost . . 8s. 9d. 17s. 6d 23s. 9d. 22s. 7id. Variety. M. 4-5 U. M. 3-9 V. M. U. •4 M. U. M. 5-8 U. Xew Zealand Pinkeve •3 •3 5-4 6-5 •6 •4 Sutton's Abundance 7-5 •5 3-6 •4 4-6 ■2 6-5 •7 2-7 •4 Black Prince 4-6 •8 3-7 •3 3-8 ■4 4-2 •7 4-4 •7 Brown's River . . 4-7 •8 5-6 1-1 50 1-4 6-5 11 5-6 1-2 New Zealand Pinkeye. No. 2 4-6 ■3 4-8 •3 4-2 •4 6-3 •3 6-4 •8 Up-to-Date 7-5 •5 5-4 •4 4-4 •4 7 '2 •3 4-1 ■3 5-5 •5 4-5 ■4 4-5 •5 6-2 •6 4-8 •6 Journal of A.griculture. [lo Xov.. 19 lo. As far as the manures are concerned on this plot it is apparent tliat the minimum dressing of phosphoric acid was ample. It resulted in an increase of i ton of marketable tubers per acre for a cost of 8s. pd., whilst the maximum quantity, 4 cwt., costing 17s. 6d. pei acre, did not increase the yield at all. The tubers on section A were a more even run with very little .second growth , those on B were prongy, showing that the heavier dressing forced the growth of the crop in the early stages of the plants and cau.sed second growth when the rain came in March. The heaviest yield is on .section D. showing the effect of a dressing of I cwt. sulphate of ammonia, 6 tons 1 cwt., being an increase of 14 cwt. per acre. There is no doubt that the action of sulphate of ammonia is due in a measure to the pre.sence of a large amount of organic matter in the soil, ^^'ith reference to section E the action of sulphate of potash was not so satisfactory, the increase over the unmanured section only amounting to 6 cwt.. being 14 cwt. less than section A dressed with phos- phoric acid. New Zealand Pinkeye No. 2 in this plot was a continuation of the experiment for the improvement of the type of that variety. Table M. — Impeovement of Type of Xew Zealand Pinkeye. Type Planted. Full Crown Deep Crown Full Crowns. 80 per cent. 60 per cent. Deep Crowns. 20 per cent. 40 per cent. The above results show that all that can be claimed for .selection is that the percentage of objectionable tubers can be kept down, but not eliminated altogether. CoLAc Plot (Mes-srs. K.ankix Bros.). This ])lot was simply a variety test. The soil was rich vi>rgin volcanic land. No manures were u.sed. The following varieties were planted on 3rd and 4th November: — Black Prince, Brown's River. New Zealand Pinkeve. Scotch Grev. Sutton's Abundance, and Up-to-Date. The season proved unfavourable for crops planted at that period. The most satisfac- tory yield was obtained from New Zealand Pinkeye — -, per acre. tons. cwt. qr. Table X.— Returns of Colac Plot. Name of Variety. Black Prince Brown's Ri%er Xew Zealand Pinkeye Scotch Grey Sutton's Abundance Up-to-Date Unmarketable. Percentage Small t. c. fl- 0 17 3 21-7 1 10 3 41-6 0 19 0 150 2 0 0 61-5 1 10 0 28 1 2 10 0 37-8 Included in the above plot were six new varieties rai.sed by Mr. P. J. Ryan, of Millbrook, whose efforts in the matter of raising new varieties have been in the direction of producing an export ^•ariety of heavy crop- ping capacity combined with quality. In this he has met with an encouraging measure of success with two of the.se varieties, viz., Norfolk and Wellington, produced by crossing New Zealand Pinkeye and Brown's River varieties. Norfolk is practically a coloured New Zealand Pinkeve in type of ^uber. colour, and texture of Hesh. St. Albans pro\ed a decidedlv earlv lo Nov., 191C.] Prdipccts of the Coming Fruit Crop. 12^ variety, producing nice e\en tubers flattish oval in shape. Bedford is also a medium early very \igorous plant, producing a tine bold sample of tut)ers. The germination was satisfactory in all but one variety, viz., St. Albans. This, being an early variety, was a little wasted by sprout- ing. Notwithstanding the dry sea.son the results may be considered very sati.sfactory when compared with such varieties as Brown's River, Up-to- Date. and New Zealand Pinkeve. Table O. — Returss of Mr. P. J. Ryan's Xew Vakieties. Variety. Germination. Total Yield. Percentage of Small. t. c. qr. b. St. Albans . .54'3 per cent. 4 10 0 0 8-3 per cent. Bedford . .93'7 per cent. 6 12 0 0 9 '2 per cent. Welliugtoii . .81 -3 per cent. 7 2 0 0 8 -8 per cent. Norfolk . . . .93 '9 per cent. 6 3 0 0 14 '7 per cent. Sussex . .97-2 per cent. 6 10 0 16-6 per cent. Marlborough . .95-8 per cent. 5 18 2 0 13 per cent. PROSPECTS OF THE COMIXO Fill IT CROP. /''. J. Caniiody, Ciiief Inspector of Orchards. To enable growers to obtain .some idea of the fruit prospects of the coming season as early as possible I have asked the inspectors of the different fruit districts to supply me with a forecast of the crop as far as thev were in a position to do so. Unfortunately, to be in time for publication in the Journal for November, we are obliged to make our estimate somewhat ear'v and cannot predict witli any degree of certainty the coming fruit yield. A noticeable teaturu of the blooming period was iht- e.xcessi\e irregu- larity of the opening of the fruit buds among many \arieties, owing, no doubt, to the genial warm weather experienced throughout August and September succeeded by ojld wintry weather at the time of opening. According to experienced growers, this irregularity indicates a poor setting of fruit and many are somewhat anxious as to the prospects at the present time. Unquestionably, growers do not pay sufficient attention to thinning out of fruit spurs at the time of pruning with the result that innumerable weak spurs are allowed to remain and take up the nourishment that should be concentrated in the more vigorous and fruitful ones, and thereby assuring a more regular fruiting habit in the trees. Subjoined are the reports of' the inspectors of the different fruit dis- tricts : — Bendigo Di.strict. Inspector Cock rer)orts : — Affles. — Heavy. Pears. — Heavy. Plums. — Good. Peaches. — Fair. Africots. — Very lif^ht. Cherries.— ^2.t\\, fair; late, sood. ,. , , , .1 1 ,• ■- Tomatoes.— QoqA promise. There has been but sli-ht frot and the [danting is verv large. Di.^MOND Creek Di.strict. Inspector Wallis reports : — Affles. — Heavy blossom. Pears. — Heavy setting so far. Plums. — Heavy. Peaches. — F.arlv, medium ; late, heavy. Cherries. — Heavy. Quinces. — Heavw Africots. — Medium. 724 Journal of Agriculture . [10 Xov.. 1910. Do^■CA,sTER District. Inspector Hammond reports: — A-pfles. — The leading varieties have not yet set their fruit. Jonathans will have •onlv a medium crop. Voung trees which appeared to have a good show of fruit buds are breaking away into leaf. The l-'ive Crown and Rome Beaut\- are just coming into bloom. On present appearances they should set a good crop jjroviiling the blossom is not injured by Xhe thrip. The Vates and Pomme de Neige are, like the Jonathan, not blooming as well as ■per Hydroxide) the lime taking the place of the copper and the copper that of the lime. Quicklime is chemically named calcium oxide (CaO), and when it unites with water, as in the process termed " slacking " of lime, it forms calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH).-,\ which is the soft white powder known as '' slacked lime. " ' Instead of the chemical action being so simple as the equation would indicate, it is found to be very complex, and an in\estigation of the com- pounds formed by the acticjn of lime on copper sulphate has shown that as many as six different substances ma) be produced, according to the propor- tions taken. The chemistry of Bordeaux mixture has only quite recently been inxestigated by Spencer U. Pickering, FT<..S., and as he says, " It is remarkable that the chemistry of a fungicide in such general use should never have been elucidated." Such an investigation has show'n, among other things, that the cost of the substance may be considerably reduced, without impairing its efficiency. Onlv the essential points can be given here, but those who are interested will find details in the Eighth Report of the Wobitni Experimental Fruit Farm (1908). The normal copper sulphate may be represented as a compound of copper oxide (C'uO) and sulphur trioxide (SOy ) or CuO. SO^. \Mien lime is added to this in solution, it only takes away a portion of the sulphur trioxide and leaves what is known as a basic copper sulphate, that is to say, a copper sulphate containing relatively a larger amount of copper oxide. \\'hen lime is added in just sufficient quantity to precipi- tate all the copper from the liquid, the basic sulphate of copper which is formed contains only one-quarter of the sulphur trioxide present in the normal sulphate. But when lime is added in the proportions usually taken for Bordeaux mixture, then only one-tenth of the sulphur trioxide is left. When the spraying mixture is applied to the fruit trees, it is acted on by the carbonic acid of the air, and since the ordinary Bordeaux contains basic calcium sulphate, which the other does not. and since this is attacked more easilv than the basic copper sulphate, it follows that until all the former is converted into carbonate of lime, the latter is not acted on. The result is that the ordinary Bordeaux mixture takes some time before ii; begins to act as a fungicide. That is the first advantage to be gained by using only the proper proportions of lime, for then no basic calcium sulphate is formed and no time is lost in the starting of the fungicidal action. I^ut there is another advantage. It is found by experiment that the amount of normal sulphate of copper liberated by the action of the carbonic acid of the air is about twelve times as much, when the proper proportion of lime is used, as in the other. It will now be evident why lime-water is employed instead of milk of lime, for then we know exactly how much lime is in solution and can adjust the quantity required in proportion to the amount of bluestone used. The carbonic acid of the air in the presence of moisture has a double action on the copper compounds formed. It unites with some of the copper to form a carbonate of copper as well as liberating some of the copper in the form of the sulphate. Thus although in Bordeaux mixture. ID Nov., 19JO.] Luiic-watjr Bo/dtdux for Spraying 73* the copper is entirely insoluble to start with, it is gradually rendered soluble by means of the carbonic acid in the air, and some of it curiously enough is brought l)ack to the condition of sulphate of copper with which we startei.l. The practical result of this investigation is that lime-water is recom- mended instead of milk of lime and the proportion of lime-water to copper sulphate has been approximately determined, so as to yield the maximum of efficiency with the minimum of the copper salt. In addition to this, Pickering has succeeded in preparing a paste known commercially as- Woburn Hordeaux Paste, " which when dilute(l with water is practically identical, both chemically and physically, with tiie freshly made Wobum Bordeaux, except that it contains no excess of lime." The paste is patented, but the formula for the preparation of the fresh material mav THE SPRAYER A 1 W UKK. The use of lime-water in the preparation of Bordeaux mixture is by no- means new. as it has been constantly used in Italv since 1886 with verv good results, when it was first recommended by Profes.sor Cavazza. The latest formula for 50 gallons is approximately as follows: — ■ Copper sul]>h:ite, 10 ozs. Lime-water, 8^ {^'allons. Waier to make uj) to 50 , TO BE CONDUCTED AT THE BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE. The attention of intending competitors is drawn to tlie following rules, Avhich have been approved by the Hon. the Minister. Applications for pens must be lodged with the Organizing Officer (Mr. H. V. Hawkins, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne), not later than 21st November, 1910. The competition will be open to all States, i)reference being gi\en to small holders and legitimate farmers. A committee representing the competitors will be elected by the latter after the entries have closed. ■Competitors, after acceptance, will ballot for the pens. COMPETITION RULES. 1. The competition to extend over the period from ist April, 1911, to 31st March, 1912, inclusive. Competitors to deliver their birds to the Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley, between loth and 20th March, inclusive. 2. Each pen to consist of six pure bred pullets, not less than seven months or more than twelve months old on ist April, iqii. 3. All birds to be bred bv and to be the property of the competitor. (Note. — The competitor must have owned the jjarent birds of the pullets entered.) 4. -The Poultry Expert is empowered to reject any bird or birds that he does not consider of correct age. Any rejected bird must be replaced by the com- petitor with another bird, of suitable age. 5. The birds upon being accepted by the Poultry Expert as being of suitable age, no protest will be entertained upon that point. '6. Any bird found to be suffering from an infectious or contagious disease when delivered at the School of Horticulture, will be rejected, and must be replaced bv the competitor. 7. The Poultry Expert shall reject any bird on arrival that is not a fair specimen of the breed entered, and such bird must be replaced. S. One wing of each pullet must be cut by the owner before forwarding to the competition. The wing will be kept cut during the currency of the com- petition. ■9. In the event of a bird (King, becoming diseased, incapacitaterl from la\ing, or developing vicious habits (such as egg or feather eating) the comi)etitor must replace it with another of the same age and breed, upon being notified ; failing which he must withdraw his birds. 10. All eggs to become the projjerty of the Department of Agriculture. 11. Eggs under ig ozs. in weight or soft shelled not to be counted. 12. Any pen, the eggs from which do not attain an average weight of 24 ozs. per dozen before the expiration of the first three months of the competition, to be ineligible for a prize. 13. The competition to be decided b\- the tot:il rmmber of eggs laid by each pen (subject to rules 11 and 12). 14. The market value of the eggs from each pen to be recorded. 15. The winter test to extend over the first four months. 16. Records to be kept of the total quantities of the various foods consumed, and the average cost per head. 17. No Qompetitor shall withdraw any bird, except as hereinbefore provided, until the termination of the competition. 18. Any competitor violating or failing to conform td these regidations will be subject to disqualification. 19. The committee's decision in all cases of dis])ute to be final. Application for Pen. I hereby api)lv for a Pen in the First Laying Competition at the Burnley School of Horticulture, 1911-12. Signed Full Postal Address lo Xov., 1910.] AjiScLirs to Correspondents. 737 Replies to the follozving questions ttuist be furnished bv afflicants : — 1. \Miat v;irietv of fowls do \ou wish to enter? 2. How lon<^ have \ ou been keeping this variety? 3. What is \our jjresent stock of tliis variety? adult birds and chickens. 4. Is poultry keeping your sole or jjartial means of livelihood, or a hobby? j. If [lartial means of livelihood, what other t)ccupation do vou combine with it? 6. Have the pullets you exjiect to j)en been bred from tested stock; if so, in what way has the stock been tested? Xote. — Only one fen will be allotted to each comfetitor. The entrance fee is £1 IS., but this amount must not be forwarded until after the fens are allotted. ANSWERS TO CORRESPON^DENTS. The Staff of the Dep%itinent has Ijeeii organized to a larye extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Question* in every branch of agriculture are j;ladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full paiticulars as possit)le, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that ^ou want to know. All inquiries forwarded to the Editor must be accompanied by the name and address of the tvriter. luEXTiFiCATiON OF PLANTS.— D. B., P. M., W. M., V. J. P., and H. B. S. forward specimens of plants for identification. Answer. — (i) Hoary Cress [Lefidium Draba. L.). It is not poisonous, but it takes up the place of useful vegetation and should be suppressed. Clean cultiva- tion and the prevention of seeding aid in keeping it down. If the pasture land is badly infested, it should be ploughed up and kejit under bare fallow and well stirred for a year, then followed by root crops (potatoes, &c.), or a leafy fodder crop for a year or two, and then grain. The land may then be seeded down if required for pasture. Care should be taken to procure pure seed of either grass or grain. In small patches it should be dug up before seeding, piled and burnt. The roots must be removed from the soil, as any part left in the ground will grow again. In orchards or cultivated ground, frequent jjloughing and stirring of the soil will keep it down and ultimately exhaust it, but if it has been long established, it may take two years to do this. No poisons are of any use in dealing with this plant •on a large scale. (2) Soft Crowfoot (Ranunculus muricalus, L.). A native of the Mediterranean regions. It is a small intensely acrid jdant, useless for grazing, and of little value even in dry fodder, and [ireferring moist ground where it is difficult to eradi- cate. Drainage and cultivation or the encouragement of the larger pasture plants and grasses by manuring and loosening the soil, will keep the plant under. Its spread will cause steady deterioration in a pasture. (3) Dodder {Cuscufa efithymum, L.). Proclaimed under the Thistle Act for the whole State. The infected parts of the crop and for some distance around should be at once cut, piled and burnt on the spot, and, if necessary, with the aid of brushwood or kerosene. Previously to flowering, it could be ploughed under or if in small patches dug in. If allowed to seed, no clover, pea, bean, lucerne, or other leguminous crop would be safe for at least five years. It sometimes attacks potatoes and other non-leguminous plants. Raking out only helps to spread the pest, as each part left in the crop will grow. It is spread principally bv the agency of impure seed. Seed may last over five years in the soil. (4) Burr Clover [Medicaoo denticulaia, Willd.). It is of some value as a pasture plant, but its burred fruits are objectionable, and it becomes a weed in cultivated ground. The tubers on the roots are normal growths, and by their aid the plant is able to assimilate free nitrogen from the air, thus enriching the soil ■when ploughed in. 738 Journal of AgricuIUfrt. [10 No\'., 1910. (5) Fumitory {Fiiiiiaria officinalis, L.). A cosmopolitan weed, not poisonous, but containing Fumaric acid and a bitter tonic principle which gives an unpleasant flavour to the milk and butter of cows eating it. It is a weak but freely seeding annual, growing and seeding in spring and early summer. In most crops the weed is easih' kept down by hoeing, but in hay and corn crops if it cannot be kept down by harrowing while the crop is young it often proves troublesome. The land fouled with its seed can be cleaned with the aid of a root crop like potatoes or any crop which can be hoed between the rows. If the land is laid down in permanent pasture for two or three years the weed soon disappears. The seed form a common impurity in agricultural seed, and may last in the soil at least two or three years. The local name, " McDonald's Devil,"" furnished by our correspondent (H. B. S., Broadmeadows), is not generally recognised. ER-\niCATiON OF Sorrel. — W. B. I. writes : — "My garden is full of sorrel. Is. there anything I can add to the soil that will kill it? For over three years I have tried to eradicate it by careful digging, but still it comes." Answer. — Sorrel is very difficult to eradicate when once well established, particularly among such plants as strawberries and small perennials. Heavy doses of lime, which in a garden can be applied at the rate of 10 or more tons per acre, will help to keep it down. This must be aided by forking out the underground rhizomes, followed by frequent hoeing as often as any green shoots appear. This is parti- cularly important in spring and early summer. Care should be taken to see that the weed is not being re-introduced by seeds carried in manure. They may be abundant in unfermented horse manure, and particularly in cow manure. Lichen ox Fruit Tree.'^. — L. K. N. forwards specimen of growth affecting his fruit trees. Answer. — It is lichen, and can be removed by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Raising Orange Trees from Seed. — A. W. T. asks whether orange trees can be raised from seed. Answer. — Orange trees may be grown readily from seed — the seed to be sown in a compost of sand and leaf moidd or vegetable humus. Trees raised in this way are practically useless for commercial ])urposes. They rarely fruit satisfactorily, their fruit is inferior, and they are many years coming into bearing. Pumpkins for Stock Feeding. — A. W.'T. asks for best varieties of pumpkins for stock feeding. Ans7tjer. — Ironbark, or Connecticut Field. Buckwheat. — Red Gum desires information as to sowing Buckwheat. Aiis7i>er. — Buckwheat can be grown in succession from the latter end of September (provided the frosts are past in the jiarticular district where it is to be .sown) until March. Sow in drills at the rate of a quarter bushel per acre, or if broadcasted i bushel per acre. Poultry do well on the seed, ami the straw after threshing is good pig food. REMOyiNG Aftek'HIrth.—T. J. B. asks how to remove the afterbirth from a mare or cow. Also asks what food should be given. A)is7L'er. — Irrigate the womb daily by injection with i gallon of 2 per cent, iolution of Lysol in warm water or solution of Permanganate of Potash ; remove by gentle traction any traces of retained membranes and give a drench consisting of Epsom salts, i lb. ; powdered gentian, i oz. ; ginger, ^ oz. ; in i^ pints of warm water. Slo])py bran mashes and green food should be given. Death of R.AMS. — K. S. B. writes : — '' I purchased two prize rams at the recent Royal show. When removing them from the truck at the local railway station I noticed that one was a bit 'off.' In the paddock, a grassy garden patch' of half an acre, it got worse. I called in men of exjierienre, and the general opinion was that stoppage of water was the cause. Nitre was given internally, but in five days death ensued. On fosf mortc7n examination I found the bladder burst. Two days afterwards the other ram took bad, and although treated similarly it died five days later. Its bladder was full and badly inflamed with clots of blood in the urine passage. Kindly inform me whether successful treatment could have been applied. I also bought two ewes at the same time, and I am fearful lest the same fate may overtake them." .\ns'i. 0 > 0 i > C3 i > X 1 < < < poi' < ( ints. < points < points. fr*b^ /nng Act 1909 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 788 Artificial Manures Acts — Analyses of Swrnples of R'anures collected in the State ... P. B. Scott 789 Farm Milking Tests— Swan Hill Competition ... ... E. A. Byland 792 Echuca Dairy Herd Competition ... ... ... ...J.S. UiFadzean 79.5 Sulla Clover ... ... ... ... ... ... //. \Y. Budd 80O Analyses of Samples of Arsenate of Lead ... ... ... P.B.Scott Sol Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pe-^cott 803 Bitter Pit and the Enzymes of the Apple ... ... ... J. White 805 Slugs and Snails ... ... ... ... ... ... A. J. Ewart 807 Foul Brood of Bees ... ... ... ... ... B. Beuhne 809 Answers to ( 'orrespondents ... ... ... ... ... 811 Journal of Agricidture — Copy right Provisions and Subscription Rates inside front cover Publications issued by the Department of Agriculture ... inside front cover Plants Indigenous to Victoria, Vol. II. ... ... ... inside back cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealtli and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues com])risiiig Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; IIL (1905), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 19U5), out of print ; IV. (1906), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 7 (July, 1906), out of print ; V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each, and VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print, are at present in stock, and will be sujiplied at the foregoing rates. The parts forming the current volume may also be obtained. A few bound copies of Volumes VI. (1908), and VII. (1909) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume; postage, Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3s. per annum. Post free. Destructive In.sects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III., and IV. By C. French. 2s. 6d. each. Postage — Parts I and II., 4d. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit 'frees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia, By D. McAlpine. os. Postage, 8d. Smuts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 4s. Postage, 9d. Systematic Arrangement of Australian Fungi. By 1). McAlpine. 3s. Postage, 8d. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, I'oison i'lants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. By A. J. Ewart. 2s. (id. Postage, .id. Plants In^ < < < a I— I < o W O H CO to 0 a 02 •siiosqns 9 jo aS^jaAV -H 0 t- 'M 00 GO LO T*H •vp OOOOt^t^OOt^ 0^ CO !M 1— 1 •seiioui 98 o'\ 8 0 02 -f 00 >* C-1 00 uo 0 ^.0 CO GO I^ 'M <» 00 CO -H (M to ^ 01 IM r^ CO C-l -* CO rt ^ r^ ^ •gni;^ laddfi '-sojg m;MS •sgqoni tj 0!j 9 >o -* 0; rH LO CO 5-1 CO ■* -0 COClco-^Tftr^cOt^ 0 - ^ 01 (M >» M3 C5 ^ C-l ^ CO -H ^ CO ^ 0 CO C-1 -* •nijuj 003'Bqox iPa •ssiioni ^g 0^ 9 'i* C0C2C-jO'*I^OL0 .-,0 t^r-H^HOOOJt^t^ rH CO ^ LO C; rh 0 CO 01 -H CI -< !5 •saqoui 08 0% 9 CO 0 (M 0 t^ 10 ■* >0 (M ^^ C0C3l>(MOO0005 OOOLOOCO«5-* CO -+ CO « C-l CO SI •^unqsaqo 'pjtJAVOH '3 •saijoui iz o'\ 9 (M coi>05C-i'»'*cor- •^0 CO » Ol Ci (M 00 00 OJ 0^Ct)< CO CO ^ CI uo CO >o 0 00 •siios 9 JO a3BJ9AV ^ ^r^T'^T^'P?' (M i-( 01 «> rt as «o ««5 — * ^ (^1 t~- CO "^ "^ CO OO^OfO— iiMGO CO CO ^ 00 CO CI >0 Oi Cq •gut3 jgddfi '•sojg ubms »o ->*l05i— lOOOOJT)• !>■ !>• OS CO (M -H •cjunqsaijo 'pJtJ.woH i CI OOi-lGOCOO-^00 -^0 lOiOt^iMOOiOt^tO 0^ rt CO C-l 00 10 CO 05 1 CO ^ CO C-l 01 CO 00 -*< ;-_.o -^ '--o CO -< 10 CO 0 to :C^^C^-^CO<»-* CO CO CO 0 CO t- CO CO 1 1 s ca 1 g 0 0 Fine gravel . . Coarse sand . . Medium sand Fine sand Very line sanil Silt.. Fine silt Clay Loss @ no c. Loss on ignition •stiiBjg 10 0 \0 uo ^ 0 0 -HlOfM^OOOO ^(•s8nanini!W) •{los JO jaiauiujo: ■0 10 uo r-l 0 01 -^ uo CI — ' C 0 0 lo Dec, 1910.] Tobacco Culture. 745 The meadow lands of the Connecticut Valley, which were formerly cultivated in tobacco when a dark heavy leaf was in demand, contain on an average from 20 to 28 per cent, of water. As already stated, these soils are entirely unfit for the production of the grade of tobacco necessary to meet the present market demands. " The tobacco soils of Pennsylvania are heavier than those of Connecticut Valley, and maintain on an average about 18 per cent, of water. " The soils of the tobacco district of Ohio are as heavy in texture as the lime- stone tobacco lands of Pennsylvania. It is probable that the mean water content of these soils in an average season would amount to about 23 to 24 per cent, of water. The tobacco grown under these conditions is used almost exclusively as a filler leaf. " Soils of Manufacturing and Export Tobacco Districts. " The typical soils for the highest yellow tobacco of Virginia, North Carolina, and East Tennessee maintain on an average about 7 per cent, of water. Where the soils contain less than this, the leaf is inclined to be thinner in texture and to have a better colour, but the yield per acre is small, and the most economical conditions on the whole are maintained by those soils having from 7 to 8 per cent, of clay, and maintaining on an average 7 or 8 per cent, of water. As the soil becomes heavier in texture, and the amount of water increases, other grades and types of tobacco are produced. " The export tobacco lands of Kentucky and Tennessee contain about 22 or 23 per cent, of clay, and, as a characteristic feature, they contain from 40 to 60 per cent, of silt. These soils contain on an average about 15 per cent, of water. " The characteristic soil of the limestone area of Kentucky, adapted to the White Burley tobacco, may be said to maintain on an average about 20 per cent, of water. " Records have not been kept of the manufacturing tobacco soils of Virginia, but from investigations which have been made on adjacent lands, it is probable that the mean water content of these soils, having as much as 40 per cent, of clay, will not be far from 20 to 22 per cent, of moisture." The Mechanical Analysis of a few Typical American Subsoils. For comparison v^'ith the figures of the Edi soils, the returns are given below of the average results of the mechanical analysis of a large number of typical American subsoils. The very great difference in the relative clay percentage of the various soils adapted to each type of tobacco, will indicate the very important part the physical properties of the soil plav in the production of the various characteristics of the product. a a „ a a a a >^ ■n a ta a 0 a a a 't^ lO a % V T 9 t 1 s 0 0 L -r 0 1 1 ^ 1 a 0 0 1 a a I 0 10 £ i s j^ 0 0 1 U 7 i k i ! T 0 0 1 0 >. 1 ■3 a m 0 a 03 m 1 10 a ' ° B 0 !» 0 0 g 0 0 0 ■■3 1 a E? ' *.• > M 0 a E >, % % % 0/ /o 0/ /o 0/ /o 0/ /o % % % 44 Virginia & N'th Bright Yellow 110 2-24 2-57 639 13 67 22 02 23^45 14 08 5-43 823 Carolina 1 55 Kentucky and Export . . 2-23 Tennessee 1 300 •39 •56 •73 1-93 9 •SO 52 50 6-28 22-59 30 Kentucky and \ White Burley Ohio 3-48 4-42 •64 163 1-44 1-22 7 04 39 -77 9-363162 21 Virginia . . \ Manufactur- 5-55 7-87 1-22 2 05 3 47 694 9-451129 7 -67 44-38 ing 74^ Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. so small, that i lb. of the leaf will wrap 500 cigars. At the same time, a cigar made wholly from this class of leaf would not be a good .smoke. Cold rainy weather, especially during the ripening period, is liable to cause acidity in the leaf. This will have a detrimental effect during the curing, and fermentation process, preventing the development of the neces- sary oxidizing enzymes. Moderate rain with warm weather is the best general condition. Dry weather during the ripening stages assists the for- mation of bacterial life, and preserves the products required for aroma in tobacco. Dews in autumn also have a good effect on the leaf. It has not been considered wise to grow tobacco within 30 miles of the coast, yet good leaf is grown in Sumatra and Manila close to the sea- board. In Victoria, too, some good leaf has been grown within a few miles of the sea. Provided the land is not too exposed to wind and the soil does not contain an undue proportion of salt, proximity to the coast should not prevent success in most cases. So far as frost is concerned we have to remember that the crop is a summer one. Where there is immunity from frost for four to five months in rhe year tobacco can be grown. The plant is less susceptible to frost than maize, potatoes, and pumpkins, and I have several times seen these crops ruined by frost, while a tobacco crop adjoining has escaped injury. With regard to moisture, it will be seen from the foregoing remarks that soils too retentive of moisture are not suitable, and that good drainage, either natural or artificial, is essential. The crop does not require a heavy rainfall. Once the young plants are established they are very hardy, will stand a long drought, and respond very fast when the rain does fall. Last season, in the King Valley, the rainfall from the end of October to the end of February, which is the growing season, was only 3 inches, yet the crop was a fair one, showing that a heavy rainfall is not necessary. Where irrigation water can be commanded during a dry time, good results will follow, and two applications with proper cultivation will be found sufficient. The water should not be allowed to lie on the ground — it is wiser to err on the side of too little than too much. Water should never be applied after the topping stage, as it is liable to kill the life in the leaf cells, thus destroying, to some extent, the cure and fermentation pro- cess, that are necessary in preparing the leaf for market. Varieties. In selecting varieties for each particular soil and climate, several matters should be taken into consideration. Lemon bright aromatic wrapper leaf and cigarette leaf can often be produced on the same soil, yet in a coun- try where wages are high, it will pay better to grow for the plug wrapper leaf. The cigarette leaf will require double the labour, owing to the extra number of plants per acre to be handled, the finer texture required in this class of leaf necessitating closer planting in the field. The varieties suited to the light sandy or slaty soil used for this pur- pose are Little Oronoco, Yellow Pryor, Bonanza, Hyco, and Granville Yellow. These yield from 700 lbs. to 900 lbs. per acre. For rich river flats, on which the heavier pipe leaf is grown, it is wise to avoid very heavy dark soils. As the leaf takes its colour largely from the colours of .soil upon which it is grown, sandy loams should be used for preference. The following varieties are suitable : — Medley Pryor, Blue Pryor, Lax. These are all heavy yielders, giving from 900 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. per acre of cured leaf for plug tobacco. For red chocolate soils, Hester and Conqueror, for pipe, yield from 800 lbs. to 1,200 lbs. per acre, cured leaf. lo Dec, 1910.] Tobacco Culture. 749 For cigar tobaccoes, the varieties suited to sandy soils, from 70 per cent, to 90 per cent, sand, are Connecticut Seed Leaf, Havana, and Com- stock. Tiie greater tlie percentage of sand the finer the texture of the leaf. At the same time, when the percentage of sand is very high, either regular rainfall is required, or artificial watering. The yield from the first-named is sometimes very heavy, as much as 2,000 lbs. of cured leaf per acre being secured in America. The plant is a vigorous grower in Victoria though somewhat difficult to work, owing to its low habit of growth and the closeness of the leaves on the stem. Comstock and Havana varieties are easier to work, but yield less, 1,400 lbs. being a good crop. All the.se are grown for both filler and wrapper purposes. On richer .soils, either red chocolate or gravel or strong sandy loams, onlv filler leaf, or binder, can be grown for cigar making. The best varieties for the purpose are Vuelta de Abajo (known as the sweetest Cuban filler grown in the world), Comstock and Pennsylvania, and yields of from 700 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. are possible. Only those varieties which have already been proved successful in Victoria, are recommended in this article. These have been selected from about 40 varieties imported from the United States for experimental purposes. There may be many others of the 220 varieties and sub- varieties known, yet to be proved suitable. One important fact to be remembered in growing under new conditions is that a variety, taken from a district where it has proved suitable and sown in a new locality, is liable to lose its useful characteristics after a few years, or it may possibly develop new and better ones. Therefore, the tobacco leaf will require close watching ; if it is found to deteriorate it should not be grown from seed taken year after year, but from a crop that has been acclimatized one year, when sufficient seed can be saved to plant the area required for five or six subsequent years. This is not a big undertaking as one good plant will provide enough .seed for 10 or 15 acres, and its vitality is remark- able for such a small seed. The bulk of this work, up to the present, has been done by the Govern- ment tobacco farm at Whitfield. Seed has been distributed gratis to more than a thousand applicants during the past five years, but there can be no doubt that growers in different localities could materially assist the industry if they would also undertake this work to some extent under a greater variety of conditions. In order to keep up the standard of quality fresh seed should be imported every fourth or fifth year from those parts of the world where each variety has reached the highest state of perfection. Seed and Seed Beds. Tobacco seed is so small that between 300,000 and 400,000 are con- tained in one ounce. Quite 70 per cent, of these are infertile, consequently an ounce of seed will provide sufficient plants for from 7 to 10 acres of heavy tobacco and 2 to 4 acres of cigar tobacco, the latter being planted closer in the field to obtain better texture. The cost of the seed is pro- bably less than that of any other farm crop, being 2s. 6d. to 5s. per oz., or 4s. to I2S. per lb. Seeing that the .seed is so cheap, quality should be con- sidered more than quantity. It should be purchased only from reliable sources. A question that is often asked is, " Can the seed issued in one year be sown the following with success ? " Tobacco seed, although .so small, has remarkable vitality and will keep for ten years if properly cared for. It should be placed in glass jars when thoroughly dry. and the top screwed tightly down or sealed. The ordinary Mason jam jar is excellent for the purpose. 75° Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. Rearing the young plants is a somewhat delicate process. I have several times been accused of sending out infertile seed. In no case has this been done, only tested seed being given out. The fact is, the seed being so small, has little store of food to draw upon in itself ; the tiny root and leaf are scarcely discernible during the first week's growth, and if during that period the soil is allowed to become dry to a depth of half-an-inch the plant dies and nothing is seen of it. Sometimes small black ants will remove the seed in the same way that they collect the seed of trefoil. In- other cases the seed is buried too deeply when sown, and never germinates. As growing the young plants is, perhaps, the most critical process in connexion with the growth of the crop, it is intended to go fully into a description of the best systems under which to make seed beds and care for the young plants. An area of 50 square yards will require an ounce of seed, which should provide plants for say 8 acres of pipe tobacco or 4 of cigar. It is always wise to sow twice the quantitv required, as it is a great advantage tn have 1. UP-IO-L»ATE lOBACCO BED, SHOWING HESSIAN COVERING. plenty of plants to draw upon in the event of a fall of rain making the- ground .specially suitable for planting out at any time. The cost of seed is small as compared with the benefits derived from observing this rule. It is also wdse to sow the beds in relays — about three w-eeks between each .^ceding. The late plants will be found to come on much faster than those sown early, but it is wise to have them in case of accident to the early beds. When choosing a site for .seed beds, be careful to get a patch of well- drained land, not too close to standing water. Running water does not matter ; it is, in fact, an advantage when watering is necessary. Stagnant water is more liable to cause the disease know-n as Blue Mould — the worst trouble the grower has to deal with in Australia. A dark sandy loam, or free red chocolate soil, with a northern aspect, is very suitable. Plenty of sun is advisable as the plant likes warmth, and the sun kills the germs of disease. Cold clay soils are not suitable r's they are liable to hold water too long and also crack badly when drying. They are also bad to draw the young plants from when read}- lo Dec, 1910.] Tobacco Culture. 751 to transplant, the roots break in the pulling process and the hearts of the young plant are liable to bruising in the effort to release them. It is a good plan to burn the site of the beds with the object of destroy- ing insects or their larvae in the soil. The dormant seeds of weeds are also destroyed by the burn, and this will save labour later on in weeding. The potash left in the ashes is an important factor in raising healthy and ■quickly grown plants. First scrape all the grass off the plot chosen for plant beds and lay poles 3 to 4 inches in diameter across the land to keep the actual fire just off the ground. This will prevent the danger of too great a fire destroy- ing the organic matter in the soil unduly. Pile rubbish in the shape of bushes, straw, wood, &c., to a height of 4 or 5 feet across the poles, and start the fire on the leeward side in order to get a slow burn. Burned in this way the soil will get a thorough steaming which will practically cook all seeds and insects, to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. The rough ashes should be raked off and the soil worked finely to a depth of 3 inches. IIIER SATISFACTORY SEED BED. Deeper working is not advisable, unless the land has been fallowed pre- viously and commercial fertilizers (bonedust, superphosphate, and blood manure) well worked into the soil. Ordinary farmyard manure is not generally used, owing to the number of weeds liable to follow. Two pounds of bonedust and blood manure to a bed, 10 yards long by i yard wide, is a fair allowance on burned ground. If not burned, i lb. of sulphate of potash m.ay be added. The most convenient shape for beds is i yard wide to any desirable length. Wider beds are difficult to weed and water when necessary. The pathway between the beds need not be wider than i foot so that little space is lost. The shape of the bed will depend greatly on the soil and rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy and drainage important, raised beds about 6 inches to 9 inches above the surrounding land should be made. Where the natural drainage is good and the rainfall light, level beds give best results, and it is often wise to have both so as to provide for a wet or dry season. The most satisfactory system now in vogue is the frame bed (see illus- tration No. i). It is made of hardwood boards 12 inches deep all round 752 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. the beds over the top of which cheese cloth or hessian sewn together is stretched after the seed is pLanted. This system is cheap. The covering is easily and quickly constructed, and saves much time and trouble as compared with other systems in watering and dealing with insect pests. A more uniform temperature is preserved and the loss of water by evapora- tion is minimised. The cover should be removed a few days before trans- planting in order to harden the plants. Choose a dull day on which to first expose the plants. Many growers simply dig over the soil and sow the seed on the sur- face, covering with clean straw or grass to a depth of about half-an-inch (No. 3) From these beds good hardy plants are raised, but they are .'^:ubject to winds and all changes of the weather, which tends to weaken them under certain conditions, and insect pests have free access to them. They are also slower in growing, which means more weeding. 3. PRIMITIVE SEED BED. The amount of seed to be sown is about a tablespoonful to 50 square yards. The seed is .so small that it is necessary to mix it with say twenty times its own bulk of sifted wood a.shes, or dry sand, gypsum, or bone- meal, and sow backwards and forwards over the finely prepared surface until the quantity is exhausted. The colour of the sand, meal, or ash will give a fair idea as to evenness. Do not rake in as the seed will not germi- nate if buried ; but on very sandy soils in a dry climate lightly brush the surface and water well. Then, when dry enough, press down close with a board or the back of a spade and put on the cover previously men- tioned. In stiffer soils watering will often be sufficient, but pressure on the surface, will generally assist the .seed by closing the .soil round it, and bringing the moisture right to the surface which is essential during the early stages of growth — a critical time with the plant. The soil should be kept moist, but not too wet, and all weeds must be removed as soon as they can be handled. If the plants are too thick in the beds they will be lo Dec, 1910.] Tlie Wine Industry in Southern France. 753 delicate, so they should be thinned out with a penknife. The rule is to allow each one, as nearly as possible, i square inch of space ; strong plants may then be expected. The seed will germinate in from two to six weeks, according to weather conditions, and will take about eight weeks for the plants after germination to arrive at the transplanting stage. Should the seed not germinate well the bed can be resown on the surface and well watered. Replace the covering until the plants are well established and the danger of frost is passed. Should it he found expedient to hasten the growth of the plants either of the following mixtures will be found to have the desired effect: — Nitrate of soda, 6 oz. in 50 gallons of water, applied to 100 square feet, about once in twelve days ; sulphate of potash 8 oz. to 50 gallons of wateit to 100 square feet, once in twelve days. Care must be taken not to overdo this mixture — either in strength or applications. It should be applied after the plants have sent out the fourth leaf. Sprouting tobacco seed is not to be commended, as little is gained in time, and plants grown from sprouted seed are often delicate and of bad shape. It can be done, if wished, between flannel with some well rotted wood mould. Keep moist and warm, and in six days the seed will show white specks. Sow at once and water, covering immediately afterwards. {To he continued.) THE WINE INDUSTRY IN SOUTHERN FRANCE. Department of Herault. {Continued jroni -page dyi.) F. de Castclla, Government Viticulturist. Preliminary Preparation of Vineyard Land. Trenching and subsoiling are questions which have given rise to much discussion in Victoria, and concerning which different opinions are even now held by experienced vinegrowers. The vital importance of the subject, especially now that the reconstitution of phylloxera-infested vineyards is in active progress, makes it necessary to devote rather more attention to it than it should otherwi.se receive here. Is Deep Preparation Necessary? A few years ago it was common to be assured by intending planters, that subsoiling was not necessary under Victorian conditions, that our soils did not require it. No logical reason was given for such a radical difference from what obtains in Southern Europe,* where high summer temperatures and long dry periods, such as we are accustomed to, prevail. Though a healthy change from these views was brought about a few years back, owing to the dissemination of more up-to-date ideas by the officers of the Department of Agriculture, there is in some quarters a regrettable tendency towards a reversion to the errors of the past — in the days of hasty *The importance of climate is verv considerable. In a cold district, such as Champagne (north of France), the land is seldom worked more than a foot deep. In the warm south, 2 feet, and even more, is not considered too deep to be profitable. •jcA journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. plantation of large areas of badly prepared land, the yields from which have inevitably been disappointing and in striking contrast to those of Herault, the home, as we have already seen, of intense vine culture. It is true that replantation of the phylloxerated vineyards in the north- east is very generally being made on properly prepared land, a most satis- factory change of opinion being noticeable in this district at any rate. It is also true that nearly all that there is to be said on the subject has already appeared in publications issued by the Department of Agricul- ture, more particularly in Trenching and Subsoiling for American Vines*, a work containing very full information on the subject, the study of which is most earnestly recommended to those who are in search of information. During the ten years which have elapsed since it was issued opinions have not in any way changed in Europe; nevertheless, at the present juncture, a few reminders and some further arguments, based on recent research, may not come amiss. The very fact that the subject is one which receives rather scanty atten- tion in recent French viticultural literature is apt to mislead and to cause its importance to be under-estimated. Its necessity is so universally admitted in Southern Europe that further argument in its favour is needless. No one in Southern France or Spain would think of planting a vineyard without first thoroughly preparing the soil. Several arguments are, at times, put forward by those anxious to find an excuse for avoiding the initial expense necessary for proper preliminary preparation of their vineyard land. Most of these are completely answered in the Departmental publication already referred to. There is one, how- ever, to which it is well to briefly refer here. It has several times been suggested to the writer, that the physical nature of some of our soils is such that, even though they be thoroughly worked and loosened to a considerable depth in the first place, after under- gomg the consolidating influences of two or three winters the subsoil will have set as firmly as ever ; in other words, have become as compact as it was in its natural state. No doubt, some silty soils do set under the influence of abundant moisture, but never to the same extent as to return to the original state. Every one knows the difference between " made " soil and that which has never been disturbed. A hole which has been filled up again, even though the soil were rammed in the process, is always easier to open up again than the undisturbed ground alongside. The natural arrangement of the soil particles, which it has taken countless centuries to bring about, is evidently different to that of the thoroughly stirred soil, even after this has settled down for several years. The higher level of the surface after trenching amply proves that the internal arrangement must be radically different. In this connexion, the condition of the soil when worked is of very great importance. Any soil is more likely to set if worked in a wet or sodden state, when the effect of subsoiling would be merely to puddle it, whereas, if the operation were carried out when proper moisture conditions prevailed, everv part operated on would be thoroughly crumbled and the result would be infinitely more lasting. This phase of the question concerns the season for subsoiling. * Compiled and translated from European authorities by Raymond Dubois and W. Percy Wilkinson, Department of Apriculture, Melbourne, 1901. Obtainable from the Secretary for Agriculture. Price gd., postage 3d. lo Dec, 1 910.] Tlie Wine Industry in Soutliern France. 755 Even admitting a return to something like original compactness after a few years, the value of deep preparation as a means of promoting the establishment of a drought-resistant root system would alone constitute a sufficient argument against ever omitting it. The recent researches of Professors Degrully and Ravaz, of JNlontpellier, on the root system of the vine, show clearly how considerable an influence deep preparation can exert in this direction. In the course of these investigations, which were undertaken in con- nexion with the solution of a rather different problem*, a careful study was made of the root systems of many different vines, accurate measurements of depth and direction, of all important roots, at close intervals, as they were being uprooted, rendered possible the drawing of diagrams exactly repre- senting the root distribution, with an accuracy hitherto not attempted. Three of these diagrams are here reproduced, with the aid of which a few considerations as to the functions performed by the different roots may be briefly examined. The root system of a vine grown from seed differs much from that of one grown from a cutting, the method of propagation exclusively employed in our vineyards. The tap root, so much in evidence in the former case, no longer exists, its place being taken by a varying number of deeply plunging roots, springing either from the original cutting itself or from larger roots having a more or less horizontal direction. The root system of the cultivated vine is thus made up of two classes of root, viz., lateral or horizontal, and dipping or plunging roots. There is no difference between them in structure ; in fact, the boundary line between them is not a hard and fast one, and all intermediate degrees are possible between a directly plunging ar 1 a horizontal root. Greater differences are to be found in the functions 1 srformed by each. It has been experimentally proved that the greater part of the plant food the vine obtains from the soil is absorbed during the first rush of active vegetation in spring and before the vine commences to blossom, t The surface soil, being richer than the subsoil in phosphoric acid and nitrogen, it is probable that this absorption is chiefly carried out by the lateral roots in the shallower layers of the soil. Later on, whilst the plant is working up and distributing the substances at first absorbed, the main requirement is water, and this is chief! v supplied by the roots situated in the deeper layers of the subsoil, t The greater part of the plant food is thus absorbed by the more or less horizontal roots in the richer upper layers of the soil, more especially those substances present in an easily assimilable form, as well as those resulting from the application of manures. The deep roots, on the other hand, constitute the water supply of the vine, and in a dry climate, such as that of Northern Victoria, the vital importance of having vines amply supplied with deeper roots cannot be over-estimated. * Siir la Culture Su-perficielle de la Vigne, L. Degrully and L. Ravaz, Mont- pellier, 1905. t According to G. Chappaz (Progres Agricole et Viticole, Vol. I., p. 521), before flowering the vine has absorbed almost the whole of the phosphoric acid it will require during the year, f of its total nitrogen, and f of its total potash require- ments. + Potash, probably, must also be included here, its absorption continuing longer than that of the other plant food elements, than which it is also more abundantly present in the deeper soil. 756 Journal of Agriculture [lo Dec, 1910. As the result of their investigations, in the course of which they examined a large number of different vines, Degrully and Ravaz arrived at the conclusions given below. Though a good deal of difference exists between different varieties, and even between individual vines of the same I. ROOT SYSTEM OF RUPESTRIS DU LOT. variety, in a general way the l)ulk of the roots of a vine tend to group themselves at a uniform depth, and that this is not far from the surface. In all the species of vines which we have studied — 1. Roots originating near the surface make at first an acute angle with the vertical. They tend to plunge. 2. Roots originating more deeply, at a level varying according to the cultiva- tion of the soil, are directed at right angles with the vertical. They spread horizontally. 3. Roots originating still more deeply make an obtuse angle, with the vertical. They tend to rise, describing a curve which is the reverse of that formed near the surface. 4. All roots establish themscl\es, after a time, at the same level, which is no doubt variable . . . but which is fairly close to the surface. 5. From these principal and mainly horizontal roots [tracantes] spring, at intervals, other roots {racines flongeantes) which plunge into the deepest parts of the soil. From a comparison of Figs, i and 2 it is evident that the root system of Rupestris du Lot, in which plunging roots are largely represented, is far better able to resist drought than that of Vitia Riparia with its hori- zontal roots. This is abundantly borne out by what actually happens, and, as every one knows, V. Riparia has proved an unsuitable stock in any but deep, moist soils. So much for the influence of variety. But vines of \ S. ROOT SYSTEM OF V. RIPARIA (l8 YEARS OLD). the same variety, grown in different soils, will not behave alike. Unless the plunging roots found a subsoil into which they could penetrate, it would not be possible for the roots to establi.sh themselves as in Fig. 2. Deep preparation is the most powerful factor in facilitating penetration ; lo Dec, 1910.] Tlie Wine Industry in SoufJicrn France. 757 this is very distinctly sliown in Fig. 3, concerning whicii Degrully and Ravaz say^ The roots of young plants raised in a nursery are . . . distinctly plunging. When the soil is favourable they penetrate to a depth of more than 3 feet the same year that they are planted, and this is what all nurserymen know very well. The difference between tlie root formation of young vines in subsoiled or unsubsoiled land is too evident, almost, to need pointing out. The vine will always form enough surface feeders or horizontal roots ; the difficulty is to get the deep ones properly established, and this from the moment the vineyard is planted. If the ground is penetrable only during the first seasons, this desirable end will he achieved. Even if the soil should set to a considerable extent later on, the deep roots will remain where they have once penetrated and confer upon the vineyard a resistance to drought which it could not otherwise possess. Large areas of very sanch' soil exist in the neighbour- hood of the rivers Murray and Goulburn. On these wind-formed sand hills, or pine ridges, as they are often called, from the Murra\- Pines ( Calliiris verritccsa and others), which grow spon taneously on them, man} successful vineyards have been established without much care having been given to the preparation of the land. No doubt, in such easy penetrable soils, subsoil- ing is not so vitally necessary as in stiffer ground ; never- theless, even here, the advantages to be derived from it would amply repay its cost, which, owing to easy execution, is not con- siderable. Such, at least, is the opinion of Professor G. Foex, the celebrated French authority, who writes as follows concerning the preparation of land for the establishment of the coastal vineyards near Montpellier ; planted in almost pure sand, in which immunity from Phylloxera permits the growing of non-resistant French \arieties, on their own roots : — Even sea sands, which are so loose that one is obliged to artificially fix the surface,* furnish an infinitely more vigorous vegetation and a much superior yield, when they have been trenched than when they have only been ploughed super- ficially. 3. ROOT SYSIEM OF YOUNG VINE (rUPESTRIS DU lot) planted ON DEEPLY WORKED LAND. * The cutting effect of the particles of wind-blown sand on the tender .shoots is such that the forcing- of a certain (juantity of rushes into the surface, by means of a spscial implement, is a regular cultural operation in these coastal vineyards. 758 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, 1910. Further argument in favour of deep preparation should scarcely be necessary. 'i'hose still in doubt may, however, ask themselves if it be logical to suppose that the vast sums expended on the work in the warmer parts of P^urope, as the outcome of centuries of experience, are merely so much money wasted ? And to rem.ember that scientific opinion has, without exceptic.'i, not only confirmed but emphasized the views arrived at !)y generations of practical men. Looking at it from a purely business standpoint, a very small increase in yield is needed to pay interest on the money spent on proper prepara- tion—;say, ;^3 to ;^5 per acre. Instead of the few shillings required the increase will certamly amount to several pounds. Vines will, no doubt, grow and bear fruit on inadequately prepared land, but, to ask them to do their work under such conditions would be a return to the haphazard, thriftless methods of the past, which, not only in viticulture, but in all rural industries, must gradually give way to in- tense culture. Exceptions. — Only two cases are admitted by French authorities as being exceptions to the universal rule of deep prepartaion. One is the class of hillside soils known as Garrigues. Here, the surface soil, shallow in depth and often mixed with small stones, overlays deeply fissured limestone rock, into the crevices of which the roots can readily penetrate. Soils which can be compared to these, although the geological formation is widely different, are to be found in North-eastern Victoria. On some of the Silurian hillsides, near Rutherglen, for example, in what, at first sight, appear to be very dry situations, vines grow luxuriantly on ground which was neither trenched nor subsoiled. The subsoil, however, is a mass of broken rock more or less intermixed with loose soil. The con- ditions are much the same as in the French Garrigues, and deep prepara- tion does not appear to be more necessary in the one than in the other. The .second exception is where permanent underground water is to be found at a small depth, a case not frequent in Australia. Deep Working for Irrigation. The above applies to situations where artificial watering is not possible. Even in irrigated vineyards, deep preparation is most certainly to be recom- mended, though the fact is not yet generally admitted in our irrigation districts. No doubt, heavy yields can be, and are being obtained, on land which was simply ploughed to a depth of 6 or 8 inches before being planted. It is under these conditions that yields most nearly ai)proaching those of Herault are obtained in Victoria.* Nevertheless, the quantity of water used is lavish and the number of applications greater than is desirable, and this often on soils physically most suitable for irrigation. Better quality fruit is undoubtedly obtained if the final watering is given as long as possible before the grapes ripen. In many of our pre- sent irrigated vineyards the vines hold out signals of distress, in the way of wilting foliage at the hottest time of year, and compel the giving of a watering, not long before the grapes must be gathered. The unde- sirable effects of such a course may not be very noticeable in the case of dried grapes, though, even here, the better the fruit the better the grade obtained. In the case of table grapes, and more particularly of the shipment of fresh grapes, an industry as yet only in its infancy in Aus- tralia, and which has an enormous future before it, the injurious effect • Yields of 3 tons to the acre of dried currants have been obtained at Miklura, equivalent to nearly 9 tons per acre of fresh fruit. 3,000 galls per acre, a very heavy yield near Montpellier, would, on the basis of 77 per cent, of wine, be equivalent to 17 tons of fresh grapes. lo Dec, 1910.] The Wine Industry in Southern France. 759 of late waterings on the carrying power of the grapes will no doubt prove of capital importance. At least this is the lesson to be learnt in Southern Spain, the birthplace of the fresh grape shipping industry. In Almeria, one of the hottest and driest parts of Spain, the vines are planted on deeply-worked land and the final watering is given in June (December in Australia). In irrigated vineyards, deep preparation, by insuring a more satisfac- tory root system (p. 757), and by facilitating penetration and retention of water, will enable equal, if not superior, results to be obtained from the u.se of considerably less water. As our irrigated areas increase, and such an increase is even now actively encouraged, a time will inevitably <-ome when our present prodigal methods of irrigation will require modi- fication, in order that all demands for water may be met. Even if the supply of water be ample, however, it is evident that the smaller the quantity used the greater the economy. It is worthy of note that, in I. d uglg Br .^9 »tap^^ ISi ^^^^|jL,*& JBiia||t|^ jMtyi ^fc* M 1 g| B ^^^H P? (^ • • ^^T^ s^^P ^^^^^H ^^^^^^HK^f3r *v^ jm0 *% iHUH BiM i^ 4. TRENCHING WITH HORSE WINDING GEAR NEAR MOMPELLJER. the submersion vineyards of Southern France, where Phylloxera is com- bated by flooding for six weeks during the winter, the land is trenched to a depth of 60 centimetres (23I inches) before plantation. Southern French Methods. In the whole of the " Midi " (South), deep preliminary preparation is, with the two exceptions above referred to, invariably carried out before a vineyard is planted. The depth of the work varies as a rule between 50 and 60 centimetres (19I inches and 23^ inches), though it is sometimes carried to an even greater depth. As regards methods of carrying out the work and the plant employed, there have been practically no new developments since the issue by the Department of Trenching and Subsoil- uig for American Vines, in which the leading systems are very fully de- scribed. Large vineyards are usually trenched by steam ; winding by a cable is invariably practised and never direct draught by the traction engine. Both the double and single engine systems are employed ; in the latter case the cable works over an anchor which is moved each time a new furrow is opened, the plough being either hauled back empty with horses, or a reversible plough is used, in which case working is continuous, alternate furrows being ploughed in opposite directions. The double- engine system is already familiar in Victoria. Horse-driven winding gears or horse gins {Treuils, as they are known in French) are largely used; e.specially by small growers. These also 760 Journal of Agriculture . [10 Dec., 1910. are fully described in Trenching and Suhsoiling for American Vines. It is to be regretted that this type of machine has not yet found its way to Australia, since it presents several valuable features. The system is extremely simple, the main principle being the multiplication of the horse- power the grower has at his disposal. As in all similar cases, the gain in power is accompanied by a corresponding loss in speed. In France, a small grower who has trenching to do hires a plant and does the work with his own horses in a slack season. In this way it costs him consider- ably less than if he engaged a contractor with an elaborate steam plant. I'he slow pace at which the plough moves is a distinct advantage in soils containing stumps or stones, since the horses can be stopped when an obstacle is encountered without danger of break- ages. On page 759 is an actual photograph of one of these plants manufactured by Pelous Freres, of Toulouse, at work. In this case three horses and wo men were able to do I hectare {z\ acres) in twelve clays of eight hours each. The work was being very well done to a depth of igi inches. The land, an old lucerne patch, was exceedingly stiff and compact ; as hard, in fact, as any I have seen in the Rutherglen district. It was then perfectly dry, the date being 2nd August (2nd February in Australia). As .soon as the plough was wound up to the horseworks, one horse was employed to haul it back to the other end of the row, a special arrangement permitting of its being rapidly lifted out of the ground. The diagram reproduced from Guyot's catalogue gives an idea of the arrangement of gin, anchors, and plough. Trenching or Subsoiling. In France, in the majority of cases land is trenched, the subsoil being brought to the surface. The ground is actually ploughed to the full depth to which it is worked. The plough shown in Fig. 5, the same which is shown on a smaller scale in Fig. 4, is the type generally used. French preference for trenching is in marked contrast to Victorian ex- perience, which has proved subsoiling* to be more suitable in nearly all our soils. This difference is probably largely due to the fact that the geological formations in the two countries are so widely different. It must also be remembered that most of the vineyard lands of France have been under cultivation at one time or another for many centuries past. * Subsoilinj,'- should scarcely iieerl rlefining here. By this term is understood the stirring of soil and subsoil to the desired depth, but without altering the natural position of the different layers. Usually, the sur'ace is plouu'hed with an ordinary plough, the subsoil being worked by a .special implement, which stirs it without bringing it to the surface. The two implements may be separate or they may be combined in what is then a subsoil plough. There are several types on the market. FRONT VIEW OF FRENCH PLOUGH SHOWN ON PREVIOUS PAGE. lo Dec, 1910.] The Wine Industry in Sonilicrn France. 761 At each plantation the ground has been deeply worked, all parts being thoroughly mixed. There is no longer the marked difference between soil and subsoil which characterizes our virgin lands. Our often more or less silty .subsoils, if brought to the surface, render this liable to set after rain. Cases are often met with where the land has been actually spoilt by costly trenching, such as would have given excellent results in France. Each case has to be treated on its merits, and. even in France, one occasionally meets with soils for which subsoiling is prefer- 6. SUBSOILIXG WITH llOKsE WINDING GEAR. able to trenching. The amount of power necessary in order to work to a given depth is much the same in the two cases. (^OST OF Trenching in France. This fluctuates considerably, according to the acti\ity of the demand for the work. Ten or fifteen years ago, when the reconstitution of hundreds of thousands of acres was in active progress, contractors with large steam plants usually charged from ^4 to ^4 i6s. per acre for trenching to a depth to 60 to 70 centimetres (23I to 27? inches). At the time of my visit (1907), owing to the number of plants which were idle, contractors could be found to take on the same work at the very reasonable price of jQ2 8s. per acre.* Season for Preparing Land This, the last point we have to consider, is one of the most important, and one which does not always recei\'e due attention from intending planters in this country. Two principal mistakes are made : — 1. The land is worked when it is in an unfit state. 2. It is worked too short a time before plantation. The drawbacks of subsoiling when the land is wet or sodden have already been referred to (p. 754). Unless the ground be in a crumbly condition good results cannot be obtained. Summer time is really the best time to prepare land. Even though, at this season, rather more power is required, it is amply repaid by the greater efficiency of the work. The ground, under the action of the autumn and winter rains, is in ex- cellent order for planting in the following spring. The trenching * J. Farcy, Revue de Viticulture, 17 Jan., 1907. 762 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, 1910. illustrated in Fig. 4 was being done in midsummer. As I was informed by one of the owners, who were doing their own work, " il faut que le sol se refasse " (the ground must remake itself). Summer trenching is a very common practice in Europe. In Spain, the word Agostar, which signi- fies to trench, has for its literal meaning " to work the soil in August " or midsummer. It is always well to work the land a considerable time before planta- tion. After preparation an excellent course is to sow a crop of wheat or oats on it before plantation. By cutting this for hay the land is very efficiently cleaned from weeds. In Victoria it is quite common to see land subsoiled in July and planted the following month. Especially in a dry .season, cavities are left in the subsoil which have not had time to fill and which constitute so many air chambers, rendering it exceedingly difficult for the young vine to thrive. The unsatisfactory growth of many young plantations is traceable to these causes. The stiffer the land, the greater is the need for working it some time beforehand and for 'paying careful attention to its condition as regards moisture. (To be continued.) G. H. 0 17. FOOT FOR HOME-MADE STAFF. IRRIGATION. Tolley, Manager, Wyuna Irrigation Farm. {Continued, from -page 689.) Levelling Staff.— The staff may be any piece of straight well-planed softwood timber, and can if desired be graduated by the farmer himself. Half inch, f in., or f in., will be found the most convenient thickness, and of such length as will resist the tendency to bend, and 3 in. wide. To prevent the end sinking into soft ground, attach a piece of red-gum or other hardwood 3 in. x 3 in. x 2 in., and shoe it with a plate of thin metal. Staves are all graduated in feet and decimals. Feet and inches may be used, but decimals are much more convenient for working out subsequent results. The following drawing shows method of graduation. The large etched number, " 3,"' generally painted red, represents feet. Black numbers represent tenths of feet, each horizontal line being one-hundredth of a foot. Thus, a reading of the staff at the point marked " A "' is 2.96 feet ; at B, 2.80 feet, and so on. If a staff is made as described above, the graduations are most easily marked by means of a stencil covering i-ioth of a foot or more, and repeated along the length of the face. Such a stencil can be conveniendy cut in a small sheet of thin zinc or copper, or in a piece of oiled paper such as is used in offices with copying letter books. When using the stencil, first carefully measure off and mark tlic staff at foot intervals, and try the spacing of the stencil before applying stencil brush. Any good black paint will do ; the numbers can be painted on when the stencil work has dried. When the whole is dry, cover with at least one coat of clear varnish to preserve from the 18. GRADUATION LEVELLING STAFF. lo Dec, 1910.] Irrigation. 765 weather. Such a staff will be found both durable and satisfactory. Face graduations printed on paper may be purchased from an instrument maker, but are apt to become distorted when being pasted on. The best staff is of course that commonly used by surveyors and others, and the most convenient length is 14 feet. It is made on the telescopic principle and when closed is about 5 feet long. Second-hand staves such as these may be bought for about 15s. Although it appears a simple matter to hold a staff for instrumental observation, care is necessary to insure reliable results, and particularly when the survey is of some extent. The staffman must stand behind the staff and face the level, holding the staff at about breast height with both hands, and keeping the fingers clear of the graduated face. The staff must rest on a firm footing and be held truly vertical, and at all terminal readings, usually the last reading before the level is moved, a small peg should be driven leaving its head slightly above the surface before that reading is made, or some solid object should be chosen, so that when the staft' is again read at the same point from another position, there shall have been no movement. With a telescopic staff make sure that the catch holding the leaves in position is acting. It is net otten that more than 6 or 8 feet of a staff is used. A little practice will insure a habit of holding it correctly, but if considerable accuracy is desired, the staffman should be provided with a plumbob to check ver- ticality, and in soft ground should see that no mud adheres to the foot of the staff. Ho\ve\er, as a rule, a farmer does not require a great deal of nicety when attempting grading work, and some of these pointers may be neglected. By reference to the plan (No. 12) it will be observed that every peg has. a particular designation and is easily referred to. Thus, all lines running E. and W. are numbered i, 2, 3, &c., and those running N. and S. are numbered a, b, c, &c., and the pegs at the intersections are conveniently known as la, ib, ic, or 2a, 2b, 2c, as the case may be. Level Book. — ^To make this clear a specimen page of level book is appended and indicates how the observations are entered and converted hito ■■ Reduced levels,"' such as are shown on the plan. Books already ruled may be purchased cheaply at any leading stationers. When order- ing, send copy of the form here used, as there are others which might easily lead to confusion.. By the term " Reduced levels" is meant that all levels are reduced to some common point of origin, rendering compari- son of points at any part of the survey merely a matter of inspection. Thus the " R.L." at peg oa is 100.00 feet, while that at 7h is 100.97 show- ing that the last point is the higher by 0.97 feet, practically i foot. Surveyors and engineers take for the origin of their levels the mean level of the .sea. hence in all subsequent operations their height above .sea- level is apparent. But. to the man on the land, this is usually a matter of indifference and any convenient height may be assumed, as in the pre- sent case at oa where 100.00 feet has been adopted. It is merely a means of making successive levels comparable, and may be any number or height the observer chooses, but it is important that, once chosen, it should be followed up, or confusion and much annoyance may arise. Frequently, when giving addresses on the subject of levelling, I have had the greatest trouble in making it clear that the staff readings are merely a means to- a-i end — the determination of "Reduced levels." And also, to make it 764 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, 1910. Specimen of Page of Level Book. Back Sight. Inter- mediate. 5-14 5 •SO 5^30 h-Zi b-ZS 5-36 5-51 5^02 5-10 5-01 4^93 5^04 5-02 4-99 4^92 4^56 4^37 4^50 4-44 4^53 4^55 4-65 4^70 4^37 4^32 4^34 4^16 4^21 4^15 4^09 4-20 4^02 4-03 4^16 4^21 4-13 4^26 4-21 4^32 4^46 4-33 4-21 4^14 4-11 4^09 3-98 3^93 $•76 3^69 3^96 3^89 3 •84 4-08 4 '22 4^33 4^33 4^25 4-24 3^99 4-05 3^92 3^55 1^74 Fore Sight. Rise. FaU. Reduced Levels. 100^00 •16 ■is ■04 •04 ■16 •00 ■00 99^96 ■92 •62 •15 ■94 ■79 •49 ■08 100^28 ■20 •09 ■29 ■08 ■ii ■37 ■26 ■6-2 ■28 •03 •31 •07 •38 •36 •74 •19 ■is •93 •80 •06 ■09 ■02 ■10 ■05 •86 •77 •75 •65 •60 •33 •93 ■05 ■62 •98 •96 •18 ■05 101-14 •09 •06 •15 •06 ■ii •21 •10 •18 ■6i •13 •05 •28 "27 ■14 ■09 •08 •is •17 •04 •05 •ii •14 •09 100 ■gs ■84 •13 ■97 •12 101 ■og •07 •16 •03 •19 •02 •21 •11 •32 ■05 •37 •17 •54 •07 •27 •61 •34 •07 •41 •05 "24 •14 •11 •46 •22 ■08 100^97 ■97 •08 101^05 •01 •06 ■25 •06 •31 •25 ■13 •38 ■37 •75 3-56 •6i ■74 4^29 2^55 1^74 Point Oa la 4a 5a 6a 7a 7b 6b 5b 4b Sb 2b lb Ob Oc Ic 2c 3c 4c 5c 6c 7c 7d 6d 5d 4d 3d 2d Id Od Oe le 2e 3e 4e 5e 6e 7e 7f 6f 5f 4f 3f 2f If Of Og Ig 2g 3g 4g 5g 6g 7g 7h 6h 5h 4h 3h 2h Ih Oh Note. — The figures 1 -74 will be noticed at foot of column. In the first case, they indicate the difference iDetween Back Sisht and Fore Sight ; in the second, difference of summation of Rise and Fall columns, and are equal. The summation of the Rise column bein'; greatest, indicates a rise as sho\\Ti by the last Reduced Level, 101 ^74, which is 1 ^74 greater than the first Reduced Level. This proves that the Reduced Levels have been properly worked out, and is a check that should never be neglected. lo Dec, 1910.] Irrigation. 765 comprehensible, that it is of no importance what the height of the instru- ment may be. The difference in readings will be the same in any case. Then, again, the shifting of the level from one point to another has been a stumbling-block, which the following example is designed to explain. 19. METHOD OF TAKING A SERIES OF LEVELS. The etched line represents the earth's surface, as would be seen by an observer located in a railway or other cutting. The datum line or line of reference is made 100 feet below the surface at A. With the instrument set up at X between the points A and B and carefully levelled the dotted horizontal lines represent the lines of sight, parallel with the datum line, consequently if a reading of the staff at A were 2 ft. and at B 5 ft., B is lower than A by 3 ft., and the surface of the earth at that point is 100 ft. — 3 ft. = 97 ft. above datum. The instrument is then moved forward to y, and a reading is taken at B on exactly the same spot as the previous reading and is 2 ft. ; the reading on C is then taken and found to be 6 ft., consequently C is 4 ft. lower than B and the surface at C will be 97 ft. — 4 ft. = 93 ft. above datum. Move the instrument forward again to z and the readings on C and D are respectively 7 ft. and 4 ft., consequently D is 3 ft. higher than C and the surface at D will be 93 ft. -I- 3 ft. = 96 ft. From the drawing it is now obvious that C is 7 ft. and D is 4 ft. lower than A, and that the system may continue to infinity. The vertical lines shown intermediate to the points A B C D may be any distance apart, according to irregularities of natural surface, hut are generally i chain in flat country, and when levels are required at these points, or any other points in the same series, according to the degree of minuteness with which it is required to determine the surface, they are all entered in the " Intermediate" column of the level book as shown in the specimen given below, and their respective R.L.'s ascertained by successively adding " Ri.ses " and deducting " Falls" from the original '•' Reduced Level " 100.00. Distance. Baek Sight. Inter mediate. Fore Sight. Rise. Full. Reducerl Level. 100.00 Remarks. Oc 2.00 Station A Point 0 Ic 2.40 .40 99.60 „ 1 2c 2 40 99.60 // 2 3c 2. ."SO .10 99.50 -, 3 4c 2 55 .05 99.45 „ 4 5c 4.50 1.95 97 50 „ 5 6c 5.10 .60 96.90 " 6 7c 4.70 .40 r7.30 /; n 7 8c 2.00 .'i.Ot ..■^o 97.00 „ B „ 8 16c 7.00 6.0H 4.00 93.00 „ C 24c 4 00 3.00 96.00 " D 11.00 15 00 d.OO 3.40 7.40 4.00 766 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. The " Remarks " column indicates tlie places at which the staff was held. There was no necessity to write in " Point i, 2, &c., as the " distance " column already shows the measurements in chains, but it was added in the endeavour to make everything clear. The first of a series of readings is always called a " Back sight" and the last a " Fore sight," all others being " Intermediate " no matter where taken. The R.L.'s are found by adding or subtracting the rises or falls deduced from suc- cessive sights. If it becomes necessary to turn over a leaf of the level book, enter the last sight taken before doing so as a " Fore " sight and on turning over enter it again at the top of the page as a " Back " sight and proceed with the series of readings as before. To prove that your work is correct as shown in level book, add up the columns marked " Back sight, Fore sight, Ri.se, and Fall." The differences between the first two and the second tw^o should be equal and equal also to the difference between the first and last R.L., as shown in the specimen of level book. This should be done on everv page. It is well to rememlier that when a Fotp sight is greater that a Back sight it indicates Fall, and vice ver'^d. With the aid of the drawings and specimen pages given, and with a little practice, it is hoped that the operation of taking a series of levels over B.M.ontree.N^-Z 20. SETTING OUT A CONTOUR CHANNEL. any piece of country has been so explained and simplified as to remove many imaginary difficulties and to encourage land-holders to attempt it for themselves. Further on will be found a drawing showing level contours, and later, level head ditches are referred to. Such contour or level lines may be projected over country independent of any system of chessboard levelling. Starting from some point selected for its convenience for dis- tributing a supply of water, set the instrument up distant therefrom about 4 or 5 chains and as nearly on the same level as the eye can esti- mate. Read the staff at the initial point and cause the staffman to pace along the estimated line, one or two chains, or more or less according to the accuracy of location desired. Cause him then to move the staff up or down the slope of the land and as nearly as may be at right angles to the esti- mated course, until the staff reading shall coincide with that first taken. Fix a stake there (stakes 24 ins. or 30 ins. long are convenient) and repeat until he shall have reached 8 or 10 chains, i.e., 4 or 5 chains beyond the instrument. At that point cnuse him, in addition to a stake, to fix a short peg flush with or slightly above the surface of the ground, the top of which shall give the same staff reading. Repeat the process as far .1 = lo Dec, 1910.] Irrigation. 767 may be necessary, and it will be well to number the stakes consecutively,, starting with o at the initial station. By thus identifying them it simpli- fies references should it be desired to lay off laterals from the original line. With the stakes all in position, it is a simple matter to average them and produce a series of straight lines, shorter or longer according to the natural slope of the country. An example is given on the opposite page. With the plough mark out the straight lines shown, but making easy curves or bends at each angle, or bend, and proceed to construct a head ditch or channel as described later. Contours.— -Where water has to be carried some distance as in a channel, "contours on grade" are marked out, i.e., contours having a regular fall per mile. The only variation from the method above described is to make the staff reading on each change peg (that is, the last peg before moving the instrument) that proportion of the amount of fall per mile determined upon, that the distance between back and fore sights bears to one mile. For example, assuming the desired fall to be 6 inches = .50 ft. per mile, and that the distance between back and fore sights is 8 chains. If the staff-reading at original peg No. o is 4.50 ft., then the peg at 8 chains, No. 8 (= i-icth of a mile), must be set so that the staff reading is 4. 5 :; ft., or .05 ft. lower (= i-ioth of qo ft.). The inter- mediate stakes Nos. i to 7 may all be set at the original staff reading of 4.i;o ft.: in the majority of cases nothing is gained by inter- polating values for them. The process may of course be continued to infinity, but to guard against errors and to provide easy reference for any extension of the system afterwards, or the determination of foundations for works such as bridges, culverts, &c., it is well to take note of the levels of some fixed points at intervals of 20 or 40 chains along the route. Such fixed points are called Bench Marks ^ (written B.M.) and are conveniently cut upon existing trees, and in such a manner that the bark is removed from live trees as shown by the shield in the drawing. The wood is cut into far enough to admit of a small bench being left at the foot upon which the staff is held. Letters are cut in the barked space as may be desired. Where there are no trees fix permanent posts or pegs, and always in such positions right or left of the route that they will not be disturbed in the course of building the channel. These B.M.'s will have a permanent R.L. (reduced level) and are easily recorded in the level book for future reference. Boning Rods. — There is, however, another way by which a fairly accurate knowledge of the surface may be ascertained where a land-holder mav not have an instrument at command, but it rests on the pre-determina- tion of some points with the level. The cost of establishing these points would be very small compared to that of engaging a surveyor to make a chessboard survey of the whole area. 1 refer to the use of " Boning Rods," so familiar to contractors. A boning rod is easily made from a piece of fiooring board or any other handy timber and will be best understood from the sketch. The size may be varied to suit the needs of the operator. With a set of 3 of these rods and a few points whose level is known it is a simple matter to BENCH .MARK ON TREE. 768 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. determine a series of points over small areas. The following sketch will serve to show the method of working along a particular line, and having other fixed points it may readily be inferred that any I FTTl I number of interpolations are possible. Take the case of a block of land io acres in extent and measuring 10 chains square and having known levels established at its four corners. It is required to ascertain the surface inequali- ties along one of the sides. A and B are pegs ic chains apart whose levels have been ascertained to be 100 ft. and 95 ft. respectively. Fix a 3-ft. boning rod at A, B being 5 ft. lower ; the boning rod to be fixed there must be made 8 ft. long by temporarily nailing on a piece of quartering. Then the line of sight over the cross-bars of the boning rods, shown dotted above, 22. BONING ROD. ^,{\\ ]qq horizontal, and it follows that another rod held at some intermediate point (as at x) and made to coincide with the dotted line will indicate the difference of level. Measure the x rod, sub- tract 3 ft. (height of the rod at A) and the difference is the number of feet 23. LEVELLING WITH BONING RODS. the surface at x is below that at A. Sometimes the rods are rather difficult to see for any distance, but that may be largely got over by wrappnig the head of the rod with a piece of white or coloured paper and sighting towards that one the sun may be shining on. There are various devices for taking levels by means of an ordinary carpenter's level fitted with sights ; glass tubes set vertically and con- nected to a horizontal metal tube and partly filled with water, &c., but I do not know of any that are reasonably satisfactory. My advice is to dispense with all makeshifts and face the expense of a surveyor's level. {To be continued.) .J^ 30 Dec, 1910.] Australian Meteorology and Weather Forecasting. 769 SOME XOTES ON AUSTRALIAN 31ETE0R0L0GY AND WEATHER FORECASTING. H. A. Hunt, Commonzcealtli Meteorologist. The continent of Australia, by reason of its insularity, geographical position, and absence of extreme physiographical features, is freer from ex- tremes of climate and violent wind experiences than any of the others. There is not, therefore, the occasion here for the elaborate system existing in America for giving warning of blizzards and of the devastating floods which occur in its mammoth rivers, nor is it necessary to have the extraor- dinary cyclone warning system of the Indian Meteorological Service. Nevertheless, we have our weather troubles, though they be of a character less se\ere than those of may less favoured countries. Australia lies in the path of what is known as the dry southern anti- cyclonic belt, i.e.. the region of high barometric pressure lying between the regions of the south-easterly and the westerly trade winds of the southern hemisphere. If the course of this high pressure (which is composed of immense anti- cyclonic links) were uniforml\ regular both in latitude and daily rate of progression, our continent would undoubtedly be dry and arid, and forecasting of the weather would be very simple, but, fortunately for Australia, the movements of those anti-cyclonic links when traversing Australia are erratic, and swing to and fro between the equator and the South Pole, thereby bringing the equatorial and antarctic low pressure belts with attendant and abundant rains alternately o\"er southern and northern parts of the continent. The north-eastern half of Australia mainly benefits from the equatorial intrusion during the summer months and the south-western half, i.e., roughly, south of a line joining Geraldton, in Western Australia, and Cape Howe, on the New South Wales coast, from the Antarctic intrusion during the winter months. Farmers and pastoralists may, therefore, reasonably look for their best seasonal rains according to the relation of their holdings on or near to this line. It is regrettable that, owing to the infancy of the science of meteorology, together with the complexity and the evasiveness of the sub- ject, no law in any part of the world has yet been established that will justify reliance being placed upon seasonal forecasts. The value of such forecasts is of the greatest moment to the future of Australia in particular, and many lines of investigation are being undertaken for the solution of the problems involved, with the hope of success in the no distant future. Meanwhile, the Australian .service is doing its best in the issuing of 24 to 48 hours' forecasts, and, at tim.es, even for longer periods, with a fairly high percentage of accuracy. These forecasts, if a\-ailed of, should be of value in the following ways : — Wool scouring, drying preserved fruits, salt manufacturing, and like industries depending upon an out-door exposure. To the farmers and pastoralists as a guide as to when to sow and reap ; the housing of sheep during the shearing season to a\oid waste of time and money owing to the liability of wool getting wet ; the repair of decaying shelters when violent winds are threatening ; the conveyance of stores to and produce from farms to railway stations, which depend upon a good condition of roads ; the remoA'al of stock from areas likely to be flooded. 770 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. To the Railway Departments and conveyors generally, giving them an opportunity to protect perishable goods from impending rain, heat or cold. To growers, by notice of impending frosts, &c., and finally to the shipping companies, underwriters, and marine travelling public. It should, however, be realized that Australia is a huge area with various physiographical features, and, further, limitation of time, of in- formation and of facilities of transmission only permit the forecasts at pre- sent to be framed in general terms. In New South Wales and in South Australia, the metropolitan press, by the publication of the daily isobaric chart, enables the individual, after comparatively short experience, to fore- cast more accurately for himself, having a knowledge of local peculiari- ties and the effect of physical obstructions during the passages of distur- bances. It is hoped that the country residents in the other States may shortly be similarly catered for. With regard to Victoria, I am happy to say that an influential and largelv circulated Melbourne paper is, at the present time, favourably considering the possibility of giving us the space for such a map. THE NATURE AND USES OF HARD SEEDS. Bertha Rees, Government Research Bursar. All agriculturalists are familiar with the fact that in samples of many seeds belonging to the Bean family i^Le gummosa), there is found a certain proportion which is not capable of germination without treatment of some kind. If soaked in water, these seeds will not swell as do those which are freely germinable, and it is owing to this fact that they are commonly known as hard .seeds. The number of such hard seeds present in samples varies considerably, and appears to be influenced by climate and environ- ment. For example, Lucerne {Medicago sativa) contains an average of 10 per cent, of hard seeds but I have examined samples from Hunter River containing over 50 per cent., and again Lucerne from Arizona may contain as much as 90 per cent. It appears, in fact, that plants which have this tendency produce a higher percentage of hard seeds when grown in a dry climate than when grown in a moist one, and similar differences occur in the harvest of seed from the same locality according to whether the season is a moist or dry one. To some extent, the effect of a dry season may be compensated by harvesting the seed at a slightly earlier stage than usual, but this requires care and judgment, since if the seeds are unripe the percentage of germi- nation may be very low even although no hard seeds are present. The various Clovers {Trifolium) usually contain an average of 8 to 13 per cent, of hard seeds, but as is the case in Lucerne, the number may be considerably greater. The Acacias (Wattles) produce hard seed in greal; abundance and in this group the maximum of resistance appears to le reached. Plants which produce hard seeds are not confined to the order Leguminosce although they occur most commonly in it. They are found also in the Mallow family {Malvacece), which includes some species of Hibi.scus, Abutilon, &c., and in one plant belonging to the Salt-bush family {Chenofodiacece) called White Goosefoot {Chenof odium album) which is a ^'erv troublesome weed. Another familiar instance of hard seed occurs in ordinary Canna {Canna indica), the rounded black seeds of which are often called " Indian Shot." lo Dec, 1910.] The Nature and Uses of Hard Seeds. 771 As might be expected, the plant reaps certain benefits by forming seeds of this kind, the chief being as regards the advantageous distribution of its offspring. There are two great methods of distribution, one of which may be termed distribution in space and, to accomplish this, the plants provide the seed with various mechanisms such as spines, tufts of hair, &c., by means of which they are carried from place to place by such agencies as wind, water or animals. In this way the danger of over- crowding is avoided to a great extent. In the second method, — distribution in time — the structure of the seeds is such that they germinate after vary- ing periods, and by this method, the seeds of one year may provide seedlings for many successive seasons. Plants which have adopted this method of distribution produce hard seeds freely. All the soft seed will germinate the first season and the hard ones will remain dormant in the soil. Gradually, the impermeable covering will be removed by various agencies, the least resistant seeds will germinate first, the harder ones remaining for longer period until perhaps the parent plant has been re- moved as the result of drought, bush fires or some other cause. From this it is obvious that hard seeds must retain the power of germination for many years, as otherwise the great object of their forma- tion would be defeated. Professor Ewart has divided seeds into three classes according to their duration of life. The Microbiotic seeds which do not live for more than three years, The Mesobiotic, which last from three to fifteen years and The Macrobiotic, which may retain the power of germination from fifteen to over one hundred years. All the hard seeds are included in the last class; they remain un- harmed by great extremes of heat and cold and are, in fact, the most resistant of all living organisms. In Acacias and other allied plants the formation of hard seeds may be regarded as a special adaptation to bush fires which, in previous ages, were probably more prevalent in Australia than at the present time on account of the numerous volcanic eruptions. The effect of such fires would be to burn off the existing vegetation and the humus on the surface of the soil ; the seeds themselves would be saved from injury by the presence of the hard covering which, however, would become wholly or partially charred by the flames, thus rendering the seeds permeable to water and enabling them to germinate. Any seeds which escaped charring would be gradually rendered permeable by the action of the alkaline ash of the humus which becomes dissolved in rain water. By this means, the species is not only enabled to survive the devastation but is instru- mental in replacing the vegetation of the cleared part. There have been several theories advanced to account for this hard- ness. Percival, in his Agricultural Botany (p. 626), states that the hard- ness " is due to the large proportion of ash ingredients, especially silica and lime," contained in the seed coats. This theory was disproved bv Leake^, who compared the proportions of ash present in the seed coats of two species of Indigo plants {Indigofera arrecta and Indigofera sumatrana), and found a greater quantitv present in the softer freely- germinable variety (/. sumatrana). Later, Jarzymowski^ suggested that the hard'-'ess was probablv due to the small size of the cell cavity of the outer palisade cell covering the seed, but Bergtheil and Day^ mnde com- parisons between the cells of the above-mentioned seeds and found no 1. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc, Vol. XXIX. 2. Inauqural DUxertation, Halle, 1905. 3. Annals of Botany, Vol. XXI, 1907. 772 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. difference in the size and sliape of the cavities in the two cases. They found, however, that outside the palisade cells of the hard seeds of /. arrecta was a thin membrane through which ^vater could not penetrate but, probably owing to a defective stain, they were unable to determine the exact nature of this membrane. In 1908, Dr. White^ made a further examination of these seeds and of a large number of other hard seeds and found that the membrane was composed of a material known as cuticle, which is impermeable to water, and further, that a similar membrane was present on each seed she examined. The presence of the cuticle is detected by using certain stains which colour the cuticle in a characteristic manner. The stain used in this case was chloro-zinc-iodine, which colours cuticle dark-brown, the soft cell-walls blue or magenta and the living cell con- tents a lighter brown. Fig. c of the plate shows a small portion of the seed coat of the Blackwood {Acacia melanoxylon) stained in this way and the extreme thickness of the cuticle can be clearly seen. The cuticular material is not always confined to the outer membrane, but may be laid down also in the walls of the palisade cells and in some cases, the whole cell-wall may become cuticularised in this way. An instance of this is found in the seed of the Bottle-brush Wattle {Albizzia lophantha). In Fig. f there is a double row of palisade cells, the outer row being entirely cuticularised and the inner only partially. Seeds of this type are natur- ally more resistant than those in which the cuticularisation is confined to the outer membrane. Of all the hard seeds examined by Dr. White and myself, in one case only, the Canna, was there no well defined cuticle outside the palisade cells, and it is evident that this seed must owe its impermeability entirely to the cuticularised walls of these cells. As to the nature of cuticle, it is believed to be formed by the laying down of particles of w\axy or fatty substance in the already-existing cell- wall. A cuticle consists therefore of the original cell-wall, which is made up of cellulose or some sim.ilar material, permeated through and through with oarticles of wax. Such a membrane would differ from unchanged cellul(xse just as a sheet of waxed or oiled paper differs from one of blotting paper ; water would be held by the former but would pass readily through the latter, and the more complete the impregnation with wax the greater would be the resistance to the passage of the water. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. [a). Seed coat of Indigofera arrecta after trealment with chloroform. \b). Similar preparation of Cytisus atbus. (c). Untreated seed coat of Blackwood. \d). Same after treatment with sulphuric acid. \e). Seed coat of Melilot after chloroform treatment. (/). Untreated seed coat of Bottle-brush Wattle. \g). Same tested after four months soaking in chloroform. (/?). Seed coat of Canna tested after treatment with chloroform. (All the preparations after testing with chloro-zinc-iodine.) We have now to consider the various methods by which it is possible to render hard .seeds permeable to water. There are several ways by which this can be done, one is to scratch or remove the outer cuticle, while another is to extract the waxy material from it by means of certain chemicals or to subject it to the action of hot water, the former method is the most practical and is more comm.only employed in the case of very 4. Proc Boy Soc. Vict., Vol. XXI, I'L 1. Bertha Rees, Del SECTIONS OF SEED COATS OF HARD SEEDS. lo Dec, 1 910.] Tlie Nature and Uses of Hard Seeds. 775 large seeds, whereas for small seeds the other methods are more effective. If the cuticle is broken at any one point, water will enter and spread to all parts of the seed, so a single scratch which passes through the cuticle is sufficient to render a seed permeable. The scratching is performed by a file in the case of large seeds, or in the smaller ones, by treating the seeds with hard sand either by shaking them up with it or by passing them through revolving cylinders lined with cement in which the sand is embedded. Another method for removing cuticle is to treat the seeds with some strong corrosive agent such as concentrated sulphuric acid and if the treatment is sufficiently prolonged, the cuticle will be completely removed. Fig. d shows a portion of the seed coat of Blackwood after treatment of this kind and if this be compared with Fig. c, it will be seen that in the former (d), the cuticle is entirely gone and the ends of the palisade cells are exposed on the surface ; such a seed would now swell readily if placed in water. The duration of treatment required to remove a cuticle varies from fifteen minutes to several hours according to the resistance of the seed. As has been already indicated, similar results may be obtained by charring or by the action of alkalis. The second method, \\z. that of extracting the waxy substances from the cuticle is perhaps of scientific rather than commercial importance. The seeds are treated with certain chemicals which are recognised fat solvents such as chloroform, ether or hot alcohol, but of these I found chloroform to be the most effective. The duration of treatment required again varies but is usually from three to four months. At the end of that time sections stained and compared v.ith similar preparations of un- treated seeds show a marked contrast, which can, perhaps, be best appre- ciated by comparing Figs, f and g. These are sections of the seed of Bottle-brush Wattle before and after treatment, and it will be noticed that all the parts which in f were stained dark brown, are of a reddish colour in g. Figs, a and b are of treated specimens of Indigofera arrecta and Cytisus albiis respectively, and, in these, the outer layer only was cuticularised. Fig. e is of special interest, as it represents a different type of seed coat. It is the seed of a Melilot {Melilotus albus) often called Bokhara Clover. In it, the outer membrane is not cuticularised but only the ends of the palisade cells. This figure was made after prolonged treat- ment with chloroform and the dark coloured ends of the cells are the parts which gave the cuticular reaction in the untreated seeds. I am led to believe that, in this case, the function of the outer membrane is to act as a kind of cement substance which holds the cuticularised ends of thQ cells closely together, and .so prevents water from pu.shing its way in between them. The last Fig., h, shows a section of the treated seed coat of Canna indica, after long soaking in chloroform; in this, all the thickened cell-wall now- coloured blue was completely cuticularised in the original seed. The common practice of soaking hard seeds in hot water to make them swell may be explained in the following way. The effect of the heat is to melt the particles of w^ax which are distributed through the wall. When they are melted they will tend to run together to form larger isolated drops and, in this way, spaces will be left through which the molecules of water can push their way into the seed causing it to swell and germinate. 15937. 2 D 774 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910, SEED TESTS. (Fourth Series.) Alfred ]. Ewart, D.Sc. Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Pro- fessor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University, and Bertha Rees, Government Research Bursar. In continuation of the previous tests, the present one was carried out on a more extended scope and had for its primary object, to determine whether any relationship could be detected between the duration of their voyage, in the case of imported seeds, and their germination power on arrival. The whole of the seeds were obtained through the Customs authori- ties,* and were tested as soon as possible after arrival. Since, however, nothing was known as to the condition of the seeds when they commenced their voyage, too much importance cannot be attached to the results, and to obtain absolutely satisfactory data, it would be necessary to test the seeds before the voyage began as well as when it was completed. Some interesting ca.ses can, however, be seen, by reference to the table printed beneath. For instance, Linseed from India, after a voyage of three weeks, gave 92 per cent, germination, whereas a similar sample from New Zealand, after a shorter voyage of six days, gave 100 per cent, germina- tion. Again, ten samples of Rye Grass from New Zealand, after a voyage of six days, gave an average germination of 78.5 per cent. A sample from Ireland, after a voyage of six weeks, gave a percentage ger- mination of 78. This difference is not worth consideration, but the New Zealand samples contained two unusually bad ones, and if these are omitted, the remaining eight had a percentage germination of 88, which may indicate that the longer voyage of the Irish seed had affected its percentage germination. Lucerne seed has better keeping properties than Rye Grass. The first four samples examined, however (^;^ to 36), which were Australian grown, all gave a higher percentage germination than samples which had been submitted to a sea voyage, the average in the two cases being, for the Australinn-grown seed. 92 per cent., and wnth the non-Australian seed, 76 per cent., which is a very appreciable difference. In this comparison, sample 37 from New South Wales is omitted, as it was a thoroughly bad and diseased sample full of fungus spores and weed seeds. Even if it is included, the Australian-grown seed showed a 7 per cent, better ger- mination as compared with the imported seed. It is only natural where not more than a couple of samples are available for examination, that these may show discrepant results, as for instance, in the case of the two samples of Millet, Nos. 45 and 46. That from Turkey, with a voyage of thirty-six days, gave a percentage ger- mination of 91, whereas that from India, with a shorter voyage of twenty- one days, gave a lower percentage germination of 74. Again, No. 3, a sample of Onion seed suppo.sed to be locally grown, gave only 3 per cent, germination, whereas one from France with a voyage of five weeks gave 55 per cent, germination. The first sample was, however, a thoroughly bad one Finally, of two samples of Hemp, one from Japan with a voyage of three weeks gave 53 per cent, germination, while one from Turkey with a * ThrouTh the assistance of Dr. Norris, Director of Quarantine, and Mr. J. G. Turner, Chief Quarantine Officer (Plants), Victoria. lo Dec, 1910.] Seed 'Fests. IIS Fungus Spores Present. None None None None None None None None Chlamydospores of Bunt 3 pq tn £ c e 0 c -a £| 0 [TiUelia) Spores of Early Blight ( Mac.ro.'iporium ) and Pin Mould {Miicor) None None 333333333 coooooooo :z; jz; :z; Z; ^ ;z; ^ iz; ;z; 0 C3 Over 90 Over 90 Over 90 Over 90 Over 90 Over 90 Food article Food article Over 80 0 00 > 0 0 0 C5 00 > > 00 lOOCOOOOOOO CiOOOO^C^OOCSOOi 0000000000 0 ja c (1< ° CO O0ir-003 0GOMIOIO oc 0 05 0 00 0 00 O-^C'lOfOt^OO— tcC(M ocoooooor^oifflo ggggpg|gggg§Mg 0 § 3: 33 g^^^||^o|^ |s8» fc« 0 5 weeks 5 weeks 6 weeks 6 weeks 3 weeks 6 weeks 40 days 6 days 0 0: 0 % 0 "o 0 (D ffl & is "^ >'©►;■ >^ ^^-S >> >^ >> a.cC0CCc3c3Qjccc3cu „o„<»«;jj3ococo d 0 0 5 0. ^. c^. France . . (?) England Holland Holland Japan . . Turkey Holland Morocco New Zealand 3 0 N 3 S u 0 >> • 3 • C5 r^ 3 3 fe ^ ® Ci China .. Now Zealand Iridia . . Now Zealand New Zealand New Zealand Ireland Now Zealand Now Zealand New Zealand Botanical Name. Common Name. s. 0 £ .2 ce 0 0 s 0 0 c3 0 2 -"1 © 3 r. & 3 ^ ce ^j; ^ 0 0 . . tn CO 0 tc 00 to 0 "s. Onion Mustard Kale Rape Rape Hemji Hemp Crraway Coriander Cocksfoot Soja or S Yorkshire Liiiseed Liiaseed Rye Gras Rye Gras Rye Gras Rye Gras Rye Gras Rye Gras 2. Allium Cepa 3. Allium Cepa 4. Allium Cepa 5. Brassica alba 6. Brassica oleracea 7. Brassica raxia 8. Brassica rajia 9. Cannabis sativa 10. Cannabis sativa 11. Carura Carvi 12. Coriandrura sativum 13. Dactylis glomerata . . "cS S 3 "S)j .S2 ">. 0 c3 p ce 0 3 0 3 c« 0 10 16. Ernura Lens 17. Fagop3Tum esculen- tum 18. Glycine hispida 19. Holcus lanatus 20. Linum usitalissiraum 21. Linum usitatissimura 22. Lolium perenne 23. Loliimi perenne 24. Ijolium perenne 25. Lolium xjerenne 26. Lolium jiorenne 27. Lolium perenne 2 I) 2 776 JoHrtial of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. 1 ■s -3 -a 3 1 M H S © ^r A. 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C5 D5 05 -* X I- t- t- t- X 2; cT. t^ t- L-i X |Z; X CO CD -,D t^ (£0 1 "« p 1 — — j; 10 fC -+ 0 — C 0 — < ">! 8^£ gg| ;S !^ !^ 0 » 0 T di 03 1°^ CO 7! -/) >> >i >5 ce c3 0 -o Ts t; >5 >• >• c»- ^» >■• K a CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ^ >> >i >v >i-^ >, !>>-^ ©cececece® .ace©-- S S _^ »j « CO "© "© "© i^ g^ ^ g;) Qj qj oc C5 cs • g ^ ^ -0 TS 'O • P to CD CD CD CD ^ccocdcd" CD-h «I0 COCOCD CO!M'* ^j^^cDOCD xn : : : : 0 h 0 s "3 © 1^ '3) -3 ^3 -3 "3 _. t; — ;5 "2 "2 "2 3 0 i J 1 5 3 ^ 5 ^ 3 ^ 0 0 flj 0 "3 05 2 '-- C"'-^'- s 3©s^©©32>. >.^ >> • 'a "3 "3 ^ a • J 0 © © <3 0 NNN N3 ^ ce . ^ s: N N •-:: E 1 S 5J ^ 5: S s « 0 V © © ©2©22©-i=i3'53 © ^ 3 © © ® •— ^12;^ ^ ^; :^ C;fii:2^f^f!^:;0HH-5H 3owS5z;2;> !!!!!!■>:'.!! ^' ^ CO 0 =! .- '©~ S "^ 2 t. > I. ■_ aj fc i? -*— C '^ -i C © 0 © © M S CO T- ? IS =s g — >-' • 0 ^ 0 0 <-i 0 S s 0 1 ° 1 CO ac ^ 03 ce c3 i^ ^ /^ =3 C © © © © © 2 © © © © ^ '^C j;.^ c -^ 1 3 n: -^ -a -a -5 leu© 0 05 © ^ c c c ^ ©05 © 55 05 ©3p©o3~j5_©2^ >!>■,>> >i >% a "* a D D 3ds5dc'o23«s ""^ .S ^\ '—■ :; -"" -"*" Ci i J 1 A^A >-a ^ r-S !?; c a; 0 © © cs "S "S "S "S ^ ^ u fc- CO CO CO CO CO X i •>: cc i; a ^ S c c3 ;; 1 1 9_g 9_ £ © 0 D C 0 0 H it tf: bC &C &j sc Sr. if. tr._i S S S .2 .2 ^ a a a a a ^ 1 '5 s s a — Zi Tf re r: ce c5 cic3cectc?'-'^aa«^ a 5 .a .a .a .a a 0 m sea .2 .S .= 000 ;^ ■^ ■- -^ :^ :> p _©_©_£ _o © a a -r — — •« a . M HH h- 9 ^ S 3 S S S SSS3S?;PHfiHPHP-lflH Sc^Hr^HHW 1 . . . 1 QO ^ 0 _; "^i i^ -r ij: 'DJ t-- X DC c; — -m' CO -+■ i-i' CD r-: x 05 0 — < oi CO -^^ 0 1 'M -M TC fC CC CC CC CC CO coco-+-+-t<-t-*-t-t-t-f -* O IS 10 LO 10 lO 30 Dec, 1910.] Seed Tests. 777 much longer voyage gave 81 per cent, germination. It is evident, there- fore, that too much value should not be attached to these limited compari- sons. A point of considerable importance is in regard to the number of samples which contained the spores of injurious or parasitic fungi. This applies to samples 13 and 14 (Cocksfoot), 15 (Carrot), 30, 31 and 32 (Rye Grass), 37 (Lucerne), 43 (Lotus), 44 (Paspalum), 47 (Canary Seed), which all contained fungus spores, and, with the exception of sample 43, would be unfit to use for planting on that account. It is of great im- portance that seed should be free from the spores of parasitic fungi, since, 'Otherwise, the farmer is bound to suffer loss and may have his crop en- tirely ruined. Seed for planting should never be harvested from crops showing any sign of disease. This is one of the most important methods in prevent- ing the spread of disease in cultivated plants. Notes on Samples Tested. I. Acacia mollissinia (Black Wattle). — This sample contained 97 per ^cent. of hard seeds and required repeated soakings in boiling water to make them swell in water. The germination was very slow and after three applications of boiling water, the power of germination was lost altogether. None of the seeds which swelled without treatment ger- minated. 2 and 3. Allium Cepa (Onion). — Probably old seed. Sent in by a seedsman to whom they had been supplied as good sound seed. 4. Allium Cepa (Onion). — Clean sample of seed, free from weeds but percentage of germination too low. 5. Br as sic a alba (Mustard). — Contained a few seeds of Charlock {Brassica Sinapistrum), otherwise quite clear of weeds. About 2 per ■cent, of the seeds were imperfectly developed and they varied in size from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. in diameter. 6. Brassica oleracea (Kale). — Sample was free of weed seeds, but manv of .seeds w^ere withered and the diameter varied from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. 7. Brassica rapa (Rape). — Fairly good sample, with exception of pre- sence of .some imperfectly ripened and damaged seeds. 8. Brassica rapa (Rape). — Good. 9. Cannabis sativa (Hemp). — Poor sample; seeds varied in size from .2 to 4 mm., and had low percentage of germination. 10. Cannabis sativa (Hemp). — Sample free of weeds, but contained 2.7 per cent, (by weight), of foreign matter. II. Carum Carvi (Caraway). — This sample was probably intended 'for culinary use and not for germinable seed. 12. Coriandrum sativum (Coriander). — Very slow in germinating; probablv, like preceding sample, intended as food article. Weeds pre- sent included some doubtful species of L^mbellifers. 13. Dactvlis glomerata (Cocksfoot). — Sample free of weed seeds, but otherwise poor and bad seed for planting on account of spores of Bunt pre.sent in it. 14. Dactvlis glomerata (Cocksfoot). — Percentage of germination very little better than preceding sample. There w^ere very few weed seeds -present, mainly Dock (Rumex) and one Composite (sp. ?). 15. Dane us Carota (Carrot). — Although sample was free of weeds it contained a quantity of other foreign material, and the spores of Blight «and Pin Mould were unusually plentiful. 778 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, 1910- 16. Ervum Lens {Lentil). — The percentage of germination was be- low the proper average and this was mainly due to the broken seeds pre- sent in the sample. 17. Fago-pyrum esculentuni (Buckwheat). — Good seed. 18. Glycine hispida {Soja Bean). — Five per cent, damaged, but this alone does not account for low germination percentage. 19. Holcus lanatus (Yorkshire Fog grass). — Weed seeds included Wild Caraway {Caruni Carvi), Italian Rye (Lolium italicum), Rye Grass {Lolium perenne), Sorrel {Rumex sf. ?), White Clover {Trifolium repens) and Chickweed {Stellaria media). Ergot was also present. 20. Linum usitatissimum (Linseed). — Weed seeds present w-ere Spur- rey {Spergula arveiisis). Sorrel, Italian Rye, and one Composite (sp. ?). In addition to this, about 7 per cent, (by weight) of the seeds were broken or damaged. 21. Linum usitatissimum (Linseed). — Principal weeds present were Spurrey, Rye Grass, and 8 per cent, (by weight) were damaged in various ways. The high percentage of germination is due to using sound .seeds only for the tests. 22. Lolium perenne (Rye Gras.s). — Only foreign seeds present were ;i few Cocksfoot. Grains were rather discoloured, probably not a sample of fresh seed. 23. L.olium perenne (Rye Grass). — Clean sample, but percentage of germination low ; seed probably old. 24. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — Seeds very small size; weeds pre- .sent included Sorrel, Crested Dog's Tail {Cynosurus cristatus), Composite (Crepis fatida) and one other Composite (sp. ?). 25. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — Weed seeds present were Sorrel^ Italian Rye, and another grass (sp. ?). 26. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — Best sample of Rye Grass seed in the consignment. Contained no weed seeds or fungus spores and had a high percentage of germination. 27. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — Weed seeds included Italian Rye and Crepis foetida. As there is nothing in the appearance of the seed to account for the low germination percentage, it is safe to conclude the seed is old. 28. Loliu7!i perenne (Rve Grass). — Sample free from weed seeds and fungus spores, but germination percentage not high enough. 29. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — About the same as sample 28. 30. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — Very few weed .seeds present, Dock, Crepis foetida, and Timothy Grass {Phleum pratense). 31. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — Many of the grains were dark coloured as a result of the presence of fungus Tillctia (Bunt). Weed seeds present were Italian Rve, Darnel {Lolium temtilentum). Dock, and Crepis foetida. 32. Lolium perenne (Rye Grass). — The fungus spores pre.sent were those of Smut or Rust, and the weed .seeds included Dock and White Clover. 33. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Contained nine kinds of foreign seeds: — Plantain {Plantago lanceolatd), Red Clover {Trifolium pratense). White Goosefoot {Clienopodium album), two composites, one of which was Field Chamomile {Matricaria inodora), and Dodder (one in 3.000). It contained 5 per cent, of hard seeds. 34. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Weeds included ^^'hite Goosefoot,. Plantain, and one Composite (sp. ?). Four per cent, of hard seeds. ■3.0 Dec, 1910.] Seed Tests. 119 35. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Weeds present were Plialaris (sp. ?). Charlock, White Goosefoot. and a Composi<-p (sp. ?). Two per cent, hard. 36. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Weeds included Dock (3 species). Plantain, Red Clover. White Goosefoot, and two species of Composites. Four per cent. hard. 37. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Very dirty seed; weeds included White Goosefoot, Sorrel, one species of Composite, also Dodder (i in 4,000). The sample contained also 17 per cent, (by weight) of unfer- tilized seeds and other foreign matter. Four per cent. hard. 38. Medicago sativa (I-ucerne). — Weeds present were White Goosefoot. -and Red Clover. Six per cent. hard. 39. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Weed seeds were Plantain and Red Clo\er. Six per cent. hard. 40. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Sample of good clean seed ; practi- cally free of weeds with the exception of a few (i in 500) seeds of Rve Grass. The lower percentage of germination is due to the sample con- taining 15 per cent, of hard seeds. 41. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Weeds included Plantain, Red Clover, White Goosefoot, and a species of Umbellifer. Eight per cent, hard. 42. Medicago sativa (Lucerne). — Weed .seeds in the sample were Dock, Plantain, Wild Caraway, White Clover, and one species of Composite ; also 1.5 per cent, of total bulk was broken seeds and other foreign ma- terial. Five per cent. hard. 43. Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus). — The only weed seed present was Plantain, which was very plentiful, also 6 per cent, of the seeds were shrivelled. 44. Paspalum dilatatum (Golden Crown Grass).- — Seed smelt verv mustv nnd contained spores of mould. Many of the glumes were emptv or the fruits were unripe. 45. Panicimi yniliaceiim (Millet). — Contained few weeds, chieflv White Goosefoot and Sorrel. 46. Panictaii miliaceum (Yellow Millet). — Seeds varied from pale colour of White Millet to dark brown or almost black. No record of a similar sample was to be found. 47. Plialaris canariensis (Canary Seed). — 0.5 per cent, were broken, and others contained Ergot, rust spores were also present. Weed seeds included Dock. Millet, and Johnston Grass {Andropogon Halefensis). 48. Plialaris commutata. — Sample contained a quantity of husks and other foreign matter in addition to weed .seeds — Crefis fcetida and Wild Caraway. 49. Plileum praiense (Timothy Grass). — Weed seeds present were White Clover, Plantain, and one species of Composite. 50. Sesamum indicum (Sesame). — Probably a sample of old seed; 51. Tri folium livbridum (Alsike Clover). Sample contained a few seeds of Sorrel. The seed looked good on the whole, though some were the pale yellow of immature .seed and others the dark reddish colour of old seed. The .seeds were dyed, but evidently because they were light coloured and not, as is more usual, to disguise old seed. 52. TrifoUiim minus (Suckling Clover). — The chief weed seed was Sorrel. Sixtv per cent. hard. 780 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, 1910^ 53. Trifolium repens (White Clover). — Chief weed seeds present were Spurrey, PLantain, and White Cockle (Lychnis alba). One per cent, hard. 54. Trifolium repens (White Clover). — The sample was obviously- dyed, probably to disguise old seed. A number were pierced by borers, the remains of which were present in the sample. The weed seeds in- cluded Plantain, Sorrel, a species of Composite, Alsike Clover {Trifo- lium hyhriduni), and Purple Cockle {Agrostenima Githago). Five per cent. hard. 55. Bromus unioloides (Prairie Grass) (local). — Offered to seedsman for sale; 6 per cent, of grains filled with smut; 72 per cent, germinated. Contained burrs oi Medicago denticidata (Burr Medick) ; 8 per cent. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. XIV.— AIALLEE ROLLER. A. S. Kenyon, C.E., Engineer for Agricidture. The accompanying drawings show the usual type of roller in the Mallee districts. I'he roller itself varies in length from 8 feet to 12 feet, and in diameter from i ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. 6 in., and may be either a log, art old boiler, or a specially constructed iron cylinder. Round timber is preferable to sawn for the framework, especially fui pole and brace, if a suitable natural fork can be obtained. Ttie pole is usually about half as long again as the roller. The angle formed by brace should be such that the scrub is bent forward and not brushed aside. This is very important, as the brace, if properly fixed, does a large amount of the work of breaking down the mallee. The framework is fixed together with clamps. The wheel is an ordinary dray wheel, the axle of which after passing through wheel and arms of bridle is turned up and works in a hole at the end of the pole. On the vertical portion of the axle is an iron collar fastened with a set screw. The end of the pole rests on this and may be rai.sed or lowered by altering the position of collar. The bridle is made of 3-in. by f-in. wrought iron, bolted together as shown and having a slot 2 inches by ,J inch in front. The bridle moves freely on the axle and will come to any position required, by the raising or lowering of end of pole. The chain is connected to a piece of iron bolted to the frame as shown. The chain passes under the brace and through a hook on the pole, which converts the chain from a diagonal to a direct pull parallel to the pole. The hook is made of i^-in. iron threaded for a nut on outside of the pole. The chain runs through the hook but is not fastened to it. The loose end of chain is fastened to a piece of iron, i| in. x | in. x i ft., which passes through the slot in the bridle. This piece of iron has holes in it for a pin, so that, when the chain is tight, the pin, being placed in hole nearest the back of bridle, will draw the wheel. The axle of roller is fixed to a cross piece of 4-in. x f-in. wrought iron, welded at the join and a hole punched for the axle. The axle projects at each end and works in a block of hardwood which is bolted to iron supports with ^-in. bolts. The supports are of 4-in. x J-in. wrought iron, bolted to framework as shown, with |-in. bolts. so Dec, 1910.] Building Hints for Settlers. 781 The above dimensions may, of course, be varied considerably to suit <:onditions. No matter how well made the roller is there will be consider- able giving in the joints, particularly when rolling big mallee ; hence the use of clamps in construction of the frame as they allow of taking up and adjusting any movement. In use, a horse team will give the best results, but the risk of staking a valuable horse on a " snag " — a projecting sharp stump — is so great that bullocks are generally preferred. Up to 20 acres a day may be -covered in easy country. Teams vary from 10 to 16. The roller is not very effective when there are many " spring-backs," such as voung mallee, broom, &c. Some have tried fixing angle irons to the roller to chop and bruise the light stuff so as to make a better burn. Others have tried logs or even railway rails, hitching a team to each end and thus dragging down the scrub, but it cannot be said that these arrange- ments are satisfactory. A considerable amount of work in cutting the ■" spring-backs " by hand is inevitable. In large mallee, pines, &c., the roller can be replaced by hand -cutting. This method obviates risk of snags in subsequent cultivation but it is surprising what large sizes of Tnallee can be rolled by a little judicious " nicking " ahead of the roller. ft..w' ms^ ROLLING DOWN THE MALLEE. Rolled scrub, being all laid in one direction, gives a much better burn than hand-cut, and as a good burn is the greatest of benefits, the roller is seldom abandoned. Rolling costs from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per acre and the subsequent snagging about pd. to IS. 6d. The Government is rolling mallee scrub in the Murrayville (Pinnaroo to Cow Plains) district by means of a traction engine drawing three rollers, totalling 58 ft. in width of cover. More rollers could be pulled but the difficulty of spreading the hauling cables prevents this. A spreader ot •over 30 ft. in width, made of two 6-in. H girders supported by specially strong wheels on the outsides and an ordinary wheel in the middle, carries the cables pulling the rollers. The cost of running is low, being only about IS. per acre; but with repairs, shifts, &c., it mounts up a little over 3s., not much cheaper than by bullocks. Traction engines with the ordinary wheels are useless, either in soft ^or sandy ground. In the sandy country the difficulty is overcome by using Bottrill's patent Dreadnought attachments, which, although expen- 782 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, i9io>_ lo Dec, 1910.] Building Flints for Settlers. 783 sive (about ^250 per engine), enable it to cross tlie loosest of sand country pulling a full load. These attachments have already been described in the Journal for May, 1908. There are two considerable drawbacks to the use of the steam traction engine in mallee scrub, viz. : — difficulty in obtaining sufficient water (about 120 gallons per hour) and liability to start bush fires. An oil tractor has been tried with Bottrill's attachments, but it is not sufficiently heavy or powerful. It is likely, however, that the oil ti actor will eventually prove the most useful. 784 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, i9io_ ENGLISH LEICESTER SHEEP. H. W . Ham, Sheep Expert IMPORTED ENGLISH LKICKSTKR J..M uXSiiORN ANO SiU.KN. principal English grazing breeds, one of which is considered in the best parts of Austraha and South America, where wool-growing is regarded al lo Dec, 1910.] English Leicester Sheep. 785 important, to be better for wool-crossing purposes, than the English- Leicester itself. The three breeds evolved from English Leicester sires are the Lincoln, Border Leicester, and Romney Marsh. English Leicesters, as a breed, are thick-set, shapely sheep, low to the ground, being bred more towards neatness, substance, and quality of flesh and wool than for mere size. They possess proportionate heads and neat bone, and on sound country thrive quickly. The fact of having short necks, level shoulders and backs, with medium bone, makes them specially suitable for mating with small merino ewes, thus giving less lambing troubles than the larger long-wool breeds. In New Zealand, they are a favoured breed for mating with all classes of ewes, but particularly with small ewes and two-tooths. It is the ill- shaped, deep fore-quartered, rams of any breed that give rise to most of the lambing troubles — width of front and shoulder is not responsible to anything like the extent that depth is. FOUR-TOOTH WETHERS BY ENGLISH LEICESTER RAMS. This breed could with advantage be more extensively used with under- sized merino ewes, especially those grown in the colder parts, for these ewes are usually small and difficult to lamb to heavy-boned breeds. For mating with small woolly-headed short-stapled merino ewes, there is no breed of rams more suitable. From the wool point of view, English Leicesters do not carry quite the same weight of fleece as the Lincolns. They secrete less yolk and are finer in grade of wool and rather thinner lock. These points cause the lesser weight per head as compared with the Lincoln. The wool, however, is equal in lustre and has just as much character and style. Being finer in grade of wool they are also finer in grain of flesh and this, considered with the moderate amount of yolk produced, means a good quality sappy mutton when fattened. Merely a top-knot, no more and no less, is the aim in respect of head covering. The head should be neat and breedy in appearance, bluish- white in colour, with very little if any arch of nose, as compared with the Border Leicester, for instance. (Of course, rams of any breed are in- 786 Journal of Agricidture. [10 Dec, 1910. clined to show this point of masculinity to a certain degree.) Full clear cut eyes, mellow soft ears on the short side, dark muzzle and black hoofs, are also essential. The English Leicester occupies a peculiar position in respect to colour of face and ears. With the other long-wool breeds, Lincoln, Romney Marsh, and Border Leicester, the aim is towards pure white ; especially in the case of the latter. Yet the dark colour round the eyes and the spots on the ears, inherited from the English Leicester, are frequently met with, cropping up even after generations of breeding. These minute details are often made too much of, and should never he considered more desirable points of type than evenness of carca.se, character and covering of wool, and general outline. The outline or shape of face, eyes, and ears, is far more important in deciding merit in these four similar breeds than the colour of the face. An anaemic white face is, of course, a sign of weakness. TWO TOOTH WETHERS BY ENGLISH LEICESTER RAMS. The illustrations of the imported English Leicester ram are from photographs supplied by Mr. A. M. McArthur, of " Coonmoor, " Linde- now. This ram is grass-fed, and has been running in the open, as will be seen by the rough outward appearance of the fleece. The three wethers, by English Leicester rams from fine wool ewes, were the second prize four-tooth wethers at the last Melbourne Royal Show. They averaged 130 pounds dressed weight. The two wethers, also by English Leicester rams, are sixteen months old, and are the property of Mr. R. C. Buchanan, Ormidale Estate, Tallangatta. lo Dec, 1910.] Export Lambs. 787 EXPORT LAMBS. H. W . Ham, Sheep Expert. Wether Lambs "Plainer" than Ewe Lambs. As a rule, ewe lambs are graded into higher qualities than wether lambs. A visit to one of the large freezing works would be educational to many lamb-raisers. It would, or should, cause them to improve their methods. The .sexes are easily distinguished, as ewe lambs " dress " more neatly about the udder than the wethers do about the purse. In some well bred and well fed flocks, ewe lambs go into first grades at the rate of 80 to 90 per cent., whereas wether lambs of the same flock go no more than from 40 to 50 per cent. Even in badly fed flocks, the ewe lambs " dress " better than wether lambs. Whilst it is natural that ewes should fatten more quickly than the ram lambs, the difference should not be so great. Wethers are the plainest on the forequarters and neck, and show the most lean. Late marking is, however, the real cause and, added to this, the old rough and ready method of drawing out the testicle, cord, and vein, makes matters worse. Marking as early as practicable is the course recommended, but once a ram lamb has been allowed to develop, " proud " castra- tion should then be practised, for it is at that stage when most of the plainness of the forequarters is brought about. While the ewe lamb keeps going, the wether lamb has to make up what he has lost owing to un- necessarily severe castration. For example, in some flocks, 3 to 4 per cent, of ram lambs are found to be uncastrated. These strip better on the forequarters than do the wether lambs of the same flock, unless the latter were marked young. Ram lambs often go first grade. Should they be put lower, it is only one grade, as a rule, and that mainly on account of dressing unsightly at the purse through the testicles being removed by the butchers. When lambs are over a month old, just the soft interior of the testicle should be removed, leaving the blood vessel, cord and casing undisturbed. The slight " cordiness," only found on careful handling, even in two and three year old wethers, has not been found detrimental in any way, either from the standpoint of the grazier or the butcher. Careful tail-searing has assisted towards early maturity and quality, but early castration of all ram lambs is still more important. Where this has not been practised, proud cutting is the next best method. Whilst it is wrong to allow lambs to go over three weeks before being marked, it is, under some circumstances, inadvisable to muster ewes before all have lambed, or to mark lambs during wet or stormy periods. Nearly every farmer knows that quality of feed, not always quantity, is indispensable for producing good quality Iamb. It is not, however, realized by half of our farmers that, if lambs are bred from narrow fore- quartered merino-type stock, and the ram lambs are marked late in the rough style, the latter cannot help but dress plain on the fore-ends, no matter how well fed they may have been. They will also be lighter than ewes, and early-marked wether lambs from stock of more thickness. {To be continued.) 788 Journal of Kgricidture. [10 Dec, 1910. SHEEP DIPPING ACT 1909. For the information of slieep-owners in Victoria it is notified that the above Act is now in operation. Forms of application for a clean certifi- cate may be obtained on application to either the District Stock Inspector, the local Dairy Supervisor, or direct to the Chief Inspector, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. The following notice and epitome of the Act have been printed in the form of a leaflet for the guidance of sheep-owmers. Notice to Sheep-owners re Dipping. Clean Certificate. — It is hereby notified that, in accordance with the provisions of the SJieep Dip-ping Act 1909, No. 2216, it is necessary for all owners* of sheep or lambs to apply for a clean certificate for such sheep or lambs, which certificate will, when granted, continue in force until cancelled. (Sec. 3 (1-3). ) Declaratio7t. — The application is to be supported by a declaration that the sheep and lambs in respect of which the application is made are free from ticks and lice. (Sec. 3 (2). ) Penalty for false declaration, ;£5o. (Sec. -15.) Inspection. — If deemed necessary by the Chief Inspector, such sheep or lambs will be inspected by the Inspector under the Act. (Sec. 3 (i). ) Dipping after Shearing. — It is further notified that every sheep-owner shall dip all his sheep and lambs immediately after shearing and directly from the shearing board in every year, or, if they cannot conveniently be dipped from the shearing board, all such sheep and lambs shall be placed and kept in a securely fenced paddock, and dipped within sixty days of being shorn. Penalty, ;^2o. (Sec. 4 (i). ) Sheep or lambs in respect of which the owner holds a clean certificate will not necessarily require to be so dipped. (Sec. 4 (4). ) Return.- — Every sheep-owner shall within one month after he has dipped his sheep and lambs make a return to the Chief Inspecto- in the prescribed form, copy of which is enclosed. Penalty for failing to make return, ^5. (Sec. 4 (3).) Penalty for making a false return, ^50. (Sec. 15.) Annual Shearing Compulsory.- — Sheep and lambs, except those lambs it may be intended to keep as hoggets, are to be shorn annually within the shearing time — ist July in any year to ist March next ensuing. Penalty, ^20. (Sees. 2 and 4 (5).) Dipping on Inspector' s Order. — It may be required by the Chief In- spector that sheep or lambs found to be carrying ticks or lice be dipped within fourteen days of his order, excepting in the months April to No- vember, both inclusive. (Sec. 6 (i, 2). ) Penalty, ;^io; for each further period of seven days after date of conviction, ;^20 additional. (Sec. 6 (3)-) Sheep not to he Travelled. — No sheep or lambs carrying ticks or lice may be travelled or placed in any sale-yard or public place or other place at which sheep or lambs are offered for sale. Penalty, J^,^. (Sec. 10.) N otification of Ticks and Lice. — The owner of any sheep or lambs for which a clean certificate has been given shall give immediate notice to the Chief Inspector should such sheep or lambs at any time be found to have ticks or lice on them. Penalty, ^^5. (Sec. 12.) Application to be Made. — Application for clean certificate should be forwarded on receipt of this notification. * " Owner " includes superintendent, overseer, occupier, or person in charge. ^^_^^^:^^J9^o^]^Analyses of Arfifiaal Manure sss gS[:§ggE:s; skis ^^-^^^a,^ 790 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910- •0 •e C»!Dt0 5D 0 H E-3 ■^ a H 0 S fi. jjtDiO "* •* vOlO ■_(5 00 CO . 0 E pgajuBJBtio 0 tCSD-* •* COO 0 ^0 u^ » ■* O! 0 -f « !5 0 tA CO »n CO ^ ■< CO CO 1(0 >o i-t •paaju^acno ■< CO CO in in m 0 d td Ph 0000 S •punoj V50 «^ 7*"^ ^ 05 lO to to •* o>r: 0 v500>(5 0 •pnnoj: " 0000 ^ift f 00 CO CO CO CO 0 paa^uBJBno ^!0 05 r^ t^ mcO(N(M ^ •pnno^ CO 1^ CO 00 ^os 04 •■0 -a c^ T}< coco s£ >> t-t ce , s 0 " & ' 0 3 f^ 0 ' ' a 0 5 :" 0 -3 s ^ 3 ■S a - s * s =3 - -tj .— a ^ 3 S >4 >-i ' 3 a « a 0 1 005 lo Dec. l9^f^]__Analyses of Artificial Manure. 792 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910V. FARM MILKING TESTS. Swan Hill Agricultural Society's Competition. G. A. Ryland, Dairy Supervisor. The above competition, which was carried out in connexion with the recent Swan Hill Agricultural Show and judged by me, was a great im- provement on previous methods of deciding the best dairy cow entered for show in this splendid dairying district. Dairy cow tests held in connexion with agricultural shows are often unsatisfactory, inasmuch as the cows competing do not receive a fair chance to show what they can produce in a stated time. The greatest cause for dissatisfaction among the owners of the animals, and incidentally with the cows themselves, is that the animals are taken from their home sur- roundings and milked in a strange place amidst excitement. It is a well- known fact among dairymen that when a milch cow is excited she does not yield the same quantity of milk, and it may be stated that, as a rule, the better the cow for milk production, the more nervous her temperament and consequently the more easily upset. " ELSIE," winner of TEST, 16.986 LBS. COMMERCIAL BUTTER PER WEEK. Prior to 1910 the method adopted by the Show Committee at Swan Hill was that the cows were brought to the yards on the evening previous to the show and milked in the presence of the stewards. They were milked again on the following morning, the milk weighed, and a sample tested for percentage of butter fat. This was no test for a dairy cow for two main reasons, namely, that the cows are not in their usual sur- roundings and are consequently excited ; and that the sample tested was certainlv not an average sample of the cow's milk for the day. At my suggestion the Agricultural Society at Swan Hill adopted the following conditions which were duly carried out and gave general satis- faction. The cows were seen milked out before the day's trial. lo Dec, 1910.] Farm Milking Tests. 795 Conditions. 1. The cows to be milked at their homes under the supervision of Officers of the Department of Agriculture for a period of 24 hours in the two weeks previous- to the show, and the day's butter production to be taken as the basis in deciding the cow's yield. 2. In the event of two cows obtaining the same highest yield of butter, the prize to go to the cow that gave the most milk. 3. All cows entered to be shown on the day of show. 4. No test or butter returns to be made available until cows are in pens at show yard on the day of show. To give some idea of the iiitere.st taken prior to entering any cows, it may be said that over 40 milk samples were tested for owners by the proprietors of the Swan Hill Butter Factory, besides numerous trial tests made by other owners having a testing outfit on their farms. This com- petition has been the means of making owners take more interest in the returns from their cows and has put testing apparatus into more general use. Thirteen entries were ultimately received, two of which were later disqualified for non-appearance at the Show. Several entries were with- drawn mainly owing to exaggerated rumours being afloat as to what certain cows were yielding. It is to be regretted that people take so much notice of what they hear, and also that they have so much fear of being beaten. It is anticipated that the entries will be much larger next year. The following are the results: — Lbs. Com- Owner. Cow. Lbs. Milk Percentage Butter Fat mercial One Day. Butter Eat. Result. Butter per 4-0 Week. E. Hobson " Elsie " 52-00 2-080 16-986 E. Hobson " Plum " 54-50 3-8 2-071 16-913 R. Hastings . . " Dulcie " 63-75 3-2 2-040 16-660 R. Prince " Jess " 44-00 4-5 1-980 16-170 R. Prince " Pet " . . 49-50 3-9 1-930 15-761 R. Prince " Babv " 43-75 4-2 1 -837 15-002 E. Johnson " Pet ■" . . 39-50 4-6 1-717 14-022 G. SneU " Pansy " 51-50 3-1 1-596 12-034 N. Brown " Teresa " 36-25 4-0 1-450 11-831 N. B. Bryan . . " Mayflower " 37-50 3-8 1-425 11-637 E. Hobson " Baby " 31-50 3-8 1-197 9-775 The figures in the butter fat result column show how keen the competi- tion was for first place. It was unfortunate that, on the day of the trial for the two leading cows, a cold southerly wind was prevalent, which decreased their milk yield for the day by several pounds. To have all the cows milked at the same time would require an army of stewards. Figures taken pre- vious to the competition showed each of the two leading cows to be yield- ing 6 gallons per day. The three cows owned by Mr. R. Prince gave close results, and the returns should be gratifying to the owner. Mr. Prince keeps a milk chart in regular use and so has accurate records of the performances of individual members of the herd, which is a distinct step in the right direc- tion. The accompanying photographs are those of the three best cows en- tered. " Elsie," whose parents were bred by Messrs. McNab, " Oakbank,"" Tullamarine, is a typical dairy cow in shape. She was sired by " Duke," by "Glen Elgin's Bruce"; dam "Granny." 794 Jottrnal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. " PLUM," SECOND AT TEST. 1 6.9 1 3 LBS. COMMERCIAL BUTTER PER WEEK. " Plum," also of the same strain, is a bigger cow. sired by " Duke ", dam "Lucy." ■'■' DULCIE," THIRD AT TEST. 16.660 LBS. COMMERCIAL BUTTER PER WEEK. The owner of " Elsie " and " Plum," Mr. E. Hobson, is an ardent ad- mirer of the Ayrshire and has proved the value of the pure bred animal. lo Dec, 1910.] Eclnica Dairy Herd Comfetitio)i. 795 '■ Dulcie," who, with 63! lbs., secured the prize for the greatest weight of milk and third place in the butter returns, is owned by Mr. R. Hastings. This cow is a Holstein-Ayrshire cross and is now on her second calf. She was bought as a heifer for the sum of ;^i4, and is a splendid example showing how a cow can convert fodder into milk. Although she has a large appetite and good digestion she is always ia low condition. The organization of farm milking tests in the dairying districts of this State is a work which would prove of wonderful value to all dairy- men. It is to be greatly regretted that at present cows cannot be bought on reliable figures giving records of what they can produce. It is hoped that the commencement made at Swan Hill will be taken up by other Agricultural Societies, and will lead to more attention being, iliven to the establishment of records. ECHUCA DAIRY HERD COMPETITION^ /. i\ McFadzean, Dairy Supervisor. There were six entries for the Echuca Dairy Herd Competition, and the judging took place on the 17th and iSth October. Four of these farms are within the irrigation channel area, and obtain their water sup[)ly from that source, while the other two depend on the rainfall to supply the requirements of both stock and cultivation. Throughout this district the season has been very favourable for grass ; and there is abundant pasture everywhere, principally of trefoil and bar- ley grass. On the irrigable farms lucerne has been sown broadcast in some of the paddocks ; but, being pastured, does not last long, and is soon crowded by the native grasses and weeds. Oats and wheat are sown for hay and grain ; but owing to the unsystematic working of the land, these crops are frequently smothered by the growth of wild oats. A little maize is sown for summer greenstuff on the old-fashioned broadcast method ; and the yields obtained are not heavy. Silage had been made on only two of the six farms inspected. If the heavy growth of wild oats, thistle, barley grass, trefoil, &c., that is going- to waste on many farms here this season were made to silage, not only would this fodder be found most valuable in assisting the milk production during the dry months, but it would help to clean the cultivation land for future cropping. The wild oat seeds so much earlier than the sown grain crops that it has shed its seed before the latter are ripe enough to harvest ; and consequently each year of hay or grain cropping leaves the land so much more foul with its seed. To feed down this weed growth generallv results in a lot of the seed being trampled into the ground, as well as being distributed in the manure from the stock ; so that harvesting this rubbish for silage when green is the most practical way of cleaning the cultivation land. On the farms in the channel area the pastures are watered when the rainfall is insufficient to promote satisfactory growth ; and, while some people claim that it is not profitable to irrigate pasture land if the water has to be paid for, those who have given it sufficient trial ha^'e found it most satisfactory in its results. On the other hand, it is more than pro- bable that if the lucerne crops were properly drilled in. cultivated, and 796 Journal of Agriculture. [10 Dec, 1910. cut for hay, or if maize growing for silage was carried out on a more satisfactory system, the water used on the pasture land could be made to bring in a much greater return if utilized in connexion with the grow- ing of these crops. The general quality of the stock had, in every instance, to be judged from their appearance, for no definite information was obtainable on any of the farms as to the amount or quality of the milk given either indivi- dually or collectively. No one could say how much milk the cows had given any one day ; and the factory cream dockets were the only record of returns available. One owner's guess at the milk yield, when checked by the cream and factory test, would indicate that the cows were giving milk with 6 per cent, of butter fat all round j and others were equally unreliable. It was also the exception to find a dairy farmer who weighed his cream before sending it to the factory. Grain is weighed, and poultry and eggs counted before sending to market ; but cream at 5d. per lb. is apparently not considered worth keeping check of. The first farm inspected was that of Mr. Wilson, which is made up of five 20-acre blocks, subdivided into fifteen paddoclcs — all within the irrigation area. Seventeen acres are sown with oats and wheat. Two lo-acre lots have been planted with lucerne and paspalum ; and are used in their turn as grazing paddocks. Two acres are also sown with maize and Planter's Friend. A small silo that was filled last .sea.son with green oats, unchaffed, has not been opened ; but a stack of similar fodder was used by the cows during the past winter. This is the third year of silage- making on this farm. The milking herd includes 23 cows, of which 20 are at present in profit. They are a mixed lot, showing principally Shorthorn blood ; but there are a few showing some Jersey breeding. The dairy buildings on this farm were of the most primitive descrip- tion, and not well situated ; and in competition many points were lost on this account. Mr. Glanville's farm was the next visited. Here, 80 acres are sub- divided into eighteen paddocks ; water for stock and irrigation being sup- plied by the channel, with a good clay " tank " as a standby. Six acres of lucerne and 2 acres of maize are sown for green fodder ; no silage is made; and also no hay crop has been sown this sea.son, as a surplus of over 20 tons is still on hand from last year. The milking herd of 17 head are all in profit except two. They are mostly a very nice class of Shorthorn ; but possibly the best of the lot is a fine framed Ayrshire that is said to be a local prize-winner. A heifer calf from this cow stood out from the rest in " dairy " appearance, show- ing both fine bone and good frame. Almost without exception, the stock on the farms inspected — young and old — were in good condition. The barn and other shedding on this farm are roomy ; and the various buildings and yards are fairly well situated, and tidily kept. The third farm seen is that worked by Mrs. Felgenhauer and family on the " Shares " system. This place has only recently been taken over for dairying, and is not yet in proper working order ; most of the necessary steading having still to be built. The 130 acres are cut up into fourteen paddocks, all of which are watered by the channel. Thirty acres are in oats ; and one paddock of 9 acres has lucerne growing on it. It is proposed to make more than half of the oat crop to silage, either in pit or stack. lo Dec, 1910.] Echuca Dairy Herd Corn-petition. 797 The dairy herd of 23 cows and 5 springers have nearly all been recently purchased, and are mostly Shorthorn heifers — two only showing Ayrshire blood — and, on the whole, they are a promising looking lot. With building to be done, harvest time almost at hand, and the flush of the dairy work now on, the family has a busy time ahead. On the next farm inspected, which is owned by Mr. Wilkins, the conditions are almost the opposite from those last mentioned. There are here 37 acres worked in conjunction with 131 acres of rented land adjoin- ing. The smaller block has been worked as a dairy farm for many year.'v to supplv retail milk to Echuca, and the buildings on it are extensive. The 37 acres are subdivided into several paddocks. Eleven acres are sown with wheat, 10 acres with lucerne, and if acres with maize. Of the 131 acres, 41 are carrying a heavy crop of self-sown oats and wheat; and the rest is u.sed for grazing. A pit silo about 40 feet long, 13 feet wide, and 10 feet deep, divided into two sections and roofed over, has been in use each season for several years past. Convenient to the silo and the barn is a 17-stall feeding shed, slab floored and brick drained. The milking is done in other shedding nearer to the dairv. Several handy little labour-saving contrivances, especially in regard to the water service, are to be seen on this farm, and the place is neatly kept. The milking herd, however, does not show the evenness that might be expected on such a long established farm, though the cows were as good as the average of those seen. Only 14 of the 24 cows on the place were in profit ; but in upholding the milk supply for retail purposes, it is more advisable to have cows coming in at each month of the year than for the general calving to take place at the spring season, as is evidently the case with the stock on the other farms. Some of these dry cows also were being fattened for slaughter. The bull on this farm is paddocked and housed apart from the milking herd. He is a white Shorthorn, showing rather more dairy quality than was generally met with. The fiFth farm, in order of inspection, was that of Mrs. Hill, at Wharparilla North, who looks after the herd of 10 cows herself. This farm is 163 acres in extent, divided into three paddocks, and watered by two good dams. None of the land is under cultivation ; the owner pre- ferring to content herself with the returns obtainable from the natural grazing rather than liave the bother of hiring the labour and keeping the plant necessary to cultivate. Mrs. Hill makes no prelensions to having an up-to-date farm; but the dairying is carried out in a cleanly manner; and it was to show her appre- ciation of, and interest in this dairy farm competition, that .she came for- ward with her nomination. Several of the cows on this farm show good dairy quality ; and their fine bone, lean necks, and bright clean looking skins suggest that there has been a Jersev cross somewhere in their breeding. Three of the 9 cows in milk had recently come in ; and the cream returns showed the other 6 to have averaged 7J lbs. of butter fat the week previous. The sixth and last of the farms tO' be dealt with was Mr. Muller's, also of Wharparilla. This is more of a grazing than a dairy farm. On the 680 acres of good grazing land, only 23 cows are kept, and 20 of these are milking at present. The main part of the land is used for sheep and cultivation. No silage is made; and the cows are allow^ed to dry off in January and February of each year ; and the dairy work is suspended till the following spring calving. 798 Journal of Agriculture [lo Dec, 1910. The water storage here is something exceptional in the way of a dam, on a small creek ; and the quantity in sight is sufficient for the irrigation of a few acres of land, if desired, as well as pro\iding for the full re- quirements of the stock. There are substantial roomy buildings on the farm ; and, with its quality of land and abundance of water, the place could easily be made into a large and profitable dairy farm. The judging of these farms was done on the point system ; 100 points being allowed as the maximum for each section of (i) Stock, (2) Feeding and Care, (3) General Management. These sections were further sub- divided into a total of 38 sub-sections, .so that each item of the whole work could be separately dealt with. The principal of these are here given : — o /Stock — -Quality -H \^ Condition I Pasture — Subdivision . ^ Quality o { Cultivation and Fodder . Water Shelter Buildings and Utensils . . Fencing, Gates, Yards, Roads .Manure, removal Farm book-keeping Possible Points. Wilson. Glan- ville. Felgen- liauer. Willdns. Hill. Muller. 75 36 34 34 44 39 32 25 16 17 18 19 19 19 10 10 10 10 8 2 3 12 8 7 8 7 6 7 36 24 10 16 30 10 26 18 21 19 18 17 21 16 4 2 2 14 11 6 62 26 47 34 50 46 46 18 4 9 9 11 9 11 6 >> 3 3 3 3 4 14 5 1 6 2 1 2 153 161 159 206 1.53 161 1st . . Mr. Wilkins. 2nd . . Messrs. Glanville anil Muller (c(|ual). 3rd . . Mrs. Felgenhauer 4th . . Mrs. Hill and :\Ir. Wilson (equal). The success of the winning farm was due to the more general attention given to each department of the dairy-farm work, whereas the others each fell short in some particular section. Most of the farms get their highest points in connexion with the pasture, water, and condition of the stock. The cattle, as a whole, are a long way from being good dairy stock. There are some very nice cows on each of the farms ; but there are too many that are evidently indifferent milkers also kept. The bulls on all the farms were Shorthorns ; and, with few exceptions, the calves gave promi.se to develop into better butcher's cattle than dairy stock. On no farm was there any evidence of advancement being made bv way of breeding. Broadly speaking, the Shorthorn is not a dairv breed, more especially in the hands of a beginner; and breeding mixed quality stock, such as are seen on the.se farms, is wasting valuable time. The use of a Jersey or Ayrshire bull in the herds would, in a few vears, make a great improvement in their milking quality. Shelter from the extremes of heat and cold is a most important matter in the care of the dairv herd; and on some of the farms this item had been almost lost sight of. Cows will seek the protection of trees, hedges, lo Dec. 1910.] Ecliuca Dairy Herd Comfetitiun. 799 or buildings from either hot sun or cold winds when such is available; and their milk yield will be sustained in proportion to the efficiency of the shelter thus provided them. The majority of the farms possessed roomy milking shed and dairy accommodation ; but the floorings of these were not such as would class them as anywhere near perfection. Where cows are milked, and where milk and cream are handled, experience shows that an impervious floor is very necessary in order that the work of cleaning can be done both quickly and effectively ; and the inside walls of all dairy buildings may be kept clean at little expense by lime-washing. An earth-floored dairy, no matter how well kept, cannot be considered altogether satisfactory, for dust must ri.se in it if swept j and it cannot be scrubbed. Fencing, gates, yards, and roads will give satisfaction in accordance with their condition. Poor gates and fencing are a source of endless annoyance to both the owner and his neighbours. Bad roads and yards increase the work of the farm. On every farm some system of keeping tally of the work done, and the various happenings, is highly essential ; and, in dairying, to overlook this may easily become an expensive matter. Some people neglect this work because they have not learnt book-keeping ; and are misled in the belief that some special knowledge is required for it. On many farms the records of events are kept in the shape of a daily diary ; and for general work little more is necessary. To know when each cow is expected to calve may frequently be the means of its life being saved by giving some extra care or attention at that time ; and to know how long she con- tinues in milk is one step towards an estimate of her value as a producer. To have each animal distinguished by a name or number is of much r.ssistance in keeping note of their value as breeding stock. To know the breeding of the sire of a line of good heifers would be worth pounds to any one about to buy a bull for use in his herd ; and many a farmer would give a good deal for such information that he should have made note of when available. Five minutes would have done the writing; but nothing will cover its neglect. Then, as regards keeping account of the milk and butter fat returns from each individual cow — no work done on the farm will pay better than this ; and five minutes per cow a week will do it. To grass-feed a cow costs at least £^2 per year; while the work of milking her for the year cannot be estimated at less than 30s. With butter fat at lod. per lb., this means that each cow must give 240 gallons of 3.5 per cent. milk per year, or 84 lbs. of butter fat, in order to pay for her keep ; and numbers of cows do not reach this standard. Quite a large proportion of dairy farmers are at present losing money keeping such cows, because they will not take the trouble to find them out. Imagine the folly of milking 240 gallons of milk from a cow for 6 or 7 years for no profit — keeping her in grass and water, driving her to the yard, milking her, separating the milk, taking the cream to the station year in and year out. and not being any better off for it. It is this that causes the oft-heard statement "There is nothing in dairying." If every dairy farmer would get down to the fact that there is no profit from a cow till she clears 240 gallons of milk in the year, he would soon find time to cull out his poor milkers, and profit by the work. Soo Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. SULLA CLOVER. A Valuable Fodder Plant. H . W . Budd, Dairy Supervisor. The accompanying photograph shows a plant of Sulla Clover {Hedy- sarum coronarium, L.), which was referred to in the January issue as having been grown successfully at Longerenong from seed brought out from Europe by Mr. F. de Castella. The Hon. James Cameron, Acting Minister for Lands, records the successful growth of this clover many years ago in East Gippsland. SULLA CLOVER. The specimen shown was grown by one of the settlers on the Over- Tiewton Estate, St. Albans, on a clay soil and under circumstances that proves it to be a very hardy plant and worthy of trial for fodder purposes in any district. The seed was obtained through one of the Melbourne seed firms and sown in November, 1909. Kather a poor germination resulted, but suffi- cient plants grew to enable a good trial of its possibilities being made. It was sown on land that had previously grown a crop of oaten hay which had been manured with superphosphate and bonedust at the rate of i cwt. per acre. The plants received one watering by hand and on loth July they had attained an average height of 5 feet. They were then cut and another growth of 2 feet has since resulted (October). The plants flower freeh- and look very attractive, even from an ornamental standpoint. They also seem to have a special attraction for bees. lo Dec, iqio.] Analyses of Samples of Arsenate of Lead. 8or The plant is eaten greedily in its green state by cattle, and it should prove an eminently satisfactory crop for dairy winter feeding or for ensiling. Mr. P. R. Scott, Chemist for Agriculture, has kindly furnished the following analyses of the first and second growths referred to : — Sample 5 feet liigh. Sample 2 feet high. Original Sample. Dry Basis. Original Sample. Dry Basis. Percent. Per cent. Percent. Per cent. Moisture . . . . ... 80- 15 84-34 Ash .. 2-49 12-55 2-20 14 05 Protein (Nx.G-25) 1-36 6-85 1-54 9-83 Crude Fibre (pentosan free) 5-09 25-64 2-59 16-54 Nitrogen Free Extrcact 10-57 53-25 8-89 56-77 Ether Extract . . 0-34 1-71 0-44 2-81 The Ash is composed of— Phosphoric Acid 0-0645 0-061 Lime 0-140 0-209 Potash 0-410 0-250 Undetermined 1 - 8755 1-680 Ash .. 2-490 2-200 ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF ARSENATE OF LEAD. p. Rankin Scott, Chemist for Agriculture. Since the publication of the analyses of samples of arsenate of lead in the October issue of the Journal, I have collected four additional samples, the anlayses of which are shown in Table I. together with the previous list for the purpose of comparison. A few remarks are also made respecting the quality and properties of the arsenates, variation in constitution, &c. Tabib I.— .Wet Basis. Water Brand. Moisture. Total Arsenic Oxide. Total Lead Oxide. Water Soluble Arsenic Oxide. Impurities Soluble other than Arsenic Oxide. 0/ /o 0/ /o /o 0/ /o % Swift's . . 41 89 16 00 38 20 0 58 3-72 Elephant.. 40 18 14 89 40 70 1 19 3-20 E. de Haen 67 67 10 09 20 98 0 18 1-27 Sherwin-Williams 55 84 10 61 31 80 0 06 2-14 Our Jack 50 13 13 91 34 11 u 16 1-98 Federal . . 49 50 13 46 31 30 0 72 3-67 Austral . . 21 37 16 35 53 44 0 11 8-85 Bluebell . . 44 05 17 98 34 43 0 13 3-50 Electro . . 33 66 20 25 41 89 0 18 1-57 Cobra 43 65 15 58 39 14 0 19 1-64 Red Sea) 4,9 07 15 08 33 02 0 17 1-58 Carlton . . 41-78 17-62 36-69 0-87 3-88 Additional S rmples Ana li/zed. Cobra 47-76 16-67 33-77 1-54 211 Hominoway's (bulk sample) 4908 17-64 31-19 0-58 2-22 Hemingway's (in tin) 57-81 14-49 26 12 0-45 2-29 Orchard . . 17-70 24 32 53-18 4-17 4-83 802 Journal of A. gri culture. [lo Dec, 1910. Assuming a standard arsenate of lead contains approximately 50 per cent, water and 12.5 per cent, arsenic acid, considerable variation will be noted in the brands mentioned above. The water content varies from 17.70 per cent, to 67.67 per cent, while the arsenic oxide content ranges, from 10.09 PSJ^ cent, to 24.32 per cent. TABI.E II. — Dey Basis. Water Water Soluble Brand. Total Arsenic Total Lead Soluble Impurities Oxide. O.xide. Arsenic Ctide. other than Arsenic Oxide. 1 0,' 0/ 0/ /o 0/ /O /o /O Swift's 27-35 65-75 1-00 6-40 Elephant. . 24-96 68-06 2-00 5-35 E. de Haen 31-21 64-90 0-57 3-93 Shoiwia-Williams 24-03 72-03 014 4-86 Our Jack 27-91 68-40 2-14 3-96 Fodeial . . 26-66 61-99 1-43 7-27 Austral . . 20-80 67-99 014 11-26 Blueboll .. 32 - 14 61-55 0-23 6-25 Eloctio .. 30 - 52 63-13 0-27 2-36 Cobia 27-64 69 - 45 0-33 2-91 Red Seal 29 -CO 64-83 0-33 3-10 Carlton . . 30-27 Additional Say 63-02 I pies Analyzed. 1-87 7-13 Cobra 31-92 64-65 2-95 4-05 Hemingway's (bulk sample) 34-65 61-26 115 4-35 Hemingway's (in tin) 34-36 61-92 1-08 5-42 Oreiiard .. 29-58 64-60 5-06 5-87 1 Thi.s Table shows the composition of the dry material as eaten by the- insects. The arsenic oxide varies from 34.65 per cent, to 20.80 per cent., the lead oxide from 72.03 per cent, to 61.26 per cent., the water soluble arsenic oxide from 5.06 per cent, to 0.14 per cent., and the water soluble impurities from 11.26 per cent, to 2.36 per cent. The variation in the lat- ter content is evidently due to .some of the salts which are formed as by- products in the process of manufacture not being thoroughly washed out. Considering the comparatively recent introduction of this particular material as a spray an improvement will no doubt be effected in this direc- tion when the result of experience is brought to bear on the preparation and manufacture of the article. It will be evident to the grower that some of the arsenates under re- view contain a very high percentage of water, and this may appear un- usual, but the reason advanced is that a better and more uniformly mixed spray can be made from the moist article. If the lead arsenate has been allowed to dry, great difficulty is likely to be experienced in preparing a mixture for use, as the material has, to a certain extent, lost its colloidal property of remaining in suspension. A moisture content of from 40 to 50 per cent, has been found to give good results. For the reason given it is advisable that, when a tin or vessel of arsenate of lead is opened and only partly used up, the unused portion be covered with at least an inch of water and that the vessel be covered in a manner which will prevent evaporation as much as possible. lo Dec, 19 io.] Orchard and. Garden Notes. 803 ORCHARD AT^D GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. The weather during the current season has been quite the opposite of last year. Last year, very dry conditions prevailed, which rendered cul- tivation work difficult. This season, exceptional rains prevailed at the blossoming period, and occasional showers have been experienced since. This augurs well for the coming crop. The soil should be worked as frequently as necessary, so that no surface caking shall be allowed to remain. All weeds should be kept down by use of the scarifier, harrows, or light disc. All young trees and grafts should be mulched with a light mulch, using the mulch more for coolness and protection than for manurial purposes. Frequent syringings or sprayings with water, especially during hot weather, will be very helpful to these; it will materially assist in procuring a vigorous growth. This work is also very beneficial to newly-planted citrus trees. Spraying. Spraying for Codlin Moth, owing to the value of arsenate of lead for this purpose, is neither so formidable nor frequent as it was formerly. The most frequent sprayings are necessary when the fruit is growing ; as no matter what the strength of the spray, there is no expansion of this, while the fruit is growing and increasing in size every day. The annual appearance of the moths is generally coincident with the blossoming period, at the same time the insects appear to be fairly con- sistent in the time of their appearance. In 1908 the first moths recorded, appeared during the second and third weeks in October. In 1909, the first moth observed at Burnley for the season was on 20th October. This year, the first moth at Burnley was noticed on 2i.st October; and during the succeeding week, a large number were observed. It is generally advised to give the trees the first spray as soon as the petals have fallen. If this had been done during the present season, it would seem, according to the time of the coming of the moths, to be too ■early for pear trees at least ; as, in the Burnley orchards, most of the pear trees had finished blooming in the second week in October. At the same time, the third week in October would be too early for some varieties of apples. It is therefore most diflScult to decide definitely on an exact time for the first spray. This must be left to the judgment of the grower, who will have to consider the varieties of fruits he grows; remembering that it is better to be a week too early than a day too late. It should also be remembered that once the larva of the moth has eaten its way into the fruit, it is almost impossible to kill it with the spray. Cherry trees should be watched for visitations of the pear and cherry .'■lug. As soon as this insect appears the trees should be sprayed with hellebore or tobacco water. If there is no fruit on the trees, arsenate of lead should be used as a spray. The slug should not be allowed to defoliate the tree, after the fruit has been picked. Loss of leaves at any ^season is weakening and injurious to the trees. 8o4 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910^ Vegetable Garden. All weeds must be hoed out of the beds, and if these are at all abundant they may either be dug in as green manure, or they may be used for mulch- ing the tomato, melon, marrow, and such plants. Tomato plants should be staked, all lateral growths pinched out, and they should be now well manured and well w^atered. If not manured, a good weekly watering with liquid manure is necessary. Asparagus beds should be allowed to mature their growths, and all cutting should now cease. A top dressing of manure will be helpful to the crowns. Potato and onion beds will require constant hoeings, and it may be necessary to break down the tops of the onions, so as to prevent a toO' vigorous growth of the top, or the formation of flower heads, and so as to strengthen and increase the value of the bulbs. The long runners and the weak lateral growths of plants of the melon family should be pinched back, and liberal supplies of water .should be given. French beans, peas, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, &c., should now be sown, the beds being made moist and cool for the planting. Flower Garden. As frequently emphasized in the "' Garden Notes," surface cultivation is very necessary at this time of the year. To secure a constant earth mulch, as friable as possible, should be the aim of every gardener during the hot months of the year. After every watering, or rainfall, the surface should receive a good stirring. The season has been a very favourable one for roses, and the flowers have been produced in very fine profusion. To add to their perfection, the annual visit of Thrips was very much later than usual, these insects delaying their appearance generally until November. For the next two months the roses should have a rest from blooming, so that the autumn crop of flowers may be produced as fine as possible. Water may be almost wholly excluded during this period, provided that the beds or plants be earth-mulched, or mulched with .some light and non-stimulating material, such as grass or straw. Late spring-flowering bulbs should now be lifted, and stored in a cool dry place. It is advisable to allow the bulbs to become dry before storing them away, by leaving them on the surface, and shaded, for a day. All annuals, biennials, and herbaceous plants which are approaching the period of bloom should receive frequent supplies of water ; and a mulching of well-rotted manure will help them greatly. Dahlias .should now be planted out, making two or three plantings extending to the end of the month. The young plants should be firmly planted in the .soil ; and. in order to prevent overcrowding when the plants are full grown, the plants .should be spaced at least 3 feet apart each way. Chrysanthemums will now require considerable attention ; the weak and unnecessary shoots should be removed, and the remaining growths well staked. All side shoots should be removed as the plants mature. The soil must be kept cool and moist, but excessive or even abundant water must be avoided until the plant has well grown. Sowings of seeds for late flowers may now be made, especially of .such plants as Zinnias, Asters, and winter-flowering Stocks. to Dec, 1910.] Bitter Pit and the Enzymes of the Apple. 805 BITTER PIT AND THE ENZYMES OF THE APPLE. Jean White, D.Sc, Lecturer on Botany in the Melbourne University. The question of Bitter Pit in apples has Lately been occupying the at- tention of various Agricultural Departments in" different parts of the world. A short account of what has been regarded as the correct explanation of this disease was quoted by Mr. D. McAlpine in the Journal for April, 1 910. This explanation was first put forward by Mr. Pole Evans {Technical Bulletin, No. 1, Transvaal Department of Agriculture), wh(; concluded that the disease was due to the sudden cessation at night of transpiration, causing cells near the surface to accumulate so much water as to produce their rupture, and a consequent decay spreading to neigh- bouring cells. This theory is not based upon any sound experimental evidence, and entirely fails to explain not only the incidence of the disease, but also why certain varieties are more liable than others, why it is usually more developed at the upper end of the fruit, and why it does not occur in other stored succulent fruits, such as melons or bananas. A paper on this subject was also contributed by Mr. C. P. Lounsbury, in the Agricultural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope, August, 19 10, which he says consists for the most part of extracts from a paper by Mr. G. Massee in the Kew Bulletin, No 6. As it was considered possible that a microscopic examination of diseased fruit might yield some facts of interest, a supply of material was obtained from the Government Cool Stores. Sections cut through the pitted areas, which are tough and porous, show that the surface parenchyma cells are not altered in any way, and as a rule there are about ten to twelve layers of these normal cells above the affected ones. The affected cells are seen to be larger than the normal cells surround- ing them, their outline being also more irregular, and the cell wall broken ill places. Except for a small amount of protoplasmic contents which is adherent to the cell wall, and a large number of starch grains which are most abundant near the periphery, the cells are apparently empty. Treatment of the normal cells with aqueous solution of iodine shows no sign of the presence of starch grains, so that, in the living healthy cells, any starch which may be produced during assimilatory activity must be either immediately hydrolysed to form sugar by some diastatic enzyme, or worked up into other compounds by some metabolic processes. The presence of so much starch in the diseased cells suggested a pos- sible connexion between the disease and the occurrence of enzymes in the cells of the apple, and as no references to any work relating to this sub- ject could be found, I performed a series of experiments on the pulp of sound, healthy apples, on the sound pulp of pitted apples, and on the cells composing the affected areas of these fruits. All the specimens examined had been stored for five months. The pulp of these fruits was minced up in a coffee grinder, care being taken to insure sterilization after each operation, and the enzymes were j)recipitated in the same manner as was followed in my paper on " The ferments and latent life of resting .seeds," published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B. vol. 81, 1909. In every instance, the enzyme solutions were found to be neutral, and the antiseptic employed was chloroform. lo937. 2 E 8o6 Joiinidl of Agriculture . [lo Dec, 1910. The average results thus obtained from several experiments performed on similar materials were as follows : — Pnlip of Sound Apples (Yates) Weight of Material Reaction to Fehling. Reaction to Biuret. Reaction to Tryptophane. Cytase. Ab-jut cO c^:-^: S :z:- 0 Strong Vevy slight .! 1 Pulp of Pi ted Apples (F 've Crown) the Sound Parts 01 ll_ used. Weight of Material. About GO -vms. \ Reaction to Reaction to Feliling. Reaction to Biuret. ■ Tryptophane. Cytase. Sti-on . . Vc -y slight . . I No precipitate was thrown down from the affected cells of the pitted specimens which were treated in exactly the same way, so that apparently no enzymes are present, but as the experiments were performed on the cells in about the most advanced stages of Bitter Pit, and as no material was available in which the disea.se was in its earlier stages, nothing definite can be stated in this way until next year's pitted crops are procurable. The above-mentioned enzymes were found to be present in the very earliest stages of the formation of the fruit, the only differences whicn were manifest being that the diastatic action produced by the enzymes precipitated from the minced-up receptacles and ovaries before fertiliza- tion was rather more pronounced, while the Biuret reaction was somewhat less so. as shown in the following table : — Unpollinatei Receptacles of Apples {New York Pippin). Weight of Material. Reaction to Fehling. Reaction to Biuret. Reaction to 1 Tryptophane. | Cytase. About 30 grms. Very .strong . . Slight Very .sliglit . . i ? The facts that there is no apparent difference between the enzymes of the sound pulp of the pitted apples, and the pulp of the normal apples, and that the enzymes are present in the rece[)tacles before pollination and are absent in the most advanced stages of the di-^eased cells, show that there must be some stage in the formation of the pit at which the enzymes disappear. Whether this is a gradual or a sudden process can only be determined by watching the coming crop for the first signs of pitting, and experiment- ing on these specimens at regular intervals of time. Of necessity the above comparisons were made between different varieties. It would naturally be of importance to make similar comjiarisons between healthy and disea.sed material of the same variety. As far as can be judged from the somewhat imperfect data at present available, the enzymes appear to persist in the diseased cells for a short time after these have died, which would appear to show that the disappear- ance of the enzymes is not a cause of the disease, but is a secondary consequence of it. Although the above investigations could not be fully completed until the following and subsequent seasons, it has been judged advisable In publish them now as far as they go, since it is probable that a special in- vestigator will be appointed to carry out re.searches into the origin of this disease, and it is necessary to leave the ground clear for his work. TO Dec. T9T0.] Slugs a7id Snails. ■ 807' SLUGS AND SNAILS. Alfred J. Ewarf, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Bofanisf. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to mention the amount of damage that slugs and snails may do, especially on moist, heavy ground and among young seedlings. It is curious to note how such plants as peas, broad beans, beet, parsnips and parsley, are usually left untouched, whereas Aoung lettuce, tomatoes, turnips, cabbages, cauliflowers and even carrots often suffer severely and may be destroyed in a single night. It can hardh' be due to die presence of anything unpleasant in the flavour of the leaf or to any peculiarity of a particular group of plants, since the first leaves of the French bean are often badly attacked. It mav be dependent upon the rapidity with which the outt-r skin of the i)lant hardens or upon its developing special protfcii\e hairs, as in many weeds and in the tomato when bevond the seedling stage. Two methods often employed of warding off their attacks are by the u.se of lime, wood ashes, .Vc. The effect of these rarely lasts for more than a day or two. and any heavy shower of rain renders them immediately u.seless. It may therefore be of interest to record a method which I found to be most effecti\"e in preventing their ravages, and which is at the same time very cheap and easily applied, so much so. that it mav prove useful on a larger scale than in gardens. It is, for instance, much cheaper than the u.se of tobacco powder and has not the danger attaching to the use of metallic poisons, while it is, at the same time, much more effective and permanent in its action than the use of salt or sand, and does not involve the labour needed to catch slugs and snails at night or capture them Dy means of calibage leaves, &c. The method is, in brief, to add one or two large tea-cups of phenyle to ten or twenty cups of water, and use the mixture to moisten a bucket of sawdust. The sawdust is then spread round the rows of plants to be protected, or around single plants ; if the area enclosed is a large one, it is also sprinkled on the surface of the soil. The protective action is remark- able. It persists even after a hea\ y rain if the sawdust is not wa.shed away and it lasts for a considerable time. During wet weather a stronger solution can be emploved, since the phenyle slowly washes out of the sawdust. Xo iniurious action is exercised on the plants nor upon the soil as the sawdust slowly works into it. The effect of depri\ing the animals of their food is to cause a marked decrease in their numbers, c]uite apart from any poisonous action. The labour and cost involved are exceedingly small — a bag of sawdust at is., allowing 6d. for carriage, and is. worth of phenyle at 3s. 6d. per gallon will he sufficient for a fairly large garden. The method is particulary effective and useful for protecting young tomato plants, which, in the young seedling condition, are often destroyed by slugs or snails when planted out, liy being eaten at the ba.se near the ground. As .soon as the epidermis or skin of the plant thickens, and acquires its proper hairy covering, the plants are immune to their attacks, whereas such plants as cabbages, &c., are liable to attack so long as the weather is moist and hence need longer protection. Mr French (/ourna/. July, 1906). mentions the use of carbolized saw- dust. The carbolic acid, however, washes out more rapidly than the phenvle. and is hence less iiermanent in its action. 8o8 Journal of Agriculture. [lo Dec, 1910. A point of some interest is as regards the nature of the peculiarities which serve to protect certain plants from the attacks of slugs and snails. There can be no doubt that in many cases, it is a question of taste or flavour, and this seems to hold good for widely dissimilar, vegetable-eat- ing animals. For instance, fowls and well-fed cows usually refuse to touch rhubarb, onions and bean-tops, and although cows will eat pea- straw, they do not seem to be fond of it even when green. Even if they are hungry, they do not appear to fill themselves with it in the same way that they will with fresh grass or clover. All these plants disliked by cows are also refused by slugs and .snails. The parallel does no<" how- evei hold good in ^\\ cases. For instance, birds and stock generally will eat sow thistle readily, whereas slugs and snails usually leave it untouched. Tt mav be that when it is fully turgid and succulent, the slugs and snails find som'^ difficulty in rasping through the stretched skin of the plant bv means of their rough or saw-like tongues. It can. in fact, often be noticed, narticularlv when pi anting nut yountr seedlings such as lettuces, cabbages, &c., that the leaves are most rapidlv devoured when slightly drooping. Apparently, it is when the tissues are loose and flaccid, that the snails and slugs find it most easy to bore into them. In other cases, as for instance, in that of beet- root, it is difficult to understand what protects the plants, anrl in anv case, the protection is only a partial one .since the plants are not always immune to attack. Fowls and cows will eat the leaves but do not appear to be as fond of them as might be expected from their sutrar content. Tt has been suggested that the red colour of the leaves of garden beet and other plants, bv simulating blood colour, may act as a warning colouration, frightening away herbivorous animals. Stahl. who first made this suggestion, remarked that the natives in T'lvn often ^tow as hedf?e plants around their gardens, those with red vegetation, and suggested that they may do this to frighten away various large and small animals. As a matter of fact, the natives are fond of bright colours, and a few thorns are more effective in keeping out large animals than anv quantity of rfd foliage. Stahl tested his theory, as regards the n-laticn between colour and taste, by feeding animals, includ- ing slugs and snails, with slices of vegetables, .some of which were coloured red 1)V carmine, and found \ery commonly that the uncoloured slices were eaten first. This was. however, merely due to the fact that the colour u.sed gave the coloured slices an unpleasant taste, and it is difficult to see how any colour could possibly serve as a protection against slugs and snails, which normally feed in darkness or in very feeble light where colour is indistinguishable, at least to our eyes. It is evident that several interesting problems remain to be .solved in regard to the psychology of slugs and snails, particularly in regard to their sensations of taste and nalatability. Putting this on one side, how- ever, there remains the fact that the use of sawdust soaked in phenyle seems to be the most effective, cheapest and most permanent means of pre- venting their ravages in gardens and in small plots under intense culture. It does not kill them unless a strong solution is employed, but by keeping them from their usual supplies of nutritious food, their numbers are soon strictly limited, for animal pests only become so numerous as to I)e troublesome, when they are provided with a safe, abundant and easily accessible food supply. lo Dec. 19TO.] Foul Brand of Bees. 809 FOUL BROOD OF BEES. R. Beiilnie. President, Yieforian Apiarists^ Association. In view of the heavv losses resulting from Foul Brood, when once it has obtained a good stc'.rt in an apiary, and the great amount of labour involved in its eradication, it is desirable that every owner of bees should be able to recognise this disease when it appears in one or more of his hives. He will then be able to de;d with it before it has made any great headway. Unfortunately, there are still some bee-keepers who do not discover the presence of this disease amongst their bees till the small number of bees in several of the hives indicates that there is something wrong. When hi\-es have been affected sufficiently long to show marked decline in the number of bees, the disease is likely to spread rapidly ; the remaining bees are usuallv inactive and do not defend their hives against robber be'^s from strong healthy colonies, which in turn fall victims to foul brood. It is therefore important that vigilance should be exercised whenever combs are hnndled. so that the disease may be discovered and treated when still in its first stage. The cause of foul broofl is a micro-organism growing in the tissue of the larvae of the bee and sometimes also in the adult insect. It was named Bacillus alvei bv Cheshire and W. Cheyne in 1885. Since then American investigators have discovered that there are two types of foul brood, European Foul Brood caused bv Bacillus alvei and American Foul Brood caused by a micro-organism differing from the former and named Baccilus larva by Dr. G. F. White of United States Department of Agri- culture in 1907. The general appearance of the diseased brood is, how- ever, the same in both and the sanie treatment is necessarv to effect a cure. Whether foul brood in Australia is caused by B. alvei or B. larvce has up to the present not been scientifically tested ; probably both are present. To describe diseased brood to any one not well acouainted with thf^ '-ubject it is l:>est to contrast its appearance to the eye with that of brooil in a healthv state. Normal healthv brood shows in compact masses in the comb, that is to sav. considerable numbers of adjoining cells contain larvae of the same age (Fig. i). In a diseased comb the brood appears irreeular and scattered. Healthy larvae are of pearly whiteness, plumn, nnd lie curled up on the cell bottom almost in the .shape of the letter C. Di.seased larvae are pale vellow. and. further on, turn brown; the grubs nppear fiabbv and are not so much curled up as healthy larvae of the same size. When the larva? do not die till after the cells have been capped over, cells will be found here and there darker in colour than healthy ones along- side ; the cappings usually will be indented instead of convex and will frequently show irregular' holes (Fig. 2). If these cells are opened a brown mass is visible which, when touched with a match or straw, draws out stringv or ropy. The ropiness is the surest practical way of identi- fying the disease and the test should be applied to any suspicious-looking cells which mav appear amongst the brood. I would here point out that although the cappings of hrood, particularly those of black bees, have when healthv the appearance shown in Fig. i, there are some bees of the vellow races which cap the cells quite flat; also, that the scattering of 8io Journal of Agile iiliiirc. [lo Dec, 1910. the brood is bv itself not necessarily an indication of disease, and may be due to the irregular laying of an inferior queen. If foul brood is discovered in a hive, the remaining hi^-es in the apiary should be carefullv examined to see whether there are other cases. If moTe are found the strongest of the infected colonies should l)e dealt with first. 1-a^. I. COMB OF HEALTHY HKoOD ; QIEEN CELLS ALSO SHOWN. To cure a coloiiv of foul brood it is necessary to remo\-e from the hive ;d] the infected material. Tliis is done by .shaking the bees into a clean hi\e on clean frames with small strips of foundation. The healthv lar\;e of tliH l)r(;od mav b^' s.nrd. or:i\-ided then- is enou.'fh of it to be' worth 2. COMB OF DISEASED BROOD, SHOWING FLAT, SUNKEN, AND PERFORATED CAPPINGS. while, l)y putting the combs of the first hi\-e or hives shaken d;/Wn. on toi) of the weakt-r diseased colonies. Afier a week or ten days, ;d] the' healthy brood which was sealed at the t'm," of shaking will have halche 1 out. The combs should tht^n be removed and the colonv also treated. lo Dec, 1910.] A/isu.'lVs to Correspondents. 811 The shaking of tlie bees from the combs should not be done at the time when bees will rob and thus spread disease ; otherw ise, shaking down should be done under co\er. It can be safely done in the evening after bees have ceased to fly. If there is no honey flow at the time, sugar syrup should be fed to the bees shaken down. This is made by dissolv- ing the best quality sugar in an equal weight of boiling water ; late in the sea.son two parts of sugar to one of water should be used. Great care should l)e taken to keep all infected material away from the other bees till after hi\-e. stand, and frames have been thoroughly cleaned in boiling water containing washing soda. The combs may be boiled and the wax pressed out, the refuse being burned. The solar wax extractor should not be used for melting the combs, the heat being insufficient to kill the spores of foul brood. When examining combs for disease, a match or straw, not the fingers, should be used, and these prickers should not be thrown down but burned ; a fresh one should be used for each hive. To pre\'ent the bees swarming out after l)eing shak(,'n down on starters, as thev are often inclined to do, the queen should be confined in a cage to which the bees have free access. A cage such as that described in September issue of the Journal rr^ay be used. The use of drugs in the treatment of foul brood is not ad\isable, be- cause disinfectants strong enough to kill the germs would destroy the bees. The shaking-down treatment is the recognised method adopted in all coun- tries. In a few instances the disease may reappear, owing to the bees after the shaking-down process continuing to carry home honey from infected sources, such as a diseased bee's nest in a tree or a neglected hive in the neighbourhood. It is of the greatest importance that the bee-keeper should ha\-e the aid of the law to compel the owners of diseased hives to either treat them or to destroy them. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Question" in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that .1 ou want to know. AU inquiries forwarded to the Editor must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. This is very necessary, as sometimes insutlicient information is furnished by tlie ini|uirer. BLINDNESS. — 0.(1. writes : — " I have a two-)-ear-oUl fillv th.it became bhnd about twu months ayo. Three weeks ago I examined her and found a big swelling under the chest. Now it has moved up the chest in the shape of a Y. At first the lump was big and soft, now it is hard and smaller. The centre of the eye is of a bluish colour, and there is a black spot on the edge of the sight of the right eye. The fdlv is in good condition."' Ans7ejer. — Many cases of blindness are reported from districts were plants of the same order as Tobacco grow, and also where the plant known as " Paddy- Melon " or " Tipperary (iooseberry " is found. Have you any such plants in your district? If so, sujiply information as to feed, &c., of filly. Also state whether the blindness came on suddenly and whether any others have been similarly alfected. Sufficient particulars are not given on which to say whether the chest swelling and blindness are related in anv way, but it is not likely. Name and ad- dress of O.G. should have been supplied. Bone-chewing Habit. — A.W.S. inquires as to cause of cows becoming addicted to chewing bones. Answer. — The bone-chewing habit in cows is caused by a deficiency of earth salts in the jiasturage. A lick composed of equal parts of bonemeal (sterilized) and sheep salt, placed in boxes accessible to the cattle, will overcome the habit. 8i2 Journal of Agriculture . [lo Dec, 1916. Dehorning Calves. — R.H.J, asks how to dehorn calves. Answer. — The best time to dehorn is before the calf is five days old. Clip the hair from about the base of the horns, slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic potash, and rub the tip of each horn for about a quarter of a minute. This should be done two to four times, at intervals of five minutes. If a little blood shows at the centre of the horn, very slight further rubbing will be necessary. Care should also be taken to rub the centre of the horn, and not the sides, and not to have it too moist, for if it runs on to the skin a troublesome sore will result. A piece of brown paper should be wrapped round the caustic to protect the fingers. Pig Lice. — M.B. states that he has about 100 pigs, mostly stores about four or five months old, and that are all affected with some kind of lice or tick. The insect is about half the size of a sheep tick and flatter in appearance. Some of the pigs have been washed with phenyle, and apparently the treatment has killed the insects. He further states that, as this method is slow and tedious, he has an idea of constructing a small cheap wooden dip, and dipping the pigs similarly to the style adopted for treating sheep. Answer. — The parasite affecting your pigs is the ordinary pig louse. Washing with a solution of Washing Soda, and afterwards applying an oil with a brush, is an effective way of destroying them. There is no reason why the dip you suggest should not be tried, if care be exercised in its use. To free the pens thoroughly, wash them with the washing soda solution, followed by a solution of some strong antiseptic. Actinomycosis. — F.D.B. writes: — "About three months ago I noticed a slight swelling immediately under the jaws of one of my cows. Within three weeks it had increased to the size of a football. Whilst bathing it one morning it burst and the putrid matter from it half filled a small bucket. I made a good gash with the knife and kept on bathing it until the swelling had disappeared. Lately, it seems to be rising on one side of the opening. The cow is in milk, looks in perfect health, and feeds well. Is there any danger in using the milk or any likelihood of the other cows becoming similarly affected?" Answer. — Your cow has evidently suffered from an attack of Actinomycosis. There is no danger in using the milk, but if a second abscess forms and bursts the contained material will be infective to other cows, or may get into the milk and be harmful. P.\RTURIENT P.4RALYSIS. — J.R.M. states that one of his heifers calved last week — her first calf, which was larger than usual, and was born dead. Since calving the heifer has lost the use of her hind legs ; otherwise she is in good health. Answex. — Your cow is suffering from Parturient Paralysis. Give a drench com- posed of Epsom salts, i lb. ; treacle, i lb. ; ground ginger, 5 oz. Apply a blister to the loins and give daily the following drench : — Carbonate of ammonia, ^ oz- j Tincture of Nux Vomica, i oz. ; in a quart of beer. Injured Quarter. — C.P. desires advice respecting treatment of a heifer whose milk became slightly tinged with blood about a fortnight ago. The udder is swollen and hard on the back (juarter. On the day of writing more blood than milk came from the affected cjuarter. About the top of the teat, near the udder, there appears to be something thick, like a clot of blood, in the passage. It cannot, however, be moved. Answer. — Your heifer has received some injury to the quarter. Continue milk- ing the quarter; bathe with warm water, dry, and rub well with camphorated oil. The lump felt in the teat is a small muscle. Its function is to retain the milk, and, being involved in the general inflammation, is now larger than it is naturally. Subterranean Clover {Trifolium subterraneum^ L). — H.J.S. inquires as to the value of Subterranean Clover as a pasture plant. Answer. — Subterranean Clover is an annual, but on account of its heavy seeding habits it can almost be regarded as a perennial. Once it is firmly established there is no occasion for further seeding. It affords good feed, and also helps to suppress annual weeds. Seed should be sown at the rate of 12 lbs. per acre in well prepared land. Under normal conditions, provided a good seed bed is established before sowing, the seed will germinate early in poor or rich soil ; plants are often found growing well on dry sandy and gravelly soils. The Index of Vol. VIII. will be supplied with the first numtaep of Vol. IX., viz., 10th January, 1911. JUST PUBLISHED. '^Plants Migenoiis to Yietoria/' VOLUME II. WITH TEXT AND 31 PLATEa Imperial Quarto. BY ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany and Plant Physiologry in the Melbourne University. The work continues Baron von Mueller's "Plants Indigenous to Victoria," published 1860-62. The issue is a small one, and the copies are separately numbered (1-484). Copies may be obtained from T5e: Depaptment of T^gplealtupe, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. Price, 10s.; Postage, 9d. <::>o<:i>- APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering price Cj^-^ and postage, to be forwarded to Che Secretary /or )\griculture, jVIelbourne. Remittances from beyond the State to be made by Post Office Order. G-. THE JOURNAI9 OP The Separtment of Agriculture VICTORIA. NEW VOLUME COMMENCES WITH THE JANUARY ISSUE. APPLY AT ONCE To Local Nev/s Agent, or for^vard subscription to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. SUBSCFoIPTION-3s. PER ANNUM, /i^ 3 5185 00265 11J y^a *k; i-i^r