r. "^fr -^ . '-A -^ 4' '•- t *.. ■-P^, ^ <$ ^.''..■5^'-' -■^ 1t^ ''-^ ^V ^ -^ \ i [Sufflement to The Journal of the Department of /Agriculture oj Victoria^ loth January, 1912.] THE JOUR]SrAI. OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE VICTORIA, Australia. VOLUME IX 1911. ISC.::? THE HON. GEORGE GRAHAM, M.L.A., Minister for Agriculture, (f'holo. In Sai-ony Stud'o?, Mell'. THE JOURNAL DEPARTMENT OF vVGRICULTURE OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. PUBLISHED FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT BY DIRECTION OF THE HON. GEORGE GRAHAM, M.L.A., A^liiiiiyter for Agriculture. VOLUME IX. LIBRARY 1911. NEW YOPjc BOTANICAL aAkD&><. A. T. SHARP, Editor. §j} 3^uthoviti): J. KEMl', (;OVER\MEXr PKINTKK, MEMiolUNK. 1911. A Z COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, -provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The si bscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single Copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 9 (September, 1904); III. (1905), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 1905), out of print; IV. (igo6), 10 parts, exclusive of Parts 7 and 9 (July and September, 1906), out of print; V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each; VII. (1909), 10 parts, exclusive of Parts 2 and 10 (February and October, ■1909), out of print; and VIII. (1910) and IX. (1911), 12 parts each, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director for Agriculture, Melbourne. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VICTORIA. VOLUME IX. Parts 1—12. IN DEJ^, Page 133 Abortion in Mares Adcock, G. H. — Field Grafting at the Viticultural College Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard at the Viticultural College, 1911 ... ... ... 353, 423 Agricultural Credit Banks Agricultural Education — Grant to Agricultural Societies ... Agricultural Societies, Grant to Ailments — Abortion in Mares Blindness ... ... 214, 215, Brushing Calving Colic Death of Turkeys Death of Wethers Death of Young Pigs ... Defective Quarter 242 800 2oq 2og 133 841 296 214 ... 719 ... 654 ... 213 ... 719 ... 214 ... 719 ... 214 ••• 133 ... 134 ... 411 ... 504 ... 214 • ■• 7iq 133. 357 Fistula Flagging Indigestion Laminitis Lump on Jaw ... Maggot Fly Purging Retention of Foal Ringbone Rupture Skin Disease ... ... ... 580 Sore Teats ... ... ... 579 Swollen Tendons ... ... 579 Warts ... ... ... ... 424 Worms ... ... ... 214, 579 Alcohol for Motive Power ... 94 Alexandra Fodder Crop Competition 330 Almond — Cultivation ... ... ... 295 Stocks ... ... ... 371, 84; Varieties ... ... ... 846 Analyses — Manure ... ... 560, 604 Soil ... ... ... ... 322 Soy Bean Plants ... ... 624 Answers to Correspondents 133, 213, 294, 357, 423, 504. 579, 654, 718, 783, 844 Ants, White ... ... ... 581 Apiculture — Beekeepers' Field Day, A ... 177 Bees and Fertilization of Fruit Blossoms ... ... 6, 224 Apiculture — continued. Candied Honey ... Dysentery in Bees and Nosema Apis Extracting Honey Feeding Bees Introducing Queen Bees ... Life of Queen Bee Loss of Bees Prevention of Swarming Production of Comb Honey Rapid Granulation of Honey Robbing Hives ... Spring Management of Bees 615, Te.xt Books Wintering Bees Apople.xy, Vine Apple — Black Spot of ... ... 184 Drying Moth, Painted ... Non-bearing Stocks ... Apples — New Varieties ... Sterility in Fruit Trees ... Apricot Stocks Archer, R. T.— Babcock Tester on the Farm Feeding Cows for Milk Production Reinforced Brick Silos ... Artificial Manures (see under Manures). Ashes — Coal Wood ... Asparagus ... ... 289, Australian — Produce, Market for, Manchester Soils, Phosphoric Acid in relation to Babcock Tester on the Farm Bacteria — Nitro-Bacterine Bamboo Blinds, Old, Use of Banks, Agricultural Credit Barley, Skinless ... Barnyard or Cockshin Grass Bartsia, Common Baxter, G.— Farm Blacksmithing 479, 545 421 550 744 477 105 216 216 216 20 216 296 683 216 315 673 ,648 580 678 846 364 107 10 369 433 47 574 655 655 446 161 433 783 800 655 581 31 Bees (see under Apiculture). Beet, Sugar, Cultivation of 610, 739, 685, 795 505 Index. Page Beuhne, F. R. — Beekeepers' Field Day, A ... i77 Bees and Fertilization of Fruit Blossoms ... ••• ••• 2^4 Candied Honey ... ... ... 4^1 Dysentery in Bees and Nosema Apis 550 Extracting Honey ... ■.• 744 Feeding Bees ... •.• ••• 477 Introducing Queen Bees ■•. 105 Production of Comb Honey ... 20 Spring Management of Bees 615, 683 Wintering Bees ••■ ... 3^5 Billis, R. v.— Manchester : A Market for Aus- tralian Produce ... .•• 161 Birds, Insectivorous — While-throated Tree Creeper ... 55^ Black Medick ... ... ... S^i Black Rot ... ... ••• 465 Blacksmithing, Farm — Forging ... ... 685, 739 Tools ... ... •■• ••• 610 Welding ... ••. ••. 795 Workshop ... ••• 481, 545 Black Spot or Anthracnosis ... 466 Black Spot of Apple and Pear 184, 648 Blindness — in Horses ... ••• 214, 841 in Sheep ... .•• ..• 215 Blue Mould ... ... 609,651 Bonedust, Home-made ... ■•. 783 Bordeaux Mixture ... .■• 649 Botany — Absorption of Food Substances and Poisons through leaves ... 619 Seeds and Seeding ... 403) 47^ Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... •■. 383, 532 Brewing — Pure Yeasts or " Levures " ... 109 Brick- Floors ... ... ... ... 424 Silos, Reinforced ... ... 574 Broom Fibre Industry ... ... 769 Brushing ... ... ■■• ■•• 296 Bryobia ... ..- •■• ••• 107 Buckshorn Plantain ... .•• 845 Budding ... ••• .■•64, 644, 657 Buildings — Bamboo Blinds, Old, Use of ... 783 Binding Sand ... ••• ••• 581 Blacksmith's Workshop ... 481, 545 Broom Corn Drving Sheds ... 771 Bull Yard and Shed ... ... 806 Cool Storage on Northern Farms 34 Cow-bails, Opening and Closing of 599 Floors, Concrete and Brick ... 424 Hints for Settlers ... ... 806 Potato Sprouting Shed ... ... 174 Silos 3^8, 413, 414, 424, 492, 566, 574 Tobacco Sheds ... ... .••542 Wattle and Dab, Repairing ... 6^4 Bull- Grade ... ... ... ... 719 Yard and Shed ... ... 806 Page. Burnley — Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 283, 564, 653, 700, 768, 820 Supplementary List of Fruit Trees grown at ... ... ... 336 Butter- Fat ... ... ... ... 296 Export Season, 1910-11 ... ... 425 Cabbage Aphis ... ... ... 294 Calves — Milk for ... ... ... 357 Skin Disease ... ... ... 58(> Calving, Illness after ... ... 214 Caponizing Cockerels ... ... 504 Carbide Waste, Effect of, on Eggs 719 Carmody, P. J. — A Prolific Plum ... ... 290 Prospects of the Coming Fruit ^ Crop 755 Carmody P. J., and F. de Castella — French Prunes ... ... ... 809 Castella, F. de — Cool Storage Grapes at Royal Show ... ... ... ... 677 Greek Currants ... ... ... 764 Practical Hints on Cut Worm Destruction ... ... ... 458 Pure Yeasts or "Levures" ... 109 Storage Test of Shipping Grapes 531 Sulphiting ... ... ... 22 Vine Diseases in France 394, 462, 651, 673 Wine Industry in Southern France 198, 236, 346 Castella, F. de (Carmody, P. J., and) — French Prunes ... ... ... 809 Castration — Aged Rams ... ... ... 579 Horses ... ... ... 654 Ram Lambs ... ... ... 215 Cattle- Balanced Ration ... ... 580 Bull Yard, and Shed ... ... 806 Dexter Kerry ... ... ... 577 Escutcheon, The ... ... 585 Grade Bull ... ... ... 719 Lick ... ... ... ... 215 Red Polls as Milkers ... ... 778 Cereals, Improvement of ... ... 256 Channel Outlets ... ... ... 116 Cheddar Cheese-making ... ... 701 Cheltenham Experimental Farm ... 318 Cherry — Slug ... ... ... 669,762,821 Stocks ... ... ... ... 482 Cherry, T.— Phosphoric Acid in Relation to Australian Soils and Vegetation 71 Churches, H. C. — Dairving in the South Gippsland Hill Country ... ... 743 Device for Opening and Closing of Cow Bails ... ... 599 The Silo : A Factor in Modern Agriculture ... ... ... 414 Index. Cigar Leaf (see under Tobacco Cul- ture). Citrus Trees — Culture ... ... 37I) 515, 5^2 Fumigation ... ... 63, 107 Raising from Seed ... ... 135 Scale ... ... i34> 295, 656, 746 Citv Milk Supply ... ... 297 Closer Settlement — Hints for New Settlers 692, 733 Studies ... ... ... 6S9 Clover ... ... ... 295, 844 Codlin Moth 63, 106, 206, 215, 334, 669, 762, 821 Colac Dairy Farm Competition ... 92 Cole, C. F.— Propagation of Fruit Trees 338, 361, 482, 522, 642, 6s7, 758, 824 Colic ... ... ■ ... ... 296 Comans, M. — Cream Cooling on the Farm ... 312 Competitions — Alexandra Fodder Crop ... ... 330 Burnley Egg-laying, 1911-12 283, 564, 653, 700, 768, 820 Colac Dairy Farm ... ... 92 Maldon Dairy Herd ... ... 90 Nhill Farm ... ... ... 158 Rainbow Farm ... ... ... 36 Traralgon Dairy Farm ... ... 326 Tree Planting ... ... 678, 721 Concrete — Floors ... ... ... ... 424 Silo ... ... ... ... 568 Connor, J. M. B.— A Cheap Silo ... ... ... 413 Alexandra Fodder Crop Competi- tion ... ... ... ... 330 Northern Grain Experimental Fields — Harvest, 1910-11 ... ... 137 Rainbow Farm f'ompetitions ... ^^6 Rape ... ... ... ... 87 The Mallee ... ... ... 243 Vegetable Garden and Fodder Crops, Cheltenham Experimental Farm... ... ... ... 318 Cool Storage — City Milk Supply ... ... 297 Manchester ... ... ... 162 on Northern Farms ... ... 34 Pears, Record Shijiment of iqo, 357 Test of Shipping firapes 531, 677 Co-operation — Agricultural Credit Banks ... 800 Copper-soda Mixture ... ... 649 Cow Peas ... ... 580,783 Cows — Defective Quarter ... ... 719 Flagging ... ... ... 719 Illness after Calving ... ... 214 Sore Teats ... ... .•■ 579 Teat Dilation ... ... ... 214 Cream — Adding Salt to ... ... ... 710 Babcock Tester ... ... ... 433 Cooling on the Farm ... ... ^12 Testing... ... ... ... n3 Page Credit Banks, Agricultural ... 800 Crowe, R. — Exports and Deliveries of Perish- able and Frozen Produce 136, 360, 584, 847 Review of the Victorian Dairying Season and Butter Export Trade, 1910-11 ... ... ... 425 Cultivation Reminders opp. 64; opp. 136; opp. 216; opp. 296; opp. 360; opp. 424 ; opp. 504 ; opp. 584 ; opp. 656, 720, 784, 848 Currant Stocks ... ... ••• 5^9 Currants, Greek ... ... ••• 7"4 Cut Worms ... ... 455' 45^. 610 Daffodil, The ... ... ••• 649 Dairying — Babcock Tester on the Farm ... 433 Bull, Grade ... ... •.• 7i9 Butter Fat ... .■■ ••• 296 Care of Dairy Utensils ... ... 35^ Cheddar Cheese-making ... ... 7°^ City Milk Supply ... ..• 297 Cow Bails, Device for Opening and Closing of ... .-.599 Cream, Adding Salt to ... ... 7^9 Cream Cooling on the Farm ... 312 Cream Testing ... ... •.• ^33 Dairy Farm Competitions 90, 92, 326 Dexter Kerry Cattle ... ••• 577 Escutcheon : 'a Guide to Milking Merit, The ... ... ••• 5^5 Feeding Cows for Milk Production 47 Keei)ing Milk over Sunday ... 358 Milk for Calves ... ... 357 Milk, Reduced Yield of ... 35^ Pum])kins and ... ... ... 691 Red Polls as Milkers ... ... 77^ Review of Season i9ro-ii ... 425 in South Gippsland Hill Country 743 Successful Dairy Farm, Ballarat 416 Urgent Dairy Farm Work : A Warning ... ... .-. 7^^ Value of Milk Records ... .•• 488 Davev, H. W.— The Root Borer and its Parasite 451 Deschamp, V. — The Soy Bean ... ... ••■ 621 Destructive Insects of Victoria, Part V. ... ... ••■ 402 Dexter Kerry Dairy Cattle ... 577 Dinginess in Wool •■■ ... 99 Dii)ping Bath for Small Flock ... 97 Ditches, Head ... ... ... "6 Drainage, Orchard ... 288, 486 Dried Fruits — Beetle ... ... ••• ••• 640 Currants ... ... .■• 7^4 Duck Farming, Profitable ... ... 785 Dwarfing ... ... ... 829 Easterby, H. T. — Cultivation of Sugar Beet ... 505 Education (see under Agricultural Eilucation). Egg-laving Competition. Burnley 28;}, :;64, 653, 700, 768, 820 Index. Escutcheon : A Guide to Milking Merit, The Ewart, A. J. — Absorption of Food Substances and Poisons through Leaves ... Influence on Production of Mutton of Manures applied to Pastures Rain Trees Use of Kainit as a Plant Food and Fungicide Weeds of Victoria Ewart, A. J., and Nightingall, V. — Influence of Radio-Active Minerals on Wheat Ewart, A. J., and Sutton, C. S. — Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants Experimental Fields- Forage, 1910-11 Oats Potato ... at Rothamsted, rgio Vegetable Garden Crops Wheat ... Export — Butter Trade, igio-n Fruit, to United Kingdom Europe, igii ... Lambs ... Manchester : A Market for Aus- tralian Produce Oversea Markets for Fruit and Fruit Pulp Record Shipment of Pears 190, Storage Test of Shipping Grapes 531, Export Statistics — Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. 136, 360, 584, Perishable and Frozen Produce 136, 360, 584, Eye Complaints in Horses ... Farm — Blacksmithing 479, 545, 610, 68s, Competitions 36, go, 92, 158, 326 Paire 585 619 313 234 737 31 3833 53^ 137^ 318, 148, 17I' and Hints to Beginners Farrell, J.— Passion Fruit Culture ... Fencing — Bull Yard Painting Wire Netting Yards for Small Flock ... Fermenting Vat ... Fertilization — of Fruit Blossoms, Bees and Pollination of Pear Blossoms Sterility in Fruit Trees ... Fig- Manuring Stocks ... Fistula Flagging ... Flour Moth, Mediterranean 692 553 154 650 489 318 250 425 749 44 161 814 35-' 847 847 841 739' 795 330 733 601 806 654 134 07 845 224 504 48^ 214 719 49 Flowers — Daffodil, The ... Monthly Notes 64, 108, 208, 290, 402, 487, 530, 649, 670, 763, Fodder — Alexandra Crop Competition Balanced Ration Barley, Skinless Beet, Sugar Cow Peas ... ... 580 Crops at Cheltenham Experimental Farm Crops, Koo-wee-rup Experimental Plots, 1910-11 Feeding Cows for Milk Production Hay Varieties of Wheat Lucerne Millet ... Molasses Oats for Draught Horses Oats, New Zealand Black Rape Rye Silage, Mouldy ... Silos ... 413, 414, Sorghum Sow with Litter, Diet for Soy Bean Sulla Clover Swede Turnips ... Thousand Headed Kale ... Urgent Dairy Farm Work Westernwolths Rye Grass Forestry — Tree Planting Competition Wattle Planting Forging ... French, C, jun. — A Scale Insect Destructive to Citrus Trees — Olive Scale Beneficial Insects — Parasitic Wasps Dried Fruits Beetle Insectivorous Birds of Victoria — White-throated Tree Creeper ... Insects Destructive to Crops — Cut Worms Mediterranean Flour Moth Millipedes Destroying Vegetables Painted Apple Moth French Prunes Fruit- Apple Drying ... Crop, Prospects of the Coming ... Export and Import Statistics 136, 360, Export Trade to the United King- dom and Europe, igii Manchester Market Nomenclature of OA'ersea Markets Pears, Record Shipment of Preserving Prunes, French Fruit Trees — Almonds ... ... 295, 845 Bees and the Fertilization of Fruit Blossoms Paff 649 335. 822 655. 87. 295, 492, 566, 424. 621, 678, 504, 685, 330 580 655 509 783 318 296 553 296 845 579 719 580 844 655 295 718 574 295 719 720 844 845 782 325 721 650 739 746 818 640 552 455 49 549 678 580 755 84, 847 749 164 663 814 357 580 809 I go, 100, 846 224 Index. Fruit Trees — continued. Budding Citrus Fruit Culture Fig Trees, Manuring Fumigation Laying out Orchards in the Irr gated Areas Nomenclature Non-bearing Apple Olive, The Plum, A Prolific Pollination of Pear Blossoms Propagation of 338, 361, 482, 522, 657. 758, Prunes, French Pruning Spraying 63, 106, 134 Page 64, 644, 135.371, '63, 5^7 i34> 184, 288, 648, 669, 657 515 504 107 194 663 846 832 290 I 642, 824 809 399 378, 821 Sterility in Supplementary List, Grown at Burnley Varieties to Plant Fumigation ... ... 63, Fungus Diseases — Apoplexy, Vine, and other Diseases of Doubtful Parasitism Black Rot Black Spot or Anthracnosis Black Spot of Apple and Pear 184^ Blue Mould ... ... 609, Citrus ... Irish Blight ... 126, 378, 379, Kainit as a Fungicide ... Leaf Scald or Fruit Spot Mildew ... Oidium ... Root Rot Sooty Mould Sweet Rot of Wheat, Field Experiments with White Rot Gamble, W. — To Start Farming — Hints to Beginners Garden — Bamboo Blinds Establishing Monthly Notes 62, 106, 205, 288, 398, 486, 529, 648, 668, 762 Gardening, French Geese on the Farm Gooseberry Stocks Grading and Smoothing Grafting — Field, at the Viticultural College Nursery 338, 758, Grant to Agricultural Societies Grapes — Cool Storage, at Royal Show ... Greek Currants Storage Test of Shipping (Sec also under Viticulturt-.) Grasshoppers Greek Currants Hairy Toad-flax ... 336 399 673 465 466 648 651 520 636 737 462 395 651 746 651 250 6si 733 783 423 334. , 821 783 45 529 54 242 824 200 67- 764 53" 610 764 ^82 Ham, H. W.— Dinginess in Wool Export Lambs Maggot Fly in Sheep ... "Quality" as applied to Sheep and Wool Hawkins, H. V. — Burnley Egg-laying Competition, i9ir-i2 283, 564, 653, 700, 768, Geese on the Farm Profitable Duck Farming Hay Varieties of Wheat ... Hazel Nuts Hedgehog or Burr Grass ... Heliotrope, Common Holmes, E. S. — Alcohol for Motive Power The Nitrogen Cycle as it affects Agriculture Honey — Candied Comb, Production of Extracting Rapid Granulation of fSee also under Apiculture.) Horses — Abortion Balanced Ration Blindness ... ... 214, Brushing Castration Colic Fistula Government Certification of Stallions Indigestion Laminitis Lump on Jaw ... Oats for Draughts Purging Retention of Foal Ringbone Rubber Hose for Injections Rupture Swollen Tendons Warts ... Worms ... Hunt, H. A.— Rainfall in Victoria 135, Implements — Bemis Transplanter Broom Corn Thresher .. Buckscraper ... ... ... 55 Crowder ... ... ■•• 116 Harrows for Working Lucerne ... 845 Hints for New Settlers ... 692, 733 99 44 411 439 820 45 785 296 581 S8i 94 680 421 20 744 2X6 133 580 841 296 654 296 214 260 214 133 134 580 504 214 719 719 357 ••• 579 ... 424 214, 579 359. 583. 846 ... 85 133, Kramer Harrow Attachment Motor Sprayer, Improvised Pea Thresher Potato Sprayers Skimmer Smoother Viticultural Import Statistics — Fruit, Plants, Bulbs Grain, &c. 136, 360, 584, 847 Olive Oil ... ... ... 833 Indigestion ... ... .. 2J4 491 823 29s 126 67 56 loq Index. Insectivorous Birds of Victoria — White-throated Tree Creeper Insect Pests — Bryobia Cabbage Aphis Cherry Slue Citrus Scale Codlin Moth ... 669, 762 134, 295, 520, 656, 63, 106, 206, 215, 669, 762, 455' 458, V ictoria-i Cut Worms Destructive Insects of Part V. Dried Fruits Beetle Grasshoppers Maggot Fly Mediterranean Flour Moth Millipedes Onion Eel-worm Painted Apple Moth Peach Aphis ... 206, 530, Pear Slug Pig Lice Ribbed Case Moth Root Borer and its Parasite Slaters Strawberry Fly Tobacco Miner ... White Ants Woolly Aphis ... 63, 107, 134, Insects — Beneficial — Parasitic Wasps Relation of, to Cross Pollination on Wattles (See also under Insect Pests.) Irrigation — Citrus Plantations Laying Out Orchard Practice ... 54, 116, 217, Tobacco Irish Blight- Potato Experimental Fields Spraying for ... ... 126, Tomatoes and Isotoma fiuviatilis Japanese Persimrnon Stocks Kainit as a Plant Food and Fungi- cide, Use of Kendall, E. A.— Eye Complaints in Horses Kenyon, A. S. — Kramer Harrow Attachment Silo Construction ... 492, Kerr, W. (McCure, A. E., McFad- zean, J. S., and) — Colac Dairy Farm Competition ... Kramer Harrow Attachment Lambs — Export ... Raising (See also under Sheep.) Laminitis Leaf Scald or Fruit Spot ... " Levures," Pure Yeasts or Lick — Cattle Sheep Liming — Cultivation land of Soils Page 552 107 294 ,821 746 3W, 821 610 402 640 610 411 49 549 845 678 669 669 213 656 451 215 656 610 581 530 818 6 845 Live Stock Reminders opp. 64, opp. opp. 216, opp. 296, opp, 360, 424, opp. 504, opp. 584, opp. 720, 784 College, 377 194 423 672 636 378 379 484 737 491 566 92 491 44 134 133 512 log 215 215 504 357 Lobelia -pratioides Longerenong Agricultural Experimental Work at Loquat Stocks Lucerne — Harrows for Working ... Sowing Top-dressing McAlpine, D. — Abnormal Growths of the Potato ... Exceptional Growth of Potato Plants Leaf Scald or Fruit Spot Prevention of Potato Blight by Spraying Results of Spraying for Black Spot of Apple and Pear Spraying for Irish Blight Tomatoes and Irish Blight McCure, A. E. (Kerr, W., McFad- zean, J. S., and) — Colac Dairy Farm Competition Macdonald, L. — Olive, The Seeds and Seeding ... 403, McFadzean, J. S. — City Milk Supply Dexter Kerry Dairy Cattle Escutcheon, The : A Guide to Milk- ing Value Maldon Dairy Herd Competition ... Onions in South Gippsland Pumpkins and Dairying ... Traralgon Dairy Farm. Competition Urgent Dairv Farm Work Value of Milk Records ... McFadzean, J. S. (Kerr, W., McCure, A. E., and) — Colac Dairy Farm Competition ... Maggot Fly in Sheep Maize — Alexandra Fodder Crop Competi- tion Experimental Forage Plots, 1910- 1911 ... Urgent Dairy Farm Work Maldon Dairy Herd Competition ... Mallee, The Manchester : A Market for Australian Produce Manures- — Analyses ... ... 560 Bonedust, Home-made Broom Corn Citrus Trees Examination of Artificial Farmvard Fig Trees Fowl Green Kainit Liming ... ... 357 Liquid Page 136» opp. 656 , 848 58* 151 485 S45 655 504 44* 444 5" laS 184 37» 379 92- 83* 47» 297 577 585 90 689. 691 326 78* 488 4ir 330 553- 782 9a 24J 161 . 604 769 377 75 134 504 206 737 504 295 Index. Manures — continued. Lucerne, Top-dressing Nitro-Bacterine ... Nitrogen Cvcle as it affects Agri- culture, The ... Notice to Maufacturers and Im- porters Onion ... Orchard on Pastures, Influence of, on Pro- duction of Mutton Phosphoric Acid in Relation to Australian Soils and Vegetation Potato ... ... ... 134, 176, Sawdust Thomas Phosphate Tobacco Unit Values for igii Urine ... Vegetable Garden Vineyard ... ... 346, Wheat, Ultima District ... Wood Ashes Markets — Fruit Export Trade ... 749, Manchester Mediterranean Flour Moth Meeking, E. — Fruit Export Trade to the United Kingdom and Europe, 1911 Mendoza, A. — Fruit Preserving Mildew ... Milk— Babcock Tester on the Farm Butter Fat for Calves Care of Care of Dairy Utensils ... City Supply Cream Cooling on the Farm Dexter Kerry Dairy Cattle Escutcheon, The : A Guide to Milk- ing Merit Keeping over Sunday Production, Feeding Cows for Records, Value of Red Polls as Milkers Sediment in Pan Teat Dilation Yield of. Reduced Millet- Broom ... ... ... ;;6, Feeding, to Stock True Millipedes Destroying Vegetables ... Molasses ... Motive Power, Alcohol for Motor Spraying, Improvised Mulberry Stocks ... Nhill Farm Competitions ... Nightingall, V. (Kwart, A. J., and)— Influence of Radio-active Minerals on Wheat Nitro-Bacterine Nitrogen Cycle as it affects Agri< nl- ture 504 215 680 738 69 334 313 71 630 656 783 81 556 656 318 356 296 655 814 161 49 749 100 462 433 296 357 704 358 297 312 577 585 358 47 488 778 358 214 358 769 579 581 549 719 94 823 48; 158 680 I'ajfe Nomenclature of Fruit ... 665 Nosema Apis, Dysentery in Bees and 550 Oats- Experimental Fields 148, 154 New Zealand Black ... 844 Oidium ••• 39S Olive Scale ... 74& Olive, The 527' 832 Onion- Culture ... 65 Eel-worm ... 84s in South Gippsland ... 68^ Orchard — Almonds . - 295 , 84s, 846 Bees and the Fertilization of Fruit Blossoms ... ... ... 224 Black Spot of Apple and Pear 184,648 Bryobia ... ... ... 107 Budding ... ... 64,644,657 Cherry Slug ... ... 669,762 Citrus Scale ... 134,295,656,746^ Citrus Culture ... ... i35» 37^515 Codlin Moth 63, 106, 206, 215, 334, 669, 762, 821 Drainage ... ... 288, 486 Fumigation ... ... 63, 107 in the Irrigated Areas, Laying out 194 Leaf Scald or Fruit Spot ... 512 Monthly Notes 62, 106, 205, 288, 334> 398, 486, 529, 648, 668 762, 821 Motor Spraying, Improvised ... 823 Non-bearing Apple-tree ... ... 84& Olive, The ... ... 527,832 Pamted Apple Moth ... ... 678 Passion Fruit Culture ... ... 601 Peach Aphis ... 206^ 530, 648, 669 Pear Slug ... ... ... 66^ Plum, A Prolific ... ... 290 Pollination of Pear Blossoms ... i Propagation of Fruit Trees 338. 361, 482, 522, 642, 657 Pruning Publications Root Borer and its Parasite Sawdust Sterility in Fruit Trees ... Strawberries Urine ... Woolly Aphis ... 63, 10; Pasj)alum Seed, Harvesting Passion Fruit Culture Pasteurization Pasture Plants — Barnvard Grass Black Medick ... Clustered Clover Creeping Bent ... Rice-millet Grass Slender Clover ... True Millet Woolly-headed Clover ... Yellow Clover ... Pastures, Influence on the I'roduction of .Mutton of Manures applied to Peach— Ajjhis ... ... 206,530,648,66^ Stocks ... . ... ... 37a 758, 824 i34>399 13s 451 6s& 10 656 656 530 7i» 601 305 581 581 295 295 29s 295 581 295 29s 31J Index. Pear- Black Spot of ... ... 184, 648 Blossoms, Pollination of ... i Slug .. ... ... ... 669 Sterility in Fruit Trees ... ... 10 Stocks ... ... ... ... 368 Pears, Record Shipment of 190, 357 Pescott, E. E.— Asparagus ... ... ... 446 Citrus Fruit Culture ... 371, 515 Improvised Motor Spraying ... 823 Nomenclature of Fruit ... ... 663 Onion Culture ... ... 65 Orchard and Garden Notes 62, 106, 205, 288, 334, 398, 486, 529, 648, 668, 762, 821 Pollination of Pear Blossoms ... i Supplementary List of Fruit Trees grown at Burnley ... ... 336 Phosphoric Acid in Relation to Aus- tralian Soils and Vegetation ... 71 Pigs- Death of Young ... ... 213 Feeding Sow with Litter... 424, 719 Kidney Worms ... ... ... 214 Lice ... ... ... ... 213 Non-Pregnancy ... ... ... ctq Plants- Absorption of Food Substances and Poisons through Leaves ... 619 Identification of ... 295,581,845 Vernacular Names of Victorian 383, 532 Plum — A Prolific ... ... ... 290 Stocks ... ... ... ... 483 Poison Plants — Lobelia -pratioides ••• ... 582 Isotoma -fluviatilis ... ... 581 Poisons, Absorption of, through Leaves ... ... ... ... 619 Pollination of Pear Blossoms ... i Potatoes — Abnormal Growths of ... ... 442 Blight, Prevention of, by Spray- ^.ing. 126,378 Diggmg Rates ... ... ... 504 Exceptional Growth of ... ... 444 Experimental Fields, 1910-11 ... 630 Experiments at Cheltenham ... 171 Pitting ... ... ... 504 "Red-Skin" ... ... ... 134 Stable Manure for ... ... 134 Tomatoes and Irish Blight ... 379 Traying Seed ... ... 172, 321 Poultry- Burnley Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 283, 564, 653, 700, 768, 820 Caponizing Cockerels ... ... 504 Carbide Waste, Effect of, on Eggs 719 Duck Farming, Profitable ... 785 Feeding for Egg Production ... 215 Geese on the Farm ... ... 45 Manure ... ... ... 655 Mating Fowls ... ... ... 718 Table Breeds ... ... ... 215 Turkeys, Death of ... ... 719 Pregnancy, Non-, of Sows ... 579 Preserving — Apple Drying ... ... ... 580 French Prunes ... ... ... 809 Fruit ... ... ... ... 100 Pridham, J. T.— Experimental Work at Longerenong Agricultural College ... ... 151 Field Experiments with Wheat Diseases ... ... ... 250 Fruit Trees — ... 338,644,657 Propagation of Budding Cultivation Drainage Dwarfing Grafting Material Planting Site Soil Stocks ... Trimming Stocks Prunes, French Pruning Publications — Destructive Insects Part V. Orchard Sheep Pumpkins and Dairyin Purging ... Pye, H.— Improvement of Suggestions for Quince Stocks Rabbit Destruction Radio-active Minerals on Wheat ... ... Rainbow Farm Competitions Rainfall in Victoria 135, 359 Rain Trees 343 342 829 338, 758, 824 339 361 340 341 364, 482, 522 642 809 134, 399 of Victoria Cereals- Farmers Some Influence of, 402 135 719 691 504 256 369 134 ••• 155 ... 36 583, S46 234 Rape ... ... ... 87,295,655 Reed, J. M.— Victorian Tree Planting Competi- tion, 1912-15 ... ... ... 721 Regulations — • E.xamination of Stallions ... 266 Grant to Agricultural Societies ... 209 Reminders for — January ... ... opp. 848 February ... ... opp. 64 March ... ... ... opp. 136 April ... ... ... opp. 216 May ... ... ... opp. 296 June ... ... ... opp. 360 July ... ... ... opp. 424 August ... ... ... opp. 504 - September ... ... opp. 584 October ... ... opp. 656 November ... ... ... 720 December ... ... ... 784 Reports — Competitions 36, 90, 92, 158, 326, 330 Government Certification of Stal- lions ... ... ... 260 Rhubarb ... ... ... ... 783 Ringbone ... ... ... ... 719 Index. 656, 560 Robertson, W. A. N. — Government Certification of Stal- lions, Fourth Annual Report, Season 1910-11 Robertson, W. C. — Examination of Artificial Manures Root Borer and its Parasite Root Rot ... Ross, A. J. — A Successful Ballarat Dairy Farm Rothamsted Experimental Station, Experiments at Rupture ... ... ... 133 Rutherglen Viticultural College — Field Grafting at the Yield of Reconstructed Vineyard, 1911 ... ... ... 353 Rye Ryland, E. A. — Cool Storage on Northern Farms St. John's Wort ... Sallmann, F. W. — Nhill Farm Competitions Sand, Binding Sawdust Sawers, G. C. — Cheddar Cheese-making ... Scale, Citrus 134, 295, 520 Scott, P. R.— Analyses of Manures Unit Values for 1911 Searing, Tail Seed — • Hard Paspalum, Harvesting Potato ... Tobacco Beds Tree Wattle Wheat, Improvement of ... Seeds and Seeding Seymour, G. — Experimental Potato 1910-11 Potato Ivxperiments at Cheltenham, 1910-11 Shares, Farming on Shar[), A. T. — Agricultural Credit Banks Sheep — • Blindness Books ... Castrating Aged Rams ... Castration of Ram Lambs Death of Wethers Dinginess in Wool Dipping Bath and Yards for Small Flock F.xport Lambs ... Influence on the Production Mutton of Manures apjilied Pastures Lamb Raising ... Lick Maggot Fly in ... Parturition, Difficult Paf;e 403: Fields, i33> 260 75 451 651 416 489 357 242 ,423 295 34 582 158 581 656 701 746 , 604 556 44 656 718 172 51 729 504 256 471 630 171 698 800 719 579 654 ■all 99 97 of 44 to 3 '3 134 215 411 719 Sheep — continued. " Quality " as applied to Sheep and VVool Shropshires for Mixed Farming ... Silage, Mouldy Silo- Cheap ... Concrete Elevator Factor in Modern Agriculture Filling Reinforced Brick Steel Underground Wood ... Wood and Iron ... Sinclair, G. A.— Dipping Bath and Yards for Small Flock Shropshires for Mixed Farming ... Slaters Smith, T. A. J.— Broom Fibre Industry Bull Yard and Shed Experimental Forage Plots, 1910-11 Field Experiments at the Rotham- sted Experimental Station, 1910 Hints for New Settlers ... Red Polls as Milkers ... 51. 8r, 179, 542, 606, 671, 840 54 Relation to Tobacco Culture 390. Smoothing Soils — Analyses of Liming Phosphoric Acid Australian Restoring Fertility Viticultural Somerville, W. — Influence on the Production of Mutton of Manures applied to Pastures -Sorghum ... South African Wood Sorrel Page 439 568 424 414 424 574 566 358 500 49a 97 43 215 769 806 553 489 692 778 228, 322 357 71 216 313 295 845 Soy Bean, The ... ... 621,720 Spraying — Absorption of Food Substances and Poisons through Leaves ... 619 Improvised Motor ... ... 823 Notes 63, 106, 134, 184, 288, 378, 648, 669, 821 Prevention of Irish Blight by 126, 378 Pump, Cleaning ... ... 215 Stallions — Government Certification, Fourth Annual Report ... ... 260 List of Certificated ... ... 271 Parades, 1911, Time-table of ... 280 Regulations Governing Examination 266 •Statistics — l''ruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c., 136, 360, 584, 847 Olive Oil Production ... ... 83^ Perishable and Frozen Produce 136, 360, <;84, 84-' '^^^'"f^^" 13s. 359, 583. 846 Index. Steel Silos ... Sterility in Fruit Trees ... Strawberries Strawberry Fly Sugar Beet, Cultivation of... Sulla Clover Sulphiting Sutton, C. S. (Ewart, A. J., and)— Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... ... 383, Swede Turnips Sweet Rot Tank — Cleansing Underground Overground Tarpaulins Tarring ... ... ... 216, Teat Dilation Testing — Babcock Tester on the Farm Cream ... Thomas Phosphate Thousand Headed Kale Tobacco Culture — Bulking Down ... Cigar Leaf Curing ... Diseases and Pests Harvesting Irrigation Manures and Fertilizers Marketing Rotations Scaffolding Seed Beds Seed Selection ... Sheds ... Stripping and Classing Summary Tent-grown Tobacco Topping Transplanting Types ... Tobacco Miner Tolley, G. H.— Irrigation ,.. Laying out Orchard in Irrigated Areas Tomatoes and Irish Blight Tools, Blacksmith's Traralgon Dairy Farm Competition 19, Pas-e 566 ID 656 656 505 216 358 656 581 214 433 133 783 84s 231 233 228 609 183 672 81 390 83 182 51 468 542 230 840 6ji 606 610 Traying Seed Potatoes Tree Creeper, White-throated Tree Planting- Competition Wattle ... Turner, J. G. — Exports and Imports of plants. Bulbs, Grain, &c. 54, 116, 217 194 379 610 326 321 552 Record Shipment of Pears Oversea Markets for Fruit Fruit Pulp Unit Values for 1911 172, 678, 504. Fruit, 136, 584, 190, and 721 650 •^60, ^847 357 814 556 Pas:e Urine ... ... ... ... 656 Vegetables — Asparagus ... ... 289, 446 Cabbage Aphis ... ... ... 294 Coal Ashes ... ... ... 655 Crops, on Cheltenham Experimen- tal Farm ... ... ... 318 Establishing Garden ... ... 423 Millipedes Destroying ... ... 549 Monthly Notes 64, 108, 207, 289, 335, 402, 487, 530, 649, 669, 763, 822 -65 ... 691 ... 783 403, 471 379 677 764 455, 45^ Onion Culture Onions in South Gippsland Pumpkins and Dairying Rhubarb Seeds and Seeding Tomatoes and Irish Blight Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... ... 383-532 \'iticulture — Cool Storage Grapes at the Royal Show Currants, Greek Cut Worms Diseases in France Fermenting Vat Field Grafting at the Viticultural College Manuring Pruning Methods Pure Yeasts or "Levures" Soil Cultivation Stocks ... Storage Test of Shipping Grapes Sulphiting ... ... ... 22 Wine Industry in Southern France 19S, 236, 346 Wood Ashes ... ... ... 655 Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard at Rutherglen, iqii ... 3^3,423 Wallis, E.— Sterility in Fruit Trees ... ... 10 Walnut Stocks ... ... .■•528 Water— Irritration 54, ir6, 194, 217, 423 394, 462, 651, 673 ... 242 346, 356 ... 236 log 529 531 Muddy, Clearin<; Rain Trees Underground Tank, Cleansing Wattle- Insects on Planting Sowing Weeds — Buckshorn Plantain Common Bartsia Common Heliotrope Garden Artichoke Hairy Toad Flax Hedgehog or Burr Grass I sot o ma fluviatilis Lobelia fratioides St. John's Wort ... South African Wood Sorrel ^Yelding ... Westernwolths Rye Grass ... 783 234 2r6 84s 650 504 845 31 581 582 582 581 581 582 582 845 795 325 Index, Pag-e 133. Diseases Wheat- Experimental Work at Lonr;erenong Agricultural College ... Farming on Shares Field Experiments with Hay Varieties ... Improvement of Cereals ... Influence of Radio-Active Minerals on Mallee, The Manuring, Ultima District Mediterranean Flour Moth Nhill Farm Competitions Northern Grain Experimental Fields Pickling Rainbow Farm Competitions 151 296 256 155 244 296 40 158 137 36 White Ants Page 58X White Rot 651 Wine (see under Viticulture). Wire Netting 134 \Vood and Iron Silo 492 Wood Silo 500 Wool— Dinginess in " Quality " as applied to 99 439 Woollv Aphis ... 63, Workshop, Blacksmith's io7> 134 481 53° S45 Worms 214 579 Yeasts, Pure, or " Levures " 109 Vol. IX. Lf.X- FRUIT FERTILIZATION. Part 1, [Ketristered at the General Post OflRre Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subsorlption— Victoria. IntBr-State, and N.Z.. 3'-: British and Foreign, 6/-.) TTTK .]OTT^x^X Al. OF THi: DEPAHT)li:\T OF AORIOI IJI UK. A. T. SB.n:}'. luiitnr. CONTENTS.— JANUARY, 1911. I'AlrK. Pollination of Pear Blossoms ... ... ... ... A'. A'. Pt-nolt 1 Sterility in Fruit Trees ... ... ... ... ... L\ Wnllis 10 Production of Comb- Honey .. ... .. ... /■'. H. Bmhiu' 20 Sulphiting — A K'ecent French Wine-making Development ... 1\ de C(te forwarded to the .Spcietary tor Agriculture. Melbounie. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agricullure. 3d. per iiioiitli, os. per uuuum. Po.si free. Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts 1., II., III., ami iV. By C. French, u's. (id. each. Po.stage — Parts I. and II., 4d. each ; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungu.s Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d. Fungu.s Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. \!>y D. McAlpine. 2s. 6d. Postage, 4d. Kusts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 5s. Postage, 8d. Smuts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 4s. Postage, 9d. Systematic Arrangement of Australian Fungi. I>y D. McAlpine. 3s. Postage, Sd. Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturali/crl Aliens of Victoria. By A. J. lOwart. 2s. (id. Postage, 5d. Plants Indigenous to Victoria. Vol. II. Hy A. J. Ewart. 10s. Postage, 9tl. Year Book of Agriculture for 1905. (Jlotli, .3s. 6d. ; i)ai>er, 2s. 6d. Postage — Cloth, Od. ; paper. 8d. Milk (]iiarts '.Monthly and Weekly). Gd. \H-r d<>zt;ii. When ordering, mention "Montidy" or "Weekly." Plan and ."specification of Sheep-shearing Shed. 2^. (-id. Postage, Id. TH6 JOUHNAIs) OP •T^Re department of Mgncufture OP VICTORIA. . NIC UAK.OE Vol. IX. Part 1. 10th January, 1911. THE POLLIXATrOX OF PEAK BLOSSOMS. E. E. Pcsci'it, Principal, ScJiool of Horticulture, Burnley. Tntroductiox. Among iht; many protjlems in fruit culture, is the question of the various causes contributing to the refusal of the fruit trees to set their fruit, a condition generally known as " non-setting." It is frequently noticed that some varieties of fruit trees under variable conditions and climates, regularly set good, and often heavy, crops of fruit; while other trees are noted for their failure to produce fruit in any noticeable quantity at all. Again, when the same variety of fruit tree is planted in varying latitudes, or even in different countries, it develops entirelv diverse characteristics; l)eing a heavv "cropper"' in one location, and a '"non- setter " in another. There may be varifms agencies tending to such results; but one of these undoubtedly is the failure of one or several organs of the flowers to perform their natural functions. The Botanv of the Flower. that portion of the plant which is set apart tor the 'I'he flower is production of the seed. Tiie f-'c undative or rt'])roductive organs of the flower are almost invariably in the (cntre of the flower structure, and they are surroumlt-d bv (a) the calyx, or the outside envelope of the flower, which is geiK'rally green in colour : and {/>) the corolla, or the coloured portion of ihf flower, which acts as the inner envelope. The rc|>roduc- tive or sexual organs are the stamens and pistil. The stamens are generallv called the male organs. They are often very numerous, as in the eucalyptus flower ; while fre(]Uently tl'.ev are regular in number. f)ften being six. eight, or ten. 'I'he stamens have a slender stem, on which is carried a variously sized, bag like organ, which is known as the anther. In thi- anther are immense numbers of very .small white, brown, or vellow, dust-like grains, known as the pollcti. 'I'his pollen may ea>ilv be brusiied off. and observed by the naked eye. 17J.".(». A ex. -=1 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. The pistil is generally in the centre, and it may either be whole in formation, as in the lily ; or it may be subdivided into various sections, according to the variety of species — in pear flowers, the pistil is divided into five divisions. The tip of the pistil is generally enlarged, or ex- panded, and this portion is known as the stigma. The stigma is the first reproductive organ to be developed. While the stigma is often fully developed before the flower opens, the anthers open at various times ; and it may generally be noticed that both opened i,nd unopened anthers are existent on the flower at the same time. Thus, a constant supplv of pollen is available for the flower, or for other flowers. Pollination and Fertilization. The office of the stigma is to receive, on its surface, the pollen grains from the anthers ; and it is ripe for this purpose, either when the surface IS clearly rough or hairy, or when it i.s moist or glutinous. These conditions vary in dif- ferent species of flowers. When the pollen is received on the stigma, the act is known as pollination. The pollen there germinates or sends a very fine tube through the pistil into the centre of the young or embryo fruit, where the young seeds or ovules are placed. The pollen tube there impregnates or fertilizes the ovules, and these ultimately become ripened into seeds. This action is known as fertiliza- tion. Thus, pollination may take place, but unless fertilization results, the action is useless. Pollination may take place by the pollen naturallv falling on the stigma ; it may be blowai there by the wind ; or it may be carried from flower to flower, by the agency of bees, moths, and other insects. If fertilization does not occur after the lapse of its natural FLOWER OF cisTUs; SEPALS time, the whole flower simply drops off the and petals removed. tree. The stamens have their anthers in LIMITATIONS, contact with the stigma. The pollen r • 1 1 1 r tubes are shown passing? down the it IS thuS shOWn that, DCtOre a style and enterinff the ovules. ^^^^ ^^^^ " Set " " itS fruit, the actof fertilization must inevitably happen ; either a flower must be fertilized by its own pollen, which act is called self-fertilization, or it may be fertilized from the flowers of another tree, in which case the operation is termed cross-fertilization. There are limitations to this action, and to results ; and they must be taken into account when considering the question. It is undoubted that when cross-fertilization occurs, much finer and better fruits result, than when self-fertilization occurs. W'aite found, in his experiments, that in self-pollinated fruits, the tendency of the fruit was always to be smaller, while the largest fruits were alwavs the result of crosses. Thus, to carry pollination and fertilization to a thoroughly successful issue, it is necessary to "cross" the stigmas with pollen from other varieties. There is a limitation here, owing to the variability in the times of flowering ; and the choice of the operator, for commercial fruit production at any rate, is limited to crosses between lo Jan., 1911-] Tlic Polluiatioi of Pear Blossoms. 3 fruits that blossom exactly at the same period of time. Then there is the question of the power of the pollen. It is certain that the power of the pollen is frequently limited, and in two directions ; (a) the pollen may be sterile in operation on its own variety ; or {h) it may be sterile on different species. Some fruits are known to be self- sterile, sometimes permanently, and sometimes only according to climate or locality, or under certain conditions. Victorian growers are familiar with this' peculiarity in such pears as Winter Nelis, Keiffer's Hybrid, and Gansel's Bergamot. Yet it is well known that, in .some localities and countries, even the.se fruits are self -fertile. The following varieties of pears are considered to be self -sterile iri America, according to Bailey : — Beurre Anjou, Beurre Clairgeau, Beurre Superfin, Frederick Clapp, Gansel's Bergamot, Howell, Louise Bonne of Jersey. Souvenir du Congres, Wilder, Winter Nelis, Williams' Bon Chretien. The following varieties, according to Bailey, are considered self- ferttle in America : — Beurre Bosc, Beurre Deil, Buffam, Flemish Beauty, I,e Conte, Keiffer's Hybrid, Brockworth Park, Seckle, Tyson It is eminently brought forward by these two lists that environment and climate mu.st modify, or even completely change the action of the pollen ; as in Victoria, no trouble generally is anticipated in the setting of the fruits on such varieties as Beurre Clairgeau, Howell, Souvenir du Congres, and Louise Bonne of Jersey. But what is most amazing is the fact that Keiffer's Hybrid is in America considered self-fertile. It is abundantly known that, in Victoria, it is generally impossible to induce this tree to produce even a fair crop without the aid of cross- pollination ; while very frequently it happens, that w^ithout artificial aid, the trees of this variety never bear fruit at all. There are also various contrilniting causes, which, supposing every other condition be satisfactory, prevent successful cross-pollination. Thus, while it is know^n that the wind is a regular conveyor of pollen, although only to a slight degree, yet if the direction of the wdnd be away from the trees, a number of flowers will receive no "cross" pollen at all. Rainy weather at the time of blos.soming is also known to interfere verv largely with cross-pollination. Then, as Bailey suggests, it is probable that pollen is more profuse and more active in some seasons, than in others. Weather Notes. During observations conducted at the Burnley orchards this .sea.son, the weather was exceptionally and continuously wet. The first pear to blossom was a Chinese ''quince" pear which was in full bloom on 12th September. The last pears in full bloom were two varieties called " Nashir," a Japanese variety, and " Golden Drop," which were in full bloom on i6th October; and which con:;ueted the blooming period on 29th October. From 27th to 29th September, over 300 varieties, out of a total number of 342 varieties of pears, were in full bloom. This was probably the result of the excessive heat ex- perienced on 23rd September; as .1 number of pears, which were bloorn- ing simultaneously during this jxriod in 19 10, wen' not concurrent in blnom in 1905 and 1908. Journal of .\K,r!Ciiliuri\ Vic lor;-}. \\o Jan.. igir. lo Jan.. 1911-] The FoWniation of Pear Blossoms. On 26th SeptemlH-r vt-ry hea\ y rain fell ; aivl. >vith only four days' fine weather at various intervals, rain rontiiuiefl up till uth October. It will thus be noticed that constant raniy weather was experienced during the whole of the main t)l()ssoming period. The trees during die past sea.son carri.-d an .xceptionally heavy crop of blos.som, yet the total crop of fruit set on tJH' trees i.s a \ery medium •one. There are possibly two rtasons for this. The wet weather 6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. interfered with the pollen action ; it is generally considered that the effect of the rain is to wash away the pollen, so that it could not reach the stigma of the flower. This theory of rain washing the pollen away requires further evidence, before it can be accepted as final, as the rain would greatly disturb and knock about the flowers, f'.nd there should be a better chance of the pollen reaching the stigma than in still weather. Further, it is almost certain that the pollen, becoming excessively moistened with the rain, would be damaged or rendered inoperative, as it is known that wet or moist conditions will cause the pollen grain to germinate and issue its pollen tube. Thus, if the pollen grains germinate prematurely, it must follow that, even if these grains reach the stigma, they will have lost any fertilizing power they may previously have had. The second reason for a light .setting of bloom in wet weather is the fact that moths, bees, wasps, and other insects are unable to carry out their regular visits to the flowers under rainy conditions. Relation of Insects to the Work of Cross-Pollination. There can be no doubt that insects play a most important part in the life of plants and flowers. Moths and wasps, bees, and many other insects, all assist in carrying the pollen from flower to flower ; but of all insects for this purpose, the bee is assuredly the most useful. The first object the bee has in visiting a blossom is to collect or feed on the flower honey or nectar ; which is always lower in the flower than the pistil or stamens. In passing through the flower the pollen grains attach them- selves to the numerous hairs on the body of the bee, and as the insect flies from flower to flower, it is easy to conceive that some pollen grains will be transferred, as the bee brushes against the stigma. The same result occurs when the bee is gathering the pollen ; and thus every flower that the bee visits must be pollinated from other blooms. The usefulness and the importance of this work of the bee can hardly be over-estimated ; and successful orchard practice will never result, until the work of the bee is recognised practically by the establishment of bee colonies in every orchard district. A very valuable article on the subject of " Bees and Fruit Fertilization," by Mr. R. Beuhne. was published in the Journal for November, 1909, and it should be read in conjunction with this article. Darwin's Laws. In concluding his remarkable experiments on this subject, the great naturalist Darwin laid down various laws of nature, which are accepted and recognised as final. His results were, first, that self-fertilization tends to weaken the resultant offspring ; second, that crossing between different plants of the same variety, grown under different conditions, or in different places, gives better results than crossing between plants grown in the same place or under similar conditions ; and third, that, as a general rule, flowers are constructed to favour cross- fertilization. And his renowned declaration is that " Nature abhors perpetual self- fertilization." Full Period of Bloom. It is so far seen, that, to gain success in cross-fertilization, means suc- cessful, or at least improved fruit crops. Thus, in pears, a grower must grow more than one variety of pear ; and the question then arises as to the times of blooming of the different pear trees. For it would be fatal lo Jan., 1 9 II.] The PolUnatio)i of Pear Blossoms. 7 were varieties of pears to be planted that were not coincident in their time of blooming. As a result of observations, it is possible to lay down a general rule, as to the most useful varieties blooming at similar periods, for the purpose of cross-pollination. It \s not necessary to have the time of full bloom of each variety coincident, as pear trees are in flower from two or three weeks, according to the situation and climate. Obser- vations taken this season, in September and October, 1910, show that in an ordinary orchard situation, a pear tree's average time of bloom, from first to last, is about nineteen days ; while, in sheltered locations, the time is extended to from four to six days longer. ->^ ^ PEAR TREES IN BLOSSOM AT BURNLEY. The following table shows the full period of bloom of fifteen pear trees during the season 19 10 : — Variety. First Flowers. Full Bloom. Last Flowers. Winter Nelis . . September 24 September 30 October 12 TJrhnniste 24 30 13 Gnnscl's Hcrgamot 24 31 17* Paikham's Triumph 23 28 13 Winter IJartlett Ctintien 24 30 17* Williatiis- Don Chretien 24 October 1 1* Jari^iiiirllc 24 September 28 12 fvidalf St. Ccrtnaiii . . 24 29 14 Winter ('(lie ('(mttr. s . . 24 28 10 Winter Cole Connrt.'* 24 28 16* Souvenir ilu Congres . . 23 29 9 Glou Morccau 24 30 15 Beurr6 Caplaumont 23 29 13 Beurr6 Dell . . 24 30 IS Mother (Cole's) 25 29 1« ♦ These trees were partially sheltered and proteeted by large ornamental trees, which were growing on the side from which the rain came. The sheltered position thus prolonged the time of blooming. Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Jan.. 1911. Flowering Times of Pear Trees. To ascertain the times wlien various pear trees at Burnley were in bloom, observations were made by two of my predecessors. A partial census was taken in 190^ by Mr. C. B. Luffrnann, and another in 1908 by Mr. J. Cronin. This season, 1910, a complete census was compiled, and the three observations provide very useful data in connexion with cross-pollination. While it is not claimed that inter-pollination is the- sovereign remedy for every case of non-setting of fruit, there is no doubt, whatever, that the crop may be very considerably increased, and that trees may be made to bear by studying this question, and by planting varieties whose bloom periods are concurrent. It is generally recognised that Kieffer's Hvbrid, Gansel"s Bergamot, and Vv'inter Nelis, are the worst offenders among pears for non-setting in this State, while Williams' Bon Chretien or Bartlett comes a very good second. The following tables show the various useful pears that bloomed concurrently with these four varieties in the Burniev Orchards, as far as the records were taken : — Pears Blooming at the snm^ Tiniv as Williams' Bon Chr>'tien. Variety. Williams' Bon Cliretien Beurre Capiaumont . . Josepliine de Malines Choisleau Madame Cole Glou Morceau 1908. October 7 . . September 30 7 .. 29 7 .. 26 7 .. 28 7 .. 28 7 .. 30 Pears Blooming at th., same Time as Kieffer's Hybrid. Variety. Kieffer's Hybrid Le Conte Monchallard St. Michael Archangel Harrington's Victoria Broompark . . September 22 22 !', 30 October 5 September 24 24 24 24 24 24 Citron des Carmes is also accepted as a synchronous blossomer with Kieffer's Hybrid, but tliis pear was lost from the Burnley collection some years ago, and was not replaced till 1910. Pears Blooming at the same Time as Gansel's Bergamot. Gansel's Bergamot Beurre Deil . . Glou Morceau Winter Xelis . . General Todleben Leopold the First Madame Treyve Mother (Cole's) 1905. October 19 >. 19 October 19 1908. October 7 2 7 2 7 ,. 7 ^, 7 7 September 30 30 30 29 29 29 29 2» [o Jan.. 1911-] T^^Jti" PolUuatiou of Pear Blossoms. Pears Blooming at same Time as Tf inter Nelis. Variety. Winter Xelis . . Gansel's Bergamot Beurre Dell . . Bakeliouse's Bergamot . . Beurre Kance Chauniontel . . King Edward . . Seckle .Souvenir du Congrcs . . Vicar of Winkfleld 1905. October 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 September 29 30 30 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 The following li.st gives the dates of bloom of the principal pears grown in Victoria, and should prove useful to those who wish to replant or re-work their trees, so as to have simultaneous blos.soming. The dates given in the preceding, and in the following tables are the times when the trees are in full bloom, that is, when practically every flower was in blossom. They may be compared for the full period of bloom with the table given under that heading: — ■ Variety. Bakehouse's Bergamot . . Bergamot, Gansel's Beurr^ d'Anianalis Beurre d'Anjou Beurre Capiaumont Beurr6 Clairgeau Beurre, Brown Beurrf Deil . . Beurrf, Easter Black Achaii Bon CliiLticn (WiUianis") Brock worth Park Broompark Buffam Conseiller de la Cour . . Glou Morceau Harrington's Victoria . . Jargonelle Jcsephine de Malines . . Kietfer's Hybrid Le Conte L'lnconnue Louise Bonne of Jersey Madame Cole Marie Louise Monchallard Mother (Cole's) Nevcrfail Seckle Souvenir du Congrds . . St. Michael Archangel . . Triomphe de Jodoigne Twyford Monarch Uvedalc's St. Gcrniaiii Vicar of Winkticld Winter Cole . . Winter Nelis . . 1905. September October 19 19 12 October 26 19 19 19 October 9 19 October 12 October 12 October 26 October - September 30 September 28 October 7 September 24 October 2 7 30 7 2 September 22 22 October 7 2 " 7 7 September 30 October 7 I October 19 October 2 September 30 28 29 29 24 October 4 September 30 26 26 30 20 24 October 4 September 25 30 24 28 26 24 24 October 4 September 26 28 October 5 September 24 29 ',! 29 29 24 26 26 '29 26 28 29 It will be stfii from the abo\c list that tht- various pear varieties are fairly regular and consistent in iheir bloom periods. The tables show that the year 1908 may l>e taki'ii as an average season; while in igo; the trees l)lossomed late, and in 1910 they flowered early. This is th< general rule; but a glance at the list shows a few variations, and thr list of the whole varieties shows the same. This list must not be taken to be thoroughlv suitable for the whole State, as 'h.inge of latitude may \ the writer. Inspector Hammond states — " With Winter Nelis and Gansel's liergamot. 1 have noted that thinning out the spurs caused the fruit to set." Inspector Cock, of Bendigo, in referring to this matter, writes " . good average crop of pears has set throughout the district, ^Villiams' Bon Chretien being the heaviest, with Winter Xelis and Causers the lightest. This is due to a large extent to allowing too many buds of a weak and depleted character to remain, and pruning off all light laterals. Where bud arrangement has been carried out, and laterals allowed to remain, good crops of Gansel's Winter Xelis, and, in fact, all varieties have set." In regard to Kieft'er's Hybrid pear, its general hal)it of growth is diametrically opposed to fruit-bearing, being very vigorous and upright. At Eltham. and also at a few orchards in the Diamond Creek district, the .soil conditions make for weakly growth on the part of this variety. As a consequence of the weakly and rather spreading habit of growth, this otherwi.se sterile pear fruits splendidly, in fact, better than most kinds. It is, however, almost impossible to bring this condition about by pruning when the soil is favourable to strong growth in Kieffer and when the tree has not been worked out from time of planting. We have, however, in this variety of pear, one that responds readih to cross-fertilization. P'rom facts observed, and experiments conducted, it would appear that Kieffer is very receptive to fertilization — not from its own j)ollen. but from pollen from other varieties of pears, such as Har- ringtons Victoria, Le Conte and Citron des Carmes. Inspector Hammond states that Poire de Berriays ami Monchallard also have a very marked influenrc upon the fertility of Kieffer in the Doncaster district. Inspector Farrelt writes to the effect that Howell, also, is beneficial in this respect in the Burwood district. During this .sea.son the writer has conductetl experiments by fertilizing Kieffer blos.soms by hand and otherwise with other kinds. The first experi- ment was carried out at Mr. C. Millthcjrpe's orchard at Diamond Creek u|)on a strong-growing tree planted fifteen years ago. Until this .st-ason. it has borne only a few odd pears each year, although the tree had always blossomed profu.sely. It was deiided to cross with Harrington's Victoria, a variety rai.serl by the late Mr. Harrington, of Diamond Creek. This variety lilossoms later than Kieffer but its earlv blos.soms have (]evelo|)ed when the other tree is in full bloom. The experiment was carried out rm the 20th .Se]>tember and consisted of ])lacing a kerosene tin, half ful' of water, in the centre of tree. Three limbs of blossom, with their b.isal ends in the water, were placed in tht> tin. 'J"he blossoms retained their freshne.ss for days ; in fact, some «level()])ed while in this position. The result of the experiment was sckiii evident, for instead of strewing the giound as in previous years, the fruit ^' ! ^plendiilly. Plate Xo. i shows M Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. ]o Jan., 1911-] St c nil I V Fruit Trees. ^5 the setting of fruit on this tree, the photograph being taken on the 30th November when the fruit was somewhat larger than an almond. No. 3 shows a section of the same tree. No. 2 represents a Kieffer tree next to the one experimented upon. It will be noticed that it is growing uprightly, with leaders close together, and is almost fruitless. Experiments were also carried out at Mr. W. Gray's orchard, Upper Diamond Creek. In this case, I-e Conte was used as a cross with three Kieffer Hybrid pear trees which up to present season were unfruitful. The <-xperiment was entirely satisfactory, a first rate setting of fruit being i6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i. the result. Mr. L. C. Brock, of Doreen, has worked Citron des Carmes for pollinating purposes upon his Kieffer trees and thus obtains splendid yields from trees which for years were barren. It would also appear that, with Early Purple Guigne "cherry and Coe's Golden Drop plum, cross- fertilization is essential to produce fruitfulness. Spur pruning in the case of these varieties does not seem to give the results as it does, for instance, with Winter Nelis and Gansel's Bergamot pears. Complaints as to the barrenness of the cherry and the plum men- tioned are very general in most places, but in the Diamond Creek district there are several instances where a state of fruitfulness has undoubtedly been brought about by the inter-pollinating influence of other kinds grow- ing near by. At Mr. J. H. Anderson's orchard. Early Purple Guigne bears regularly, being alternated with Black Biggareau, while at Mr. Hollin- ger's orchard Pond's Seedling appears to exert a beneficial influence upon Coe's Golden Drop plum. In respect to the Doncaster district. Inspector Hammond writes — " The Early Purple Guigne seems to be in need of cross-fertilization. This variety is one of the earliest bloomers and when no other variety blooming at the same time is planted near, light crops are the rule. The varieties which do well in juxtaposition are Biggareau de Mezel, Burgdorf's Seedling and Chapman. The Biggareau de Mezel and Guigne, both shy varieties, are mutually benefited by being planted close together." Thus, impotency of the pollen from natural causes would appear to be the general cause of the trouble when trees of perfectly-formed blos- soms refuse to set their fruit after proper methods of pruning, spur or otherwise, have been adopted. Where this is the case, the only hope of efl'ecting a cure is by cross-fertilization with other kinds — fertile, and blos- soming simultaneously. Where trees are found to be sterile from causes hereditary, the only wav out of the difficulty is to re-work by grafting or budding with wood, or buds taken from trees known to be good doers. In conclusion, it is well to remember that the inter-pollinating influence of some kinds upon others is a factor making for fruitfulness in trees, which has never been recognised as it should have been when planting orchards in the past; for it is quite feasible that, not only are som^_ shy or non-bearers made fruitful by this means, but even fair-bearing varieties may be impro\ed. With reference to this aspect of the question, Bailey remark.s — Much of Ihe failure of apples, pears, and plums to set their fruit even when bloom is abundant, is unquestionably due to too continuous or extensive planting of individual varieties; and it is safe to expect that other fruits are also jeopardized by unmixed planting. This knowledge as soon as it becomes more extensive and exact is sure to modify greatly the planting of orchards. Therefore, with a desire to assist intending planters when selecting varieties with a view to inter-pollination, the Chief Inspector of Orchards has requested me to compile lists of the different varieties of fruits and their blossoming periods in the districts mentioned as reported by the inspectors stationed in the various fruit-growing centres of the State. This information will be found in the accompanying table. The dates given refer to the full bloom period. In order to arrive at the date of partial bloom an average allowance of from six to nine days should be reckoned. lo Jan., 1911-] Sicrilitv in Fruit Trees. 17 •qSnoJoqXjtJK •isva-iUJOK ptre Xan^A iuiR|[no£) •UAl.lAa ■asjsBDuoQ; ■J188J0 pUOlU'BIfX ■oSipuaa o o o o •-' o o o c; e» o 0—1 O O OS O O X X XX ^ ^ CO ^ — I0 in,-HXrHOO(>] 0-1 •*0 50COO a .— !M >-i ^ CUN (N o-*xxo ■ ■ <1> .^ O o o H ■iianoioqXj«w pun .\'3IIBA luiKiinoo ■ii.<|i).\a ■ja^sBouoo: S r 5 -^ 3 ^ t. i^ £ § c > • ^- .? ^ •- •■'■ -^ ■? ■'■• = ~ 'o s S ? 2 ~, := >', i'. X. iJ •jjaoj.') puouiuici •oaipiiofi I • . ^ ^ = . c c 0 0 . 2 £-« in 0 T-H !M cc -I (M 2 r- s ic r^ r^ 00 0 _o 0 0 _o _o MO § 5-1 to so 0-1 0 00 c 0 £ 0 0 0 — to c to r- 3; 0 • CO oc 2 H . "z. £ H H S . H H .n . to X ire — 5-1 -1 C-I — - Z] -Ti -f X X to CO .^ 0 0 0 00 .n . 0 lO to X ■* I^OS " to Ul Ij a. .- 0 0 c 0 000 00 .:: . 0 < ts g s I^ X X eJ (N5-I CO (N CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0=0000 X * IM 01 ^ X X X — * ?.2 s ■>* X ^ ■■* ■>!• X X •* Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. ■qgnojoq ;st!a;-inJO^ pun XaiiiJA Tunqinoo ■U.«18A3[ •la^sBouoo: •3199J0 puoraBid •oSipuag 0 05 03 OS OS OS 0 . . 0 (M • OS IM • • OS in m ai lO 00 _o 0 ^ 0 000 0 0 CD rH to '^ 0 rt rWrH ■M no OSOO 1^ . . 0 OS 0 OS • oo' • 0 • 00 (M -* IM • OS • ■ -* • ■ -M 0 001 00s • • 00 oa l> t* c^ c^ osoos ■ os' •o (M -^IM — >> 5Sg 1 , l-i ^ - to 0 .-1 IM IM CI 0 (M 00 CI C] CI 0 00 _o 0 00 0 0 _o _o (M to to (M r-1 •* 00 rt ^ 5-1 .I to QOO -* (M (M m d OS ci t-< d t-H CI m •* Cl r-< 0 0 oo.-f 0 0 0 0 _o 0 _oo (M 00 CJ m CO 0 .-H .1 »■) (M to to IM (M 00 CO CI OC] CO rH 0 00 0 OrH 0 0 _ooo 0 0 (M mm o pHplf } OS OS 000.= 2 — g " d ^ s |.'«.<^=i Stiffs a '55'''^ S > ^ ^-^ a ,. if-ti tS ."= Pom d . ■ d ■ gam gam Ber Cole ima '5" „ 3 cWM ce t^ . = ">..§ 2-£-£ dd.S -5r=.SEfS§ 3 ct c3 0 0 0 ^JS," ^rtwpqpqpa lo Jan., 19 II-] Sterility iii Fruit Trees. 19 01 Ol 05 .=": 0 33 OS 0 0 0 • •0 • •<» •Tt •OJ CO CI OCJ CI lOO — — - • -s — — — — 0 0 0 0 0 o> OS 0 0 *— ' *-* »"♦ •— ' ^^ • ^' . CI ■ • ■* CI • 0 • ■c. Oi OS OS Oi • (M t> C-l ift • • (N l-H C^l r-. • CSCSOS OSOS 00 OsOSOiOSOO OS OS OS 00s OOJ CsCSOl O OOOOiOO •X^^O * •.— i^H .tn • 'CO^HOOr-iiA • -co • • O •<—< * - ■'t • • *OS ■ 'lOt^iO o - • OSOS OS ososos oosoo oscioios 000 CSO •ccM-'i-t r-oo* -.^ c^'Oixc^ «• -^ ^ rH CI «; I-H W Tl« '<*• aci 0 OS ■ ■* CI OSOS •OS 33 CI CI 0 _o d oso> •t-to Cld OS 0 • OS OS os'o' il CO OSOS ■00 coco OS •OS • •* -^ CI CI _oso 0 OS CO lO t~ 2P tso "SSS-S •2^: :o5i-. : : :s1 g :::::: ::i o„l^s£^S Pig c3 H O rO . T :: ' rts r^ • • r-1 CI lO OS in .rs d 0 CI OS CI s 0000 to :3 to CI to 00 OS c 00 0 c 0 ■ -f t~ -CI . -^ . ■* OS 1.0 0 ■ • •^ • 00s 03 0 OS 000 CI OS CI CI S3 OSOS OS OSOS OS tSOl <» OS OJ OS OS C OS 0 OSOSC50S03SS 03 • t^ • CI • • rtCI CI ■'' t^ ^ rH •CI r-l 0 • CO inm • d r-< QOoot^oci -r^ • • •otocoooci d d d CO rt l~ CI CO CI CI CI CO CO CI •OS • d OlOCS 10 10 10.10 10 2.10 10 30.9 OS 0 OS OS OS OSOS OS OS OSOS 0 •o • • • eOrH N •CI •CI 0 • CI •d • • •o • ■ -lOo -a •!» -iftt" ■ d CI d d d d d 0 oso OS OS OS OS OS OS OSOS OSOS OS a OSOS ososos 00 00 •to -HOOOS-*^ • N rid • •*to • •■*t~ • -in • • • •t^ -tOd • 1-H d d CJ CI d " «n CI CI CO CId OS CS OS OS 0 7.10 29.9 7.10 OS -OS -OSOS CI CI CI CI • « ••S ■ ■ e.Q^a a> c ■ ott;i. • • • ««.^ . = _:.>«, t, :-.— !- •^Ci:.2.2.23.aoo55i3i' •-!:.=' :-• Journal of Agriculture, Vicioria. [lo Jan., 19 ii.. THE PRODUCTION OF COMB-HONEY. F . R. Bculine , Bee Expert. In Victoria, and in Australia generally, the amount of honey marketed in the comb is only a small fraction of the total production. In England, the United States, and Canada, a considerable portion, perhaps nearly one-half, of the honey used for table purposes is in the comb. In North America, the production of comb-honey in i lb sections has attained to large dimensions and many large apiaries are run exclusively for the raising of high grade section-honey, high prices being obtainable for what is graded as '' fancy." In the profitable production of comb- honey, considerable skill, and favourable conditions of climate and flora^. are essential. That a larger amount of honey in the comb is not consumed in Aus- tralia is often attributed to lack of enterprise of the apiarists, or to the absence of consumers willing to pay the extra price for honey in the comb, as compared with extracted. I'ljpei- li SECTIONS FOR COMB-HONT:Y. 1-, from starters; lower tier, full sheets. The true causes of the small production are, however, the climatic conditions of our country and the vagaries of blossoming and nectar secretion of our native flora. The yields of honey are, perhaps, equal to those obtained in any part of the world, when taken on an average for several years, but our high average is made up of a glut one season and a comparative dearth in the following. We have "on" and "off" years ; and, while it is comparatively easy to produce good .sections in the "on" year, it would be quite unprofitable to attempt it in the "off" year. In the case of extracted honey, much of it is held over from one season to another without any deterioration in quality. Comb-honey, however,, cannot be kept in perfect condition for' any length of time, except with a considerable amount of trouble in providing dry warm storage. Thus, I lb. sections may be rather plentiful one season and almost unobtainable the following, and the prices proportionately high. Under these con- ditions, neither production nor consumption can be expected to increase. Some ten to fifteen years ago, several apiarists produced comb-honey on a large scale, but abandoned its production for that of extracted honey. lo Jan., 1911-] Tlie Production of Comb-Honey. 2 n Much of the section honey which tinds its way on to the market now is produced by bee-keepers in a small way; and in appearance leaves much room for improvement. As alreadv stated, consideralile skill is required to produce good comb- honey which, judging by the sections seen in sliop-windows, and even at shows, is usually absent. Much of the faulty appearance, however, as well as most of the damage comb-honey suffers in transit on the railways, is due to false economy on the part of the producer, who provides the section boxes with only a small starter of foundation as shown in the first .section of the top row- in the illustration. This section stands on one supplied with a full sheet of the thinnest foundation (12 to 13 square feet to the lb.) and a bottom starter. The progress of the work of the bees may be seen in the second and third pair of bo.xes. The third one of the top row, althotigh almost ready for sealing by the bees, is not fastened to the bottom of the .section; while, in the lower tier, the comb is already fastened to the wood all round in No. 2 and completely fills the box in No. 3. Apart from the quality of the produce, which would be the same in either case, there are two things to be considered in section honey, viz., appearance and weight. A section built from a starter will be partly sealed before comb-building is finished, and the cai)pings will often loose their \irgin whiteness before the sections are ready for removal from the hive. Drone comb is also usually resorted to by the bees; and the finished section has not an even surface, nor is it fastened to the wood all- round, and whatever spaces are left open increase the liability to break down in transit and to deduct from the weight. When a section is built from a full sheet of the thinnest foundation and bottom starter the bees first of all join sheet and starter, as in No. 2 of the bottom tier. They then raise the comb simultaneously o\'er the whole face and seal or cap it all over at one time, so that, when ready for removal, the capping is snow-white, the section full weight (15 to 16 oz.), and being a solid block of comb completely filling the box will not break down and leak in transit. It is, however, important that only the- thinnest sur])lus founchition .should be used, as stout foundation is objectionable when eating the comb. It should not be less than 12 square feet to the i lb. This grade costs 2S. 8d. per i lb. which will cut 100 full sheets and bottom .starters, or 400 top starters as shown in first .section of the top tier. The cost per dozen for foundation would thus be 46.. for full sheets and id. for top starters ; but as well-filled snow-white sections, such as can onlv be ob- tained from full sheets, are worth from is. to 2s. per elozen more, there is an actual gain of is. to is. pd. per dozen in using full sheets and bottom starters. There is yet another advantage in tlie use of full sheets ; that is, brood and pollen are not .so likely to find their way into the .section Iwxes. When the brood-chamber consists, as it should do, of worker-comb, bees will oft<-n build drone-comb and raise drones in the .section boxes, when given the opportunity afforded by the u.se of small .starters. ^f. p. 264. 24 Journal of Agriciiltitre , Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i. How THE Method Became Popular. It i.s rather surprising that the general use of sulphurous acid did not long ago become popular. The method of white wine-making, known in French as debourbage (literally, remo\al of mud), has long been known and differs but slightly from the one under review. The former has, however, only been applied to white wines, whereas the latter is ■equally applicable to red or to white. A description of debourbage or setting, will be found in the transla- tion of Roos' Wine -making in Hot Climates (issued by this Department) p. 169. Briefly, it consists in delaying the start of fermentation for a day or two, during which time a sediment, consisting of impurities, albuminous matters, &c., is allowed to deposit. The clear juice after being run off from this sediment is fermented apart, the resulting wine being cleaner and, especially, better in condition than that fermented in the ordinary way, without preliminary separation of impurities. In the case of debourbage, the delay in the start of fermentation is obtained by treatment with sulphur dioxide produced by burning sulphur. According to Roos, the dose necessary to delay its commencement foi 18 to 24 hours is .05 grammes per litre of must (f oz. per 100 gallons). Numerous writers have, within the past few years, recommended the freer use of sulphurous acid in wine-making, but to MM. Dupont and Ventre, of the Montpellier' School, is due the credit of having brought the use of this well known substance into every day practice. Their experi- ments in connexion with it have covered a period of about seven years. The articles they have published,* especiallv tlie first one in 1906, have drawn public attention to the advantages to be obtained ; advantages which have impressed themselves so forciblv on all those who ha\'e tried it, as to have led to the astonishing increase in its general application referred to above. For the greater part of the information which follows I am indebted to the articles of MM. Dupont and Ventre. Action of Sulphurous Acid. This exerts itself in several ways, but mainly through its antiseptic action on the different micro-organizms contained in the fermenting mass. It has long been known that most of the wdne-maker's troubles are due to the development of bacteria. Even defects which only make their appearance months afterwards, are indirectly due to bacterial actio- during the first fermentation, the presence of which may not even have teen suspected at the time. The mannitic ferment is, in this way, one of the greatest enemies the wine-maker has to contend against in Northern Victoria. This antiseptic action of sulphurous acid is more severely felt by injurious bacteria than by yeasts. Its presence in the fermenting mass prevents the development of the former, whilst it only slightly retards, and that only at the commencement of fermentation, that of the latter, which are thus permitted to do their work freelv and without hindrance, and consequently under the best possible conditions. Bacteria, though the most dangerous competitors of the alcoholic ferment, are not its only opponents. There are many varieties of alcoholic ferment ; some of these, usually known as wild yeasts, are little less objectionable than bacteria. Sulphurous acid hinders the de- Tel opment of these wdld yeasts more than that of the true wine ferment ■{Sac char am yes ellipsoid ens). \n the words of M. Dupont — The different sensitiveness of the various orc;anisms in the crushefl grapes, and •especially of the different kinds of alcoholic veasts, has, as a fortunate consequence, a veritable natural selection in favour of the elliptical yeast, the most resistant ■and the most useful of all. * E. Dupont and .T. Ventie, L'acide Sulfiu-eux en Vinification, Progres Agricole, 1906-7-8, &c. lo Jan., 1911-] Sidpliiting. 25 Xor must we lose sight of the beneficial action of this agent in the case of wines threatened with "casse,"' or oxidation through the agency of a soluble ferment (as distinguished from organized ones) known as- oxydase, so often present in faulty grapes. By powerfully protecting the wine against such oxidation, defects in connexion with colour and condition due to this cause, which is probal)ly responsible for more damage than is usually realized, are obviated. A remarkable and satisfactory feature is the .small amount of sul- phurous acid remaining in the finished wine, even though heavy doses were employed in its making. This antiseptic is essentially a temporary one, as distinguished from others, the use of which has been prohibited. It exerts its useful influence at the propitious moment during the critical time of fermentation, after which it largely disappears. A considerable proportion, no doubt, is mechanically carried off by the bubbles of carl:)onic acid produced by fermentation. In sulphured wines, sul- phurous acid is found in three forms, viz., free acid, combined acid and sulphates ; the first two of these, taken together constitute the total sulphurous acid. To again quote M. Dupont — In a general wav, and especially in vatted wines, the proportion of free sulphurous acid is insignificant, and that of total suljjhurous acid which, moreover, is alone considered bv regulations now in force, maintains itself within very normal limits, even in the case of treatments with a heavy dose of sulphurous acid. As regards sulphates, which are tolerated by the Council of Hygiene and by the law of i8qi, up to the dose of 2 grammes Jier litre in plastered wines . . . ihe increase resulting from " sulfilage " is relatively low (.1 to .2 grammes for medium doses) and has never reached, even with massive doses, the figure of I gramme per litre. No fear whatever is thus justifiable from this point of view. Advantages of Sulphiting. The improvement in quality of wine made according to the new sy.stem is felt in .several different directions. Sounder and cleaner ?i7«^.- This is only what might be expected in view of the suppression of bacterial action, so often responsible for faulty wines. Comparative experiments, carried out during several successive years, have proved to MM. Dupont and Ventre — That compared with control samples sulphited wines are always clean to the palate and have acquired coolness [jraicheur), a taste of fruit, and even dis- tinction {finesse). These are very noticeable in the case of wine made from sound grapes, but the difference is still more marked with wine made from faulty grapes. Not only is the taste of damaged grapes ipourri) avoided, but in addition sidphurous acid seems to have, in a general way, the hapjjy i)ro]ierty of suy)pressing all bad tastes deriving their origin from the grapes (fo.\y, earthy taste, \-c.). Steady and complete fer mentation. — Although the immediate effect of sulphurous acid is to retard fermentation, such action is only temporary ; fermentation eventually proceeds steadily, continuing until, as a rule, more sugar has been converted \\\Uy alcohol than in the ca.se of wine made in the usual way. Thus is the resulting wine drier and less liable to give trouble afterwards. Control of Tein peraturc sinipli lud . -'\'\\i' moili'rating effect of sul- phurous acid f)n fermentation ha> l«en taken advantage of for a good many years, espcH-ially in parts of .Mgeria, where water for cooling was scarce. This action m;iv, in fact, be looked upon as a .sort of indirect cooling. W ht 11 ;q)|)liiil ;is a ngnlar wine-making ni«'thod, the same aflvantagis arc obtaimd frcjm it. A gain of a verv few degrees in temperature may mean the salvation of the wine, ;.nd such a gain is frequent in the ca.se of siil|)hited grnpes. 26 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. Increase in alcoliolic stre?igth. — In addition to more complete fer- mentation, an absolute gain in strength is usually noticeable, which may amount to as much as a half per cent, of proof spirit, or even more. This is due to the artificial selection above referred to, which exerts itself in favour of the true wine yeast and prevents the action of wild yeasts, many of which decompose sugar without thereby producing nearly the quantity of alcohol given by the former. In other words, it prevents waste due to the development of wild yeasts. Increase ift fixed acidity. — Faulty wines made in hot climates are usually defective as regards their acidity ; the fixed acidity, derived from the grape, is too low and the volatile acidity, resulting from the develop- ment of undesirable organisms, is too high. Sulphiting reduces the former and preserves the latter, especially certain constituents of it, which are liable to suffer and be destroyed through bacterial action. Improvement in colour. — This might appear contradictory, in view of the well known bleaching properties of sulphurous acid. Nevertheless, the improvement in colour of sulphited wines is very distmct — There is an improvement in colour, both in the direction of intensity and of tint. The Vino-colorimeter of Salleron reveals very clearly a satisfactory modi- fication in the tint, which is shown to be of distinctly bright red colour, slightly violet, and free from all trace of yellow, characteristic of well-made young wines, S(j appreciated by the trade. At the same time there is an effective increase in its intensity, particularly noticeable with varieties poor in colour (Aramon, Carignane). The gain in colour, usually of from 20 to 40 per cent., can be even higher. . . . (Dupont). This rather unexpected result appears to be due to^ the protection from oxidation already referred to. Better and more permanent condition. — This is one of the greatest advantages of the new method and one which cannot fail to appeal very strongly to the practical cellar manager. Wines made by it, in addition to clearing more rapidly, seem to keep their condition remarkably well. This greater stability is attributed to the preservative action on several of the acids normally present in the grape, but which are frequently lost during fermentation. Use of cultivated yeasts facilitated. — The vast question of the use of cultivated yeasts or levures will be dealt with in a subsequent article. It will suffice to say here, that if the use of pure yeasts has not yet be- come nearly so general in wine-making, as in the sister industry of brewing, or as was hoped when their use was first extensively tried, now many years ago, it is largely on account of the difficulty experienced by the added yeast in obtaining possession of the fermenting mass. Sul- phiting insures this necessary condition, almost as effectually as pre- liminary sterilization, so easy in the case of brewing but so impracticable in wine-making. This list of advantages will, no doubt^ appeal forcibly to our northern vine-growers. The following extracts from the most recent article* on the subject by M. Dupont, resume the general influence on the quality of the wine : — The increasing use of sulphurous acid in our vineyards as a really general wine-making method imposes itself, since it alone, so far, is capable of realizing the legitimate dream of the vineyard owner : To make good wine with certainty of success and to handle it with not less certainty until it is sold. * nevue de Viticulture, vol. XXXIV., p. 259, 8th Sept., 1910. ]o Jan., 1911-] Sulphitittg. 27 The action of sulphurous acid does not merely concern fermentation, ceasing when the vats are racked. It continues long after ; one can truly saj' that it dominates wine-making and the keeping of the wine. Being {)ractically sterilized, the wine is henceforth protected from all damage, either by oxydase (casse) or bacteria. One need no longer consider delicate, costly and insufficient treatments for faults or diseases. Ordinary cellar processes are considerably simplified ; besides usual care of casks (cleanliness, &c.), they are reduced to little more than filling up and racking. Filtration and fining, in a thoroughly brilliant wine, become unneces- sary. The latter operation is limited to correction of excessive astringency in rough or deeply coloured wines. Sulphurous acid has already powerfully contributed to the improve- ment of wine-making practice, hitherto so slow to take advantage of the teaching oenological science owes to Pasteur and his disciples. One is compelled to admit that it is especially since its use has become common in the shape of the addition of sulphites to the crushed grapes, that the number of badly made, faulty or sick wines, formerly so common, has considerably diminished. Such wines have almost disappeared from the trade, on which they proved such a heavy burden only a few years ago, and to which Ihey did so much harm in keeping down prices. Further recommendation is surelv unnecessary ! Different Forms of SO^ and Dose to Use. There are four main forms in which suphurous acid may be applied to the crushed grapes : — 1. In the gaseous state. 2. Liquified under pressure. 3. Dissolved in water. 4. Combined with a base as sulphite or bisulphite. So far as attainment of the result desired there is little or no difference between these four forms, provided, of course, that they be used in such quantities that an equal amount of sulphurous acid be added in each case. The first has been generally abandoned, owing to the difficulty of gauging the quantity used with anything like accuracy. For further par- ticulars see Roos' Wine-making in Hot Climates, where different ap- pliances by which must or wine can be made to absorb it are described. Liquified under a pressure of 3 atmospheres the above objections no longer hold good, especially when the the ingenious measuring devices re- cently placed on the market in France are employed. The.se have not yet found their way to Australia, however. The sulphurous acid of commerce, a simple solution of the gas in water, is a convenient form to use. Its usual strength is 9 per cent, of SO.j. The chief drawback is the ease with which the dissolved gas is given off and strength lost unless it is kept tightly corked ; it is also liable to oxidation into sulphuric acid, if kept for any lengtli of time. Its strength is thus apt to vary a good deal ; this is, in fact, its main defect. The trifling addition of water which its use entails, though sometimes looked upon as an objection, is too slight to merit serious notice. If freshly made and kept tightly corked it is a satisfactory form. The combined form is, on the whole, the most convenient. Several sulpliites ;in(l t.isiil|)hites exist, but it is in the form of bisulphite of jK)tash that it is most generally applied in France. Potash is by far ;he most satisfactory base. After combination with the tartaric acid of the grape it forms cream of tartar, a natural constituent of all sound wines and oik \vlii( h, if in excess, is simply precipitated as argol or wine- stone 28 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [to Jan., 191 t. Bisulphite of potash is a readily soluble crystalline salt which keeps Tvell, especially when kept in corked bottles ; if left open it is apt to lose portion of its SOo. The form in fairly large crystals is to be preferred. In powder, it is liable to oxidation and transformation into sulphate. Dif- ferent samples may vary a little in composition, but for practical purposes it mav be looked upon as containing one half its weight of SOo. There are two forms in which this salt is known, viz., the ordinary and the " meta " form. The salt, known is meta-bisulphite of potash, is said to be more stable and less exposed to loss of SO2 on keeping. In •other respects, the two may be looked upon as practically identical. A new proprietary compound has lately been placed on the market in France under the name of suli)hophosphate of ammonia. It is a liquid ■containing one quarter of its weight of SOv, as well as a certain propor- tion of phosphate of animonia. a valuable yeast stimulant. (See Journal, April. 1909, p. 229.) This substance is highly spoken of by leading authorities. The close to use dej)ends. naturally, upon the percentage of sulphurous acid contained in the product selected ; it can therefore be most satisfac- torily stated in terms of SO^. Plven so, an arbitrarily fixed dose cannot be laid down as being suitable for all cases. According to M. Dupont, the proper dose may vary between 7.5 and 20 grammes of SO2 per hecto- litre (ij to 3j oz. per 100 gallons) according to circumstances. The dose is, in fact, very elastic ; some authorities have not hesitated to recommend much heavier quantities — ev'en as much as 50 grammes per hectolitre (8 oz. per ICO gallons). Such very heavy doses are not, according to ISI. Dupont, to be recommended, unless in excejjtional cases, such as, for example, in \'erv hot weather, when furtht-r ad.ditions may l)e given to check a rise in temperature. The elasticity of the system is such that there is little danger of an ■overdose. MM. Dupont and Ventre consider the most useful dose to be from 10 to 15 grammes per hectolitre (i| to 2 J oz. per 106 gallons) of SO2. This would necessitate an addition of the following quantities of ^ach different form for every 100 gallons of grape juice : — 5 to I5 ozs. of sulphur (combustion of). 15 to 25 ozs. of liquified sulphur dioxide. 16 to 24 fluid ozs. commercial sulphurous acid (aqueous solution of SOg)- 3 to 45 ozs. of bisulphite of potash. 6 to 9 fluid ozs. of sulphophosphate of ammonia. As already pointed out, the form in which the sulphurous acid is added appears to be immaterial. Exhaustive experiments have proved that wines of equal quality can be obtained with any of the above substances. Ques- tions of convenience and indi^•idual preference must decide the choice. In a general way, commercial sulphurous acid is cheaper and, if fresh, quite reliable in strength, whilst bisulphite of potash, though dearer, is more con\enient to use and perniits the dose to be gauged more accuratelv. Practical Considerations. The practical application of the method presents no difficulties. All that is necessary is to add the sulphurous acid to the fermenting mass, whether this be crushed and stemmed grapes, in the case of red wine, or pressed juice in the case of white. The two most vital points requiring attention are, its early addition and the thorough mixing throughout the fermenting mass. The advantages of an early start are obvious. From the moment the ■grapes are crushed ; in other words, that the innumerable and varied ' TO Jan.. 1911-] S/ilpI/ifing. 29 organisms contained in the bloom, on the outside of the fruit, are brought in contact with the juice, their germination and multiplication begin. Pre- \ention is better than cure and the presence of the antiseptic from the very start, will hinder the appearance of a large number of undesirables. It has even been suggested, to add it in the vineyard, in small quantities at a time, to the grapes as they are being filled into the tubs used to convey them to the fermenting house. Though no doubt an excellent course, especiallv in \-erv hot weather or where long transport is inevitable, there are practical difficulties, chiefly in the direction of keeping a check on the quantity added, which render it inconvenient, and in the great majority of cases it will suffice to add the whole quantity at one time, when the \at is from one-third to half full. As filling proceeds, an occasional stirring, to equalize distribution, is to be recommended. When full, thorough mi.K- ing is essential ; this is more important in the case of red than of white wine. Should the antiseptic fail to find its way to certain parts of the semi-.solid mass, faulty ferments may find an opportunity for their develop- ment in these, thus impairing the efficiency of the process. Thorough mixing can best be achieved by pumping the juice from the bottom of the vat to the top, until a complete exchange of liquid has been obtained. The system of fermentation followed in North-Eastern Vic- toria, Avith cement vats and mechanically-driven pumps in each, lends itself admirablv to the new process. No change in our cellar equipment is neces- sary. The abundant aeration it provides is a decided advantage. M. Dupont looks upon frequent aeration, by pumping from l)Ottom to top, as necessary, especiallv in the early stages of fermentation.* On the other hand, sulphiting attenuates one of the chief drawl)acks to the system, since the presence of SOv, is a powerful protection against the evils which mav result from excessive aeration. (Wines which mature too rapidly and get old l)efore their time). In this manner the new method will probably be found to improve the quality of our wines, mainly in the direction of in- crea.sed fruitiness (not to be confounded with sweetness), in addition to the other advantages already enumerated. When adding SO2 to cru.shed red grapes a curious change of colour will be noticed ; this need occasion no alarm, it is only temporary. The colour returns, even stronger than it would otherwise have been. The Use of a St.\rter. So far, we have only considered the simple ca.se in \vhi( h the influence of sulphurous acid is brought to bear on the natural or spontaneous fer- mentation of the grai)es with which one has to deal. To start the fermentation by means of yeast in active growth, either derived from specially selected grapes, grown in the same locality, or a jiure culture from .some other district is by no means a new iilea. The latt«T method brings us to the large question of the use of cultivated yeasts in wine-making whirh will be dealt with in a future article. It will suf- fice to sav, here, that tlu- juactice is becoming more and more general every year in Europe. The u.se of a starter (phui dc citrt\ as it is termed in French) has long been recommended. It is well known that the sounder and cleaner the grajx's. the more satisfactory will the fermentation be. It is e(|ually well known that the sm.dler the bulk on.- has to deal with the better the re.sult. • In tho nlweiicc of nir. SOj iimv. uiiiItT tin- rfiluiiiiB iiifliii-iic- of yt-n^t. nivc risi- »o tlio formation of truces of siilpliuri'tti-d liydroKt-n. nininiuniniliiii! to tli.- wine it> ilmr!ut.Ti>tic unplfiL-^nnt o.lours. This ne\er occur* if ncrBtion i* nttt-ndpil to. 30 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan.. 191 1. To commence the fermentation in bulk, with a starter, in the shape of a small quantity of specially selected grapes, crushed and allowed to fer- ment under the most favourable circumstances possible, is, therefore, essen- tially logical. It is also peculiarly applicable to the new method of wine- making. The active ferment of the starter, after being accustomed to life in presence of SO^, has an even greater advantage over competing organisms, when transferred to the large vat, than it otherwise would. Technical details in connexion with the use of starters, being much the same as where cultivated yeasts are emploved. their consideration can be.st be held over for the article dealing with the latter. Conclusion. The whole of what has been written above applies to dry wines. For the present, at least, it will be well to limit the application of sulphiting to these. So' far as sweet wines are concerned, it can only be recommended experimentally and with caution. The development of a porty or rancio character is closely allied with the defect known as casse, it is largely an oxidation process. Though faulty in dry wines, it becomes an advan- tage, in fact, a necessary development, in the case of the sweet wines for which there is such a large demand in the local market. It is highly probable that the protection against oxidation, which enables sulphurous acid to prevent casse in dry wines, will, in similar manner, hinder the development of the rancio character in sweet wines. This reservation applies also to our so-called Australian sherries. As regards the delicate wines of cooler districts, caution must again be re- commended, though for a rather different reason. In these privileged regions, with cleanliness, care, and grapes in good order, fermentation troubles are of very rare occurrence. The high natural acidity of the grapes and cool temperatures during fermentation, owing to late maturity, are sufficient protection against injurious micro-organism. Will the wines made according to the new system, faultless though they may be, equal the delicate wines which these districts have proved themselves capable of producing in years past by the old method ? The question is a delicate one which can only be answered by time and com- parative experiments. The writer has a clear recollection of experiments conducted by his father, at St. Hubert's, many years ago, when the debourbage system was tried. The white wine produced by it, although in many respects excellent and especially so, as regards condition, did not, wuth age, develop the bouquet and character of wines made in the ordinary way. The process was therefore discontinued. In Northern Victoria, circumstances are vastly different and the ad- vantages of sulphiting are almost certain to greatly outweigh any other consideration. There is not the slightest reason why they should not be as marked with us, in the directions previously indicated, as they have so abundantly proved in Southern France. Whether it be dry whites or dry reds for the local market, or the heavy full bodied reds which make up' the bulk of our export trade, the northern wine-maker cannot fail to welcome the possibility of regularly turning out his wine in faultless order and free from the defects which have so often given him trouble in the past. In the hope that such anticipation will be fully realized, the new method of wine-making is now brought under the notice of Victorian wine- makers. Any hesitation the writer may have felt — and caution is always advisable in connexion with innovations in wine-making — is dispelled by the marvellous extension of the new method in Southern France. lo Jan.. 1911-] The Weeds of Victoria. 31 THE WEEDS OF VICTORIA. Alfred ]. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist, and Pro- fessor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University. Introduction. . It is proposed from time to time to issue the information collected in regard to important weeds with a view ultimately of including this matter in a second edition of the Weeds of Victoria. It is also proposed to continue the issue of plates of any additional plants which may be pro- claimed, as well as to prepare similar plates of a few of the more im- portant weeds, which, although highly dangerous or obnoxious, it has for various reasons not been considered advisable to proclaim. It may, in fact, be stated that it is only very rarely that proclamation is advisable in the case of annual weeds, for these do not usually damage the land in the serious way that many deeply rooting perennials do. Freely seeding annuals are practically impossible to suppress completely, and before the mechanism of the Act could be brought into play, they would in many cases have died down and disappeared. In such cases more is to be done by the spread of information as to the hidden damage which such plants do, than by an impossible attempt to enforce their complete destruction. When the tim.e is ripe for the issue of a .second edition, the plates in the present issue will be used as illustrations to accompany the original text in its amended and expanded form, so that the second edition will not supersede the first one, but will act as a companion to it. The notes in the present series will naturally appear at fir.st in a more or less disjointed form, but in some cases, it is important that the knowledge attained should be made immediately available, particularly where later information cor- lects or modifies that previously given. COMMON BARTSIA. Bartsia lati folia, Sibth. and Sm. This little weed belongs to the natural order Sirophulariacccc, an order which includes several plants which are parasitic more or less completely on the roots of grasses, and are therefore not only useless as fodder, but are actually injurious to pastures. Three species of the genus Bartsia are naturalized in Victoria. They are Bartsia viscosa, L., '' Sticky Bartsia " ; Bartsia Trixago, 1.., " Trixago Bartsia"; and Bartsia lati folia, Sibth. and Sm., "Common Bartsia." It is this last plant which is the commonest and most widely spread in Victoria, and which, of late years, appears to be steadily increasing in pastures. It was originally a native of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and was first recorded in 1887, although probably introduced long before this. Its seeds, which an- extremely small and light, are often found in samples of grass seeds, and it was probably with imported gra.ss seed that the plant was first introduced. Its seeds are so small tiiat they are easily rarrivd by the wind, altiiongh without any specially developed wing, pappus or parachute mechanism. In addition, the seeds will float on water for a time and can I)e carried down slopes by lieavy rains. 'I'he most tVrtile source of spread, however, lies undoubtedly in the readiness with which its minut<' stn-ds pass undetected in s.miples of grass seed. As this plant is spreading with great rapidity to new districts and is very abundant in many of the oldrr settled districts, it was considered advisable to carrv out some experiments on its suppression at Box Hill, on Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i. sloping pasture land, where it is extremely abundant. The fact was first definitely established that the roots are actually parasitic upon grass roots to which they establish themselves by means of little lateral suckers. The attachments is easily broken, but if whole sods are lifted and the soil washed gently awav, the connexion between the two plants can easily be traced. (See Fig. on plate.) When the Bartsia plants first appear, the connexions are usually not yet established, but they are fully formed before the flowers open. If the plants are abundant, the grass may die out between them, leaving bare patches, and in these, occasional plants may be found whose roots appear to have formed no attachment with grass roots. Such plants are, however, usually .short and stunted. In any case, the destruction of the grass plants be- comes a very serious matter in pastures where the Bartsia is abundant, since the grass only recovers with difficulty and a moderate number of plants may reduce the carrying capacity of a pasture to one-half what it should be. In carrying out the experiments a plot of ground was selected over which the plant was growing fairly evenly distributed. This was divided into plots each having an area of one-fortieth of an acre, the total number of plots being fourteen. The Bartsia is an annual plant propagating itself by seed and dying down at the end of summer. Unfortunately, the heavy rains falling when the ground was hard, evidently washed a large amount of the seed doAvn on to the lower row of plots, .so that the results obtained are difficult to interpret. As. however, the results are in one sense mainly negative, this is of less importance, and as all the tests were made in dupli- cate it is possible to control the results, although the distribution of the- seed to commence with, was irregular. Experimental Plots — Eradication of Bartsia. — A. B. c. D. Top row Blank . . 118 Bartsia plants Clover small and scanty, grass thin 640 lbs. air-slaked lime per acre 152 Bartsia plants . . Grass good, clover fair 160 lbs. of super- phosphate per acre 62 Bartsia plants Grass and clover good 2nrl row 640 lbs. air-slaked lime 1,550 Bartsia plants Grass good, clover fair 240 lbs. superphos- pliate per acre 416 Bartsia plants Grass and clover good Blank 275 Bartsia i)lants Grass good, very little clover Dug with cow manure, 10 tons per acre 3 Bartsia plants Rich grass and clover, but some Cape weed 3rd row •240 lbs of super- phosphate per acre 10,700 Bartsia plants Grass and clover fair Blank 1 2,450 Bartsia plants 1 Grass and clover poor 640 lbs. of quick- lime per acre 2.900 Bartsia plants Very little clover Dug without manure 5 Bartsia plants Grass thin, little clover, no Cape weed 4tli row Blank 9,800 Bartsia jilants Grass and clover poor 960 lbs. quick-lime per acre 1 11,450 Bartsia plants j Grass and clover 1 fair 320 lbs. superphos- phate per acre 1,500 Bartsia plants The best grass and clover In the first place, the preliminary tests showed that poisons were quite useless for dealing with this weed. In all cases where poisons were used, the grass was affected more than the Bartsia. The ]ilots were then used to determine whether, bv the use of a chemical manure, it might be possible to stimulate the grass without encouraging the Bartsia and so to enable the- COMMON BARTSIA. (liiirtsui Ititiloliii, Sihtli. niut Sin.) lo Jan., 1911-] Tlic Weeds of Victorta. 33 grass to keep down its parasite. The reason for making tiie tests arose from the observation that where thick patches of grass occurred over old drop- pings, the Bartsia was usually scarce or absent. These experiments were begun on 3rd November, 1909, and the results noted at the end of October, 1910. It is quite evident, from the above results, that the most effective way of eradicating Bartsia from an affected pasture will be by bringing it under temporary cultivation for a time. The manure used, if free from weed seeds, and the working of the soil during cultivation, will leave the ground in far better heart to produce a strong, luxuriant pasture than it was before, and at the same time will reduce the parasitic Bartsia almost to vanishing point. This is of considerable importance, because a pasture badly infested with this weed must ultimately be ruined as the parasite destroys the grass. In spite of the irregular distribution of the seed over the plots, it is possible, by averaging, to get some idea as to whether the air-slaked lime, quicklime or superphosphate affected in any way the numbers of the Bartsia plants developing. For instance, the average number of plants on the blank plots was 4,123, whereas during the previous season, the average numljer over the whole area was 1,740 per plot. The average for the plots treated with air-slaked lime was 1,351, and for the quicklime plots 7,175, so that if these results can be relied upon, the air-slaked lime reduces the number of seedlings establishing themselves, while the quicklime increa.ses their numl:)er. The average for the whole of the superphosphate plots was 3,125 plants per plot, which would appear to show a slight decrease as compared with the blank plots. The same is suggested by the fact that the superphosphate plot in the bottom row had considerably less plants than the plots above and to the side of it, but this may have been connected with the fact that the grass and clover on this plot, which received the heaviest do.se of superphosphate, was thicker and more abundant than on any other of the plots. Apparently, wherever the grass and clover are very vigorous, the Bartsia is smothered, since although its roots are para- sitic, the plant has green leaves and needs to be fairly well exposed to light to attain its full flevelopment. Hence the abundant presence of this weed in a pasture may be regarded as a sign that the pasture is deteriorat- ing and that the soil needs to be loosened, opened and manured. It was also found that on another plot where the plants had been cut before they were able to ripen any .seed, only 112 plants developed and on another one which had been carefully hand-picked, only 24 plants appeared in the following year, the seed of which had probablv been car- ried by wind or water. .\p})arently, therefore, the seed of the plant is \tMy short-lived, and it might be possible in cases where the pasture cannot Ix' cultivatfd, to keep down the weed by dressing with sui)erphosi)hate in winter or spring and mowing in October to No\cmlx>r, when the plant is in full flower and t)e- fore it has seeded. Since tlie stem is short, however, and usually not more than 3 to 6 inches high, this would only be of use when the ground is fairly smooth .so that it can be mown. The only effective mode of sup- pression appears to be l.v liringing tin* pasture under temporarv cultiva- tion, talcing care to avoid the re-introduction of the weed when the pasture is seeded down ag.iin. 17-2'> D.— Live stock— Horses (15), Sheep (12). Cattle (5), Pigs and Poultry (8) E. — -Best system of fallowing and working fallow ; area to be considered F. — Implements and machinery 6. — Subdivisional fencing, gates and sheep-yards . . H. — Kitchen garden and orchard I. — Water supply J. — Farm building'? K. — Fodder reserves . . L.— Shelter belts M. — Farmjbook-keeping Totals 14 7 6 4 16 16 10 8 8 153 (5 ^ 92 )-5 16 16 14 12 13 14 21 28 10 12 7 8 6 3 5 2 15 16 10 12 12 8 5 a 5 0 139 136 The following remarks dealing with the various sections will indicate to the competitors wherein they gained or lost points. A. — The management shown in the working of the farms inspected is much the same in each case. I am of opinion that much better results would be obtained if the land were throwai out of cultivation for a longer period than is practised by most of the competitors. B. — Superphosphate was used in the majority of instances in amounts from 45 to 60 lbs. per acre, so that the points in this section are very similar, but the proper use of the large quantities of stable manure is sadly neglected. At most of the farms I was told that it was left Iving about until carted on the fallow land. -In two ca.ses, Messrs. Cust and Heinrich's. it was put to better account by l>eing carted on the bare or wind-sweyn patches and ploughed in ; this is certainly a move in the right directic>n. The practice of properly pitting the manure and drain- ing the liquid portion into the pit, only requires to be tried once — the results will be convincing. C. — The crops on the whole were uniformly good as regards growth and likely yield. The presence of wild oats,' thistles, the small white TO Jan., ipii-] Rainbow Farm Compeiifions. 37 daisy, and, in some cases, " white heads '' is to be regretted. I observed that the oat crops were freer than the wheat from foreign matter. If a more thorough system of cultivation, earlier fallowing, and a proper system of rotation of crops were practised, these evils would be greatly checked. The cultivation ground would also be better if allowed to remain in pasture longer and grazed with sheep, than the system practised on mo6t of the farms at present. D. — The breeding of horses is attracting much more attention at the present time throughout the Mallee, than at any other period in the history of the State. The keen demand existing during the past five years, and the cutting up of large estates, is no doubt responsible to a great extent for this condition. The farmer who breeds the tight stamp of animals need not have any fear of over-production or depressed condition of trade. I was glad to .see that the Rainbow farmers are steering clear of the pernicious habit that prevails so much among many farmers, of breeding from nondescript sires. The stallions used in the district are of good type. The beautiful brood mares and foals inspected would justly grace any stud, particularly was this so on the farms of Messrs. ■Tust, Dart, Nowotna. and Watt. The foals in each case gave promise of growing into valuable animals. The importance of keeping large numbers of sheep is fully recognised by most of the farmers. The stud flock of pure bred Lincolns on Mr. Tust's farm will be of great value to the district in the near future. Mr. Chapman has the largest number of sheep and has bred up a very fine class of large framed crossbred ewes. He is working on .sound lines and his crossing methods, and care of the future maiden flock ewes have much to commend them. He has received the sum of jQ^Ao 5s. lod. from the sale of wool, lambs, .skins, and tallow, since January, and still has on the farm 1,032 ewes and lambs. This shows the profitableness of keeping a good class of sheep. As far as cattle, pigs, and poultry were concerned sad neglect was •evident on most of the farms inspected. As necessary adjuncts to the well being of any well managed farm, and more particularly to the farmer's family, the.se three classes of stock should receive more favourable attention. With such an abundance of suitable foodstuffs, what animals would be of more economical value than a few well bred breeding .sows? The few head of milking cows on the farms of Messrs. Cust, Chaplin and Watt were of good quality and type, but in all cases there are justifiable grounds for increasing the numbers. This could be very profitably done if the farmers would only take the precaution of saving the large quan- tities of surplus native gra.s.ses, and weeds that are at the present time allowed to go to waste. Silos could he very i)rofitably utilized in this ■way. The pigs .seen were of a very inferior type, with the exception of Mr. Chaplin's sows; the returns received from the ist January totalled ;^54 17s. pd. The same owner has also already received ^^15 5s. this .sea.son for eggs. These returns must surely impress upon the farmers of the district the advisability of keei)iMg both pigs and jKniltrv. Some of the pig-styes inspectt-d were not only insanitary l)ut a menace to health. Mr. Cust is to be commenrled for the kfvnness disphived in his pens of pure bred jKUiltry and the district will in- the gaim-r for his nitcrpris*'. E. — Tn the sectif>n for the best system of fallowing and working fallow, till- cnmix'titors wt-n' not miv nnilDrm in tlirir work and thin- 38 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Jan., 191 i. room for general impro\eraent. That of Messrs. Chaplin and Heinrich was much superior to the others. A mistake often made is that the work is done too late and not deeply enough, and the object of the system of fallowing is lost, to a certain extent. There are few wheat fields upon which crops of any kind can be brought to maturity with the maximum yields that the soils are capable of producing, without adopting some suitable means of saving soil moisture. The fallow ploughing should be finished early to give the winter rains a chance of soaking into the loose soil. The effectiveness of subsequent tillage in soil moisture is greater in the spring than at almost any other time. In the spring there is invariably a wet surface exposed, and this wet surface carries off much more water very rapidly. The farmer should aim to keep simply a dry, shallow loo.se blanket of soil, which will make an effective mulch. It frequently happens that, owing to the large area to be covered, it is not possible to work it all as early as would give the best results. In such cases, where one has not time to form a thorough mulch, a single cut of the disc, or even the spiked-tooth harrow, vill work wonders in conserving soil moisture. F. — For the most complete equipment and class of implements and suitable machinery, Mr. Chaplin is very much ahead of the other com- petitors. No doubt, a good deal of his success can be attributed to the use of modern machinery. All implements were under cover in a splen- didly built shed, and showed care and attention. What is there about a farm that indicates the poor management of its owner, more than to see farm implements left out in the sun and rain ? On the whole, the implements on the different farms were in good order and up to date. G. — The majority of the competitors have the ordinary post, five plain and one barb wire fences, and "Cyclone" gates, and there is not much to choose between them. The excellent fences surrounding the homesteads and subdivisional paddocks of Messrs. Cust and Chaplin are worthy of special mention. Mr. Chaplin's property has ho less than 22 miles of rabbit proof wire-netting and 22 splendidly set up rabbit proof wire gates. The whole of his boundary and subdivisional fencing is wire-netted. Although this might appear to the casual observer an expensive undertaking the financial results have been such as to warrant the expenditure. Rabbits appear to be on the increase throughout the district and, as one who has had a wide experience of their destructive- ness, I would seriously draw the attention of the farmers to the im- mediate necessity of stamping them out. H . — In the section for the best kept kitchen garden and orchard there was plenty of room for improvement. One of the chief pleasures and profits of a farm, but what was absent from so many of the properties in- spected, is the vegetable garden and orchard. From the standpoint of health, as well as that of economy, a plentiful supply of vegetables and fruit is desirable. In most ca.ses also, great interest is taken in the vegetable garden by the women of the household who fully realize its \-alue ; and it is often the means of keeping the boy on the farm by encouraging him to minister to the comfort of the family through a well- kept and profitable garden. The owner of the winning farm (Mr. Chaplin) has received since January the sum of ^^55 9s. 6d. from the sale of fruit and vegetables. At the time of inspection, growing in profusion, there v/ere peas, cabbages, lettuces, carrots, potatoes, tom.atoes, cucumbers, water and pie melons,. lo Jan., 1911-] Rainbow Farm Competitions. 39 half an acre being so occupied. Tiiere is also | acre of vines, and a good assortment of fruit trees, consisting of the following: — Almond, 8 Fi!,S 8 Peach, 8 Apple, 4 Mulberry, 1 Pear, 8 Cherry, 3 Nect.-irine 2 (Quince, 2 Cherry Plum, 4 This vegetable garden and orchard showed both care and attention. /. — The vital importance of an adequate supply of water is fully recognised by all the competitors. I was agreeably surprised to find such excellent provision made for water storage, both for stock and household purposes, in the shape of dams and underground tanks and well protected in most cases from the disastrous effects of the sun's rays during the summer months. Most of the dams were conveniently situated, as regards catchment and accessibility. It is, however, necessary that the stock dams should be fenced off to prevent their becoming fouled bv the stock. va'^.N)* MALLEE HOMESTEADS. Windmills, pumping from dams, are utilized on the farms of Messrs. Cust and Heinrich ; and in both cases there are also good storage iron tanks providing an adequate supply for the homestead and outbuildings. This provision is a great convenience to the women folk who play such an important part in the successful working of a farm. Water is laid on to each paddock on the property of Mr. Cust, who therefore scores a large number of points in this section. /. — The homesteads of Messrs. Chaplin, Cust, and Heinrich are worthy of comment, and they clearly show that the owners have undoubted confidence in the stability of the (listrict. When viewing these substan- tial and comfortable homesteads, one is apt to forget the work that was entailed in clearing the Malloc. Tiie transformation has indeed been marvellous. The dwelling on Mi. Tust's farm possesses many features of comfort and artistic architect iire, is well furnished, anrl an acetylene gas-plant is installed. The comfortaI)Ie stone lioni.'st.:i,l of \\x . Heinrich 40 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i. is similarly lighted. The other homesteads inspected are on a smaller scale, but show signs of progress in the way of recent additions. In the matter of outbuildings, Mr. Chaplin has the most convenient and most suitably arranged stables, shearing shed, implement shed, barn, and dairy. Wherever one looks there is marked evidence of thrift ; there is the absence of bags and rubbish lying about that was to be seen on some of the other farms. The rough pole sheds, thatched with scrub and straw, erected on the majority of the farms are not in keeping with the other substantial im- provements. The erection of silos for the conservation of the enormous- quantities of green succulent herbage that are now being allowed to gO' to waste is strongly advised. When they are not used for this purpose they would be of great value for storing grain. Profitable returns would be secured by the use of silage in the feeding of sheep and the fattening of early lambs for market. K. — The next section is that dealing with the best system adopted of conserving a reserve of fodder for dry seasons. There is not the care displayed that one would expect to see after the severe lessons taught during the droughts of 1902 and 1903. Messrs. Chaplin, Dart, and Heinrich have each a good standby in the way of large stacks of hay. Mr. Chaplin's large stacks are well protected from fowls and properly thatched. I could not but help admiring the thorough manner in which every kind of work about the stack-yard is done. The system adopted for saving bags is akso worthy of note. Two posts, about 6 feet high, and 10 feet apart, are stood upright in the ground, and then capped with a stout long sapling. The bags are spread' over the sapling, covered with a tarpaulin, and further protected with sheets of galvanized iron lashed down with wire. The posts have pieces of tin tacked around them about 2 feet from the ground to prevent mice from crawling up. This is much better than to have the bags lying all over the place. L. — On most of the f.nms care is being taken to save small belts of native trees for shelter. Messrs. Chaplin. Cust. and Heinrich have shown much forethought by growing plantations of young shelter and ornamental trees around their respective homesteads. There is nothing that im- presses one so much on entering a farm as to see the homestead and surrounding paddocks snugly protected with shelter trees. In the open paddocks there is a great want of trees for shelter and wind breaks. Domestic animals instinctively seek the grateful .shelter of trees during the intense heat of summer, and the fierce winds of winter. A few plantations of sugar gum trees and pines would be ornamental as well as effective. M . — Farmers are adjusting themselves to changed conditions of farm work and are beginning to realize the importance of keeping a set of books for the purpose of ascertaining at the end of each season which are the most profitable crops to grow and stock to breed and feed. Some of the competitors appear to rely solely on- their bank book for information, but this is not sufficient ; others keep a day-book and ledger and are able to give details of tlieir receipts and expenditure. There is great room for more business-like methods on the part of the majority of farmers. It would be well to introduce a system of planning ahead, so that the work of the whole year will be seen at a glance and the necessary provision made. Incidently, I think that there .should be more reading- of agricultural popers. For instance, if the Journal were read more br those interested in agriculture better results would be .secured. lo Jan.. 1911-] Rainbow Farm Competitions. 41 It is satisfactory to find that some farmers recognise the importance of not carrying all their eggs in one basket. The keeping of sheep, cattle, pigs, poultry and bees and growing of vegetables are adjuncts that con- tribute in no small measure to the comfort and prosperity of the well managed farm. The advantage of having a good supply of milk for the growing family is in itself a sufficient reason for keeping cows. It is to be hoped that the good example set, by the owner of the winning farm, will act as an incentive to other farmers throughout the district. To show the importance of giving more attention to this side of the farm, instead of devoting the whole of one's energies to the growing of grain, it should be sufficient to state that Mr. Chaplin during 19 10 (to 3rd November) has obtained the following returns from sales of stock and produce from his farm of 1,683 acres (including 300 acres sand hummocks) : — £ s. d. £ Chaff . 21 17 •- Eggs i^ 0 0 Young Stock (q Horses) . 160 3 6 Fruit and Vegetables >> q 6 "AVheat ... • =;i6 4 4 Horse Hair 2 0 0 Sheep Skins • 25 3 A ^Vool Clip .. 220 0 0 Tallow 5 2 6 Fat Steer 6 0 0 Pork • 54 17 q Honey and Wax 8 0 0 Total ■ • I I 7Q iS 6 Sheep 90 0 0 — At the present time the farm is carrying 1,032 sheep, 20 horses, and 8 head of cattle. There are 360 acres under wheat and oats and 104 acres fallowed. Evidences of prf)speritv can be seen in the well kept ■garden and orchard, lucerne paddocks, and the condition of the stock. &c. Btst 7,'orkei7 and managed farm over 100 acres, ond not exceeding 640 acres. Section. Maximum Points. C. Nowotna. G. A. Hoffmann A.— Cropping operation'*, including cultivation metiiods, rotation of crops, &c. B. — Manuring, aL to provide the dif- ferent ingredients in the correct proportions. For instance. 100 lbs. green lucerne contain i} lbs. more jirotein than a cow ran make use of. but it would take 164 lbs. to contain 12 lbs. rarbo-hvdrates, and this would increase the loss of protein to t,\ lbs. Again, with maize con- taining I per cent, protein, a cow would have to eat 250 lbs. to get the ri'ijuired amount of protein, but 100 lbs. green mai?e contain the right 48 Journal oj Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i- amount of carbo-hydrates. Then, if 250 lbs. are eaten, lyi lbs. carbo- hydrates go to waste ; or, in other words, for every ton of maize used, i\ tons are wasted, passing through the system unused. As it is a physical impossibility for a cow to eat much more than 100 lbs. of maize, a cow cannot eat sufficient in a day to provide her with sufficient protein to keep up her milk flow, if fed on maize alone. On lucerne she would give her full milk supply, but at an extravagant cost ; while, mixing the two, balances the ration and enables her to make full use of both. The following table is taken from the article on Feeding of Farm Animals by Dr. Cherry, which was published in the Year-Book of Agri- culture for 1905: — The Balanced Ration. Assuming that a Cow loeighing 1.000 Ihs. requires 100 Ihs. of Fodder per Day. 10 lbs. indigestible fibre ,, J- i- T , f 75 lbs. Wcater. 25 lbs. I 12 lbs. carbo-hvdrates. lbs. of fodder .,. ,. ^ .^ ,^^ 100 \ 25 lbs. dry matter. dry matter | 2h lbs. protein ilb. fat. DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 LBS. Feed Stuffs Qreen Fodder — ■ Barley Clover, Red . . Cocksfoot Grass Cow Pea Horse Bean Lucerne Maize Oats Rye Saltbush Sorghum Soya Bean . . Vetch Barley Clover Cocksfoot Grass Maize Oat Roots, dsc. — Apples Beet, leaves . . Beet, pulp . . Beet, Sugar Cabbage Carrots Mangolds Parsnips Pie Melon Potatoes Pumpkins Rape Turnips Dry Matter in 100 lbs. 210 29-2 27-0 16-4 15-8 200 20-7 37-8 23-4 23-5 20-6 24-9 19-9 260 28-0 230 24-6 28-0 19-2 12-0 10-2 11 7 21 9 14-0 9-5 Digestible Nutri ;nts in 100 lbs. Carbo- Protein. liydrates. Fa t. 1-9 10-2 4 2 9 14 8 / 1 5 11 4 5 1 8 8 7 2 2 2 7 1 2 3 7 7 3 0 1 0 11 6 4 2 6 18 9 1 0 2 1 14 1 4 2 5 9 2 3 6 12 2 4 3 2 11 0 5 3 9 7 3 5 1 8 12 7 9 2 0 13 6 1 0 1 1 10 6 1 0 1 8 13 5 6 1 5 14 8 9 7 16 6 4 1 7 4 6 4 6 7 3 0 1 G 11 9 1 1 8 8 2 4 8 7 8 2 1 1 5 4 1 1 6 11 2 2 7 3 5 6 9 16 3 1 1 0 5 8 3 1 5 8 1 2 1 0 7 2 2 Nutritive Batio. to Jan., 1911.] Mediterranean Flour Moth. 49 Digestible Nutrients in 100 lbs. Dry Matter in Feed Stuffs. 100 lbs. Carbo- Protein. hydrates. Fat. Hay- Barley 91-5 5-8 43 1 0 Clover, Red . . 84-7 6-8 35 8 7 Cow Pea 89-3 10-8 38 6 1 Lucerne 89- 1 12 3 37 1 0 Oat 89-9 4-5 43 7 5 Rye Grass . . 8()-0 61 37 8 2 Vetch 88-7 12-9 37 5 1 4 Wheat 91-2 3-6 46- 1 11 Straw — Barley 85 8 •7 41-2 G Oat 90 8 1-2 38-6 8 Pea 80 4 4-3 32-3 8 Soya Bean . . 89 6 2-3 40 0 1 1 Wheat 90-4 ■4 30-3 ■4 Grain and Seeds — ■ Barley 900 9 0 03-5 21 Cow Pea 8.5-2 18 3 54-2 11 Maize 89-4 7 8 66-7 4-3 Oats 89 0 9 2 47-3 4-2 Rice 87-7 5 3 67-0 •3 Soya Bean . . 89-2 29 6 22-3 14-4 Sunflower 92o 12 1 20-8 29-0 Wheat, old 91-7 13-7 47-6 1-4 Products — Brewer's Grains, wet . . 24-3 3-9 9 3 1 4 Cocoanut Oil Cake 85 9 16-4 42-2 9 1 Dried Blood . . 91 5 52-3 •0 2 5 Linseed Meal 89 I 26 1 38-5 6 5 Maize Meal . . 88 0 8-4 66-3 3 4 Malt Combing 94 ( 20 1 50-6 1 5 Oat Branning 95 4 14-9 51-8 1 9 Pea Meal 89 5 16-8 51-8 7 Peanut Meal 89 5 49-9 22-8 6 9 Wheat Bia!i 88 3 11-2 42-2 2 5 Pollard 88 3 12 2 53 4 3 8 Nutritive Ratio. 81 5-8 3-8 3-3 10-5 6-6 31 13-5 610 33-8 7-9 18-5 93-2 71 31 9-9 6-2 12-8 1-9 7-7 3-7 3-2 3-9 0-0 20 MEDITERllANEAX FLOUR MOTH. {EpJiesiia Kiihuiella, Zeller.) C. French, jiin., Assistant Government Entomologist. The Mediterranean Flour Moth i.s without doubt one of the most serious of insect pests that have troubled iiiillers in all parts of the world. It has obtained a firm hold in many flour mills in this State, and is spread- ing rapidly. One well-known miller, in a letter to me, says — " I am endeavouring to cope with the Flour Moths as they appear. All hands have been instructed to kill them. I go round the mill every morning and put up a .score for the men to Ijeat. We average i,ooo moths per day. I think by this means we will keep them under." The larvaj of these moths work in thi- bags of flour anTl form coverings over them.selves. These coverings or webs sometimt\s fill the machines, with the result that it is necessary to stop operations and clean out. The 5° Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i. delays cause no end of trouble to the millers and, in addition, the excreta from the caterpillars has a tendency to slightly discolour the flour. X. JEA. "^rilLA. L. C. VAir ANDERSEN, DEL. C. FRENCH, DIREXrr. MEDITERRANEAN FLOUR MOTH. {Ephestia Kuhniella, Zeller.) The webbing also clogs up the elevators and spouts, and even the pulleys in some mills are a solid mass of webbing. lo Jan., 191 1 ■] Tobacco Culture. 51 According to various writers on Entomology, the life history of this moth is as follows: — The eggs hatch in six days and the larvae live about a month, when they pupate. They exist from one to three weeks or longer in the pupal stage, according to the temperature, after which they change to the perfect moth. The average number of eggs laid by the moth may be roughly estimated at a hundred. In some latitudes, there are five broods per year ; and in warmer latitudes more. Based upon these facts, we find that at the end of the season one female moth may become the ancestor of 625,000,000 in the fifth brood, not counting those in the four preceding broods. The principal means of spreading this destructive insect is through old grain sacks. Before being taken into the mill, sacks should be shaken up loosely and thrown into a tank of boiling water and allowed to remain in same for a quarter of an hour. Failing this treatment, the sacks should be fumigated with bi-sulphide of carbon, or hydrocyanic acid gas. The boiling water is, however, the simplest and cheapest method. The hydrocyanic acid gas treatment of infested mills has proved very success- ful, but great care must be taken in its use; the fumes from it are deadly. Any person who intends fumigating with it should first communicate with the Entomologist, and obtain full particulars as to the quantity of cyanide of potassium, &c. Bi-sulphide of carbon has also been used with good results, but it has a tendency to make the flour sticky and, when it is in sacks, the flour adheres to them. When fumigating, all openings should be sealed up, so that the fumes cannot escape. Great care must be taken that no light is used in the buildings during the course of treatment. When finished, open all doors and windows so as to admit the fresh air. It would be advisable not to enter the mill until all the fumes are gone. Explanation of Plate. I. Flour showing clusters of cocoons, pupae, and perfect insect. II. Larvae. I la. Larva in cocoon. HI. Pupae. Ilia. Pupae in cocoon. IV. Perfect insects. V. „ ,, restins. Natural size. From Nature. Since the foregoing was written. Mr. W. W. Froggatt, Government Entomologist of Xew South Wales, has contributed a most interesting article on the same subject to the Agricultural Gazette of Neiv South Wales. Millers, especially, are strongly advised to read it. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smitli. Tobacco Expert. {Co>itiriued from page 753, Vol. TV//.) Seed Beds — continued. The time for sr)\ving seed will ilipfiid on the climatic conditions nntler which the grower is living, but, as a general rule, the first beds should lie seeded in very early spring. It is wi.se lo have earlv plants in case a dry early summer follows, but the old practice of .sowing beds in the first week of July, especially in the 0\ens and King River vallevs. is a mis- taken oiv. Tobacco st>e(l will not germinate until the .soil warms. Con- sequently, .seed .sown before the winter is over will sinipiv remain dormant luitil suitablr warmth causes tlifui to gcrminatf ; even if thev do start to 52 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i- grow, and a cold change follows, they are liable to a check which is not good for a tobacco plant at any time. Meantime, weeds will grow and a fair amount of labour will be re- quired to keep the beds clean. Further, beds sown in the first week in August will provide plants generally as early as those seeded a month earlier. As before stated, the seed will take from ten days to six weeks to germinate, according to the weather and heat conditions, which fact alone explains the fallacy of too early sowing. There is, however, one very hnportant system in connexion with sow- ing seed beds which is not given the attention it deserves by Victorian growers ; and that is, the necessity for sowing late beds in Order to make sure of a crop in the event of any disaster overtaking the earlier sown beds. An unexpected late frost, or heavy hailstorm, or worse than either, the one serious disease known to tobacco growers in this State — Blue Mould — may make a clean sweep of the plants, and leave the grower without the means of producing a crop. This disease, of which more will be said later on, makes its appearance in cold wet changeable weather followed by humid muggy conditions, generally attacking the plants just previous to, or when they are ready to transplant. Many treatments have been tried, both in respect to the soil in which the plants are grown and al.'-.o- to the plants themselves, with the object of finding a cure, or prevention, without success. The only reliable system is to seed fresh beds directlv the disea.se appears so as to have later plants to take the place of those destroyed. Beds can be sown up to the first week in No\ember with a good chance of the plants being of use ; but one relay of beds should always be sown about the end of October, whether the mould has appeared or not, in order to be on the safe side. In warm weather, plants can be raised in six weeks, ready to transplant, e.specially if quick-growing varieties are used, such as, Hester, Conqueror, and Comstock. The Mould, which nearly always makes its appearance in seasons that are conducive to developing rust in wheat, seldom attacks the very late plants. As it is possible to transplant up to the end of the year, and into the middle of January in some districts, it will be seen that the precaution of sowing late beds should not be neglected. In some seasons. Blue Mould but slightly attacks the plants the leaf only being affected. When this occurs the beds should not be watered, but the sun should be allowed free access to the plants and they will, provided weather conditions are suitable, often recover. The heart of the plant will be found to make fresh growth and fresh roots appear. Some of the plants should be examined carefully, to ascertain whether the disease has gone too far for successful transplanting, by pulling some and cutting across with a sharp knife at the junction of the stem with the root. If a brown or black ring be found inside the plant, it is useless to transplant, but. if the majority are clean and healthy the balance of the plants can be put out in the field. Late transplanting has its advantages as well as disadvantages. Amongst the former we find that, where plants are put out in the field towards the end of December, they are less subject to cutworm and caterpillar pests. Also, there is less work with weeding and the quality of the leaf grown is generally better owing to the fact that the crop is less liable to a check from cold weather than when transplanted early. The disadvantages are that, unless the ground has been carefully pre- pared and cultivated, there will be insufficient moisture and watering will TO Jan., 191 1 •] Tobacco Culture. 53 be necessary, and, in districts where early frosts, say in April, are preva- lent, there is danger of loss from that cause. The yield per acre also is somewhat lighter, owing to the necessity for cutting some of the tobacco before it is thoroughly ripe. The difference in the yield may amount to 2 cwt. per acre, but the saving in labour in weeding, cultivation, and at- tention to insect pests, can be set off as against the loss of weight. The time to water seed beds is much discussed by growers. The Chinese believe in watering both in the morning and evening, but many European growers prefer the evenings only. The latter, I think, is the safer plan. Watering in the morning under a hot sun causes a steamy condition liable to cause mould ; and al.so scald the plants to some extent. There is also a quick and heavy loss of moisture by evaporation. If the beds are covered with straw, or hessian, watering in the evening is best, and no fear of a chill need be anticipated if care is taken not to water in \ery cold weather. If possible it is better to use water from a running .stream in preference to stagnant or well water. The use of liquid manures is not advisable, unless it is necessary to facilitate the growth of backward plants. A safe system is to water only when the plants show signs of drooping. This wull insure hardier plants. This applies to plants half grown ; only very young plants require the soil kept continuously moist. Preparation of the Soil Before Transplanting. This is a matter that is of great importance for tobacco growing in our climate. When it is remembered that tobacco is a summer crop, growing only through the four hottest months of the year and that these four months are, generally speaking, the period of least rainfall, too much at- tention cannot be gi\en to the conser\ation of moisture in the soil, especi- ally where late planting is followed. We do not enjoy the same regular rainfall that is prevalent in Sumatra and other leading tobacco countries, during the summer months. At the same time, tobacco is successfully produced in .some places where the rainfall is very light. In the season / 908-09. a fair crop was grown in the King and Ovens valleys, the rain- fall from the 17th of October to the end of March being under 3 inches. Further crops have been produced with practically no rainfall during the growing period, without assistance from irrigation. Such a result can only ^)e brought al>out by a thorough system of cultivation before and during the growth of the crop. The field in which it is intended to grow tobacco should be cleared of all trees that are liable to shade the crop too much. All dead trees recently ring-barked should be removed as the falling dry limbs are liable to break down the growing plants ; to say nothing of the danger to the men work- ing under them. Stumps left in the field will not interfere with the crop, but are a considerable nuisance when ploughing, transplanting, and hoe- ing between the rows. Fallowing, either in the autumn i)r early s[)ring. should be practised for various rea.sons. Tobacco likes a sweet condition of soil, and will not grow .so readily, nor produce as good quality, in an acid soil. A fallow, when possible, should tht-refore alwavs be given to the land. .\gain, seeing that it is a summer crop, all the moisture that can be stored up in the .soil should be conserved and the fallow will more readily admit the rains of winter and spring. Directly the warm weather sets in, a cul- tivator, harrow, or plough should be u.sed to keep the surface loose and prevent evaporation, which, as Campbell, in his work on Dry Farming, states, will take place at the rate of a r]uart to a quart and a half per 54 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. square foot in twenty-four hours, equal to about half-an-inch of rain per acre per day. Constant working of the surface soil, in order to keep a friable con- dition to a depth of two or three inches, will break the rising soil moisture by capillary movement to the surface, and thus prevent evaporation. The growth of weeds will also be prevented and the larvse of insect pests de- stroyed ; while the sweetening effect on the soil, by admitting air and sunshine, will be greatly improved. Tobacco is a fairly deep-rooting plant ; consequently, it is advisable tc* plough deeply where the surface soil is sufficiently deep to allow of such a practice. This will make a better water storage and enable the plant to send its roots down more easily to the subsoil, and thereby enable it to obtain a better supply of moisture during a dry period. The surface roots of the plant are the main feeders, however, and cultivation after planting must be shallow. Just previous to transplanting, it is wise to plough about 5 inches deep, and harrow immediately after the plough. That is to say, after ploughing in the morning, be sure to harrow before leaving the land ex- posed to the sun during the dinner hour ; also harrow the newly ploughed land in the evening before leaving for the night. This will keep the soil moisture in and the land will be found to harrow down much better. Some growers run a light roller over the land after the harrow and just before planting. This will certainly leave the ground looking nice; but if the roller is heavy enough to leave a caked surface on the soil, it is better either not to roll at all, or if the roller has been used, to run a set of light harrows over afterwards. {To be continued.) IRRIGIATION. G. H. TolJey, Manager, Wyuna Irrigation Farm. {Continued from page 689, Vol. VIII.) Grading and Smoothing. The next operation is grading and smoothing the surface, and to any one proposing to irrigate without doing this I say most emphatically, don't. With a well graded surface most of the toilsome mucky work of irrigating disappears. There will always be some, and the irrigator should save his old boots and make up his mind to wet feet. Having now brought the land to a fine tilth, set out the pegs and taken the levels, as previously described, mark on each of those pegs the amount of cutting and filling required, or dab them with black or white paint respectively. It is a ready guide to the grader, and saves reference to the plan. In most of the Goulburn Valley soils very little grading is permissible; the sub.soil is too near the surface, and it might perhaps be more correct to refer to it as smoothing. In the great majority of cases this is really all that is necessary, and therefore the expense is light. And in that connexion it is well to remember that when it is once done it is not very likely that much subsequent work will be necessary. When it is required, it is generally in the case of fiUed-in crab holes and other depressions which, unless well crowned up, will invariably sink after a few irrigations. Where low crab-holey ground is to be treated, it is good practice to take off two or three cereal or other crops first. The constant stirring of and traffic over the land, and the accumulation of lo Jan., ipii-] Irrigation. :):> stubble and wind-blown matter in the depressions, go a long way towards filling them naturally, and therefore there is less shifting of an already shallow soil. Grading for orchards where irrigation is by means of furrows need not be quite so perfect as when an area is to be flooded. There are many tools suitable to the work, chief amongst which is the buckscraper, and a little study of the plans, specifications, and photo- graphs here given will explain the modus operandi. An expert user of A— y c- I J T f>:-^". ^_j_S _Ei Strap 3"-^ ;^ x2C Fi rets spaced 3 '■* f{ \b ^'y^' }-B 4-.Z - 3x3 Hardtvoatf— O ^f^iyets Spaced 4-" 1> ^) 2 - ~Ji f/T(/.» Jh boHpm //("^ stee/ phtv in otie piecf Back 'U ' i^ff^ p/a^e Afi^/e iron //j" x^k J4. STKEI. BUCKSCRAPER. SEVEN FEET SIZE. GENERAL PLAN. the machine will in many ca.ses require no other tool whatever. Primarily, it may be described as a widened scoop, but it has this advantage that when being emptied the spoil may either be dumped as in scoop work, or spread in a film evenly over the surface to such depth as may be required, or as the skill of the ojjorator will permit. The chief knack in using the machine is in tlit> manipulation of the handle and rope. For forming 56 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 i. roads, banks, and shallow channels it is the most efficient tool I know of. Made in steel it costs ^7, and in wood jQ6. The buckscraper is worked with four horses coupled in pairs to facili- tate slewing. Usually two men are required, one to drive the team and the other to operate the machine, but an expert w-ith a steady team of horses used to^ the work will manage it by himself. Raising or depres- sing the handle will regulate the depth of cut taken and when the scraper is full it can be hauled to wherever filling is required. It is then raised to practically a vertical position when the more the handle is allowed to incline towards the team the greater the amount of spoil tipped, and vice wcrsd, the amount of incline being regulated by means of the rope. It J down & bolted '^Rad. 2% i holes for eyebo/l' it 4 of chain \ Hardwood rillin6 hiece. d ' 25. BUCKSCRAPER. SECTION AT A.B. will be noted in the drawings that there are several bolt holes provided for regulating the draught and a few trials will soon discover which point will best suit the work. A very small change in position makes all the difference in comfort and efficiency of working. SecMon aS- CO 'iff ^EM 26. BUCKSCRAPER. SECTION AT CD. In grading w'ork where several inches or feet of soil have to be shifted there is no cheaper or better method, and I have had cases in the Mallee where it became necessary to shift from 3 feet to 5_ feet of the surface, and without doing any injury. Larger or smaller sizes can be had from the makers. Following the scraper comes the smoother, and this will be the tool most generally used, if not the only one. Plans, specifications, and photo- graphs of the machine at work will, it is hoped, make the working clear. lo Jan., 1911-] Irrigation. 57 It is drawn by four horses coupled in pairs, and costs in steel ^^^5, and, in wood, ^3 15s. It will be noticed that the cutting edge is set at an angle like the blade of a plane ; in fact, the machine may be called an earth plane. For the benefit of the farmer who may decide to make i;i ( K M !■ M'l i'. 111,11. his own smoother I would ask particular attention to this angle or certain disappointment will follow. \Mi M'KKADINO 'l"hf whole of (he work is done hv thr dri\cr moving his weight back- wards or forwards along the platforiu. When a good " bite " is wanted lie conies as far forward as possible, and accor() to simplify their t-onstruction. It is rarely th;it there are not .some surtacc inequalities left, even with tlie 6o Journal oj A floriculture. Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911, best of grailin^;-. and tlu'sc are most etYwtiwly dealt with by the passage, backwards and lorwai-ds across the whole of the field, of the smoother durinj; the ImildiiiL;- of the rhec;ks. 3^. LAND LOUVRE GRADER. Drawing No. 34 on page 61 will more clearly illustrate what is meant. It indicates a lield marked out read}- for grading and making the checks when the general grading is finished. To facilitate arriving at a final deter- mination as to how the field shall be graded, level contour lines are drawn, ^ ^ mostly at intervals of 3 inches \ qV ' 3^ ^ f ' T> change in elevation, and a -^\ — *- - \ — "• r graphic representation of the ^ \ ^^ surface is obtained, from which ^ ». ^ >" ^ ^^"'^ ^^y ^^ the land is obvious ■ v- ■< - A ^ '^ _ J a^^ _ without reference to the figures. Where the lines approach ^ \ ^ closely. there the fall is '^. r^ ^ -^ \ 3^ ^ ■>** quickest, and vice versa. These - i? - -. < -^ \ ^ - -\ — lines are located by a&suming '■ ^ \ \ that the surface inclination be- 33. FALL, INDICATED BY ARROW HEADS. ^^^^^^'^ contiguous pegS is regu- lar and arrivmg at the position proportionately. A little study of the drawing will make this apparent. It is an assistance also in arriving at a conclusion to mark a serie.s of arrow-heads along the dotted lines, in the direction of the fall. When they do not continue in one direction, some earth must be removed until they do. By starting with the smoother from the point A and working straight towards B and returning over the same route, the whole surface is tra- versed. The checks at XYZ are formed during the operation by picking up a thin film of earth from the surface between the checks and depositing it at the furrows. This film will be greater or less in places, according to whatever slight irregularities of surface may remain, and the quantity will be subject to the judgment of the grader. Upon the first passage of the smoother from A to B the loads' deposited at XYZ will appear as shown in No. 35, and upon the return journey the check will be com- pleted and appear as in No. 36, and present no obstacle afterwards to the passage of implements. The check can be made such height within limits as the operator may think desirable, but as a general rule 6 inches is enough, and this after a few irrigations and harvestings will consolidate to about 4 inches. Another advantage of making checks in this manner is that the whole surface may be sown. Many people are in the habit of sowing first Irrigation. 6r lurrows. the — ^-"^ lo Jan.. 191 1 .] and making theii checks afterwards by ploughing two fur- row.s, backing one up against the other as in No. 37. It is most unsightly and ineffective, water is wasted in the area sown is diminished, the pas- sage of implements is at lea.st hindered, time is lost in har- \esting through ha\- ing to deal with the areas between •checks separately, and, lastly. the crown from want •of consolidation is gradually washed and trodden into the furrows until it disappears. In the drawing under consideration, the head ditch (de- riving its supplv from the main chan- nel running parallel with it), is shown along the side marked AB, the laml was graded flat between the checks and so that the direction of flow of w.iter is Avestwarfls. Other check banks were ,^ made along the sid?s AC, CD. 34. FIELD SET OUT FOR GRADING. Interval t liock Hanks iiiarkeil A'.. I'-.Z. chS^ sur/o^e D and BD, and as the boundaries '"""'""""' there were fenced another method of making them 2il. AFTER FIRST I'A.SSAGE OF -SMOOTHER. . . ,^ . was miperative. I wo furrows were ploughed along these lines and the checks thrown up by means of the crowder, which will be described 1 it.r. The machine was run along the furrows twice and very little rrrrTTTTrmTtt 36. COMPLETED CHECK BANK. shovel work was afterwards neces-// sary to make a perfect job. This left an open furrow or ditch running along three sides of the ploi ■'Useful drain lor riiiiniiiL: off anv 111(1 outside thereof, and serves as a excess water, which from the levels r shown, will be noticed to concen- / V rrrrr,, „ „rr„ rrr^ -, u aW at tile poMit O aiKi c.scapo nito UNSATi.SKACTORY CHECK BANK. the Waste ditih there provided. ■ r-r' > 'rTrrrrn 37- r^ There is much misconception as to the proper location of checks but. generally spe, iking. th'V shouM lie at about right angK's to the contours. 62 Journal of AgriciiUure, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1911. and parallel with the direction of flow of water. If the ground is very flat, transverse checks may also be desirable. Not long since, a ca.se occurred where a land-owner called in a qualified engineer to design a scheme for grading and irrigating a considerable area preparatory to its being laid down to lucerne. The work was well done with the one ex- ception of locating the checks and, unfortunately, the error was not dis- covered until the owner began to irrigate. The land possessed a moderate slope and the checks were placed along the face of it and at right angles to the flow of water. The sketch showing the ground in section will illus- trate what happened. 38. RESULT OF WRONG LOCATION OF CHECKS. The water was let in from the head ditch at A and when it reached the check it simply filled up to its natural level as shown by the dotted line, not only not doing an atom of good but super-saturating the sub- merged land and drowning the lucerne. On slopes such as the.se, where a body of water would travel fast, it is good practice to water slowly with a small stream to .secure a good wetting. And to help to that end the seed should, if possible, be drilled in at right angles to the flow. When the plants are grown a little they offer a good check to the water and assist very materially in insuring even distribution. To grade land well, or even to grade it at all, has been the despair of many a farmer who other- wise would have become a successful irrigationist, and it is to this fact that much of the neglect to fully utilize our stored waters is to be attri- buted. There are few jobs calculated to break a man's heart so quickly as irrigating an ungraded or badly graded tract of land and, owing mainly to want of facilities for learning the whole art of practical irrigation, many desirable aspirants .shrink from incurring labour and expense, the isuccess of which appears to them so doubtful. My advice to any individual contemplating the development of country under irrigation is to place no reliance upon any man who may be com- petent only to determine levels and lay out lines of channels, but prefer- ably and even at greater expense to secure the services of some specialist who has had the benefit of thorough practical experience. The initial expense may l)e higher than most farmers care to face ; but, seeing that a well -graded paddock will require no further expenditure for a number of years and that its irrigation is rendered a comparatively easy task, there should be no hesitation about .securing the best assistance available. {To be continued.) ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott. Principal, School of Horticulture , Burnley. The Orchard. During the months of January and February the soil surface should be kept in as loose and friable a condition as possible. The work will be extremely easy this season, owing to the frequent r?ins that have occurred. The surface must not be allowed to become hard or caked ; and, to prevent lo Jan., 1911-] Orchard and Garden Notes. 63 this, the harrows and scarifier will need to be in constant use. The surface should also be well cultivated as soon as possible after each irriga- tion. By these means a good supply of soil water is retained and the trees do not suffer during any stress of hot or windy weather. The orchard should be kept free of weeds and useless growths ; all suckers should be hoed out, and nothing left that would rob the trees of any moisture what- ever. Where the orchard is irrigated, a good watering should be given to the trees after each picking, so as to improve the quality of any fruit remain- ing on the tree. Unless the soil is well drained, a heavy flooding should not be resorted to. Spraying. The Codlin Moth is prevalent this season, and spraying for this insect will require to be very thorough. A spraying should be given during the second week in January, and another in a month's time. All infected fruit should be picked from the tree or gathered from the ground and destroyed by boiling. It is a common practice among orchardists to place the infected fruit in heaps, and attempt to destroy the larvae by building a fire on top of the fruit. This method cannot be too strongly condemned, as it is almost inevitable that a nurnber of larvae will escape. The only way to properly deal with such fruit by burning is to have it burned in a furnace ; failing this, boiling is the surest method of extermination when the larvae are in the fruit. The caterpillars and chrysalids should be searched out of their hiding-places, under the bark, in the crevices of the tree, &c. All bandages should be well cleaned, and no chance whatever given to the insects to develop into the second brood. Further analyses of various brands of Arsenate of Lead were published in last month's Journal, and the grower is always advised to study these figures before purchasing his spraying material. In South Australia, an Act has been passed to regulate the sale of insecticides and fungicides. The provisions of the Act are on the same lines as the Artificial Manures Act now in force in Victoria. That there is a necessity for this, not only in South Australia, is shown by the fact that, during the pre.sent season, as well as previously, complaints have been received of injuries done to trees as a result of spraying with various mixtures now on the market. The Act provides that a standard may be fixed, both minimum and maxi- mum, for all insecticides or fungicides ; for the issue of an invoice showing the percentage of any ingredient, and for the publication of analyses. By these means it is anticipated that a much better quality of spraying mixtures will be placed on the market. Owing to the cool weather experienced during this season. Woolly A])his is becoming abundant, particularly in sheltered situations. It is advisable to free the trees as much as possible of this pest now ; as, if left till the winter, it will destroy a large number of buds on the tree. A strong tolincro solution, any lime spray, resin wash, or kerosene emulsion, will easily kill the insect. Fumigation. Citrus and other evergreen trees that are attacked by scale insects should be freed from the .scale at this time. Although spraving with >u(ii mixtures as resin compound, crude pctroltuin rnnilsion. sulphur, lime, and salt 64 Journal of Agricidture, Victoria. [10 Jan., 1911. emulsion, will do good work in keeping scale insects in check, the only effective means of complete eradication is b}' fumigation. The trees are enclosed in a tent that will prevent the escape of anv gas through its texture. The gas is generated inside the tent, and the tent is kept ov-en the tree for a period of from half to three-quarters of an hour. The best remedy is hydrocyanic acid gas, which is generated by placing cyanide- of potassium in a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. Both the cyanide and the gas are deadly poisons, and every care should he exercised in using them. Budding. January and February are the best months for carrying out budding operations. In budding, the work should not be performed unless the bark separates very freely from the wood ; all cuts should be perfectly clean and free from rags and fibres. After a lapse of three or four weeks after budding, the ties may be cut, and the bud may either be allowed to start into new growth by cutting away all wood above it, or it may be- left dormant until the following spring. It is generally conceded that a better and stronger tree will result if the bud is allowed to remain dormant during the winter, as the time of growth is too short to prntluce a good result in the autumn. "Vegetable Garden. Keep the surface continually loose, hoe out all weeds, mulch when necessary, and give abundant supplies of water to growing plants. Manure and dig over all vacant plots for succession crops ; plant out seedlings of cabbage, celery, cauliflower, lettuce, &:c., and plant seeds of peas, cabbage, cauliflower, turnip and leek. In watering at this time of the year, a better result will be obtained if an occasional overhead spray is given. A planting of potatoes may be made for an autumn crop. FloA^^er G-arden. As in the orchard, the principal cultural operation is the work of keeping the surface in the condition of a constant earth mulch by hoeing. The surface .should be frequently hoed, and it will be found that the more culti- vation is given the less water the plants will require. Mulchings, in the shape of nianure, straw, grass, clippings from lawns. &c., may be used on the flower beds. Mulchings should not be used indiscriminately, the requirements of the plant being considered before the mulch is applied. If the plant is entering upon a period of rest, such mulchings as grass or straw may be used. Manure should not be used as a mulch unless it is intended that the latter should be a stimulant as well as a protection for the roots. All tall-growing plants, such as chrysanthemums, dephiniums, and dahlias, should be staked so as to protect them from winds ; they should be well mulched and fed and their growth should be continued throughout. A sharp lookout should be kept for attacks on these plants of Red Spider ; if this insect appears, a good spraying with tobacco solution or benzole emulsion should be given to the plants. Caterpillars of all de.scriptions should also be kept in check with Pans Green. Gladioli may now be planted for autumn blooms ; Iceland Poppy and Pansy seeds, ahso seeds of perennial and biennial plants may be sown. RE]VIIHDEHS FOR FEBRURRY. LIVE STOCK. Horses : — At Grass. — Supplemctit dry grass, if ))ossi))lc, with some greenstuff. Provide plenty of pure water and shade shelter. Instable. — Supplement hard feed with some greenstuff, carrots, or the like, and give a hran mash once a week at least. Avoid over-stimulating foods, suck as maize and barley. Give hard feed in quantities only con- sistent with work to be performed. Stable should be well ventilated and kept clean. Remove manure promptly to a sufficient distance. Exclude flics. Wlien at work, give water at short intervals. Always water before feeding. Cattle : — For milking cows the footl should be of a succulent nature. Water should be pure, plentiful, and easily accessible. Provide shade sheltei- and salt licks. Keep milking sheds and feed boxes scrupulously clean. Remove attractions foi' flies. Care should be taken that the remainder of the cows required to calve next spring should he served this month. Calves. — If succulent feed not available, they should be given milk until green grass a)i])cars. Their condition will thtis be maintained and cnaldc them to winter well. Pigs : — If hard fed. some green vegetable food should be added. Give an oimce of Epsom salts in the feed occasionally ; also a handful of charcoal. Water baths are appreciated in hot weather. Keep, free from lice by bi-ushing occasionally wifli an oil brush. Sheep : — Froni the middle of month all in-lamb ewes and good merino sheep should be kept in good heart until the break up of the season. Oats or shoit oaten hay. thinly S))read in a circle, is found best. Salt laid near good water assists the digestion of dry grass. Disturb sheep as little as possible during the dry months. POULTKV : — Male biids should be kept separate from 1 lie liens. Keep water in cool ]>la(t'. Give di)\d)le quantity of green feed. To assist young hens in the moult add a little linseed meal and sidphur to (uash three times a week. The more range they get now will also be beneficial. Gathei- eggs twice daily. Get rid of all old hens. S])ray perches and houses with solution of crude carbolic acid and soap suds (about 2.V per cent, acid) ; kerosene will also destroy the mites. CULTIVATION. Farm : — .\s soon as liarvesting operations are (■oni])lcted. thoronuhly tultivate slublile and fallow lands. Cart out, spread, and plough in stai)le manure on land to l)e sown with winter fodder crojis and ])otatoes. Dress and grade all seed giains ready for sowing. Sow rape and swede turnips, and if ground is workable and contains sufficient moisture, sow the following mixture: — 1 bushel stout AVhite Oats, 1 l>ushel t"ai)e Jiarley, .1 luishel \'etches, atul .1 bushel Tick Beans per acre, for greca fodder to cut during early winter montlis. Orchard : — Spray frequently for Codlin Moth. Scaiili (»ut and destroy all larvie. Cultivate the surfa^ e and irrigate when necessaiy. Fumigate evergreen trees for scale. Continue budding. FldwekGarde.v : — Cidtivate the surfaic and water thoroughly during hot weather. Stnumer-pnuio roses by thinning out the weak wood and ply sulphur. OiUar-i. — Pre|)are all plant and casks for the coming vintage. An ounce to a bucket of Bisulphite of Potash in the water used lo swell press platforms, tubs. Sir., will help to keep it sweet. Keep cellai-s as cool as possible ; opening doors at niglii and closing during the day will lulp in this direction. G^- :r. THE JOURNAL The Separtment of Agriculture or- VICTORIA. NEW VOLUME COMMENCES WITH THIS ISSUE. APPLY AT ONCE To Local Ne^vs Agent, or forw^ard subscription to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. Subscription (3s. per annum) should be remitted by Postal Note or Cheque. ONION CULTURE. Vol. IX. FRUIT PRESERVING. Part 2. rRptristered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] ->-N ONION CULTURE. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subsuription—Viotoria, Inter-State, and N.Z., 3/-; British and Foreign, 6/-.) TH^; JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENTM)F^AGRICULTURE. A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— FEBRUARY, 1911. PAGB. Onion Culture ... ... ... ... ... ... E. E. Peacott 65 Phosphoric Acid in Relation to Australian Soils and Vegetation T. Cherry 71 Examination of Artificial Manures ... ... ... ... W. C. Rohertnon 75 Tobacco Culture (co?tp was the heaviest, averaging 18 tons per acre. It is unfortunate that the onion eel-worm has obtained such a strong hold in the Bellarine soil, as there is no doubt that the district is second I894:{. <: 66 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. to none for the production of onions; and lan(J that would be worth ^100 per acre for onion-growing is now only valued at from ^35 to £,^o, owing to the devastating influence of this scourge. Soil. Onions may be grown successfully in various types of soil, from a sandy loam to a heavy volcanic soil ; a lighter loam is the better but the soil must be a rich one — the richer the soil, the better the crop. The success of the onion crop depends as much on the fertility of the soil as on anything practically the only ferti- lizer Used. In Iilaho. nitratr of soda at the BROWN SPANI.SI1 "' rate of joo to po lbs. 70 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., igii. per acre is largely used. This amount is fed to the crop in three or four sowings, at intervals of two or three weeks, the first application being made when the onions have grown to the size of an ordinary lead-pencil. The nitrate of soda is always applied during the growing season. As the result of some extensive manuring experiments carried out at the New Mexico College of Agriculture, U.S.A., lasting over a term of five years (1905-9), it was found that the best manure for onions was nitrate of soda ; an application of 300 lbs. per acre increased the crop by over 4 tons per acre. An application at the rate of 600 lbs. per acre in- creased the crop at the rate of nearly 8 tons per acre. In Northern Indiana, onions are principally grown in drained swamp lands, which are composed of rich black soil from 3 to 8 feet deep. There, 1,000 pounds, of commercial fertilizer is used containing 5 per cent, nitrogen, 6 per cent, phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent, potash. Later on, dressings of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia are given. In the Gulf coast States of America, onions are largely grown and the yield averages 300 bushels per acre. The fertilizer in use in those districts is composed of : — Sulphate of Ammonia (25 per cent.) ... ... ... 200 lbs. Dried Blood ... .. .. ... ... 300 n Cotton-seed Meal ... ... ... ... ... 300 // Acid Phosphate ... ... ... ... ... 800 // Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) ... ... ... 40c // It will thus be seen that the necessary fertilizer for onions is one in which nitrogen predominates ; at the same time, an occasional dressing with potash is beneficial. As stated previously, the onion is generally considered to be a surface feeder. Therefore, any chemical fertilizer used should not be ploughed deeply into the soil — all food supplies should be near the surface. At the same time, some growers regard it as a deep- rooting plant ; and, on some volcanic soils which crack considerably during the summer, onion roots have been found at a depth of 4 feet from the surface. Varieties. The variety most extensively grown in Victoria is the Brown Spanish, w^hich, in addition to its fine flavour, also possesses very excellent keeping qualities. An early variety of the Brown Spanish is now on the market, which has the reputation of ripening at least three weeks earlier than the- ordinary kind. This variety has not been tried extensively in Victoria, but a small plot, which has been planted at the Burnley Gardens for trial purposes, up to the time of writing, shows this early variety to be true to- its reputed characteristic. The varieties which are largely grown in America are the Red and White Bermudas, for early onions, and Yellow Globe Danvers for general requirements ; other varieties are Wethersfield, a medium large onion, red- coloured and strong-flavoured ; Prizetaker, a large globe-shaped yellow onion of a mild flavour; Ailsa Craig, a very popular onion, large and handsome, of a pale brown colour, only a fair keeper, but a good exhibi- tion onion ; Spanish Silver Globe, a mild early onion, not possessing any keeping qualities ; Early Golden Globe, one of the largest and a magnifi- cent exhibition onion, ripening early and keeping well. Of the largest known onions, two Spanish-Italian varieties are grown; these are the Giant Rocca and the Flat Red Rocca, and both are particularly mild in flavour. One of the most popular onions in the Western American States is a variety known as Australian Brown. It is not definitely known in Australia what this variety is, but it is supposed to ha^■e originated from some seed sent to- America from Australia, probably from seed of the Brown Spanish variety. lo Feb., 1911-] Pliosflioric Acid in Relaiionto Soils andVegeiaiion. 71 Harvesting. Onions are harvested from January to March, according to location. By means of the skimmer, the blades of which run along a couple of inches -below the surface, all of the onions are removed from the soil. The onions are ready for harvesting when the tops begin to turn yellow and wither. Harvesting operations may be carried out when approximately two-thirds of the crop have reached that stage. The practice of breaking down the tops gives no practical results, ex- cept that the bulbs mature earlier; and the idea that as a result of this, the sap will be restricted, and the bulbs will increase in size, is an erroneous •one. In Nature's own time, the tops will bend over and so restrict the iiap and keep it in the bulbs. In late districts, so as to harvest the crop before any excessive autumn rains set in, it may be necessary to break the tops by aid of a small roller, so as to hasten the ripening of the crop. In Arizonaj and other central localities of the United States, it is the usual practice to break the tops, so as to get an early crop ; it is considered that the loss from the reduced yield will usually be more than made up by the higher prices for an earlier crop. If the crop is at all backward, the tops may be broken to hasten the ripening ; but it must be emphasized that the best onion crops are those that ripen without any artificial aid whatever. After the skimmer has removed the crop from the soil, and the onions have been raked into rows, they are allowed to remain in the fields for .several days to cure. The bulbs should not be left too long in the open as, if left on the ground until they are dry, the first or outside skin becomes hard and peels off. Should any .seed-heads appear at any time during the growth of the crop, they must be broken out, as they render the quality •of the bulb very inferior. After curing, the bulbs are stored in large crates, built for the purpose, or in barns. Stored onions should be kept thoroughly dry as any moisture will cause them to sprout and germinate. PllOSl^nOlUC ACID IN RELATION TO AUSTRALIAN SOILS AND VEGETATION.* T. Cherry, M.D., M.S., Director of Agriculture. In the Ycar-Book of Agriculture for 1905, and, subsequently, in my address as President of Section G of this Association, at the Adelaide meeting, 1907, I attempted to formulate the results of our investigations •concerning the chief chemical plant foods of the soils of Victoria. The present paper is an extension and amplification of the same investigations. In generalizing about our soils, it must be remembered that large areas of extremely rich volcanic and recent alluvial soils do not exhibit the same characters in regard to phosphoric arid that we find in the soils of average fertility and productiveness. Witli this proviso, the general pro- positions laid down are — (i) That nitrogen is relatively al>und;int, l)eing pre.sent usually to the extent of .1 per cent., and often to doui)le that amount. Except in districts of h.cavy rainfall (over 35 inches fairly evenly distributed throughout tlu- year), it is present in forms very readily available for the plant. • TapiT read nt Sycliioy iiiootinK ol the .Australasian .Vssocintlon for the Adv.inreinent of Science — Jnnunrv, I'.MI. 7- ] oiirnal of Agriculture .Victoria. [lo Feb.. ipii- (2) That phosphoric acid is singularly deficient, both in totat amount and in the percentage readily soluble in weak acids. Generally speaicing, there is not the same difference in the amounts present in the surface soib and the subsoil as is found in typical soils in Europe and America. The average total amount is about .06 per cent. (3) That potash is generally present in fairly large amounts, com- pared with the phosphoric acid, except on the recent alluvial soils near the sea coast. The amount present shows much' greater variations than is the case with the nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Its average amount varies from .2 to- .4 per cent., and even up to i per cent. The results of the analyses of '702 samples of soil show that in 350 cases the amount of phosphoric acid is less than .05 per cent. ; in 214 cases between .05 per cent, and .1 per cent. ; in 74 between .1 and .15 per cent., and in 64 cases over .15 per cent. The area of the State, corresponding to soils exhibiting these various quantities of phosphoric acid, is not, however, proportional to the above numbers. We have been working chiefly on the poorer .soils, and, consequently, the number of analy.ses, with the percentage of pho.-,phoric acid below .05 per cent., is correspondingly great. These poor soils are found chiefly in a number of areas of sandy lanci along the coast, and in the poorer portions of the Mallee. The greater part of Victoria is covered with surface soil running from .05 to .15 per cent, of phosphoric acid, while the volcanic and alluvial soils often attain percentages exceeding .15 per cent. Although the amount of work done in this direction is not great enough to allow of wide generalizations, there is no doubt that the tendency is, with advancing civilization, for the difference between the surface soil and the subsoil to become more and more marked. This differentiation is due in the first place to the plant, and subsequently to the animal, but when plants and animals are directed and controlled by human agency, the process of differentiation proceeds at a much greater rate. I have already frequently pointed out that the roots of plants in foraging for phosphoric acid along with the other plant foods throughout considerable volumes of both surface and subsoil, bring about a process of concentra- tion of phosphoric acid in their tissues. This phosphoric acid is chiefly found, first of all. in the growing parts of the plant, and, at a subsequent period, in the seed and its neighbourhood. Purely supporting tissues, such as the straw of ripened grain, and the wood of forest trees, contain very small percentages. The animal appropriates the phosphoric acid' from the plant, requiring it to build up all its tissues. Finally, the phosphoric acid is, for the most part, concentrated in the bones. How the animal acts as an additional factor, in concentrating phos- phoric acid, is in this way : Every time a plant is browsed off a f resh^ attempt is made to .secure sufiicient nutriment to produce flower and seed. The consequence is that plants which are browsed upon by herbivorous animals are compelled to bring up much larger quantities of phosphoric acid to the surface than those which are allowed to accomplish their life cycle undisturbed. The animal thus compels the plant to bring up more phosphoric acid, and then concentrates the phosphates chiefly in the bones. When decay occurs the bones are slowly but surely incorporated in the earth. During the life of the animal a certain amount of phos- phates are kept in continual circulation through being returned to the- ao Feb., 1911.] Phosf/ioric Acid ui Ixdation to Sals ond Vegetation. surface of the soil in the excrements. As the phosphoric acid becomes available in increasing quantities, in the surface soil, the growth of plants is stimulated, and consefjuently larger numbers of land animals are carried on to a given area. It will thus be seen that the history of phosphoric acid in the surface .soil is very similar to that of the phosphatic rocks, and also of most limestones. In the latter cases, the phosphoric acid and the lime have been slowlv concentrated from the waters of the sea by the action of plant and animal life combined in tlie one case, and animal life alone in the other. From observations that have been made on a moie restricted scale in the other Australian States, there seems to be little doubt that what holds true in Victoria applies to Australia generally, as far as regards the small amount of phosphoric acid in the surface soil. I take it that the .small percentage of phosphoric acid in our surface soil is due to the fact that the Continent has never been heavily stocked by large animals of anv kind. In Victoria we know that, previous to settlement bv w^hite men, the number of kangaroos and emus was much less than the number of sheep is at present. Taking the Continent all through, there seems little doubt, from the accumulation of the bones of existing and extinct species in the mud of many lakes in the interior, that periodical droughts have kept down the numbers of animals during recent geological epochs. In Victoria vast areas were so densely tim- bered that it is certain that herbivorous animals were never present in large numbers ; for it is found that browsing animals keep down the forests, not by destroying the large trees, but by preventing seedlings from growing and taking the places of the forest trees which die from old nge. In the ca.se of the Island of St. Helena, this action has been sufficient to completely destroy the original fore.sts in less than ;^oo years. Adapt.ation of the Native Herbage to Special Conditions. While carrying on the investigations into the phosphoric acid content of our poorer soils, I was struck by the fact that certain forms of native vegetation are found on nearlv all the soils in question, and that allow- ing certain modifications for the rainfall one might form a verv good estimate of the amount of phosphoric acid present in anv given area bv the vegetation growing thereon. The following table gives the per- centage of phosphoric acid in a number of these characteristic plants: — Calculated on Dry Basiii. Vi luf Moisture. Asli. P.O . % 0/ /O 0/ /o Kanyiiroo (;?-v.;s. (Aiilhislirid cilintn) o2-58 0-37 0-122 Tussofk. (Port caespitnsa) .->8-8(i •28 --It 0-17 Bnickon. (Pterin aquilinn) ■ . . .-)ti • 1 0 rvor> 0-'2l3 Bulokf. (Cdxiiariiifi ■<:tih(ii>nfi) 49- 7*2 4-23 0-(»81 PeiH'iMinint (miiu. ( P!>irtili/plHS nniifgdalina) 49-37 2-48 OKIO SiMitlKin (Jn-ss Trr*'. {Xniilh'irrhir'i aitstrnli^) .. fil-30 2-640 0 120 r'limino!! Hevth. {Kf/ncrix iniprf-isn) .. 39-83 4 347 ((•I.-?!! >rouiit:iin ai'.-iein. (Acacia monliinu) 46-00 3 20 0 l.-)2 Willi Cr.inlioiTV. (Sti/i,liilifi /nnnlfusn.) Syu. 30 • .-).-, 4-7S (1 KVJ Axlfdlnmn humijiixinn In the above analy.ses the green lfa\«s flowers and seeds were used for analysis, woorly fibrous stems and roots Yte'mg excludefl. except in the ca.Sf* 74 Journal of A.gricnUitrt\Yicioria. [lo Feb., 1911. of the Tussock Grass. The average composition of the corresponding parts of cereals, grasses, and cultivated plants of economic value would vary from .4 to 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid, or nearly ten times as much. It would therefore appear that the native plants have established a kind of equilibrium in phosphoric acid with the soil. They require very little from it, and return to it correspondingly small amounts when they decay. It is quite possible that in Europe and America the animal has had a further action in determining the character of the soil, for by a process of the survival of the fittest, those plants which produced most phosphoric acid would be likely to be selected as food by the animal, and the struggle for existence being thus intensified amongst them, the more vigorous varieties would gradually be evolved. It appears then that native vegetation, when not interfered with in any way by the animal, neither produces nor requires as high a percentage of phosphoric acid in its tissues as is the case with those plants which have proved of the greatest economic value both to the higher animals and to man. It appears to me that the results of the above analyses explain the occurrence of the bone diseases comprehended under the names of " Cripples " and " Coast Disease," which affect animals kept too long on "Kangaroo Grass," and similar grazing country. The native vege- tation only contains one-tenth of the amount of phosphoric acid that Rye Grass, Cocksfoot, Lucerne, Clover and the cultivated cereals produce off the same soil. These facts also explain the general usefulness of phos- phatic manures on Australian soils. In five localities on the coastal plain, experimental farms have been carried on by the Department in order to investigate the problems of bringing these poor soils into profitable use. It is necessary to state that a vast difference is found in districts of light and heavy rainfall where the chemical composition of the soil is nearly identical. In the former a crop can be grown successfully with a light dressing of superphosphates immediately after the scrub is rolled and burned. When the rainfall exceeds 35 inches, after the land has been drained, it requires to be exposed to the sun and air for two or three seasons before it is suflSciently sweetened to produce any satisfactory growth. The fibrous rootlets with which these sandy soils are filled decay very slowly. The .soil is invariably acid, and the roots of the native vegetation seem to produce an exudate which interferes with the growth of other plants. At all events, in our experimental plots, seeds germinate, but although abundantly supplied with moisture, and arti- ficially supplied with nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, they fail to establish themselves after the food supply, contained in the seed, is exhausted. Lime and ashes help to rectify these conditions, but the only way in which they can be quickly overcome is by the addition of farmyard manure to the soil. This undoubtedly acts by introducing putrefactive and other bacteria, which appear to be singularly deficient in the soil in its original state. Potatoes and mangolds are probably the first crops to give a satisfactory yield, oats and rye following next, and peas and beans being much more difficult to adjust to the new conditions. Finally, the experience of the past 60 years goes to show that the market gardeners in the neighbour- hood of Melbourne have successfully solved all the difficulties of bringing such lands into profitable cultivation, and converting them into some of the most productive areas of our State. The results of our experimental work clearly indicate the lines along which success must be achieved. I lo Feb., 1911-] Examination of Artificial Manures. 75 EXAMINATION OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES. W. C. Robertson, Deputy to the Cliemist for Agriculture. Report for Year 1910. During the first n-.onths of the year the Yarraville railway station yard is a veritable hive of industry. It is an object lesson in method. The working space is very small for the traffic, yet one seldoms observes a pair of idle hands. Three of the largest manure firms in Victoria consign from this station and some thousands of tons of artificial manure are forwarded weekly. Everything runs smoothly ; directly one lorry discharges its load another immediately takes its place and so despatch goes on unceasingly from early morning until late at night. Farmers and agents often com- plain of delay in forwarding consignments, but if they knew of the pre- cautions taken to prevent disappointments and the difficulties in the way UESPATCHING MANURE AT YARRAVILLE. of prompt despatch they would be more rea.sonable. Some 1,300 tons of artificial manure were consigned from Yarraville on the day that the photo- graph on this page was taken. Inspection commenced in February at Yarraville where .several consignments of manure were weighed and sami)lfd. The photograph on page 76 illustrates the manner in which the manure is weighed. I'he Salter spring balance, which is tested before inspection commences, is suspendefl from an iron tripled. The strap shown serves a twofold object, in that it is convenient, and at the same time avoids lo.ss of manure through the tendency of manure bags to burst, owing to the action of the acid. It is customary to weigh consignments at the time of departure because the manure is liable to dry out ; if weighed in the country the weight found mav be low. Several consignments, after Ix^ing weighed in Melbourne, were follow«'d to thi-ir destination and again weighed. Tiie manure was three days in transit and afterwards lav on an u|)-coinUry jjlatform for two days. The teniji^'raturo averaged q8" in the shade for the five ilays. The manure when originally weighed averaged 2 Ihs. iier bag ovi-r the 76 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911, CHECKING WEIGHTS. jj;uaranteed wtight ; yet, five days later, it averaged 3I lbs. per bag under weight, representing a loss of ()\er I lb. per bag per day. Farmers are continually weighing bags of manure and when the net weight is low, which is usually the case, they complain. Manufacturers guarantee weight at the time of ana.lysis, i.e., as the manure leaves the factory. A farmer obtaining a parcel of artificial manure is prac- tic.dly buying a definite quantity of l)liasphoric acid, and it matters not if the weight on arrival is deficient so long as the weight at the time of despatch is correct and the phosphoric acid content is not decreased. For example, a ton of ordinary super- phosphate i.s sampled, analysed, and weighed, first in Melbourne and a ftf awards in the country, with the followino- result : — Water Citrate Citrate Total Phos- phoric Acid. Weight Soluble Soluble Insoluble JIaiuiro. per Moisture. Phos- Phos- Phos- Bag. phoric phoric phoric Acid. Acid. Acid. lbs. 0/ /o % 0/ /o % % In Melbourne 190 12 17 1 .) 20 In country 182i 8 17-77 1-04 2-10 20-91 The loss in weight is due to the evaporation of moisture, the result being- that the producer bought a manure at a certain guarantee for ^4 7s. 6d. jier ton and received a manure with a higher analysis worth approximately £^\ IIS. 6d. per ton; the loss in weight, viz. •.• — 7^ lbs. per bag, is equiva- lent to an increase in value of 4s. per ton. Consignments of manures A\eighed at Yarraville ga\e the following net weights : — ■ It will therefore be seen that the manufacturer treated the producer very fairly in the matter of weight. In one instance only a manufacturer wa* detected giving short weight and he recei\-ed warning. lo Feb., igii.] Examination of Artificial Manu/es. 77 The first country ilistrict visited was the VVimmera, then the area north of Bendigo, and finally the Gippsland and Western Districts; 131 samples, representing 494 tons of manure, were collected. Particulars are given in the following list : — Maiiiir. Superphosphate Bonedust and Superphosphate Bone FertiUzer Bonedust Nitro-Superphosphate Blood .. .. .. .. " Star "' (Thomas Phosphate) and Superphosphate Dissolved Bones Various and Mixed Manures Samples. Tonnage Sampled. tons. 3ti 25U •21 50 19 40 15 60 7 10 4 40 3 5 3 4 23 35 131 494 The various and mixed manures comprised samples of dissolved Peruvian guano, nitrate of soda, animal fertilizer, leguminous rape, special grain, potato, orchard and vine and maize manures, guano and Thomas or star phosphate. The majority of the samples of superphosphate, tonedust and superphosphate and nitro-superphosphate were obtained in the Northern Districts whilst the Southern Districts supplied practically all the bone fertilizers, bonedusts, blood and mixed manures. The analyses of superphosphates collected agreed with the guarantees, i.e., within the limit allowed by the Act. The tendency in the superphos- phate manufacture, however, is to give a high content of insoluble phos- phoric acid at the expense of the more valuable soluble compounds. As superphosphates are principally used in the dry districts of the North, where the value of a manure depends u])on the percentage of the water- .soluble constituent, this is rather a disadvantage. The analyses of the samples of mixed manures collected were, on the whole, satisfactory, although in one or two instances the potash content was low. The majority of the bonedust samples inspected were of good grade, especially those from country mills. In this section, however, there were five pro.secutions. The samples of bone fertilizer, a manure made up of bonedust, super- phosphate, gypsum and rock phosphate and which is supposed to act as well as lx>nedust, Iseing often sold as such, all analvsed above the guar- antc<'. It should be remembered by the producer when buying bone fer- tilizer that this manure cannot, at the price, be compared with l>onedust. Bone fertilizers contain, at the most, one-third bonedust and not one of the ingredients which make up the remaining two tliirds is as \aluable as this manure. On the whole, as a result of the inspection and the analvsis of the samples, it is satisfactory to be able to record that the manures supplied to the farming community during the year iqio were of a very even stane carefullv preserved. 10 Feb. , 1911-] Examination of Artificial Manures. A popular question of the farmer is: — " Whose superphosphate is the best? " It has often been rehited by wheat-growers that they have carried out experiments wdth different brands of superphosphate and that the re- sult from, one particular brand far eclipsed the rest. This fact, while not being contradicted, may not have been due to the superphosphate it- self, but more likely to a difference in the soil and a multitude of other circumstances. The idea, which is vtTy prevalent amongst farmers, that different brands of superphosphate supply different plant foods to the soil, may be immediately di.smissed. The manufacture of all superphosj^hates of ordi- nary standard has for its fundamental principle the solvent action of sul- phuric acid on in.soluble rock phosphates. The product may differ slightly in the percentage of fertilizing constituents, but the chemical compounds present are alway.s the same. As far as quality from a chemical stand- point is concerned, the farmer may look to the laboratory for assistance; but for physical differences, i.e., the l)ehaviour of the manure in the drill, he must rAlv on his own judgment. Tt should be mentioned here that bXLOADIXG KOCK PHO.Sl'UATE AT VAKRAVILLE. drills shouhl be thoroughly cleansed after use. Some manures are very acid and tlic longer they are left in contact with a drilling machine the shorter its life. Another common (|uery from northern farmers, who have the oppor- tunity of oUserving large quantities of gypsum or copi being despatched to the metropolis, is " Why are manufacturers allowed to adulterate with gypsum?" They state, in sfime instances, that the gypsum, which occurs as deposits on or near their holdings, after being consigned to Melbourn'- and then trrattil with an acid, returns to them as superphosphate. This is altogetlier incorrect. Others, say that tlie gyjjsum is mixetl witli su|)er- phos])hate. which is afterwards i)ur(hased by tlicni. and tliey contend that the " mi.xing business " can just as reathly .md ciiraply Ik- prrformetl b\ themselves. The gypsum despatched to Melbourne is largely sold as a texture in"- pro\er for stiff soils, as a remedy in clover sickness, as a deodori/er in stables, and I have e\iMi heard of ii being used in making a tennis coui' It is certainly usetl as an admixture in most of the iione b-rtilizers. I ; rarely in oIIkt manures. allhnu;/h one manufacturer used it in the '' l^o; >• 8o ] ournal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. and Super "' sold by him this year. In the manufacture of superphosphate approximately 50 per cent, of gypsum is formed by the acid treatment and this is a constituent part of the finished product. Still another fallacy existing among tillers of tlie soil is due to the manner in which manures are guaranteed on invoice certificates and labels. The analysis, as given on these documents, does not total 100 simply be- cause the percentage or parts per hundred of fertilizing constituents only are given. Farmers are altogether wrong in assum.ing from this data that the rest is sand or other worthless matter. Take, for example, a super- phosphate guaranteed on the invoice certificate and label to contain 17 per cent, water soluble phosphoric acid, i per cent, citrate soluble phos- phoric acid and 2 per cent, citrate insoluble phosphoric acid, making a total of 20 per cent, phosphoric acid. The complete analysis of this manure would be something akin to the following : — ■ Moisture. Water Soluble Phosphate. Citrate Soluble Phosphate. Citrate Insoluble Phosphate. Gypsum. Impurities. 12 per cent. 28 per cent. 2 per cent. * 4.5 per cent. 50 per cent. 3.5 per cent. A bonedust stated on the tag and invoice certificate to contain 4 per cent, of nitrogen and 22 per cent, phosphoric acid would give a complete analvsis as follows : — Organic Matter. Tri-Calcic Phosphate. Other Mineral Matter. 10 per cent. 30 per cent. ( containing 4 per cent. Nitrogen). 48 per cent. (containing 22 per cent. Phosphoric Acid) 12 per cent. It will therefore readily be seen that the analysis of a manure as given on invoice certificate and label does not profess to be a guide as far as com- plete composition is concerned. Farmers have at different times asked the mode of procedure when manure on delivery at the farm is suspected to be of low grade. The in- formation is given under sections 11 and 13 of the Artificial Manures Act No. 1930 and is as follows: — (i) Written notice (registered letter) must be given to the manufacturer, vendor, or agent wirhin fourteen days of his (the farmer's) intention to have the manure sampled and analyzed. (2) In sucli notice he shall offer to divide a't any time within fourteen davs in the presence of the manufacturer, dealer or agent a sufficient sample. (3) The sample taken from not less than 10 per cent, of the parcel, and after being well mixed is divided into three separate parts and then and there each part placed in a dry glass bottle and properly marked and sealed. The bottles are to be signed by purchaser and agent or representative. (4) One bottle is delivered to the manufacturer, vendor or agent, one is retained for future comparison, and the third is submitted to the Government Agricultural Chemist or an official analvst, either personally or by registered post. (5) If the manufacturer, vendor or agent does not within ten days after service of the notice accept the offer of the purchaser, as above, the proceedings go on without him, but it is always preferable to obtain a police constable as a witness. TO Feb.. 1911-] T oh ace 0 Culture. 81 As there are many difficulties in the way of obtaining a fair and repre- sentative sample, it is always best to seek the ad\'ice of the Chemist for Agriculture as to the manner in which the sample should be taken. Purchasers who happen to be taking delivery of manure from an agent at the time of inspection repeatedly ask if the result of the analysis will be forwarded to them. As a matter of fact, he is powerless, even if the manure should analyse low or prove to be adulterated. The samples collected are all marked with a definite number and are afterwards published in the Journal under this number, so the farmer, by taking the number on the agent's duplicate bottle, will have no difficulty in finding out the quality of the manure purchased. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A.. J . Smith, Tobacco Expert. {Continued from page 5./.) Manures and Fertilizers. Another question often asked is. "Does tobacco e.xhaust the soil?" To this the reply is " No, not more so than potatoes."' A crop of 1875 lbs. of cured leaf and stalk takes from the soil per acre the following •f]uantities of the three main plant foods, viz., nitrogen, 65 lbs. ; pota.sh, 89 lbs. ; phosphoric acid, 8 lbs. A 6-ton crop of potatoes takes, nitrogen, 58 lbs. ; potash, loi lbs., and phosphoric acid, 32 lbs. The average crop ■of cured leaf is 1,000 lbs per acre. Therefore, the average crop of tobacco ^akes only about half the i)otash, om-sixth of the phosphoric acid and slightly less nitrogen than a 6-ton crop of potatoes. As compared with a wheat crop of 30 bushels, the average crop of tobacco takes about the same amount of nitrogen, about four times as much potash, and only one- third as much phosphoric acid. Our soils are generally fairly rich in nitrogen, rich in potash, but low in phosphoric acid; consequently, they are, as regards these three foods concerned, naturally suited to the growth of tobacco. But there are other influences to consider, as previously stated. Tobacco dislikes a sour .soil, and is a fairly large lime leeder. Nearly all the tobacco so far grown in Victoria has been grown in .soils somewhat deficient in lime ; a great part of the North-Eastern District, where the rainfall is heavy, is inclined to be acid and is known by analysis t<> be short of lime. The amount of lime reciuired by tf>b.icco as a fooil is about 50 ll)s. per acre for an average crop, but the application of lime would have a bene- ficial effect in many other respects. An application of from 400 lbs. to 500 lbs. per acre would tend to release a large amount of the potash that wo know to be in the soil ; the .soil temperature would he increa.sed ; an alkaline instead of an acid condition would be brought alxnit in whin in the form of nitrates to the crop. Otlier benefici.d results from the a])]>lieation of lime are the 82 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. more thorough decomposition of crude \egetable matter, and the improved mechanical condition of the soil. Seeing that the tobacco crop is a quick feeder, taking all its nutriment from the land in from 12 to 20 weeks, it is of the greatest importance that the fertilizers applied to the soil should be in the most available form pro- curable. The fact that tobacco is grown in Victoria during the driest months makes this the more necessary, all these foods being taken by the plant in a soluble form. From the foregoing facts, lime is apparently one of the best kinds of fertilizers and mechanical agents to apply, where that particular element is known to be limited. Potash is another highly important plant food, and, when applied,, great care is necessary to insure the use of only that form of potash which will give good results. There are some that will do more harm than good for this particular product. Too much chlorine in the soil is detrimental to the growth of good tobacco leaf, in that an undue proportion of chlorine or salt in the cured leaf will destroy its satisfactory combustion or burn- ing qualities. For this reason, we must be careful not to use potassic fertilizers containing an undue amount of chlorine, such as chloride or muriate of potash or kainit. The best forms to use are sulphate of potash or carbonate of potash from which only good effects can obtain. Potash, in large quantities, will to some extent counteract the effect of chlorine \n the leaf; the larger the proportionate amount, as compared with the chlorine content, the better the burn. \\\ the iise of phosphatic manures, bone meal appears to give the best results ; this is probably due to this fertilizer being an organic manure in which free sulphuric acid is scarce, as compared with the mineral super- phosphates. The effect of a superabundance of phosphoric acid in the soil is said to hasten maturity and in some cases cause rust or blight. Nitrogenous manures, if in excess, increase the nicotine content in the leaf ; and if used must be applied with caution. Tobacco leaf grown on Victorian soils unfertilized even now contains up to 6 per cent, of nicotine,, which is too large a percentage. The best American tobaccoes contain from I to 4 per cent, of nicotine, the average being just under 2 per cent. Ex- cept in rare instances, it appears as though our soils would be better left unsupplied with nitrogen as a fertilizer at present, unless much poorer >and is used than has been the case in the past. Nitrate of soda, though a quickly available fertilizer, does not appear to be popular in America, probably owing to the danger of loss. It .should, if used, be applied after the plants are out in the field, and never when the seed is sown as it is liable to loss by evaporation. The soda contained, if largely used, is detrimental. Nitrate of potash is good, if procurable, but it is seldom to be had at a price suited for this use. Sulphate of ammonia should be applied when the land has received its last preparation before planting out. It contains a fairly large amount of sulphuric acid which, especially on soils deficient in lime, has a bad effect. Red blood is a highly useful nitrogenous manure for tobacco and should be applied just before transplanting. It has a beneficial effect on the colour of the bright plug tobacco leaf. Black blood is not so good as red, being of slower availability. Ordinary farm manures, if applied in too great a quantity, cause a growth of heavy coarse leaf with too great a nicotine content. Where a soil has to be rnanured, a judicious blend of farm manure and commercial fertilizers is best. The following formula is popular in the American lo Feb., 1911-] Tobacco Culture. States, where, however, such manures as cottonseed meal, castor pomace, •and cotton hull ash, not procurable at present in Victoria, are used in large quantities. Formula for Poor Soil. Per Acre. .300 lbs. of Lime. I 100 lbs. Bonedust. 200 lbs. of Sulphate of Potash. | h cvvt. Re.l lilood. The lime should be applied in the autumn by dumping it down in 50-lb. or loodb. lots on the surface of the land which should be ploughed and then covered with a layer of soil a couple of inches thick. In eight or nine days it should have thoroughly slaked down and can then be spread over the land, either by hand or machine, and harrowed in. No other manure should be put on for at least six weeks after, and at the end of that time, or say eight weeks, farm manure can be worked in at the rate of from twenty to thirty loads per acre. Then, just previous to planting out, the potash, bone, and blood manure should be applied broadcast and harrowed in. For old land and land that requires building up, the farm manure will be of great value; but where rich flats are used or the soil is naturally rich in humus, it is better not used. In dry districts, it should only be used in a well decomposed moist condition; if not well rotted, the effect will be to make the land too dry. The fact that tobacco takes only 12 to 20 weeks to mature necessitates a larger amount of plant food to draw upon than is actually required to develop the crop. The different •elements of food are in some cases too slowly released for the plants to get their full benefit in the period of growth. Nothing, however, is wasted as the residual foods are still in the ground and available, either for the next crop or a catch crop grown through the winter. Rotations. In order to keep up the supply of humus in the soil and restore the loss of nitrogen taken by the tobacco crop a rotation is necessary. As soon as the crop is harvested in the autumn a sowing of rye, peas, and vetches can be made, and, if early April rains fall, fine winter feed for fattening sheep, or for dairy cows, can be grown. A spring fallow can be given in .August and the stubble ploughed in; the root matter and stubble will supply the humus. The nitrates will be held in the soil by the roots of the rye, and the peas will have supplied a quantity of nitrogen through the agency of the nitrifying bacteria on their roots, as also w-ill the \t'tches. Being a deep rooting crop, rye too, has the power of releasing phos- phoric acid which otherwise would not be available. In some districts, the growth of Red Clover, or some of the Trefoils, will have equally good results. ^Vhere the land can be laid out for a year or two and Reil CMover will thrive, a crop of this kind will do more to •enrich the .soil, than any other. It is known as the king of rotation crops, for the reason that it releases more plant f(X)d than any other, leaves a larger amount of decaying root matter in the soil, and is in itself a fine fodder crop. It is, however, a summer grower and for that reason will re-\Vee-Rup swamp. This paddock was in a similar condition to that illustrated on the next page. The stum^js were burned off, after a heavy rain, during the early part of March, 19 10. Rape was sown broadcast over the ashes at the rate of 2 lbs. of seed per acre. When one takes into consideration the unprepared and rough condition of the seed-bed, together with the small quantity of seed sown, the results obtained are phenomenal. Of course, the method and time of burning off the stumps on peaty ground, like that under review, require serious consideration and can only be safely attempted after heavy rains. The top layer of soil is then saturated with moisture and the stumps burn out when reaching the damp soil ; otherwi.se, if set alight when the ground is dry, the peaty soil and stumps embedded in the soil would burn for weeks and the after results would be .serious. rrrcjution, in this respect, cannot be too strongly emphasized. Mr. Henry informs me that, after commencing to harvest the crop, the district was unfortunately visited by a very severe storm accompanied bv htMvy hail, with the result that the rape was broken down and nearly all the seed shaken out of the pods. The quantity of .seed harvested so far has, however, returned over one ton per acre and is being sold at 2\(\. per lb. This gives a gross return of over J[^2}, per acre, which must 1h' ron*iid(Ti'd satisfactory umler the circumstances experienced, togetht-r with the dilllcultv of .securing suitable I.il>our. Rape grows well and produces large (]uantitics of succulent crops of first class foddiT over a large range of soils, luring lK)th winter and S8 Journal of Agricitliiirc. Victoria. [lo P'eb.. 191 i. -summer months. It is rich in fiesh-forming constituents as well as fatt}' matter and ewes and lambs do remarkably well on it. It is estimate'd that one acre under normal conditions will fattt^n almut 10 to^ 15 laml)s. CONDITION OF LAND PRIOR TO BURNING OFF OF STUMPS. Portion on lef. li;inil was biirnt off nreviouslw In some of the cooler districts of Victoria, where it is sown Ijoth in autumn and spring, as many as 20 ewes and lambs per acre are turned off in a few months. RAPE CROP, KOO-WEE-RUP SWAMP. Height, 7 feet; yield, over i ton of seed per acre. Farmers throughout Victoria are beginning to appreciate the value of rape as a rotation crop, and for green manuring purposes, by adding lo Feb., 1911-] Rafe. 89 humus to the soil. It may be sown from immediately after the first autumn rains until the end of September. In the summer time, it seems to do better in the cooler districts than in the northern areas, whereas it grows more luxuriantly in the warmer zones during the winter. If sown after the early autumn rains, it will give abundance of luscious feed during the winter months, and when sown about September it can be fed right into the summer. On account of the smallness of the seed, the seed-bed requires to be worked to a fine tilth. It should be sown broadcast and then rolled or brush-harrowed, care being taken not to cover the seed too deeply or else it will not germinate. The variety known as Dwarf Essex appears to give the best results, and certainly commands a better price per lb. if grown for market, as Mr. Henry is doing with his crop. It is usual to sow the seed at the rate of 4 lbs. per acre. For the purpose of preventing stock from bloating, it is always advisable to mix i lb. of white mustard seed with that of the rape. Animals should never be turned into rape or any other quickly growing fodder, when they are empty and hungry, otherwise bloating will result. Its habit of growth bears some resemblance to the swede turnip, but it attains a much greater height. It is mostly grown for the purposes of feeding off by stock or fed as a soiling cro[). The milk of cows fed on rape is apt to be slightly flavoured. Green crops, such as rape and those of the leguminous family, are often grown for the special purpose of being incorporated with the soil whilst in their fresh state. The practical farmer who is situated so as to ol)tain a green crop of this kind will have little difficulty in deter- mining which one is best ada[)ted to local conditions. Upon strong clay country whicli has been fallowed, if worked sufficiently early, the rape crop can be eaten off with sheep and tlrti ploughed in. This will not only furnish the succeeding wheat croj) with usi-ful food, but will tend to improve the texture of the heavy soil. In addition to the fertilizing matter. ra])e possesses a marked physical influence. In a strong clay .soil, warmth is given by the root system opening up the soil particles, whereas, in a light and friable soil, where the furrow is properlv packed, firmness is imparted by the aid of the fibrous roots. Without a previous cnjp of rape or some leguminous plant many soils throughout Victoria are much too light to grow wheat success- fully. This fact alone should be sufficient to demonstrate the value of rape growing in crop rotation and its restorative effect on the soil. It is grown by many farmers as an excellent crop for cleaning land of weeds. If not eaten too bare, its broad foliage and habit of growth .smother the weeds. When .sown for the purpose of cleaning a paddock it should bo drilled in 2 feet apart, at the rate of from i to 2 lbs. per acre, .so that the land can be inter-tilled during the growing period. Rape grows luxmiantlv on good soils and responds quickly to liberal manuring. It should receive more attention thai\ it does at present as a catch crop in the large wheat areas. Thousands of ewes and lambs could 1)0 iirofitably turned off these anas if the land were top-dressed with inanun- inimodiatelv after tlie harvesting of the crop and well worked into the .soil with a .scarifier or disc harrow, and about 2 lbs of rape seed broadcasted p<'r acre after the first downfall of rain. This would be the means of supplving an abundance of succulent feed for topping off lambs for fiie freezing works and at the same time go a long way towards imi)rf)ving ili.- fcrtilitv r^f the rr»untrv. .sc bftwffii tlieni. Mr. Duff has a considerable advantage in the quality and situation of his land ; and he has suppkmmted his natural advantages by providing a silo to conserve his surplus fodder. His want of consistency in stock breeding, however, places him at a great disadvantage in such a com- petition. Further, his farm is either very much understocked at present, or the want of better subdivision reduces its carrying capacity during other months of the year; at least. 7 acres of grazing land jx-r low appears to l>e light stocking, esp^'cialiy when in conjunction with silage feeding Reverting to the ab.scnre of system in brei.-ding as previously men- tioned. Mr. Duff explained the reivnt introduction of Ayrshire blood into his stock, by saving th.il In- wished to iiicre.ise the si/<> of his cattle. 92 ] ournal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb.. 1911. At the same time, his cows and heifers are by no means undersized. In any caSe, if size was required, it would have been much better to revert to the Milking Shorthorn than to introduce a fresh l)reed in the Ayrshire : the bulk of the present stock being Shorthorn-Jersey, re-crossed with Jersey. First-cross or grade-bred stock at times turn out almost as satis- factory milkers as those bred pure; but the introduction of a third cross. such as this, is a mongrelizing and, almost inevitably, a retrograde step. Each cross on a pure breed lessens the power of the progeny of those pure-bred animals to reproduce their inherent qualities in their offspring ; and the principal object to be gained by keeping the breed pure is thus set aside. Crossing the light and heavy breeds of dairy cattle will in- crease the size of the smaller stock, but usually at the expense of the profitable production of milk and butter. If a farmer prefers big dairy cattle for his particular purpose, he should keep a big-framed pure breed, such as the Milking Shorthorn or Holstein. By carefully culling the inferior producers, he will put together an even herd of heavy milkers in a much shorter time than the same end can be attained by crossing light and heavy breeds ; for there will be more uniformity in their progeny. For the same reason, if heavy milk pro.luction alone is re- quired, irrespective of size, the lighter dairy breeds, such as Jersey or Ayrshire, are all-sufficient. A dairy farmer who endeavours to carry on without a definite system of stock-breeding is as a ship without a compass — the odds are very much against his reaching the desired end. There can be no certainty in his progress ; and what his stock will be like any year no one can foretell. Svstem means success. COLAC DAIRY FARM (JOMPETITIO^^ Judges: — Messrs. W. Kerr, A. E. McCure, and J. S. McFadzean. There were two compedtors in each section : — Messrs. Thos. Dare and John Meredith, for those keeping less than 50 cows ; and Messrs. Wm. McGarvie and J. P. Morrissey, for those keeping over that number. Three inspections were made of each farm, viz., on the 13th and 14th July, on the 4th and 5th October, and the 20th and 21st December; two farms being inspected each day. The scale of points appended is that furnished us by your society ; and from them you will see that in the class for those keeping over 50 cows Mr. McGarvie is first, and Mr. Morrissey second ; and in the sec- tion for those keeping less than 50 cows, Mr. Meredith is first, and Mr. Dare second. Mr. Morrissey wins the special prizes for the best Ayr- shire bull and the best Yorkshire boar in the whole competition, whilst Mr. Dare secures the special prize for the best Berkshire boar. The conditions on the several farms ' varied considerably in every section, except that of the water supply. Tn this, all scored full points on the windmill and trough system. The milking sheds are all well built and floored ; but 'he neglect of limewashing in either the shed or dairy buildings resulted in a loss of points in those sections where this had been overlooked. The situation •of the milking shed, drains, &c., as regards the dairy was not altogether beyond criticism on .some of the farms. The pigstyes on each farm were well floored; those on Mr. Morrissev's farm were particularly well planned for both room and convenience. lo Feb., 1911-] Colac Dairy Farm Comfetiiion. 93 Mr. Dare i.s the only competitor who con.sistently practises hand- feeding during those months when the pasture is at its worst ; and, in <:on.sequence, his cows easily lead in the matter of production. Even he, however, has not yet taken on silage making ; without which no sys- tem of dairy farm feeding can be considered complete. This owner has the largest area of land under cultivation. All the work of this farm is done by Mr. Dare and his family. As this means some six or seven pairs of hands to distribute the work amongst w^hen necessary, the labour problem, which is a matter of great moment with many other dairymen in the busy season, does not present any drawbacks to dairying on this farm. Less had been done in regard to improving the pasture by sowing grasses on Mr. }»IcGarvie's farm than on the others; while Mr. Mere- dith's luxuriant paddocks of strawberry clover and rye grass were all that could be desired. Mr. McGarvie holds steadil} to Jersey bulls in breeding up his herd; and Mr. Meredith as consistently holds to the Shorthorn. Messrs. Morrissey and Dare use both Ayrshire and Shorthorn bulls indiscrimi- nately with their cows, w-hich does not tend towards evenness in either appearance or production. Both Messrs. McGarvie and Dare are doing good work in keeping individual records and tests of their cows ; and both have some very good butter-producers in their heads. Mr. McGarvie sends the most of his milk direct to Melbourne for retail distribution ; and has a small refrigerating plant, which allows of his dairy pro'luce being handled to its very best advantage. On all the farms, the fencing, gates, and roads were well kept ; and the appearance and condition of the homesteads reflected great credit on the respective owners. Mr. Morrissey's vegetable garden was kept in exceptional order, and is ])roductive far beyond the requirements of the family and employes. Spction. Possible Points Awarded. Points. Dare. Mereditii. Morri.ssey. McGarvie. <;ias.s of (litTerciit viuioties of st();k on fiirm 10(1 (is 82 70 71 Farm biiildiiifis.giirdcus, yards, and situation and condition of same 7(1 4(i 4(i 4ti 5t> Provision for haiidlint; daitv piodiuo .")(i 25 .30 9 43 Sholtor for stock '2.") 0 2.S 19 22 Pasture, foo lint;, and watei' KM) 7s »i8 73 58 System of rocordinj; lotiirns 4(1 •Jl 20 21 19 DisjM)Hal of farm maiuiio 1.-. 4 1(1 3 ;> oii .310 349 295 324 I- or lilt' best managid dairy farm oi 50 co;cs and ttndrr. John Meredith ... 349 points, ist. | Thos. Dare ... 310 points, 2nd. For the best managed dairy farm of over t,o cows. \Vm. .\Ii ( •.irvie ... 324 points, ist. [ 1. 1'. Morriss(M . . jos pninis. 2nd. Best Avrshirr btiH. I 1^. Morrissev. Jiest Yorhshirr boar, J. V. Morrissey. | /vm/ Berkshire bear. Ihos. Dan-. 94 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. \io Feb., 1911^ ALCOHOL FOR MOTIVE POWEK. E. S. Holmes, Assistant to Chief Inspector of Produce. The greatly increasing use in Australia of motors for all kinds of work: makes it imperatively necessary that, in view of a possible failure of sup- plies of liquid fuel from abroad, the manufacture on a large scale of a cheap and efficient substitute for the foreign article should be commenced' without delay within our own borders. If the manufacture of this substitute could, at one and the same time^ provide employment to a large number of men, and use up material that: at present goes largely to waste, it would not only add to the commercial resources and prosperity of the Commonwealth, but would lead to a much wider and varied use of motive power in all its industries. It is in the use of small motors that the enormous increase has taken place within the last decade, principally in the cities and to-Ams, but the- day does not appear to be far distant when the agriculturist will depend. to a very large extent on motor driven appliances for the general opera- tions of his farm. The question of liquid fuel supply is therefore one- that greatly concerns him, and the solution will be all the more satisfactory if he finds that he can himself provide the material not only for his own wants, but for those of the whole community. Scientific men, both in Europe and America, have been directing their research to the production and effective use of alcohol as a liquid fuel ;. considerable success has attended their investigations, and it would seem that in alcohol we have the very thing that our circumstances require. The moti\'e power, other than electricity, in general use at the present: day for motor driven machinery is gasolene — a by-product in the purifi- cation of petroleum which constitutes about 5 per cent., by volume, of the crude oil. Being as it is, only a by-product, its production is limited by the output of the petroleum industry, and as the demand for gasolene has increased to a much greater degree than the demand for petroleum, it ha.s- led to the price of gasolene being almost doubled within recent years. What is to take its place if prices continue to rise and the supply falls, short of the demand is a question that will have to be seriously considered before long. Both in Germany and America it has been proved that alcohol as a motive power, gallon for gallon, is little inferior to gasolene. It has many advantages over the latter ; it stands higher compression without premature- explosion ; it is cleaner ; the exhaust gases are not so objectionable as those from gasolene ; its vapour is not so inflammable as that from gasolene, except where closely confined ; and its production is practically unlimited,, being as it is a product of fermentation of starchy or saccharine matter, mostly at the present time of a waste nature. In Germany during a single year, the production of alcohol, from potatoes alone, reached a total of 80,000,000 gallons. Potatoes, howevei, are not the only material from which alcohol may be produced. In America, the waste of sugar factories, the surplus corn crops, and even saw-dust and the stalks of maize are used. It is estimated that in- America, in the course of a year, 100,000,000 gallons could be pro- duced from corn stalks alone. One reason for the encouragement of the manufacture of alcohol from farm products is that it would provide a lo Feb., 1911-] Alcohol for Motive Pozt'er. 95 market for large quantities of material in years of heavy production, the manufactured article being capable of storage for any length of time. Gluts on the market would be avoided to a large extent by the use of sur- plus material, and, at the same time, power would \y^ provided for agri- cultural work. In the manufacture of alcohol there is no waste of plant food, for the spirit is obtained from starch or sugar, both of which are built up in the plant organism from water and carbon dioxide which is taken from the air. The nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, &c., of the original plant re- main in the residue after distillation and as this residue is used as a cattle food or is applied to the land as manure, the valuable constituents toi plant growth are to a large extent returned to the soil. The process by which alcohol is produced from starchy materials de- pends on the facts : — (i.) That starch mav be converted into a sugar called maltose by the action of an enzyme named diastase found in malted barley. (2.) That this sugar is not itself fermentable but is trans- formed into a directly fermentable sugar by an enzyme, present in the yeast that brings about fr-rmentation of the sugar produced by its con- tained enzyme. (3.) That the result of the action of the yeast on the fermentable sugar is that alcohol, a liquid of relatively low boiling point, is pro- duced and can be recovered by distillation. It has already been stated that in Germany 8o,oco,ooo gallons ot alcohol were produced from potatoes in the course ot one year. In Vic- toria there are harvested annually many hundreds of tons of potatoes which, though not suitable for human consumi)tion because they are badly affected with various diseases, are suitable material for the production of alcohol ; no use, however, is made of them at present for the above purpo^^e. Distillation. There are many forms of distilling apparatus in use in Germany, bui the usual type of continuously working column apparatus is the one genei- ally employed. If the alcohol is to be used for special purposes it must undergo further rectification and purification to rid it of fusel oils and water. This is accomplished by means of fractional distillation in special forms of apparatus. A descri]jtion of the special ferments, the apparatus used, i.nd the fnethod of production, are to be found in Brachvogel's Industrial Alcohol. This book should be read by all who are interested in \h>- ni;inul.i(iuri-- of alcohol from farm products. Denatl RING. For industrial u.se alcohol must be denatured, that is, made uiuit toi human consunifition .so that only a low rate of duty may be levied upon it. This denaturing also prevents it ix'ing used for those purposes for which a high rate of duty is impo.sed. The agents generally used in America for denaturing alcohol are methyl alcohol (wolled breeds when meeting excessive and continued rains during late winter and sj)ring while getting towards full wool. This condition is mostly found among merince-, culled or rejecteil from flc^cks noted for cutting heavy weights per head, and in sheep with a strain of inferior Down's blcKxl in them. It is rarely met with in Lincolns or T,eicesters. (lorxl merino sheey) that would be suital)le for hot drv districts woulil be likely in an excessively wet one to show signs of congealed yolk. Hut sheep showing this unsatisfactory class of yolk through the whole length of the staple would In- inferim in whatever climate they were bred in. Those showing it onlv on tlie skin in a wet district would not be in the lea.st affected in a dry one. I.ong-.stapled sheep give l>est results in districts of heavy raintall — they turn more water. Excessive rain does not directly cause healthy yolk to congeal, but through continued dampness being contained in the dense fleece an unhealthy state of the skin and flesh is brought alwHit. It is generally thought tiiat yolk, being a grease, deters rain, but it is not so. Water and volk mix well together. Densely-woolled yolky sheej") are not dried as much bv tlie wind, as by evaporation of the heat of the l>ot and dustv climates that i> 2 lOO Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 191 i. the sun affects the wool left on at shearing. With machine-shorn sheep the extreme heat affects the roots of the fibres. Where the sheep show too open and thin on the hips and shoulders dispose of them in the most profitable way. Breed only from those with characteristics suitable to the prevailing conditions of the district. Discard for breeding purposes those that have inferior wool. Wool possessing an excessive amount of dry volk or, in fact, any inferior fleece, should be termed "Fleece" or " D Fleece." The word "Dingy" should not be marked on the bales. FRUIT PRESERVING Miss A. Mcndoza, Fruit Preserving Expert. Considering that bottled fruit is such a favourite and convenient com- modity, the process of preserving so simple, and the material usually ob- tainable at such a reasonable cost, it is a matter of surprise that more at- tention is not given to the subject. As the lack of information may pro- bably be the cause the following hints are published. Jars. — I'here are numerous makes of jars on tlie market; ten are shown in the illustration on the opposite page. 1. The " Mason " is of Victorian manufacture, and is made in three sizes — pint, quart, and half-gallon. It is fitted with a metal screw top, and is extensively used. 2. The " Spotswood," a Victorian jar, is nnde in two sizes only — quart and half-gallon. Like the "Mason," it has a metal lid, but differs from it inasmuch as it has a far wider mouth and consequently is better adapted for large fruits. 3. The " Lightning," also of Victorian make, is sold in three sizes — pint, quart, and half -gallon. It has a glass lid held in position with a wire fastening. 4. This is similar in make to No. 3, and is also known as the " Lightning," but is an imported jar. 5. Different shapes of the old English fruit bottle, which, on account of its narrow neck, is suitable only for .small fruits. It is closed with an ordinary cork. 6. The " Canton," an American jar, is made in three sizes— pint, quart, and half -gallon — and has a glass lid with wire fastening. This jar is made of white glass, and, on account of its appearance, is largely used for show purposes. 7. This is another " Mason." It is similar in size, shape, and make, to No. i, but is an imported article. 8. The " Improved Ma.sori " is made in two sizes only — quart and half-gallon. The lid is of glass fastened with a loo.se metal screw. Imported. 9. This has a wide mouth suitable for large fruits, but is not on the Victorian market. 10. The " Atlas " is an imported jar, made in three sizes — pint, quart, and half-gallon. It has a vvide mouth and screw top, and is well adapted for large fruits. While, on the whole, each kind of jar mentioned gives good results, in all makes faulty ones are sometimes met with. When purchasing, the lo Feb., ipii.] Fruit Preserving. operator should see that the jars have a smooth shouhJer on which the rubber rests. Should there be the slightest hollow or unevenness sufficient to prevent the rubber from lying close, and allowing the least air to get in, disappointment must result, as fermentation will set in and the con- tents lost. Rubbers. — Rubbers are an important item. Generally speaking, an inferior article is supplied with the jar. It is found more satisfactory, especially as the cost is not large, to get a better quality ring; further, unless they are of exceptional quaUty, it is undesirable to use them a second season. Fruits. — Any and every kind of fruit or vegetable may be preserved by the methods to be described, but to insure a satisfactory product it is necessary to have only good fruit to treat, for any flaw or blemish in the fresh article will show as distinctlv in the preserved. \ ARIOLS M.AKES OF J.ARS SEE OrPOSITE P.\CE. All fruits, with the exception of gooseberries, should be ripe so that they will be fully flavoured, but yet firm enough to retain their .shape and form while cooking. If soft, they have a tendency to go more or less to pulp, according to the stage of ripeness, and of course are less prt^sentalile when placed up<3n the table. Preparation. — Gooseberries, both ripe and green, are used for pre- serving ; the former for culinary purposes and the latter for either that or for dessert. M'hey require no other preparation than stemming and topping. Cherries and Plums are simply stemmed ; of the former, the firni«'r- fleshed varieties similar to ' Florencf " and "St. Marg.uvt's " art- favoured. The more juicy kinds are n(jt considered so ilesirablr. Practi- cally all varieties of plums may be u.sed. .Apricots, Peaches, and Xecfariiies, are cut in halves and llu- pit or stone removed; oiil\ ili. limn-r kinds .nv used. In .q)ricot.s, the " M(X)r- park '■ or similar sorts; and. in peaclu's. the later .md yellow-floshed varie- ties art' favoured. It is desir.ible to first petM the rougher skinned peaches; this is (-.isilv a<e distinctly understood that the fruit is preserved by sterilization, and that the sugar is used only to make the article more palatable and not as a preservative. The strength of the syruj) meiitioiu'd will 1h' founil suitable for most fruits, but for very acid ones, .1 little more sugar may he .idded ; or, if excessively sweet fruit is In-ing lie.ited. a weaker syruj) may be used. ('anning.— ('ans, with stud lids, varying in si/e from .: lbs. upwards, are used for this purpo.se. The fruit while raw is carefully p.uked .so that the can shall hold as nnich as possible; the latter is then filled with the syrup previously pre])ared and o( a strength similar to that usetl for l><)ttling. The cap or lid. hiving a \eni hole in the r«-ntre. is placed in position and soldered down, and the < .ms then ]iul into the cooking vessel 104 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Feb.. 191 r and a similar process followed as when using glass jars. When the con- tents are cooked, the tins are taken out. the vent soldered up as speedily as possible, and immediately re-placed in the boiler, and kept there for, say, 4 or 5 minutes, after which they are removed and cooled. If not properly sterilized, or should there be any leakage, fermentation will set in and in a little while cause the tin to swell or bulge out. Should this be the case, the fruit will of course not keep, but if air-tight, and the process properly carried out. the top and bottom of the can should show a slight hollow rather than a swelling and the fruit will keep indefinitely. Pulping. — Pulping is frequently resorted to when, for any reason, it is not convenient to immediately make the fruit into jam. The process is simple, and is accomplished Ijy placing the fruit when prepared into an open vessel with a little \vater sufficient to keep it from burning. Bring slowlv to the l)oil. nnd. when rooked sufficiently, pour into large tins or FRUIT PRESERVING ROOM .-^T TECHNICAL EXHIBITION. cans and immediately solder down. It may be left in the cans for any length of time till needed for use, and the sugar added when made into jam. Kerosene tins, when properly cleansed, are frequentlv used for hold- ing the pulp ; tliey are a cheap package and answer the purpose very well. When preser\'ing in tins, either as. canning or pulping, care should be taken to examine the tins for a few days after the operation is completed. If it is found that there is no depression in the top or sides, it is a true indication. that there is a leakage of air ; in a .short time fermentation will set in and instead of a depression there will be a bulge. In such case it is necessary to puncture a small hole to allow the gas to escape and to re- sterilize the tins and again solder down as before. Before using the tins, it is well to find out whether there is a leakage in the tins caused by defective soldering. This is done by pressing the tins, with the mouth dowaiwards. into hot water ; should any leakage occur, the air will escape through the leakage and it may be easily detected. This £o Feb., 1911.] Introducing Queen Bees. method is adopted in various factories, and would, if practised, frequently avoid disappointment ; it is often diflkult to detect where the leakage takes place when the soldering is defective. * * * * * * With the object of imparting information on this and kindred subjects, demonstrations are given at the Technical Exhibition, 581 Flinders-street, Melbourne. Xo charge is made, and visitors axe welcome at any time in office hours. INTRODUCING QUEEN BEES. F. R. Beuhnc, Bee Expert. The begimier in bte- keeping and, s(jmetimes, even the more experienced apiarist, has difficulty in introducing a new queen to a colony of bees ; occasionally, absolute failure is the result. A considerable percentage of the queens bought annually from queen breeders arc lost in introductitai. This is chiefly owing to the bee-keeper failing to observe the many changes in the mood or temper of bees, due to climatic influences, variation of nt-rtar secretion, and the methods of manipulation of modern bee-keeping. When the colonies of an apiary are in normal condition, the printed in- structions usually .sent out with queen bees will insure safe introduction; under certain conditions, which will Xh- referred to further on, the usual method must, however, be entirely departed from. To introduce a new queen to a colony it is, first of all, necessary to find and remove the queen which is to be replaced. It is during this operation that, in most histances. the foundation for future trouble is laid. When the queen to be removed is a black or brown one. it often takes considerable time to find her. Bees from other hi\es are attracted and the bees of the colony operated on are rou.sed to a state of attacking any stranger ; and, when the new queen appears amongst them a day in two later she may be killed right away or balled and worried to death. The hunting up of queens should be done towards evening when l>ees have ceased to fly ; care should be also taken that no honey is spilt from combs so as to attract robber bees or ants next day. Bees will most readily accept a new queen after being queenless for from 24 to 48 hours. If queenless longer, queen-cells will have been started and the bees will b-' less friendly disposed towards a new queen. When a queen is received by post, remove the cover of the cage and note her condition. If satisfac tory remove the cork or covering slip from the end of the cage containing the candy and, if there is a queenless colony ready for introducing, place the cage wire downwards on top of the brood- frames. Ihe bees, by gnawing out the candy, will relea.se the queen in from one ti> three days. If no colony is (|ueenles.s at the time of arriv.d. kK>sely rei)lace the cover on the cage and keep it indtx^rs. If, on examin- ing the cage on receipt from the r<»^t Office, the (lueen is found dead, notify the sender and as pnnjf return the cage with be«'s and dead iiuee!). You will then receive another queen ill repuLible i|u«^n-breeders guar- antee safe arrival. By the method of introduction de.scril>-fi above, the worker bees which accompanied thf c|nd watering at this time of the year. Budding should be continued and tlit- buds left dormant until the spring-time; to allow the buds to push their way out and make a weak autumn growth does not generally result in strong vigorous trees. The soil surface should be still kept very loose, and frequent cultivation will greatly lu-ncfit the trees. I'Vuit picking and |)acking will now Ik- the principal work in the orchard; extra care shfjuld Ik:- ob.served in ])acking, particularly if the fruit is to be exported. 'i'he fruit shouM not be bruised or crushed, as eith.^r ttindition will cause raj)id decay ; it should not be packed moist as this also produces decomposition. Another point to Ix' studied is the grading of fruit; for export, fruit must be graden of I'.nglish fruit growers at the |)rpsent time. " Crimson Bramlev '' is a seedling from the well known Hramlov'i Seedling. The fruit is medium si/e. of g(H)d llavoui, .ind the .surface develops a brilliant crim.son. " St. Everard '" is a new dessert apple which received a first class 'Certificate' from th- Koval Horticulturid So that have been previously growing should be blanched by earthing, or by any means that will exclude the light. Continue to plant out cabbage, cauliflower, celery, lettuce, and other plants from the seed-bed.s. Seeds of cabbage, turnip, lettuce, peas, French bean.s. parsnip, beet, and leek may be sown. As soon as any block Ijecomes vacant, it should be well manured and dug to prepare it for the next crop. FlovT'er Garden. Constant watering and hoeing will now be required to keep ihe flower gardens in a condition of success. Cannas will require manuring, and the old flowering stem should be removed as soon as the flowers have passed their prime, to make way for new growth. Dahlias and chrysanthemums will need a great deal of attention, staking the growths as they develop, disbudding, thinning out weak shoots, and removing unnecessary growths. The dahlias should receive a good soaking with water during the hot weather, and liquid manure or quick-acting fertilizers should be given when the flower buds are developing. When chrysanthemum buds are very sinall, liquid manure should be applied. Roses may now be summer pruned ; all weak growths should be removed and the strong ones shortened to a fairly good bud. The plants should then receive occasional waterings with liquid manure, and be kept well supplied with water. All flowering trees and shrubs that have finished bUxjming should be pruned ; the flowering growths removed, and, unless the seed is required, all seed-heads should be cut off. Cuttings of pelargoniums, zonale and regal, may now be planted ; delphinium .spikes that have finished flowering should be cut down to- make way for new growths, the ijlant being watered and manured. Seeds of perennial and hardy annual plants may now be sown ; and a few bulbs for early flowering may be planted The beds should be well manured and deeply worked in anticipation of planting the main crop of bulbs. lo Feb., 191 1.] Pure Yeasts or '' Levures." 109 PURE YEASTS OK " LEVURES." F. dc Cdstella, Government Yiticulturist. Nearly forty years have elapsed since Pasteur's remarkable investigation of alcoholic fermentation — the transformation of sugar into alcohol, which is brought about through the agency of certain micro-organisms known to science as saccharomyces and more generally as alcoholic ferments or yeasts.* He showed that most of the diseases of wine and beer are caused by bacteria. He also showed that several distinct varieties or races of yeasts exist, some of which act in a more satisfactory manner than others. In order to improve fermentation, two logical courses were open — 1. To protect the yeast from the competition of injurious bacteria. 2. To employ a variety of yeast capable of insuring a maximum of quality in the resulting product. The second of these brings us to the subject of the present article. Pasteur's discoveries and the research work conducted by his successors have revolutionized the art of brewing to such an extent, that a properly equipped bacteriological laboratory is now to be found in every up-to-date brewery, and that the use of pure yeasts has become more and more general in them. This is in marked contrast to what has, until quite recently, obtained in the closely allied sister fermentation industry of wine-making, in which spontaneous fermentation has been the almost invariable rule. It is true that similar methods to those which proved of such value to the brewer were attempted many years ago. The results, however, were inconclusive and not up to expectations ; and in this we have the explanation of the slow spread of the use of cultivated yeasts in the wine cellar. Reasons for this contrast are not far to seek. The spontaneous nature of grape juice fermentation renders the use of yeast unnecessary, and for many centuries wines of the very highest quality have resulted from the development of the ferment provided by Nature in the shape of the bloom on the outside of the berry. In the case of beer, yeast of some kind must be added, and it is easy to understand the difference in the results to be obtained from the development of a good, as opposed to that of a bad yeast, and the opportunity for improvement in the yeasts used. Another radical difference between wine and beer must also be remem- bered. In the case of the latter, the yeast is added to a medium, sterilized by heat, so that it has every opportunity of developing without interference from organi.sms previously existing in it. With grape juice, preliminary sterilization is of difficult application and the added yeast finds itself face to face with all the germs naturally present in the bloom of the grape. Some, at least, of these have a very good chance of finding in the juice \ medium more suitable for their development, than for that of the added yeast. Hence, it vcrv frciiiit'iith has li.ipi)(MU'd that the added yeast has played little or no part in the fermentation it was intended that it should i)ring alM)ut. The case is exactly similar to that of a cereal crop sown in a verv dirty padrkKk, in which but little of the .seed which was .M>wn may live to yield any grain at harvest time. It is true that the addition of the cultivated yeast in a state of active growth should give it ;vn • Tlio FrPiicli word Irvure l)<"inK tho i-xnet oqiilviilont of tlip KiikHsIi " yen.xt," tliorp *cem* no nood fur the retetitidii of tlic foninT in the Australinii vitiriiUuriil vi)i-nl)iiliiry. no Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Feb.. 1911. advantage over the natural yeasts which find their way into the juice ia the spore state. More reliance has been placed on this point than was justified. In this connexion the use of sulphurous acid (see article on Sulphiting in January Journal) constitutes a very considerable advance. Its antiseptic action on the spontaneous organisms prevents their development, whilst it does not hinder that of the added yeast, previously accustomed, in a .separate culture, to life in its presence. Sulphiting has thus very power- fully contributed to the Increase in the Use of Pure Veasts in France. That this is becoming more and more general is amply proved by the increased attention the subject receives in French viticultural literature. Even the advertisements show the increasing interest which is now being taken in the question in France where numerous institutions now devote them- selves to the propagation and sale of pure cultures of selected varieties of yeast. There is also a decided tendency for the trader to pay a higher piice for '" Levured ' wines. The extension of sulphiting and the better understanding of the laws governing the development of yeast are respon- sible for this marii^ed increase. The object of the present article is to give some idea of the position the pure yeast question now occupies in France, to sum up as briefly as possible the leading opinions held on the subject, and to endeavour to explain some of the difficulties yet to be faced in connexion with it, and which have been responsible for its slow spread. Though progress has been slow it is none the less sure. Professor Astruc describes how numerous comparative tastings have proved wines made with the aid of selected yeasts to he generally superior to those made in the ordinary way. One of the causes responsible for its slow adoption is that too much was expected from the new method at first. It was thought that it was only necessary to ferment a common must with a yeast derived from a celebrated vineyard in order to obtain a product resembling closely the wine from which the ferment was derived. The bouquet was at first thought to be largely due to the yeast, but it has proved itself to be a very elusive quality and little permanent result has been obtained in this direction. Disappointment of these first extravagant expectations led to the neglect from which the method has only recently recovered. Reasonable Expectations. It is now abundantly proved that decided advantages are to be gained from the use of culjtivated yeasts, especially in the following directions : — Increase in Alcoholic Strength. — This may amount to i or even 2 per cent, proof. It is due to two causes, viz.. the use of a yeast of higher fermental power ; in other words, one which can transform a larger quantity of sugar for the production of a smaller weight of yeast substance, and to the elimination of organisms which transform the sugar into other substances than alcohol — what M. Astruc terms sugar eaters {Mangeurs de Sucre), as opposed to ferments in the strict sense of the word.* Improved Condition. — Wines fermented with pure yeasts, as a rule, clear themselves more rapidly than those resulting from spontaneous fer- mentation. Marked differences are to be observed in the behaviour of different varieties of yeast after the close of fermentation. Some possess the property of uniting together into small masses, thus bringing about • The maximum production of alcohol possible would entail the transformation of 16.4 grammes of Sugar per degree of alcohol (absolute by volume) and per litre. lo Feb., 1911.] Pure Yeasts or " Leviires.'^ iii their rapid and complete separation in the shape of a curdy sediment, the supernatant wine being left clear and limpid. In the ca.se of others, the yeast cells do not so unite, but remain long in suspension, causing the iwine to be cloudv or even milky for a lengthy period, ultimately forming a slimy and troublesome deposit. It is, in fact, this self-curdling power of certain champagne yeasts which first led to the extensive use of cultivated yeasts in practical wine- making. The convenience of such easily eliminated sediment is peculiarly suited to the champagne system of handling wines, since it greatly facilitates the degorgement process.* The second or bottle fermentation, responsible for the effervescence of sparkling wines, is now-a-days always started by means of pure cultures of yeasts which possess this property in a high degree. The advantages of rapid clarification apply with almost equal force in the case of non-sparkling wines. Most of the cultivated yeasts supplied by the trade are selected with a view to this valuable quality. Resistance to Certain Adverse Conditions. — Many varieties of yeasts possess marked powers in certain definite directions. Some can resist higher temperatures than others, without suffering injury. Some can continue to transform the sugar in spite of the presence of a high pro- portion of alcohol in the fermenting liquid ; in other words, they are capable of carrying attenuation further. Resistance in other directions, such as to high acidity, to a large proportion of tannin, &c., are possessed by certain varieties, each of which may prove of great value under given conditions. In the grape we find two clo.sely allied sugars known to science as glucose and levulose, the relative proportions of which differ according to conditions and degree of ripeness. In very ripe grapes, levulo.se pre- ponderates. The majority of ferments transform glucose with greater ease than levulo.se, the fermentation of which is usually looked upon as difficult; nevertheless, certain yeasts are known which ferment levulose with ease. Such should prove of value when dealing with over-ripe grapes. Lengthy and very technical considerations cannot be fully gone into in an article, such as the present one. Enough has, however, been said to show the absolute necessity of selecting one's yeast, with a view to the composition of the must which it will have to ferment, and the conditions of temperature, &c., under which it will have to do its work, rather than the somewhat sentimental rec(jmmendation that it has been selected from .'lome celebrated vineyard in France or Germany. These are considerations which are often allowed to exert an unreasonable amount of weight. It IS true that our knowledge is as yet far from perfect on many of these [K>ints. These, however, are the main considerations by which one ought to be guided in the choice of yeast. It must be rememiiererl that the composition of the grapes varies considerably from one year to another, so that the yeast most suitable one season may not be so the next. The natural or spontaneous ferment adjusts itself to circumstances, Init this is not .so with the artificially adiled one. Production of bouquet. — Although this is tlie direction in which the greatest advantages were looked for when pure yeasts were first tried, it is undoubtedly the one in which the greatest disappointments have been experienced. This phase of the (juestion will receive further consideration in the next paragraph. • Di'vnrgement \» the name (jiven fo the operation hy which the sediment result inn frnni the tw^ttle fermentatfon of champagne in removed prior to recorking the Bnished wine. 112 Journal of AgriciiUiiJC. Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. Nevertheless, because the sanguine hopes of twenty years ago were not fully realized we must not lose sight of the real gain which undoubtedly occurs in this direction. Some yeasts, at least, have proved themselves capable of bringing about an improvement in the bouquet of the wines, fermented by them. The advantages to be gained from the use of pure veasts are summed up by Professor Astruc as follows: — * 1. More rapid, more complete, more re^'ular fermentations and a belter yield in alcohol. 2. Wines of better general quality, sometimes clearing earlier and possessing more bouquet; ahvavs easier to preserve, poorer in dangerous germs, and clean in taste. Problems Still to be Solved. These are numerous and some are important. As regards bouquet, its frequently fugitive nature has led to an ingenious explanation which sup- poses the existence in the must of certain glucosides or allied substances whicli give rise, under the influenc of a certain ferment, to a bouquet, whereas under the agency of a different ferment this bouquet would not be evolved. According to M. Astruc — It seems as though there were transformation by the yeast of a natural odoriferous element of the must. The Cabernet flavour would transform itself thus by fermen- tation into the special perfume of Bordeaux, and that of Pinot into the Burgundy perfume; but let us reverse matters, let us place the Burgundy yeast in the Cabernet must and vice versa, and the results as far as bouquet is concerned become uncertain, being temporary or permanent, good or bad, accordmg to the race of yeast employed, or the accidental composition of the must. ... Is this natural constituent, which has been recognised as depending on the soil and the variety of vine, a special glucoside, or else is this only a convenient way of concealing our present ignorance on the subject? .... The only point which seems to me to be solved for one particular spot is that the nature of the bouquet depends on the variety of vine, whilst its intensity seems to depend particularly on the yeast, and that such bouquets are often fugitive or slow in showing themselves when they do make their appearance. He further points out that, in the quest after bouquet, other risks may be run. " Beware of bouquet-producing levures ; they are often ' exigeantes,' lazy, or inferior from other standpoints." A pertinent question was asked some years back by Duclaux — Is the bouquet of wine due to one ferment alone or to co-operation of several ? In Nature a whole group of yeasts does the work. This is quite different to what happens with a pure yeast, which, if it fulfils expectations formed when it w-as added, is responsible for transformation from start to finish. It is well known that, in many spontaneous fermentations, the lemon- shaped yeast known as .S. Aficulatus, so abundant at the commencement, gives place entirely, later on, to the true wine yeast ►S. Ellifsoideus. The former possesses only poor fermental power, ceasing to act as soon as a moderate alcoholic strength is reached ; yet, in some quarters at least, it is held responsible for the production of aromatic substances which pos- sibly contribute to the special bouquet of certain wines. Numerous different varieties of yeasts exist, and it is by no means improbable that in some, at least, of the celebrated wines of the world, it is to the co-operation of several and not to the development of one yeast alone, that are due the qualities which have rendered these wines famous. The.se few examples will suffice to show the complexity of the question and the need which exists for further experimental work before the theory * Henri Astruc — L'Etat actuel de la Question des Levuers en (Enologie. Report to the Soci^tf des Aericulteurs de France, May, 1908. lo Feb., ipii-] Pure Yeasts or ■' Lcvures.'' 113 of the use of yeasts is put on an altogether satisfactory basis. As Pro- fessor Fernbach says, in terminating his report to the Societe des Viticul teures de France, in June, 1910 — Vou see, gentlemen, that for those wlio wish to devote themselves to the study of wine yeasts there are yet vast sjiaces to be explored. I should achieve my object, and I should congratulate myself, if I have been able to awaken in some of you the desire to experiment and thus to bring their small stone to the edifice at which you are all working with so much ardour for the greater profit of the greatest of our national industries — vinification. Practical Considerations. Desirable though complete preliminary .sterilization, of the crushed grapes, or must, to be fermented rnay be, no really satisfactory means of executing it, at least on a large scale, has yet been devised.* Until now the only practical way of employing pure yeasts has been by the early addition of a sufficient bulk quantity of the culture in a state of active growth to rapidly take possession of the mass to be fermented. As previously pointed out, the partial sterilization afforded by sulphiting (see la.st issue of Journal, pp. 26 and 30) has proved itself to be amply sufficient to give the pure yeast, pre\iously accustomed to life in presence of 80=2, an advantage insuring its development, to the exclusion of all organisms pre-existing in the must. It is not too much to say that sulphiting has thus rendered possible the logical use of pure yeasts Nothing has contributed more powerfully to the increase in their use in Fiance than the very general adoption of sulphiting. Pure yeasts are supplied commercially in several forms : — 1. /n dilute form. — The yeast constituting but a small proportion of the total bulk and being largely diluted with the medium in which it was cultivated. 2. In concentrated form. — Separated from the bulk of the culture medium, and of a consistency similar to wine lees. 3 /n cultures on gelatine nr gelosc plates. 4. In a dry state. Each sy.stem has its partisans, and is followed by one or other of the institutions or firms, which manufacture pure yeasts. '!1ie manufacturers always supply full directions for use. Two very different methods of utilizing these cultures must now be con- sidered. i"he commercial yeast mav be added directly, in the form in which it was received, to the crushed grapes or must. This may be termed Direct Fitc/iing.i On the other hand, it may be fust made to develop, ni a small rjuantity of grape juice, j)rff<*rably sterilized, either completely, by heat, or partially by the aildition of SOo (in the form of Sulphurous Acid or Bisulphite of Potash) ; this intermediate culture, known as a starter (Pied de Cuve in French), is used to pitch, or start the fermentation of the large bulk of grapes in the fermenting vat. • Urirf rofiTcnco cannot licre !»' oinitti'il to the strikinu rcxiilts nlitaincd liy several seientiVts, in the ferinoiitiition of sterilized musts witii inire yeiists. nofalily. Kiiyser. Harlm. and Uosenst ielil. Uotli direct hentiiii; and tlie (rarf ional sterilization llrst proposed liy Tyndall have uiven iioinl results. Tlningli these nuthcirs i-laini that their methods are appliiahle on a larijc- scale and several French vineyard i>ro|iriet4)n' have applied them to very consideralili' (|iiantlties of Kr"!"'". "»'V "re loo rinuhersome and comiilicntod to he pract ical in our cellars or wineries, at least without radii al alterations to |>lants now in use. Several French authors hope for soniethiiiK practical from -Icrilizat ion hy means of nitra-violet rays jriven ont hy the Cooper llewit lamp. None of thisi' method- ot compete sterilization have yet reached a stagi' which can commenil them to niir prait ical wlnemukirs, however. t Pitching is the term iisi'd hy hrewers to desiirnate the addition of yeast, a coiiveuient expres-sion which we may horrow from the sister industry. ii4 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria [lo Feb., 1911. Direct Pitching. This is only practicable in the ca.se of yeast supplied in the dilute form. In any of the others mentioned above, it is not in a sufficiently active state. It is questionable if imported yeast would, even in the dilute form, reach us in an efficient state, after the long voyage. This objection, of course, no longer applies in the case of locally made cultures, which are now obtainable. In France dilute yeasts are extensively used. M. Jacquemin, of the w-ell-known Institut la Claire, supplies them under the name of Multilevures- Jacquemin, specially prepared for the purpose of direct pitching. If desired, they are supplied already acclimatised to the presence of SO2, for use in conjunction with sulphiling. The main object of direct pitching is the suppression of the starter and the extra trouble and attention its preparation entails ; these often prove irksome in the rush of vintage work. Use of St.^rteks. The weight of evidence is decidedly in favour of the starter as opposed to direct pitching. According to most authorities the results it gives wijl amply repay the small amount of extra work its preparation demands. As we have seen, it is practically obligatory in the case of all forms in which yeasts are sold with the exception of the dilute, recently prepared cultures, referred to in the last paragraph. In addition to economy* there is another powerful argument in favour of the starter. According to Professor Fernbach — It does not seem as though one could, from this point of view (production of bouquet) or many others, expect anything from direct use, that is to say without recourse to a levain (starter), because calture in artificial media, most usual in the manufacture of yeasts, causes them to lose the anthogene (bouquet producing) faculty, which they only recuperate, partially at least, by passage through grape juice. M. Ventre, commenting on the above, says : — The best proof of the uselessness of direct pitching is -to be found in the fact that in all experiments between i8qi and 1902, date of the introduction . . . ot starters, combined with the use of sulphurous acid, the results obtained were null, sometimes negative and always inconsis'.ent. The following practical instructions are adapted from !M. Ventre's recent book. t After pointing out that, theoretically, each vat should have its starter prepared for it a few days before it is filled, he describes a convenient continuous starter which he has devised and which may be employed duruig the whole currency of a vintage. The proportion of starter which has been found to give the best results is from 45 to 55 gallons to the ton of fresh grapes. Hogsheads or pipes, with one head removed, constilute the most convenient recep- tacles. For a winery treating 35 tons of grapes per day. 5 pipes will be sufficient. This will give some idea of the number required under given circumstances. Thev should be scrupulously clean, well sulphured and placed on end, on stillages, in a convenient, well-ventilated but not too draughty place, handy to the fermenting pits. Each should have a clean calico or canvas cover, to keep out dust, and be provided with a large wooden tap, at about 3 inches from the bottom. Two or three days before commencing vintage, gather enough srrapes to yield :; gallons of juice for each ton of grapes to be dealt with on the first day of the * It is scarcely necessary to point out ttiat a small quantity of purchased yeast, niultinlied into a large bulk of starter, must be more economical to use than yeasts prepared for direct addition, a fresh quantitv of which must be employed each time. + Jiiles Ventre — Les Levures dans la Vinification, 1911. Masson and Co., 120 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris. lo Feb., 1911- 1 Pure Yeasts or " Levures. vintage. These grapes should not be too ripe, thev should be the finest and, especi- ally, the soundest available. The must, pressed out rapidly and with every care as regards cleanliness, is immediatelv placefl in the prepared casks. One-tenth of the juice is then withdrawn and heated to a temperature of 65 deg. — 70 deg. C. (149 deg. — 158 deg. F.) which is sufficient to render inert the indigenous ferments. After this has cooled down to 28 . where mechanical pumps are fitted to each vat, aeration is ample, but in cooler districts, where these arc not in general use, aeration must he resorted to or there will he some risk of production of sulphuretted hydrogen (taste of rotten eggs) owing to the reducing influence of yeast. This is easily guarded against by pumping frr)m the bottom of the vat to the top. This operation, carried out twice ihiring tln' cour.se of fermentation, for half an hour t-ach time and with an interval of twenty-four hours between each execution, will be sufficient to avoid any danger (Ventre). The only danger to which pure yeast may render one liable is a rise of temperature due t<~> the greater activity of the added veast. Prior to the introiliiction of sul|)hitiiig this fre<|uently gave trouble in warm districts. The restraining eflet t of StJo is a verv eflectual check. Should trouble occur in this direction, in extra hot weather, the u.se of a iiuther i]uantitv of bisul|)hite will sutfice to bring (he r.ii)iilit\ of fernienlatitm uitliin IxMUids •ii.\\K\. avoid injury to the wine. ii6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. IRRIGATION. 6'. H. Tolley, Manager, W'yuiia Irrigation Farm. {Continued from page 62.) Channel Outlets and Head Ditches. Upon completion of grading the next step is to provide channel outlets and head ditches for distributing the water. Wherever it is possible make these ditches level, and where otherwise, provide them with regulators so set as to furnish the greatest facilities for securing effective irrigation. The most effective tool for this purpose is the crowder or delver. After staking out the posi- tion of a ditch, plough the surface the full width re- quired, and as deeply as possible, leaving a strip of 6 inches or 9 inches along the centre untouched, to act as a fulcrum for the furrow run along the course of the very like the mouldboard of 39. section of crowder drain. 40. crowder drain improved. board of the crowder. The machine is now channel with the wing board (which acts a plough) set rather narrow, the furrovv' board running straight along the edge of the unploughed strip. The return trip is made along the other side of the strip. This operation crowds the earth out towards the edge of the ploughing. It is repeated with the wing board set wide enough to crowd the earth out to about the position where the bank is required. It may, or may not, be necessary to repeat the work more than twice ; it depends upon the nature and condition of the soil and must be left to the judgment of the operator. When the loose earth has all been shifted, the bed is again ploughed and the strip previously left, broken down. This ploughing need not cover so great a width as at first and should be deepest in the centre. The pitch now on the sides of the channel is sufficient to keep the furrow board running in a fairly straight line; to help it do so, the operator can regulate the tilt of the machine by means of the handle provided, while the draught may also be adjusted so as to keep the nose buried as much as may be found necessary. A repetition of the work described as succeeding the first ploughing is all that is required to com- plete the work. The number of repetitions and the set of the wing board for successive operations may safely be left to the operator, the work naturallv being much less in a free loamy soil than in stiff clay, which breaks uo in lumos. crowder drain completed. :o Feb., 191 i] Irrigation. 117 In practice, the driver always ride.-, on the machine and so adjusts his weight and the tilt of the machine as to secure the greatest or least amount of crowding to make a straight even finish. In rough lumpy ground, it is good practice for one man to drive and another to regulate the machine, while it is often necessary that both men ride on it to keep it well buried. r. is scarcely a case where a permanent weight can be applied, as it is so often necessary for the position of the weight to be changed. The channel will now have the appearance shown in section in the sketch No. 39, and is quite good enough for all practical purposes. It may, however, be strengthened and made more effective by ploughing out the areas shown in sketch No. 40 by vertical lines, and shovelling the earth into the position shown bv horizontal lines. The waterway will be considerably increased and the channel will have the appearance shown in No. 41. -\2. THE CROWDER OR DELVliR. The crowder shown on this page, and which is sold for ^3 los., is cajjablf of l)eing drawn by two good horses and is sufficient for the pur- po.se of making the subsidiary channels or head ditches required on most farms. Larger sizes are made and will be found very useful in making channels or drains which will carry cdnsiderable volumes of flow. They will be of special value on large holdings and stations, where a few extra horses are of little or no ojnsideration. and where it often happens that flows from artesian bores and other sources of water supply are required to Ik- carried in considerable volume to outlying tanks and storages; or for the jnirpose of ((jiicentrating and accelerating the flow of water along the Ix'ds of usuallv drv watrr-cours.s which are of such common occur- rtiKt' in connexion with the river systems of northern Victoria. Tin- crowder is also on*- of the most u.seful of t(X)ls for making road formations. The crowder, buck.scrai)er and smoother (ii\ .some cases thf crowder and the smoother only) form a superior outfit to the ordinarv scoop methods, where surfaces are flat and earth may be borrowed clo.se alongside the formation. If the earth has to be borrowed from the edg •« 0! J2 o 7_^ w £ O rt lo Feb., 1911-] Irrigation. 119 of the road space, the buckscraper uikI smoother will be found to make a l)etter and cheaper job than scoops, one of the principal advantages being that, with the buckscraper, the loads may be distributed at will instead of dumped in a heap and smoothed afterwards as with scoops. The question of deciding upon the size of a head ditch must be left very much to individual judgment, but it is always best to have these larger than may be strictly necessary ; among other reasons, to allow for siltation and growth of w-eeds. They should all be made from spoil taken from inside the ditch. Taking it from outside destroys so much land, and creates a hideous eyesore, besides causing resort to works of some sort to pass irrigation water across the excavation. If the works are pipes thev are expensive, and if of earth and the excavation or borrow pit is any size, they are a nuisance to maintain and cause a good deal of additional labour. Naturally, the size of the ditch is governed by the area to be supplied, the time allowed for applying the water, the kind of watering required, i.e., flooding or by furrows, and the class of soil. As a general idea, a ditch to water an area of 20 acres should be about the dimensions shown in No. j_i. TTfTTTfTrTrTTyTTTTTTrTyTTTTTTTTTTTTr/* 44. SECTION or HEAD DITCH. So far there has been \ery little restriction in tlie (loulburn Valley irrigation areas as to time allowed for watering; but, as development pro- ceeds and greater demands arise, and the value of water becomes more appreciated, a schedule or roster will be prepared and more rigidly adhered to. An attempt to so regulate the supply of water has been made, but has so far not met with the success that later must become a sine qua non of successful irrigation. The water is so regulated in most irrigation coun- tries; and at Mildura, which is eminently a closer .settlement area, has generally met requirements. There, the water is all raised from the River Murray by pumps, and, e constructed on a level contour little remains to be done beyond providing outlets to the field. The simplest form is to out gaps in the bank with a shovel and regulate the flow of w;.'e.- by n:eans of 45. OUTLET FROM HEAD DITCH. clods, pieces of sacking, bunches of weeds.. &c. It is rather a slovenly practice and results in unsightly holes accumulating, but it is effective and certainly permissible where means are limited. The better plan is to pro- vide some kind of pipe of suitable capacity and length, the latter being governed by the width of the ditch bank. If circular pipes are used plugs of some kind must be provided, to regulate the discharge. Prefer- ably, these should be of cork; wooden plugs often swell and get jambed and in the process of removing them many pipes are displaced or damaged or broken. The plug should appear wedge-shaped in section as shown in No. 46 and be slightly tapered, which admits of regulating discharges to any volume desired within the capacity of the pipe. 46. PLUG FOR PIPE. ANOTHER FORM OF PLUG. If the supply of water only reaches the top of the pipe the plug should Ije turned sideways. Another plug is made by covering the mouth of the pipe with an old jam tin which either just fits inside or outside the pipe and in which a cut has been made in one side a-; shown in No. 47 ; a hoop-iron handle is attached, the lugs of the handle projecting beyond the I'dge of the tin to prevent it slipping into the pipe when used inside. The form of the aperture allows of a very nice adjustment of flow. 7 , J. I 48. .SK( HON ul olJTI.ET. 49. SKC I ION 01 ( ii: 1 I.K 1 .Nor RKfOMMKNDKIi. ;o. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF 01; r LET. PijXfs may In- either earthenwarr, iron (old water pipes), galvani/ed iron (downpipc). or wood. Thr first .ind third cla.sses are not to l>e recom- mended as ihey are easily damaged. The second class is practically ever- lasting ; secondhand wat«'r <>r steam pipes are pnMurable in .some places at cheap rates. Square wood«'n pipes are very serviceable and durable; thev are easilv made and rtgulated, and are on the whole to be preferred. I usf them made of red-gum. 4 inches x \\ inches, put together as shown in No. 48 to give the greatest waterway. If built as .shown in No. 49 the area is 20 per cent. less. The inlet is made as in No. 50, the diagonal piece i»eing a shuttrr made of stift" galvani/rd iron sliding in saw cuts made in the wood. th<- top or ((Acr l)oard t 5° 9 X J' 6" X J- 6' X 3 '6- ><9'^ Longil-i sec'rion I'l >(\ 2- 6 ■ 1 3 X i Ehr i 3et Plan 57. REGULATING CULVERT. Crossings over ditches for the passage of waggons or implements may be made with hollow logs or of red-gum or other timber to the design (No. 57); decking to be secured by 6-inch Ewbank spikes, driven in |-inch auger holes, all timber to be treated with tar applied hot. It often happens that a culvert is required to act as a regulator, m which case a light sliding door may be fitted to the upstream end, wing-boards and cleats being nailed to the ends of the deck and stringers for the purpose, as shown in the drawing. There is no necessity to make the area of culvert equal to area of waterway ; in most cases, it would involve too great expense for timber. The design given will serve ordinary head ditch purposes, and it would be well not to contract such crossings too much. Outlets from main channels for supplying water to irrigators are of various design, and are usually supplied by the authority controlling the main works. The number allotted is governed by the area and contour of country operated, but an owner may insert more at his own cost, and under supervision. \^'here meters are used, these outlets are expensive lo Feb., 1911] Irrigation. ■J \>r^2' structures, and, seeing that as yet no meter has been produced to satisfy practical requirements, it is doubtful if the expense is justified. Outlet boxes made as shown in drawing No. 59 are effective and cheap. They are usually so located that they are not called upon to bear heavy traffic, and the timbers used in their construction need not exceed 2 inches in thick- ness. Where so great an area of waterway is required as to necessitate the use of more than single planks, collars as shown in sec- tional drawing No. 58 will give strength and act as flanges to check any tendency there may be for water to creep along the sides. If the ground is very sandy the width of collars can be increased by adding extra boards. The length will be governed by local circumstances. Shutters may be of similar design as for culverts (.see No. 57), or, pre- ferably, as in drawing No. 59. Being set at an angle they are more readily operated from bank of channel, make a closer joint, and the earth stopping lies up better to them. Outlets of this description, if well rammed, will Cross Sec /■ I on ;8. OUTLET BOX. ix/ - ^ /-/>:.' rfs^ ^^t^K ///5f f ■ ■ — • — y- i < OuNet Bo/ Cross /It) yhutter for Jo Sectiom Section f\ B 59. DE.SIGN FOR CHEAP OUTLET BOX. rarely wash out. In designing outlet boxes, it is desirable that the greatest dimension shall be width, for the reasoii that more water may be available when a supply channel is low. than if the principal dimension was depth : and all outlets should deliver water unrlerneath the shutter or regulating I J 3ed of outlet- 61. MOVEABLE BAR.S. Bed of ooHpf 60. MOVEABLE SHUTTER. bars. If bars or shutters are set t<> take water ovir the top, the suppK chaiuiel nuy fall so low that no water ran be delivered, whereas, with underflow, the last drop in the channel may be utili/i-d. ;is shown in dr;i\\ ings Nos. 60 and 61. (To he continued .) 1-6 J ouDial oj :\griciilluri.\ Victoria. [lo Feb., ipii. PREVENTION OF POTATO BLIOHT BY SPRAYING. D. McAlfhie, Vegetable Pathologist. In the leaflet issued by the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland on the Prevention of Potato Blight, the value of spraying is shown in the results of experiments, and the following statement regarding its utility is made: — " The experience of recent years has con- clusively proved that the loss caused by potato blight can be, to a great extent, prevented by spraying — an operation which has now come to be regarded as an essential part of the work connected with the successful cultivation of the potato crop. The reports received by the Department from a large number of districts show that those who take the trouble to carry out the work properly are abundantly rewarded, while those who neglect to spray suffer heavy loss, both in the quantity and quality of the crop." Sulphate of Copper and Washing Soda Recommended as a Spray. The spraying mixtures recommended are either of the two following : — 1. Sulphate of copper or bluestone and washing soda. 2. Sul[)hate of copper and lime. The former is recommended by preference for the following reasons : — 1. It adheres longer to the foliage of the plants, and is not so^ readily washed off by rain. 2. It is more easily prepared. 3. It is not so liable to clog the nozzles of the machine, because if the mixture is carefully prepared there should be no sediment. Preparation of the Mixture. The mixture is made in the following proportions: — ■ S lbs. sul|>hate of copper. 10 lbs. washing soda. 40 gallons water. The sulphate of copper is dissolved in a barrel or wooden tub, because the solution has a corrosive action on metal. Pour into the barrel 35 gallons of clean water. If there is any grit or foreign material in the water it should be strained through a piece of hessian, so that it does not clog the nozzles of the sprayer. The 8 lbs. of sulphate of copper should be tied up in a piece of hessian and moved about in the water in the barrel until the crystals are all dis- solved. The operation is hastened if the crystals are previously ground. Next dissolve the 10 lbs. of washing soda in five gallons of water in a separate vessel. Then pour the washing soda solution slowly into the copper sulphate solution in the barrel, stirring continuously, and the mixture is ready for use. If convenient to have hot water, both the sulphate of copper and the washing soda can be more quickly dissolved, and the required quantity of cold water can afterwards be added. A quarter of a pound of Paris green mav be added to the 40 gallons if it is desired to destroy grubs as well. There is no harm in dissolving the sulphate of copper and washing soda in separate vessels and keeping them in that condition for several days, but once they are mixed together, the mixture should be applied immediately. The mixture deteriorates rapidly even when held over for one day, and is then much more readily washed off the [o Feb. , 19 1 1 •] Prevention of Potato Blight by Spaying. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Feb.. 1911. plants by rain. The freshly made mixture should always be used. Sul- phate of copper is poisonous, therefore the vessels in which the mixture has been prepared should not be used for holding food or water for con- sumption. Application of the Mixture. Spraying should be done before any signs of disease have appeared. It is desirable to apply the first dressing when the plants are about 6 inches high, although leaves are sometimes blighted as soon as they appear above ground. A second spraying should be given when the foliage is well developed, and if the season is a wet one, a third dressing may be advis- able. The foliage should be completely covered by the spray in the form of a fine mist, and this is best done when a sufficiently high pressure is maintained in the sprayer. Spraying should be done during dry weather and suspended when it is raining. If heavy rain has washed the mixture largely off soon after spraying, then it should be repeated. forbes-chisholm horse-power sprayer. It is essential to success that the spraving material is kept intimately mixed by constant agitation during the operation. Quantity per Acre and Cost of Materials. It is found in Ireland tliat an average crop with fully developed foliage requires about 100 gallons per acre, and with a small amount of foliage the quantity would be less. The quantity will vary, but the main point to be attended to is to use sufficient to completely cover the foliage without drenching the ground. At the present market price of the articles when bought in quantity, the cost of the raw materials of spraying an acre would be as follows : — Sulphate of Copper, 20 ll)s. at 2d. Ofd. per lb. = 4s. 7d. Washing Soda, 25 lbs. at OSd. per lb. ... =^ Is. .5d. Total 6s. Od. lo Feb. . 1911-] Prevention of Potato Blight by Sf raying. 129 Field Trial of Spraying Machines. In Mrder to sliow the sprayers at work, several of the best machines were tested at Bungaree. They were of various patterns and jjrices to FLEMING S 1 suit the small as well as the large growers. There is a knapsack sprayer adapted for areas of onlv a few acres : and a powerful machine, such as jft^^m ^t »75-^i; lifcA^>ta». -_.^. SI'kANINC; Willi THI'. I I.F.MING ^^\C1IINK. till- motor .spray pump, wlii( h (an U' used for spraying the mo.st cxkn.sivc plantations as (juickly as possible. 18'.) 43. E 13° J oiiriial of Agric/illiire, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. The larger machines were charged with 40 gallons of the copper-soda mixture and the application of the spray, together with its regular distribu- tion over tlu; crop, was closely followed by over 200 farmers. Each machine sprayed five rows at a time and 100 gallons would cover from I to i|- acres. Of course, more extended trials would be necessary to test the capabilities of each machine for spraying cheaply, quickly and effectively and no attempt was made to place them in order of merit, although the performances of each were keenly discussed. The following machines were exhibited in action and the accompanying photographs will give a good idea of their general structure and mode of working. I. Knapsack Sf ravers. — A copper Knapsack Sprayer is shown, capable of holding 5 gallons and is to be preferred to one made of galvanized iron, because the iron extracts the copper from the mixture and thereby renders it less efficacious. The cost is from ^3 upwards. The other represented is known as the ' ' Auto ' ' Safety Sprayer and is made of galvanized steel, with asphaltum paint inside. The cost is jQt, for 2 -gallon size and ^6 for 5-gallon size. L. B. &. D. AUTOMATIC HORSE SPRAYER. 2. Forhes-Chislwlni Horsc-poivcr Sprayer.- — This machine is made at Bungaree and when barrel is full, containing 100 gallons, weighs 11 cwt. It is built on steel wheels with steel axle adjustable, also fitted with ratchet gear for turning and driven with chain from centre of axle off sprocket wheel. The pump is driven with eccentric and can be used to fill the barrel instead of bucketing, thus saving time and extra help. The pump is brass lined, double action and fitted with air-chamber, a continual stream, of water being forced back into the barrel ; the solution is thus kept well agitated. The machine is adapted to do 5 or 7 drills at a time and the nozzles are adjustable. The spray is circular and can be regulated to any angle. The droppers of the sprayer are fitted with swivel joints and are not injured by striking any obstacle. Every machine is thoroughly tested before being sent from the factory and the complete cost is ^25. The machine has been iminrned upon since photograph was taken. 3. Fleming^ s Horse-power Sprayer. — This is a comparatively light machine as the weight is about 10 cwt. when the barrel is full. The to Feb. , 19 1 1 •] Preventfon of Potato Blight by Spraying. 131 wheels can be moved in or out to suit the width l:)etween the rows. The spray never comes in contact with iron, as it passes through brass, armoured hose and a, copper tube. The armoured hose is warranted not to collapse. By means of a couple of levers easily controlled, the sprays are lifted at the end of the rows and the mixture is, at the same time, cut off at the tank. As soon as the machine is in ])Osition for spraying the next set of rows, the levers are reversed and a fresh start is made. Duplicates of the different ])arts are kept in stock, so that they are easily replaced when necessary. The complete cost is ;£^o. 4. Stra-usoif s Cart Sprayer. — The pump is of gun metal provided with an agitator. It c:\n be readily fitted to an ordinary dray and the jnimp is worked b\- hand. The c^ist of the sprayer with three droppers is ^15 and with five dro])pers ^17 los. If fitted with automatic gear, so that hand-power is dispenseil with, the (ost is ^^5 extra. &: D. MOTOR ■SPR.'WER. 5. /. . />'. ami P. .\utoniaiu Horse Sprayer.— TWx'^, pump has a two-inch doulilf action and is compost-d of gun metal. It is PKJunted on large transports driven by sjirockt-t and chain gear. The (lro|)pers are five in number, witii double spravs at tin- bottom and a single spray at the top. The gear can easily be thrown in and out at the end . (iihl P. Molur Sprayer. — This consists of an engine, pump and vat. The engine runs at 500 revolutions which is considerably under any other motor and has a pressure from 150 to 300 lbs. It is fitted with a governor, which enal)les it to run at any desin^d sin-ed, and has a magn*"to instead of a battery. The engine can l>e completely disconnected Ml five niinntes and ni:i\ be used for other work, such as chaff lUtting. |)umi)ing water. \:c. ("ost of the engine, ;^36. It is attached to two 2^-in. plungt-rs ami the pump has a triple agitator. The dropjjers «if the sprayer are on the slump-jump principle and h.ive also guards to protect the spraver. The vat is l' sh.iped to allow ot 132 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1911. 10 Feb., 1911-] Answers to Correspondents. 133 thorough mixing of the ingredients. Tt holrls 80 gallons ami when fully rharged, the entire weight is about 12 cwt. Cost of engine, piimi) and sprayer. ^65 ; and if nmunted nn a cart as in photograph, ^75- . '!'he machines are manufactured l)y Messrs. I.anguiU Hrns. and Davies, Melbourne; Messrs. Edwards and ^^c^,i^l1^■ss. ^^e!llnunu■ ; and >dr. W. H. ("hisholm, Rungaree. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Depiitinent lias been oig-anized to a larire extent for the purpose of ou want to know. All inquiries jorwarded lo the Editor muBt be accompanied by the name and address of the icriter. This is v(v\ iici-(s«ary. os sometimes in'^iitticient in'nrniation 's fnrnisheil by the iiiipiiror !■ Mnn.v;; (j.\ ■■ Sijakks."' — T.N. writes : — ■• A'c terms of wheat growing on shiiies wliere the farmer lakes two-thirds and tlie owner of the hmd one-third of the crop. I understand that the owner supplies tht- land, buildings, fencing, &c., and the farmer everAthing else, inclurling labour, of course. Is this t:orrect? Also, who lias the riglil lo graze the stubble?'' Answer. — Yes. The grazing t)f stubble is a matter of arrangement. I'sually ihe farmer has the right of using the stubble and straw. It is a common practice for the landlord lo allow the farmer a lump sum (to be agreed upon according to the stage of growth and (juantity of stubble available for grazing jiurposes) for the right to graze the cultivated area for a given perioil. Lre.am Tksti.nc. — D.Aikv asks what protection supi)liers of cream lo butter factories have. Anszi'er. — Section ^^ of the Mi/k and Dairv Supervision Act states : — " Any vendor of milk or cream shall have the right to have his milk or cream tested in his presence at the factory not oftener than once a week." Other than this, there are no legal provisions to ii^sure the accuracy of the returns of butter fat contents of cream or milk sent to a factory. Cami.vitis. — J.K. states that his pony got a feed of oats by mistake. He became lame at once, or " foundered." The pony is getting worse — the hoofs have grown very much, and he is hardlv able lo walk about. Answer. — The trouble is Laminitis or Foimder, followed by a condition of ''dropped sole," and is beyond cure. In such cases the use of "rocker" shoes on the alTectcd feet is necessarv. T.aminitis is described fullv i" the Journal f«'' July, 1907. RUPTUKK. — W.R.VV. writes : — " I have a valuable drau!,dit mare thai apjje.irs to have developed a broken belly. It began about a month before she foaled, which occurred eight days ago. The swelling has practically gone, but the broken belly IS apparent. She seems to have trouble in urinating. She has been bandaged until a few days ago. Is it advisable to keej) a bandage round her? Ans'uer. — The mare evidently has hernia, or rupture of the belly w;ill. It will depend on ihe extent as lo whether it is curable or not. In any case, the o|)eration is one for an e.xpert only, and would involve considerable risk to the mare. In the ( ircumstances, the best plan is to continue the bandage treatment for some weeks or even months, but before applying it attempts should be made to locate the hole in the belly wall and lo return ihe bowel through it into the belly before the bandage is fixed. The bandage shouhl be strong, broad, and re- adjusleil as often as re |uired ihrongli dis|ila( ement. blistering is not advisable. AniiUTiu.N. -J.I^ asks whether sir.utted oaten hay, or ch.ilT cut from same, would, if fed lo in-foal mares, c.iuse them lo abort. Answer. — Oat smut would not necessarily cause abortion, but, owing to tin- fact that the niilrient portion of the fodder is attacked, and foj »he most part destroyed, it is dejinved of i:s nutrient properties. ( 'onsc'iuently, the mares would not do as well as with sound fodder. Further, there is some risk that digestive disturbance might set up from eilnig large i|Uanlilies of the dam.iged fodder, and this would ait drlctrrl.Mi-sh i>\\ the pregnant wondi .iml possibly in an indirect way lead to .ibfirlion. 134 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 191 i. Lump on Jaw. — A.B. states that his horse has had a lump under its jaw for years. It appears to increase as the horse improves in condition, and to decrease to nothing when poor. Answer. — It is im])()ssible to ex])ress a definite o])inion as to liie nature of the lump mentioned without a manual examination. The alternating appearance and disappearance with varying bodily condition is suggestive of nothing more than increased T)rominence being given to the glands under the lower jaw as the horse thrives, which is due to the deposition of fat in the region. As the fat is used U]i when " condition " is lowered the glands shrink back into the sjiace between the branches of the lower jaw. If the swelling shows a tendency to increase and remain permanent you should have the horse examined by a veterinary surgeon to determine the exact nature of the swelling. Lamb-raisixg. — C.A.H. asks for info'iuation on several pcnnts in connexion with lamb-raising. Answer. — In a healthy district, when fairly treated, good crossbred ewes return 5s. to 6s. each in wool and los. to 13s. for the lamb; or /^26 ]ier 100 for wool and /.■45 per 100 for lambs. The age at which a lamb would be market fat depends on the class of ewe and the type of ram. mated ; 12 to 14 weeks old weigh- ing 28 to 36 lbs., if from coarse crossbred ewes b\' thick-set Shropshire rams. Lucerne, both green and silaged, is suitable for sheep, but proper fixtures are neces- sary in feeding silage economically. Lucerne, if grazed, should not be eaten bare. Stable Manure for Potatoes. — H.H.II. asks what c|uantitv of stable manure per acre would be necessary for growing potato crops on alluvial flats. Answer. — The quanti'LV depends on the nature of the soil and lenr^th of time under cultivation. Rich alluvial fiats that have been under pasture for a long period should yield a satisfactory crop of potatoes without manure ; if under cultivation for a number of years, 10 to i :; tons per acre. Less fertile flats, under similar conditions, would require 15 to 20 tons per acre. " Red-skin" Potatoes. — R.A.O. asks what is th° colour of a true " Red-skin " potato. Ans'wer. — The colouring matter of the true Red-skin is red. The 'ikin of this ^.•ariety is rough and netted, consequently the colour is not very marked except when just dug. The colouring matter of the Brown's River variety varies from ;5ale purple to violet. Potatoes of this variety are called " Reds " more on account of being grown on red soils; they are sometimes called " Blues." Farmyard M.anure. — H.H.H. wishes to know whether farmyard manure should be ploughed in when fresh to obtain the best results. Avs7Vfr. — As a general rule the manure shou'd be carted direct from tlie stable or cow yard on to the field, spread out there in long narrow strips, and ploughed in about once a fortnight. In this way a succession of fodder crops can be success- fu'ly grown for all kinds of stock. Wire Netting. — H.H.H. inquires as to jirices ami terms upon which the Go- vernment supplies wire netting to settlers. Answer. — The price of the netting (42 in. wide, 17 gauge, i^-in. meshl is £22 los. per mile, delivered at Wharf or Spencer-street Railw^ay Station. The terms allowed are ten years (unless otherwise agreed upon) with interest, at 4 per cent., on the outstanding balance, but an applicant may pay in full at any time. If the land is held under a lease or licence or it adjoins unoccupied Crown lands, application should be made to the Secretary, Lands Purchase and Management Board, Melbourne, otherwise it should be made to the local Shire Council, who will supply it on exactly the same terms. Rabbit Destruction. — H.H.H. asks whether the Covernment sup])lies carbon bi-sulphide for rabbit destruction at reduced rates. Answer. — The Government does not supjdy anv material whatever. Pruning. — R.A.O. asks whether, in priming fruit trees, the cut should be made just above the bud which it is desired to leave or through the bud above. Answer. — Cut just above the bud you wish to use as a leader sloping the cut in the opposite direction to the bud. Wooi.iY Aphis. — P.McK. asks for remedy for treating trees affected with Woolly Aphis. Answer. — Trees should be sprayed with tobacco decoction twice, at an interval of abou-; a month to allow those aphides on tlie ground to have ascended ; 1 lb. of waste tobacco, soaked in about 3 gallons of water for a week or so, will be found effective as a spray. Scale on I>emon Trees. — J-D, inquires u'^ to treatment of scale on lemon trees. Ans7ver. — Red oil emulsion i in 4s, is recommended. Sj)ray in cold weather. lo Feb., 1911.] Statistics. 135 PUBLICATIONS. — A.F.H. asks for list of books dealinir with orclianl work and root crops. Afisufer. — The following are recommended : — The Princifles oj Fruit Growing (Bailey), 6s. The Princifles oj Vegetable Grozoing (Bailey), 6s. Pictorial Practical Gardening (W. P. ^^■right), is. qd. Pictorial Practical Fruit Growing (W. P. Wright), IS. ()d. These works arc obtainable at leading booksellers. Raisim; (Ttrus Treks from Seeu.--R.K.D. in<|uires whether there is any special wa\- of raising citrus trees from seed. Ans7(ier. — Seeils must not be allowed lo become loo dry. Fresh seeds are the best. Sow them in a very light sandy soil. Citrus seedlings are of no use whatevei for frait-bearing trees, and thev are of ver\- little use as stocks. STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria. FoUKTII QtJAKTEK, 1910. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 20 Basins or Regions con stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with the corre spouding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available records to date. October. November. December. Last Quarter. Basin or District. aJ aJ a bo a 60 c bo a rt 3 a cS c3 1 o a > 0 9 0 e < < < -5 points. < < points. "^ < points. points. points. points. points. points Olenelg and Wannon Rivers 253 288 230 185 243 139 726 612 Fitzroy, Eumerella, and Merri 288 290 231 191 277 148 796 629 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 245 252 202 192 215 156 662 600 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 287 243 210 190 248 153 745 586 Coranganiite Cape Otway Forest •M5 342 324 234 397 211 1,096 787 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 286 244 242 194 218 183 746 621 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers 263 241 240 191 243 214 746 646 Yarra River and Dandenong 471 330 366 263 367 317 1,204 910 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 428 341 315 249 371 261 1.114 851 South Gippsland 444 3S2 320 262 469 312 1,233 956 Latrobe and Thomson Rivers 428 361 374 258 567 290 1,369 909 Macallister and Avon Rivers 273 231 319 178 268 270 860 679 Mitchell Riv-r 283 284 326 192 331 241 910 717 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 216 305 359 168 251 280 826 753 Snowy River 378 353 391 198 258 280 1.027 831 .Murray River 130 186 201 133 107 142 43S 461 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 267 340 352 249 355 233 974 822 Ovens River 204 344 370 228 257 228 831 800 liouUiurn River 183 246 223 T78 363 176 769 6(H) Canipaspe River 170 210 225 165 170 !75 565 550 Loddon River 124 173 182 140 116 121 422 434 Avon and Richardson Rivers !)9 148 122 123 62 89 283 360 Avoca River 118 154 133 129 93 10!l 344 392 Kastern Wimmcra ... 155 205 170 161 123 113 44S 479 Western Wimmera ... 163 202 IS8 139 128 78 479 419 Malice District Kill 122 151 93 77 80 337 295 The whole State ... 218 235 238 168 222 163 678 666 .00 points = 1 inch. II. A. HUNT, Commomuealth Meteorologist. 136 J ouTTial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Feb., 1911 Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deli\erie8 from (Oversea). Goveinment Cool Stores. Description of Produce. Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 31.1-2.1910. 31.12.1909. 31.12.1910. 31.12.1909. liultor lbs. 2.5,25.3,752 19,274,028 19,941,600 12,505,216 Milk and Cream cases 801 254 80 203 Cheese lbs. 2Ht,84() 19,920 255,172 4,410 Ham and Bacon n 46,.-i60 Poultry head 9,879 33i- 5,489 3,276 Eggs . . . dozen 30 3,811 266 Mutton and Lamb carcases 998,883 616,474 113,287 147,851 Beef ... quarters 2,759 1,558 Veal... carcases 1,468 866 343 103 Pork... // 1,078 851 71 Rabbits and Hares pairs 5,490 42,252 3,804 16,476 Sundries lbs. ... 80,296 13,676 R. CROWE, Superintendent of Exports. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain ., &C. Imports. Exports. Description of Imports. Exports. Description of Produce. Inter- State. Oversea. Inter- State. Oversea. Produce. Inter- State. Oversea. Inter- State. Oversea Apples 38,699 81 3.519 7 Loquats .. 340 55 Apricots . . . — — 1.0.32 312 Mace — I16 — — Bananas, bs. 65,744 — — — Maize 384 9 — — Bananas, cs. 15,898 — 2,596 6 Melons 35 — 546 Barley 10,706 — — — Nutmegs .. — 152 — Beans 125 108 — — Nuts 104 2,152 629 — Bulbs — 197 4 — Oats 1,121 51 — — Cherries ... 4 — 24,l.i7 3,992 Oranges . . . 75,483 973 — 469 Chillies 11 152 — — Passion 533 — 163 5 Cocoa beans — 951 — _ Paw-Paws... 49 — — — Cocoanuts.. — — 1 — Peaches ... — — 479 277 Coffee beans — 498 — — Pears — — 420 — Copra — 205 — — Peas, Dried 589 202 — — Cucumbers 8,746 — 678 10 Pepper — 84 — — Currants . . . — 2,831 — — Pineapples 20,079 — 1,135 400 Dates — 16,573 — — Plants, Trees. 616 177 385 39 Figs - 875 4 _ &c. Fruit- Plums — 200 2,440 827 Canned . . . — — — 1,S()1 Potatoes . 4 — — — Dried ... — 83 — 1,048 Raisins — 609 — — Mixed . . . 4 34 1 _ Rice 3,544 13,543 — — Garlic .) — — Seeds 578 4,902 — — (gooseberries — -- 489 — Spice — 85 — — Green ginger — 169 — — Strawberries 1 — 2 — Hops — 575 — — Sugar Cane — 4 — — Jams, Sauces, — — — 1,143 Tomatoes .. 4,131 — 1.35 30 &c. Vegetables 5,582 414 94 -- Lemons 4,727 1,200 — 1,674 Wheat 975 — — — Lentils — 37 — — Yams 134 — — — Linseed 0 51 — — Totals ... 144,671 24,620 32,481 10,053 Grand i Totals ) 258,953 48,303 38,964 12,100 Total number of packages inspected for quarter ending 31st December, 1910 = 358,320. J. G. TURNER, Senior Inspector, Fruit Impoi-ts and Exports. HE|vii]^DEHS FOH ]viflHCH. LIVE STOCK. Horses : — Feed as advised last month. Those in poor condition should be " fed up " in anticipation of winter. -Cattle : — Feed as last month. Where grass is plentiful, cattle can be profitably bought this month. Secure heifers to calve in autumn to replenish the herd. Old cows in good condition should be sold. Cows not in calf should also be sold ; otherwise they will come in next se;ison too late to be profitable. Only exceptional cows, and those required for town milk supply, should be served between now and July. Pigs : — Feed as last month. Breeding sows should be served ; the young pigs will sell «ell in early spring when milk is plentiful. Fatten stores for winter curing, ^^'eaners should not be allowed to go back ; if markets are favourable, may be sold as porkers when ready. Sheep : — Keep plenty of coarse bay or lake salt available, especially for weaners and ewes in lamb. Lime dams and stagnant water, such as pools in creek beds. If very woolly, crutch ewes near lambing ; it will prevent fly-blow to a great extent. Clear wool from the eyes of merino ewes near lambing ; also from eyes and udders of merino stud ewes. Many lambs are lost in cold wet weather if this is not done. POULTKY : — Cull out the drones and get rid of surplus cockerels. Keep forward pullets well fed — eggs are rising in value. Add plenty of green food to morning meal. Repairs to houses should be done this month. Gather manure daily ; burn all refuse and old feathers. Use disinfectants freely. CULTIVATION. Farm : — Plough fallow for potato and early hay croi)s. Sow oats, barley, rye, and vetches for green fodder. Sow the following mixture which, under normal conditions, should be ready for the silo during October, viz. : — I^ Vjushels Abundance or Bonanza Oats, ^ bushel Rye, ^ bushel Tick Beans, J bushel Tares. Dig early ])otatoes. Prepare land for lucerne and grasses. Improve unprofitable patches by removing Btumps and rocks, turning in manure on wind-swept patches, draining, top-dressing, &c., as the case may be. Orchard : — Prepare new land for planting ; plough deejily and sub-soil ; leave surface rough. Plant out strawberries after first rain. Plant crops for green manure. Continue to figlit the Codlin Moth. Vegetable Garden : — Prepare ground for winter crops. Plant out seedlings in moist soil. Sow cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, early peas, swede turnip, beet, carrot, radish, and early onions. Flower Garden : — Cultivate and water. Feed dahlias, clnysanthemums, and roses. Plant out shrubs, trees, and all kinds of Ijidbs. Sow hardy annuals. Plant geranium and pelargonium cuttings. Spray for Aphis, Red Sjjider, and Mildew. Vineyard : — Select scion bearing vinos. Keo]) in view (|iiality and (luantity of fruit, regular setting, and even maturity. Wiiorc ripening is diflicult, assist b}' removal of base loaves to expose fruit to sun. Wait until fruit turns colour, otherwi.so sunburn may occur. Only remove ba.ic leaves, leaving others to provide re.servo substances for next season. Cellars. — Tliis is vintage month. For dry wines, jiay attention to acidity ; l<)ls ... ... ... ... ... ... is" Potato' ])l()ts ... .. ... ... . ... ^8 Soya beans ... ... ... ... lo Total ... ... ... ... 531 The wheat fn-lds are carried out under arrangements which admit of cropping over seven con.secntive years and are devoted chiefly to variety seed tests, fertilizer tests, c]uantity .seed tests, and rotative courses. The forage fields cnmjiri.se cereals, millet, rape, roots, maize, soya beans, tick beans, tares and [)eas. 'J'he exi)eriments in connexion with development 1 — of poor lands are concerned chiefly with the improvement of the light ^ .siuidy soils in the .southern parts ot the State anil the clay lands in the ^^ XorHxTii areas. 2 !■-':<. K >- -v ^^^^^BHHJIHI j^^HRffini^^S v^m^. " '.->'^mM|H i^^Bi!^BM^^^Bff^Bti"'^MBI ^. ' 'sflSstiiiffiiBlHRBSKiHp^^*^™*"^^^™ BwMjIMWrMiiiiill '>BKf fhti ^ Jj t 'ilM|H HB^^PiM H^HI^bbHHmb'..-^ ^^$n '\-, _j£^tUS^S^E^^^ft^^K^^ ^^^^^WHS^p*^. j" ■■.■ijH^B " '^^^^^HH^HI^BRflm^^l^ n^^^^^^ BmJBHlBlHnfcipgE^^ijf ' -^^^^ -wRm^^MiSii^HHn flHHHMHMIMaroKSMRaMl . --^^ '^->;]^j^inB^HH HI^Mbw lo Mar., 1911-] Northern Grain Experimental Fields. 143 should be also taken into consideration. The time has arrived ■^vhen more attention will ha\e to be devoted to the milling qualities of the wheats grown in Victoria, and I have urged the -necessity of securing a milling plant for the purpose of testing all wheats grown on the experimental plots. Approximately, 50 bushels of wheat are required to make 1 ton of flour representing 68 per cent, flour, 7.5 per ■cent, pollard, 21.2 per cent, bran, and 3.3 per cent, waste. It is a great disadvantage to wheat farmers that there are no facilities for determining the milling qualities of the different varieties of wheat. This is to be remedied to a certain extent by the installation of a milling plant at the Dookie Agricul- tural College under the expert superintendence of the Principal, Mr. Hugh Pye. The advantages of knowing the milling properties of •the various varieties may readily be understood if one considers an every- day case of two adjoining wheat-farmers, one growing Federation and the •other Dart's Imperial. With 200 lbs. of flour obtained from Federation wheat it is estimated that 293 lbs. of bread are produced, whilst in the case of Dart's Imperial 285 lbs. only are produced from the same quantity of flour. Under the conditions which at present govern the sale of Avheat, the second man generally receives the same price per bushel as the first man, instead of about 3d. per bushel less — if wheat were paid for on a gluten content basis. To illustrate the position more clearly, suppose both the wheats under review yielded the same number of bushels per acre (say 30 bu.shels). This would mean an additional profit of 7s. 6d. per acre to the farmer growing Federation; but besides there is the 'increased yield to be considered; for instance, during the season 1908-9 in 26 wheat-fields throughout the State, Federation gave an average yield of 18.3 bushels per acre as again.st 14.9 bushels for Dart's Imperial. Add this yield to the profit already stated above and it gives to the farmer jj^rowing Federation wheat an increase of over 19s. per acre (reckoning wheat at 3s. 6d. per bushel), a very important consideration to the large ■wheat-grower with thousands of acres under cultivation. At present, the wheat industry is run on the same unsatisfactory basis .that existed throughout Victoria in regard to the dairying industry before ■ the introduction of the Babcock tester some years ago. The dairyman's •■object was to breed a class of dairy cow yielding large quantities • of milk irrespective of its quality. To-day, the wheat-grower's object • is to grow a variety of wheat which will return him the greatest number of bushels irrespective of its gluten value. A great deal of the trouble lies in the fact that most of our wheat is exported whole instead of being .converted into flour locally and then exjjorted. Under the present system, also, the by-products, such as bran, 21.2 per cent, of the whole, and I)ollard 7.5 per cent., are sold in other countries competing against us in -the dairying industry, such as Denmark, where they can be purchased at •cheaper rates than in Victoria. These countries are thereby assisted to comjiete against Victorian producers and at the same time our soil fer- tility is impoverished. If the wheat were ground into flour In Victoria i,the whole of the wheat-liran, which contains a large percentage of phos- phates, could be profitably fed to our dairy herds at a reduced cost. This would assist to maintain the .soil fertility and at the same time be a great boon to all cias.sfs of dairymen and stock-breeilers. Cheap pollard by .this means would al.so mean a large increase in the raising and fattening •of pigs. It has bfcn estimated that the t't-rtiti/iiig value of bran and 144 Journal ot Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar.. 1911. TO Mar., 191 I.] Northern Cirain Exferinnnial Fields. 145 pollard, after being fed to animals, is worth ^^3 per ton and when used as such would be the means of saving thousands of pounds now annually ex])ended in the purchase of artificial manures. The area and varieties of wheat and oats sown in each 7-year field are shown on page 139. The photographs on pages 138 to 146 of the plots on the farm of Mr. D. B. Lines, of Rainbow, give a very good idea as I ) the uniformity of this particular field. The average yield per acre from the whole of the fields shows Federation, College Purple Straw, and Yandilla King to l)e the most satisfactory varieties and clearly demon- strates the advisability of wheat-growers giving these varieties more attention in the future. The highest yield ])er acre for all the varieties was obtained on the farm of Mr. A. Boyd, Minyi]). The following are Jiis returns : — Federation ... ... ... ... 44.60 bushels per acre. Yandilla King ... ... ... ... 38.73 ,, ,, C^oUege Pur[)le .Straw ... ... ... 38. 44 ,, ,, Comeback ... ... ... ... 34.83 ,, ,, Hunyip ... ... ... ... 36.13 „ „ or an average for the whole field of 38.54 bushels per acre, or a clear profit ■of ;^5 IS. 9(1. per acre, as can be easily seen by the following table: — Cost of fatting in one acre. Prej)aration of land Manure (56 lbs. at 5s. per <:\vt.) Seed wheat (50 lbs. at 3s. -jtX. ])er bushel) Drilling ' ... / s. d. 0 8 6 0 2 6 0 3 0 0 I 6 0 15 6 Cost of taking off one acre. Harvesting Bags ... < artin" L IMus cost of jjutling in 0 0 6 6 6 6 I 0 I 15 0 6 I 16 6 6 I s. iS 16 d. .3 6 5 I 9 Value of grain. 38.54 bushels at 3s. "jA. per bushel Less cost of production Net [)rofil per acre The crops of Cleveland, Calitorni.in. I'.Uic .Stt-in. aiul Rural New Yorker No. 6, illu.stratefl on pag.s 146-150, wrre grown in the Italian rTiE4ii?fl^BBi ^^BaMfiEnn^si ^Si.- ■,;(•'• ■ . \ 'I. , ^'v.'.r^..ss;'.;.ly.^J \ "r*»:^ ipBiaMrr^- -^f ^-fe)^' «• ■■*■ ^^ ' , V. — i^f :» vv 1 ,-^.'"'.- •■ ■. '■^ ^^^ ^'^«HR»^ ^ W^M ^.yl^^V " » '■'- ^^c^'T' ^ ' T---- t ■ 'J 4 ^^^<^; _;..>:■ - % '''' '¥ P^^^-:.f< : •■' •-.■■.. ' ' - i "*• ~~ -'-1 •'^', .-■ '^y>^ \ i t*^^' IlPr ■' -» - . .":-'j^:\-. >*?■<€. '2 0 Mar., 1911.] Northern Grain Experimental Fields. 147 •■suitable form to equalize matters or the land will suffer. Analyses made %y the Chemist for Agriculture show that, even in the richest soils m Victoria, the proportion of phosphoric acid rarely exceeds o.i per cent., •or less than 2\ lbs. weight in every ton of soil. The situation is therefore serious when one takes into consideration the small percentage of this essential plant food that is available. Observant farmers have noticed that the continuous use of superphosphate, without ■the application of a corrective such as lime, eventually brings about acidity 'of the soil. The prolific growth of sorrel is evidence of the fact that some sweetening factor is necessary. To grow wheat successfully and profitably the farmer must plan .ahead. I consider a thoroughly pulverized, well packed seed-bed of more importance than the application of artificial manures. This can only be accomplished when the soil is ploughed properly, that is, deeply and uniformly. Discing the ground .when it is in just the right con- -dition will prevent it from getting hard. There are two advantages. First, it pulverizes the soil in the bottom of the furrow, making good that part of the seed-bed which is most difficult to reach if one waits till .after ploughing. Secondly, a large area can be disced much more quicklv than ploughed and will become mellow in a .shorter time. A good seed- 'bed can best be obtained by ploughing early and working thoroughly. Thf ground that is ploughed each day should be followed by the harrow and worked down to a fine tilth. More lumps can be pulverized in one hour when in the right condition, than in three when the sods become hard and •dry. In dry weather it is very important to attend to this mellowing. Wheat Returns, Season 1910-11, {Yield fer acre in bushels.) Name. ^Wimmera — Boyd. A. Gibhins, E. . . Longpronong Agricultural College Nash, H. Average of 4 fiolds . . North- Horthern and Eastern — - Carter, J. . . Sharp, T. R. . . Average of 2 fleld.s Mallee and Mnllee Fringe- Innes, D. B. . . I.avery, B. . . McNaughton, J. I'ilgriin, J. . . Williamson, W. Witney, J. . . Average of 6 fields Average for all fields . . | Address. Minyip Garup Dooen Jung Marong Ooorambat Rainbow Watrhem \arraport Nhill Hoort Jeparit a si a. a o 3 Cm W ^ d |s=' •n J3 ■§ = S C3 6 O 3 fe O02 > o n 44-60 38-44 38-73 34-83 36-13 34-30 24-20 26-00 21-06 6-20 36-46 28-05 22-50 27 00 19-04 24-85 17-35 22-40 11-60 8-60 35-00 27-01 27-40 23-62 17-49 1 28-66 24-38 20-27 15-72 7-22 1 24-40 21 -32 22-28 12 00 11-20 ; 26-53 22-85 21-27 13-86 9-21 29-33 23-88 29-05 21-80 8-46 29-44 22-73 25-66 20-38 9-93 7-86 8-93 5-83 C 53 2-46 1 8-44 8-U) 5-33 5-52 416 8-53 11-93 8-77 8-20 6-88 j 11-27 11-83 11-94 8-88 10 06 15-81 14-56 14-43 11-88 6-97 25-79 1 21-47 21-03 16-45 11-22 38-54 22-35 26-61 16-96 19-25 18-24 22-50 21 -62 6-32 6-31 8-86 10-80 12-73 148 ]our)ial of Agnciilture, Vic form. [10 Mar., 1911^ Returns of Seed Test Plots, Season 1910-11, {Yield -per acre i7i busJiels.) Name. Wimmeru — Boyd, A. . . Gibbins. E. . . Longerenong Agricultural Col- lege Nash, H. . . Average of 3 fields Northern and North-Euslern — Carter, J. . . Sharp, T. R. Average of 2 fields Mallee and Mullee Fringe — Innes, D. B. Lavery, B. McXaughton, J. Pilgrim, J. . . Williamson, W. Witney, J. . . Average of 4 fields Average for all fields Address Minvip Gar up Dooen Jung Marong . . Goorambit Rainbow Watthem Narraport Nhill Boort Jeparit . . 35 lbs. 22-75 22-33 12-55 14-88 12-30 4-33 10-52 7-80 8-73 15-49 Seed Sown per Acre. 50 bs. Cut for 26 93 25 36 19 23 23 84 13 46 26 32 19 89 Cut for y IS 3 73 13 -22 6 -80 Cut ior 8 ■23 17 ■i'l 65 lbs. hay 30-93 27-63 19-93 26 16 17 30 76 16 23 96 hay 13-20 5-20 13-46 613 hay 9-50 80 lbs. 2116 18-93 14-23 1612 13 33 7-70 14 22 9-46 North and North-Eastern — Carter. .1. Sharp T. R. . . Average of 2 fields . . Wim7nera — • Boyd, A. Nash, H. Lonserenong Agriculturil College Average of 3 fields . . Mallee and Mallee Fringe — Innes, D. B. . . Lavery, B. . . McNaughton, J. Pilgrim, J. . . Williamson, W. Average of 5 fields . . Average for all fields . . Oat Returns, Season 1910-n. (Yield per acre in bus //els.) Marong Goorambat Minyip Jung Rainbow Watchem Narraport Nhill Boort _^ ■n 1 rjl =a !« a 3a 3 ^ < HO m 0^ !2;m 23-20 23 10 20-40 32 50 8-53 48-80 48-80 33-96 27 -18 49 44 25-28 36-00 35-95 40-97 16-90 45 00 37-50 37-90 29 -00 28-40 33-90 29-90 28-15 24-00 21-55 24-95 20-25 20-21 9-40 11-50 34-61 35-50 29 21 28-75 20-80 20-48 45-50 23 00 46-70 25-90 25-90 34-30 33-10 33-40 36-70 21-50 10-50 21-10 23-80 22-40 23-80 13-20 9-40 10-36 9-00 23-92 29-52 21-44 20-25 22-48 26-12 26-60 21-60 28-10 23-29 32-24 30-58 25-84 33-29 20-22 1 21-54 41-25 35-56 27-50 35-32 32-68 19-86 1315 24-72 25-14 lo Mar., 1911-] Northern Grain Experimental Fields. 149 15° Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i. lo Mar., 1911.] Northern Grain Experimental Fields. 151 Summary of Returns. Throughout the State the Federation variety of wheat still takes first place as a grain yielder with the splendid average of 24.13 bushels per acre. This variety is followed by College Purple Straw, 21.47 bushels, and Yandilla King with 21.03 bushels. The average yield for all varieties is 19.22 bushels per acre as com- pared with 18.40 bushels per acre on the same fields last year and 14.62 bushels for the preceding year. In the seed test plots, where Federation wheat was sown in varying quantities per acre, the 65 lbs. per acre gave the best general average, namely 19.87 bushels per acre, but in the Mallee districts the 80 lbs. per acre gave the best results by i-6o bushels per acre. Among the oats, Carton's Stout White stands out first with 33.29 bushels per acre and at Goorambat gave the splendid yield of 49.44 bushels. This variety is closely followed by Algerian with an average of 32.24 bushels, whilst Tasmanian Giant takes third place with 30.58 bushels per acre. These particular varieties of oats, together with Western Wolth's Rye grass, were introduced into the plots for the purpose of demonstrating that suitable fodder plants can be profitably grown in the Northern areas iis a stand-by for live stock grazed on the farm. II. EXPERIMENTAL WORK AT LONCERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. /. 7'. PridJiain, Wheat Experimentalist. Of the 50 acres 01 the Collegt- land set ai)art for the use of the Depart- ment nearly 5 acres were devoted to hand-sown plots. These were sown ■in drills i foot apart and single seeds were dropped at every 6 inches in •the rows. This is a slow method, but it has the following advantages: — (i) a small quantity of seed will go a long way. (2) each individual plant can readily be distinguished from its fellows (and this is very important in wheat breeding and imijnivement). (3) hneir.g and weeding are facilitated. Wheat. Crosses made. — There were nineteen crosses made which gave a very satisfactory percentage of grain on the average. In this work, the aim has been to secure a prolific variety which shall also have grain of satis- factory milling quality. Although we have no testing mill, advantage has been taken, when chcosing parents for a cross, of the milling analyses of varieties already published. Three crosses were made on oats. Seed harvested from crosses made in 1909.— There are 92 crossbreds ill this section, of which .seed has bt^vn saved. The most promising of •ihese are cros.ses l)etween prolific luiglish varieties; also heavy yielding jiurpli- straw wlieits with Indians iiiid I'"i fe Indians. The requirements of the \\ inuiiera district are that a \ariii\ shall Ci) st.iiid up well against heavy winds, (2) hold its grain well, (3) ripen early, imt not t(X) early. Some of these crossl)re(Is a])]«'ar likely to lie very satisfactory in these respects, others will need furtiier crossing to improve thi-m. Crossbred seed of third generation (crosses made in 1908). — In planting these, 71 ])er cent, were rejected as unsuil.ible and «)f the nineteen cn)ssbre(ls of which seed was itlanted eight were thrown out at harvest time as unnrdifir well. Many of them were of the macaroni wheat type with strong awns which are objectionable in harvesting. However, a few of the beardless types are likely to prove u.seful, especially Nandero No. 6, which has a brown, dense head with attractive looking, white, rather translucent grain. Samples of varieties imported bv Senator McColl. — These were sown and compared with Federation which is our best wheat at present. The.se varieties are too late maturing for the most part for our conditions, though Chul is an exception. Two crosses were mad'' on this wheat which BRLEDiNG PLOTS AT LONGERENONG, CROSS]:.U HEAD.S SHOWING. appear to be prolific and hardy though its awns are an objection. It is earlier than Dart's Imperial, but not .so early as Federation. Wheats other than crossbreds. — One or two selections from Australian Talavera yield well, hold their grain, and have straw of satisfactory strength. ' \\'orld"s Wonder, probably the same as Barcota \\'onder, seems a prolific wheat and yields better than Dart's- Imperial. Its flour strength, however, is not likely to be superior to that of the latter variety. A few selections from Purple Straw, received from Mr. P. Pilgrim, of Nhill, proved to be too liable to shake. The windy harvest season has thoroughly tested the capabilities of the wheats grown to hold their grain. A number of varieties from Federation were planted. These all came true to type; some club headed and some with short awns, but all having the brown coloured ears and type of grain characteristic of that variety though some samples of grain were larger than others. None of the varieties appeared to be more prolific than the strain now^ grown by us. These from their lo Mar., 1911-] Northern Grain Experimental Fields. 153 onstancy would appear to be " mutations "' ; although P'ederation may be •cjiisidered a fixed variety, slight variations may be expected to appear from time to time, but these are not sufficiently marked to render the grain impure for sale as seed wheat. Firbank is an extremeh' earlv hay wheat, does not grow much flag and is green t*^; the foot. For beating the wild oats on a dirtv fallow it would b>e useful but is not a prolific grain vielder. Bayah is a variety received from Xew South Wales and has a brown ear, but the straw is taller than Federation. It holds its grain satisfactorily and is likely to prove an acquisition. \\'allace is a heavy yielder l)ut in this district .suffers, though to a less extent than College Purple Straw, from windy weather at harvest time. Best wheats to groiv. — The varieties recommended liy the Wheat Com- mittee are Federation, College Purple Straw, Bunvip. Comeback and CROSSBREDS OF THIRD GENERATION COMPARSID WITH FEDERATION. I :ind 3, Vandilla Kinfj ; 2 ami 5, I'ederation ; 4 and 6, Pratt's Comeback Wallace. ^'andilla King. The heads of College Purple Straw snap off easily in windy weather at harvest time. Bayah might be substituted for this wheat when sufficient grain is available for sale. Field crops. — If these had l>een .sown later, after an extra cultivation, the yield woulfl have lieen better as the fallow turned out to be verv weedv. But tlie hand .sowing was considered to be more impcitant work and was ])ushed on with as .soon as possible after drilling in the field areas. It wouli! 1h- I letter to restrict our operations to the stud or hand-sown plots in future and arrange for the College to rai.se bulks of S(H'd on a larg»T area for distribution, ihus enabling us to confine our attention to the breeding and improvement work. The Department has a quantitv of Federation, Bunvip, \'andilla King and Comeback seed wheats grown on 154 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911.- the stud plots this season, which are called " stud hulks'', descended in each case from selected plants harvested in 1908. Of the varieties now available in bulk, only the Bunyip and Comeback are grown from selected seed but next year the whole 50-acre area may be sown with such seed, except in the case of Bayah which is a newly introduced variety from New South Wales. Oats. The season was a favourable one for oats ; even the late varieties- suited to the cooler districts, which usually yield pinched grain here, produced a plump sample. Algerian oats suit the local conditions best and are almost exclusivelv grown. The accompanying table, however, shows that two new crossbred varieties have done quite as well or better than Algerian and as they ripen about the same time they are likely to be very useful oats for the district. OATS RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS. 72b 7.3 74 87 88 89 90 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 Amarilla . . Algerian x* No. 136 . . Algerian* No. 136 .. White Ligowo x Algerian Algerian* Wiiite Lii?owo x Algeriar Algerian* . . White Ligowo x Algerian Algerian* Algerian x White Tartarian Algerian* Agerian x White Tartarian Algerian* . . White Ligowo x Algerian Algerian* .2 _2t3 _^ &H.S ^ -.«-. ^' - S'S 0 g s ^'f. a • H -/: MM Pi ^x May 3 Oct. 22 Dec. 1 6 6 6 Oct. 25 Dec. 8 4 Nov. 2 j^ 6 Nov. 1 ., 6 Oct. 26 6 Nov. 2 6 May 4 Oct. 27 Dec. 12 4 " Oct. 26 Dec. 8 6 6 Oct. 28 Dec. 12 6 Nov. 2 Dec. 21 6 Oct. 31 Dec. 12 4 Oct. 26 ^j 6 Dec. 8 5 Dec. 12 6 ,j Reiected. unprolific ^j Oct. 26 Dec. 12 6 Oct. 28 .^ 6 Mav 6 Oct. 22 Dec. 8 6 May 7 Oct. 25 Dec. 12 6 Rejected May 9 Nov. 1 Nov. 2 Dec. 16 6 3 6 5 Oct. 31 Dec. 8 6 „ Oct. 26 Dec. 12 6 5 5 6 " Oct. 28 " 6 Average Yield per Plant in drams. 7 1 8 0 6 8 4 8 5 6 5 1 4 5 7 8 7 5 6 9 8 8 6 1 5 1 7 4 6 6 5 9 6 0 6 18 8 91 9-7 4-9 4-6 5-1 5-2 5-8 5-3 6-4 6-9 7-3 a •5 Remarks. Total yield of" row, 2 lbs. 10- ozs. Total yield of row to com- pare with 151,. 2 lbs. 9i ozs. Best selected seed sown for comparison. In consequence of the uneven nature of the soil and the occurrence of diseased patches in the crop it was found best to harvest a few of the most prolific, early ripening plants and weigh the produce of these rather thanv the grain from the whole plot in order to make comparisons. lo Mar., 1911.] Iiifiuence of Radio-active Minerals on Wheat. 155 Algerian x White Tartarian, row 151, has the long narrow grain of the Tartarian, side-bearing oat with a long and open head and straw that is decidedly stronger than Algerian without being as coarse as that of Tartarian oats. It stools well and stands up against high winds. White Ligowo x Algerian, row 125, has a fine straw like Algerian; ^o also has the strain of this cross planted in row 163, but it grows a little taller than Algerian. It will be a few seasons yet before sufficient seed can be obtained for distribution as the crossbreds though nearly fixed as to type are not quite ready to propagate in large plots. These have been favourably reported on at the Bathurst Government Farm in New South Wales this season, also oat No. 136 which did not yield so well with us as it did in 1909. The Amarilla variety is almost identical with Algerian, though the -Straw has less of the pink colour identical of Algerian. The grain of the two oats can hardly be distinguished when compared, but the Amarilla appears to be the better yielder of the two. We have over 3 lbs. of the :best strain of this oat which will sow ^ acre when the seed is dropped singly by hand at distances of 6 inches in the rows. By planting in this way we are able to raise a large quantity of seed from a small sample of :selected seed but this entails a considerable amount of hoeing and weeding as is required with the beet crop. We mav have several strains of any -variety but consider it wise to sow only the best yielder of these, even though the quality of seed available may be very small. By sowing as .above described 10 lbs. will easilv sow an acre. THE INFLUENCE OF RADIO-ACTIVE MINERALS ON AVHEAT. Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist of Victoria, and Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne Univcrsitv ; and Victor Nightingall, Government Research Scholar. A good deal of work has been done recently in various parts of the "world upon the influence of exposure to the action of Radium and Rontgen Rays upon plant life and growth. For the most part, however, the experi- ments, particularly with radium and radio-active minerals, have been per- formed on a small .scale in the laboratory by merely exposing the plants for varying times and at varying distances, from the source of the radia- tion, without any attempt being made to discriminate between the action of the different rays or to determine the influence of direct contact with the radium emanation where the experiments are made with radium or radio- active minerals. Hence, it is not surprising that the results hitherto ob- tained by different investigators, both on the same and on different plants, are in many cases difficult to harmoni/e. It seemed, therefore, advisable to critically investigate certain of the phenomena already observed, particu- larly with a view to differentiate between the various actions which ex- posure to radium or radio-active minerals must necessarily involve, and the award of a Government Research Scholarship to Mr. Victor Nightingall. made it possible to commenct- a joint investigation into this question. The detailed .scientific investigation is likely to require a consider- able time for its completion, hut certain general experiments carried out ■with wheat in the experimental plots at the University System Garden may 156 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911. be communicated now, since they are complete for the past year, though not entirely conclusive. It appears to have been generally concluded by different investigators, that prolonged exposure to any intense form of these radiations is in- jurious to the plant, and either retards its growth or ultimately kills it. Jt appears, however, to be a general rule in plant physiology that, in such cases, the same agency when applied in less intense or less concentrated form will cause an acceleration of growth, or will stimulate the general' vigour of the plant, sometimes to a surprising degree. This peculiarity is very pronounced in the case of certain poisons, which when diluted below lethal concentration, may stimulate the growth of a plant to as great an extent as an addition of a food substance or of manure would do. Bearing in mind the fact that exposure to radio-activity of low concen- tration appears in some cases to stimulate the growth of the plant, it ap- peared of interest to determine whether the addition of small quantities of radio-active minerals to the soil would sufficiently stimulate the growth of such plants as wheat, for example, to make their u.se profitable on an agricultural scale. Large deposits of radio-active rock have been found' in Australia, and a large supply of finely ground and strongly radio-active rock was obtained from a particular localitv. This was applied to different plots singly, as well as in conjunction with superphosphate, and finely ground phosphate rock. The plots were harvested at the end of November before the grain was fully ripe, .so as to avoid possible loss by birds and falling grain. The fact that all the plots were slightly attacked with the Corn Mildew {Erysiphe graminis) shows that the presence of a radio-active mineral in the soil affords no protection against the attacks of parasitic fungi. Apart from the addition of the radio-active mineral and mineral- manure, the plots received exactly the same treatment, and all consisted of the same soil of rather light loam with a clayey subsoil. The wheat was- planted in equi-distant rows and the grains in each row at the same depth and distance. In plots i, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, each .seed received a separately measured do.se of the mineral or manure after planting, and was then covered with soil. In plot 9 the mineral was drilled in, while, in plot 10, it was placed immediately under each seed. Plot 3 was a control plot to which no mineral or manure was added. The heads and straw were harvested separately by hand and weighed. The plots were not all exactly the same ai-ea, and the figures which follow beneath are estimated at the- same area and number of plants. Plot. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Amount Per Acre. 1 cwt. Radio-active Minera,! . . ... 2 cwt. Radio-active Mineral Control (none) . . 1 cwt. Phosphoric Rock . . 1 cwt. Phosphoric Rock and f cwt. Radio-active Mineral \ cwt. Superphosphate \ cwt. each Radio-active Mineral and Superphospliate 2 cwt. Radio-active Mineral 3 J cwt. Radio-active Mineral (drilled) 1 cwt. Radio-active Miner..! immediately under seed Heads. 122 291 \M\ 448 102 302 m 290 80 404 100 337 85 352 70 203 154 408 104 479 Straw. lo Mar.. 1911-] /iiliueiice of Radio-active Minerals on Wheat. i^j Without attaching too mucii importance to the results which are not entirely consistent, and would need to be repeated in two or three consecu- tive years to obtain complete certainty, the radio-active mineral does ap- pear to affect the weight of both the straw and the heads to some extent when fairly heavy dressings are used. Thus, the average weight of the- heads of all the plots treated with radio-active mineral in varying amounts and combinations, was 118, whereas from those to which none of it was added onlv a yield of 90 was obtained. The .■similar figures for the straw were 369 and 362 respectively. It i.s certainly suggestive that plot 10, in which the radio-active mineral was placed immediate!} under the .seed, gave, of all the plots, the biggest yield of both the heads and straw. On the other hand, one of the radio plots (No. 8) gave next to the poorest yield of both heads and straw, but the fact that this plot was smaller than any of the. others, and that the mineral was placed over the seed instead of l)elow it and close to it, may have- .something to do with the low yield. The lowest yield of grain w'ould ap- parently be given r»y the plot treated with the finely-ground phosphate rock, and although the addition of the radio-active mineral apparently in- creased the yield of straw, it seems as though it would have only slightly, if at all, increa.sed the yield of grain. In the same way, comparing plots 6 and 7, the addition of radio-active mineral to .superphosphate, if any- thing, decrea.sed the yield of grain. It is evident, however, from the careful study of the results, that no conclusive results can as yet be dra^vn from them. They must be taken merely as an indication that experiments in this direction may ultimately vield interesting or even economically useful results, and that there is a possibility that the addition of fineh divided radio-active minerals to the .soil may influence the yield. Until, however, these experiments have been repeated several times on both a large and small scale, and the ques- tions of relative vield and cost have been fully considered, it would nf)t 1h- advisable for any farmer to spend a penny in the purchase of such additions to the .soil. The Government Analyst (Mr. P. Rankin Scott) reports that the mineral in question contains the following : — Per Pent. Pliosplinrifi acid P.^O.-i ... ... ... 0-218 P,.tash K.,() . " ... ... ... OIH) Calcinin ('aO ... ... ... ... 0-400 Magnesia MgO ... ... ... 214 It is evident, therefore, that neither the phosphoric acid. ])otash. calcium, nor the magnesia, are present in sufficient amount to explain the results ob.served, especially considering the fact that only a small part of these constituents would be immediately available for the plant's u.se. Any appreciable result produced by the addition of this mineral to the .soil could therefore fairly be ascril)ed to the direct or indirect action of its rarlio-activitv, 1 ut whether such results are constantly gi\en in field trials is a matter for future determination. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i. NHILL FARM COMPETITIONS. Judge: F. V\/ . Sallmann, ''Fine View," Kornheini. I have much pleasure in forwarding my report and awards in connexion with the Farm Competition carried out under tlie auspices of your society. M'hich deserves great credit for encouraging farmers by giving good prizes .and carrying out all arrangements in a business-like manner. It would be a splendid thing for the farming community if other societies would act similarly. The result would be more and better managed farms in the State. As to the system of cultivation and rotation I find that some of the farmers have adopted sowing oats after the stubble is burnt. Where a j^ood crop of wheat has been harvested, there is no doubt that the best fallow is after a crop of oats has been taken off. You will then very seldom find Take-all. My own experience is that the best and most pro- fitable results are obtained by fallowing land from which an oat crop has been taken off — either cut for hay, stripped, or left to feed off. The oats should be drilled in with about 30 lbs. of artificial manure per acre. The fertilizer makes the hay sweet, and the result is that the crop can be cut green. Every acre of wheat stubble should be burnt and then sown with oats which means taking off two crops from the same land in three years. I consider it better than if the land is out of cultivation for even 6 or 7 years. Less land is required to make a good living. I am certain this system put up the price of land at least ^3 per acre in my district. Nearly all the crops were " wild-oaty " and more or less affected with Take-all, whilst others w^atered out in lowlying patches, due, no doubt, to the exceedingly wet winter. The following are the results of the various competitions : — Best Worked and Managed Farm of an Area 640 Acres and Over. In deciding the merits of the respective farms in this competition and also that for farms under 640 acres, the following points (maximum 265) were taken into consideration : — j\. The best system of cropping, including, cultivation, methods, rotation, and manures, 25. B. Cleanest and best crops, including oats, 20. •C. Fallow in best order, area con- sidered, 20. D. Best quality of working horses, 25. E. Brood mares, 10. F. Sheep, 20. C".. Cattle, pigs, and poultry, 5. H. Implements and machinery, 20. I. Boundary fences, gates, sheep- yards, 15. J. Orchard and vegetable garden, 10. K. Water storage, dams, windmills, 45. L. Dwellings and outbuildings, 30. M. Fodder, 20. N. Tree-planting, 5. O. Insurance, 5. Competitor. A. B. C. D. E. E. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N. 0. ITotal. 0. Roediger 18 14 20 14 1 12 2 18 12 6 33 19 15 4 3 191 T. Borgelt 18 14 17 20 8 13 2 14 10 7 28 16 12 3 1 183 •G. Batson ao 18 17 18 5 14 5 14 11 7 30 18 12 1 4 189 W .Sanders 18 18 17 18 8 15 3 13 12 9 30 15 6 1 2 185 <}. Crouch . . iiO 16 17 20 8 14 1 16 12 1 28 16 5 1 3 178 First. — O. H. Koediger Second. — G. Baton Third.— W. Sanders . . 191 points. 189 185 „ Mr. Sanders lost points on reserve fodder but can be complimented on his very clean crop. Mr. Crouch lost points on orchard and garden. lo Mar., 1911.] Nliill Farm Competitions. J 59 Mr. Roediger has three windmills and supplies water in pipes a good distance to paddocks. His beautiful flower garden and hot houses deserve special mention. Mr. Batson lost most points through his crop being too wet — the pad- docks he had put in this year were lowlying land. Mr. Batson must, how- ever, be complimented on his experimental plot; he goes to a great deal of trouble in planting different varieties of wheat, oats, and barley. Nearly all are new to the Wimmera in which they seem to thrive. Mr. Batson has also a splendid kitchen garden. Altogether, this is a very compact farm. Messrs. Borgelt and Crouch have each got some good horses and brood mares. Both of the farms are good ; in fact, on the whole, the five farms are a credit to the district. A good experiment in sowing wheat was shown by Mr. Roediger. He knocked out a few bags with a stick and sowed the grain at the same time and with the same manure, alongside the ordinary seed. The difference in the yield was about 8 bushels per acre. It shows how the seed suffers with stripping. On Mr. Batson 's farm I noticed a good implement in a spike roller.. This is, in my opinion, one of the best to work rough fallow. Best Worked and Managed Farm Over 100 Acres and not Exceeding 640 Acres. Competitor. C. D. E. G. H. I. J. Total.. J. Diprose 14 14 14 12 ' 2 10 3 9 12 10 30 10 13 0 i 0 ' 153 R. G. Keams . 13 13 13 13 f> 11 3 11 10 8 25 10 13 2 1 151 H. Dahlenburg 14 13 14 16 .5 9 4 16 15 6 34 20 12 i 9 0 180 J. Dickinson . 1 13 13 14 10 J 0 10 1 1 9 6 1 20 5 10 0 - 114 First. — H. Dahlenburg Second. — J. Diprose Third.— R. G. Keams.. 180 points. 153 ., 151 „ Mr. Dahlenburg can be complimented on his outbuildings, fencings and stock. Mr. Diprose pos.sesses a very compact farm. Mr. Keams^ who has been on the farm only a few years, deserves credit for the im- provements he has made, whilst Mr. Dickinson, a young beginner, is a very energetic man. It gave me pleasure to see a young man of his stamp- come forward. Best Half of a Farmer's Wheat Crop on Fallowed Land. ^NoT Less than 100 Acres.) Cleanness Trueness to Type. ti Freedom Least Total. Copetitor. and from Under- Yield. Maximum. Evenness. Disease. growth. 3- 65. A. P. Koop 5 s 5 60 A. Mclnfosli 5 4 s a 2S 48 T. Krvine 3 5 3 28 47 C. Uoberts 6 5 5 6 28 50 W. Greenwood . . ; 5 5 6 n 36 57 W. E. Hiif 1 ^ 5 5 4 28 45 R. Ward .•) 5 5 4 31 50 G. Batson 1 5 5 6 5 18 39 G. Crouch 1 ^ 6 6 4 31 52 First. — A. P. Koop Second. — G. Greenwood Third.— G. Croucli 60 points (Federation and Dart's Imperial). 57 „ (Federation and Yandilla King). 52 „ j6o Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 t. Mr. Crouch ha.s one of the best crops I have .seen, but there are too many patches watered out. Mr. M'Intosh exhibited a very rare crop grown on Mallee land for which he deserves great credit. In the crrjps ■of Messrs. Ervine and Batson the yield was low on account of the exces- sive moisture. Best 100 Acres oe (iRowing Crop on Mallee Land. Competitor. Cleanness and Evenness. Trueness to Type. Freedom from Disease. Least Under- growth. Yield. Total. Maximum, 50. J. B. Marshall . . Mrs. M. M. McKenzie D. R. Mc-Keuzie. . L. R. Simmons . . F. W. Reichelt . . 4 4 3 5 6 5 4 4 .5 5 6 6 5 6 5 4 5 4 6 6 24 30 23 13 12 43 49 39 35 35 First- Second -Mrs. M. M. M — J. B. Marsh cKenzie all . . 49 points (Federation). . . 43 ,, (Federation and Dart' s Imperial). The land of the successful competitors consists of heavy Mallee, whereas that of Messrs Simmons and Reichelt is more of a sandy nature right in the centre of the Mallee. I think that the Society should make a separate class so as to give farmers in the centre of the Mallee a chance. Messrs. Simmons and Reichelt deserve great credit for their clean cro{)S and the way in which the land had been worked. Best Fallowed Land , NOT LESS THAN ICO ACRES. Compptitor. Best Ploughed. Least Weeds. 4 3 5 6 6 5 5 Least Dry Weeds. Late Worked. Least Lumps. Total. Max'mum, 24. J. Diprose . . D. R. McKenzie H. A. Dahlenburg A. Dahlenburg G. Batson . . G. Crouch . . W. E. Huf . . 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 6 3 5 5 4 4 5 6 5 6 5 17 15 18 23 19 21 20 First. — A. Dahlenburg Second. — -G. Crouch 23 points. 21 „ On account of the wet wnnter a large area of the fallow was worked too late. Farmers could not get on the land to work it l)efore the weeds got large. I think that your society should not allow a man to include part out of three paddocks in 100 acres of best wheat. Supposing a man has three paddocks of 100 acres each, he should enter one full paddock and part of the second, if he is required to show 150 acres. I would suggest that points be given for the least noxious weeds. Orchards and \ines should, I think, be .separated from vegetable garden. Separate points should also be allotted for the best wool -shed and sheep yards. The size of the farm should be taken into consideration. If that were done it would be more just to the owner and simplify matters considerably for the judge. In conclusion, it gave me great pleasure to see your district, and come in contact with good farmers. I picked up a good many points. Messrs. Young Bros, and Mr. Gladigau very kindly loaned their motor cars, other- wise the judging could not have been done under ten or twelve days. To them and also to your society and your energetic secretary, Mr. Towns, I •desire to offer mv sincerest thanks for the valuable assistance rendered. lo Mar., 1911-] Manchester : A Market for Australian Produce. 161 MANCHESTER: A MARKET FOR AI\STRALIAN PRODUCE. R. V. Billis, State 1 nnui gratia 11 Officer, London. The necessity of securing promptly every new market, whicli may present itself, for the sale of Australian produce is as apparent as that of attracting more settlers for our lands. The work of the Victorian Government's Land Settlement Delegation has already resulted in a mo:5t valuable increase in the State's rural population and a steady and expanding, .-tream of settlers from Great Britain to Victoria is now assurfd. An enormous increa.se in production may therefore be expected, and no <]uesticn is more vital to the interests of tiie producing community than that the best and most convenient markets be .secured for our goods. A clo.se study of the existing market conditions in Great Britain for Australian produce reveals many important facts. The following are perhaps the most striking : — 1. The keen endeavours of other countries to cater for the exact re(]uirements of British buyers. 2. That, under present conditions, the Victorian producer does not receive such satisfactory returns as he might. 3. That one of the most attractive markets in Great Britain is. so far, comparativelv unexploited by Victoria, or any other Australian State. It is, however, concerning the third observation that this report deals. The undeveloped market includes the densely populated counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and indeed the whole of the West of England, and the Midlands, also portions of Scotland, while the chief receiving and distributing centre for these parts should be Manchester. Undoubtedly a large portion of frozen meat, fresh fruit, and rabbits from Australia reaches Manchester and from there is distributed among the consumers of the West and Nortli. but such produce comes either via London or Liver- pool and is subject to manv handlings and to much unnecessary expense. The consuming [Kjpulation in th^' immediate vicniity of the Manchester Shi]) Canal is over 2,000,000. A\'ithin a radius of 75 miles, containing 177 important towns, there is .1 population of 12^ millions, and the ^Lm- chester docks are nearer than any other port to every one of these towns. Furthermore, it is the ])ractice of i)uyers from more distant towns to visit the Manchester markets regularly, so that this city is in reality the mart or trading centre lor an enormous jxipulation. Here is a community numbering (juite twice the populali(.n ol' Australia and New Zealand, and it is a communitv possessing unusual purchasing cajiacily, still it e.innot boa-^t - or Austral), I eaiuH 1 boast — a direct steamship serxice to it. Till': Ship Canal. The Manchester Ship ("anal is txi)erts have informed me that Australian carcases which are small and lean are peculiarly pf)i)ular among the working cla.s.ses. Since the inauguration of the Frozen Meat Trade the Argentine producers have, with great keenness, stiwlied the tastes of the oix-rators in the Lancashire and N'orkshire Mills, and now produce a nie.it which is well known and liki'd ; (•onse(|ueiitl\ . .\rgentine mutton sells at a better price than Aus- tralian mutton. \l\ informants are. however, of the opinion that if the Australian producers studied the ie(|uirenients with diual care, and arranged ilirect shipments, the Australian mutton would command better prices. The fa( torv operatives do not desire tat meat. .New Zealand mutton is considered too fat, too large, and too dear for the working classes. Th.:t from the ArgentM)e and Australia is more suitable, .ind the South Ameri- can mutton, though similar in rharactir to Australian, is most in demand, iiiecau.se it lcx)ks brighter and is dI brtler .ippe.irance. i66 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911. Australian lambs are sold at the Manchester Meat Market on tht^ir merits, and are sometimes preferred. I interviewed the Manager of the Compagna Sansinena de Carnes Congelados, who informed me that he bought quantities of Australian lambs to be sold along with River Plate sheep on his stalls, as his company cannot always obtain a .sufficient quan- tity of South American lambs. The American Meat Companies, such as the Swift Beef Company, the Morris Beef Company, and others, also sell Australian lambs on their stalls in the Manchester Meat Market. This fact alone is of great importance. It indicates that the American and Argentine people appreciate the quality of Australian lambs ; that it is popular in the West. It shows, too, the importance of developing the market, for the Argentine people are working up to the requirements, and it is reasonable to predict that the American buyers will not purchase for sale Australian lambs if they can obtain American. No time was more opportune to exploit this exrellt-nt market. MEAT-LADEN TRUCKS MANCHESTER TO LONDON . Table showing the saving in Distribution of Frozen Meat from Manchester to North of England Towns. Frozen Meat, ex Ship to — Bolton Bradford Halifax Leeds . . Oldham Rochdale Sheffield From London. Per Ton. £ s. d. 2 16 10 2 10 0 2 12 6 2 10 0 2 10 0 2 17 6 1 14 2 From Manchester. Per Ton. 0 14 1 5 1 3 1 5 0 15 0 15 1 2 Saving per Ton. £ s. d. 2 2 7 15 0 1 8 10 15 0 1 14 10' 2 2 4 0 11 S It is apparent that, in spite of the many handicaps to which Australian mutton is subjected in competing with South American meat, a considerable quantity of Australian is already consumed in this district, and it is there lo Mar.. 1911-] Manchester : A Market for Australian Produce. 167 fore obvious that a ready market would be found for a large quantity •of Australian meat yielding a greatly enhanced return to the producer, if the unnecessary handling and expense of transit were eliminated. It may be submitted that the Manchester people themselves should endeavour to secure direct Australian trade, but we should remember that they are the purchasers in this case. The Australian producers are the sellers, and the seller usually arranges that no obstacle to his trade will long remain unremoved. Butter, Wool, Wheat, etc. There are, I believe, complaints with respect to the handling of Victorian butter in London, and it is evident that if the butter from Victoria which is con.sumed in Lancashire and Yorkshire were sent direct, such difficulties would not. exist. This produce at the present time reaches ^Lanchester by rail, and a direct supply would mean that the dairy produce would be placed, at the lowest cost and with the least possible handling, into probably the largest centre of butter consumers in England. Regular ship- ments would make Victorian butter familiar just as Danish butter, whicii holds the market at present, is familiar and popular. The Danish exporters thoroughly study and cater for the market and the excellent result of their efforts is obvious to any one who has investigated the circumstances. There would be a saving in time, and 25s. per ton in rail charges, if this produce were consigned direct from Melbourne, and in addition tO' these advantages to the direct exporter his produce would reach the market in a much more satisfactory condition. Further, if might be mentioned that butter may be .sent from Manchester to Bolton at 21s. yd. per ton less than from London; to Leeds at 30s. yd. per ton le.ss ; and to Oldham at 19s. 6d. per ton le.ss. These are only a few instances, but they indicate the general saving in railway freight. I have referred to the three chief perishable exports, viz. : meat, butter, and fruit, but the Western market is plainly attractive to exporters of wool, grain, tinned meats, tallow, rabbits and indeed all the exportable merchandise that Victoria can produce. At the docks there are spacious wool -sheds, with ample floors, specially adapted for the sorting of the bales of wool into different marks and numbers. Tlie wool may then be immediately loaded into railway waggons for Bradford, Huddersfield, Leeds and other Yorkshire manufacturing centres. Wool bought at the Australian sales and consigned direct to Brad- ford, can be .sent from steamers discharging at ^Lu^chester at a lower cost than from either London or Liverpool. The great grain elevator at the docks is said to be one of the most up-to-date in the Kingdom for rapid discharging from steamers, storage and loading into waggons for distant towns, or carts for local delivery. Cargoes of grain come regularly from most other ])arts of the world to Manchester, which is .some evidence of the excellent facilities for distribu- tion. But I was informed that grain shippers in Australia often — for what rea.son I was unable to di.scover — accept sailing-shii) charter parties ■ containing such clauses as: " Manchester Ship Canal excluded." I l>elieve it was agr«T(| bv the Chambers of Commerce of the Commonwealth and the Sailing Shif) Owners Documentary Committee in London, that the new Charter Party of 1908 should lie used. This dcuument has the clause relative to Manchester thus: '' I-'.xchiiling Manchester Ship Canal alcove Runcorn lUidge."' which ailniits of the sailing vessel being f)rdered to Runcorn on the Ship Canal, w bene*' grain may lie l)arged to the elevator. When the clau.se excluding Manchester altogether is inserted, the exporter i68 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar.. 1911. 10 Mar., 1911-] Maiicliester : A Market for Australian Produce. 169 loses a \aluable market because the vessel cannot be ordered to proceed to the Canal should the cargo l>e sold to a Manchester importer, but other- wise the vessel may be sent to Runcorn which is half way up the Canal. This applies to sailing ships, owing to their difficulty with their high masts, to navigate those parts of the Canal which are spanned by bridges. But when steamers are chartered it would seem that no such reference whatever to Manchester should be made in the charter party as steamers have no difficulty in proceeding to and dischargmg alongside the grain elevator and Manchester is one of the recognised safe ports. With respect to tinned meats, the operatives in the Lancashire and Yorkshire Mills are very partial to tinned meats from Australia, and, in fact, in no other district in the country is there a greater demand. This trade is growing rapidly, though the goods find their way to their destination in a roundabout manner — through London or Liverpool. What has been written in the foregoing pages about specific products, applies with equal force to other merchancliss, and the difficulty in every respect is the absence of direct transportation facilities. While the purpose of this report is to call some attention to the facilities which Manchester offers, no inference should be assumed that produce should be necessarily diverted from London or Liverpool. On the other hand, much still remains to be done to thoroughly exploit, at all events, the London market. It is obvious, however, that if the produce which is actually consumed in >Linchester and the vicinity were shipped direct, the Victorian grower would benefit in no small degree. Such cargo would reach its destination sooner, at less cost, it would be subject to fewer handlings, and I venture to say better all round prices would be secured. Every one interested will admit that direct trade with the West of England for produce which is consumed in the West is more advantageous, both to the buver and the seller, than that the produce should go first to London in the South-east, and then sent on by rail. But it may be contended that at the present time there is an adequate .service to the West through Liverpool. This contention is. however, fallacious, because at present all regular steamers bound for Liverpool call at Londop first, then go on to Liverpool. Such ves.sels carrv London cargo as well, and in many cases the Liverpool goods are actually taken out of the holds at London, exposed on the \vhar\es in a changed atmosphere, returned to the holds after the London cargo is landed, and then taken on to Liverpool. The possible damage to perishable produce consigned to Liverpool under these conditions, is difficult to estimate, but it is certain that .some deterioration must inevitably take place. The tendency of other exporting countries is distinctly towards dis- tributing their joroduce among the many British markets. Australian shippers send almost everything to London, whether it is consumed in London and the vicinity or' consumed on the other side of England. It has. I h(/iie, been shown that the unexploited markets of the West, which are alrearly favourable t(^ us, are little less important to the rural communitv of Victoria than th.^ markets of London itsi-lf. There can be no question that the facilities for receiving and distributing at ?*Kanchester are incdculablv siip.Tior to those at I-ondon. Vet at the present nme all the steamers, without exception, trading regularly between Great Bruain and Australia, go first to London, and the big majority never call at the Western i)orts. while not one vessel trades regularly from Australia ♦ > Manch(st Manchester Importers. — The iiames of the orincipal frozen meat im- porters and distributors are : — S. V. Nevanas & Co., Elm-street, Manchester. William Brown Ltd., Tack-street, Manchester. J. C. Farrar (Broker), Corn Exchange, Manchester. The butter importers are : — Co-operative Wholesale Society, Balloon-street, Manchester. Pearson & Rutter, Fennel-street, Manchester. Wall iS: Co. Ltd., Greenwood-street, Manchester. Andrew Clement & Son, Greenwood-street, Manchester. F. Hunter Ltd., Corn Exchange, Manchester. P. Hickey, Fennel-street, Manchester. W. H. Tutton & Co. Ltd., Lancaster-avenue, Manchester. H. H. Sidebottom (Broker), Corn Exchange, Manchester. J. C. Farrar (Broker), Corn Exchange, Manchester. Co-operative Wholesale Society. — The Co-operative Wholesale Society is also a large buyer of all kinds of Australian pro«Jiice, such as wheat, butter, mutton., lambs, tallow, &c. Fruit Brokers and Dealers. — The following are the names of some of the fruit brokers in Manchester, to v/hom the Victorian fruit exporters might communicate regarding their produce : — ■ J. & H. Goodwin, Commercial Sales Rooms, Deans'^ate, Manchester. North of Ent^dand Fruit Brokers Association, Commercial Sales Rooms, Deans- gate, Manchester. These firms .sell the fruit at the ptiblic auction, and this \\ould be tne best way of disposing of large quantities, say of apples, and developing a wide-,spread and reliable market for the growing output. For small consignments of a few hundred boxes the followmg fruit dealers on the Smithfield Market are good firms. They are open to negc tiate business on the same terms, and in the same way as any other largf wholesale firm : — • j. Blackburn, Smithfield Market, Manchester. Wm. Nicholls & Sons, Smithfield Market, Manchester. Joel Gootlwdn, Smithfield Market, Manchester. Edward Farrand Oc Co., Smithfield Market, Manchester. lo Mar., 19.1i-] Potato Expirimcnts at Cheltenham. 171 POTATO EXPERIMENTS AT CHELTENHAM, 1910-11. G. Seymour, Potato Expert. The operations on the plot at Mr. Wedd's market garden at Chelten- ham, in connexion with the potato experiments, were a continuation of the two previous seasons' work, the object being to further test the value of sprouted seed, and also the effect of different manures on the yield of the crop. The first plot was planted in July, 1907, but in September the crop was cut doiwn badly by frost. It was noted that the early crops in this district in 1905 and 1906 also suffered from the same cause. It was therefore evident that, in following ordinary methods, a satisfactory crop could only be obtained in seasons which were free from frost during the early stages of the plants' growth, and that something must be done to overcome this serious drawback. Consequently, in 1908, it was decided to tray the seed and plant it in a sprouted condition six to eight weeks later. A portion of the plot was planted with unsprouted seed on 3rd August ; the plants came up well, but were cut down twice by frost. The sprouted seed planted on 1 8th September came up well, and received no check, some varieties showing an increased market value equal to ^35 per acre in favour of sprouted seed ; the whole field showed an average increase of over 4 tons or ^28 per acre. (Potatoes were then selling at jP^^ per ton.) This experiment was repeated in 1909-10, the sea.son being favourable for the early crop. The increased yield was over 2 tons per acre. On reference to Table I. it will be noted that one of the varieties which promised best was the only one during the whole series that gave a lighter yield for sprouted seed. See Journal for November. 1910. page 718. For the past season (1910- 11) the difference in favour of sprouted seed ■varied from 2\ cwt. to 6 tons 6| cwt. per acre. Table i. — Yield of Plots, 1908-9 to 1910-11. 1908- 9. ] 909-10. i:u >-ll Variety. -6 a = V a ■••■ •d 3 go.^ •tt" ti S " ■* .^ 3 £o.d 2 3 2 o 111 o 3 O = 1. o Hi .5 5 O o. 2 a^^ 02 a&-S » T. c. '1 T. c. q- T. c. q. T. 0. a- T. c. q- T. c. q. T. c. q- T. r. q- T. c. q. Carinim, .No. 1 * (1 U> (1 1 If, II 5 (1 0 fi (1 (» 8 2 0 2 2 0 10 10 I) 5 12 ■2 4 17 2 rp-to-Datc 7 IS 0 :( II 0 4 IH (1 7 2 0 4 14 3 2 7 1 12 0 0 5 13 2 6 6 2 Clarke's .Main Cn.p 8 :i (1 :; 4 0 4 19 0 (i IS 0 4 19 1) 1 19 0 BiKinarck I'l IS II 1 12 (1 5 (> I) Black I'riiicc ', U II 1 III II 4 4 0 (iri'i'ii Mountain 10 2 2 5 17 •A 4 4 3 Siitton'M Almnd- aiicc 9 0 0 6 8 2 2 11 2 Whit.- Proline . . 8 2 3 5 10 1 2 12 2 Brownell's Heautv i; 0 0 5 17 3 0 2 1 Adiroiidnk 4 111 1 4 S 3 0 7 2 • Yield (2 tons 2 cwt.) given in sixth column is a derrease. U 2 17 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 1. Table 2. — Percentage of Unmarketable 1 UBERS, I 508-9 TO I9IO-I I . 19aj -9. 190S -10. 1910 -11. Variety. Sprouted. Un- sprouted. 14°8 27 0 4-2 0 44 0 51 0 Sprouted. Un- sprouted. % 11-5 15-3 . l4'3 Sprouted. Un- sprouted. Carman Up-to-Date . . Sutton's Abundance Clarke's Main Crop Bismarck Black Prince . . /o 10-4 15 '5 16 '0 10-8 18 0 % 37-0 9-3 13-0 0/ 6°0 7-8 10-4 7°0 20-0 20-0 Traving Seed Potatoes. The .system of traying seed potatoes, or " boxing,"" as it is .sometimes called, has never been practi.'^ed to any extent in this State, but in Great Britain and Ireland it is generally adopted for the early crop. The results have proved so satisfactory that, in late years, it has been extended to the main crop. Some Scottish growers have treated upwards of 100 tons of seed in this way in one .season. Traying on such a large scale should be .sufficient proof that it pays, but a number of objections are raised to carrv- mii it out. - 20^ > 2. tray made from kerosene case. ^ — J5--^ I. TRAY MADE FROM FRUIT CASE. The first objection is the expense of trays and shed accommodation. The second is the extra cost of handling the seed at planting time, as it requires more care in cutting and planting than ordinary seed. But, < 2'o ^ SCOTTISH SPROUTING TRAV. 4. PLANTING TRAV MADE FROM KEROSENE CASE. allowing for the additional cost, it is evident that it will pay handsomely. The initial cost of the trays will vary, according to durability, from 2d. to about 6d. each. Those used in these experiments were of two kinds, viz., condemned fruit cases cut into two on the flat as shown in Fig. I, and kero.sene boxes cut into three sections on the flat (Fig. 2). Fig. 3 shows the tray used in Scotland and Ireland. By all accounts it is stronger and more durable, and each tray is provided with a handle. The cost of the trays is from 25s. to 30s. per hundred. Fig. 4 shows rlanting tray used at Cheltenham. ■JO Mar., 1911] Potato Experiments at Cheltenham. 173 It may be stated that any rough shed can be used for the purpose. The plans and specifications given are those of the shed erected at Mr. Wedds garden, and which is large enough to contain more than sufficient seed to plant an acre of ground. This will be a guide to those who have no accommodation, and wi>h to erect a suitable place. The shed .may be built higher, as it is u.seful for other purposes when not required tor potatoes. The timber, &c., for this particular shed cost £^2 los., but it is quite possible that the grower will be able to utilize material alreadv on the farm. I am indebted to Mr. C. M. Xeild, of the Engineer's Branch, for the drawings and specifications published in connexion with this article. It is a question whether the cost may not be reduced in our mild climate by spreading the seed out in a sheltered place to bud, having ^sufficient trays only to take them into the field for planting. Advantage.s of Sprouting Seed. The chief advantage of sprouting seed in trays is the increased yield in the crop. This is due to the fact that the plants come overground very quickly, and meet with more genial weather than when planted ■early. Thev escape the early frost, are more A'igorous, and consequently better able to resist disease. Sprouted .seed may be planted eight weeks later than unsprouted, thereby giving a longer perioii for the removal of the preceding crop. It also affords an opportunity of rejecting " thready-eyed " and weak tubers. Hence, there will be fewer misses in the crop, and less .stray varieties to weed out. It also reduces the percentage of small and un marketable tubers ; in some \arieties this difference amounted to nearly 30 per cent, in favour of sprouted .seed, .see Table 2. In every instance the market sample was worth fully 5s. per ton more from sprouted seed. The seed should be placed ni the trays as soon as dug, or as soon as convenient after digging. The filling of the trays is a simple matter. The tubers are poured in, and given a shake to settle them below the level of the tray. Each tray will hold about the following weights, viz., half fruit cases about 24 lbs., one-third kerosene cases iS lbs. to 20 lbs. The trays may be stacked on toj) or one another, until the buds begin 10 move when thev should lie placed on the racks. Sizt OF Seev. In these experiments the average run of marketable and seed potatoes was u.sed ; only very large and misshapen tubers were rejected. The large seed was cut freely — much of it to a single eye. The sections were cut as large and as uniformly in size as the tuber would allow, the cutting being ■done immediately before planting. Xo material was u.sed to dry the .sets. A test of cut versus whole seed was made in the 1909-10 experiments, and was entirely in favour of cut seed. Objection is rai.sed by some growers to planting the stem sections of potatoes. During the 1910-11 work the stem sections of two varieties, Carman and Up-to-date, were planle(l bv themselves. In th<' ca.se of Carinan the crop was not quite .so goorl. whilst in the Up-to-date there was very little difference. In neither was the difference suffii'ient to warrant throwing away all .stem sections. Time of Traving. The tubers should Iw placed in the trays as carlv in the season as possible. For .August September |)l.intiiig the\ should l>e trayed at the ]74 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 19 ii.. end of April or beginning of May. The trays may be stacked on top- of each other at that stage, and when the buds have started they should be placed in the racks to allow the light to green and toughen the sprouts. Sprouting depends much upon the weather. If it is cold and back- ward, and the buds are not showing, the seed required for early planting may be covered with a little straw, or old bags may be used to exclude- the light. When sprouts are produced in this way the seed must be ex- posed to the light for a week or two to harden them off before planting, but for potatoes trayed in May it will seldom be necessary to resort tO" these means. The tubers handle best when the sprouts are about i inch to 1 1 inches long. The Best Varieties for Sprouting. All varieties of potatoes are not equally suitable for fraying. In- some sorts the sprouts do not take hold of tl^e tubers, consequently they break off easily when handling. The following varieties have given.' SPROUTING SHED FRONT ELEVATION. satisfaction — Carman, Up-to-date. Green Mountain, Sutton's Abundance^ Beauty of Hebron, Early Rose, and Bismarck ; tht first four being the- most satisfactory. Potato Sprouting Shed- Select the most convenient position for shed : if it be possible to hav^- the back of shed against a high paling fence, this may form the back wall of shed. Mark on the ground two parallel lines 5 ft. 7 in. apart, to represent back and front of shed ; sink four holes i ft. 6 in. deen- and 3 ft. 10 in. centre to centre on each line exactly opposite one another. The holes should be only large enough to enable the earth to be well rammed round the 4 in. x 3 in. posts. Erect the four 8-ft. lengths of 4 in. X 3 in. jarrah on the line representing the back shed, and well ram the earth round them. Great care must be taken to keep posts perfectly plumb and square. Similarly erect the four 7 ft. 6 in. lengths of 4 in. X 3 in. jarrah on the front line. On the insides of the posts at each end nail seven 5 ft. 11 in. lengths- of 3 in. X I in. hardwood, the top of lowest one being 6 in. above the- lo ?*fAR.. 191 1 •] Potato Exferimtnts at Cheltenham. 175 ground, and the others 9 in. from the top of one batten to the top of the next. Similarly nail the other 5 ft. 11 in. lengths of 3 in. x i in. • on the sides of the inside posts. Nail on the top of the front posts one 3 in. x \\ in. hardwood batten, and along the front of posts two 3 in. x i in. hardwood battens, the tO]' ■of upper one being level with top of posts. Similarly nail 3 in. x i| in. -and 3 in. x t in. hardwood battens on top and back of back posts. 3 // ww^w/////////'/' ''/''w///'/7^?/^/i'''//y//////''/M' ^"^/z ( ^v^' J/Df ELEVATIOhi I I 5 3" <3£CTI0N SPROUTING SHED SIDE ELEVATION AND SECTION. Cover in the ends of shed with 6-ft. [jalings nailed horizontally on the outside of posts, beginning at the bottom ; fix the top paling on a line with the slope of roof. Stiflen the.se palings in the centre by nailing on to a 3 in. x i in. hardwood batten. Cover in tiack of .shed with 5-ft. p/ilings nailed horizontally on to outside of posts and lapped at joints. --^^3 Jarrah ■^' xo Jorrah Vj-'x/ //>V '3~x.i' /■/ y/ P 3AI//IV 4^xy Janoh - ^ ¥ ■}'x3 Jcitroli-' SPROUTING SHED" i'L.\N. Cover in ihr lop wiili 6 ft. sheets of j6 gaiigr galvanized corrugated iron s<^urle extractor, driven by a motor and operated bv Mr. !•". 15ariiis. birmcd the centre of" inlert^st. A numlier of the apiarists jjrcseiit t(K)k it in turn to remove the full combs from the hive.s and. after shaking and brushing off the bee.s, to wheel the load to the honey house, and there uncap the combs rearly for the extractor. Each operator did the work in a .somewhat different wav, and each was ke<^n1v watclird bv the spectators and comuKMK''-'' 178 journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911. The uncapping of the combs was done over a cappings reducer, also a recent invention. This is an apparatus heated by a blue flame or a Primus; ."^-tove. It consists of an outer and an inner case of tinned copper, form- ing a square hot- water- jacketed vessel, two opposite sides of which are connected near the top by means of transver.se square tubes. These are .set \ inch apart, and form a grid upon which the cappings fall as they are sliced off the combs. When coming into contact with the hot tubes, the wax melts and, with the honev adhering to the cappings, passes through between the tubes into a receptacle located underneath. In this, by rea.son of their different specific gravities, the honey, refuse and wax separate into different layers. By the employment of the U-tube prin- ciple, the honey escapes through an adjustable elbow tube, the wax over- flowing by a separate outlet, while the refuse, generally known as " slum- gum," remains in the receptacle from which it may be removed at the end of the dav's work. BEE-KEEP2RS AT MR. BEST S APIARY. GREAT WESTERN. The saving, in a marketable form, of the wax contained in old black brood combs was the subject of another demonstration in which great in- terest was taken. This wax is usually partly, and often wholly, wasted through the difficulty of separating it from the many thousands of cocoons. These it covers with a fine coating which the ordinary means employed fail to remove. A hot-water wax press, however, forces this out by pres- sure, leaving only such traces of wax in the refuse that, if obtained, would' not pay for the labour of subjecting the material to a second boiling and" pressing. Many of tho.se who attended the meeting came considerable distances, but all expressed themselves well satisfied with what they had learned. There can be no doubt that much more benefit results to bee-keepers from seeing a thing "p*""'''' Hone, than from hearing or reading about it. It is to be gatherings will be held at other centres. 30 Mar.. T911.] Tobacco Culture. 179 TOBACCO CULTURE. {Continued from page 87.) T. A. J. Smith, Tobacco Expert. Harvesting. In Victoria, the tobacco crop ripens somewhat unevenly and cannot "be cut in a face like a crop of oats or wheat. It is highly essential that ■each plant be cut at the right stage of ripeness ; over-ripe tobacco never •cures as nicely, neither is the quality so good. The leaf becomes hard and woody and its appearance also suffers ; very frequently small brown spots ■occur in considerable quantities and these patches never cure, but remain ■hard and brittle making the leaf unfit for outside wrapper or hunch wrapper. If the i:)lant is harvested too green there will be loss in weight, and the leaf will cure a dull olive colour, with little flavour, and when •.smoked a green taste will be observed. RIPE HESTER TOliACCt). (;()\ i:R-\M1:xt FARM. Of late years, it has been found that, in order to obtain a lesser amount ■ot nicotine, it is often wi,ser to cut tobacco just before the plant arrives at its fullest maturity, especially when grown on very rich soils. In tent- ^rown leaf for cigar purposes, the crop dcjes not show the same evidences of ripening, as is the ca.se in the field ; the crop is cut from six to eight weeks after toj)])ing, it having been found that the leaf loses some of its best characteristics if the plant be allowed to remain longer in the ground. Again, no little importance depends on the puriiose tor which the tobacco is to be used. In ordinary heavy plug tobacco, where used only for plug fdler, the grower aims chiefly for weight and conse coarse and the strength not so great, while ili<- loss in we'glu would not mean more than 5 to 7 per cent, and wmild therefore be inconsiderable. Where harvested for bright leaf, tob.ieeo ."■'••"*• be cut at exai-ily the right stage, otherwise the colour '''^"''' .\s this t\pe ot [8o Journal af Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911- tobacco is used for outside wrapper purposes, this is of paramount, importance ; if cut on the green side, not only will the colour suffer, but the toughness required in wrapper leaf will be sacrificed and a cover leaf that will crack and break easily will be the result. For this class of leaf every plant should be allowed to ripen well before cutting. With regard to cigar leaf it is found that, where grown on a sandv warm soil, the plant ripens earlier by at least two weeks than where grown on a cold or clay soil. It is never wise to allow cigar leaf to become at all over-ripe before cutting, as flavour is of even greater consideration in this- class of leaf, especially the filler, than in other tobaccoes. There are two methods of harvesting tol)acco intended for manufacture- for pipe OT plug. The most popular in this country is that of cutting the whole plant, including the stalk, and curing on the stalk in the sheds. The other is stripping the leaves as they ripen nnd placing rhem in baskets, CROP OF LACKS TOBACCO READY FOR HARVESTING. in which they are carted to the sheds .ind there strung on twine or tied to sticks. The arguments in favour of the first mentioned system are, that the work is accomplished much quicker and more easily, and that, in the- case of heavy tobaccoes, the stalk taking longer to cure helps to keep the leaf from curing too fast in our dry climate during the autumn. It is certainly a cheaper system in that respect, though more apparent than real when everything is taken into consideration. Where leaf stripping is followed, there can be no doubt that greater uniformity in ripeness is secured, as all leaves on a plant do not ripen quite evenly at once. There is also less shed room required, a matter of moment when timber is scarce and building dear, and a cure is effected more quickly, which is often of advantage. However, the grower must decide- for himself, according to hi^^ .conditions. Avhich is the better system for him to adopt. Cigar <^o{>{ibt t'>/ rarely harvested on the leaf-stripping system for reasons tha'^ -^ -<-..-'! 17 "•'lAter on. lo Mar.. 1911.] Tobacco Culture. As tobacco ripens, the plant shows general signs of maturity, the leaves droop and appear heavy, the upper surface becomes roughened, and mottled, and in the pipe varieties especially get gummy and sticky to the touch. This ripening period is somewhat erratic and all plants do not ripen together, though in a crop of 4 or 5 acres it will be found that a fair percentage will ripen about the same time. This is generally, in the case of plug tobacco, about six or eight weeks ofter topping, according to the season ; if the leaf does not show signs of ripening at the end of the eighth week it is. as a general rule, better to cut. Directly tobacco commences to get over- ripe, brown spots appear on the leaf and rapidlv spread over the surface. This is a sure sign that the leaf is beginning to waste and no time should be lost in cutting. If, owing to want of moisture or any other cause, the crop stops growing after the topping process and turns yellow, it should be cut at once as loss in weight and quality will assuredly result if allowed more time in the field. Though the yield per acre will be light, such crops often command good value, owing to the golden colour of the cured leaf and its mild aron";atic qualities. In some TOH\rCO KNIVES. cases, yellow tobacco is grown on soil so poor that it will not properly mature the leaf when the condition referred to ensues and a bright leaf is obtained. In harvesting heavy to- bacco, the ripe plant is held by the top in the left hand and a knife specially made is inserted in the top of the stalk, where the bud has l)ei'!i removed, and pressed down splitting tlif stalk to within 6 inches of the ground. Care must be taken to so in- sert the knife at such an angle as will avoid cutting or breaking the leaves from the stalk. The plant is then bent over with the left hand and or chopped off with the knife close to the ground. Various knives are used, ihe best being those illustrated, which can be made bv a blacksmith at a cost of a couple of shillings, or by any handv man. In .some cases, a light tomahawk, or a heavy butcher's knife is used. The plant after cutting is left on the ground to wilt for haif-an-hour ur more, according to the strength of the suri. with the tij^s of the leaves to the sun. Care must be taken not to let the leaves get scorched under a hot sun; leaf .so burned will not cure or make t<>l)acco, but will blacken and become very brittle. II it is not ])<)ssible, owing to lack of hands or other rea.sons, lo get the tobacco to the .scaffold or shed, it should be placed in piles of five or six, one on the other. kee])ing the butts even both perpendicularly and horizontally, and then taken to the shetl as soon as l)OssibIe. Tobacco should always be carted to tne shed or scaffold the same dav as cut. and should not be left in thick piles for more than a couple of hours. othtalk cut l82 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i. No tobacco should be cut directly after rain as the gum will be washed out, the enzymes m the leaf cells will be driven out, and a good cure will not be obtained. Xeither should it be cut early in the morning befortr^ the dew is off. for the same reason, and also because the green leaf will l>e brittle and break in the cutting proce.ss and sand and dirt will adhere to the plants. From 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. on a rather cloudy warm day is the best time for cutting. Of course, where pests have attacked the crop, cut early and late on the principle that " half a loaf is better than no bread." Frosts can have their damage greatly minimized by burning straw or rubbish between the rising sun and the crop, so as to fnake a thick volume of smoke break the power of the sun until the frost has melted. Then get all hands to work cutting and carting till the crop is in. Scaffolding. Scaffolding heavy tobacco will often be found advantageous, especially where the grower is short of labour. Much time is saved in carting and a quicker cure is effected, but there are several matters in connexion with the practice that require attention, otherwise there is more loss than gain resultant. The .scaffold should lie ijuilt running north an found to seriously affect the fern:t>nta- t'on of the leaf later on. 'I'his is due to ^ihe fact that leaf cut under un- favourable conditions is more or less d-'''''" '' en/ymes, or fi-rments. which are de\-eloped to a large extent ''"^ •nul wH, ^^4 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., jpri. The plants, when hnng u])on the sticks, are tied alternately with twine on each side of the stick and well shaken out before finally hanging in the shed. The reason for cutting the cigar plant without splitting the stalk is to make the cure a slower process; cigar leaf cured fast is too brittle for inside and outside wrapper. Harvesting Bright To-'bacco. The best system for harvesting the bright aromatic types, which are smaller and finer in texture than the heavy plugs, is to strip the leaf off the plant as it ripens and take to the shed in baskets, where it. is strung on twine across sticks and cured by heat artificially. There is very little of this class of tobacco grown in Victoria, though there is ample land suited to the purpose. It should bt- thoroughly ripe when harvested. I'hf- leaves should be strung on twine or wire, or tied by twisting the string round each leaf, or in some cases three leaves together on each side of the hang- stick. Some growers go so far as to carefully string single leaves back to back and face to face, but this I think is somewhat unnecessary, and takes up more room in the shed. Care in the Shed. As the tobacco is jilmx-d (in the lower tiers of poles in the shed it is advisable to put about sixteen sticks of big tobacco in each length of i6 ft. and as many as twenty of small tobacco. As the first floor of the shed is filled it can be raised from floor to floor until the roof is reached, if this system is adopted much heavy lifting will be avoided, as the leaf in drving or curing is losing moisture continuously. The tobacco should not be bunched too closely as it is raised in the shed, but a current of air should lie possible between the sticks on which the plants are hung. As each stick is lifted and placed on the higher tier of poles the hand should be drawn horizontally across the plants to loosen any leaves that may be adhering to others. If much damp weather is prevalent, during the time the tobacco is curing, it is well to go through ihe tobacco and shake the leaves occasiomlly by the same process. Tobacco '.should never be hung clo'Se to the ground floor as it will attract the soil moisture and is liable to become mildewed in consequence. There is also greater danger of fire where open pits are used in curing. The floor of the shed should be keot clean for the same reason, as litter in the .shape of dried leaves, etc., is liable to be blown into the fire and carried up to the tobacco which is very inflammable when dry. {To he continued}) RESULTS OF SPRAYING FOR BLACK SPOT OF APPLE AND PEAR. D. McAlpine, Vegetable Pathologist. It is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the advantages and profit of spraying for this fungus disease, since it has been .so long successfully practised bv our up-to-date fruit-growers, and its efficacy so clearly demonstrated bv numerous experiments in the different States, that spraying is now regarded as necessary^ -f'-'uccess. Further, the nature and mode of preparation and applif'^ ■"later on.T.n",-,g mixtures have been so definitely lo Mar., 191 1.] Results of Spraying for Black Spot. >w .tM^iM^ii^ Ill ii — ■ . . (11(1 wit. t86 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911, dealt with in this Journal and orchard inspectors have so persistently- disseminated information, that the best methods are now available to every one engaged in commercial fruit-growing. But the old bug-bear of the- weather is every now and then being raised by those who' do not take- the trouble to properly prepare the mixture or neglect to apply it at the proper time, and the present season has been held up as one which inter- fered considerably with the success of spraying. No doubt the weather has been such as to give every encouragement to the growth and spread of 2. YATES UNSPRAYED. fungus parasites and the heat and humidity combined have aggravated the- mischief caused by them when left unchecked, but it is evident that when success has been attained against such fearful odds; -the value of spraying- is thereby all the more enhanced. I have therefore simply chosen for illustration one or two instances where the results of spraving were all that could be desired, notwithstanding that the orchards were sitr'^' ^-^ in localities very favourable to this disease^ as shown by the phot(/^^'' °"- r^^: .junsprayed trees and their produce. (Figs. 2 and 5.) ) \ lo Mar.. 1911-] Rt' suits of Spraying for Black Spot. The Toomuc Vallfv Orchard near Pakenham. owned by Mr. Kitchen, .and under the management of Mr. Moody, lies in a hollow where a moist and muggy atmosphere often prevails, so that such a fungus as Fusicladiu?n thrives vigorously and spreads rapidly. The Vates variety of apple is largely grown here, and this is recognised as being so subject to Black Spot, that it was the variety chosen in connexion with mv early experiments ■on spraying. I visited this orchard on 2nd February, along with Mr. •Carmody, Chief Inspector of Orchards, and found it remarkably free from % V.ATIiS SPR.WED. les were form- ing, at the rate of 6.4.60. The result was that the leaves were l^eautifully rlean and healtiiy and the fruit sliapely and without " .spot." ]88 Journal oj Agriculture, Yictc [lo Mar.. 1 91 1. In the stress of spraying operations in such a large orchard, of over 200 acres in extent, (Fig. i) some of the Vates apple-trees were left unsprayed and the deficiency of leaves owing to the fungus and the fruit not worth picking, show what would have been the condition of the rest of the trees but for judicious spraying (Fig. 3). A Williams' Bon Chretien pear-tree, about twelve years' old and in full bearing (Fig. 4) is also shown. The spraying was given when the blossoms^ were at the same stage as in the apple and the formula used was 6.4.40. Then the second spraying was given ten days later with 6.4.70. There was no spot observable on leaf or fruit, even after the most careful examination. The annual rainfall, over a period of ten years, varied from 23-5° to 35.96 inches, and during 1910 it was not so excessive in; [o Mar., 1911-] Results of Spraying for Black Spot. 18 y amount as heavy during the spring months, as shown in the table given^ below : — 5 . CRACKED API' hi- S FROM UNSl'RAV KD TREE. Rainfall ll li rak< (lies. 11 lain iliirin<,' I(|IO. Iiicho*. J;inuary Kfl)rii:irv Vtarcli Ai.ril i.6f) 0.66 2.4() Sfpti-iiibcr Oclohtr N(afn)luT 2.\l ... 402 ... 3.61 1.8^ May \..\2 1.17 Dcct'niluT Total :^.},i |imc ■|ulv ... 24. r; -19° Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i. Earlier in the season, I iiad visited an orchard in the Healesvilla r s(;ft wood about 7 inches long bv f inch wide bv \ inch thick. it no mea.suring chain is available procure a rod 24 feet long, i)reft-rabl\ (it light strong w(X)d. It is convenient for transport ])urpo.scs to ha\i- it made in two pieces, each 12 feet in length and hinged .so as lo loll] up. Battens 2 inches by 1 inch will s^rv*^ the purpose. .Mark the disianc<- 20 feet 9^ inches upon it. lo insure the p<'gs being truly in line, att.ieh a ring made of § inch iron and 3 im hrs diameter to I'itlier k:\m\ of a pieci- of No. lO fencing wire of such length as will suit the particular ca.se, that is, from A to B in» the sketch (\o. 2). Now stretch the wire aloiig the line AB by driving a spike at the ]M)ini !'. to hold one of the rings. Holding the other r ng near the peg at .\. continue to shake tli<- wire uii with a vertical ir.(/Venient ] q6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i. until it apparently lies truly along the line A B. Pass a crowbar through the ring in the position shown in sketch and exert sufficient lever- age to draw the wire taut. Then, with the measuring rod, set pegs at intervals 24 feet along the wire. Remove the wire to the line E F and tighten as before, but in this case make the -first measurement along the wire from F only half the distance, or 12 feet. When all the pegs are fixed along the wire, remove the end ones at E and F to prevent mis- takes in planting. When setting the pegs, keep them on that side of the wire away from the rows yet to be marked to prevent pulling them down when shifting. Continue these ojierations until the paddock is complete, making the fiirst measurement on each line alternately 12 feet and 24 feet. Every peg will now be equidistant — 24 feet. 2. METHOD OF PLANTING TREES IN LINE. When the time arrives for planting the trees, provide a planting board which may be made from a piece of soft wood 3 in. x i in. to the fol- lowing dimensions (No. 3). Lay the planting board on the ground so that the central nick is in contact with a peg, keeping the board in position with the foot. Remove the peg to one of the end nicks and place another peg in the other nick. The hole may now be dug, and if the planting h>oard is replaced the central nicJc will indicate the position of the original peg and the place where the new tree is to be planted. By ,;- ^^ -7. following this system, the trees ^/ 2. /jN _L will all be truly in line and a good planting board. appearance given to the orchard. The depth of holes must largely be goA^erned by the depth of .soil, and the nature of the trees to be planted. As a general rule, from 9 inches to 12 inches is sufficient; but it is well to give the bottom of the hole a good stirring, and keep the soil taken out, clear of the planting board. Holes should never be made circular. When the roots of the new trees reach the undisturbed soil they will have a tendency to follow the circular wall. Make the holes square, from 18 inches to 24 inches, and if roots should travel along the walls they will be pretty certain to penetrate when thev reach the corners. ^iio.^^^i'^.^^^!^^^^-'^^^ It will" be found that two people will make a better job of planting than one. Be- fore putting the tree into the hole, arrange the bottom earth in the form of a mound as in drawing Xo. 4. With the planting board in position, place the tree in the hole so that the stem rests directly in the notch and on top of the mound around which the roots should be symmetrically disposed, the strongest roots being kept towards the direc- tion of prevailing winds. Make the soil as fine as possible before re- filling, and press firmly around the roots, and .should the soil be dry take an early opportunity of irrigating. Before setting the tree, take care to disentangle the roots and to cut off all that are broken and damaged. 4. HOLE FOR TREE. lo Mar.. 191 1.] Layi)ii^ out Orchards in tlie Irrigated Areas. 197 When trees are recei\ed from a nurseryman, place the roots in a trench and cover with moistened soil until readv to set out. When planting, be careful to keep the bud or graft well above the .surface, and in irrigating 'do not let water come in contact with the stems except bv way of seepage. It is necessary with all young trees to head them back at time of planting in order to insure short stocky stems and symmetrical branches, and the reader is referred for instruction on this point and the subsequent care and treatment of his trees to that excellent work. Fruit Tree Pruning, by G. Quinn, and published by the South Australian Department of Agriculture. The horticultural articles contributed to the Journal by Mr. E. E. Pescott and other Departmental experts should also be care- fully read. In the sketch will be noticed a strip of land marked "Lucerne." The provision, or otherwi.se, of this is left to the judgment of the owner. 'The arrows indicate the fall of the land, and it is obvious that any surplus water from irrigation, or otherwise, must spill over 0:1 this strip, unless, in the general scheme of irrigation works, provision is made for drainage. Assuming that it is not, this strip makes a very convenient " safety valve," and precludes any waste, for no matter how careful an irrigator may become, nor how expert, occasions arise when water may •come down in excessive volume without the irrigator's volition. Of course, any irrigable crop besides lucerne may be grown, but as the owner will almost certainly pos.sess a cow and one or two horses, abundant rich fodder will be provided with the minimum of effort ; and trouble with channel authorities will be avoided. A good plan in laving out orchards or vineyards, esijfcially in exposed loc-alities, is to provide some sort of breakwind. As it is well to make some profit out of this, the owner is recommended to plant a double row of some good commercial almond, at least along those sides of his plan- tation most affected by prevailing winds ; to completely surround it is preferable. Almonds do not require so much room or attention as most other deciduous fruits. The distance apart for a single row may be 15 feet, and for a double row 20 feet, spacing the trees as in the orchard itself and for which the necessary measurements may be extracted from the table. Another very excellent breakwind is made from olives and may prove more suitable should there be means of dealing with the fruit com- mercially. It is a slower growing tree than the almond, but it has the advantage of being an evergreen and of producing a fruit that does not as a rule appeal to the palate of the pilferers. In planting vineyards, whether for dried products or wine the square system is preferred. A good result will follow from making the rows 10 feet apart and plantinj: the vines 8 feet apart in the rows, except in the case of /.ante currants and sultana.s, when the vines, which must be trellised to secure best results, may be placed t6 feet apart. It ni;iy ha])|)(n that .some individual circtunstanccs have been over- lfX)ked, such as dealing with an area of irregular shape, in which latter case the reader is referred to the article on irrigation previously men- tioned. Should furihcr particulars l)e dcsin^d th<-\ will Ix- |iromptly supplied on ap]ilication. In conchision, purcha.se. if possilile, only one vc.ir dM trees or vines; not only is nothing gained by gt'tting them older, but Miy much is lost. Purchase only from reputable nurserymen who will guarantee the varieties sold. ipS Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911^ THE WL\E INDUSTRY LV SOUTHERN FRANCE. DePART.MKNT of HiiHAULT. {^Continued from page J 62. vol. IX.\ F. de CastcUa, Govermneiit Xitictdturist Annual Cultivation of the Soil. Not only as regards preliminary joreparation of soil should the vine- yards of Herault serve as an object lesson to Victorian vine-growers. The thorough tillage the ground receives each year, and the manner in which it is carried out, are likewise of considerable interest to us; for' they contribute in no small degree to the exceedingly heavy yields char- acteristic of the region. Insufficient tillage has been a common cause of small yields in Vic- torian vineyards in the past. \(y doubt, the evolution of our viticultural methods, in the direction of more intense culture which is so satisfactory a feature of our replanted vineyards, is correcting many of the errors of the past. Nevertheless, one still finds evidence of neglect in too many of our vineyards ; and, even in those where the soil is kept free from weeds and loose during the summer, it is questionable if the work is always performed in the most advantageous manner and at the most pro- pitious moment. The distance apart and methods of training the vines of Herault are very different to ours, and exert a considerable influence on the question under review. These features will lie dealt with in detail later, and it will here suffice to point out that the usual di.stance apart is 5 feet by 5 feet and that the vines are neither tied up nor topped in any way during the summer.* Such close planting does not permit the passage of a pair of horses; hence the two- and three furrow ])loughs we u.se cannot be employed. The absence of topping has for result that, after a couple of months' growth, whole blocks y a liorsf or mule, ulien it is lilted with shafts. In the tor.v.er case it is known lo;allv as diiuhlia ; in tin* latter as fo'trcal. It has no mould- l)(;ard and throws the soil equally to either side. In order to do good work the furrows, such as they are. must be drawn close together. The .sc/d is worked to a depth of from fi to 8 inches. This. tog mII verv extensively used; in fact, exclusively so if the land be stony, as it very often is. The two photographs show a favourite modern form, constructed entirely of iron. The svstem of harnessing by means of a shaft is here shown. In this case the shafts are iron ; wooden ones are aho u.sed. The extra long steel share is found most con- venient in very stony soil. A weed cutting attachment, consisting of two skimmers or wings known as an hirondelU (literally, swallow)^ can be bolted on when required, but the araire is more often worked without it as shown in the photo- graph. The price of this imple- ment in Montpellier is 25 fr. (^i). The shafts cost an extra 20 fr. (i6s.). This system of harnessing is said to render the working of ^ the plough more steady. The shafts do not damage the vines. Many modern types of plough have recently been introduced, most of which are provided with mouldboards. They are almost exclusively single furrow and work to a depth of 8 inches. As regards scarifiers, the number of new types is considerable. American manufacturers have agencies in most French centres, or else make arrangements for their models to be manufactured in FrcAich workshops. The Planet Junior cultivator, for example, exactlv the same as the one we are familiar with in Victoria, is manufactured by the firm of Filter and Co. of Mont- pellier, and sold under the name of " Filter-Planet." As regards these implements, most of which are similar to types we know, little need here be said. FRONT VIEW OF IRON ARAIRE. lo Mar.. 1911.] Tlie Wine Industry in Southern France. 201 The above somewhat lengthy description of the old fashioned araire is, however, necessary, for two reasons. In the first place it shows how the implement we are so readv to class as hopelessly obsolete may yet possess advantages which recommend it, at lea.st for certain work, such as the winter ploughing. There can be no doubt that the heavy crops obtained are in large measure due to the thoroughness with which this operation is executed. It is to this very thoroughness that the sur- vival of the araire is due, notwithstanding the fact thfat modern American and other ploughs are everywhere obtainable. The French farmer is not unduly conservative; he is, on the contrary, always ready to try new implements and machinery. If he is loth to give up the primitive plough of his fathers it is owing to its efficiency, and not to any other reason. In the second place, the question presents itself whether we have, ii^ our quest after cheapness and the execution of the greatest amount of work in the shortest possible time, always kept the main object in view. The .soils of our vineyards are scarcely ever loosened, in winter, to -'' depth of anvthing like 6 inches, let alone the 8 inches frequently attained in Herault. The advantages of such deep ploughing in the direction cf securing re.ser\es of moisture alone, not to speak of aeration of the soil, should be even greater in northern Victoria than in Heriuilt. with its heavier rainfall and less active evaporation. How THE Soil is ^^'oRKED. In order to realize the importance of the different cultural operations performed in the Herault vineyards, and to thoroughlv understand the nature of each, it is necessary to go back a considerable number of year.s ; to the time, in fact, when the whole of the \ineyard work was performed by hand. To again quote from H. Mare.s — Each working bears a particular name, which testifies to its high anti(|uitv. Proof of the necessity and suitability of each is found in the fact that for mere than two thousand years the vignerons of the same provinces have been led to practise them at the same epochs.* The first working bears the name of Toncha . it should move the soil more detpiv than the others; to an average depth of o. in 20 (about 8 inches). When . too shallow the soil is not loosened sufficiently and with the first dry weather it loses its moisture, so necessary for the vine to resist the heat of summer. The second . . . bears the name of Majcnqita ; il is the Mav working, as in■«• in size. th<- -imoimI wliidi iniiki's tlirni IImhit, and llip lliiifl wliidi uiakes tliPin rippii. The' tliink that tillini: .sirvc!. t.. aiiiinaii- tlii'M- iniixr iiu-ni~ l.i .jii^p N^itint- i>id\ riadic's iln- iilijci.t of her desires, iii^> inmU jis she is aiili-d In work joineil with »t-.iil>. oj .j-^^ 1 1 202 Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. [lo Mar.,. 1911, The first ploughing then consisted in opening up five furrows in each row, this being immediately followed by a cross ploughing, also of five furrows, in a perpendicular direction. This work was followed by hoeing the ground from around the vine into the interval between the rows, the vine being thus situated in a sort of depression or basin. The second ploughing, also in two^ perpendicular directions, was given in May. It levelled the ground, filling the basins opened round the vine; if weeds were troublesome it was supplemented by a hoeing. The third ploughing (again crossed) was executed in early June in the case of spreading growers or a fortnight later, for erect varieties. After this, the passage of teams is no longer possible and any further work must be done by hand, with the hoe. Nowadays, the first or winter ploughing is performed much in the same way as formerly, either with the araire or, occasionally, with a deep working plough of more modern type and supplemented by baring the .stock with the hoe {dechaussemcnt). The second and third ploughings are, however, replaced by scarifyings. varying in number and depth ac- cording to circumstances but usually shallow. From the above it is evident that, in its essential features, the system according to which the soil is worked, has altered little since remote antiquity, when all work was done by hand. It is, in a general way, characterized by a deep winter ploughing, executed as early in the winter as circumstances will permit, serving to aerate the soil and enable it to absorb the late winter rains. This is followed by shallower spring working and a st^U shallower summer one. which frees the land from weeds and favours retention of moisture. Shallow versus Deep Ploughing. It has long been held, in certain quarters, that deep cultivation is injurious to the vine by cutting the surface roots ; the very (mes best situated for the absorption of plant food, since this is more abundant near the surface than in the deeper layers of the soil. Basing themselves on this argument, several authorities, among whom may be noted no less a one than Dr. Guyot, recommended shallow cultivation instead of the thorough working described above. It is true that most of the earlier critics of deep cultivation were residents of cool climates, where the moisture problem is vastly different to what it is in northern Victoria. Professor Foex replied to these in 1886 as follows : — * In countries where the summer is dry and where deep cultivation is most necessary, the absorbent roots are not usually superficial, because they do not find in the surface layers of soil, the moisture necessary for their healthy develop- ment, or because, having formed themselves there, under the influence of spring rains, they die off during the drought of summer. It would, therefore, be only in climates where the soil does not dry out in summer, that it would be advantageous to restrict the depth of ploughing. The subject has cropped up again recently. Experiments conducted by undoubted authorities in widely different situations in Germany, Northern and Southern France, Spain, and even in Algeria and Tunis, have given results favourable to shallow cultivation. The.se experiments created quite a .sensation some six or seven years ago. Professors Degrully and Ravaz of the Montpellier .school published, in 1905, an exhaustive inquiry into * 6. Foex — Cours Complet cle Viticulture, p. 372. •10 Mar., ipii-] The Wine Industry in Soutlicrn France. 205 •the question.* Though lengthy quotations are not here possible, tneir general conclusions may be reproduced. 1. Young vines, from the time of their plantation to the age of three years, should receive good ordinary ploughings. The first roots all originate deeplv, and it is of the highest importance to facilitate the aeration of the layers in which they develop. 2. In the case of older vines, experiments have shown, so far, that shallow ■cultivation is preferable to deep in all compact, moist or medium soils. It must not be forgotten that it is only fully effective when it prevents the growth of weeds. Shallow cultivation has proved equally advantageous in sandy coast lands, very dry on the surface but where the water table is usually found at a shallow depth. On the other hand, our calculations and experience show that, in dry, pebbly and very porous soils, where the water *able is very deep — where, on this account, the roots tend to occupy the deeper /ayers — deep ploughing remains indicated and should give better results than systematically shallow cultivation. This necessarily brief reference to an interesting and, as yet, imperfectly elucidated question will, it is hoped, serve as a warning to vine-growers, not to be too readily led to follow the easier way of shallow culti\alion, for there can be no doubt that many of the arguments put forward by its advocates are such as would appeal to practical growers, most of whom are only too anxious to find any excuse for economy in working. The above quotation from Professor Foex. and the last paragraph of M.M. Degrully and Ravaz's conclusions, apply with special force to northern Victoria, which is hotter and drier and in which evaporation is far more active, than near !Montpellier. Systematic deep cultivation will cau.se the absorbent roots to normally estabiish themselves at a certain depth. There will then be no surface roots to cut. The drought resistant power of the vine must, naturally, be thus considerably increased. Another and. to my mind, unanswerable argument in favour of deep culti\ation is to be found in the fact that Herault. where this deep working is the almost invariable rule, is the very part of France — of the whole world in fact — where the vine is made to give its most abundant yields. The proof of the pudding is in the eating ! Modifications to Meet Victorian Conditions. In rlie opinion of the writer, we may. with advantage, go even further than to merely imitiate Herault cultural methods. Northern Victoria is hotter and drier than Southern France. This would make it logical for us to advance the date of the first winter ploughing Such a course would undoubtedly largely increase the store of moisture. Ploughing is often impracticable in the middle of winter. It is therefore left till the ground is in a fit state ; but in many sea.sons the rains cea.se and the dry weather comes on suddenly, so that the ground which, during the whole winter, has been in such a condition as to allow the rain water to run to waste rather than to be absorbed, dries out rapidly. Thus, deficiency of moisture may lead to a reduced crop even though the rainfall of the year may have been normal. Why not make the first ploughing precede the winter rains? There are, it is true, some difficulties to be overcome, such as ploughing before priming ; but they are not insuperable and there can be little doubt that the advantages would abundantly compensate any inconvenience. We are generally agreed as to the value of summer scarifying, of keeping the • Siir la Culture Superfirielle rfc la Viijnf. \\ 2 204 journal of AgriciiUurc , Victoria. [lo Mar., 1911. vineyard clean and its soil loose. In our best vineyards little improvement' is possible in this direction, but as regards depth we certainly have mucb to learn from Southern France. I feel sure that even earlier ploughing, than is the rule there, will, owing to our greater need for stiidying the- conservation of moisture, prove the proper course especially in dry situations. VINEYARD HORSE PERCHERON BREED. A deep ploughing in very early winter would be tantamount to fallow- ing, which, in the case of cereal crops is now generally recognised as the fundamental basis of our wheat production. The general execution of such a deep, early ploughing would practically mean the application of TKAM UF MULKS AT VEkCllANr. the dry farming methods wei hear so much of nowdays, to the cultivation! of the vine. Mules for Vineyard Work. A Victorian cannot fail to he much struck by the extent to which mules; are used for vinevard work in Southern France. ^:40 Mar.. 1911-] Orcliard and Garden Aotcs. French draught horses are very good, the Government having done a ..great deal towards their improvement during the past half century. They are of the Percheron breed and especially suitable for vineyard work. Some idea of this compact, active, light draught horse, will be gained from the snap shot reproduced, which represents a good ordinary animal and not a prize taker. Notwithstanding the quality and suitability of these horses, mules are verv generally preferred for vineyard work. They do more work and ■ consume less feed than a horse and can be worked for a longer time without a spell. They are also said to damage the vines less. On some of the best managed large estates in the region, mules are .■exclusively used for all vineyard work. Our photograph shows a team in use at Verchant estate which was worth over ;^2 5o. I was much struck :by these fine animals, usually from 16 to 17 hands high, and was led to form quite a different opinion of the much abused mule. These animals are not locally bred, but come usually from Poitou, a district where mule breeding is made a specialty of and where they often command a price •.-of from j£']o to ;!^8o. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pcscoit, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. It is to be feared that the al)normal weather conditions, the cold tem- peratures and the wet days, will somewhat interfere with fruit trees and .-orchard results this season. It will be \ery interesting to note exactly what the effect of this unusual weather will be. It is hardly within the recollection of growers that similar weather has e\"er occurred at this time >of the year. A large quantity of fruit, particularly any late stone fruits, will be spoiled by the excessive wet ; while some mid-season apples and pears will also suffer. Already one effect is noticeable — the blossoming of occasional fruit spurs. Wherever this occurs the blossom should be picked off ; no good will result from allowing the fruit to set. The fruit itself would not ripen, being so late, and the regularity of action of the tree will be much interfered with. Planting. Where new areas are being prepared in anticipation of planting out in the autumn and winter, these rains will be of immense benefit. Ploughing will be greatly accelerated ; and, if the land has been already ploughed, the subsoil will receive an excellent soaking. In preparing land for planting out, and this should be commenced right away, so as to allow the soil to sweeten, it should be subsoiled, so as to produce good results in after years. Subsoiling will add to the age and vigour of the trees, it will materially increase the crop, and it will con- sirlerably les.sen the expense of fertilizers. Reference has previously been maile in these notes to the success attained from growing fruit trees in sub- soiled land ; bill ihi; fact may be again jKiinted out that many growers in ^'ictoria an- to day rea[)ing the l)enelit of increased ctojis without artificial feeding, where the soil was subsoiled before phmting. Drainage is an- •lOther most imi)ortant facfr in sncrcssful fruit culturr ; but whil«^ perhaps 2o6 Joiirjial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i^ drainage may be delayed for a few years, if the other initial expenses are- extensive, it must again be emphasized that proper subsoiling cannot be- carried out after the trees are planted. Green Manures. If a cover crop of leguminous plants is required for green manuring, a staft at planting may now be made. This can only be done when all of the fruit has been gathered from the trees. An early crop is a distinct advantage. The co\-er crop should make good growth before winter .sets in, as the plants make very little headway in the cold weather, and they require to be ploughed in as soon as the ground is dry enough in early spring. It will thus be .seen that it is necessary to get a good autumn growth, as dense as possible, and one which will well cover the surface before winter. Ctjltivation. Should the Vv-eather become hot and dry, it will be \exy necessary to give- the land surface a good stirring, so as to conserve the great amount of water supplies that the ground received in January and February. Where fruit crops ha\e been gathered, a start may be made, late in the month, with the autumn ploughin^^ : \\ hate\'er ploughing is done should be left as- rough as possible. CoDLiN Moth. Where late fruits are grown, or where there is a possibility of late- attacks of this pest, a final spraving with arsenate of lead may be given. Reports of the use of chromate of lead in India, in place of arsenate of lead, have been recently published. It is stated that where the Codliii' Moth has obtained a foothold in India, it is impossible, owing to climatic influences, to use arsenate of lead, as it burns the trees severely. So chromare of lead is used in its place, reputedly with good results. On the suggestion of the Chemist for Agriculture, a block was set apart in the Burnley Orchards to test its value and efficiency. The only point in favour of the chromate of lead is tiie ease with which its presence is noticeable on the foliage and fruit. Wherever sprayed, it leaves bright yellow blotches and spots. Otherwise, its success as an insecticide is absent. In the block sprayed, about an eighth of one orchard, there were more Codlin larvae infested apples than in the whole of the remaining portions. Peach Aphis. It may appear somewhat early to think of dealing with this pest. But our knowledge of its habits and the necessary sprays to combat it is in- creasing every year ; and it is nvjst apparent that, if the pest is to be attacked with a red oil emulsion, the mixture must be used earlier than hitherto. It is recognised that one of the easiest and most useful methods of dealing with this pest is to spray the trees in their dormant stage with red oil emulsion. In orchards where, some years ago, half-a-dozen sprayings with a nicotine spray were given, often with very little visible effect, a mar\ellous change has been effected bv the use of red oil in winter. One spraying has been effecti\"e in almost clearing out this pest ; and where the aphides ha-\"e reappeared in the spring time, their numbers have been so small, that a light spraying with nicotine solution has been all that is necessary. This applies to both green and black aphis. lo Mar.. 1911.] Orchard and Garden \otes. Still, the action of red oil has been far from satisfactory, and very great care will need to be exercised in its use. Quite a number of trees have been killed ; some have been killed outrigiit, others have made quite a fair foliage growth on the tips in spring, and even then they have succumbed. Various causes have been assigned ; the oil being suspected of possessing some caustic properties, or of being possessed of the power of penetrating the cells in the bark and injuring the inner bark and growing wood. There is no doubt, whate\"er, that free oil on the surface of the mixture, if sprayed on the trees, will undoubtedly kill them. Hence the necessity for a perfect em^ulsion. Then, again, the physical condition of the trees may be another cause of destruction. Constitutionally, some trees are weaker than others, owing to manv and various causes ; also, a tree will surely be weakened by constant and frequent attacks of the pest, year after year. And so. while a strong tree receives no ill effect from a i in 30. or i in 25. emulsion, a weakened tree, constitutionally or otherwise, will probably succumb. It seems, however, to be fairlv definite, that if peach trees are to be sprayed with red oil emulsion, it must be done when no sap movement is taking place, and when the tree is perfectly dormant. Thus early spray- ing is advised ; and it is almost certain that, with a perfect emulsion, and with spraying, say in May or early June, little or no damage will accrue. Again, spraying before pruning has previously been advised in these notes. It is well known that to spray pruned trees with red oil emulsion before the cuts are thoroughl\ healed, is to burn the wood and bark at the cuts. More than one instance has been observed where the oil has burned down an unhealed cut, along the limb, for se\eral inches. Various media have been adopted to form a perfect emulsion. Soft soap and caustic soda are the general substances. At the Burnley orchards last winter an excellent emulsion was obtained from resin and caustic soda. The writer suggested to one of the oil companies that if the oil were denaturated before lea\ing its ports of shipment, it could enter Australia as a spraying oil only ; and would come in free of duty. The cost to Jhe grower would thereby be cheapened. As an experiment the oil was there- fore denaturated with 2 lbs. of resin per gallon, and an emulsion obtained by stirring in \ oz. of caustic soda. The results were excellent ; not only was a perfect emulsion made, but the aphis was completely eradicated, no sign of it appearing in the spring. Further, a block of apple trees badly affected with \Voolly Aphis that was sprayed with this emulsion was almost entirely freed from the trouble. It is anticipated, however, that further developments may be expected in red oil emulsioas, as one manufacturer will in all probability place on the market a red oil jelly or oil soap similar in appearance to vaseline, which will only need to be stirred into the water, when it will be ready for use. This jelly gives a milky emulsion which, when mixed, and allowed to stand for two or three weeks, has no free oil floating on the surface. Vegetable Garden. ••VU vacant plots should be given a liberal surface dressing of stable manure, and then well and ileeply dug. For winter growth, the beds should be elevated somewhat above the ordlnarv suiunier level. That is. the path surface may be on a lower level, the plot .soil Ix-ing well throwi- up and boldly lidged. Thi'^ will give a certain amount of drainage, and will insure warmer and better soil ; the vegetables shouKl succeed more in this cla>> of bed tli.in in .inv othei 2o8 Journal of Agriculture. VictDria. [lo Mar.. 191 i.. The vegetable garden and also die seed beds should be kept free of any weeds, and a good culti\'ation kept up all through. Seedlings of cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, and celery may be trans- planted out, and seeds of cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, early peas, swede turnip, beet, carrot, radish, parsnip, and early onions may be sown. Flower Qarden. Undrained garden? have suffered very consideral>lv a? a result of the January and February rains. Quite a number of plants, especially young shrubs and dahlias, have been killed by the excessive moisture. A start may be made with garden drainage towards the end of the month, so that the plants may survive the winter rains. Last winter a tile drain was carried through one of the rose beds in the Burnley Gardens ; its presence is wonderfully apparent in the growth of the rose bushes nearest to the drain. These have increased very much in size and \igour, while bushes away from the drain have put forth very much inferior growth. Liquid manure should now be given to all growing autumn plants, such as chrysanthemums, dahlias, and roses. Weak solutions are preferable; strong liquid manures will either drive the plant into a great activity re- sulting in coarseness, or they will kill the tender roots thi\t collect the food supply of the plant. A weekly application of liquid manure will be ample. All classes of spring-flowering bulbs may now be planted. In bulb plant- ing, the bulbs should not come in contact with any manure. The manure should have been some time previously dug well in. and mixed with the soil, and all heat should have disappeared. If much manure is required it should be placed below the bulb so that the roots may ultimately penetrate to it. Bulbs thrive in sandy soils ; and where the soil is heavy, a little sand may be added with advantage. Bulbs should not be planted too deeply ; the depth to plant is generally regulated by the size of the bulb. Such bulbs as freesias may be covered Avith only an inch of soil, while larger bulbs should be somewhat deeper. In the Scillv Isles, off the coast of Cornwall, where immense quantities of bulbs are grown for the English markets, the rule is to plant the bulbs very shallow for flowers ; while if bulb divisions or increases are required, the bulb is planted deeper. All hardy annual, biennial, and perennial seeds may now be planted : among these are dianthus, candytuft, sweet peas, Iceland poppy, anemone, ranunculus, stock, wallflower, columbine, foxglove, salpiglossis, phlox, penstemon, pansy, gaillardia, &c. Wherever aphis and red .spider occur, the plants should he spraved with benzole emulsion, nicotine, "Pestend," " Soaperine " or some other pre- ventative, in order to protect the coming flowers. Mildew attacks should also be warded off by the u.se of sulphur. The sulphur may either be dusted on the plant, or it may be scattered on the ground, around and under the plant. lo Mar.. 1911-] Annual Grant to Agricultural Societies. JC9 ANNUAL (tRANT TO AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. ■CONDITIOXS TO BE CARRIED OUT BY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES RECEIVING A GRANT. A.— That the awards of prizes in all classes for stallions three years old and over at the Society's Show must be subject to the possession by the exhibit of a Government certificate of soundness. B.— That the Society arrange for :— (1) The holding of agricultural students' classes ; or (2) The holding of a series of at least four lectures or demonstrations on agricultural or live stock matters." C.--That the Society— (1) arrange for the carrying out of field experiments on an area and in a locality to be approved by the Depart- ment ; or (2) provide and ofter a substantial prize (the amount to be approved by the Minister of Agriculture, but not less than five pounds) for improvements in farm practice and mar^gement, or the cultivation of special crops in the district. As regards A. Stallion Inspection Parades will be held at different centres throughout Ihe State prior to the commencement of the Show season (Time Table of Stallion Parades for 191 1 will be available shortly after ist April, 191 1). The parade centres are so arranged that all owners of Show stallions have the opportunity of submitting them for examination for the Go\ernment Certificate of Soundness before the closing of entries for the Show. Show Secretaries will require to obtain e\idence of the possession of the Go\ern- ment Certificate in respect of exhibits at the time of entry, and should not iiccept entries of other than certificated horses. Immediately after the Show, Secretaries of Societies are required to forward the names of all the horses that have won the prizes in stallion •classes, together with the names of the owners, to the Director ot Agriculture. As regards B. B.I . — Agricultural Classes. Applications must he submitted not later llian ist April, igii. The agricultural classes will extend over two weeks, five days a week, .a demonstration being given each morning and afternoon, and four limelight lectures on evenings to be arranged for bv the Secretarv of ■each Society. Thirty students at least must be enrolled before a class can be held. The rent of hall and all local charges are to be paid by the Agricultural Society ; all other expenses bv the Department. Arrangements must be made to insure the uninterrupted use of the hall during the time the lectures are going on. A roll of attendances at lectures and demonstrations shall be kept. At the conclusion of each class, a written examination of about \\ hours •duration will l)e held, a medal to be awarded bv the Department to the student in each district obtaining the highest number of marks for ex- amination work and rrgular attendance combineil. Two-thirds of the • Sooietifs to select suJijcj-ts (|iii>rt '^l-) nn-l notify Iifi-mrtineiit not later than Nt April. V'll. 2IO Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i, maximum marks obtainable will be gi\en for examination work, and one-^ third for regular attendance. The Department reserves the right to Avith- draw the offer of the medals in the event of there being less than five students remaining for examination. A special examination for the Gold Medal offered by the Australian- Natives' A.ssociation will be held and only winners of Departmental medals- will be eligible to compete thereat. Subjects of First Week. Agriculture. Live Stock and Veterinary Science. Subjects of Secort'd Week. Two or more of the following, to be selected : — {a) Sheep Breedrng, and Management (including Wool Classing and Lambs for Export) ; (5) Dairy Farming (including Management and Breeding of Pigs) ; Kc) Poultrv Breeding and Management; (d) Orchard and Garden Work. B.2. — ^Lectures. Agricultural and Live Stock Subjects. The course will consist of at least four lectures or practical demon- strations during the year (dates to be fixed by the Department) ; andi the Society must take sufficient interest in the matter to insure a good attendance, otherwise the lectures will not count for the grant conditions. Manv of the lectures are illustrated by limelight views. Special Notice. All dates of lectures will be fixed by the Department. A list of the subjects and lectures is published herewith. Each Society must select its subjects, and notify the Department of same not later than ist Afril, as the dates for lectures will be fixed immediately thereafter. If Societies will state the most suitable seasons for their districts, the lectures will, as far as possible, be arranged accordingly. The Department will recognise any suitable lecture, paper, or address- that a Society may arrange to have delivered by any person other than a Departmental officer, and such lecture will count as one of the four re- quired, provided due notification prior to delivery of lecture is given, and the President of the Society afterwards certifies as to bona fides and suitability of the lecture. As regards C. C.I. — Experimental Plots. The plot of land should be about 5 acres in extent, so that the amount of produce may be of value to the Society. It is desirable also that arrangements be made for the use of the land for a number of years, so that a definite scheme can be worked out; the Society to furnish the land, with a written guarantee from the owner that it will be available free of charge to the Department. The Department will supply the manures and the seed free of cost, and superintend the sowing and harvesting, two-thirds of the produce to belong to the Society^ and one-third to the Department. {a) No site shall be approved until reported upon bv an officer of the Department. lo Mar., 1911.] Ainiual Grant fo Igri cultural Societies. 211 (b) No person whose farm equipment of teams and implements is insuffi- cient, or out of date, sliall be accepted as a proper person to conduct an experiment. (c) The preparation of the land shall be wholly carried out by the experi- menter, and. if not considered in proper order at the time of sowing, any further work desired shall be done promptly. (d) Every Society shall appoint a sub -committee to consult with the Departmental officer,' as to the class of experiment and the best means of carrying out the same. (e) Every Society shall arrange for regular visitation of the experimental plot during growth and for a "field day " and lecture upon the plot towards its maturity. It is suggested that one or more experimental plots should be developed in each district. Three main lines of investigation may be carried out ^ first, the determination of the manurial requirements of the district ; second, the introduction of new methods of management and of new crops ; third, by introducing new varieties of crops not already grown in the district. The area of land selected should be typical of the district, if anything, rather on the poor side. The location of the plot should be such that it can be seen by as many farmers as possible. An area adjacent to the principal town, or close to the railway station of the district, is therefore .suggested. The details of the experimental work carried on by the Depart- ment are published from time to time in the ] oiirnal. C.2. — Special Prize. In carrying out this section, the words, " substantial prize " are to be interpreted in proportion of the income and prize list of the Society. It should amount to from 2\ to 5 per cent, of the total amount distributed in prizes at the show. The objects aimed at should be to make a distinct advance in farming methods as carried on in the district, and it will therefore be advisable to state the amount of the prize and the purpose for which it will be awarded several years in advance. Several Societies at present award prizes for the best-managed farms under and over 200 acres; others for the best farm under irriga- tion. These Societies fulfil all the conditions required. Suitable subjects are — {a) The best 10 acres irrigated by a private scheme; {h) The best c acres of lucerne, maize, or other fodder crops grown with or without irrigation ; {c) The best-managed dairy herd of ten cows or upwards : or {d) The best 5-acre crop of flax or beans, &c. , &c. Two or three objects should be suggested by each Society in taking up this condition. The Department will, as far as possible, assist bv arranging the details of the competition, give instruction as to the best methods in attaining the object sought, and, if required, an officer of the Department will judge the com- petition, and a full report, with criticisms and suggestions for improvement, will be forwarded along with the award. {a) The Society .shall take steps to make the details of the competition widely known, and shall fix a date upon which entries close. {h) Not less than three entries sliall constitute a competition. {c) If the entries are insufficient, the Society shall immediately notify the Department, and make other arrangements at onr<> to mmplv with the grant conditions. :2i2 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Mar., 191 i. SYNOPSIS OF LECTURES AND DEMONSTRATIONS. Principles of Agriculture. 1. The plant food of the soil. 2. Cultivation methods and management. 3. Principles of manuring. 4. Valuation of artificial manures. 5. The management of the farm. ■6. Special crops and catch crops. 7. Irrigation principles and methods. Veterinary Science and Live Stock Subjects. 1. The structure and care of the horse's foot (lantern). 2. Brood mares and breeding mishaps (lantern). 3. Colic, constipation, and other bowel complaints. 4. Ailments of dairy cows — milk fever, impaction, udder complaints. ^ Contagious diseases of stock — abortion, blackleg, tuberculosis, anthrax, pleuro pneumonia, &c. -6. Ailments of swine, or ailments of sheep. 7. Unsoundness in horses (lantern). :8. Principles of stock breeding — stud horses. Sheep Breeding and Management. 1. The breeding of sheep for wool. 2. Australian and British breeds of sheep. .3. Crossbred ewes v. merinos. 4. Raising fat lambs (whitefaced v. blackfaced breeds). 5. ^Management of flocks. Dairy Farming. 1. Breeding and management. 2. Dairy buildings. 3. Dairy management. 4. Milk and cream testing. 5. Foods and feeding. 6. Pig breeding, feeding, and management. Poultry Breeding and Management. r. The poultry industry : its importance. Locality — suitability or otherwise. 2. Housing (construction of, materials, insect proof, aspect, &c.). How to select stock. 3. Breeds : payable or otherwise, eggs and table. Breeds adapted for export — modes of crossing. 4. Turkeys : their care and management. Chicken raising and care. 5. Foods and feeding demonstrated. S. Common ailments of pouUry. Incubation — natural and artificial. Orchard and Garden Work. 1. Fruit growing — Varieties suitable to the different localities, soils and sites. 2. Preparation of land — Planting and pruning. 3. Cultivation — Manuring and management. 4. Insect pests and fungus diseases and their treatment. lo Mar.. 1911.] A//S7ccrs io Corresfondciits. 215, Viticulture. 1. Phylloxera and re.sistant stocks — Preparation of land. 2. Propagation and grafting — Best \arieties to grow. 3. Pruning and seasonable operations. 4. Wine-making and cellar management. 5. Drying raisins, sultanas ami currant.s — Packing fresh grapes for export. 7. Vine di-seases and treatment. Potato Culture. I. The soil and its cultivation — Care of the growing crop, manures. 3. Seed and its selection — Keeping of seed potatoes. 3. Diseases and their treatment. Subjects and Staff. Principles of Agriculture — Special Agricultural Lecturer: Mr. Temple- Smith. Veterinary Science, Stock Management, Dairy Sanitation and Educa- tion— Messrs. Robertson, Kendall, Griffin, Strong, Cother, and Johnstone. Special Veterinary Lecturer — Mr. C. D. Strong, G.M.V.C. Dairying Industry and Export Trade — Messrs. Crowe, Archer, and Carroll. Orchard and Garden Work — Messrs. Carmody and Pescott. Sheep Breeding and Management — Mr. H. W. Ham. Viticulture — Mr. F. de Castella. Flax Culture and Demonstrations at Shows — Mr. Knight and staff. Poultry Breeding and Management — Mr. H. V. Hawkins. Poultry Dressing Demonstrations — Mr. A. Hart. Potato Culture — Mr. G. Seymour. Tobacco Culture — Mr. Temple Smith. Pig Breeding and Management — Mr. W. Smith. Fruit Industries — Mr. J. G. Turner. Insect Pests — Mr. C. French. Junr. Plant Disea.ses — Mr. D. McAlpine. Irrigation — Expert of State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Depiitment has heon orj^aiiized to a lar^e extent for the purpose of fjiving iiiformatioir- to'farniers. Questions in every branch of a^ri( ultnre are ;,'.a(ll.v answered. Write a sliort letter, jriving as full particulars as possitile, of vour local comlitinns, and state jirecisel.N what it is that > ou want to know. All inquiricB forwarded to the Editor must be accompanied by the name and address' ol the writer. This is very necessary, as sometimes insutticient information is furnished liy the incpiirer. Death of \'oiNr. Pigs. — B.G.F. inijuires as to likely cause of de.ith of younp; pigs. He states that two litters did splendidly for the first week, and then got the scours, all (15) dying within two or three days. Answer. — Keej) the sties and feeding utensils scruindoiislv clean, and see that the sows are not fed on anything likely to cause intestinal derangenient. Young pigs are very susceptible to insanii,ir\- cfinditinns, inducing a form of ptomaine poisoning. Pro Lick. — C.f.M. inipiires as to best method of ricjding pigs of lice. Answer. — Washing with a solution of washing soda and afterwards ai)])lying an oil with a brusli is an effective way of destroving them. This should be repeated at weeklv intervals. Another effective dressing is a shampoo made by mixing a haif- poimd of powdered Stavesacre seeds, i lb. of soft soap, and one gallon of water. Allow it to simmer gently over a slow fire tmlil the (piantify is reduced to half-a^ gallon ; and when cool apply as a shampoo. 214 ]our)ial of Agriculture . Yictoria. [lo Mar., 191 1. KiDXEY Worms ix Pigs. — M.W. asks how to treat pigs suffering from kidney worms. Answer. — Give the following: — Oil of turpentine, 2 drachms; raw linseed ■oil, 2 ounces. FiSTCLA. — L.B. states that a mare of his has a swelling on the rump, about 2 inches from the fundament. It first appeared as a soft swelling which, after being fomented, discharged a thick slaty-coloured fluid; a channel in the wound leading up to within an inch of the bone of the base of the tail. After a while the discharge ceased and the wound healed, but a small hard core appeared under the skin. It has broken out higher up, and the hardness is increasing in size. Answer. — The swelling is probablv the result of an injury to the bone, causing the formation of a fistula. A surgical operation to remove the diseased bone will be necessary. In the meantime, open swelling and syringe with a corrosive sublimate solution — one part of sublimate to 500 parts of water. Indigestiox. — W.M.W. writes that a 3-year old filly is, he thinks, suffering from worms or bots. She is fat, bright in coat, and looks well, but about every three ■days she lies down and gets up, seems very uneasy, and stands with head straight out, lips drawn back, ears set back, and tail constantly moving. After an hour or two «he gets right and feeds quietlv. Answer. — ^The filly's behaviour is probably caused by some digestive trouble. You are advised lo administer the following drench : — Oil of turpentine, i ounce; raw linseed oil, i pint ; being careful that none of it is allowed to enter the lungs. Lower the head on coughing or slightest sign of difficultv in breathing. Stomach Worms. — F.S. states that a mare, stinted about two months, is suffering from woims and is losing condition. He asks whether it would be safe to give her a drench. Answer. — You do not state what kind of drench vou intend to give, but one of linseed oil, i pint, and turpentine, i oz., would not be injurious. Blixdxess (Mare). — W.R.N, states that a 7-year old mare has gone blind in both eyes. There is a slight swelling around the eyes and a lot of watery discharge. The mare is being kept in a darkened stable, with a bandage over her eyes during the daytime. Answer. — Ophthalmia is evidentlv the aft'ection possibly caused bv foreign bodies, such as grass seeds, in the eye. If so, remove, and use the following lotion, dropping 3 or 4 drops into the eye three times a day : — Sulphate of zinc, 2 grains; tincture of opium, 20 drops; water, i ounce. Keep the animal in a dark box and a bandage over the eyes kept wet all dav with a lotion of boracic acid. Illness after Calving. — W\M.A. writes : — " I have a cow (on her third calf) which gave 4 gallons for the first two weeks after calvinfr. She then began to lose her appetite, refused skim milk, and eats little grass or hand feed ; has got into low condition, seems dull, and now gives but i^ gallons." Answer. — Your cow probably did not " clean " after calving. The absorption from contained material would account for her present condition. If there is any discharge or uncleanness about the bearing, svringe well with i per cent. Lysol solution and give the following drench : — Epsom salts, i lb. ; treacle, i lb. ; ground ginger, ^ oz. ; sulphur, i oz. ; in quart of water. Follow with 5 oz. of ginger and 5 oz. of Gentian in a bottle of warm beer which mav be given every day. The milk should not be used until recovery takes place. Retention of Foal. — P. J. P. gives particulars regarding a pony mare which was served 14 months prior to writing. The udder is small, but filled with a watery fluid (sample forwarded) ; a lump exists between the udder and the navel which is hard, the milk "vein" is prominent, with a few dry flakes of skin leaving it. It has the appearance of an old outbreak of large pimples. The vagina contains a small discharge of white liquid. The conclusion arrived at is that it is abortion or that the foal is dead and still retained. Answer. — It is possible the foal is dead and retained; though, with a careful examination, vou should be able to definitely ascertain this. The theory of abortion is also feasible. There has evidentlv been a mild mammitis, as shown by the sample forwarded. Stripping the udder and rubbing with camphorated oil should correct this. Possibly the swelling in front of udder will develop into an abscess, and require lancing and syringing out. Should the foal be retained, the services of a veterinary surgeon should be obtained. Teat Dilation. — A.L.O. asks whether there is a method of making a stiff milker easy. He has a 2-vear old heifer, which promises to be a very good cow, but is very hard to milk. Answer. — There is no infallible way of doing so. The instrument known as A Teat-dilator may be of service, but its use by the layman cannot be commended. .A simpler method would be to massage with castor oil, which, at times, is efficacious. lo Mar., 191 1-] Ajiswcrs to Correspondents. 215 Blindness (Sheep).— J.R.C. and J.M.C. state some of their sheep are getting tlind, a film coming over the eyes. Answer. — The most eommon cause of this condition of blindness at this time of the year is the entrance of grass seeds into the eyes which pass well under the lid, and have to be carefully searched for and removed. The resulting inflammation is best treated bv washing with boracic acid lotion, and dronping a few drops of the following into the eye twice a day or as frequently as the number affected will allow: — Boric acid, 4 grains; tincture of opium, 20 minims; sulphate of zinc, i grain; water, i oz. Specific Ophthalmia may also be considered, but similar treat- ment is effective. Sheep and Cattle Lick. — W.T.C., whose land is almost wholly granite-sand country, asks whether it is advisable to mix lime with salt as a sheep lick. Answer. — A sheep and cattle lick composed of lime, 6 lbs. ; superphosphate, '6 lbs. ; and salt, ^ cwt. ; is a suitable one for the country described. Poultry — Table Breeds. — G.T. inquires re best breeds of fowls to select for crossing for table purposes. Answer. — The following breeds are suitable for local and export trade : — Dorking and Game cross, Buff or White Orpington and Game cross, Wvandotte and Dorking cross ; or Faverolles, Black Orpingtons or any of those mentioned bred pure. Feeding for Egg Production. — H.H.H. asks what would be the proportion ■of protein, &c., in a perfect food for laying hens. Answer. — In feeding hens for egg production they require a narrower ration than other farm animals, i.e., i of protein to 5 of carbo-hydrates, &c. Roughly speaking, this is e(|ual to i oz. animal food and ig ozs. pollard and bran, with one-third of the bulk made up of lucerne chaff. The feeding to each bird of about 2^ ozs. each morning and i^ ozs. of grain each night — equal parts wheat and short white oats — is recommended. Castration of Ram Lambs. — J.R.C. asks whether lambs bred for export should be castrated. Answer. — The younger they are when thev are operated on the less it will check them. If they are not castrated, the fact of the testicles being in could be used against you with a view to lowering the price of the lambs. Again, during some seasons, even providing you do your best, there will be rejects — they must then be castrated with, perhaps, some losses. " Nitro-Bacterine." — C.A.H. desires information as to effect of treating iucerne seed with " Nitro-Bacterine '' and similar cult^ires. Answer. — The use of these preparations for inoculating lucerne is not recom- mended, except under very unusual circumstances. Most Australian soils suitable for growing lucerne already contain a sufficiency of the bacteria required, and experiments at Buniley carried out by the Deinirtment have shown that, in such cases, the treatment of the seed with bacterium cultures, if anything, tends to decrease the yield. Where lucerne refuses to grow, it should be made sure that this is not due to bad drainage, a deficiency of lime, or the presence of injurious materials in the soil. If it is due to the absence of the requisite bacteria, fliese are ■best added by sprinkling over the ground soil freshly removed from old lucerne fields. A cart load of such soil, say at los., will add at least a thousand times as many suitable bacteria to the soil as an ordinary imported culture at the same price. In addition, the bacteria developed in cultures seem to disappear rapidly in the soil if it is at all unsuitable for them. Codlin Moth. — W.J.E. asks if one can till wlutlicr Codlin Moih is prevalent in an orchard. Answer. — ^The eggs of the Codlin moth can be seen on fruit or leaves. If hatched, the presence of the grubs becomes evident througii the excreta expelled from the tunnel made in the fruit. Slaters. — W.J.I], inquires re treatment of posts which are being eaten bv slaters. Answer. — Paint posts with arsenate of lead and wliiting paste — i lb. of arsenate of lead to 9 lbs. of whiting, made up into a paste with water. Spray Pump. — W.J.K'. writes : — " I have a spray pump that works in a bucket. How should it be cleaned? Should it be oiled? 1 once screwed the top off and ■took out the jiiston. When I put it back I am afraid that I injured the leather portion, for much of the spray mixture works over it now." Answer. — It is impossible to say how your pump should be cleaned without an examination. Fns< nw all the parts that you can and use strong washing soda wash, tlien oil or use vaseline. It recpiires a new leather washer. 2i6 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Mar.,. 1911^ TarriN'G. — A.S.O. asks for particulars as to correct mixing, and condition of" tar, to make a suitable paint for yards, so as to avoid melting, sticking, or flaking. He also asks for quantities of tar and pitch for making a mixture that will not melt with heat. Aiiswer. — The tar should be brought to the boil and applied hot. The mate- rial which is to be coatetl should also be as hot as possible and perfectly dry; therefore a hot day should be chosen for the work. Two pounds weight of pitch to ten gallons of tar makes a good mixture. Cleansing Underground Tank. — W.J.E. states that last season the water in his cement underground tank became foiil — the cow would hardly drink it. It is^- covered loosely with boards. Answer. — Waters collected and stored in underground tanks, more especially those conducted from roofs, are very liable to become foul through decomposition- of organic matter which is washed into the tank by the water. The tank should therefore be thoroughly cleansed periodically by washing, preferably with lime water. If possible, the tank should be left uncovered. Restoring Fertility to Soil. — V.W. writes : — "Some two years ago flood waters from the surroundings of the local cyanide and metallurgical works went over some of the flats, and now the crops will not grow on the portions affected. Can you state a method of restoring fertility?" Answer.- — If deleterious matter had been deposited on the land from the source mentioned, it would, by this time, have leached out by the action of raia and drainage. An analysis of the soil would be necessary to reveal the cause of the trouble. A leaflet stating how samples of soil should be gathered for chemical analysis may be obtained on application to the Secretary for Agriculture, Mel- bourne. I'rea'ention of Swarming. — D.E. asks how to prevent bees from swarming. He is keeping the queen in the top super with the excluder so as to j^revent her fiom:- coming down. Ansiver. — Confining the queen bee to a.i upper storey lo jjrevent swarming has some serious drawbacks. Even when full sheets of foundation have been used in^ the frames, there are always some drone cells on brood combs ; and, when an ex- cluder is inserted below the brood, the drones which are nearest cannot get out of the hive. They get stuck in the excluder, die there, and block the passage way for the workers. If an opening is made, so that they can fly from the upper storev, the c[ueen can also escape if inclined to swarm. Also, worker bees will strip most of the pollen off their legs when getting through the excluder. Bees will not, as a- rule, store honey below brood ; and, when the brood in the lower chamber has hatched out after the queen is put in the super, 'the lower combs will be neglected. Rapid Granulation of Honey. — D.E. states that he is having difiiculty with- the honey. As soon as it is robbed it becomes frozen. Answer. — The rapid granidation of the honey is due to its composition. Of the two principal comj)onents of honey, dextrose and levulose, the former when predominating causes the candying or granulation. Heating the honey to i6o- degrees (Fahr.), by standing the tins in water over a fire, will reliquify it. There should be a space of at least half-an-inch between the bottom of the honey tin and' the vessel containing the water; on no account should 160 degrees be exceeded, otherwise the honey will be spoilt. Life of Queen Bee. — D.E. inquires as to life of (|ueen bee. Ansiver. — The life of a queen Isee is from Lwo to three years. An old queem is replaced with a young one by the workers when she begins to fail ; that is, when the eggs contained in her ovaries are nearly all laid. When bees are in a state of Nature the laving of the queen is restricted to the combs built by the workers, and she may therefore last four years. Loss of Bees. — I.J.B states that several of his hives which have not been robbed for twelve months are quite empty and all of the bees have perished. .AnsTver. — Without fuller information it is not possible to say what caused' the loss of the bees. They may have succumbed to disease, or lost their queen, swarmed and absconded, or' died of starvation. Which of these wms the cause could' onl)' be determined by an inspection of the hives. Text-Books on Apiculture. — I.J.B. asks for the names of text-books en- apiculture. Answer. — The best standard work on bees is Roofs .A. B.C. of Bee Culture. Price (including postage), 7s. There is a smaller book which may answer your re- quirements : The Anstrala.nan Bee Manual, bv J. Hopkins. Price (with postage). 2S. 8d. Both books are obtainable at Messrs. W. J. ..l' F. Barnes, Albert-street, East Melbourne, and also from leading booksellers. REMIKDERS fOR flPRIk LIVE STOCK. Horses : — Those stabled should be fed liberally. Food of a more stimulating nature can now be given to get them well over the " changing coat " season. Those doing fast or heavy work should be clipped ; if not wholly, then trace high. The legs should not be clipped. Those not rugged on coming into the stable at night sweating freely should be wiped dowii and in half-an-hour's time rugged or covered with bags until the coat is dry. Weaned foals should have a little crushed oats daily, if available. Cattle :■ — As the nights become colder the dairy cows should be rugged. The rugs should be removed in day-time when the shade temperature reaches 60 degi-ees. If new gi-ass is plentiful, give a ration of hay or straw, whole or chaffed, to comiteraet the purging effects of young grass. Cows may now be spayed. Pigs : — Sows not already served should be put to the boar. Supply all pigs with plenty of bedding, and see that sties are warm and well ventilated. Supply sows liberally with grain. Castrate young boars. Sheep: — Where early lambs are being bred for local markets, transfer ewes and lambs to best pasture as soon as dropped. Castrate ram lambs when a few days old ; defer tailing them until the ewe lambs are ready. After first rain (when dust is settled) clear wool from the eyes of young merino sheep; whilst yard d put weak weaners in hospital jiaddock, and any unprofitable woolled sheep in fattening paddock. Poultry : — Do not feed much grain this month — soft food aids moult ; add a tea«poonful of linseed to each bird's ration once daily. The more exercise the hens get the better they moult. Remove all male birds from [)ens. Add Douglas mixture to drinking water. Keep a sh\rp look-out for chicken pox. CULTIVATION. Faum : — Dig ])otatoes as they mature. Cart out and spread stable manure. Pre})are and plough land for main cereal crops. Sow Chou Moellier seed in beds for transjilanting. Sow the following mixture per acre for green feed during the winter months for the dairy herd : — 1| bushels, New Zealand Black Oats ; J bushel. Cape Barley ; \ bushel. Tick Beans ; A- bushel. Vetches. Sow Giant Drundiead Cabbage for transplanting (1 lb. sufficient for I acre, in rows 3 feet apart) ; provided the soil is in good friable condition, plants from seed sown last month should be jilanted out. Sow wheat and oats according to locality ; also ra|)e for winter feed or green manuring. Prepare clean seed-bed for lucerne; and sow Hunter Rivei-, Arabian, Turkestan, or Peruvian seed, free from dodder, in thills 7 inches ajjart and at the rate of 10 Ut.s. of seed per acre. Sow permanent pastures with grasies ai:d clovers. Orchard : — Prejjare land for planting; ))lough decjjly and sub-soil plant legumes for green manure. Plant out strawberries. Clean u]) Codlin Moth from trees as soon as all fruit is gatL..ed. Fl(jwer Garden: — Plant out evergreen shrubs, trees, and .Vustralian plants, divisions of herbaceous plants, seedlings, Kvyers, and rooted cuttings. Fccil chiysantlicnuims with li(|iiitl manure weekly until (lowers begin to open. Prepare land for future plantings of roses and shrubs. Vecetable (Jardex: — Plant out seedlings fron\ the seed beds. Dig all vacant spaces roughly. Sow onions for early cro|i ; also peas and broad beans. Clean out asjiaragus l)eds wherever the seeds are ri|K'ning. Vinkyard : — \'intage operations occupy the greater part of .Vpril. See last months notes. Ccltnrs. — Cleanliness is emphatically urgiil. Carefully remove all fermentable refuse — skins. If -!. skimmings, &c. Such odds and eiuls favour multiplication of vinegar Hies (DroDophilii fitinftri/i). It present, destroy these with formalin or insecticide ]K)wder8. A little bisulphite or sulphurous acid in washing water is recommendi-d ; also free use of lime on floors, &c. AQFieultaral Edaeation in Vietoria. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. H. PYE, Principal. The College offers every i'acilit_y to students to become competent agriculturists, vigneions, and dairymen. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the plougliing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle, 50 horses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — £32 5s. per annum, payable half-j-early. Session begins 13th March. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. G. A. SINCLAIR, Principal. One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demon- strating M'hat can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vineyard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees— Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum, payable half- yearly. Session begins 13th March. BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE. E. E. PESCOTT, Principal. The School Course includes regular lectures in Agricultural and Horticultural Science, Poultry Management, and kindred subjects. Fee — £5 per annum. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 191 1. At least thirty students, exclusive of school children, must be enrolled at each centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid by the Agricultural Society under whose auspices the Class is held. As only a limited number of classes can be held during the year, it is essential that Agricultural or otlier Societies should make early application prior to 1st April. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 191 1. Agricultural or other Societies wishing to have public lectures delivered are requested to make application prior to 1st April. The hall, advertising, &c., must be provided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Department. Staff— The Director (Dr. S. S. Cameron), and Messrs. Archer, Carmody, CarioU, de Castella, Cother, Crowe, French Jr., (Triflin, Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Johnstone, Kendall, Knight, McAlpine, Pescott, Robertson, Seymour, T. A. J. Smith, W. Smith, Strong, Turner, and Expert of the State Rivers and Water Sup|)ly Commission. Applications relative to tlie above Institutions and Lectures sliould be sent to tlie Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. On receipt of Post Card a copy of the Prospectus of either Colleg-e will be posted. Vol. IX. CERTIFICATION OF STALLIONS. Part 4. (Keifistered at thp Oeneral Post Office, Melbonr it, lor transnusiion nv Post as a Newspaptr.l A PRESENT DAY SHIRE STALLION. PRICF THREEPENCE. lAnniinl Suhsiirintinn- Vir.tnria. Intnr-StRtfi. anri N Z.. 3- P>rilm>i nn' foreign. 5/-.) THIi; JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .1. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— APRIL, 1911 Irrigation — Watering Bees and the Fertilization of Fruit Blossoms Tobacco Culture — Curing, Stripping and Classing, Bulking down Rain Trees Wine Industry in Southern France — Methods of I'runing Field-Crafting at the Viticultural College ... The Mallee Field Experiments witli Wlieat Diseases Improvement of Cereals — Some Suggestions for Farmers 'Government Certification of Stallions — Fourth Annual Report, Season 1910-11 ... W. Regulations Governing Examination Notice to Secretaries of Agricultural Societies ... List of Stallions Certificated during Season 1910-1 1 Time Table, Stallion Parades, 1911 Burnley Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 ... Orchard and Garden Notes A Pi'olific Plum ... Aiiswei-s to Correspondents ■Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates Publications issued l)y the Department of Agriculture Reminders for May Agricultural Education in Victoria — I Vjokie Agricultural College Longerenong Agricultural College Burnley School of Horticulture Agricultural Classes, 191 1 Lectures on Agricultural Subjects, 1911 a. H. Tolhy F. R. Beuhne 7'. A. ./. SSmith A. J. Ewart F. clc Casfrlla G. H. Adcock J. M. B. Covnor J. V. J-'ridham ... H. Pye A. N. Kohcrlson H. I E. '. Uaiohins E. Pescott P. J Carmody inside front iu-^ide.frovt inside hack hack hack hack back hack PAOIB. 217 224 228 2.34 2.36 242 24S 250 256 260 •266 270 271 280 283 288 290 294 cover coiier cover cover cover cover cover cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to repubiish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and author are ■both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, whieli is payable in advance -and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number^ of the i.ssues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; III. ( 1 905), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 1905), out of print ; IV. ( 1 906), 1 1 parts, exclusive of Part 7 (July, 1906), out of print ; V. (1907), and VL (1908), 12 parts each ; VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print ; and VIII. (1910), 12 parts, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. The parts forming the current volume may also be obtained. A iewliound copies of Volumes VI. (1908), and VII. (1909) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume ; postage. Is. 4d. additional. Subscriptions should Ije forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Applications to be accompanied by Postal Note covering Price and Postage. Journal of the Department of Agriculture. 3d. per month, 3.s. per annum. Post free Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts I., II., III., and IV. By C. French. Postage— Parts I. and II., 4d. each; Parts III. and IV., 5d. each. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 3d Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. By D. McAlpine. 2s. Postage, 4d. Rusts of Australia, By D. McAlpine. 5s. Postage, 8d. Smuts of Australia. By D. McAlpine. 4s. Postage, 9d. •Systematic Arrangement of Australian Fungi. By D. McAlpine Australian Fungi. By Dr. Cooke. £1 Is. Postage, 8d. Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. 2s. 6d. Postage, 5d. Plants Indigenous to Victoria. Vol. II. By A. J Year Book of Agricuityre for 1905. Cloth, 3s. 6d 9d. ; paper, 8d. Milk Charts (Monthly and Weekly). 6d. per "Monthly" or "Weekly." Plan and Specification of Sheep-shearing Shed. 2s. 6d. 2s. 6d. each. 6d. Ewart. ; paper. 10s. 2s. 3s. Postage, 8d. By A. J. Ewart. Postage, 9d. 6d. Postage— Cloth, dozen. When ordering, mention Postage, Id, THe JOUHNAIs OP ^f[Q department of NEW V'w BOTAM ure OF VICTORIA. Vol. IX. Part 4. lOth April, 1911. IRRIGATION. {Continued from -page 125.) G. H. Tolley, Manager, Wyuna Irrigatiioii Farm. Watering. It will be pertinent now to consider methods of laying out paddocks to secure effective watering. The simplest and easiest form of watering is by means of furrows, and is chiefly used for orchards, but the fol- fowing remarks will apply equal I \- to any case of furrow irrigation. In newly-planted orchards, a fur- row on either side of and close to the trees is made with a light orchard plough such as an " Oliver No. ix " or " Planrt Junior"; connections to the out- ^- '■ ^'^^^'-^ plough. let boxes being made with a shovel. In the early stages, a small supply of water will suffice, and the furrows may be connected to the head ditch as in No. 67,. Later on, when the trees are I ^eu^ D/Tch well grown, an outlet to each furrow may bf» ."T| P necessarv. Should any one furrow be receiving (^-f^\\ /0'''''*T^ '•^^^ much or too little water, remedy it by steadving the full furrow with a clod of earth or a huiirh of weeds ; a little practice will soon result in a fairly even flow in all the furrows. As the water gets towards the ends of the fur- rows, steady it at the inlet i^pe so that a profur saturation may be .secured without flooding the lower end of the ]iaddock. Tt will be noticcfl that a good inanv clods lie along the frrrows . and their presence serves generallv to assist saturation, especiallv in .soils with low seepage qualities such as clayey loams. In such .soils it is prefer.ii>lt^ to the watering slowly; that is, with half the allotted (|uantitv of water. •^•l•.^,. ' I ^ 63. FURROW IRKIG.ATl JN. 2l8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1911. keeping it flowing for forty-eight liours, wliereas in sanely soils the full quantity would complete the work in twenty-four liours or k-ss. A good method of ascertaining the percohition (jualities of soils is to sink a series of holes varying from 6 inches to 18 inches or more at short distances apart and fill them with water. The deptli of the holes will be governed by the ^^„^rrrrrr, character of the soil and subsoil, and the time taken for the water to disappear will serve as a guide. After filling with water, cover the ■^~ frrrrrTTr-rrrTrrrn- ^ rrrrmr-rrrTTrn 64. TESTING SOIL FOR PERCOL \Tiox. holes to reduce evaporation losses, in the majority of cases of Goulburn "\'alley land, a 6-inch hole would just reach or slightly penetrate the subsoil and a good idea will be given of the adaptability of the surface soil for irrigation, while the deeper holes will similarly test the subsoil. The extremes of absorption will necessarily lie between clay and sand, Ijut it has yet to be determined where, within those limits, the medial lint* shall t:)e fixed. ^^'here other physical conditions obtain, such as in the sand ridges of the Mallee, the holes will of course be made deeper and each par- ticular district will have its separate co-efficient. As irrigation is practi-sed in the warm months of the season, experiments should be made in similar conditions. If made after satura- tion by rain or irrigation they will be valueless. Another point that has yet to be investigated is the effect on irrigated soils of continuous watering. Analy.ses should be systemadcally undertaken at varying intervals between suc- cessive waterings to determine the extent and duration of saturation, and, if synchronous analvses are made of un- irrigated soils, reliable data for future guidance will be obtained and standardization will be possible. It may be of interest to some to point out some easy and inexpensive means bv which lower strata may be investigated. Apart from analytical value, a readv means will be furnished of fixing sites for dams, tanks. foun■ ,L 1 ^ r ^U 111- ''■'•gct>on d,str,butory Channels tloodmg the lower end of the paddock, ui Pnvnogt i^n^ the absence of any provision for drainage, it is good practice to establish a lucerne plot there to take the overflow. Drainage is the inseparable corollary of irrigation, and too frequentlv little or no attention is paid to it either by the State or the individual. It is as important to get water oflF land as on it, and though it mav be costly it must Ije faced sooner or later, or much valuable land will be ruined along with the owner. The Goulburn V^alley lends itself admirablv to effective drainage, being intersected at frequent intervals by drv wat<-rcour>-es. mr,stly trending in a north- westerly direction towards the rivers. At Mil dura, there is no surji favourable condi- tion, and resort is had to undergrounfl tile drains, lead- ing exentually to wells sunk to pt-rmeable strata. Some further remarks on drainage will appear later. A good illustration of the meaning of effective drainage is afforded bv thr .ucomiiany- ing drawing (•o[)itd from the Kuc vclopadia Britannic a (No. 67). I "he left jjortion of tlif diagram shows irrigation properly com- bined with (hainage, whilst th< right is laid out regardless of drainage required later. Great care is necessary in w.iidiing tlie effects nf water for successive years and endeavouring to prevei,t a state of saturation ; it i"an much more easily l)e achieved than .ivoided. and once acliieved it is no child's play I 2 68. ORCHARD CULTIVATOR. 220 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 i. to correct it. After watering, and as soon as the land will bear a horse, close the furrows in with an orchard cultivator, and stir the whole surface of the orchard lightly, assuming it to be free of weeds and trash. Use the hoe freely round the trees, but not severely, especially with citrus trees, Ihe roots of which are close to the surface. Be careful when watering not to allow water to come into contact with the stems of the trees ; if the soil around them is kept well stirred, the water from the furrows will soak all through the roots. Contact with the stem is a frequent cause of disease and death. As the trees grow larger, the furrows are kept further away in order to avoid injuring roots and growing limbs witli the implements and horses. The number of irrigations during the growing period depends very much on the character of the season, but intervals of from four to six weeks may be taken as a general average. As one — — ."^^^"^ 1 r°--- becomes familiar with the growth and habit of ! • I • *<-^Trve trees, he will be able to tell at a glance by their ' ' appearance whether or not water is required, and 69. WATERING TREES. ^^^\^q^~^ g^ch indications are present no time should be lost. It is essential in setting out an orchard that the various kinds of trees be kept separate; some reqtire water more frequently than and at different periods to others, and market requirements are more easily met. Should the soil be at all stiff it will take some time for water to seep from furrow to furrow, a condition which should be aimed at and which is a good indication of effective watering. To assist in attaining that condition it is a good plan to connect the furrows transversely at the tree, as shown by dotted lines in No. 69. This may be done with a hoe or shovel, or transverse furrows may be ploughed out before ploughing irrigating furrows. There is some difference of opinion amongst orchardists as to whether the furrows should be ploughed to or from the tree ; I almost invariably practice the latter. Should the soil of an orchard be very dry it is a good plan to introduce extra furrows between the irrigating furrows as in No. 70. It must be borne in mind that, unless thorough cultivation follows immediately upon a watering, the latter might almost as well have been let alone. Constant and thorough cultivation will result in less irrigation being required, a considera- tion that will appeal to those who have to pay for sach separate watering, while at the same time the trees will be kept in a far better condition of growth, in which state they are better able to resist disease. Where an orchard is of such length that furrows are required to carry water long distances, those trees nearest the head ditch will be over-soaked, while tho.se at the further end may go short. It is a good plan to introduce secondary head- ditches, which may be tem- porary or permanent, and it will be found that watering is expedited and is more effective. The following plan (No. 71) will give a general idea of the proposal; modifications to suit individual conditions will soon suggest themselves. Dots represent trees, furrows for irrigation being shown on either side of them. There are three head ditches deriving their water from a supply ditch which must be fitted at A, B and C with .some kind of Heoc/ Difch Vf. t 70. FURROW IRRKIATION. EXTRA FURROWS. lo April, 1911.] Irrigation. regulators. These ditches will be spaced to suit particular cases, but from 5 to 8 chains may be taken as a guide Arrows show the direc- tion of flow of water. When regulating the water, provision should be made for allowing surplus water (if any) from the furrows fed by the head ditch at A to escape into the ditch at B, and similarly from B to C and from C to the lucerne or whatever else may be there planted. In the absence of lucerne, a waste ditch should be provided, but experience will result in waste being reduced to a minimum. Accidents will happen, especially during the night, when, even if one stays up all the time, breaks in ditches are often not seen immediately. Once water is turned in for irrigating there should be no stopping until the field is finished. There are, unfor- tunately, quite a few irrigators who strain every nerve to avoid night water- ing, when, as a matter of fact, water- ing is more effectually done then than by day. No excuse for such a practice is permissible. The hardship ( ?) is not very great in the case of an orchard which will probably be irrigated four, or at most, five times in a season, and it saves waste and loss of time conse- quent on having to run water again over the previously wetted area. It is good practice to somewhat reduce the supply from the main channel during the night, when flushes are likely to occur without being immediately noticed. The experience gained in watering an orchard a few times will enable an irri- gator to so regulate his supply that he can turn in without any anxiety, or, at the worst, lose but very little sleep. Irrigating is an art, and practice alone will acquire it. In farming districts, water is mostly used to flood pastures, areas for plough- ing, or summer crops. The preparation for this in respect of head ditches, outlets, &c., is similar to that described for orchard work, and the practice is alike except that there are no furrows. Assum- ing the land to be satisfactorily graded, all tha remains to be done is to so regulate the flow from the outlets that an even film of water may spread over the surface. The duration of flow will be governed mainly by the profile of the land, and the chnractt-r and condition of the soil. It should be borne in mind that slow watering is essential on steep slopes, and fast watering on sandy soils and flat surfaces ; great care should be taken that water is not allowed to lodge in places for any length of time, free outlet f)eing given to drainage channels. Where there are no drainage channels it will drpcnd largely on the ski!) of the irrigator to avoid creating swamps. While irrigating, keep the water flowing. Dead water means dead plants, and nothing looks worse than an irrigated paddock studded with bare ]):itrh<'^ or swamps, apart from w;iste of land •which is the serious consideration. •y Tourhr in i8u wlirn li<' fniiiicl Mu-'. Connor, Ai^rtcullural Supcrittt tulcni. For .some time past I have had opportunitif-s of closely inspecting the different portions of the Mallee — our great wheat j)rovincc — and have come to the conclusion that it is not only worth saving, as was so re- peatedly questioned during th.- droughl-strickrn years of 1902-3. when the M4 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1911. farmers were asking the Government to supply seed wheat to carry them on, but that it is one of the richest portions of the State. The general impression existing in the minds of the majority of people living in our large cities is that the Mai lee consists of an uninteresting, lifeless belt of flat sandy country, densely covered with scrub and cursed with droughts, sand and flies. Such an erroneous and harmful impression has been the cause, until quite recently, of this splendid country not receiving the attention it deserved from the agriculturist. Any one visiting the Rainbow country, say, in November, and holding these mistaken ideas, would be agreeably surprised to find large tracts of nicely sheltered, undulating country, waving with tall, luxuriant crops and natural pastures. Having just completed judging the local farm competitions (see January Journal), I have had ample facilities of ascer- taining what can be realized where improved methods of agriculture are adopted. Rainbow is the terminus of the railway line, due north of Dimboola, and is the centre of an extensive and rich agricultural district. HARVESTING LE HUGUENOT WHEAT, MR. J. DART S FARM, RAINBOW. It derived its name from a peculiar formation of raised land, in the shape of a rainbow, which extends for a considerable distance quite close to the town, and known in the early days as the " rainbow " horse pad- dock of the Albacutya sheep station. This portion of the run, some fifteen years ago, was regarded as a desert ; to-day it is successfully growing wheat, and grazing stud sheep and mares. The potentialities of this portion of the Mallee are unlimited. The good seasons that have prevailed during the past five years cannot be reasonably expected to continue without a change, but the Mallee gene- rally can now meet a couple of bad seasons with some degree of equanimity. The large yields of wheat produced in the district last season conclusively proved how valuable the Rainbow district is to the State. It had the proud distinction of having delivered to the local railway station the greatest quantity of wheat, a record to be envied. The following figures convey some idea of the rapid progress brought lo April, 191 1.] The Mallee. 245 about by the introduction of better methods of cultivation, the grazing of sheep and breeding of lambs for export. Bags of Wheat delivered at Rainbow Railway Station. Year. Bags. 1905-6 ... ... ... 91,000 (4 bashel bags) 1906-7 ... ... ... 132,000 (4 bushel bags) 1907-8 ... ... ... §4,000 (4 bushel bags) 1908-9 ... ... ... 286,000 (standard bags, 200 lbs.) 1909-10 •-. ... ... 237,000 (standard bags, 200 lbs.) 1910-11 ... ... ... 257,000 (standard bags, 200 lbs.) The district is certainly a land of great promise. Especially will this be so if the farmers generally will plan ahead, always conserve a ^ood supply of fodder during bounteous seasons, and adopt more modern methods of deeper tillage, early fallowing, and rotation of crops. The grazing of sheep must play a very important part in the future prosperity of all wheat-growing centres. They have already practically demons- HARVE-STING LE HUGUENOT WUK.Al, MR. J. S.ANDERS F.\RM, RAINBOW. trated their great benefit from a financial and manurial point of view wherever kept. During the competition I saw both wheat and oat crops that would more than favourably compare with any crops throughout the State. I also saw a train load of fat lambs, that would grace the best Western District pastures, leave the Rainbow station. During the past five vears the primary indu.'^tries throughout the Mallee have shown remarkable growth and expansion. The result of the great succe.s.ses gained l)y the majority of wheat farmers throughout the Mallee has been to give an impetus to trade, to encourage manu- facturing enterpri.se. and to promote national wealth and prosjierity. Last season's record is one that Victoria mav be pardonably proud of. The value of our primary products amounted to ^27,662,651. In addition, tlie products of manufacture came to ;^i 2,748,654. making a total of ^40.411,305. ^Vheat repre.sented a money value ot .;^ .=1.50 1.605, while wool totalled ^4.044,755. To both of these the Mallee con- tribntfv rutting, before harvesting the crop, for the reason that at harvest time tiie green leaves are often bagged with the wheat when stripped, causing it to heat and often tainting the wheat to 248 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 April, 191 1. such an extent that its market value is greatly reduced. If the first crop, during the growing period, shows rank growth it will be profitable to feed it off with sheep until well into the spring. By this means the new growth of shoots already referred to can be successfully dealt with. The third year's operations are similar in character to the first with the exception that it has been found advisable to put in, bv drilling, the same quantity of seed per acre, but with about 10 lbs. more super- phosphate per acre on the lighter soils and about to lbs. less on the heavier soils. If a good burn has taken place the first year there should now be a large number of roots brought to the surface and ready for removal. This can be done at a cost of from 3d. to 6d. per acre. Instead of burning the roots, they should be carted to the homestead and stacked for future requirements. On some of the farms judged there were hundreds of tons of Malice roots, which will be of great value in a few years' time, for firewood. After the fourth year's cultivation, on similar lines to the second year's, most of the roots have dried and come to the surface, and can be removed at a nominal cost. By the fourth year the land should be cleared sufficiently to plan ahead, and adopt a reliable system of fal- lowing and the introduction of a three years' rotation crop system. The great mistake made in most of the fallowing inspected was that it had been ploughed far too late in the season. Fallowing should be completed early in the year so that the ground will be in a condition to absorb the winter rains. Successful farmers recommend deep and early fallowing for several reasons — it increases the water-holding capa- city of most soils, admits sunlight and air, extends the root-feeding area, and, by conserving the available moisture, enables crops to successfully withstand long stretches of dry weather. Deep ploughing can only be adopted where there is a good depth of soil and where there is no likeli- hood of the subsoil being brought to the surface. Sub.sequent harrowing should be carried out through the fallow season, and more particularly after each rain for the purpose of effecting a shallow earth mulch for the object of conserving the moisture for next year's crop. During the months of April or May, selected, graded and pickled wheat should be disced or drilled in at the rate of 40 lbs. of seed along with 56 lbs. of superphosphate per acre. If a strong growth of wheat comes away early, eat it oft" with young stock or sheep, whichever can be most profitably utilized. After stripping or harvesting, the land should be allowed to be in stubble and pasture for the next eighteen months. Provided the season and rainfall are suitable, rape can be sown on the fallow land after the first autumn rains, at the rate of 4 to 6 lbs. of seed per acre. This could be turned to profitable account by grazing sheep, and at the same time help to manure the land and improve its mechanical and physical condition. By utilizing the fallow in this pro- fitable manner, the farmer is increasing the carrying capacity of his farm, and is has been proved by practical results that the heavier the crop of rape, whether it be fed off or ploughed in, the heavier is the succeeding crop of grain. Wherever rape is sown it is always a wise precaution to sow I rb. of mustard seed with it to prevent bloating the sheep grazed thereon. The usual system adopted of working a wheat farm of 640 acres is to divide the area into three divisions, leaving 40 acres for the home- stead requirements ; 200 acres are put under crop, 200 acres fallowed and 200 acres in grass, .so that the cereal crop is always sown on fallow land. Under this system, the VVimmera farmer generally takes two grain crops off the bare fallow land, so that the grazing area for the sheep is increased by their ^kl^'ing the 200 acres of stubble to graze on for portion lo April. 19 1 i . TJic Mallet 3237 ^5° Journal of Agriculiure, Ylcioria. [lo April, 1911. of the year and thereby increasnig the profits. As a profitable rotation, this system can be recommended to the consideration of wheat-growers as a means of helping to keep the land clean of weeds, and maintaining .AiAl.l.KE STOCK. its permanent fertility by always having one-third of the farm under crop, one-third under grass after cropping, and one-third bare fallow, on which rape is grown for spring fattening of earlv lamf)s for freezing. FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT DISEASES, 191011. /. T. Pridham. Field Assistatii, Longercnong Agricultural College. In addition to the improvement of wheat by cross-breeding and selec- tion,* some-attention was devoted to the diseases of wheat in so far as they might be observed in the field. From our intercourse with farmers, it is apparent that the heavy toll levied each year by diseases, particularly " Take-all," is not realized. * Experimental Work at Lorr.^eitnoii'r Auiinnltiival College, page 1.">1. March, 1011, Journal. lo April, ipi !•] Field Experimenis wiiJi Wheat Diseases. 251 Take-all. — This disease is overlked altogether in a favourable wheat year, though it occurs to some extent every year. Only when the crops are badly attacked, do farmers become alive to the extent of their loss. The reason is partly that the various forms of the disease are not always recog- nised. In a mild attack, the ears are only slightly discoloured and flat or slab-sided instead of being well filled ; such heads contain only thm pinched grain. Then there is the form of the disease where the ears pro- duce no grain and the chaff stands out from the heads which present a bleached appearance known as " Whiteheads." In the worst cases no heads at all are produced and, in all stages, a blackening of the stalk at the foot is characteristic of the disease. During the second week of December, fifty-one farmers of repute in the Horsham, Pimpinio, Vectis East. Jung, and Murtoa districts were visited with the object of gaining information in regard to the best methods of cultivation. Mr. McAlpine, in his bulletin on Take-all, suggests that preventive measures might be found in a certain method of working the soil. After tabulating the answers to the set of questions propounded to each farmer, we, however, gathered no conclusive evidence that such was the case. Some farmers who cultivated their land thoroughly and others who worked the ground but little had their crops equally badly affected with Take-all. It is generallv found that burning off stubble is beneficial, though the evidence did not show any direct preventive effect from the practice. Wheat after oats was rarely found badly affected ; it dees not pay, however, to fallow for oats — it is more profitable to grow wheat on the fallow land and oats on the stubble. Crop rotation, as Mr. McAlpine recommends, should be carried out; this again is a matter of £, s. d., though the expansion of the lamb-raising industry may render it practicable. At present, straw crops are almost exclusively grown in the Wimmera as the rainfall suits winter sown cereals. Table I. shows the prevalence f)f the disease this season— the paddock was fairly representative of the land under crop in the district. The .seed used was plump and graded but not pickled, as it was known to be clean. Sowing was done by hand, single grains being dropped at every six inches in rows one foot apart; it was thus an easy matter to count the plants. There was no Bunt or Ball-smut in the crop. The Take-all affected plants were found occurring in patches more or less extensive and in all classes of soil. The disease was not confined to badly drained situations, being also found on the high ground. The " par- tially affected " plants product-d some healthy and some diseased ears. It was quite a common thing, when harvesting single selected plants, to find half-a-dozen of the ears pinched and diseased. The "wholly diseased" plants produced no marketable grain. The crossbred seed sown was of the second generation and the most vigorous and healthy class of grain it is possible to obtain ; that of the fixtd varieties had been selected or pedi- greed for two years and was l<'ss vigorous, as the table indicates, than the crossbred seed. Ordinarv grain, not selected or even graded, would no doubt have shown a still lower pi-rct-ntage of healthv plants. Finding that Federation was the varietv most ;ifTected with other diseases, th«' plants which had Loose, Flag and Ball smiit were only counti'il in the case o( that wheat. Take-all (?) in Oats awl Harhv.— \ disease resembling Take-all was noticed as occurring to a limited extent among the varieties of oats .ind barley growing on our plots. Spec imens were forwarded to Mr. McAlpine. who ifound a little Rust on the o.fs and H ehttinthi'^poriuw fungus on l>otii K 1 252 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 April, 191 i. oats and barley, but in our opinion the sickness of the plant was not due to either. The affected plants were found in patches, in all kinds of soil, in both well drained and low lying patches. The oats were sown rather early (the first week in May), and the barleys quite late — on the i8th July. The seed sown was sound, plump, unpickled grain. All stages ot the disease were observed ; the worst affected produced no heads, only a few inches of stalk, blackened at the base. All the sick plants were more or less dis- coloured here and the straw appeared rotten, although the plants were able to produce some heads with sound grain where the attack was mild. The plants were very easily pulled up, the roots breaking off short as if decayed. The soil underneath in such cases contained ample moisture for healthy and full development. Table I. — Prevalence of Take-all. 23-26 27-30 31-34 35-37 38-40 1-2 3-5 6-8 9-11 12-15 16-19 41-43 44-46 47-48 49-50 51-52 53-54 87 88-92 93-96 97-98 99-102 103-106 107-115 116-123 124-130 131-133 134-141 142-144 146-150 151-158 L59-166 Variety. Federation Yaadilla King Take- all: No. of Plants affect- ed. ^ College Purple Straw Cedar X Blount's Lambrigg Cedirx Standard Red Cedar X Red King Cedar X Genoa . . Cedar X John Brown Pigmy X Cedar . . Pratt's Comeback x Wallace Bobs X Wallace . . Jonathan X Bobs Bunyip X Jonathan Florence x Firbank Federation x Jumbuck Federation X John Brown Federation X College Purple Straw Federation X Bobs Federation X Florence Federation X Jade Federation X Yaadilla King 219 208 179 147 175 97 135 153 182 247 206 167 169 112 110 115 115 18 123 j 52 68 21 43 19 146 42 132 34 167-179 180-185 186-193 194-195 196-208 209-222 i Federation X Bunyip 331 244 U8 213 64 103 194 199 353 142 292 58 329 271 520 520 520 520 390 260 390 390 390 520 520 390 390 260 260 260 260 130 650 520 260 520 520 1,170 1,040 910 390 1,040 390 650 1,040 1,040 1,690 780 1,040 260 1,690 1,820 373 365 352 259 289 175 220 240 275 369 338 247 272 188 184 174 177 58 366 284 145 285 285 661 714 497 234 605 235 450 702 592 995 374 732 207 1,142 1,121 Ph 106 100 116 64 72 59 62 65 67 99 108 49 71 57 51 38 43 34 191 195 83 97 119 321 347 199 81 344 160 324 465 348 554 183 363 134 739 765 28-44 27-39 32-95 24-71 24-91 33-71 28-18 27-08 24-36 26-82 31-95 19-83 26-10 30-31 27-71 21-83 24-29 58-62 52-18 68-66 57-24 34-03 41-75 48-56 48-59 40-04 34-61 56-85 68-08 72-00 66-23 58-78 55-67 48-93 49-59 64-73 64-71 68-24 1.28.68 Us- 25-01 Aver- age ofaU CroBS- breds 55-1 Pickling Seed with Formalin. — The usual effect of the formalin treat- ment upon grain seems to be to induce more vigorous germination than where the seed has been sown dry, or without treatment, and much more so than where bluestone is used. This was the case in two out of the three experiments carried out this season. In the first, fifteen small plots were lo April, 19 1 1.] Field Experiments with Wheat Diseases, 253 sown on the 6th May ; five with seed pickled with bluestone, 2 per cent, strength, five with formalin \ per cent, strength, and five were sown with unpickled seed. The soil was dry at sowing time (the experiment was sown with the object of trying the effect of dry conditions on the germination of formalin-pickled grain) but 28 points of rain fell two days later. In this case the unpickled seed showed a more vigorous crop than that treated with formalin, which was no better than the crop from seed pickled with blue- stone. Table II. — Pickling Experiment with Federation Seed. Treatment. — Pickling was done 7th July, 1910. Bunt infected and soaked 1 min. In bluestone, 2% Bunt infected and soaked 1 min. in bluestone and salt, 2 % Bunt infected and soaked 1 min. in bluestone and salt, H % Bunt infected and soaked 1 min. in bluestone and salt, 1 % Bunt infected and soaked 5 mins. in formalin, J % Sown unpickled Clean seed, unpickled P ri ^^ Date ri> a a a « X Sown. °^ "i S^ sS' o S ^ t^ o 3 •^■^ PL,0 p^m Sw 7.7.10 100 75 3 96 ,, „ 79 0 100 ,, „ 82 0 100 86 0 100 ,, ,J 85 0 100 ,, ,, 95 58 39 .. .. 81 0 100 Yield. Ibs.ozs. 0 13i 0 llj 1 0 1 2 1 3J 0 7i 1 0 In the second experiment, however (Table II.), the seed was sown in damp soil, in good condition for germination, and the formalin treated seed gave the best results. Where the seed is stated as being Bunt-infected it was well rubbed in crushed bunt or smut balls before sowing. The plots were harvested on 3rd January. Table III. — Pickling Experiment — Seed Sown in Boxes. Box. Cell. A. Date Sown. No. Seeds Sown. Date Watered. Per cent. Germinated- 1 17th May 200 17th May 99 1 B. ,, 198 „ 76 1 c. 200 94 1 D. 200 . . 77 2 A. 200 17th June 46 2 B. 200 68 2 C. 200 91 2 D. 200 64 3 A. 200 16th July 26* 3 B. 200 ,, 45 3 C. 200 63 3 I). 200 52 4 A. 200 16th August 46 4 B. 200 , . . ... 34 4 C. 200 55 4 D. 200 47 5 A. 200 16th September . . 20 5 B. 200 M 29 5 C. 200 43 5 D. 200 „ 24 * This cell was attacked by mice. A third experiment was carried out under cover, in boxes. Federation wheat was u.scd — a graded piunij), haiul-picked sample. It was sown one inch deep, in shallow boxes, in soil which was quite dry and in good mechanical condition. The boxes were each divided into four cells (A, B, C, and 'D), and each box watered at the times indicated in Tal)le III. What was most noticeable throughout the experiment was that tiie soil in cell C appeared to be less hard and compact in every case than the soil in the other cells. Our method of counting the germinated .seeds was to pluck the see 2. i\usi was aiM) pre.seiii on r i uti.uKjn imu iiie i urpie .■^u.iw \aiiriifs •especially. Adopting a .scale of iiumlH'rs o-ic. and reckoning o as "' riKst- f ree " and lo as " badly rusted on the hiire stalk," the degree of rust on 256 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 April, 191 i. Conclusion. — There appears to be an urgent need for more extended in- vestigation into the diseases of wheat, especially Take-all. This line of work is of more economic importance even than the manuring of the crop and the improvement of varieties by cross-breeding and selection. THE IMPROVEMENT OF CEREALS. Some Suggestions for Farmers. H. Pye, Principal, Dookie Agricultural College. During the last decade or so, scientific plant breeding has begun to be appreciated by the ordinary farmer as something not to be ignored. This appreciation is due to a recognition of the fact that the results of the- work of plant breeding have a not inconsiderable effect on the financial aspect of the farmer's business. Science has produced, and is producing,^ plants suitable for each of the many classes of soils and for the ever- varying climates of the habitable regions of the world. The specialist works under limitations and recognises the fact. The mere fact that his work is usually confined to a circumscribed area con- firms him in the opinion that he needs the assistance of the thoughtful and observant agriculturist. A variety that succeeds in one soil may fail in another, even where climatic influences are similar. Although the work of the specialist may occupy too much of the farmer's time if he were to take it up to any extent, still it is the duty of the latter to develop the yielding and other economic factors of a variety that suits his conditions. He can do this by close attention to selection, grading, and thorough tillage. To a limited extent he may even venture on the work of cross-fertilizing plants, and there is not the least doubt that in the future he will ; for the very sim- plicity of the work, in many instances, will induce the educated, far- seeing farmer to take up the work as a profitable and interesting hobby. How THE Farmer may Improve his Seed Wheat. It is noticeable that in every crop of wheat there are slight individual differences among the plants. The variation may be in the quality of the straw, in the tillering proclivities, in the length of the ripening period, or in the development of the ear and flag respectively. These variations are apparent in every crop, even (though to a more limited extent) in crops produced from pedigreed seed in the production of which every care has been taken. This is also apparent in plants derived from a single mother plant and grown in rows, where the seed is sown several inches apart in order to enable the experimenter to study the individual qualities of each plant. As a rule, the farmer considers prolificacy to be the quality of the greatest importance, and the ear, provided the other economic qualities are present, is his main consideration. He selects from a tried variety those ears in which the number of fertile florets is greatest, and sows the seed from each plant in separate rows, the seed being from four to six inches apart in the row, and the rows one to two feet apart. In order to accumu- late the seed, the rows giving the best yields may be drilled in, but before harvesting he should select several special plants and grow the seed from each in the following season's stud plots. JO April, I9II-] Imfrovement of Cereals. 257 Kr- I Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 r i \, -.^ms,.^ Y^iti^W CROSSBRED WHEATS, DERIVED FROM THE SAME PLANT, SHOWING THE VARIATIONS IN TYPE. At the Dookie Agricultural College the best plant of the stud plot of a commonly grown variety is tested in the single-seed plots every season. Any plants not well developed are thrown out, and the seed from the remaining plants, except the one for next season's seed in the single-seed \\ ;\h ^vJifc'O li, .! PROLIFIC CROSSBRED WHEAT EARS. plots, is drilled in on a well prepared piece of land. This plot is culled' over as much as possible and then harvested. This forms the seed for the third year's plot, after which the seed passes out of the experimental areas on to the farm. Thus there is always an area of highly improved seed lo April, 191 i.] Improvement of Cereals. •59 •coming on tor each season's cropping on the farm. With the one or two varieties the farmer grows it is a simple matter for him to improve the yielding qualities of his crops if he once sees the benefit of it. Xo doubt the training given at the Agricultural Colleges, Agricultural High Schools .and Farmers' Classes will do much towards the coming generation of farmers considering this interesting and profitable work worth while doing. The work should be continuous, as these individual variations are inherent in the varieties, and neglect to continue their selection for se\"eral seasons would result in a marked deterioration. By selecting a number of the best ears from a crop and sowing the ■seed in a separate plot, it is possible to make an improvement in the 3'ields ; but this is not as satisfactory a method as the first. It may happen the fanner sometimes finds a natural sport derived from a self -fertilized plant. In such an instance it may be worth his while developing the new type, which may possibly throw true ; but as a rule any sports found (these are some- uhat rare in wheat) are die to acci- dental cross.-fertilization. The Size of the Plots. The size of the plots would depend •en the time at the disposal of the farmer. 1 might state that the closer the seed is sown in the rows and the nearer the rows to each other the more even and quicker is the ripening of the grain. The outside roris, naturally, unle.ss followed by •other plots, would have more space for root spread, especially if the rows are close together, hence check rows are needed if comparing results of the first and last rows with the •others. If the climatic and other conditions were similar each season, the com- parative yields of the plots of the ditterent seasons' growth would suffice in order to test the imi)ortance of ■selection, grading, and thorough cul- tivation. As the seasons vary it is a i^ROlikic bald branching tvits good plan to sow a few check rows '^^ wheat ears. •of the bidk sample of seed, when it will be found that the selected seed in the course of years gives a much better average yield over that of the xinselected, besides which there is a better check kept on disea.ses attacking the crop. When dealing with selections of the same \ariety and tliere is not suffi- cient time for jjlanting out in the stud plot system, equal weights of selected grain may be planted in drills of equal length and the returns at harvest compared. By this method the noting of the individual fjualities -fjf the different plants cannot be a.scertained to advantage, vet it is better to do this than to make no effort to improve the yield of grain. The farmer may go further than simply improving the yield of a rariety, he may by selection improve those jiractical fjualities as regard.s ■' --"'ij^ ''^>**''*W ^^i iiiMH «i^^^ ^^ ' < ^^^ \ m^w^m' vK.»S ^^P^' i i-1 Wfte 1 26o Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo April, 1911. harvesting that a variety may lack; but it is somewhat more tedious and difficult, and here it is that the advantages of cross-breeding become obvious. Cross-breeding is most important, too, in the production of new varieties possessed of good milling and baking qualities, as by its means great variability is obtained. The farmer should take a few accurate notes of his observations, and keep records of the soil conditions, rainfall, and such other information that may be useful to him in the future. GOVERNMENT CERTIFICATION OF STALLIONS. FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT (SEASON 1910-11) On the Veterinary Examination of Stallions for the Government Certificate of Soundness and Approval. IF. A. N. Robertson, B.V.Sc, Acting Chief Veterinary Officer. The system of examination of stud horses for the Government Certifi- cate of soundness and approval, having been in active operation for a term of four years, has now become so familiar to all interested in horse-breed- ing, that it is unnecessary at this period to refer to the inauguration of the scheme, or to the early stages of the examination as carried out by the veterinary staff of this Department. These matters were fully dealt with in the triennial report issued last year, copies of which may be obtained on application by those to whom the details are not familiar. This report, therefore, refers mainly to the work of the past season. I. — Analysi s of Defects of Stallions Refused Certificates, i 909-10. Draughts. Lights. Ponies. Totals. Defects. No. Examined. 408 No. Certifi- cated. 273 No. Examined. 191 No. Certifi- cated. 147 No. Examined. 152 No. Certifi- cated. 108 No. Examined. 751 No. Certifi- cated. 528 ' No. Rejected. 135 Per cent. Rejected. 33-08 No. Rejected. 44 Per cent. Rejected. 23-04 No. Rejected. 44 Per cent. Rejected. 28-94 No. Rejected. 223 Per cent. Rejected. 29-69 Unsoundness. Sidebone ... Ringbone . . . Spavin (Bone) Bog Spavin & Thoroughpin Curb 84 11 1 20-59 2-69 •24 "3 2 1 6 'i'-57 1-04 -52 3-14 * 1 1 '"'3 •66 •66 1-97 84 15 4 1 9 11-18 1-99 54 -13 1-20 Totals Un- soundness Below stand- ard for ap- proval 96 39 23-52 9-56 12 32 6-27 16-77 5 39 3-29 25^65 113 110 15-04 14-65 Grand totals 135 33-08 , 44 2304 44 28-94 223 29-69 lo April, 1911.] Government Certification of Stallions. 261 It is still early for any distinct improvement to be shown in the sound- ness of the rising generation of stallions as a result of the examinations, especially so seeing that there has been no legislative enactment to prohibit the public use of rejected sires ; but a noticeable feature on an examination of the past season's work, as well as a search of the entries in one and two year old sections at most of the leading shows, has been the dearth of young stallions got by sires rejected during the early years. Whether any claim can be justified that this is a direct result of the examination, time alone will show, but the cordial support given by the bulk of breeders to the certified as against uncertified horses, which has been referred to in previous reports, is possibly bearing fruit and indicates that at least the best mares have not been put to rejected animals. During the past season 137 parades were arranged for and held through- out the country, and 100 of these were carried out within the limited period of seven weeks. This, when the distance that had to be travelled is taken into account, is an indication of the amount of work performed by the three members of the veterinary staff responsible for the major portion of the examinations, in the effort made to complete them before the show season came on. II. — Analysis of Defects of Stallions Refused Certificates, Season 1910-11. Drau 4-hts. Lights. Ponies. Totals. No. fclxaniined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. Defects. .542 387 143 108 128 ini 813 ' 596 No. Per cent. No, Per cent No. Per cent. No. Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. 155 28-58 35 24-61 1 ■21 -Of) 217 26-69 Unsoimdness. Sidebone ... 103 19 00 .«. ... 103 12-66 Ringbone ... 3 •55 3 2-10 i •79 7 •86 Spavin (Bone) 3 210 3 2-34 6 -73 Bog Spavin & Tlioroughpin & Bursal Kn- largements 4 ■74 1 •70 ... 5 -62 Curb 1 •18 7 4 93 3 2-34 11 1-35 Roaring 5 •92 ... ... 5 •63 Shivering ... 1 •18 ... 1 •12 ^"a8al Disease ... 1 •70 1 -12 Totals Un- soundness 117 21-67 ' 15 10-53 7 6-47 139 1709 Bdow stand- ard for ap- 1 proval 38 7 01 20 14 •OS 20 15-62 78 9-60 Grand totals 155 28-58 35 24-61 27 ,21-09 217 26-69 . 262 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 April, 1911. Examinations and Rejections. During the season a total of 813 horses were examined, a slight increase in the number that were submitted during 1909. Of these 596 received certificates, while 217 or 26.69 per cent, were rejected. This is a decrease of 3 per cent., compared with the rejections during the previous season, but the fact that not so many " scrubbers" were submitted for examination is largely responsible for the falling off. This was particularly the case in the pony class, which shows a fall from 25.65 per cent, refused in 1909, to 15.62 per cent, in 1910, for being below a rea-sonable standard for ap- proval as regards breed, type and conformation. In other classes, there is also a slight decrease in the percentage rejected under this head as against that of the previous season ; but in comparison with the number rejected for the three previous years the percentage is slightly above the average. III. — Analysis of Defects of Stallions Refused Certificates for Seasons. 1907, 1908, 1909 (to 31/12/09). Draughts. Lig-hts. Ponies. Totals. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. No. Certifi- cated. 1,312 885 787 635 565 453 2,664 1,973 Defects. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. No. Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. 427 32-54 \h-l 19-31 112 19-82 691 25-93 Unsoimdness. Sidebone 265 20-20 Ar •51 269 1010 Ringbone ... 40 3-05 14 1-77 6 1 06 60 2-24 Spavin (Boue) 7 •53 25 3-18 2 •36 34 1 27 Bog Spavin & Thoroughpiu 17 1-29 8 1-02 25 •94 Curb • •• 20 2-54 11 1-94 31 1-16 Cataract feye) ... 1 •18 1 •04 Roaring ... — . 2 •25 ... 2 •08 Totals Un- soundness 329 25-07 73 9-27 20 3-54 422 15-83 Below stand- ard for ap- proval 98 7-47 79 10-04 92 16-28 269 10-10 Grand totals 427 32-54 1.V2 19-31 112 19-82 691 25-93 Rejections as Regards Soundness. Under this heading a comparative study of the tables for 1909 and 1910 will show that of the 813 horses examined in 1910, 139 ox 17.09 per cent, were rejected for hereditary unsoundness, in one or other of its forms, and as was seen in previous years the draught horse is the breed in which unsoundness most largely exists, the percentage affected in the class being 21.57 per cent, as against 23.52 per cent, in 1909. On analyzing the un- soundnesses upon which rejections were made, ringbone shows the greatest lo April, 19 i i .] Governnniil Ctrtificatioii of Stallions. 263 reduction, being 2.14 per cent, lower than in the previous season, whilst the rejections for that bane of the draught horse, "sidebone," is only slightly lower, 19.19 per cent., as against 20.59 per cent. Light horses show an all round increase in the percentage of unsound- ness, 10.53 per cent., as against 6.27 per cent, last year. This is due to an increase in the number found affected with ringbone, spavin, and curb, while ponies also show an increase amounting to 2.18 per cent., bone spavin being mainly responsible. The table for 1909 is given above for purpose of comparison with that of last season (1910). For the four .seasons up to the ist March last 3,483 stallions have been examined, of which number ->575 were certificated and 908 or 26.06 per cent, rejected. IV. — Analysis of Defects of Stallions Refused Certificates for Seasons 1907, 1908, 1909. 1910. Defects. Unsoundness. Sidebone Ringbone ... Spavin (Bone) Bog Spavin & Thorouglipin & Bursal En- largements Curb . . . , Cataract (eye) Roaring Sliivering ... Nasal Disease Totals Un- soundness Below stand- ar I for aj- j.roval Drautfhta. Totals. No. Examined. 1,856 No. Rejected. 368 43 7 21 1 446 136 No. Certifi- cated. 1,274 Per cent. Rejected. Cran8i 19 82 2-31 •37 113 •05 "•27 •05 24 00 7-35 31 35 No. Examined. No. Rejected. 187 4 17 28 88 99 J 87 No. Certifi- cated. No. Examined. Per cent. No. Rejected. Rejected. •20.12 ' 139 •43 183 3 0] •97 2 90 •11 9-47 1065 14 I 27 112 'i012 139 No. Certifi- cated. Per cent. Rejected. 19-94 101 •72 2-00 •14 No. Ebcamined 3,483 No. Rejected. 3-87 1607 372 67 40 30 42 1 7 1 1 lit !)4 561 347 908 No. Certifi- cated. 2,575 Per cent. Rejected. 2606 10 68 1-93 1 14 •86 1-20 ■03 •21 •03 ■03 16^ll 9-95 •^6 06 A careful study of the accompanying tables reveals very little difference between the average for last year and the average for the trieiuiial i)eriod ending in June, 1909. The total given here cannot be taken in any way as indicative of the number of stallions standing in this State, for many have gone to other parts of the Commonwealth, it being known that twenty-eight have exchanged the Victorian (lovernment (Nrtifuate for that of South Australia, and no doubt many have died. In this re.snect owners would lend valuable a.ssistance by reporting deaths of stallions, and the published li.st could then be regarded as a fairly accurate one of horses standing in Victoria. 264 Journal of Agriculiure, Victoria. [lo April, 1911. New Zealand Examinations. The arrangement entered into with the New Zealand Department of Agriculture, to issue certificates of soundness for which the Victorian certifi- cate would be substituted without further examination, was continued during the last season and, as will be seen from the table below, 75 horses were examined, of which 12 or 16 per cent, were rejected for unsoundness. Of this number, 46 certificates have been presented for transfer to those of this State, leaving a balance of 29 stallions in which cases the certificates have not been so presented. The following table sets out detailed par- ticulars : — V. — Analysis of Horses Refused Certificates in New Zealand, Season 1910-11. Draughts. Lights. Totals. Defects. No. Examined. 71 No. Certifi- cated. 59 No. Examined. 4 No. Certifi. cated. 4 Per cent. Rejected. No. Examined. 75 No. Rejected. 12 4 2 5 1 12 No. Certifi- cated. 63 No. Rejected. 12 Per cent. Rejected. 16-90 5-63 2-82 7-04 1-41 No. RejecteJ. Per fent. Rejected. 16 00 Sidebone Ringbone ... Curb Bog Spavin 4 2 0 1 5-34 2 67 6-66 1-33 Totals Unsoundness 12 16-90 16-00 Other States. Figures are not available from all the States to show a comparative statement, only those of South Australia being to hand. The following table shows the number examined and rejected in that State: — Examinations and Rejections in South Australia to 31st August, 1910. Draughts. Light. Total. Number Examined ... ... ... 233 237 470 Number Rejected ... ... ... 98 38 136 Percentage Rejected ... ... ... 42-06 16-03 28.75 English Examinations. Although a decision to accept certificates from certain societies in England, Scotland and Ireland, and exchange them for Victorian Govern- ment certificates without further examination in respect of horses examined by their veterinary inspectors has been in force for two seasons, importers have not availed themselves of the privilege, contenting themselves with certificates from private veterinary surgeons. Whilst this procedure is of considerable value to them as a means of protection against the purchase of unsound sires, Victorian Government certificates cannot be issued in re- spect thereof until passed after examination by a veterinary officer of this Government. It is apparently not fully realized by importers that the only lo April, 191 i.] Government Certification of Stallions. 265 certiticate that can be recognised by this Government, and for which a Victorian certificate can be substituted, is one issued officially upon behalf of the societies named in the regulations, not one given by any practising veterinary surgeon. Special Examinations. In order to meet the convenience of stallion owners, who through acci- dental circumstances have failed to submit their horses for examination at one of the advertised parades, a regulation was made during the past season providing for a special examination. The conditions under which this special examination can be availed of are shown in the regulations at- tached. During the season this convenience was taken advantage of by five horse owners who had been unable to attend at the nearest parade arranged for. Appeals. The appeal provision under clause 5 of the regulations was taken ad- vantage of in three cases during the past season. The first case was in respect of a stallion refused a certificate on account of unsoundness. In this case, the Appeal Board appointed by the Minister was unanimous in dismissing the appeal. In the second case, the certificate had been re- fused by the examining officer on account of being considered below standard of approval. In this case the appeal was upheld and certificate issued. In the third case, while the rejection was for the same reason, the Board upheld the action of the veterinary officer, and dismissed the appeal. Such a result cannot be other than gratifying, both to the staff and to the stallion owners. That, out of the 217 cases in which certificates were refused, only three owners should avail themselves of the right of appeal, may be taken as an indication of the confidence they repose in the veterinary staff in the performance of their duties ; whilst the fact that the only successful appeal was on the question of approval as regards breed, type and conformation, an aspect of the examination which the veterinary officers have had no desire to undertake, but still in respect of which they have exercised their power in 78 cases during the past season, is an indica- tion that even under such circumstances the great majority of owners have been satisfied with their judgment. Even so, the necessity which has been previously pointed out for a staff of competent judges to strengthen this side of the work, is evident. Examining Officers. As in previous years the desire to make the examinations as uniform as possible was ever present, and to this end four officers only were engaged in carrying on the work. The results of their individual examinations are shown in the subjoined table. VI. — Officers' Examinations of Stallions, Season 1910-11. Officers. No. No. No. Perrentajre Examined. Certificated. , 1 Rejected. Rejected. W. A. X. Rol ortaon, B.V.Sc. 256 200 56 21 87 R. c; riffin, M.R.n.V.S. 235 161 74 .SI IVl W.J . Cother, GM.V.C 67 43 14 L'4 .")« a. s. Hruce, F.R.C.V.S 264 191 73 27 65 Appc al lioard Totals 1 > 1 ... t *•• 813 I 596 217 1 26-69 266 Journal of Agricidture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 1. REGULATIONS Governing the Examination of Stallions for the Government Certificate of Soundness and Approval. I. — Examination Parades. (1) Societies within wliose district an Inspection Parade is appointed are required to provide a suitable place for the examinations to be con- ducted, and to suitably and reasonably advertise the holding of the parade on receipt of notice from the Department of the fixture. The secretary or some member of the committee of the society is required to be in attendance at the appointed time to assist the examining ollicer in the arrangements for the inspection. (2) The Parades will be conducted and the Veterinary Officer will attend without expense to Societies other than that involved in advertising and making known the occasion to the public and the Stallion owners in the district, and providing the examination ground. (3) The Examining Officer will attend Inspection Parades held at times and places set out in the official Time Table for the year, and all examina- tions of Stallions for the Government Certificate will be made at such Parades or at Agricultural Shows or on some such publiclv advertised occa- sion, unless under special circumstances as provided for in clause 5. (4) In the event of it being found impossible for local reasons to hold' the Parade in any district at the time and date set out in the Time Table,, notice to that effect — together with suggestions for alternative date and time compatible with the rest of the Time Table — should be given not later than ist June, after which no alteration in the Time Table can be made. (5) The special examination of stallions for the Government Certificate of Soundness at other than the advertised district stallion parades may be arranged for in cases where, through accidental circumstances, the owner has failed to submit the horse at such parade. Such examinations will only be arranged when the attendance of the- Examining Officer will not interfere with the requirements of the Depart- ment for his services in other directions. An owner requesting such special examinations will be required to pre- pay a fee of jQi is. for each horse examined; also the railway fare (first class return), and travelling expenses at the rate of 14s. per day, of the visiting officer. II. — Grounds for Rejection. (i) Refusal of Certificate on the ground of unsoundness will be made only when in the opinion of the Examining Officer the horse is affected at the time of examination with one or more of the following hereditary un.soundnesses in any degree, viz. : — Roaring Curb Thoroughpin and Bursal Enlargements Ringbone Bog Spavin Nasal disease (Osteo-porosis) Sidebone Bone Spavin Chorea (" Shivering " or " Nervy ") or such Other hereditary unsoundness as the Minister may at any time declare. (Blemishes or unsoundness, the result — in the opinion of the Examining Officer on appearances then presentetl — of accident, injury, and over-strain or over- work, will not disqualify.) (2) The Certificate will also be refused in the case of animals con- sidered by the Examining Officer to be below a reasonable standard for Government approval, as regards type, conformation and breeding. TO April, ipii-] Government Certification of Stallions. 267 III. — Certificates. (i) Particulars concerning the identity of the horse — name, breeder, pedigree, age, prior ownership, &c. — must be furnished to the Examining Officer at tlie time of examination. If deemed necessary in any case the ■owner may be called upon to furnish a statutory declaration as to the cor- rectness of such particulars. (2) Certificates will be issued within seven days of the holding of the Parades, and will be forwarded to the Secretaries of the Societies under whose auspices the Parades are held, and who will either forward them to the owner direct, or deliver them to him on application. (3) Until the issue of a certificate, or until the publication of the official list of certificated stallions, the result of the Veterinary examina- tion will not be communicated to any person except under circumstances as follow : — The Examining Officer may, on request on proper occasion, communicate to the owner or his agent — duly authorized in writing to inquire — the result of the examination. In case of refusal of the certifi- cate the reasons for refusal will not under any circumstances, save in legal proceedings under the direction of the Court, be communicated to any person except the, owner or his agent duly authorized in writing, and to these only on request in writing. Secretaries of Societies, persons in ■charge of the horse, grooms or relatives of the owner will not be con- sidered authorized agents for that purpose unless they deliver to the officer the owner's signed authority to receive the information. (4) The Victorian Government Certificate of Soundness can only be issued in respect of horses three years old and over, that have been examined by a Victorian Government Veterinary Officer, or horses in respect of which any of the following certificates are produced : — The Government Certificate of Soundness of New South Wales, ■Queensland, South Australia or New Zealand. The Veterinary Certificate of the Royal Shire Horse Society (England), The Veterinary Certificate of Royal Agricultural Society (England), The Veterinary Certificate of Royal Dublin Society (Ireland). The Veterinary Certificate of Highland and Agricultural Society (Scot- land), The Veterinary Certificate of Glasgow and West of Scotland Agricul- tural Society. Any horse which has been rejected by the Veterinary Examiners for any of the above certificates will not be eligible for examination for the Victorian Government Certificate of Soundness. (5) The form of the Victorian Government Certificate of Soundness is as follows: — " G.R. — Department of Agriculture, Victoria, No. Certificate of Soundness and Approval, issued for the season {or issued for Life as the case may be), given in res{)ect of the {breed) stallion {name and description of stallion) submitted for Government inspection by the owner {name of owner) at {place of examination) such horse having been found suitable for stud service and free from hereditary unsoundness and defects of conformation predisposing thereto on examina- tion by {signature of Examining Officer) Veterinary Officer on the day of 19 . (Signature). Chief Veterinary Oflicer. Issued by direction of the Minister of Agriculture. (Signature). Secretarv for Agriculture." 268 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 1. (6) Two-year-old colts may be submitted for examination and a tem- p>orary certificate will be issued in respect of such as pass the examination. Such temporary certificate must not be taken to imply suitability for stud service of approval as regards type, nor is the issue of it intended as an indication of the likelihood of a certificate being issued when submitted for examination at a more mature age. IV. — Tenure of Certificate. (i) Certificates issued during the seasons 1907 and 1908 are life certi- ficates. (2) Certificates issued during the season 1909 in respect of horses four years old and over are life certificates ; those for three-year-olds are season certificates only, and the horse must be submitted for re-examina- tion at four and five years before a life certificate will be issued. (3) In 1 9 10, and subsequently, only stallions five years old and over will be given life certificates. Three-year-old and four-year-old stallions will be certificated for the season only, and will be required to be submitted for r^-examination each season until five years old, when a Life certificate will be issued. {4) The Season certificate issued in respect of any horse must be handed to the Examining Officer at the time of re-examination or forwarded to the Chief Veterinary OflScer before a subsequent Season certificate or a Life certificate will be issued. (5) The Minister retains the right to at any time have a certificated stallion submitted for re-examination, and to withdraw the certificate, in the event of the animal being declared, to his satisfaction, unsound. {The arrangement as to tenure of certificates, set out above, -provides for the introduction of the system gradually, so that no hardship will be imposed on owners. Unless in response to Ministerial request as above provided for, oivners or purchasers of stallions certificated in igoy and igo8 will not be required to submit them again. Persons who have undertaken stallion keeping since igo8 hcwe had ample notice and have had the fullest opportunity of making themselves aware of the conditions of certification of stallions, namely — the annual examination of all horses under five yea>rs old.) V. — Board of Appeal. (i) Any owner of a stallion who is dissatisfied with the refusal of a Government certificate in respect of his horse may appeal against the decision to the Minister at any time within thirty days of the examination, under the following conditions : — {a) That the appeal be in writing and be accompanied by the lodg- ment of ;^5, such amount to be forfeited in the event of the appeal not being upheld, unless the Board shall for good cause otherwise direct. {b) That the appeal be accompanied by an undertaking to pay any railway fares and hotel expenses incurred bv the Board of Appeal in connexion with the settlement of the appeal. (c) That, in the event of refusal having been on the ground of unsoundness, the appeal be accompanied by a certificate from a registered Veterinary Surgeon setting out that the horse has been found by him on examination since the re- fusal appealed against, to be free from all the unsoundnesses set out in Part II. of these Regulations. lo April, ipii-] Government Certification of Stallions. 269 {d) That, in the event of refusal having been on the ground of being below standard for Government approval, the appeal be accompanied bv a certificate from the President and two members of the Committee of the Society under whose auspices the parade was held, setting out that in their opinion the horse is of fit and proper type, conformation, and breeding to be approved as a stud horse. (2) On receipt of Notice of Appeal in proper form, and with the above conditions complied with, the Minister will appoint a Board of Appeal, which shall consist of : — {a) In the case of appeals against refusal of certificate on the ground of unsoundness, the Chi^f Veterinary Officer and two practising Veterinary Surgeons. {b) In the case of appeals against refusal of certificate as being below standard for Government approval, the Chief Veterinary Officer and two horsemen of repute and standing. Such Board shall act and decide on the appeal, and its decision shall be final, and 7tot subject to review. (3) In the event of the appeal being allowed, refund shall be made of the deposit, and any expenses paid by the appellant under Clause i {b). Further, the Board may recommend to the Minister the allowance of such of the expenses of the appellant in supporting his appeal as it may con- sider reasonable under the circumstances of the case, and the Minister may, in his discretion, confirm the recommendation in whole or in part, whereupon allowance shall be made to the appellant accordingly. (4) No stallion in respect of which a Government certificate is refused will be allowed to be re-submitted for examination except in the case of an app>eal as herein provided for. In the event of any rejected stallion being re-submitted for examination under another name or under such circum- stances as in the opinion of the Minister are calculated to mislead the Examining Officer into the belief that the horse has not previously been examined, the owner of such rejected stallion, if proved to the satisfaction of the INlinister that he is responsible for such re-submission, shall be debarred from submitting any horse for examination for such period as the Minister shall determine. -270 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [to April, 1911. NOTICE TO SECRETARIES OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Section "A" of the conditions to be complied with by Agricultural Societies before being eligible for participation in the annual Government grant is as follows: — " A. — That the awards of frizes in all classes for stallions, three years old and over, at the Society's SJioiv must be subject to the possession by the exhibit of a Government certificate of soundness." In order to comply with the above, the special attention of show secretaries is invited to the receiving of entries in stallion classes. No entry should be received unless at the time of entry the Government cer- tificate is produced, or unless satisfactory evidence is given that a Govern- ment certificate is held by the owner in respect of the exhibit. The award- ing of a prize card and the withholding of prize money in respect of any exhibit shall not be deemed as compliance with the condition. Care should be taken also to see that the certificate is not out of date, that is to say : — For three-year-olds, a 191 1 three-year-old certificate must be held. For four-year-olds, a 191 1 four-year-old certificate must be held (the 1910 three-year-old certificate is out of date). For horses five years old and over, a life certificate must be held. Secretaries are strongly urged to become familiar with the regulations, particularly Regulation IV., which deals with the tenure of certificates. Secretaries are required to forward immediately after the show a return (forms for which will be sent to each society) giving required particulars concerning ist, 2nd, and 3rd prize winners as under: — Return to be forwarded to the Cliief Veterinary Officer concerniug Stallions (3 years old and over) awarded Prizes at the Agricultural Society's Show held Name of Stallion. /-. _L.c 1. Name of Certificate U,^gg ^^,j ^ggtio„ Number. („^^ Number). Prize Awarded. Owner's Name. 2nd. Owner's Address Date. (Signed) Secretary Agricultural Society. 30 April, 1911.] List of Certificated Stallions. 271 LIST OF CEIITIFICATEI) STALLIONS, 11)10-11. Certificates Issued During Season' 1910-11 (Ending 31.3.1911). {For List of Horses previously Certificated see Journal for April, 1910.) Name of Horse. Admiral Prince 6 years Admiral Sperr\' 4 years Admiral Sperry 3 years Admiral Sperry 4 years Aerial King 2 years Aerial Star 3 years Aitkcn Chief 3 years Aladdin 3 years Albyn 3 years Alexander Chief 3 years .Arawa 4 years Ardaowan 3 years Attention . . 4 years Attraction's Pride . . 3 years Australia's Favourite 2 years Avon More 4 years Bancor's Heir 4 years Bancor's Pride 5 years Bariin 3 years Baron AMio 4 years I5ar(.ii Bombay 3 years Ban III Branxholnie 3 years Baron Clinton 4 years Baron Gardiner 3 years Baron Idadale 3 years Baron Irvine 3 years Baron .Mcod 3 years Baron of (iartlee 3 years Baron Renfrew 4 years Baron's Best 3 years Barrow Oak 4 years Bav Konald 3 years Belted Dawn 4 years Black Miiniing Aged Bla.k I'riiic- ^ 4 years Black I'rinr,' 3 years Bin.- Harold 4 years Blue Bil.ljon Ben .. Aged Bold Lincoln 3 years Bonnie lien 4 years Bonnie Clilton 5 years Bonnie Clyde 3 years Bonnie Lad 3 years Bonni ! Laddie 3 years Bonnie Scott 3 years Bordcrside 4 years BrantlianilSollCalllL 3 years British Crfjwn 5 years British Lad 3 years British Leader 3 years Brown Cliampion 3 years Brown Chieftain 2 years Brown KiiiK 3 years Brydon .. 3 years Biirn>idc Chief 5 years Caniphcll Prince 3 years Captain Ldwin Aged Carniichael 2 years Carlyon 3 years Carol Redw(ir)d 4 years ('ashman .. 3 years (.'(•ntrewiioil 3 years Cliaiinel KliKlit 3 years Charmer Junr. 3 years Chieftain . . 3 years Clan MeCrenor 11. . . 5 years Clifton 5 years • Aoe Parade. DRAUGHTS. D. T. Harty, sen. W. Barnes Mrs. J. Jeffrey . . Alex. Dutf " . . C. Robertson C. Eobertfon Jas. Patrick Geo. Muir Wm. Kiddle P. Mangan Jas. Hamilton Mitchell & O'Brien Mitchell & O'Brien \V. Curtain W. Mahoney Hugh Boyd Jno. McCrostie . . Fred Hammill . . M. Ewart 6. and. W. Lord Shiels Bros. Alex. Robertson . . R. N. Herkes F. H. Walsh J. R. Stokes Mitchell & O'Brien R. Kerr. . McCann Bros. J. Gray J. Glen . . Peter Reid Mitchell & O'Brien Jas. Ingram Hoult and Son R cherts Bros. R- Black VV. Price Hamilton .Allen . . G. A. H. Pietsch C. J. Liosfleld Hugh Gilmore S. Devlin A. J. Williams . . Caffrev and Murphy P. T. Darey Geo. Nield Jno. Hall A. Colvin J. Hamilton Mitchell nuthcni Cross 3 years l'ar~nns.tHol)ert«oii Royal Show 30.8.10, W.R. 1772 Sproughtou Warrior 6 years 1". 11. Morton Mell)ourne 2.1.7.10 I.lle G.S.H. 276 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 April, 191 i. List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Date of I Expiry officer of Cer- "nicer. tificate. Draughts — coyitinwed. St. Alban's Star Stewart's Fancy- Stirling Castle Sullivan's Fancy Sunflower Sweet William Sir Bryan Sir Cliarles Sir Garnet Sir Hector Sir Isaac Newton Sir Jno. McFarlane Sir Patrick Sir Percival Junr. Sir Simon II. Sir Simon Percival Sir William Taieri Knight Tameriskine Tam McKenzie Tam O'Conuell Tarquin Junr. Timaru Tongala Topmast . . Trafalgar . . True Blue True Scott Tweedside Again The Banner Tiie Clydesdale The Dandv The Gift . . The Macdonald The Standard The Workman Union Jack Uxbridge Fyvie Van Didman Victor Waikato . . Wallace Wally Waltham . . Warkworth Warrimoo Wliakanui . . Whitechurch Swell William Wallace Windermere Young Bancor Young Bonaparte Y^oung Crown and Feather Yoimg Donald Young Dundonald . . Young Dundonald . . Young Federation . . Young Fortune Toller Young Harrington . . Young Hero's Pride Young Highland Hero Young Highland Lad Young Hopstoun . . Young Kelmscott . . Young King Young Lord Eggleton Yomig Peer Young Sensation Young Shepherd King Young Victor's Model 3 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 6 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 4 years 2 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 5 years 3 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 6 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 5 years 2 years Aged 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 3 years 3 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 3 years 2 years 2 years 3 years 4 years Aged 3 years 6 years G. Goods C. and E,. Watson N. Ramsav R. V. Colliver W. H. England Donald Kennedy George Smith O. J. Lynn J. R. Stokes D. McCulloch J. J. Holmes McDonald & Sons C. Simon Bealey Bros. G. Hicks H. Saunders H. Nay lor Mitchell & O'Brien Walter and Agar R. O. Wilson V. C. Reid H. Carr G. Beansch Mitchell & O'Brien J. J. Downey Jas. Gildea J. T. Gibson J. Strawhorn W. McKnight R. Kay . . Mitchell & O'Brien S. Williams & Sons C. G. McMahon . . W. Foubister A. Wolhars Me5s Bros. A. Arnold Jas. Lawson Glenn Bros. A. McDonald F. Fisher G. H. Hill Caff rey and Murphy W. E. Boulton . . McCartney Bros. R. Carroll Mitchell & O'Brien N. Ramsay M. J. Caffrey B. Lavery Jno. Gifford M. Caffrey Thos. Gregory J. G. Haebick . . — . Muir W. Williamson . . L. A. Sclineider . . H. J. Hansen J. Graham J. W. Tenney Chas. Mason H. Cliristian N. G. Martin Fehring and Sons Thos. Bellett E. G. Denyer H. Ovens Jas. McKimmie . . S. Heard Alex. Robertson . . A. Malcolm Minyip . . Kyabram Melbourne Lang Lang Rutherglen Rochester Wangaratta Orbost Warracknabeal N.Z. Govt. Cert Kyneton St. Amaud Roval Show N.Z. Govt. Cert Horsham Kaniva . . Beulah . . Melbourne Special Agricultural Offices Colac Agricultural Offices Charlton Geelong Melbourne Special Ballarat Melbourne Special Melbourne Kyneton Agricultural Offices Melbourne Melbourne Special Yarrawonga Melbourne Romsey . . Murtoa . . Agricultural Offices Warracknabeal . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . Kyneton Melbourne Special Horsham N.Z. Govt. Cert. . Agricultural Offices Hopetoun Newmarket Horsham Melbourne Special Ingle wood Agricultural Offices Kaniva St. Arnaud Agricultural Offices Horsham Horsham Newmarket Wangaratta Beulah . . Numurkah Minyip . . Melbourne Horsham Rainbow Trafalgar Pyramid Donald . . Kerang . . Watchem Agricultural Offices Cobram Melbourne Special Mirboo North 11.8.10 30.6.11 1 23.8.10 1 25.7.10 23.9.10 7.9.10 22.8.10 8.9.10 4.10.10 12.8.10 23.6.10 19.9.10 16.8.10 2.9.10 13.4.10 13.7.10 16.8.10 Life 9.8.10 30.6.11 7.6.10 30.6.10 15.9.10 23.7.10 19.8.10 18.8.10 7.6.10 10.9.10 7.6.10 27.7.10 19.9.10 25.6.10 25.7.10 Life 7.6.10 30.6.11 5.9.10 ^, 26.7.10 20.9.10 3.8.10 27.8.10 12.8.10 8.7.10 19.9.10 7.6.10 13.7.10 Life 23.6.10 30.6.11 2.7.10 j^ 9.8.10 2.8.10 13.7.10 J 7.6.10 18.8.10 Life 11.2.11 30.6.11 16.8.10 Life 16.8.10 30.6.11 18.6.10 13.7.10 J, 14.7.09 Life 1.8.10 30.6.11 8.9.10 j^ 9.8.10 J, 6.9.10 ^j 11.8.10 j^ 27.7.10 „ 13.7.10 Life 18.8.10 27.9.10 30.6.11 25.8.10 ,, 9.8.10 ^^ 24.8.10 j^ 10.8.10 1 10.9.10 ,^ 5.9.10 Lite 7.6.10 30.6.11 23.9.10 L ife 1 W.R. G.S.B. R.G. R.G. R.G. G.S.B. R.G. G.S.B. W.R. W.R. G.S.B. R.G. W.R. W.R. W.R. G.S.B. W.R. G.S.B. R.G. G.S.B. R.G. R.G. G.S.B. R.G. W.R. W.R. G.S.B. W.J.C. W.J.C. R.G. R.G. W.R. R.G. G.S.B. W.R. W.R. R.G. W.R. W.B. W.R. G.S.B. G.S.B. G.S.B. G.S.B. R.G. W.R. G.S.B. W.R. W.R. W.J.C. G.S.B. R.G. W.R. G.S.B. W.R. G.S.B. G.S.B. W.R. G.S.B. R.G. R.G. W.R. R.G. R.G. G.S.B. G.S.B. G.S.B. lo April, 191 i.] List of Certificated Stallions. 277 List of Certtficated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Date of Expiry of Cer- tificate. Officer. 1 "" 1 LIGHTS. 1813 ^gyptus .. Aged Pat. Barrington . . Geelong 18.8.10 Life R.G. 128/4 Agathos . . 4 years Dr. Florance Shepparton 26.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 113/4 Ajax 4 years J. T. Ovens Kyabram 23.8.10 " G.S.B. 355/3 Almont^B. 3 years P. W. Schickerling Warrackuabeal . . 12.8.10 W.R. ' 1797 Alone * . . 6 years H. McCIure Birchip . . 11.8.10 Life K.G. 343/3 Ariel | 3 years T. H. Colyer Goroke . . 10.8.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 419/3 Arrel 3 years Jno. Dempster . . Heathcote 12.9.10 ,, R.G. 395/3 Australia . . 3 years A. Vinnecombe . . Royal Show 30.8.10 ^ G.S.B. 1853 Barmah . . 5 years J. Pearse Nathalia 7.9.10 Life G.S.B. 411/3 Baiirchier 3 years Baurchier Numurkah 6.9.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 61/4 Blunder . . 4 years T. H. Hatcher . . Hopetoun 9.8.10 ,j W.R. 1826 Bonnie Direct 6 years K. MacDonald Swan Hill 23.8.10 Life W.R. 149/4 Brilliant . . 4 years C. and E. Cameron Condah 7.9.10 30.6.11 W.R. 99/4 Caimaatine 4 years S. Wrathall Geelong 18.10.10 R.G. 848/3 Claredo 3 years O'Donell Bros. . . Birchip . . 11.8.10 R.G. 1831 Clark's Harold Aged W. J. Stretton . . Agricultural Ofifices 27.8.10 ^^ G.S.B. 453/3 Cobalt 3 years H. G. Collier Alexandra Show . . 10.11.10 ji W.J.C. 1747 Commandant 6 years S. Clarke Agricultural Offices 9.7.10 J, G.S.B. 155/4 Cosmopolitan 4 years Andrew Wade Ballarat 10.9.10 ,, G.S.B. 1893 Dalesman Aged Richd. Hustler . . Penshurst 11.10.10 Life R.G. 360/3 Decorator 3 years F. Jennings Inglewood 18.8.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 1760 Del Pasa II. 5 years Jas. Lawson N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 2.7.10 Life 90/2 Direct Special 2 years P. Pay . . Kerang . . 24.8.10 30.6.11 W.E. 1742 Eaglemont 6 years S. Prout Newmarket 21.4.10 Life W.B. 88/2 Earl Harold 2 years D. Gerrand Swan Hill 23.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 1864 Electioneer Aged Walter Christensen Yarram 19.9.10 Life R.G. 100/4 Emulation 4 years A. McFarlane Geelong 18.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 51/4 Ercildoon Dick 4 years Colin Gardner Wangaratta 21.7.10 ,j W.R. 87/4 Fashion Direct 4 years T. F. Hogan Quambatook 16.8.10 J, R.G. 187/4 Fitz Bell . . .4 years G. W. Booth Frankston 24.9.10 jj R.G. 1859 Qalty More Aged M. Piggott Koroit . . 15.9.10 Life W.R. 37/4 General Cass 4 years J. E. Small N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 28.6.10 30.6.11 345/3 General Cleve 3 years P. Hayes Watchem 10.8.10 J, R.G. 45/4 Glendon . . 4 years A. Selman Newmarket 1.8.10 R.G. 1817 Gold Dust Aged W. Ross Dimboola 19.8.10 Life W.R. 183/4 Governor Dixie 4 years J. Heffernan Kilmore 27.9.10 30.6.11 W.T.C. 79/4 Granger's Pride 4 years E. Finkemeyer . . Minyip . . 11.8.10 ., W.R. 1762 Halfpenny Short . . Aged Jas. Patrick N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 30.6.10 Life 101/4 Happy Bells 4 years F. Cox Geelong 18.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 191/4 Harkaway 4 years M. Harper Warragul 26.9.10 ,, W.R. 1857 Harold Bell Boy . . Aged C. Lancaster Werribee 17.9.10 Life W.R. 126/4 Honest 4 years W. J. Gillard Swan Hill 23.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 427/3 Honest Laddie 3 years Grant Bros. Kyneton 19.9.10 ,, W.R. 1770 Honest Robin Aged H. H. Hankius . . Melbourne 25.7.10 Life G.S.B. 859/3 Huon's Honesty 3 years Geo. Davis St. Amaud 16.8.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 417/3 Jack lluon 3 years P. Donovan Ballarat 10.9.10 ,, G.S.B. 385/3 Jack Swindle 3 years Dr. Florance Sbepparton 26.8.10 W.R. 1791 Jock Ostricli 5 years T. H. Peters Ararat . . 9.8.10 Life G.S.B. 391/3 Jov Bi'lls . . 3 years M. Peacock Kerang 24.8.10 30.6.11 W.B. 1763 Kia Ora . . Aged Chas. Clarke X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 20.4.10 Life 62/4 King Almont 4 years J. Scott Lyons . . Beulah . . 9.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 1836 King of tlie Ring . . Aged Mick Melville Geelong 18.8.10 Life R.G. 1814 King Osterley Aged G. Anderson Geeloi'g 18.8.10 Life R.G. 455/3 Kin; Spring 3 years W. McDonald Kyneton Show . . 17.11 10 30.6.11 W.R. 1895 King William 6 years J. B. Zander Agricultural Offices 29.10.10 Life W.R. 86/2 Maori King 2 years Luke Strickland Geelong 18.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 356/3 Millionaire 3 years J. Rossiter Warracknabeal . . 12.8.10 „ W.R. 1890 Morcombe.. Aged T. Munday Ort)ost . . 4.10.10 Life G.S.B. 1749 Murray Star 5 years W. E. Kosling . . .\gricMltural Offices 9.7.10 J, W.R. 1824 Ni'ptiini^ .. 5 years R. R. Coakes Bendlg.) 24.8.10 R.G. 398/3 Oak wood . . 3 years Jno. T. Follaud . . Royal Show 30.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 27/4 October . . 4 years J. A. Dundas .Mcibourno 26.7.10 ,^ G.S.B. 194/4 Ordorlv . . 4 years W. E. (iibsou Morwcll 26.9.10 G.S.B. 1894 Osterley, M. 5 years J. Coekhill .\gricultural Offices 22.10.10 Life R.G. 162/4 Osternicyer Direct . . 4 years W. Montgomery .. Diiylesford 12.9.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 377/3 Owyhee Chief 3 years Geo. Sliowell Castlemaino 23.S.10 ,, R.G. 447/3 Prince Douglas 3 years Mrs. Clara White .Vgricultiiral Offices 1.10.10 ,^ W.R. 164/4 Priuce Harold 4 years Albert Pardon . . Daylcsford 12.0.10 J, G.S.B. 458/3 Prince Harold Boy 3 years Love, Iloylo, and Tluirgood Agricultural Offices 3.2.11 " W.R. 1751 Rally 6 years A. Kvlc.. Agricultural Offices 9.2.10 Life G.S.B. 1794 Kcgiiinod . . Aged J. T. Howard Donald .. 9.8.10 ,, R.G. 188/4 Kicliard Cleve 4 years Henry Doig Dundi-nong 29.9.10 30.6.11 W.B. 278 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 i. List of Certificated Stallions — cmiinue'l. Cert. No. Xame of Horse. Ago. Owner. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Date of Expiry of Cer- tificate. Officer.. Lights — continued. 176/4 Ringer 4 years Hutchison & Barrie Agricultural Offices 17.9.10 30.6.11 R.G. 146/4 Rockfeller 4 years D. McLeod Kyaliram 23.8.10 „ G.S.B. 450/3 Settler 3 years P. Young Mildura 6.10.10 „ W.R. 1850 Silver Bell 5 years J. Eddy Numurkah 6.9.10 Life G.S.B, 160/4 Splendour 4 years J. McKenna Nathalia 7.9.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 376/3 Sportshuon 3 years J. T. Ovens Kvabram 23.8.10 ,, G.S.B. 171/4 Standish Direct 4 years Vf. Walter Werribee 17.9.10 ,, W.R. 1786 Star of Fashion Aged W. E. Rosling . . Newmarket 1.8.10 Life G.S.B. 104/4 St. Bernard 4 years Ed. Mvles Geelong 18.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 400/3 Sunny Jim 3 years J. T. Blood Royal Show 30.8.10 „ G.S.B. 412/3 Sir Hampden 3 years J. H. Fraser Numurkah 6.9.10 ,, G.S.B. 1886 Terminus . . 5 years Stephen Carkeek Wodonga 26.9.10 Life R.G. 200/4 Tracey Boy 4 years Turner Bros. Preston Special . . 31.10.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 1830 Tromantana Aged G. Clark RiLShwortli 26.8.10 Life G.S.B, 1841 Tlie Count 5 years J. A. Johnston . . Royal Show 30.8.10 ,, G.S.B, 1757 Tlie Golfer Aged Mrs. C. Turner . . Agricultural Offices 16.7.10 J, R.G. 1796 Tlie Nipper 5 years J. F. Cleary Watchem 10.8.10 ,, R.G. 1842 Tiie Squire 5 years J. A. Johnston . . Royal Show 30.8.10 G.S.B, 340/3 Urbanity . . 3 years N. A. McSwan . . Hopetoun 9.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 1846 Victory Aged G. TumbuU Coleraine 6.9.10 Life W.R, 371/3 Vincent 3 years J. McKenzie Dimboola 19.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 1823 Von Osterley 6 years A. E. Burridge . . Echuca . . 23.8.10 Life G.S.B, 401/3 Weeho 3 years W. D. McFarlane Royal Show 30.8.10 30.6.11 G.S.B, 54/4 Welsti Bov 4 years J. Slater Wangaratta 22.7.10 ,, W.R. 78/4 W.F.A. . . 4 years W. Brown M^arracknabeal . . 12.8.10 ,, W.R. 1802 Wiiy Not 5 years D. Holden Sea Lake 15.8.10 Life W.J.C. 1795 W. W. Bstell Aged R. C. Hannah Donald . . 9.8.10 ,, R.G. 357/3 Young Almont B. . . 3 years J. Mitchell Warrackuabeal . . 12.8.10 30.6.11 W.R. 354/3 Young Harold 3 years A. H. Frauenfelder Minyip . . 11.8.10 ,, W.R. 173/4 Young Osterley 4 years G. Atchison Koroit . . 15.9.10 ,, W.R. 123/4 Young Tenant 4 years G. W. Coad Pyramid 25.8.10 ,, R.G. 1758 Zecchino . . Aged Jno. Grant . . i Agricultural Offices 16.7.10 Life R.G. THOROI JGHBREDS. 1851 Clean Title 6 years T. O'Callaghan . . Wangaratta 8.9.10 Life R.G. 431/3 Cornalla . . 3 years Hav & Thonemann Agricultural Offices 24.9.10 30.6.11 W.R. 1861 Domino Aged J.F.King Colac . . 15.9.10 Life G.S.B. 1768 Fulminator Aged A. E. Bowman . . Melbourne 25.7.10 „ G.S.B. 456/3 Harmattan 3 years B. W. Storey Euroa . . 13.12.10 30.6.11 Appeal Boaid 189/4 Little Gun 4 years J. C. H. Graves . . Mansfield 23.9.10 W.J.C. 140/4 Zalposlci . . 4 years J. W. Nolte Casterton 6.9.10 W.R. PONIES. 108/2 Advance . . 1 2 years L. Harper Port Fairy Show . . 10.11.10 30.6.11 G.S.B, 43/4 Apabitos . . 4 years W. E. Glendenning Newmarket 1.8.10 „ R.G. 369/3 Billie Barlow 3 years Wm. Donaldson . . Cliarlton 19.8.10 ,, G.S.B, 311/3 Bon Accord 3 years J. N. Gordon Melbourne 26.7.10 ,, G.S.B. 132/4 Bonnie Prince Charlie 4 years S. MacKenzie Royal Show 30.8.10 „ W.R. 167/4 Breclcnock 4 years J. Darcy Camperdown 14.9.10 ,, W.R. 80/4 Canary's Pride 4 years G. W. Anderson . . Minyip . . 11.8.10 ., W.R, 1854 Chanter . . Aged H. McLean Terang . . 13.9.10 Life W.R. 310/3 Clifford . . 3 years A. R. P. Crow . . Melbourne 26.7.10 30.6.11 G.S.B, 1801 Clipper Aged R. S. Kirkpatrick Watchem 10.8.10 Life R.G. 1818 Colonel Osterley 5 years A. J. Clark Agricultural Offices 20.8.10 ,, G.S.B. 1800 Cronje Aged J. Powell Warrackuabeal . . 12.8.10 ,, W.R. 1860 Cutty Sark Aged U. Ramsay Colac . . 15.9.10 ,, G.S.B, 1887 1 Cymro Aged Tintaldra Proprie- Corryong 28.9.10 ,, R.G. tary Coy. 90/4 Dandy Bones 4 years J. L. Loutit Sea Lake 15.8.10 ,, W.J.C, 66/4 Dandy Brick 4 years J. W. Baker Donald . . 9.8.10 „ R.G. 69/4 Dandy Chief 4 years G. Crombie Watchem 10.8.10 ,, R.G. 317/3 Dandy Huon 3 years Tlios. Moore Melbourne 26 . 7 . 10 ,, G.S.B. 86/4 Dandy Jim 4 years J. D. Pryse Wyclieproof 17.8.10 ,, W.J.C, 438/3 Dandy O'More 3 years L. Tatterson Dandenong 29.9.10 ,, W.R. 1778 Dandy Robin Aged E. E. Gomm Melbourne 26.7.10 Life W.R. 1736 Dick of Redmond . . 4 years G. Tosch Leongatha Show 16.2.10 ,, W.R, 134/4 Fiction 4 years J. A. Marriage . . Royal Show 30.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 184/4 Fluter 4 years W. H. Penaluna .. Morwell 26.9.1 ,, G.S.B, 1755 Garfield Junior Aged W. McDonald . . Horsham 14.7.10 Life W.R, 168/4 Gay Laddie 4 years Edward Cuthbert Cami)crdown 14.9.10 30.6.11 W.R, .366/3 General Gordon 3 years H. Dunn Geelong 18.8.10 ,, R.G. 142/4 Gilbert . . 4 years W. J. Brown Hamilton 9.9.10 " W.R, lo April, ipn-] List of Certificated Stallions. 279 List of Certificated Stallions — continued. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. ^t^.\ Officer. Ponies — continued. 1889 Glyn Trustful 5 years W. E. J. Craig . . AgricuIturalOflices 1.10.10 Life W.R. 135 '4 Grandee . . 4 years J. B. Irvine Royal Show 30.8.10 30.6.11 W.K. 1888 Hafren Sensation . . 5 years W. E. J. Craig . . Agricultural Offices 1.10.10 Life W.R. 1852 Happy Jack Aged T. Maroney Wangaratta 8.9.10 J, R.G. 1769 Harold Grev Aged R. J. Finnogan . . Melbourne 25.7.10 jj G.S.B. 1784 Here He Is' 5 vears W. E. Rosling . . Newmarket 1.8.10 J, R.G. 1883 Herick Aged A. H. Poolnian . . Mansfield 23.9.10 „ 'W.J.C. 404/3 Highland Chief 3 vears Hugh Murtin Yarrawonga 5.9.10 30.6.11 R.G. 1876 Honest Jack Aged C. H. Atkins Bunyip . . 27.9.10 Life W.R. 147/4 Interest 4 years D. McLeod Numurkah 6.9.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 1884 Jem 5 years Jas. Walsh Fra-nkston 24.9.10 Life R.G. 118/4 Jock Frisk 4 years Domld Stewart . . Beaufort 22.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 157/4 King Bally Junr. . . 4 years W. Illingworth . . Ballarat 10.9.10 j^ G.S.B. 367/3 Kin? Edward VII. 3 years C. Jon"s Geelong 18.8.10 R.G. 445/3 Lancewood 3 years H. Gould Huon . . Wodonga 26.9.10 R.G. 1781 Little Ben Aged J. R. Fiske Melbourne 26.7.10 Life R.G. 174/4 Little Dandv 4 years W. J. Trask Colac 15.9.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 320 3 Littli- Hiiiiible 3 years F. C. Witchell . . Melbourne 26.7.10 ,, R.G. 198, 4 Little Jack 4 years P. W. Pollock • . . Korumburra 28.9.10 W.R. 1845 Little King Aged G. TurnhuU Coleraine 6.9.10 Life W.R. 120/4 Little Tonian 4 years Tulloch and Cov. Bendigo 24.8.10 30.6.11 R.G. 46'4 Look He Comes 4 years W. E. Rosling . . Newmarket 1.8.10 ,, G.S.B. 103/4 Lou Lou's Dandy . . 4 years C. Jones and Sons Geelong 18.8.10 R.G. 1779 Lord Bally 5 years J. W. Dent Melbourne 26.7.10 Life G.S.B. 1882 Lord Cardigan 6 years H. Kenny Korumburra 28.9.10 W.R. 143/4 M;irliui(l Hero 4 years Jas. Moodie & Sons Timgamah 6.9.10 30.6.11 R.G. 1788 Marland Model 5 vears W. E. Rosling Newmarket 2.8.10 Life G.S.B. 1855 Master Brigham Aged J. Jackson Canipr'rdown 14.9.10 ,, W.R. 1799 Mooney Aged J. Rolison Jeparit . . 10.8.10 ., W.R. 1903 Mountain Hero Aged S. J. Miller Agricultural Offices 3.12.10 „ K.A.K. 84/2 Mountain King 2 years W. R. Pop? Donald . . 9.8.10 30.0.11 R.G. 1750 Paddock King Cole . . Aged W. E. Rosling Agricultural Offices 9.7.10 Life G.S.B. 1838 Prince Aged S. MacKenzie Uoyal Show 30.8.10 W.R. 32/4 Prince Dandy 4 years F.Irish Meil)ourne 26.7.10 30.6.11 W.J.C. 109/4 Prince Harold 4 years Sam Pollock Agricultural Offices 20.8.10 „ R.G. 1777 Prince of Wales 6 years A. V. Stocks Melbourne 26.7.10 Life W.R. 1803 Quom Bone Aged James Duxon St. Arnaud 16.8.10 G.S.B. 68/4 Rudium 4 years S. Lancaster Goroke . . 10.8.10 30.6.11 G.S.B. 373/3 Reality Ilex 3 years S. O'Brien Rochester 22.8.10 „ G.S.B, 1839 Rex Dandy 5 years Jno. Findlay Royal Show 30.8.10 Life W.R. 1737 Richard I i. Aged J. Jaw . . Leongatha Show- 16.2.10 W.R. 83/2 Rohin Gray 2 years W. S. Young Ararat . . 9.8.10 .30.6.11 G.S.B. 451/3 Uoyal Clem 3 years A. J. Cliisholm . . Maldon Special . . 10.10.10 W.J.C. 1900 Royal Jimmy Aged W. J. Clark Kyneton Show- 17.10.10 Life W.R. 1840 Sam Aged J. P. J. Bell Royal «hi>w 30.8.10 ., G.S B. 362/3 Sandow 3 years Ed. Glasheen Boort 18.8.10 30.6.11 W.J.C. 67/4 Sarstleld . . 4 years Thos. Long Donald . . 9.8.10 R.G. 1771 Silver King 5 years J. A. Johnston . . Melbourne 25.7.10 Life G.S.B. 439/3 Silver King 3 years B. A. Hail Dandenong 29.9.10 30.0.11 W.R. 1898 Silver Prince Aged R. A. Gibson Port Fairy Shov.- 10.11.10 Life G.S.B. 199/4 Sjrdan 4 years R. R-id.. Tallangatta 27.9.10 30.6.11 K.(i. 59/4 Sf|uih 4 years D. Robertson Ararat . . 9.8.10 ,, U.S.B. 436'3 Starliglit .. 3 years J. M. Brown Korumburra 28.9.10 W.R. 1835 Sunh Tom 3 years Cu[ig .Midnight 6 vears T. Iloulllinn Ciibram 5.9.10 ., O.S.B. IHUt Young Sunhuum Aged Ilutchcsoa Bros. Rochester 22.8.10 O.S.B. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1911. STALLION PARADES, 191L* Time Table. District and Date. ^ SPECIAL. 24th, 25th, 26th 27th, and 28th July Monday, 24th July . . Every Saturday from 1st July to 16th De- cember Wednesday, 19th July Friday, 21st July . . Wednesday, 2nd Aug. WIMMERA. No. 1. 12th and 13th July .. Wednesday, 2nd Aug. WIMMERA, No. 2. Tuesday. 8th Aug. . Wednesday, 9th Aug, Thursday," 10th Aug. WIMMERA, No. 3. Monday, 7th Aug. . Tuesday, 8th Aug. . Wednesday. 9th Aug. Thursday, 10th Aug. Friday, "llth Aug. . MALLEE, No. 1. Tuesday, 8th Aug. . Wednesday, 9th Aug. Thursday, 10th Aug. Friday, llth Aug. . Place. Time. City Horse Bazaar Newmarket Horse Ba- 10 a.m. daily 10 a.m. zaar Agricultural Offices 10 a.m. to 12 noon Sea Lake 2 p.m. Wangaratta Bendigo 10 a.m. . . 2 p.m. Horsham Murtoa 10 a.m. . . 2 p.m. . . Ararat Goroke Edenhope . . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 3 p.m. Stawell Rainbow Jeparit Minyip Warrackna - beal 3 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 1..30 p.m. Birchip Donald Watchem . . St. Arnaud 2 p.m. - . . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. . . OflScer Arrives. 12.30 p.m., driv- ing 9.0 p.m. (22nd) 1.22 p.m. 11.59 p.m. (llth) 12.10 a.m. 1.29 p.m. 1.40 p.m. 12 noon 2.38 p.m. 1.15 p.m. 4.40 p.m. 6.12 a.m. 8 a.m. (8th) 8.30 p.m. (7th) 11.45 a.m. 7.27 p.m. (9th) 7.11 a.m. Officer Leaves. 6.40 a.m. (20th) 4.30 p.m. 6.50 p.m. 2.59 a.m. (14th) 3.32 a.m. (3rd) 9.37 p.m. 6.30 a.m. (lOth) 2.30 p.m. (llth) 10.13 p.m. 3.30 p.m. 5.17 p.m. 6.12 a.m. (llth) 2.55 p.m. 9 a.m. (9th) 6 p.m. 3.40 a.m. (llth) 2.10 p.m. • At centres wiiere the Examining Officer remains overnight after the Parade, arrangements may bo made for a Lecture on some veterinary or stock subject if application is made to the Chief Veterinary Officer before 1st July. lo April, 1911.] Time Table. StaUion Parades. Time Table, Stallion Parades — continued. District and Date. CENTRAL, No. 1. Monday, 14th Aug. . . Tuesday, 15th Aug. . . Wednesday. Kith Aug. Thursday, 17th Aug. Friday, 18th Aug. . . Saturday, 19t.h Aug. MALLEE, No. 2. Tuesday, 15th Aug. . . Tue.sdav, 15th Aug. . . Thursday, 17th Aug. Thursday. 17th Aug. Saturday, 19th Aug. WIMMERA, No. 4. Monday, 14th Aug. . . Tuesday, loth Aug. . . Wednesday, Kith Aug. Thursday, 17th Aug. Friday, 18tli Aug. . . MALLEE, No. 3. , Tuesday. 22nd Aug. Wednesday, 23rd Aua. Thursday. 24th Aug. Siturdiy. 26th Aug. CENTRAL AND MALLElv Monday, 21st Aug. . . Tuesday. 22n(l .Aug. Wednosilav. 23i-(l .\\\\i. Thursday." 24tli Aug. Friday, "25tli Aug. . . GOULHl'RN LEV. No. \AL- Moiiday, 21st Aug. . Monday. 21st Aug. . Tuesday, 22nd .\ug. Tuesday. 22n(l .\ug.. Wednesday. 23r(l .\\\i. Thursday, 24tli .Aug. Thursday. 24th -Aug. Kriday. 25th \u<_'. KONAL SHOW. Tucsflav. 2'.tth All-. . WIT, Officer Arrives. Heathcote . . Dunolly [Maryborough Inglewood . . Benalla < Jeelong Quamliatook Boort Wyche proof Charlton Castle maine Cobram Beaufort Nhill Kaniva Dimboohi Swan Hill Kerang Pyramid Ballan Dayk'-^tord Beulah Hopctoun Hamilton ( 'lunc^ Elmore Rochester Kchuca Kyabram T itlUM Murchison Hush\vortl\ Sllcpp:irti)U 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 y).m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 j).m. 2 )).ni. 2 ]>.m. 2 ]).m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2.30 p.m. Kt ;i.Tn . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10.15 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. . I.3n p.m. 3.30 p.m. II a.m. . 4.40 p.m. 2 p.m. II a.m. . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. Officer Leaves. 11.41 p.m. 1.46 p.m. 10 a.m. 8.40 a.m. 11.15 a.m. 8.10 a.m. 8.17 p.m. 9.17 a.m. (Kith) ti.5 a.m. (17th) 4.25 p.m. 5.35 )).m. 12.32 p.m. 6.15 p.m. (14th) : 11.10 a.m. Slio-.v s ,i.m. to 10 (irouuds. ' :i.m FlemingtoH I 12.34 i).m. 5.5 p.m. (Kith) 12.25 p.m. 7.20 a.m. 1.57 p.m. 12.27 p.m. 1.31 a.m. 2.28 a.m. 2.13 a.m. 6.6 p.m. (21st). 12.14 p.m. 2.26 ]).m. 10.3 a.m. 11. .50 a.m. 8.52 a.m. 10.15 a.m. 10 a.m. 8. .54 a.ui. 1.1 I p.m. :<.;{(• |i.m.. driving 10..5S p.m. (21st) 4.20 p.m. 12 noon, driving II a.m. 1.30 ii.m., driving 8.23 p.m. (24th) 6.10 a.m. (Kith) 11.10 a.m. 12.2 p.m. 12.56 p.m. 3.10 p.m. 8.35 )).m. 1.38 a.m. 12.42 a.m. (18th) 2.18 a.m. (19th) 10.35 a.m. (23rd) 1.9 p.m. 2.26 ]).m. (25tli) 12.7 p.m. 3.40 p.ui. 9.15 a.m. (23rd) 11.30 a.m. (i.28 p.m. 1.43 p.m. 2 p.m., driving 10.19 p.m. 2.55 p.m. 10 a.m. (23rd) 5.36 ji.m. 12 noon, driviu;. 5.20 p.m. 5. -19 p.m. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April. 191 i. Time Table, Stallion Parades — continued. District and Date. CO GOULBURN VAL- LEY, No. 2. Monday. 4tli Sept. . . Tuesday, 5th Sept. . . Wednesday, 6tli Sept. Thursday, 7th Sept. . . Friday, 8th Sept. Saturday, 9th Sept. . . WESTERN, No. \. Tuesday, 5th Sept. . . Wednesday, 6th Sept. Thursday, 7th Sept. Friday, 8th Sept. NORTH-EASTERN, No. L Tuesday. 5th Sept. . . Tuesday, 5th Sept. . . Wednesday, 6th Sept. Thursday, 7th Sept.. . Friday. 8th Sept. Saturday, 9th Sei)t. . , WESTERN, No. 2. Monday, 11th Sept. . . Tuesday. 12th Sept. Wednesday, 13th Sept. Thursday. 14th Sept. Friday, l5th Sept. . . Saturday. 16th Sejit. GIPPSLAND, No. 1. Monday, 11th Se])t. .. Tuesday, 12th Sept. Wednesday, 1.3th Sept. Wednesday. 13th Se]>t. Thursday,' 14th Sept. Friday, 15th Sept. . . ("EXTRAL. No. 2. :\[ondav, 11th Se])t. .. Tuesday. 12th Sept. . . Wednesday, 13th Sept. Thursday, 14th Sei)t. Friday, 15th Sept. . . Bacchus Marsh Numurkah Nathalia Dookie Seymour Ba"llarat Coleraine Casterton Portland Penshurst Yarrawonga Tungamah . Rvitherglen Kilmore Euroa :\Ielton Terang Port Fairy . . Camperdown Warrnambool Colac Werribee Morvvell Mirboo Traralgon Bairnsdalc Maffra Lilvdale Officer Arrives. 11 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. 3.30 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. Romsey Kynetou Smeaton Alexanch-a Mansfield 4.28 ]).m. (4th) 1.40 p.m. 12.52 p.m. 8.12 p.m. (7th) 11.8 a.m. 7.35 p.m. (4th) 4.30 ]).m. (5th) ! driving 1.2 p.m. 7.33 p.m. (7th) 10.22 p.m . (4th 3.38 p.m. 1.48 p.m. 9.50 p.m. (6th) 6.57 p.m. (7th) 8.35 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 ]).m. 2 ]).m. 2 p.m. . i 2 ]).m. 12.44 p.m. 12.36 ]i.m. 5.5 p.m. (12th) 11.12 p.m. (13th) 10.4 a.m. 7.17 a.m. 11.57 a.m. 2 p.m. 9.45 ]).ni. 3.25 ii.m. 12.33 p.m. 9.33 p.m. 10.10 a.m. 8.21 p.m. (18th) 9 a.m., driving 12.35 p.m. 1.53 ]).m. Officer Leaves. 12.59 p.m 12.5C )i.m (6th)' 3.25 ]).m. 4.11 p.m. 11.13 a.m 7.10 p.m. 2 Y).m., driving 8.15 a.m. (7th) 3.10 p.m. 7.48 p.m. 2.45 p.m. 7.45 a.m. (6th)' 3.22 p.m. 4.41 ]).m. 6.32 p.m. 1.20 ]).m. 10.7 ]).m. 1.30 p.m. 9.30 p.m. 7.11 a.m. (15th>- 6.52 ji.m. 1.25 p.m. 12.20 i).m. (12th). 4.15 )).m. 12.20 i).m. 9.30 a.m. (14th>. 4.17 p.m. 5.35 p.m. 5.25 p.m. 5.25 )i.m. 4 p.m.. driving 4.40 p.m. 3.35 p.m. ]0 April, 1911.] Burnley Egg-laying Corn-petition. 283 Time Table, Stallion Parades — continued. I District and Date. Place. Time. Officer Arrives. Officer Leaves. ' GIPPSLAXD. X(.. 2. Monday, 18th Sept. . . Tuesday. 19th Sept.. . Tuesday, 19th Sept.. . Wednesday, 20th Sejjt. Thursday. 21st Sept. . . Trafalgar Bunyiy) Warragul . . KorumbuiTa Cranhoinne. . 2 p.m. 10 a.m. . . 3 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. . . 11.16 a.m. 8.19 p.m. 2.56 p.m. 9.55 a.m. 10 a.m., drivinu ().51 p.m. 2.10 p.m. 7.50 p.m. 5.10 p.m. 11.30 a.m., driv- Thursday, 21st Sept. . . Friday, 22nd Sept. . . Daiidenung . . Whittlesea . . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. . . 12.30 p.m. 12.45 p.m. 4.48 p.m. 8 ji.m. NORTH-EASTERN. No. 2. Monday, 18th Se])t. . . Tuesday, 19th Sept... Wednesday, 20th Sept. Wodonga Tallangatta . . Corryong 2 )).m. 2 p.m. 3 30 p.m. 1.39 p.m. 4.35 p.m. (18th) 3.30 p.m. 3.13 p.m. 5 a.m. (20th) 7 a.m. (21st) GIPPSLAND, No. 3. .Monday, 18th Sept. . . Tuesday, 19th Sept. . . Wednesday, 20th Sept. Friday, 22nd Sept. . . Saturday, 23rd S'^pt. Varram Foster Ijeongatha . . Lang Lang Frankston . . 4 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. .. 3.45 ]>.m. 2.1 p.m. 3.56 p.m. 9.25 a.m. 9.34 a.m. 10.55 m. (19th) 2.21 p.m. (20th) 7.25 a.m. (21st) 6.37 p.m. 1.1 ]).m. Tuesday. 3rd Oct. . . Orbost , 3 p.m. 2 p.m. 8.2 .i.ni. (4th) BUKXLEV EGG-LAYING COMPETITION. l!»ll-li. H . V . Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Xo other State in the Comnion\ve;ihh has done more to raise the standard of its farm poultry than Victoria. This has been accomplished by means of lectures, demonstrations at shows, visits to farmers, and distribution of literature. During the pa.st nine years, short courses of in- struction, extending over several days, have been held in almost every dis- trict. The.se have been well attended, with the result that there has been a large increa.se in egg production. At one time, farmers were content to keep a few nondescript fowls tlu- tjuestion of breed, strain, or even of age, was given but little thought. N'ow. there are many men and women farming poultry as a distinct Inisiness. Hy their industry anle to make an insjjection with- out loss of time. By some, the location was thought to be unsuitable, but the Hon. the Minister, who was desirous of maintaining Burnley as an educational centre for training students in fruit-growing and poultry rais- ing, gave authority for the erection of 70 pens of 30 feet by 12 feet each. The clearing, draining, and building have been carried out under the supervision of the Public Works Department from designs supplied by the writer. A good idea of the extent of the buildings will be obtained fr<^)m the accompanying photographs, which were taken on the loth March. The greatest difficulty overcome during the progress of the work was that of providing adequate drainage. During that time, less than seven weeks, 10 inches of rain fell. Although it retarded the workmen, no better test could have been arranged. The result will be a valuable object lesson to new .settlers and others who intend farming yjoultry on their holdings. Shelter. . The Victorian Competition will be the first at which sheltered pens have been introduced. The pens are divided by 3 feet of plain sheet iron, surmounted by 4 feet of 2^ mesh wire-netting, without a top rail. An ideal break-wind is thus provided. It also prevents the birds from quarrel- ling, as is usually the case when the division consists of wire netting alone. The iron is tarred and insect-proof. The houses are made of 14 .sheets of narrow gauge galvani.sed iron — 4 sheets on roof, 4 at back, 2 at each end, with 2 covering half the front. The frame work, which is on the outside, consists of 3 inch x i^ inch jarrah ; the only timber seen inside each house is two pieces of jarrah. 15 inches high, and a 14 feet long perch of 3 inch x 2 inch jarrah. The latter is dropped into a slot, .so that it may be removed at will, and cleaned when necessary. This perch, in the writer's opinion, is practically proof against vermin. The floors of the hou.ses are covered with sand to the depth of 6 inches, which is kept in position by a piece of jarrali. The sand will make the birds snug during the winter months and also be a safeguard against flirty and broken eggs. Dust Hex, Water, etc. Outside each house a triangular dust box of pure sand is provided. .\ water main has been laid down each corridor, with four taps for each 300 feet. The hose for filling the water tins will also be available for damp- ing the dust bath during the summer months. Vessels for charcoal, shell, and earthenware grit are suspended above ground within easy reach of the birds. Oaten hay is placed in each pen and feed is scattered amongst the hay. thereby inducing healthy exerci.se. It is inteiidfd to plant lUiddlea shrubs, which grow rapidly and are ever- green, in the centre of each pen. Without some natural shade the heat thrown off from the iron buildings would be harmful. Although couch grass was .sown three months ago. ami germinated well, much of it was destroyed during the building oi)erations. It is not in- tenderl to r<*ly upon the grass in the pens- at least 2 o/s. of gre<'n teed are given them daily. The (|uestion of feeding will be dealt with in a sub- .sequent issue. Broouv Hens. A portable screen, made of wire netting on a light frame, will lie placed in a sheltered corner of any pen where a broody hen pnay l>e. This is to avoid removing birds to a distant pen. It will obvi.ite the knocking alxiut whit h broodies receive from strange birds, and also when they are returned 286 Journal of A gri culture, Victoria, [lo April. 1911. lo April, 191 1.] Burnley Egg-laying ConipciHioii. to their usual quarters — treatment which militates against the competitor's chance of success. Entries and Prize List. There are 402 l>irils t-ntcrcd for the competition. As will be .seen bv the following list, the Icailing bnt-ds are represented, although it would ha\-e been desirable to ha\e had more entries of some of them. Pens. Birds. 49 ••• ^94 Breed- While Lei^'horn Brown Leghorn Black Orpington White Orpington Silver Wyandotte ("rolilen Wyanilotte Minorca Faverolle Surrey 30 6 -24 07 ... 402 The White Leghoras are, as usual, well represented, and shouhJ be to the fore at the conclusion of the competition, but the winter test will pro- bably find the Orpingtons and Wyanrlottes leading. For the prize for the greatest weight of eggs laid throughout the year the Minorcas should ha\e 2i chance. The pri/f list is as follows : Greatest Number of Eggs during the Twelve Months [ist April , igi i, to ^rst March, igis). ist prize, ^'10; 2nd prize, ;^5 5s.; 3rd prize, ^3 3s. Winter Test (First Four Months — Afril to July). 1st ])rize, ^.4 4s. ; 2nd prize, £2 2S. Greatest Weight of Eggs during the Comfetitiop. ist prize, £i 3s. (-'OMFETITION RULES. The rules governing the competition were ])ublished in the Journal for November, tqio. The Arbitration Committee, which will decide any dis- pute arising during the comi)etition, is composed of the following members : — Elected by C onipeliton. - - Messrs. J. .AndiTsoii. ('.. I'.. Brown. H. McKenzie, and W. C. Swift. Ex-(>fflcii>. Dr. S. .S. ( 'amcron (Director of .\gricultin-e). Messrs. E. E. Pescott (Principal, .School of Horticultin-c). and H. V. Hawkins (Organizer). Records. N'isiting Days. etc. WCekK records are ])laced on each pen for th<' information of visitors. 'I"hc \isiting davs are Wednesdays and Saturdav from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. Intending \isitors must prexioiisly procure admission cards from the I)cp,Mtiniiii of .X^^ricnllure. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria, [lo April, 191 i. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Fescott, Principal. School of If orticnlturc , Burnley. The Orchard. Gathering and Storing Apples and Pears. The principal work this month will be the gathering and storing of apples and pears. Stored fruit needs more attention and care than that gathered for immediate sale. The fruits should be carefully handled, and not thrown about in any way, nor should it be bruised. No cracked or injured fruit should be allowed in the storage room. Owing to the excessively wet season, a greater percentage than usual of cracked and split fruit is present, and this will very speedily rot. It should be dis- posed of at once. Such varieties as Rokewood, Schroeder's Apfel, Shockley, Yates, Rome Beauty, Stone Pippin, and Mellon's Seedling are all good keepers, and useful for storage purposes. The latter apple is winning its way among orchardists, and it is a desirable apple for the late local markets. In its natural home, at Dunolly, where it was raised some years ago, it keeps very late; and, in many instances, is Cjuite sound early in November. In other districts, and grown on richer soils, it does not seem to retain its keeping characteristics. Another point in its favour is that at present it has shown no signs of Bitter Pit. Spraying. Owing to the excessive rains developing and encouraging the Plum Rust, many stone fruit trees, particularly plums, have lost a very large percentage of their foliage. Such trees mav now be s])rayed with an oil emulsion wherever Scale or Bryobia Mite is at all jDrevalent. Apple and pear trees whose crops have been gathered may also be sprayed with the emulsion, wherever Scale, Bryobia Mite. Woolly Aphis, or Pear Phytoptus has previously shown itself. Green Manuring. If not already done, and tlie orchard conditions demand it, there is still time to put in a leguminous crop for green manuring purposes. But this should be done as early as possible, so as to give the crop a chance to make some good early growth. Soils deficient in humus, or in organic matter, are always benefited by a crop of green manures. Where stable manure is unprocurable, the green manure crop is the only means of adding any organic matter to the soil. Drainage. The present season has shown the great necessity for drainage. It is true that the rainfall has been phenomenal, and unprecedented ; but it is just as likely to occur in future years, and undrained areas will suffer considerably from such unusual soakings, especially at a time of the year when rain is not usually experienced. It has been laid down definitely that the greatest success in orchard work is not attainable unless the land has a thorough system of under-drainage. This is proved by experience; and now is the time to carry out this work. If done now, the drains will be in a position to carry away any surplus rain that may come in the ensuing winter. Drains should be set well into the clay, and l)elow all possible culti- vation depth. The opening or first inlet to the drain should be well pro- tected, preferably by wire netting or a flower pot. both if they are avail- lo April. 191 i.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 289 able. The outlet should always be left so that it can be readily seen — a substantial stake might be placed so as to mark the outlet. Another important point to be considered is the keeping of records and plans of all drains laid down. If possible, all new areas should be drained before planting. Preparation of New Land. As mentioned last month, all land for new planting should be prepared and ploughed early so as to allow the soil to mellow and sw'eeten for some time before planting. This should be done at once. Vegetable Garden. There should now be no untidy or undug plots in the kitchen gai'den. The vacant beds should all be well dug over and prepared for the plant- ing of vegetables for u.se in spring. In digging, a top dressing of manure should be given; this may be dug in. All weeds, too, may be forked into the trenches, and covered well with the soil as each spit or length is dug. A dressing of lime is very beneficial at this time of the year. Asparagus Beds. A start should now be made at cleaning out the asparagus beds. This vegetable is most popular, and yet one rarely met with in ordinary house- hold gardens. Tt is supposed to be difficult to grow, but this supposition is not borne out; as, once established, a bed of asparagus is one of the most easily managed plots in the whole garden. Depth of good soil and plenty of manure are all that this plant requires. In establishing a new bed, it is advisable to see that there is a good depth of two or three feet of rich, well manured soil. If this is not present, the soil should be dug out to that depth, and thoroughly mixed and enriched with well rotted manure before being replaced. A bed deeply prepared, and supplied with ample quantities of manure, should last without replanting for very many years. The young plants or crowns should then be planted in trenches, keeping the rows two or three feet apart. An asparagus bed requires ample and direct expasure to the full rays of the sun. The asparagus should not be cut during the first .season after planting. In fact, it is better to allow it to go uncut for two .sea.sons. As little foreign weed growth as possible should be allowed in the beds ; but, when thev are not producing culinary asparagus, rows of lettuce, beans, radish, &c., may be grown between the crowns. Towards the cud of April the tops may be cut down, the beds rleant'fl. ami a good top dressing of stable manure given. Chemical fertilizers, such as lK>nedust, sulphate of ammonia, and sulphate of potash, may be given as a substitute to organic manurr. In the past it has been th<' custom to annually top dress the beds with salt. Tt was sup- posed that, as asparagus in its native habit was usually found in .sand> .soils nt-ar the sea coast, the plant ref|uired salt or a saline .soil, to produce successful results. It has latterly Ix^en found that .salt is not at all essen- tial tf) g94 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria, [jo April, 1911. The universal adoption of the Myrobalan, or Cherry Plum {Prunu& viyrobalana) has not been singularly successful with this variety on alf soils. Working trees on strong peach stocks, or on the common cherry plum (though on the latter a bad union is frequently formed), sometimes gives more satisfactory results ; but, generally speaking, the first named is bv far the best stock. The Hurl)anks are six years from the graft, and last year yielded au ^^^^^ average crojj of eight ca.ses per tree. rW^k. '^^^^HhV ■ T\\^ fruit realized in the Melbourne K/JK ^I^^^BH^^J market 4s. per case, and ^5 ids. ■B^^*^ ^^^^K^^^H Pf"!" ton at the factory; whereas, during the present critical season, the plums from this orchard returned 3s. jd. ])er case, a highly satisf ac- tor)- return when we consider that manv growers find their plums un- salealile. The Burbank is an ex- cellent shipi)er to northern States, and. with jurJicious handling and selection, can be landed in perfect condition. 'I'he infliction of a hea^■y crop of fruit en the single leader that sur- vived the grafting operation cau.sed it to break down with its burden, iea\ing but a narrow connexion be- tween it and its root-system, yet 193 lbs. of splendidly developed fruit were obtanied from this one branch. The propensity of Burbank to. heavv bearing intimates that the tree requires the best possible treatment, if this propensity is to be fostered and sustained. Proper cultivation, con- stant tillage throughout the summer, liberal application of manures to trees so generously responsive, and a correct interpretation of the habits of the tree to direct pruning operations, require the earnest attention of the grower. As the tree has a very sprawling habit of growth the pruner will require to direct and develop leaders for the frame on such lines as will be con- ducive to vigorous and sturdy growth. From the illustrations on pages 293 and 294, it can be .seen that lateral development is responsible for heavy crops; the proper spacing and retention of these laLerals will govern and control its fruitine; habit. 4. FRLilTING LATERAL FROM SIX-YEAR-OLD GRAFT. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The StalT of the Dep'iitment has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of sriving information to farmers. Qnestionc in every branch of auriculture are ttlaclly answered. Write a short letter, ffiving as full particulars as |Mssihle, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that i ou want to know. All inquiries loTwarde., Clustered Clover, (a), {b), ancR (c) are all clovers of somewhat similar character, having a slight pasture value, but not being in the first rank as pasture plants. The poorest is {a), next (c), and {b) and {d) come next, and are of approximately equal value. 3. (W.T.I^.) Trifolium frocumbens, L., Yellow or Annual Hop Clover. Of some value, especially on poor, dry pastures, but one of the less useful of the clovers. It is not obnoxious in any way, however, and easily maintains itself by seed. 4. (W.M.) Agroslis stolonifcra, L., Creejjing Bent. A naluralizeil alien. It is a fair pasture grass, particularlv on soils \vliirh are wet in winter, and dry in- summer. IvlQUD Mancre. — G.S.V. asks whether superphosphate with water would make a good lif[uid manure for vegetables. Answer. — Superphosphate with water woubl not make a good litiuid manure, as it only contains ks when is the best time to cut rye for hay for horses. .Answer. — Rye is only used as a green fodder and wmdd not be suitable for hav purposes, on accoimt of its low feeding value anil tin- indigestible fibre in the stalks. Rape. — W.S.B. asks : — (i) Can rape be fed to milking cows witliout tainting. the butter? (2) Is it a fact that \omig rape will not taint butter when older rape will? Answer.- — (i) By feeding \.\\iv in tlie morning onlv, and pro|)erlv cooling and' aerating "the milk, tainting seldom, if ever, occurs. (2) Yes. When rape is in (lower is tlie worst lime for tainting. SoRGiilM. — Ci.R. asks in what stage in its growth is sorghum poisonous to Little. ■Answer. — Sorghnm is liable to gi\e clangorous results from lloven or Tvm- |>anitis until after liie (lowering stage is |'asl, in this respect resendiling mai/e, clovers, &c. If growth is sliuited or clierkcil bv frost, iV<'., |)riissic acid lievclops. in excess ami iioisonous results ra|)idly follow. .Ml danger ma\ be overcome by allowing the sorghnm to will for 24 hours before feeding to stock. I'ea-i ilRE.sniN<; M\(HiNE. — H.nU inipiires whcilirr tlurc- is .1 pea-threshing machine on the market. .Ans7ver. — No. Although many of the ordinary threshers are advertised as- suitable for the purpose of threshing peas, they arc generally foimd to crack ai large amoimt of the trrain. 296 Journal oj A^^nmlturc, \"iciona. [jo April. 1911. Fodder Crops, Koo-wee-rup. — R.G. writ.,-s : — '• The land I am going on at Koo-wee-rup Swamp has been drained and under grass for about ten years. It appears to be sweet and in good condition. What would be the most suitable rotation of crops to grow for fodder?" Answer. — Sow the following mixture : — i bushel, stout white or Bonanza oats; I bushel, barley; 5 bushel, vetches; 5 bushel, field peas; and 5 bushel, lye, per acre. This could be followed with maize, and then root crops, such as man- golds, sugar beet, swedes, 6tc. The best manure for the oats, itc, would be 5 cwt. superphosphate, 5 cwt. bonedust, and 28 lbs. sul])hate of potash per acre; for the root crops use 5 cwt. superphosphate and 2 ^^^t- sulphate of potash, and top dress with 14 lbs. nitrate of soda after thinning. Robbing Hives. — Brighton writes : — " I have put my swarms in patent 8- frame hives with supers, with 24 i-lb. boxes in top. When will I be able to take the honey? What should I leave for winter use? In what frames are the brood nests?" Ansiver. — The honey in the i lb. sections should be taken whenever they arc well filled W'ith comb and the honey capped over. The length of time it will take the bees to finish them depends entirely upon the strength of the colony and the nature of the honey flow. Under the most favourable conditions a colony will finish a rack in 10 to 14 days, but it usually takes much longer, depending greatly upon the honey-producing flora of the locality. The lower box containing the eight frames is called the brood-chamber and this should be full of honev at the beginning of winter, otherwise the bees cannot be expected to be in a thriving con- dition in spring and may actually die of starvation, as the consumption of honey from July to September is very heavy. If all the frames are very well filled and sealed in autumn one or two of the outside combs might be taken. Most bee- keepers, however, prefer to leave the brood chamber intact. If honey other than i-lb. sections is required an upper storey with frames should be used in place of the section rack. Best Hav Varieties of Wheat. — G.J.F inquires as to best varieties of wheat to grow for hay. Answer. — Bunyip, Firbank, Jade, Le Huguenot, Marshall's No. 3, and War- den's. Manuring Wheat, Ultima District. — -H.T. asks how much manure should be used when sowing wheat. The country is mostly sandy red loam and tim- bered with " Big Mallee " with a mixture of Hop Bush, Buloke, Pines, and Box. The rainfall is to 11-12 inches. Answer. — Manure with superphosphate at the rale of 40 lbs. per acre. Colic. — J.K.K. writes : — " Please recommend a drench for Flatulent and Spasmodic Colic ; also state how the\- may be distinguished. What injection is used for Spasmodic Colic?" Answer. — Briefly, it may be stated that the prominent symptoms of Spas- modic Colic are sudden and acute pain with distinct intervals of rest ; whereas, in Flatulent Colic, the pain is not sudden or (in the first stages) acute, and there are no intervals of rest. There is suppressed breathing, a tympanitic condition •of the flank, and switching of the tail, which is usually carried erect. The violence of movement noticeable in Spasmodic Colic is not present in Flatulent cases, although there is an immense amount of discomfort and the animal is con- tinuously moving, and turning the head around towards the flank. For Spas- modic Colic use the following drench : — Raw Linseed Oil, i pint; Tincture of Opium, I ounce; Spirits of Nitrous Ether, i ounce. An injection, per rectum, of I to 2 gallons of luke-warm water is advisable. For Flatulent Colic an ounce of Bi-carbonate of Soda in one and a half pints of water is a remedy always at hand ; or one may use a drench composed of Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, i ounce ; Oil of Turjientine, i ounce ; Tincture of Ginger, i ounce ; in a pint of raw linseed oil. Brushing. — P.J.D. has a horse which brushes badly in both front feet. Answer. — Lowering the walls of the hoof on the inside, and using bouts, is the best treatment. Butter Fat. — W.S.B. writes : — " How much butter fat, without cousitlering a balanced ration, can a cow make from (a) 1 ton of good oaten chafi^, (/') 400 lbs. of oats?" Anszuer. — The amount of butter fat a cow will make is indejjendent of the fat contained in the food, and cannot be estimated in the manner suggested. The amount depends upon the inherent characteristics of the cow, and the amount of milk secreted. The quantity but not the rjuality of milk can of course be in- fluenced by the feed, and so, indirectly, the amount of butter fat obtained will increase. REMinOERS FOR MAY. LIVE STOCK. Horses : — Those stabled can be fed liberally. Tliose doing fast or heavy work should be clipped ; if not. wholly, then trace high. Those not rugged on coming into the stable at night should be wijicd down and in half-an-hour's time rugged or covered with Ijags until tlie eo;it is dry. Old horses and weaned foals should be given cruslied oats. Grass-fed working liorses sliould he given hay or straw, if there is no old grass, to counteract the purging effects of tlie joung gnnvtii. Cattle : — Cows, if not housed, should ba rugged. Rugs should be i-emoved in the daytime when the shade temi)erature reaches 60 degrees. Give a ration of hay or straw, whole or cliaffed, to counteract the purging effects of young grass. Cows about to calve, if over fat, should be put into a paddock in which the feed is not too abundant. Calves should be kept in warm dry shed. Pigs : — As recommended in Reminders for April. Sheep : — Attend lambing ewes first thing each morning. Avoid overcrowding in lambing paddocks, and consequent shortag? of feed. Scarcity of feed means inattentive mothers. Breeds of ewes having mora than half of British blood should be kept in good strong condition, as they will not lamb until July or August. Young ram weanei-s of all breeds should now be classed, and rejects castrated or blocked. Be suspicious of weak fore-cpiartered sheep. If castrating, slit, tie with fine cord soaked in antiseptic, cut off, and apply Stockholm tar liberally inside and out. Blocking, whilst most humane in the case of rams two years old and o\er when tlie latest appliance is used, is not desirable for two-tooths. Cle:!stures with gnvsses and clovers. Orc'H.\rd : — Plough, manure, (lraii\, antl sub-soil ; ajiply linn- to orchiird hiiuis at rate of 4 or 5 c\M. jx-r acre. Spray trees infested with scale insects. Woolly Aphis, iiiul Bryobia .Mite with red oil or crude ]»troleum. Clean all rougli bark from trees. Commence jiruning at end of month. Flower Gakdex : — Digging, manuring, and i)runing ; trencii and diain where necessary. Dress the surface with lime. Continue to sow hardy annuals. Bury all leaves, soft-wooded cuttings, i-.nd weeds. Continue to plant spring blooming |ierennials and otlicr plants, llant cuttings of cjvrnations and ros«^. VlClilCTAHLE s. \ INEVARD : — Vine-growers are warned against the too common practice of feeiling olT foliage aft<>r vintage. Any small advanlaj;e in the form of stock feed is oidy gained at tlu' cost of a reduction in the following season's crop, owinu to interference with airumulation of reserves, which lontinues .so long w the leaves remain green. Sheep slioidd not be allowed into the vineyard mitil all U-aves have changed colour. Early and deep plouuliiuK is strongly reiommended {^»v Slan h JnunuiL |wige 1U8). CiUnrs. — Rack or fill up (preferably the former) dry wines as soon as a lighted niateli, introduied at bunt; hole, is no Innt'cr e\t iiit.'uishe(l. Swref wines should also be racked and fortilied to full strength. JlqFiealtupal Edaeation in Victoria. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. H. PYE, Prim-! pal. The College offers eveiy facility to students to become competent agriculturists, vignerous, and dair\men. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the ploughing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 head cattle,^ 50 horses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — £32 os. per annum, payable half-yearl\-. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. G. A. SI XC LAIR, Principal. One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demon- strating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vinej-ard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees — Resident, £18 5s. per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum, payable half- yearly. BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE. E. E. PESCOTT, Principal. The School Course includes regular lectures in Agricultural and Horticultural Science, Poultry Management, and kindred subjects. Fee — £5 per annum. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1911. At least thirty students, exclusive of school children, must be enrolled at each centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid by the Agricultural Societj- under whose auspices the Class is held. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 191 1. StaflF— The Director (Dr. S. S. Cameron), and Messrs. Archer, Carmody, Carroll, de Castella, Cother, Crowe, French Jr., Griffin, Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Johnstone, Kendall, Knio-ht, :McAlpine, Pescott, Robertson, Seymour, T. A. J. Smith, W. Smith, Strono-, Turner, and Expert of the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. ADPlications relative to the above Institutions and Lectures should be sent to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. On receipt of Post Card a copy of the Prospectus of either College will be posted. Vol. IX. THE CITY MILK SUPPLY. Part 5. [Reu'isterefl at tlir (ifucval Pn-r CtH -i . Mfllio:iiii'-, ('■ r naii-inis-iun 1]\ I'o>t as a N'ewspapei-.] METROPOLITAN MILK DISTRIBUTION, J PRICE THRFFPFNCF. (Annual Subsurlotlon- VIntnria, Intnr-State. and N.Z.. 3/- BrltlBh and Foreign. 6/-.) THE JOUKOSrAL OF "HE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— MAY, 1911 PAGE. The City Milk Supply ... ,. ... J. S. McFadzmn 297 Cream Cooling on the Farm ... .. ... ... Af. Comans a 12 Influence on the Profluction of Mutton of Manures applied to Pastures ... ... W. Someri'il/e (nhiitract hy A. J. Eimrt) .^13 Wintering Bees ... ... ... ... .. ... F. R. Bciikne 3ir> Vegetable Garden and Fodder Crops on the Government Experimental Farm, Cheltenham ... ... ... J. M. B. Connor 31S Traralgon Dairy Farm Competition .. . .. ... ... J.S.MrFadzean 826 Alexandra Fodder Crop Competition ... ... ... J. M. B. Connor '^'^0 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. FeM'ott 334 Supplementary List of Fruit Trees, &c., grown at the Royal Horticultural Gardens and School of Horticulture, Burnley E. E. Pcxcott 336 Propagation of Fruit Trees ... ... ... ... C.F.Cole 3.'iS Wine Industry in Southern France — Vineyard Manuring ... F. dc Caxtclla 346 Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard at the Rutherglen Viticnl- tural College, Vintage HUl .. ... ... G. H. Adcock 353 General Notes — The Trial Shipn.ent of Pears ... ... J.G. Turner 357 Answers to Correspondents .. ... ... ... ... ... 357 Statistics— Quarter ending 31st March, 1911 — Rainfall in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... H. A. Hunt 359 Exports and Deliveries of Perishaljle and Frozen Produce... ... i?. Crowe 360 Exports and Imports of Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. ... J. G. Turner 360 Journal of Ayriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates inmle front cover Publications issued by the Department of Agriculture ... innide front cover Reminders for June ... ... ... ... ... iimde back cover Agricultural I'.ducation in Victoria — l)ookie and Longerenong Agricultural Colleges ... ... ... hack cover Burnley School of Horticulture ... ... ... ... hack cover Agricultural Classes, 1911 ... ... ... ... ... hack cover Lectures on Agricultural Subjects, 1911 ... .. ... hack rover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected Ijy the provisions of the Cojjyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and author are both aclcnowled.ged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and N-ew Zealind, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. A limited number of tlie issues comprising Volumes II. (1903-4), 10 parts; III. (190.")), 9 parts, exclusive of Part 3 (May, 19U5), out of print ; IV. (1906), 11 parts, exelu.sive of Part 7 ( July, 1906), out of print; V. (1907), and VI. (1908), 12 parts each ; VII. (1909), 11 parts, exclusive of Part 2 (February, 1909), out of print ; and VIII. (1910), 12 parts, are at present in stock, ami will be su|)j)lied at the foregoing rates. The parts forming the current volume luav also be obtained. A few bound copies of Volumes VI. (1908), VIL (1909), and Vltl. (1910) are at present available. Price, 5s. per Volume ; postage. Is. 4d. aeen the making of their business. One <> these, a large trader, volunteered the information that for several years prior to its inctplion he had biircly held his own in trade competition; but, during the three years following the (iovernnient taking o\er the supervision, his business incre;ised over 30 per (•cut., and it has kept on improving. M 2 300 Journal of .\gri culture. Victoria. [lo May, 1911. Adulteration and the Cream Supply. Adulteration of milk is most generally effected by the addition of water or skimmed milk. The adding of water reduces the proportionate amount of the whole of the milk solids in a given sample, whilst skim milk reduces its quality in butter-fat only. In either case, the cus- tomer buying the mixture is defrauded. Many people seem to think that their dairyman sliould be able to supply cream as well as milk at any season of the year at a few hours' notice. To do this honestly, would necessitate the dairyman having a quantity of surplus milk above that required for ordinarv distribution ; but, excepting in the spring, such a surplus is almost impossible to obtain. Dairymen frequently complain of the unreasonable attitude of some cus- tomers who threaten to buy their milk elsewhere if cream is not also LINCOLNSHIRE DAIRY (w . MERRIMAN, MALVERN). supplied on casual order. It may happen that cream cannot be pur- chased anywhere at the short notice given, so the milkman must then take the chance of losing a customer through not supplying it. The onlv other course open to him in such a dilemma would be tn skim a portion of the cream from the bulk milk he had on hand for retailing. If he did this, he could not supply his regular customers from the milk he had left, so he would be compelled to mix the skimmed with the unskimmed milk, and distribute it as pure milk. This would leave him, if detected, open to prosecution — a risk few dairymen care to take in order to supply an unreasonable customer. Where the demand is a regular one, cream is purchased from farmers who separate their milk. There is an increasing inquiry at present for scalded cream in the city and suburbs ; and some farmers have under consideration the catering for this as a special trade, which will be some- thing of a boon to dairymen who have casual customers for such produce. lo May, 1911 riu City Milk Supply. 301 The Butter Fat Standard. Regarding the 3.5 per cent, butter-fat standard, as fixed by the Pui>' P'ood Standards Committee, some retailers aver that it is unreasonablv high ; but a large majority are satisfied with it. A most significant fact in its favour is the very small number of milk samples taken that have -suburban liAlK\ IW. J. Ml'.l'.lll. II \\\ riloRNK be<-n hcldw th(; standard. It is still more rare to hear ol' a retailer wiih his own farm selling inferior quality milk. Such dairymen are me^t emphatic in tlnir apjiroxal ol tiie .standard. I'lir ijuality, purity, and fresiiness ol llnir milk all comhine (<> hring tlnin ir.ide. and tlioy 'in 302 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191 i. readily sell all they can produce. At the same time, it is recognised that in the spring flush some cows do give milk that is not quite up to standard' quality during at least a short period after calving ; and if there were many such freshening in a herd at the same time,, ,the owner might be called to account on the quality of his milk as estimated on its butter-fat content. There is little chance of this occurring where a farmer keeps up a regular supply of milk the year through, and arranges that his cows will freshen at different months throughout the year. •A cow's milk is at its lowest butter- fat content in the flush of the few weeks subsequent to each calving ; and, as the period of lactation lengthens- the milk increases in quality r and becomes normal at some six to eight weeks after calving; , tlien it is usually several points above the required" stahdard. Thus, where the rnilk supply of a farm is kept up to a regular quantity throughout the y€ar, there is always enough of the richer milk in the bulk yield, if- -properly mixed, .to more than counterbalance any slight deficiency that might occur in the milk of a few freshly calved cows. Cheap Milk. The retail dairyman's inherent 'desire for cheap milk may, however,, at times get him into difficulties unexpectedly. With the incoming of summer, there is always an increased demand for milk, arising from the extra quantity required in making ice-cream and for liquid refreshments. Oujside the suburban radius there are many farmers who carry on their dairying on the natural pasture alone. They claim it does not pay to hand-feed, so they dry off their cows in the autumn ; and work is sus- pended till they all freshen again in the spring when grass is plentiful. Not being to any expense or trouble in regard to winter feeding such dairy-farmers have no lee-way to make up, and are ready to sell their milk at a cheaper rate than they would otherwise do if they had to hand feed to supply a regular trade. A dairyman with an increased spring^ trade may be tempted by an offer of cheap milk from one of these farmers, heedless of the fact that, if the cows producing it are all freshly calved,, their milk will be at its lowest quality. If it so happened that this cheap milk were sampled and its owner fined, the standard would be said to be too high; when it was really the dairyman's anxiety to make a little extra profit that caused his downfall. A fair price for good milk is the best trade motto. Many retail dairymen who are supplied by several farmers pay a retaining fee for the services of an expert analyst who tests the milk of each supplier as often as may be required. Should any fault be found the dairyman can then take steps for his own protection. Misstatements are, however, known to occur in this connexion. On one occasion, a farmer, being informed by his retailer that his milk was not up to standard quality, applied to the Board of Health for his milk to be tested on the farm. This was done, and from over thirty samples taken at different milkings there was an average result of 4.5 per cent, of butter-fat ; and none of the samples went below 4 per cent. Evidently a misstatement or deliberate adulteration had taken place somewhere ; but at least the result exonerated the cows. Those dairymen who retail milk from their own herds find no necessity for retaining the services of an analyst ; as the standard does not cause them any uneasiness. Development of Refrigeration. Legitimate competition improves trade, and improvement in condition of premises generally follows, in order that trade may still further in- lo May, 1911.] The City, Milk Supply. 303 crease and be successfully handled. Results show that, in the dairying business, owners are no way behind other tradesmen in thus pushing HYDE PARK DAIRY (h. THOMPSON, GLENFERRIe). forward their business opportunities. Owing to the removal of some of the disadvantages affecting the dairying business, as referred to in the COTSWOLD hills' DAIRY {\\ . WHITE. HAWK.SII'KnK foregoing pages, many of the city and suburban dairymen have largely increased their sales. The buying and selling f)rices of milk are also 304 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 May, 1911. now more uniform, and contracts can now be entered into withi a freedom that could not be ventured before. The result is that an all round im- provement is being made both in the construction of premises, and in methods of handling produce. Five years ago the use of the dairy refrigerator in connexion with the handling of fresh milk was confined to two metropolitan firms. In very many instances, even ordinary cooling of milk was neglected. Under such treatment, milk could not be expected to retain its freshness ; and it frequently turned thick or sour before the customer could use it. Now, almost every dairyman makes use of ice in some way during the summer ; some by standing the milk cans in iced water ; others have large ice- chests to store in ; while a considerable number have erected refrigerating machinery and cold storage rooms on their dairy premises. Several of these last mentioned cater for the trade, either by selling properly cooled milk at wholesale rates as required, or by cooling and storing milk for others. To fit up a refrigerating plant is an expensive item to the dairy- man, but it is a money-saving procedure right from the outset. Some dairymen claim that they have saved the cost of the installation within one year, through prevention of losses from souring ; hut this is ])erhaps somewhat of an exaggeration. The cost of running the average dairy refrigerator may be set down at from 12s. to 15s. per week, and this is frequently more than covered by the amount received from other dairymen who pay the usual storage rate of is. per can per week. Several dairymen who now have their own plants were formerly paying 15s. to 20s., and over, per week for storage accommodation ; and were at much loss of time travelling to and from the ice- works with their milk. Also, owing to imperfect cooling, much milk was lost in the storing. Altogether, a reasonable estimate of actual saving by having the plant on the premises might run to ^^50 per year ; and, besides this, there is the profit arising from the increased trade that the cool storage promotes. Refrigeration is an insurance against loss ; it holds custom ; and it is one of the greatest aids to the building up of a milk business. Until some experience has been gained in cold storage, many dairy- men are slow to realize the full advantages of thorough and quick cooling. If milk is at all warm, the standing of it in cold water or in a cold room does not at once prevent it from deteriorating in condition ; it must be properly cooled before it is safe. In order to check the de- velopment of acidity, milk must be cooled down to below 60 degrees P\ahr. When a can of milk above this temperature is placed in cold water or in an ice room, the outside portic)n of the milk cools quickly ; but, unless it is repeatedly stirred, it will be some time before the milk in the centre of the can becomes cooled ; and it will be deteriorating meanwhile. When such a can is taken out for distribution and the milk is mixed up, the whole will soon turn sour. A similar happening may occur through standing a can of milk in water that is lower in level than the milk in the can. In this case, while the milk below may be cooled to the water temperature, that above the water line will tend to remain at the higher temperature of the atmosphere, and the whole will be spoilt. Until the reason is explained to them, dairymen are frw|ut^iitly at a loss to account for milk thus cooled going bad. Cooling on the Farm. The most common complaint retail dairymen have against their farm suppliers is their lax method of cooling in hot weather ; and many a lo May. 1911] The City Milk Supply. 305 farmer has lost a good customer through carelessness in this matter. If carefully carried out, the usual cooling on the farm by means of well water running through a cooler will bring milk down to the required tem- perature. In the colder months, the temperature of the atmosphere assists in this work; but in warm weather it retards it, and this point is often overlooked. In warm weather, the milk should be passed very slowly over the cooler in order to take full advantage of the cold water; and if the heat is not taken out of the milk in one cooling, it will pay to run it over again. This second cooling will reduce it to the temperature required ; and it will have a chance of reaching the retailer in a satis- factory condition. When a farmer contracts to supply milk he should do his' best to see that the buyer gets it in good order. It is unreason- able to expect payment for milk that cannot be sold; and to get such milk from a farmer disorganizes a dairyman's trade, causing him not only loss of time but also of custom. One of the principal advantages of the refrigerator to the dairyman lies in the facility given for the quick and thorough reducing of the tem- perature of the milk by use of the brine cooler. Once cooled, it is not a difficult matter to keep milk cool ; but, as mentioned, if this is not done quickly the milk soon spoils. With brine cooling, it is usual to reduce the temperature of the milk to about 45 degs., and maintain it at that, or lower, in the ice-room until sent out for distribution. Pasteurization. The use of preservatives in milk is forbidden by the Pure Food laws ; and, with present-day methods of refrigeration and pasteurization, there is no necessity for them. Regarding the advantage or otherwise of pasteurizing milk for household use, there is some difference of opinion ; and, as to w'hich process has the most advantages in regard to milk for use in the nursery, even doctors differ. However, there does not appear to be any question that milk from healthy cows milked under cleanly con- ditions is as perfect a food as can be desired for either infants or adults ; and, if such milk is at once subjected to refrigeration, and kept at a low tem.perature until it goes into consumption, it is then just as sweet and wholesome as when taken from the cow. On the other hand, if there is any doubt as to the health of the cattle, or the conditions under which milk is either produced or handled are not as sanitary as could be desired, the pasteurizing of the milk may I)e looked on as a necessitv. Coming from a healthy cow, milk is pure and healthful; but, if not carefully handled, it may become contaminated through contact with dust or flies, and disease germs may be introduced into it by such means. The heat to which milk is subjected in pasteur- izing will destroy disea.se germs ; and it is as a counterbalance to possible cuntamination that pasteurizing is more generally advocated. It is a corrective for conditions which should have been prevented. Though pure milk is not improved by the process, yet pasteurizing milk enables it to be kept in a wholesome state under conditions which would be altogether outside consideration without it. Milk pasteurized, and sealed from contact with air, w'ill keep sweet until some time after it is unsealed ; and, as a standby where fresh milk cannot Ix- regularly ob- tained, it is in g(M)d demand on this account. Milking Method.s. Another subjti-t tliat has caused discussion inidtig those interested in the fresh milk ir.idr is the ( npiparison, fmin a saritarv stindiioint, of 3o6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1911, machine and hand milking. Either method may be bad and both methods may be good. If kept scrupulously clean, the machine has an advantage over hand milking, as it conveys the milk under protection of the tubes from the udder of the cow to the covered receiving bucket ; thereby re- moving all risk of its being contaminated by flies, dust, or other dirt. In order to be satisfactory, hand milking calls for unremitting care in keeping the cows well groomed, and the milking shed and surroundings free from accumulation of dirt of any description. It is impossible to keep cattle in a perfect state of cleanliness in all weathers and at all seasons. This is universally recognised ; and therefore those milking conditions that were the best possible under existing circumstances have in the past been considered satisfactory. With the improvements that have been made of recent years in milking machines, they have reached a standard of efficiency that has brought them into fairly general use in- many districts; partiriilarlv where the srarrity of labour had previously \ICTORIA DAIRY KlLt)A}. been a hindrance to dairying. With their use the standard of cleanliness- in milking has been raised much above what previously was the best. Distribution. Pursuing this subject of a perfect milk supply a little further we- come to the item of city distribution ; and, apart from its expense, nothing can at present equal the bottle system. A few firms are already distributing milk by this method : and there are indications of the practice becoming more general before long. In the outer suburbs, where the air carries comparatively little dust, and the trade is in the hands of clean and careful people, milk distribution by hand can and measure may be- looked on as fairly satisfactory ; but in the city and more closely-populated suburbs, and especially during the drier months, it must be conceded that this system might well be improved on. Hand cans are opened and' filled from the larger cans or floats in the dusty streets ; and are opened" 10 May, 191 1.] The City Milk Supply. 307 again to measure out milk to each customer, risking possible contamina- tion on every such occasion. The one thing that stands in the way of general bottling for distri- bution is the expense that is incurred by dairymen through breakages. If a cheaper or more durable, as well as lighter, bottle or other package were obtainable, the system would more quickly find favour. The bottles do away with any suggestion of short measure being given ; and it is the only satisfactory solution to the difficulty arising from adulteration of milk by the employe distributing it. Dairymen have been frequently fined for selling watered milk, when it was the employe who should have been dealt with. Unscrupulous men have been seen to adulterate their employer's milk in order that they might sell a few extra quarts on the round, and pocket the proceeds. While prosecution of employes has done much to check this practice, there would be less opportunity for fraud if the milk were sold in sealed bottles. UNION DAIRY (mORRIS BROS., SOUTH MELBOURNE). Ideal conditions for a city milk supply would thus appear to be its production on the farm from healthy cattle kept amidst clean surround- ings, cooled by refrigeration, buttled, .sealed, and flelivered cold to the customer. The cost of railway carriage and work of handling are, how- ever, prohibitive of milk being conveyed far in that way ; and only dairy farmers within easy driving distance of the city could afford to bottle and send the milk out direct from the farm. The next best method, there- fore, of handling the city supply is the thorough cooling on the farm, and forwarding the bulk in cool trucks to distributing depots on the open outskirts of the city, to be then bottled and sent out without delay. The work of retailing milk under the individual owner system, as at present in vogue, is often spoken of by observers as being very expensive to the dairymen on account of the great area that is travelled over by each cart in working the several rounds. Among the many suggestions that have been put forward for remedying this are municipal, co-operative, 3o8 ] ournal oj Agnculturt: . Victoria. [lo May, 1911, or large proprietary depots, from which tlie whole of the milk for each .suburb, or group of suburbs, might be distributed ; the carts each delivering to all the houses on a given route. This would certainly do- away with much of the travelliiig that the present rounds call for ; but it w'ould also close out all competition and indivitlual effort ; which very probably would not be to the benefit of the public. As matters now stand, they have a choice of several dairymen in every district, both in regard to hour of delivery or individual fancy in quality of milk sup- plied. Every dairyman also has some customers whose trade he values so highly that he would go a long way out of his usual route to serve them. It is in following customers such as this who have moved to- another locality, that a dairyman often increases his round, as their re- commendation will bring him more trade. Taking everything into con- sideration, the present working system appears to be fairly satisfactory for both consumers and suppliers. Facts, Figures, and Worthy Examples. The increase in trade that has been mentioned as having taken place in the retail business may best be demonstrated by a few figures. There are, altogether, id dairymen in Melbourne and suburbs whose premises are now fitted with refrigerating plants. These are Messrs. Evans, in Brighton; Cook, in Camberwell ; Morris, in Carlton; Hopton, in Col- lingwood ; McKeever, in Essendon ; Atkins, and Larcher, in Fitzroy ;. Flockhart, in Flemington; McFarlane, in Footscray ; Sibbitt, and Thomp- son, in Hawthorn; Rout, and Simonton Bros., in Kew ; Coughlan, Jenner, Merriman, and Woodmason, in Malvern ; Afiieck, Shinkfield, and White,' in Prahran ; Adams, in St. Kilda ; Oakes, in Richmond ; Smith, in North Melbourne; Dobelli, and Morris Bros., in South Mel- linurne ; and the W'illsmere Certified Milk Co., in Melbourne City. There is also Mr. Hope's dairy farm in Caulfield which is not included in these, as the milk from there is retailed by other dairymen mentioned, Messrs. R.out and Woodmason retail from their dairy farms, running both branches of the business on the same premises. These 26 dairies represent a daily distribution of 28,690 quarts of milk to 28,696 customers. Several of these dairymen supply shops and other small retailers ; so the number of customers to whom this milk is distributed is much larger than the figures show. On the average, the distribution is less than a quart per customer. Among the larger dairies with refrigerating plants installed, a few ex- amples will suffice to show what has taken place In individual instances increases have been made in sales of from 400 quarts to 800 quarts ; 1,500 to 4,500; 250 to 800 ; 800 to 1,500 ; 650 to i,.'^oo : 1°° to 600; and 180 to 880. On the whole, in regard to the 26 dairymen w^hose names are given above, the daily distribution has advanced from 16,795 to 28,790 quarts; while the number of customers directly supplied by them has increased from 14,284 to -25,096. This large increase has not been gained altogether by canvas or recommendation, as occurs with those in a smaller way ; but has largely been made up from the purchase of smaller rounds. Many cow-keepers have moved from the inner suburbs to further out ; and have disposed of their retail portion of the business ; and for reasons previously given many other small rounds have changed hands, and the men with ready capital have gathered them in. However, the purchase money has all been derived from the direct profit in tlie milk trade ; and when the public hears that the price of milk has to be raised because the business is not lo May, 1911.] The City Milk Supply. 309 paying, they may understand that it is at least not a question of starva- tion with their dairyman. Photographs are herewith presented of a few of the dairies mentioned. Owing to the nature of the work, the handling must be done under shelter ; and, for convenience, the plant is not spread out over more space than is actually necessary. I'his leaxcs \iiy lilllr lo Ik- seen from a single iihoto- graph. or even a series ; hut, as the buildings are all fitted up to work somewhat on the same lines, it will suflice if the arrangement of one is descril)ed. The Modrl D.iiiy. owm-d by Messrs. .Simonton firos.. of Ki-w. is one of tlif oldest ani! best nrranged fAV. 191 I ■] W mitring Bus. 317 bees down to a single story, which will give the best results under all the varying conditions of strength in bees and climatic influences. When colonies are left with one super full of ripe honey, in addition to the brood chamber, they winter well. But not many bee-keepers are prepared to leave so much honey in the hives, which is not needed by the bees and represents in a large apiary a considerable money value which cannot be realized till the following spring. At the same time, there is a risk of .some of the honey granulating in the combs, and then it cannot be obtained except by the destruction of the combs. When supers with empty combs are left on, the heat generated by the cluster of bees escapes upwards and the bees sometimes follow it and establish their seat between the empty combs. Some of the honev is carried up by this means and the operation cau.ses unnatural activity, greater consumption of stores, and wearing out of bees. With the empty combs put below the cluster of bees, the same advan- tages of conserving heat and ease of occasional examination are .secured, as when bees are wintered in a single hive body. But combs below the l)rood are apt to become rather dirty, and sometimes mouldy. Since it has becon-se known that the Nosema afis parasite is present in almost everv apiary, there is an additional reason for the removal from ihe hives of all combs not required by the bees during winter. According to Dr. Zander, the discoverer of Nosema apis, the chief .source of infec- tion is the combs .soiled with the faeces of diseased bees. During the working season, bees void their excrements outside the hive ; moreover, the life of the bee during active field work in summer is so short that infected bees wear out in the natural course of events before the di.sease has reached the final stage, as in the case of the bees which came through the winter. The removal of all sur|)lus combs, at the end of the season, will therefore do much to keep them free from the infection, which undoubtedly would take place during winter should an outbreak of malignant dy.sentery occur. Thus, only one set of combs would have to be boiled down, instead of two or more. In the ca.se of small colonies, the reduc- tion can be carried still further. The writer has repeatedly .successfully wintered bees on three or four combs by confining them to one side of the hive (the side facing the sun) by means of a division board, or by putting two small stocks into one hive, a thin tightlv fitting board and a separate entrance for each keeping them apart. This crowding of bees on a limited number of combs has also the advantage of being a preventive of robbing. Robbing is generally started, in the first instance, by bees prowling round and finding honey in the unguarded outside combs of a colony. Becoming bolder, by degrees, the roblx-rs will attack any poorlv defendi^d hive. Bees from (Aher hives, attracted bv the commotion, join in and share in the plunder. As colonies affected with Foul Brr/^d are poor defenders of their home, such a colony, if oin- is in tlie apiary, usually falls a victim to the robbers and the roblx?rs in turn develop disea.se in their hives. In conclusion, the writer would point out that any combs remo\e(i from the hives should l^e at once secured from access by Ix^e moths, by tiering the cases and securely covering the top and bf>ttoni of each staik. It is during the aiitiinni that the wax or Xicr moth d<*posits its eggs on the combs, although the grubs do not appear till soring. Ofl.-n the bee- keeper is unaware that th(> eggs are present wh«'n he can-fullv packs awav his combs, after lea\ing tln-m exposed to the moths for a ^hort lime. 3i8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191 i. VEGETABLE GARDEN AND EODDEll CROPS ON THE GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENTAL FARM, CHELTENHAM. /. M . B. C'Oiinor, Agricultural Suferintendent. Three years ago the Department of Agriculture established an experi- mental vegetable garden on the farm of Mr. J. Wedd, situated near the Cheltenham railway station, and engaged the owner as manager under the direction of the Field Branch. Five acres of ground have been set apart and utilized for experimental plots in which new varieties of different kinds of vegetables are grown in season under the ordinary conditions of commercial market gardening, but with up-to-date methods of propagating and improved cultural operations and methods of manuring. Vegetables are now being grown on this farm under manurial conditions unheard of a few years ago. Stable manure has been, and is still, the most satisfac- tory fertilizer used by the market gardeners along the coast from Brighton to Mordialloc ; but, as will be observed from the tabulated returns published below, artificial fertilizers have given marked returns in many instances. The analyses made of this particular soil, and of samples taken from other farms in close proximity to it, show that the amount of plant food contained in this class of soil would not be sufficient for the need of the plants for any length of time, being very deficient in phos- phoric acid. The virgin land was ploughed 4 inches deep, disc harrowed and the rubbish burned off. It was then cross ploughed to a depth of 8 inches, disced, and cross harrowed. Stable manure, at the rate of 10 tons per acre, was applied, at a cost of ;^3 per acre, and the plots planted with potatoes, cabbages, &c. The second year's operations con- sisted of the planting of various crops of vegetables under manurial tests. These have been continued on the lines recorded in the statement showing the returns for last season. The real value of this farm lies in ils monetary returns as everything grown is marketed at a profit; a good deal of the success can be attributed to the thorough work and co-operation of the owner. One of the chief sources of pleasure, and profit, but which is conspicuouc ny its absence on most farms, is a vegetable garden. The growing of vegetables leads to better system of farming and a well tilled garden yields from ten to iwenty times better returns when compared with general farm crops grown on the same area of land. Very few people fully realize the wonderful progress that has been made in the various branches of market gardening. No doubt the rapid progress made on this particular farm is due in no small measure to the thorough system of tillage, the conservation of soil moisture, and the encouragement of the growth of beneficial bacteria in the soil. Irrigation is not practised, and the results already attained certainly augur well for the future. There are pests that require con- tinuous attention and care to combat. Without this the business of market gardening cannot be successfully carried on, and the wide-awake, aggres- sive, and progressive growers who wage war agafnst pests are likely to grow more and better vegetables and make a financial success of the business. Such was clearly demonstrated this season on the sprayed potato plots on this farm. lo May, 191 1.] Government Experimental Farm, CheUenliam. 319: The following pai-ticulars show the returns derived irom the Farm for the year 1910 >.»£ ,^! ■tO 0 •■£ c 0 00 0 oc 0 0 ocoo 0 0 C 000 CO i sl^i^s =,■ ^ - ,, - -; c !=;• "-o 0 0 -n 0 0 = 00 »ft 0 0 "-.00 -M ! ^>t\\ —1 « ffi 71 C5 t~ ! « ■* (N(M(N C^l M — (N !N « M •r 'Kco I- S , c : 1 : : cf 0 0 0 • _• -* s- ,— ^ ■? ;.^ c, ^ £^' " =- i <% s C (MO ^ - *^ 5 t u-; 0 CO x;:, -^ .^ SI 1 0 lO 0 00 ^^ -§ ' c : ; :: i - 0 0 0 c ^ 5 2 J >< (M 0 lO IMOO §0 t~ SijiS CO os^ ;o ri-t. t^ ^ -t^ f-t •* ■* •* •*•* 050 10 ^ r). T)< o> c:i>i35 — " 1 •«=> 0 n 0 0 CO •.0 o c « 0 0000 CO 0 0 X 0 0 rt , 5 N t^ 3 0 «o * » ^ X 0 -* t~ 00 t^ -^ X ^ 0 « ^ c-1 0 0 oi 1 — " i-i .- -H ,-1 ^ '"' 1-1—1 1-1 -K * " s . t^ -4.; -.i Ph ■3 -« '•5 "^ ■^ ^ > > &J30. &-?^ St-'r" ^ « u'5 ■*55 MO CI » -T la » >a IM CO " 0 -H S 0 s rt ji — — — .- — rt 1-1 rt X 'JlC » rH C. ■d _ _ 1 < ■< 1 s -fl' c; > •e •C! ^ '^^ >^ ee B •a • • •■2'S ■'• p te S CS ■ s i_ ^ '35 3 "S ^ « . . si Q 1 1 >. >>'n >> >> >■. ^i"^ : : X M c3 c4 . ^ .*i ^ *i ^ ^ = 2 3 3 3 ■5 •C T3 •c ^T s ■'S 0 c c = 232 g .2 .£ - :|^ : : : ^ (§.2 - p 0 0 ^ 0 ; "^ S s 5! 2 S S £-5 0 =3 0 * ^ 1^ ll^t:^ fl^: 1 0 < II 0 0 ■§ ■ft. !1 ■£ ° 5 3 t; 0 t; 0 S 1 ^ -X — — — — -^ "^ — — ^ ^ ^ -^ "^ ^ -E — ^ i *5 *^ — " — -5 *" .3-^ i^,^'"-^— ^^^1 S d •5-5 p-5 J =■? £ £-J p-2 %~ ■2 £-5 &J £"£ -5 E"- &J'5 l-J-SI -^ - -^ S£- i»« »s5s •7. -7. -7. 5- £ X -7 ^ ^ ^ y; 5 :^ :' lfl5-^ £•-/; 0 5.-/; Si-ga: S-s* "?^ t%%t ■5 . J* jijii 0 0 0000 "■?" 5 C £-^S 5 2 o*i ^ o*i 0 u*i 00*3 H"-««'ti eo « lO rt OiO -I 0 1"' -^ «■'■-' 0 5>o i-ieort 0 o-i^-i^ M M 05 N — iac4 U>fl; '——'>'. .^_— — ' '>a'^.ry^r,y '— " ■ ' '-.-' u^"— — '^^ ' '~.— ' 0 i, 0 t-^ ci s s « ■< 5 ^ - •■ -5 : : r ; : : : r r 2 Z : : ; : r r CO » « ii -> «1 1 ^ S i ' i ^ 4^ — © t-^ ."^ - -i • eS C3 ^. - " -J^ 0 « Bli r* t £ 1 - , IM vcrinii(Ni Expcriinciiial Farm, Chi'lit'n/iam. 321 " Traying " Seed Potatoes. One of the most interesting and successful experiments carried out this season was the " traying " or sprouting of seed potatoes under the direc- tion of Mr. G. Seymour, Potato Expert, who is a strong advocate of the process as a preliminary to planting.* The results obtained are most encouraging and should appeal to the potato growers throughout the State. The system is destined to become generally adopted in the near future when growers recognise the benefits to be obtained in the heavier yields that result. Planting for the main crop of potatoes generally takes place during the months of June and July. Frosts are very often the cause of great losses during the early spring through biting back the young potato plant. Mr. Seymour justly claims that the traying system overcomes a good deal of the danger, becau.se the seed, when trayed, may be planted later in the season. This means that, instead of planting the tubers in June and July, the potatoes are kept in shallow trays, placed on racks in a .shed, and not planted out until September. During the two months, the potatoes are allowed to grow or sprout in the trays and the eyes produce short, strong, and healthy shoots and not the weak spindly growth that one sees when the potatoes are stacked in bags or heaps. The growth is so strong under the traying system that, when the potatoes are planted, there is no check, witli the result that there is not much difference in the time of digging operations. It also has the great advantage of gi\'ing the grower the opportunity of selecting sound seed at the time of planting and, further, the ground between the months of June and September can he utilized for other purposes. The digging of the potato i)lots on the farm, which took phice on 4th January, 191 1, was witnes.sed and checked by a number of interested local vegetable gardeners who were convinced of the great advantages to be derived from the traying system and the use of artificial fertilizers. One of the features of the test was that the artificial manures, when used with stable manure, gave much higher returns than stable manure alone. Experimental Plots. The results, as tabulated below, from the experimental onion, turnip, cabbage, tomato, cucumber, pea, bean and other numerous vegetable plots clearly show tin' lucessity of growing these improved varieties. Besides \egc-tables, a small portion of the farm has been devoted to fodder growing witli wonderfully good results, as will be seen from the illustrations. Varieties of Maize, Westernwolths Rye Grass, Toowo<')mba Canary Grass. Sulla, Lucerne, Earth Almonds, Pea Nuts and Soya Beans have been grown. The plots have been inspected by farmers from all i)arts t)f the State and grcatlv admired. It is to be hoped that other persons interested in vegetable or fodder growing will lake adxantage of the o[>portunity to personally inspei t this farm. I'he manager will be only too pleased to show iheni over and explain the methods in detail. • \'i>\:\\n Kx|>irinii T' : to in . 0 "9 ' ^ t~ • ■* d fei ■ !M (M CI M OJ ^ rH ! in •* CD Til 0 CO cOOi oOOOCiTji C -* i> •* lO CO (M •* cot> e-lcoooo eoxs CD (M 0 ta A 13 '"' ■-* .-1 r-i ft « -I ■* 00 »AO Ot^'M'-^ -^Oi * CO ■* 0 OOJ CD(MOI> <»0 ■* 00 eq ■* — — ^ N -H t-H >-H CO ■is 0 t> 0 31 •41 to CO CD Ovft XOCOCO CT1C35 CO CO \rt Oi r- 'd" rt r* ^ IM fM CO ^ OJ CI CO irt rH CO .-) 00 (N >-i g^ ^ rt , , ■^-ts <^ .^ 02 -*^ r - 1 « ■ 1^ d ee •3 taDa Sgo|^ •- d-d e- il 2 01 House Slight rise about i mile east 0 of Nepean-road and abou J mile south-east of J. Wedd' Low land, about IJ miles eas of J. Wedd's Near Centre Dandenong-road about IJ miles of J. Wedd's close to watercourse 5 '21 i3 Slight rise about 100 yards of house, just outside g Close to north-west corner ( den, ne.xt Centre Dande road in slight depression, 100 yards from first san 2 =^ d ?i 0 d •0 73 d . d p 2 0 Poor, sandy rise, J mile i east of J. Wedd's Low ground, about 200 south-west of the other d ffi - '& 0 "^ i >.a p. _- &, jj- e, d ft aco S a- S- -u '0 0 ^ 1 § s ^ d a -2 0 ~" >. >> -2 -d d g ^ CO "■' sandy loam, about 1 fo , fine, sandy ; ^^about deep 1 foot deep . . a> d 1 d c8 C3 0 & S S^ S§ 1? -►^ tK _, — 0 g d 1 i _d in 0 03 8 C8 , sandy, 1 foot take considerably deeper andy, about 1 foot dec , sandy, 1 foot take much deeper am, about 9 inches dei , deep clay, 9 inches taki loam, about 1 foot dei , sandy, about 1 foot dei subsoil, clay about !S taken sandy ; about 6 inch ,light sandy, 1 foot take considerably deeper loam, about 1 foot dei 0^ Is "i'ol igllt f ubsoil deep teavy deep ubsoil foot ( 1 0 fsll «_o ubsoil goes oor, s ubsoil goes tiff lo; ubsoil andy ubsoil Inder inchG t^ S M 0 J3 0 « 1 1^: yA Ji re -n u^? as P s t/: a-i cc as CO cc co hj P-l OJ 1-^ rn < a -M -M CO -f •* f. m < aoi oioj ■< K, Oi iM -»1 CQ pa Q 0 iM ci CO CO -!) (a 0 ■* ^ -<( (D ~ -^ •"' ^ -^ ^ CO coco ■* "* 1 "Hb — •- d a •a 0 ^ ^ z- ^ — 22 Am 'k « (5 0 Best average return. 12 points per Is. per week . . 100 40 41 r)4 4.i 40 Situation, constnut ion. arninKeuient, and condition of yards and liuililinus 100 "."> 71 .'>0 (U 72 Farm ManaRciucnt -Pasture, cultivation, water. utensils, system, and records, utilization of manure 100 02 70 00 t« (!7 Stocli — Quality and condition, and nunilicrof younj; stock 100 75 55 65 69 41 Totals 400 252 246 238 238 220 4'.i4C>. 33° Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191 i. ALEXANDRA FODDER CROP COMPETITION. /. M . B. Connor, Agricultural Superintendent. The judging in connexion with the Alexandra Fodder Crop Competi- tion took place on the 3rd and 4th March. Whilst delighted to see such magnificent crops of maize throughout this fertile district, I was disap- pointed to find only six competitors entered for the competition. The growing of nutritious fodder for stock of all kinds, especially for the dairy herd, involves many difficult questions regarding the production of suitable forage crops which will yield per acre the greatest food value per unit of expenditure. The influence of various fodders upon the quality of the milk produced lias, in recent years, been carefully studied by the Departmental experts and applied to farm practice. Not only has the number of useful forage crops increased, but they are now grown in well balanced mixtures or in rotative courses by many progressive farmers throughout the State. There is no doubt that the fodder competitions held in the dairying districts throughout the State are the means of bringing about improved methods of cultivation and greater success in modern farm- ing generally. These and similnr competitions must eventually help to set a standard in the various districts for other progressive farmers to follow. Present-day progress in agriculture is regulated by the increase of scientific knowledge. Its intelligent application spells success. The following results have been arrived at after carefully inspecting each competitor's crop, weighing sections, men.suring heights, and taking into consideration the preparation of the land previous to sowing opera- tions, cleanness of the crop, quantity of seed sown, and estimated yield per acre. Points Awarded. Competitors >, J xT ■a . Section. S lo 2 d ^'§ m d OJ 0 Ph 0 ?g ^2 f Agriculture. Yicioria. [lo May, 191 i. again scored, ha\-ing sown the well and favourably known varieties of Hickory King. Early Yellow Dent, and Sydney Flat Red, with the result that he is in a position to know, by practical experience, the most suitable variety to grow in the future for early and late sowing. 3. Quality of crop, hulk of leaves and stems. — The drilled crop of Mr. Rennie's gained points on account of the growth of foliage and uniform maturity of the cobs. This was very noticeable when the cro]) was compared with the broadcasted crops, and even with those sown in closer drills. The admittance of sunlight, made possible by the width MR. R. rennie's maize CROP (5 ACRES), ACHERON. SECOND PRIZE. Yield per acre, 42^ tons. between the drills, appeared to have given body and sweetness to the luscious leaves and stems that were absent in the overcrowded and sour broadcasted crops. The cobs were more uniformly matured and more evenly fertilized. 4. Quantity of seed sown per acre. — As the points in this section indicate, Mr. Rennie again leads. His crop of Hickory King maize, sown at the rate of 15 lbs. per acre, w^as very uniform as regards growth and height. The quantity per acre sown by the other competitors ranged from 35 lbs. to i;^ bushels. 5. Estimated yield per acre. — In this section I had the pleasure of weighing some of the finest crops of maize, both as regards height of stems and bulk of leaves, that one could wish tO' handle. On the farm of Mr. Kennedy the highest portion of the crop measured 14 feet and the lowest portion 11 J feet, or an average height for the 10 acres, after taking lo May, 1911-] Alexandra Fodder Crof Competition. 333 measurements in ten different places, of 13 feet. In order to arrive yt something like an accurate weight, I selected numerous average portions of the respecti\-e crops, weighed a given area, and averaged the whole, with the result that Mr. Kennedy's crop returned an estimated total weight of 52^ tons of green fodder per acre. What other fodder crop grown can favourably compare with such satisfactory returns? In roughly estimating the commercial value of this crop, the estimated weight per acre and the nutritive composition have both to be taken into consideration. For instance, analvsis shows green Hickory King maize, MR. J. CLARK'.S maize CROP (8 ACRES). THORNTON. Yield i>iT acre, 4:? J tons. THIRD PRIZE. when thoroughly maturerl, that is. when the kernels are in a glazed condi- tion and before entering the ripening stage, to contain the following feeding value: — Protein 2.10 per cent., carto-hydrates 8.37 per cent., fat 0.53 per cent. Compare this with bran, which shows, on analysis, protein 1 1. 2 per cent., carbo-hydrates 42.2 per cent., and fat 2.5 per cent. On this basis, Mr. Kennedv's crop of 52I tons per acre would 1h' e(|ual in feeding \alue to 8.71 tons of bran. The foregoing information is sui)|)lied for the purpose of showing competitors tlic value of maize grown under proper condition.s and fed to stfK-k with lucerne and other leguminous fodders in a well balanced ration 'I'lie croi) of lucfrne inspected on tlie farm of Christie Bros, w.is \ery line. It well illustrated the suitability of the district for the growing of this vahial)le fodder plant, a few acres of which siiould In.' culti\ated on excrv farm. 334 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [jo May, 1911. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School oj Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Cultivation. Cultivation work should be well on the way by this time. The plough- ing should be advanced, so as to leave plenty of time for other orchard work. The autumn ploughing may be as rough as possible, taking care to plough to the trees, so that the drainage furrow is left between the rows. Manuring. It is just probable, where heavy crops have been carried, that a top dressing of stable manure wall be required to add humus to the soil. A remarkably heavy crop of pears has been produced this year, and the trees will likely require a stimulant for next season. The fertility of the soil must be maintained ; and, although stable and chemical manures as a general rule are of undoubted value as tree stimulants, well cultivated and thoroughly tilled land will always carry fair crops, and with far less manure than otherwise. Also, if the orchard land is well and thoroughly drained, cultivated, and subsoiled, any manures that are used will be far more beneficial to the trees. The more suitable conditions that are given to the trees, the better they can appreciate and assimilate their food. Perhaps the most useful and valuable of manures is stable manure. It is of great use, not only as a manure and as an introducer of necessary bacteria into the soil, but its value in adding humus to the soil is incalcul- able. Organic matter, such as stable manure, introduced into the soil, quickly becomes humus ; this greatly ameliorates and improves soil con- ditions. It is impossible to say what quantity of stable manure is neces- sary per acre ; that alone can be determined by each circumstance. Orchards ir different climates, and on various soils, will require differing quantities. A too liberal use of stable manure will be over-stimulating in most cases ; while an excess beyond what is necessary for present use, will only be waste, as humus is readily lost from the soil, once it is in an available food form. It has been pointed out in these notes previously, in September, 1910, that an improved physical soil condition is far more profitable to the fruit grower, than the continued use of manures. A tree will be far more pro- ductive if it is happy in its soil conditions ; uncomfortable conditions will always result in unprosperous trees. A dressing of lime, using about 4 or 5 cwt. per acre, is of great value in stiff or heavy orchard lands ; and it may be given at this season. The lime, which must be fresh, should be distributed in small heaps between the trees, covered with a layer of soil, and allowed to remain for a few days before ploughing or harrowing in. Pests. The advice given last month for spraying should be followed, par- ticularly where any oil emulsions or washes are to be used. Orchards will benefit if an attack is now made upon the Codlin Moth. All hiding places, nooks and crannies, wherever the larvae have hidden, should be thoroughly searched and cleaned out. The orchardist has far more time now to do this work, than he will have in the springtime. lo May. 1911.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 335 General \\'ork. Drainage systems should now be extended with as iittle loss ot lime as possible. New planting areas should be prepared, and subsoiled or trenched wherever possible. Vegetable Garden. Weeds must be kept down in the vegetable garden. Weeds are gener- ally free growing at this season; their growth is very insidious, and they will crowd out tlie young seedlings or plants in a very quick time. Hoe- ing and handweeding must be resorted to, preferably hoeing. The fre- quent use of the hoe in winter time is of much benefit in the vegetable garden. A varied assortment of crops is now being produced ; and, if these can be kept growing, much better crops will result. The soil quickly stagnates in the winter, and the only way to prevent this is to keep the surface stirred. Thus, a double service is performed with the aid of the hoe. The application of lime is a matter of great necessity at this season. In addition to amending unhealthy and unsuitable soil conditions, lime is particularly u.seful as an insecticide. It assists in destroying both eggs and insects in immen.se numbers, that would breed and live in the ground to do damage to all classes of vegetable crops. Therefore, wherever pos- sible, the soil should receive an application of lime. The garden should as well be manured with stable manure, but not for some weeks after the lime application. Cabbage and cauliflower plants may be planted out; and seeds of parsnips, carrots, onions, peas, and broad beans may be sown Flower Garden. The whole flower section should now be thoroughly dug over. All beds should be cleaned up, top dressed with manure, and well dug. The light rubbish, such as foliage, twiggy growths, weeds, etc., may all be dug in, and they will thus form a u.seful humic addition to the soil. These should never be wasted. Only the coarser and stouter growths should be carted away for burning, and then the ashes may be used as manure. No part, whatever, of garden rubbish or litter need be wasted. In one form or another it should be replaced in the soil. May is a good month for establishing new gardens, and for planting out. All deciduous plants and shrubs may now be planted. It is not necessary to dig a deep hole for planting. A hole in which the roots of the plant can be comfortably arranged, without crowding or cramping, will be quite sufticient for the purpose. Continue to sow .seeds of hardy annuals, including sweet peas, although the main crop of sweet peas should be well above ground. Where there has been any ovorplanting, the young plants will readily stand transplanting, and this will greatly assist tnose that are to remain. Annuals should not be crowded in tiie beds. They require ample room for suitable development; and thus the seeds should be sown thinly, or the plants set out at a fair distance from each other. All herbaceous perennials that have finished blooming may now be cut down. Included amongst these are phlox, tielphiniums, etc. If these are to remain in tiieir pre.sent situation for another season, it is always an advantage to rai.se them somewhat, by slightly lifting them with a fork. 33^ Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191 i. so that too much water will not settle around the crowns ; they may also be mulched with stable manure, or the manure may be forked into the- soil around the crowns. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF FllUIT TREES, ETC., GROWN AT THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL GARDENS AND SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE, BURNLEY. E. E. Pescott, Principal. The revised list of fruit trees in the Burnley orchards was published in the Journal for June, 1910. It was compiled up to December, 1909, and at that time there were 1,554 varieties of fruits in cultivation. Since that date 229 varieties have been added, and 5 have been removed from the list, bringing the total of fruits at present in cultivation up to 1,778. Buds and grafts of the varieties on this list will not be available for distribution this season. A new feature is introduced in this supplementary list, viz., where anv fruit is known by more than one name, the standard name is given, and the synonym appears in brackets alongside. The following names should be omitted from the pre\'ious list of apples, in wdiich they were inadvertently inserted as separate varieties: — Allan Bank Seedling. Syn. with Gloria Mundi. BalPimore. ,, ,, ,, Neverfail. Syn. with Margil. Woodstock Pipi)in. Sv». with Blenheim Pippin. Ohinemuri. Syn. with Munroe's Favourite. Varieties of trees that ha\e proved generally useful and fruitful are- prefixed by an asterisk. Almonds. Burbank's Seedling Herriott's Seedling APPI-ES. Albany Beauty Alburv Park Nonesuch Baron Wolseley Barry *Benoni *Blondin Christmas Pearmain Devonshire Redstreak *Dougherty Duke of Clarence Egremont Russet Empress Alexandra White Fall Beauty *Gloria Mundi (Baltimore Allan Bank Seedling) *Trish Peach King's Acre Pippin *King of Tompkin's Count) Kirk's Admirable (Holland, burv) Lady Carrington Late Gravenstein Lincolnshire Pearmain T^incolnshire Triumph *Lord Nelson (Kiil^e's Lord Nelson) Minier's Dumpling *Moss' Incomparable Mrs. Phillimore *Peasgood's Nonesuch *Prince of the Pippins Prizetaker *Ribston Pippin (Glory of York) Scarlet Summer Pearmain *Shockley Springdale *Swaar *Twenty Ounce Whatmough's Orange Pippin William's Fancy Wolf's River Wright's Perfection Yorkshire Beauty *Yapeen Seedling Apples^Crabs. Dartmouth Eliza Rathke Halleana Neidwetzkiana Oblong Pyriis communis Pyrus communis Atirea Pyriis floribunda Pyrus sfeciabiJis Pyrus sfectahilis fl. ft^ Apricots. Acme of Shenshe Alexis *Bellc de Toulouse Bruchet Brugarta Camden Superb Early Golden *Early Moorpark Gooley Harris J. L Budd lo May, 1911.] Supplementary List of Fruit Trees, &^c., at Burnley. 337 Apricots — continued. Mrs. Hart Newcastle Early Noonday Oullin's Early Improved ^Orange (Royal George) Paviot Peach *Pineapple *Precoce de Victoria Riverside Robin's Imperial Rouge *Royal *Sardinian *St. Ambrose *Twyford Seedling Cherries. Bigarreau Noir de Guben Bigarreau Noir de Schmidt Precoce de Bopard Figs. *Black Genoa (Negro d'Es- paiia, Black Spanish) Black Ischia Black Marseillaise (Black Provence) Black San Pedro *Brown Turkey ^Brunswick (De St. Jean) *Castle Kennedy Doree (Figue dOr) Gouraud Rouge Jerusalem Mouissouna *White Ischia ((ireen Ischia) Lemons. Villa Franca LOQU.ATS. Herd's Mammoth Japan Mammoth Mandarins. Citrus ja-ponica (Kumquat) *Emperor *Thorny MCI.BERklKS. Downing's Hicks' Everlasting Nectarines, Early Rivers Lees' Seedling Oranges. *Mcditerranean Sweet * Navel Oonshi *Parramatta Seedling ^Seville *Siletta *St. Michael *Valencia Late *Washington Navel Peaches. ■^Alexander's Early ^Arkansas Traveller Ashburton Bartlett Beer's Smock Belot's Late *Comet *Crimson George *Crown Jewel *Dr. Phillips Early Anne *Early Crawford *Early Rivers *Early York *G lad stone Globe *Hale's Early *High's Early Canada *Jones' Early Red Lady in Gold *Lady Palmerston *Late Crawford Lord Roberts McDevitt's Late Cling Orange Cling Powell's Beauty Princess May *Pullar's Cling Ripe in April *Royal George *Royal George Cling Royal George Free *Royal George Rivers ^Salwey *Saunders *Sea Eagle *Sus(|uehanna The Brilliant The Globe Thomas Rivers *\Vadeson's Red *VVilder Wonderful Pears. Beurre de l-onqueray Beurre de Avalon *Citron des Carnies *Clapp's Favourite Directeur Hardy Duchesse de Afrique Ja])anese Ciolden Russet LafTer's Bergamot Madame Ballet Mavhew's Winter Bnn Chrrtien Old (^>lniar T'resident Barabc I'rincess (Muscat Robert) St. Switliin's Persimmons. *Among Gibio Shin *Haycheya Jubilee Magari *Kurokuma Myodina Nightingale's Seedless Nitari Oonshi Sago Maru *Seedless Tanenachi Williams' Seedless Yeddo Ischia Yellow *Yemon Zengi Maru Plims. Abundance (Botan) Akarana Bartlett Ogan Sharp's Early Trenowin Yellow Diamond Quinces. Champion Giant of Lescovaz Missouri Mammoth Van Dieman's Vines. *Almeria Cape Metallica *CGrnichon Purple Daria Gouais Liverdun *Ohanez (Flame Tokay) Rupestris du Lot Santa Paula Scuppernong, White White Muscadine B.R. 219A 101 — 14 3309 MiSCET.r ANEOIS. Balloon Berry Lawton's Berrv Mammoth Berry Phenomenal Berrv Wilson's Junior Berry * Webb's F.Nhibition Filbert *Webb's White Exhibition Filbert ♦Webbs While Skinned Filbert ♦Pomegranate *l.a l-'ontaine Strawberrv *La Margaret Strawberry *Melba Strawberrv *!~!unbeain Strawberry *Fast Indian Lime 338 Journal oj Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1911. PROPAGATIOiN OF FlUHT TKEEH. C. F. Cole, Inspector, Vegetation Diseases Acts. To meet the demand for information concerning the propagation of the various edible fruits which flourish in the different parts of this State, a series of articles has been prepared by the writer and will appear in this and succeeding issues of the ] oiirnal. Up to the time of my appointment under the Department of Agricul- ture, I devoted my attention principallv to the propagation and cultivation I. GRAFTING KNIFE. of fruits and other products suitable to Victorian soils and climate. Dur- ing this period, I tested most, if not all. of the propagation methods practised here. Therefore. I can confidently offer the following hints and methods with the hope that they will prove useful to those who have so far met with little success, owing to want of more practical knowledge; also to those not yet con\ersant with the methods practised for the raising of fruit trees upon sound lines. Grafting and Budding. A very brief explanation will show why grafting and budding are p.ecessary. None of our choice varieties of fruits come true to the parent 2. BUDDING knives. from seed ; and very few of those that can be raised from cuttings or layers are suitable. Therefore, having raised a new and choice variety from seed, or otherwise — and having only the one tree or bough — the question arises how to propagate and increase such a variety, at the same time keeping it true to the parent or sport, so that it may be cultivated extensively or otherwise, if necessary. To increase such a variety, the art of grafting and budding mu.st be resorted to. It must also be utilized to render certain varieties more hardy, or less rol)ust. by working upon stocks ic May, 1911-] Pro-pagation of Fruit Trees. 339 of the same species and more suitable to soil conditions and climate ; also to dwarf certain kinds of fruits by working upon stocks of slower growth ; and, to overcome certain diseases that attack the roots of some varieties, by working upon other varieties immune from attack. The theory of grafting and budding may be stated to be the power of union between the young tissues of the graft or bud and the growing wood. When the parts are placed together the ascending sap of the stock passes into and sustains life in the scion. The buds excited by this sup- ply of sap begin to elaborate and send down woody matter which, passing through the newly granulated substance (callus), unites the scion firmly with the stock. Budding is performed while the stocks are in full foliage, or, in other words, fully vegetative. The union is swifter with the bud, than with the scion, i.e., if the work is perform(-d skilfully and under proper conditions. The operations of the propagator are limited. A scion or bud from one tree will not, from the want of affinity, succeed upon all others — but only upon those to which it is allied. Although an evergreen, the loquat, which belongs to the rose family {Rosacea), does well and comes into bearing much earlier by working it upon the quince, which also belongs to the Rosacece. The pear is also included in the same order. In France, which may well be termed the hub of horticulture, numer- ous methods of grafting are practised, those stocks which adapt them- selves best to certain soil and other conditions being used. In floriculture the French use the common Margaret daisy {Chrysanthemum frutescens) as a stock for grafting the larger flowering varieties upon, i.e., where both position and soil are dry. Many annuals are also successfully grafted, firafting is far from being a modern method of propagation ; we learn from earlv writers that it was known and practised bv the ancient Greeks and Romans. Improvement in Methods and Material. It is the intention to deal with only those methods of grafting and budding which the writer considers to be the quickest, neatest, surest, and best, for producing a high standard of young fruit trees and stocks, that will not only be creditable to the producer or propagator, but a valued as.set to the orchardist or planter. Nothing is more disappointing to find, after years of waiting and careful attention, that, through faulty propagation methods being adopted, one has to replant a fresh selection of trees just when the former lot ought to become remuneratixe. No person hav- ing anv interest in fruit-growing should be ignorant of the best methods of propngating voung fruit trees, or be unable to perform the operation of grafting and budding. Ignorance upon such matters is far too common in a fruit-producing State like ours. DuriTig the past twenty years in Victoria tlure have been several new departures, to the advantage f)f the grower, regarding the class of stocks used for propagating upon. For instance, instead of the suckering Mussel plum, we have the La France " Myrobolan," a variety of cherry plum, and another variety called Mariana. Both are suckerless and easily pro pngated from cuttings; also, instead of the useless suckering pear sttx'k. there is the .selected non-suckering seedling. There has also been a big improvement in th<- niati'ri;d used for l)ind- ing the buds and grafts. Instead of calico, torn into narrow stri|)s, or threads efore replanting land that has carried a crop. If the land is required for replanting the same season, and such land is deficient in humus, plough and subsoil immediately it is cleared of young trees, letting it remain fallow until a week or so before planting. It should then be harrowed, given a good dressing of .stable manure and ploughed in. Harrow down to a fine state of tilth a day or so before planting. Apply bonedust when planting. If replanting a soil rich in humus, plough well and use chemical manure, bonedust preferred, when planting. The reader will gather from this, that not being able to remo\e any young trees until the month of May, there is no chance to sow a green crop earlier, or to renew the soil by other means to better advantage for replanting the same season. The followir^g are, roughly, the indications of the want of humus in soils. With heavy soils they are cloddy, greasy, and sticky ; with sandy or light, too loose, letting the water percolate through too readily. Deep cultivation and green manuring should be practised. By deep cultivation. a greater capacity for conserving moisture is obtained ; also a greater supplv of a\ailable plant food is formed by the mutual action of air and moisture. Green manuring is the cheapest method of renewing humus to. and improving, soils. The different agencies which cause the turned-in plants to decay and set up chemical changes in the soil turn the insoluble or dormant parts into active or soluble plant-fond. If the cultivator ha:s stablt- manure or sweet-decayed vegetable matter on hand, cart it upon the land and place it in heaps. After the first rains in early autumn it should be spread and ploughed in. If there are anv patches of clayey soil, give them the heaviest dressing. When re-ploughing any old formed lands, plough out and leave the last furrow down the centre, the final ploughing being back towards this centre furrow^, thus re-forming the land ready for planting again. When lifting voimg trees in the nursery, no holes should be allowed to remain opeii : fill in at once. {To he co}ititiucJ .) 346 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 May, 191 i. THE WINE INDUSTliY LV SOUTHEliN FRANCE. Department of Herault. {Continued from page 242.) F. de Castella, Goveriiinent ViiicuUurtst. VINEYARD MANURING. In the last few articles of this series, attention has been directed to some of the causes which contribute to the enormous yields of Herault vineyards.* We have seen that heavy bearing varieties are very generally planted ; that the preliminary preparation of the soil is carried out to a considerable depth ; that its annual cultivation is very thorough ; and, lastly, that the training and, more particularly, the summer pruning are such as will best promote a high degree of fertility and its continuance during future seasons. All these factors contribute to the high yields obtained, but none of them could exert its full influence — more especially, could not do so con- tinuously— ^were it not for the copious manuring which is now invariably the rule. According to Foext — Abundant manuring with very active fertilizers is one of the characteristic features of Languedoc viticuhure. The most divers substances are used : farmyard manure, sheep droppings, town sweepings, woollen rags, oil cake, reeds [Arundo ■phragmites), marc, chemical and commercial manures; and in a general way every- thing which can supply the vine with nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. It is, thanks to their use, that growers manage to maintain the high fertility of the vineyards, which would soon decline if one did not replace the equivalent of what is removed in the shape of the grape crop. It follows that, in manuring, perhaps even more than in any of the other branches we have considered, Herault viticulture presents an object lesson of the greatest value to us in Victoria. A satisfactory change has taken place of recent years in the views of Australian agriculturists as regards manuring ; a change in which viticulture has shared. Scarcely any one now states, as was frequently done a few years ago, that vines do not require manure. Its need is now very generally recognised, though its application is not yet as general as could be desired. It is chiefly as regards the quantity to apply that our growers are in want of education. The trifling additions of superphosphate which have an almost magical effect on our cereal crops and which have revolutionized Australian wheat growing, cannot possibly lead to anything like similar increases in vine yields. The root systems of the two plants are too fundamentally different. In the case of a deep rooting plant, such as the vine, it is only by far heavier applications, made some considerable time before results are looked for, that a marked improvement in yield can be brought about. In southern France, vineyard manuring has been practised since the earliest times, but it is only of comparatively recent years that very heavv applications have become general. The modern practice is one of the consequences of the Phylloxera crisis, and may be said to date from the reconstitution of the vineyards on resistant stocks. * As previously pointed out {Journal Vol. VITT., p. 72). yields of 3,000 gallons per acre are not uncommon. The region is rpmarkihle as being that of the heaviest bearing vineyards in the world. t CJ. Foex, Cours Complet de Viticulture, p. 620. lO May, 191 1.] The VJine Industry in Southern France. 347 It is very generally recognised that grafted vines require more manure than ungrafted ones. This is largely owing to their greater fruitfulness. Taking more out of the soil, they necessarily hasten the day when resti- tution must be made in order to maintain yields. There is also another reason. The heavy sacrifices entailed by reconstitution have caused vine- yard owners to take advantage of every device which science or art cuuld suggest, in order to increase yields. It is in the increased quantity of manure employed, that we find the greatest change from older methods. Ill pre-phylloxera days, the usual rule in well kept vineyards was to apply 22,000 kilos of farmyard manure per hectare, every third year (about 9 tons per acre). This would be equivalent to a yearly addition of 2>})\ lbs. potash and soda, 26^ lbs. nitrogen and 13!^ lbs. phosphoric acid. These figures were given by H. Mares* in 1862. At that time, there were authorities who questioned whether the manuring of vines was fully repaid by the increase in yield. To one of these, M. Cazalis-Allut, M. Mares replied — That pr.ictical examples are hard to find, since they should cover periods of at least twenty to thirty years, but that practical men, who seek everywhere for manure with so much care, and pay such high prices for it, have solved the question in the affirmative. At the present day in southern France no one questions the efficacy of manure and it is used far more abundantly than it was in the sixties of last century. Manure FoRMULiE. As might be expected, opinions vary greatly and, though every one manures, the substances employed, and their relative proportions, vary considerably. In a general way, farmyard manure is still applied much as it was in pre-phylloxera times, and is very largely supplemented by artificial manures. The quantity of farmyard manure varies from 8 to j 2 tons per acre every second or third year. The large increase in the use of chemical and other concentrated fertilizers is the most striking modern development in connexion with vineyard manuring in Herault ; it is the logical outcome of the recognition of the high eflSciency of these sub- stances, after long years of application on a steadily increasing scale. It has also been forced on the growers by the insufficiency of the supplies of ordinary farmyard manure. In a region where viticulture pre- ponderates to such an extent as it now does in Herault, the forms of agriculture which lead to its extensive production are only developed to a small extent. Supplies of farmyard manure were barely sufficient forty years ago, when the vine did not predominate as it now does, and when production was not forced to anything like the present extent. Now-a- days, the quantities of farmyard manure are hoplessly inadequate and commercial fertilizers have thus become the basis of modern manuring. In a recent article, Professor L. Degrully gives the following formulae for different descriptions of soils. He points out that thev must not be considered to be rigorously fixed and unalterable; that growers — may combine any other formulae which may suit them; if they jjrefer to employ other ni'rogenous organic manures than oil cake, which has been taken as an example, it will be easy to carry out the simple calculations necessary in ortler to remain within normal limits. • H. M'lr's, III l.ixire tlf la Frrme. Vnl. T.. p. 224. Vno\ irhcs tlio conipiwifldn of firmvnrd minuro employod in H^rimlf ns — Nitrocon. -4 to -.'i pi-r ront. ; pliiKphorlr nrid, -7 to -M piTcnit.: ninl potiisli, •4 to •.'» per rent.; on till'* Ijisw, the muuiil nrlilltinnx would be pot;mh, 241 t" •'" It'*.; nitrogon, 24J to :n lbs.; nud plio«pliorir nrid. 43 to 40i lbs. 348 ] our rial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 May, 191 i> He distinguishes two categories, viz., dry soils with exfense* culture (culture extensive), and rich soils to which intense culture is applied. He points out that it would be a faulty operation to apply to vineyards situated in garrigiies\ or dry hillsides the same doses of manure as to vines in the plain, in the hope of seeing them produce luxuriant c!ops — it would be a similar case to the frog which wished tr> puff itself out to the size of an ox. It is necessary to endeavour to proportion the dose of manure to the " productive capabilities " of the soil ; capabilities which depend on its depth, on its moisture {fraicheur), and on its intrinsic richness. The heavy applications he recommends are to be made annually. per acre. For dry land or For moister land extense culture. or intense culture. I. Light to medium limy soil. Oil cake (extracted with bi-sulphide of lbs. lbs. carbon), 6 per cent, of nitrogen ... 630 to 720 ... i ,oSo to 1,260 Superphosphate, 15 per cent. ... ... 270 to 360 ... 450 to 540 Sulphate of potash ... ... ... 90 to 135 ... 135 to 180 Plaster (gypsum) ... ... ... 180 to 270 ... 270 to 450 Approximate cost per acrej £2 6s. 2d. to £2 i6s. 4d. £t, ios. 5d. to ^4 12s. iid. Oil cake (as above) Sulphate of ammonia ... Superjjhosphate, i :; per cent Sulphate of potash Gypsum 2. Clay lime soil. 315 to 360 . . 540 to 630 90 to 135 180 to 225 270 to 360 ... 450 to 540 72 to 90 ... 135 to 180 to 270 .. 270 to 360 V_TypbUIll ... ... •-. ••• io, 6s. gd. 3. Sand clay soils {free) containing less than 2 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Nitrate of lime (or nitrate of soda) ... 270 to 360 ... 450 to 540 Superphosphate, k; per cent. ... ... 270 to 360 ... 450 to 540 Sulphate of potash ... ... ... 73 to 90 ... 135 to 180 Gypsum ... ... ... ... 270 to 360 ... 360 to 450 Approximate cost per acre ^^"i 17s. 6d. to £2 6s. 6d. £t, os. 3d. to £}, 13s. 8d. 4. Clay soils (not limy.) Nitrate of lime (or nitrate of soda) ... 270 to 360 ... 450 to 540 Basic slag (Thomas' phosphate) ... 540 to 720 ... 720 to 1,080 Sulphate of potash ... ... ... 72 to 90 ... 90 to 135 Gypsum ... ... ... ... 360 to 450 ... 360 to 450 Approximate cost per acre £:^ is. 8d. to £^ 8s. gd. ^3 2s. 2d. to £4. is. 7d. The abo^•e formulae are drawn up on the basis that — ■ If we exclude exceptional situations, the worst soils and those which may be classed as without equal, we can admit that the quantities of fertilizing elements to return per acre (reduced to) and per year are as follows : — Nitrogen, from 36 to 72 lbs. Phosphoric acid, from 36 to 81 !bs. Potash, from 36 to 90 lbs. Professor Lagatu, also of the Montpellier School, has drawn up a very popular wall sheet, in which he gives twelve different formulse ; a heavy and a very heavy, for six different soils, viz., light, heavy, and free ; and for each he considers the case of it being limy or lime free. * The French word extensive has a different meaning to the same word in English, and is used, especially in this connexion, as being the contrary of intensive. It may be translated into Knglish by the word " extense " if such an Innovation be permissible. t A special form of hillside land with Assured limestone subsoil. X The prices are worked out according to latest French price lists. In Australia the cost would be considerably higher. lo May, 1911.] The Wine hidusfry in Southern France. 349 The whole table cannot l)e here reproduced, but mended for a non-calcareous, free soil, will serve as quantities are for one acre (reduced to) — Very heavy manuring. lbs. Nitrogen the formula recom- an example. The Phosphoric Gypsum icid lbs. lbs. Price. IQ.8 Dessicated blood II per cent. . .. 180 . . 14 10^ 37-8 Roasted shavings horn 14 per cent. . .. 270 . . 29 I 13- S Nitrate of soda IS per cent. . .. 90 . . 8 I 2,^ Carbonate potash of 50 per cent. . .. 72 . . 14 lO^ 08 Basic slag 15 per cent. . .. 720 . .. 900 . . 14 10^ ■ 3 3 £a 5 oi • Heavy manuring. - lbs. lbs. lbs. Price. . 46.8| 9.9 Dessicated blood II per cent. . .. ()0 - 7 5i- Nitrogen .. 18.9 Roasted shavings horn 14 per cent. •• '35 ... 14 61 18 Nitrate of soda IS DC! cent. .. 117 ... 10 7 Potash .. 27 27 Sulphate potash of 50 per cent. •■ 54 ... 5 2 Phosphoric acid . • 67.5 67-5 Basic slag 15 per cent. . .. 450 ... 9 4^ Gypsum .. .. 720 ... 2 7 ^2 9 8i Professor Lagatu explains that the above are annual applications, but that they may be advantageously replaced every third year by farmyard manure, either alone (limy land) or accompanied by basic slag (non- calcareous soil). Thanks to the courtesy of the management, I was supplied with some interesting figures as to the quantities and nature of the manures applied to the very large vineyards owned by the Compagnie des Salins du Midi, a powerful company whose financial position permits it to employ the best scientific and practical men obtainable. The vineyards owned by the company cover an area of several thousand acres ; they are planted with ungrafted viniferas, the soil being of so sandy a nature as to insure absolute protection from phylloxera. During the 1906 season four different forms of manure were applied, viz., Engrais aninialiscs, a concentrated commercial manure made from animal refuse; fish guano (artificial) ; farmyard manure ; and sheep droppings. The following table shows the chemical composition, quantity a])plicd per .icri", \;(\. for each of these — Ciienii( al Cunipi sitidii. £, fe Co.st per includini; ation. of Cost to Total 1 Nitro- I'llOS- plioric Potash . u ii 5i% 0 u Q< 1 Ratio Price 1 Cost. gen. Acid. Qr> Cft, i^<< S5-1; % % O' (^raiiiiiis. 11.S. s. d. FCiiRrals Animnli«ft< 4-75 1-75 1 • 7r> :ll)ll 1.191) 44 3 \, 1.131^ Fisli Ciiano 3-75 K() 2' 5 :!(!() 1,1 sni M 5 il 7t56t Kiiriiivunl .Matuirc (1-5 0 !>.* 0!S' 4.500 17.908 119 4 T I 76 Slii'i'p Driippings 1-75 000 (21itre») 2,398 49 11 11 105 1 • Pri)bahl<* pcrrPufaRO. 350 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191 i. At the large vineyard of Villeroy (864 acres) belonging to the same company, which has, in a single vintage, yielded over a million gallons of wine, the usual practice in previous years was to apply oil cake (con- taining 7 per cent, of nitrogen and about half as much phosphoric acid) at the rate of 18 cwt. per acre, per year. The market value of this oil cake is about ^5 per ton, which would bring the cost of this dressing to ;^4 per acre. The results of such heavy manuring on vineyards planted in almost pure coastal sand, proves conclusively the extent to which vine yields can be increased by the use of manures. Requirements of the Vine. Manuring must replace, in the soil, the annual removals of plant food. It is therefore necessary that these should be accurately calculated. Muntz's investigations* on the requirements of the vine show, in a striking manner, the influence of climate. The warmer this is, the more complete is the utilization of fertilizing substances, so that for an equal yield, the vineyards of cold, northern climates demand heavier applica- tions of manure than those of the warm .south. On the basis of M. Muntz's investigations, the following would be the amount of each important plant food element brought into play for the production of one hectolitre (22 gallons) of wine. The quantities are in kilogrammes (2.2 lbs.)t — Nitrogen. Midi ... ... ... ... ... .480 Medoc (claret) ... ... ... 1-485 St. F.milion (claret) ... ... ... i-349 Burgundy ... ... ... ... 1.020 Beaujolais ... ... ... ... 1.014 Chablis ... ... ... ... 1.080 Champagne ... ... ... ... i.6qo The difference between the figures for the Midi (warm southern France) and those for ail the other districts is very striking. Champagne, the coldest of all, is also the most exacting. It is worthy of note that, with the exception of the Midi, all the above districts yield high class wines. It is, in fact, generally recognised that wines of high quality take rather more out of the soil than vin ordinaire does. The greater efficacy of manuring in warm climates is a fortunate provision of nature, so far as the heavy bearing Herault is concerned, and one which should prove consoling to us. The climate of northern Vic- toria, being even warmer than that of southern France, we may not un- reasonably hope to very largely increase our grape yields by less costly applications of manure than those described above. Which is the Dominant Manure Element? This question has given rise to much discussion within recent years. For a long time, it was held that heavy applications of nitrogen were of greatest use for the purpose of forcing production, and it will be seen from the figures quoted above that nitrogen, the most expensive plant food element, is applied on a very lavish scale. t although, as we have seen, potash is removed in greater quantity. It is, however, more abundant than the others in the majority of soils, and portions of the non-assimilable reserves of this element are no doubt released by the gypsum which is * Muntz. Les Viines. Etude experimentnh sur leur culture et leur exploitation, 1895. t O. Ch>ippaz in Proqres Agricole et VUicole. 18 October, 1908. X Thi« L« in diroot contradiction to the results of .all cereal manure experiments conducted in northern Victoria. Nitrogenous manures liave led to little appreciable increase in wheat yields. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. .ii8 .496 .361 .423 2.065 1.562 .295 1.025 ■334 1. 214 .200 .900 .410 1. 810 lo May, 1911.] The Wine Industry in Southern France. 351 invariably an important constitutent in all recent French manure formulae. Latterly, much more attention has been devoted to phosphoric acid than previously. Though it is removed from the soil in very much smaller quantities than either of the other elements, it appears to have a far greater importance than these small removals would lead one to anticipate. Phosphoric acid gives tone to vegetation generally, and has a most happy influence on the blossoming of the vine, the critical stage at which mis- haps are frequent) v encountered, with disastrous results to the following vintage. Phosphoric acid also appears to have an important influence on the quality of the wine. It is removed in greater quantity (in the wine) from high class vineyards. It is now generally recognised in France that, whereas nitrogen and potash must be returned at the same rate as thev are removed by crop, prunings, &c., phosphoric acid can be profitably added in greater quantities. The two former substances appear to be readily absorbed by the vine, the latter only with difficulty ; at least such is the ingenious explanation of Coste- Floret, one of the strongest advocates of heavy phosphatic manuring. Basic slag (Thomas Phosphate) is generally preferred to superphos- phate in all e.xcept limy soils, a point of interest to us. seeing that so many of our soils are pcxjr in lime. The importance now attached to phosphoric acid in France is of interest tc Australians, our soils being poorer in that element than French soils. No element can really be looked upon as a " dominant" one so far as manuring is concerned ; the deficiency of any single one will limit the usefulness of the others just as a slow ship would retard the speed of a whole fleet of which it formed part. Importance of Organic Matter. Organic forms of nitrogen are held in high esteem, especially for soils in which the natural humic contents are low. The thorough tillage of the ground, previously described {Journal, vol. IX., p. 201) must in- evitably lead to considerable annual loss of humus during the warm dry summers usually experienced. Climatic conditions are not favourable to green manuring, without undue interference with usual cultural operations, hence this means of replenishing the depleted humic contents of the .soil is but little practised. Farmyard manure and other organic fertilizers are thus the only sources of it available. The supply of the former not being equal to require- ments the latter are in great demand. The most varied substances are in use. Desiccated blood and animal refuse; artificial guano, chieflv made from fish; woollen rags; horn turnings and debris (preferably roasted), &c. Vegetable substances of various kinds are also largely used, among which may be enumerated the following: — Oil Cake; Seaweed, plentiful on the Mediterranean coast and which contains (fresh) up to .55 per cent, of nitrogen; Reeds {Arundo fhragmites) .43 per cent, nitrogen; Branches of scrubby plants which grow on waste njcky land, such as Box, Cistus, &:c. These are roughly chaffed before being ploughed in. Chaffed Box has a high value; it Cf)ntains 1.17 per cent, nitrogen as well as much phosphoric acirl and potash. Marc (pre.s.sed grape skins) contains, on an average, 1.7 1 \)vx crnt nitrogen anrl .5 per cent, potash ; it is al.so userl as vine manure, though rather more generally as fodder, its value as such being considerable. 352 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191 i Of this varied list, whicli is by no means exhaustive, oil cake is per- haps the most interesting substance. Though it is one with which we are quite unfamiliar from a manure standpoint here, it is employed to an enormous extent in southern France. The neighbouring town of Marseille may be said to be the oil mill of France. It is the head-quarters of the oil extracting and soap making industries of the country and imports enormous quantities of oil containing seeds, the by-products from which are an important source of nitrogen and organic matter, for the agriculture of the neighbouring country. After treatment by ordinary pressure the last traces of oil are removed by ex- traction with bi-sulphide of carbon. The oil cake thus treated is known in French as Tourteaux sulfur es. It has the advantage of decompos- ing more rapidly than greasy cake, whilst its manure value is slightly higher. Foex gives the percentage of nitrogen and phosphoric acid of .several kinds of oil cake as follows : — Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. Colza (Europe) ... ... ... 4.92 ... 2.83 Castor oil (crude) ... ... ... 3.67 ... 1.62 Castor oil (skinned) ... ... ... 7.42 ... 2.26 Sesame (black) ... ... ... 6.34 ... 2.03 This oil cake is employed at the rate of about i6 cwt. per acre in Herault ; it is usually absorbed entirely during the year which follows its application. Its low potash contents makes it advisable to give simul- taneously with it, potash salts, say from 360 to 450 lbs. per acre of chloride (muriate) of potash, sulphide of potassium or sulphate of potash. The two kinds of oil cake which figure most frequently in manure lists are cotton .seed and sesame {Sesamum indicum) the prices being respectively about ;^5 1 28. and ;£6 per ton at Marseille. The importance of these by-products to French agriculture should be an argument in favour of the cultivation of oil bearing plants. Were oil cake available, at a reasonable price, it would be a great boon to our northern agriculture, as a source, not only of nitrogen, but also of organic matter, so necessary under our hotter sun. The Popularity of Gypsum. This is another striking fact. We have seen the inclusion of plastei or gypsum in the manure formulae of both Professor DegruUy and Pro- fessor Lagatu. It is, in fact, almost invariably included in French vine manure fonnulge. Though its exact mode of action seems somewhat obscure, its influence in increasing production is very generally admitted. Is this owing to its sulphuric acid? Does it act as a source of sulphur? Possibly. Lime is not nearly so extensively employed as gypsum in the manuring of Herault vineyards. The latter is far more soluble in water than carbonate of lime — about 166 times as soluble, in fact. Lime becomes carbonated and loses most of its solubility, soon after application, -whereas gypsum, remaining unchanged, its diffusion in the .soil would continue. Gypsum is worth 8s. per ton in France. M. Zacharewicz,* in a recent article on the subject, after recalling Franklin's experiments in America some 60 years ago, which first led to its extensive use, points out that, when employed alone, it proved dis- appointing and was ultimately given up. » Revue de ViticuUure, 21 January, 1909 . lo May, 1911-] Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard, Rutherglen. 355 Its recent popularity in France is due to experiments carried out by M. Oberlin. In addition to being an excellent diluent for concentrated manures, it has the power of decomposing certain fertilizing substances contained in the soil, such as silicate of potash. It is employed either raw or roasted (Plaster of Paris). The latter is, according to M. Zacharewicz, the cheaper form, raw gypsum being difficult to pulverize. As regards transport facilities also, plaster is more advantageous, a cubic metre weighing 2.000 kilos, as against 1,200 of raw gypsum Application of Manures. Opinions differ as to the be.st method of applying manures. Three ways are in use in Herault. 1. In the .small basins around each vine, made after the early winter cultivation by the operation known as dechaussement {Journal, vol. IX., p. 202). 2. In deep furrows, opened for the purpose, in tlie inter\al between the rows of vines. 3. Broadcast, over the whole surface, prior to ploughing. The first is the one which has long been most usual and is even now \ery generally followed, though many authorities, including the late G. Foex, favour the third. With the deep winter ploughing, characteristic of the region, complete burial is secured, a condition which is essential in order to obtain the best results. Of recent vears, experiments conducted in various parts of France, in connexion with manuring generally, and not only as applied to the vine, have demonstrated the advantages of localization of manures, as opposed to their general dis.semination throughout the whole of the .soil. Localiza- tion is best secured by the second method and for this reason it is re- commended in some quarters, though not generally carried out. The first method, it is true, localizes the manure to a considerable extent ajid subsequent cross ploughings have for result the ultimate spreading of the humus resulting from its decomposition throughout the whole surface soil to the depth to which it is cultivated. YIELD OF RECONSTITUTED VINEYARD AT THE RUTHERGLEN MTICrLTURAL COLLEGE : VINTAGE \\n\. G. //. Ad cock, F.L.S., Principal. In accordance with the practice of recent years, the following par- ticulars are submitted of the yield of the reconstituted vineyard at the Viticultural College, Rutherglen, for the vintage 191 1. It will be neces- .sary to repeat that the vines are phmted 10 ft. x 8 ft., are trelli.sed on two wires, and pruned on the rod and spur system. Local growers will recollect that these vines occupy the site of our original vineyard which was destroyed by Phylloxera. The soil is anything but rich and tiie results achieved are due to the remarkable .sea.son, combined with thorough cultural attention and (he judicious .sui)plv of nlant food in the fonn of manure. The .season will long \ni rememl)ered. for hardly in the memory of the oldest resident has tiu're \x.\'\\ one similar. Last winter was remarkably mild, with an almost total absence of the usual frosts. Th<^ summer was 354 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. lo May, 1911. also an extraordinary one. W'e escaped the usual summer spells of heat, and had only an odd day now and then when the temperature was suffi- cient to cause comment. During the latter part of the summer, the weather was more like that of an Australian spring than summer. Grass is green and abundant. Fruit trees and Cootamundra wattles have come into bloom, and altogether the weather during March was rather w typical of October. Heavy rains A have been frequent. During the H first two months of the year we 2 had approximately half the previous year's record. *-* These circumstances, while they ^ were conducive to a larger yield, g prevented the uniform ripening of 3 the berries. It was also very 3 difficult to get a satisfactory sugar ^ strength for wine-making, and all g round the wine has had to be 3 made wdth grapes below the usual ^ percentage of sugar, and of a ^ most irregular ripening. The heavy . rains, too, caused considerable losses. § Berries burst, became mouldy and j^ damaged the bunches. It was ■j quite common to find on the same ^ bunch, green, ripe and mouldy '^ grapes. ^ The birds, as usual, demanded g a heavy toll of our crop and ^ this in spite of bird scarers. This ^ season, the Friar birds, or Leather > Heads, were particularly active J and aggressive and had to be shot a in numbers. One satisfaction is z ours, and that is we suffered less o this season from human thieves than in former years. This is not, one ventures to think, due to any moral improvement in that section of the community re- sponsible for such losses, but may be accounted for by the more vigilant watch kept. We did lose in this way, and then not so much bv the grapes actually eaten as by the unripe bunches wantonly destroyed by being plucked and thrown on the ground. lo May, 191 1.] Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard, Rutherglen. 355 The price of the crop has been computed at current local rates, viz.. ^7 per ton. It was thought hardly fair, in view of the high market value of grapes here, to keep the computations so much below actual values as was done last year. Our young vines, planted three and two years respectively, made a phenomenal show of fruit. This is largely attributable to the care exercised in preparing the ground, planting, and sub.sequently. Those growers who inspected these were struck with the immense crop and asserted they had never seen it equalled These are table and wine varie- ties. Grapes of the former were packed in cork dust and placed in the Government Cool Stores to test their keeping qualities. Of the latter, we are making wine. For experimental purposes, and to know just the character of wine these new importations will produce under our condi- tions, we have had several small lots made separately into wine as arranged last year. This involves a lot more work, but should be well worth the extra trouble. STILL UOLSt: AND CELLAR?. As was noted last year, readers are again reminded that these figures must not Ih; taken to indicate the relative value of the various stocks. Once again. Shira/ and MallxiC on Rupestris du Lot come out low in yield. As previously pointed out, this disparity is in no way due to the stock. 'I'he.se varieties on this stock are planted close to the fence and have to find the bulk of the fruit selected and removed by feathered and other thieves. This applies also to both lots of Burgundy. Of the varieties ordered from France by the writer in 1903. and planted out as grafts in September, 1907, viz., Aramon, Alicante Rouschet. and Grand Noir de la Calmette, the returns as given herewith are very promising. When over a series of years, in poor soil, an increasing return can be shown, and a gross revenue of over ^30 per acre produced, it must be conceded that there is money in viticulture when intellipMitlv rarrie<] out. 356 Journal of Agriculliirc. Victoria. [lo May, 191 1. Yields, College Vineyard : Vintage 19 ii. Variety, Date of Plantiug, and Stock. Sp. gr. Must. Yield per Vine. Yield per Acre. Sliiraz (1903)— lbs. tons cwt. qrs. lbs. Rupesti'is Metallica (Cape). . 1-095 16-57 4 0 1 27 Hybrid 3306 1-095 12-81 3 2 1 0 A.R. G. 1 1-095 11-97 2 18 0 18 Hybrid 3309 1-097 11-23 2 14 2 9 Rupestris du Lot 1-112 10-3 2 10 0 5 Burgundy (1904)— Riparia grand glabre 1-110 5-28 1 5 2 20 Hybrid 3309 . . 1-110 4-34 1 0 3 23 Malbec (1904)— A.R.G. 1 1-103 19-98 4 17 0 6 Riparia grand glabre 1-103 18-81 4 11 1 17 Hybrid 3309 1-100 16-35 3 19 1 19 Rupestris Metallica (Cape) 1103 14-08 3 8 1 16 Hybrid 101 u 1110 12-32 2 19 3 12 Rupestris du Lot 1-110 8-27 2 0 0 18 Cabernet (1904)— Hybrid 3309 1-102 1916 4 13 0 11 Hybrid 3306 1-105 18-56 4 10 0 19 Rupestris Metallica (France) 1-095 16 -.39 3 19 2 14 A.R.G. 1 1-095 16-21 3 18 3 0 Rupestris Metallica (Cape). . 1-100 15-78 3 16 2 17 Rupestris ]Martin . . 1-101 15-48 3 15 0 25 Riparia grand glabre 1-096 14-13 3 8 2 16 Alicante Bouschet (1907) — Rupestris du Lot 1-085 14-21 3 9 0 3 Aramon (1907) — Rupestris du Lot 1-085 19-67 4 15 2 7 Grand Noir de la Cabnette (1907)— Rupestris du Lot 1-082 13 -.33 3 4 3 4 Value per Acre at £7 per Ton f s. d. 28 3 5 21 15 9 20 7 1 19 ■' 1 17 10 4 8 19 9 7 6 8 33 19 4 31 19 9 27 15 11 23 18 9 20 19 I) 14 1 2 32 11 8 31 11 2 27 17 5 27 11 3 26 16 6 26 6 ■7 24 0 -(■) 24 3 2 33 8 11 22 13 6 Experimental Manurial Plots. Test plots, each J of an acre in extent, were set apart for manurial experiments as suggested by the manager of the Potash Syndicate whose head-quarters are in Sydney. The manures were supplied by the above- named firm, and the following are the results: — • Plot. Manure per acre. Yield per J acre. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Unnianured Superjohosphate, 2 cwt. Sulphate of ammonia, f cwt. Superphosphate, 2 cwt. - . . Sulphate of ammonia, f cwt. Sulphate of potash, 1 cwt. lbs. 2.333 1 1,991 I 2,740 The remarkable feature of these results is the decrease in the yield of Plot No. 2 below that of the unmanured portion. It should, how- ever, be stated that our vineyard is kept in good heart by carefully sup- plementing the plant foods in the soil, and that " unmanured " in Plot No. I means only that no manure was applied last season. lo May, 191 1.] Answers to Correspondents. 357 GENERAL NOTES. The Trial Shipment of Pears. It is gratifying to record that the trial shipment of Williams' Bon Chretien jx^ars, sent to London by the s.s. Somerset on the 14th February, and referred t(j in the March Journal, has turned out an unqualified success. The prices cabled by the Agent-General (from los. to 19s. per package) are more than satisfactory, being equal to from 12s. 6d. to 23s. 9d. per case. The.se results justify the methods recommended in this Journal, and elsewhere, by the officers of the Department, viz., that pears, to carry successfully, should be cool-stored immediately after picking, packed in trays containing one layer only, and carried at a low temperature (Just below freezing point). It is expected that the success of this shipment will have a marked effect on the future trade with oversea ports. The export season, usually covering only ten weeks, will be extended by another fortnight or three weeks. The disposal of large quantities, by early export, will relieve the pressure usually coming later on, and should prevent, to a great extent, the gluts we have occasionally experienced in our local markets. Due recognition should be given to the action taken by the manager of the Government Cool Stores, at Doncaster, who, last September, brought this matter before the conference of fruit-growers at Ardmona. That officer then strongly advised the growers to .ship this particular variety of pear in large quantities, and detailed the methods that .should be adopted. — /. G. Turner. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a larj^e extent for the purpose of giving inforrnation to" farmers. Question" in every branch of a^'ricuUiire are ;rladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that .'ou want to know. A.U inquiries forwarded to the Editor must be accompanied by the name and address 0I the toriter. This is very necessary, as sometimes insufficient information is furnished by the inquirer. LiMi.VG OF Soils. — D.F.G. inquires as to best form of lime to apply to dii- ferent soils. Answer. — The particulars forwarded are scarcely sufficient. However, the use of freshly burned slaked lime for all soils of a stiff nature, such as clays ;ind loams is advised ; for sandy ones the ground luiburnt deposit may be used. The flifhcuUy exjjeriencefl in s|)reading slaked lime is well known, and the importation of an up-to-date lime spreader is recommended. It would be a great help tu farmers in the district, as such machines would enable one to overcome the diffi- culties attending hand spreading. The advantage of caustic lime over other forms of lime consists in its being most active, and in its most concentrated condition. It is therefore the most economical to buy when carriage is taken into considera- tion. Fiftv-six pounds of caustic lime are equal to 100 Ib.s. of ground limestone, 'i'he caustic lime jiossesses tl)e property of exliaiisting the organic content of tlie soil, and this fact suggests the advisability of using the weaker acting ground limestone on light sandy soils. On the other hand, this action is considerably modified and weakened in heavy snils bv the presence iii such of moisture anfl carbonic .icid. (See Journal for Sejitember, i()o8, for description of lime spreaden. RlPTiRK. — O.C. asks how to treat a nqjlurcd foal. Ans-ver. — It is not uncommon for ruptures of tids nature to disappear of their own acconl as the animal grows older. Time shoubi l>e allowed imtil the animal is two vears old. A veterinary surgeon should be consulted in cases where the enlargement shows signs of increasing. O.C. is reminded that his full name and acldrcss should have been supplied. Milk for C.VLVEs. — A.G.II. asks whether the milk from the separator should be given whilst still warm to the calves. Answer. — Yes; but the froth should first be carefully removed. 35^ Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1911. Keeping Milk Sweet over Sunday. — G.R. states that he objects to ;ill un- necessary Sunday work, such as carting milk to a cheese factory. He asks what would be the best method of keeping milk sweet over Sunday There would be three batchesi — Snuirday evening, Sunday morning and evening? Answer. — The best method of keeping milk sweet over Sunday is to exercise scrupulous cleanliness, and to reduce the temperature to below 60 deg. Fahr. The mi.k shou!d be fit for cheese-making on the Monday under favourable conditions. Preservatives of any kind are not recommended. Reduced Yield of Milk.— H.S. writes that, although his cows have been milking only three months, they are not yielding nearly as much milk as pre- viously. Answer. — Cows require succulent fodder for milk production. When hay is fed, it should be chaffed and soaked with as much water as it will soak up for 12 or 24 hours, or they will not be able to keep up the flow of milk. Sediment in Milk Pan. — H.S. desires to know the cause of the large amount of sediment which remains at the bottom of the pan when milk is scalded. Answer. — When milk is heated in a vessel uireclly over the flame, a portion of the albumen coagulates, and forms a coat on the bottom. To avoid this, the milk should be scalded by standing the vessel containing the milk in a vessel of boiling water until the desired temperature is obtained — 160 to t8o degrees is the most suitable for scalding milk. Any disease germs that might be present would be destroyed at that temperature. The temperature should be ascertained by a thermometer which can be purchased for is. 6d. from any dairy implement agent. Care of Dairy Utensils. ^ — H.S. states that, although his milking buckets are kept scrupulously clean, they are going into holes as if they were corroding. Answer. — Buckets and other utensils generally used for handling milk are made of iron or steel, and then coated with tin. If anything rough, such as sand soap, ashes, &c., is used when these vessels are being cleaned, the coat of tin is soon worn off, and the iron left bare. This is attacked by the acid in the milk, which soon gives it a honey-combed appearance, and no amount of scouring will get the dirt out of the pits so formed. If the vessels are worth it, they can be re-tinned at a cost of a few shillings, which will make them as good as new. To clean utensils, first rinse ou; the milk with cold or luke-warm water, then scrub well with a stiff brush in boiling water in which a little washing soda has been dissolved. Rinse with boiling water, and leave upside down to drain and dry. Never use a cloth for dairy utensils, as it is almost impossible to keep it clean and sweet. Never use dairy utensils for water, as it causes them to rust where the tin is worn or scratched off. Underground Silo. — S.E. asks whether it is advisable to build an under- ground silo. As he has plenty of sand, sandstone, and water he proposes to make it of concrete. Answer. — The Department does not recommend the use of an underground silo. Unless it is in a very dry position it is difficult to keep drainage out; also the labour of enipying an unflerground silo is very great, as the silage is heavy to handle. If concrete is to be used, it would cost less and be more satisfactory to have the silo entirely above ground. The dimensions of a 60-ton silo are 15 feet in diameter by 20 feet high. It is impossible to say the exact propor- tions for mixing without knowing the material which is to be used, but 5 parts metal and 2 parts sand and i part cement make a good mixture in most cases. If the silo is reinforced with wire it would take about 30 casks of cement to build one of the above dimensions. Overground Tank. — E.C.L. desires dimensions of, and materials required for, a 20,000 gallon tank, not to be more than 7 feet high and to open at the top. Answer. — An overground tank of 20,000 callon caoacity, 7 feet high, would require to be about 22 feet square. A square tank would take less material than an oblong one, but a circular shape is preferable. Either reinforced brick built in cement and rendered, or reinforced cement concrete would be satisfactory. If good metal and sand be procurable near the site, concrete would be cheaper than brick. The following are the quantities for a brick and a concrete tank re- spectively : — Bkick. Concrete. Bricks ... ... 9,000 M^-tal . ... 18 cubic yards Cement ... ... 12 casks Cement ... ... 21 casks f^aiid ... ... 10 cubic yjirds Snnd ... ... 11 cubic yards Wire, 8 gaugt- ... 2 cwt. Wire, 4 gauge .. 5 cwt. Wiie, 6 gauge ... 2 cwt. lo May, 191 1.] Statistics. 359 STATISTICS. Bainfall in Victoria.— First Quarter, 1911. Table slinwing average amount of rainfall in each of tlie 26 Basins or Regions con- stitntihg llie State of X'ictoria for each niontli and tiie quarter, witli tlie corre- S|'Oii(linu niontlily and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available r«cord' to dite. HaBin or District. Olenelg and Wannon Rivers Fil/.roy, Kunierella, and iJerri Rivers Hopkins River and Mount Kiiiu Creek Mount I'llcphant and Lake ( oranganiile Cape Oiw.iy l''orest M oihIiuoI and liaiwon Rivers Werrilx-eand Saltwater Rivers Yarra River and l>andcnong L'r'eek Koo-vvee-rup Swamp Soiilli ( iippsland Latrolie ajid 'I liornson Rivers Mai.-aliister and Avon Rivers MiichcU River Tnrnli". arrd Nicholson Rivers Siriiwy River Murray Hiver M it ta M itta and Kiewa Rivers Ovens Riser G rilliurii River Cainpa-pe Hiver Lodd"ir Kiver Avon arrd Richardson Rivers Aviica River Kasierri W irrimera ... ^Ve^-terlr W'irrrrnera... Mullee District Tire whole .State a < points 12 18 29 45 74 122 181 119 127 .S8-) 359 (i-3 ()l(i 88.S 204 3IU 343 24r. 128 44 57 31 17 32 February. 1S7 < ■ 1 ' o S < points. points. 121 .501 147 627 14.-) 677 153 510 211 655 14(5 42« 144 447 2.W QiV 242 3H6 224 323 231 35H I4(i •;85 237 343 200 438 252 454 HI 491 1()9 611 174 820 133 537 11(5 853 96 644 71 743 67 578 86 73a 69 412 55 346 131 500 points. 8» 164 104 107 147 lib l:<4 172 l.'J8 171 166 • 4(1 219 163 217 101 142 131 102 94 83 62 62 72 61 57 109 Quarter. points. 172 25!6 387 465 602 568 672 784 711 649 647 501 51)0 7.39 788 23 S 3' 17 271 233 393 219 163 208 247 95 114 316 points. 149 165 160 176 258 177 183 277 270 315 28S 209 223 282 273 1,59 .3' '8 290 176 149 116 9S 107 119 83 79 170 points, points. 685 359 931 476 1,093 1,020 1..331 1.119 1,2,50 1 ,527 1 20 i 1 357 1 3 >2 1,40!) 1.513 l,S4(t 2.1.30 !)3(i 12.U 1.431 1 0 5 907 924 S4.S 1 OI7 524 492 1 .003 409 436 616 439 461 679 670 710 6S5 504 679 (i45 742 371 619 595 411 3.-)9 2M5 231 236 277 213 191 410 lUU poirrU) o 1 inch. From the nth to the i8th January, a succession of heavy monsoonal rains fell over the easern half of the State, especially favouring Gippsland. To these were mainly : — l'"inish ploughing ; jilaiit young trees ; spra,y witii red oil or pctinlcntn for sialcs. iiiitc^. aphis, &c. ; carry out drainage system ; clean out drains : continue ]iruuing. A'Kare beds for crops ; cultivate dee])ly ; practice rotation in ))lanting out; renovate asparagus l)i(ls ; plant out all seedlings; sow radish, peas, broad beans, leeks, spinach, lettuce, carrot, &c. ; plant i'hul)arb. Fi.owEK Carden : — Continue digging and manm'ing ; dig all weeds and leafy growths ; plant out shrubs, roses. &e. ; plant rose ciittintrs ; prune deciduous trees and shrubs ; sow sweet ]K'as and plant out seedlings. \'lNEVAUI> : — Thoriiugldy picpare for |.l:iutii.tion land already .subsoiled for tiie purpose. Remember that the freer it is kept fiom weeds tinin tliis forward, tiie h-ss tniublc will there be from rut worms next spring. I'runing and )ihiughing siiould l)e aitiveiy i>ro( ceded witli. in iiiirtiierii districts |)h>ugh to .i depth of seven or eight inclies. .Manures slioidd l>e applied as early as possible. Cflliir. — Rack all wines which ha\e not been previously dealt «itli. I'oitlly >wcet wines to full strength. flgpiealtapal Edaeation in Vietopia. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. H. PYE, Prludpul. The Colleo:e offers every faeility to students to Ijecome coin))etent agriculturists, viguerons, and dairymen. The work is carried out on a hirge commercial scale, the- ploughing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing lieing done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 shee]) and lamhs, 150 head cattle, 50 horses, including stallion, are on the farm. Fees — £32 5s. per annum, payal)le lialf-yearly. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (J. A. SIXCLAIR, Pniirlpa/. One aim ox this institution is to till in the ga]) between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to take students betM'een the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adajited for demon- strating what can be done in farming with iri'igation. Tliere is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vine\'ard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees — Resident, £18 5s. per annum : Non-resident, £5 ])ei- annum, payable half- yearly. BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE. E. E. PESOOTT, Principal. The School Course includes regular lectures in Agricultural and Horticultural Science, Poultry Management, and kindred subjects. Fee — £5 per annum. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 191 1. At least thirty students, exx-lusive of school cliildren, must be enrolled at each centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid by the Agricultural Society under whose auspices the Class is held. The following classes have been arranged :-— Xyah, 9th May to ISth^May. ; Marnoo, 31st July to lOtli August Marong, 22nd May to 2nd June. Bridgewater, 6th June to 16th June. ]Miep"oll, IDth June to 30th June, (looi'ambat, 3i'd Jul}' to 14th July. Rainbow, 18th July to 27th July. Kilmore, 14th August to 25th August. Ardmona, 2Sth August to 6th Sep- tember. Warracknabeal, 12tli Septemlier to 21st Se]itember. Classes have already been held at Ballarat, T?ealilia, Fisli Creek, Morwell, Rochester, Shepparton, and Tall )ot. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 191 1. Staff — The Director (Dr. S. S. Cameron), and Messrs. Archer, Carmody, Carroll, de Castella, Cother, Oowe, French Jr., (.iriliin. Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Johnstone, Kendall, Knight, McAlpine, I'escott, Rol)ert.son, Se^-mour, T. A. J. Smith, W. Smith, Strong, Turner, and Expert of the State Rivei'S and Water Supply Commission. Applications relative to the above Institutions and Lectures should be sent to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. On receipt of Post Card a copy of the Prospectus of either College will be posted. Vol. IX. PR0PAGAT80N OF FRUIT TREES Part 6. [lit-. i'_' ,-■■1. o 362 Journal of Ai^riiidture . Yicti'riii. [10 June. 191 i. that may be the means of keeping it other than straight. Lift the peg attached to one end of the line, shake up the hotter once or twice vertically, draw taut, and replace. Two or three weights should then be placed upon the line at points equidistant from each other. Lumps of earth will suffice to prevent the line from getting out of straight when cutting out. or forming a drill for planting. If planting rooted stocks, force the spade into the soil to the depth required, keeping the blade close to the line, ^without displacing it. The average depth for planting rooted stocks is 3 inches. Now remove the garden line ; and, with the spade (using the blade half on) place the .soil upon the edge of the freshly-opened trench or grip. If any lumps of earth are pre.sent, reduce them, to a fine state with a few strokes of the back of the spade. Sprinkle bonedust along and upon the removed .soil, and mix it well before filling in ; i lb. of bonedust to 6 yards will be sufficient to give the stocks a good start. Take the stocks ready for planting, and place them in small lots, about six to the yard, along the open grip for a few yards. When planting, hold them in an upright posi- tion with one hand, and, with the other, draw into the grip enough soil to keep the stock in the posi- tion indicated. Then fill in the rest of the soil with the spade and tread firmly with the flat of the foot to expel the air, care being taken to see that the stocks are kept perfectly upright. Plant 6 inches apart. When planting, stocks should be kept covered with a moist bag until wanted, and not too many laid out along the grip at ■one time. The roots of e\ergreen stocks should on no account be allowed to become dry. When planting out cuttings permanently for working upon, there is mo necessity to open out a grip, but to force the blade of the spade down into the soil to the depth of half the length of the cuttings. The wall of this cut should be perpendicular, as nearly as possible, to insure the cuttings being upright. This can be done by standing oft" from the garden line and slightly inclining the handle of the spade towards the body. Place the apex end of the cutting in this cut, and press it down to the (depth of half its length, when it should touch a firm bottom. If no such bottom can be touched, work the cutting up and down a little, so that some schI is forced down each time by the end of the cutting. Plant the cuttings about 4 inches apart. Then tread the soil firmly to close up the cut. If this is overlooked, there is every likelihood of a poor strike, owing to the air having free access to the forming callus. Ground that is going to be u.sed for planting out cuttings should be ploughed deeplv in early autumn and allowed to settle; only the surface METHODS OF PLANTING FRUIT STONES. A.. Risht method ; B and C. Wrong methods ; D. Kernel showing shoot in .suitable position ; E. Split kernel showing- shoot. lo June, 1911-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 3% should be cultivated, so as to keep down any weed growths. If planting in deep and freshly-prepared ground, tread the soil with the flat of the foot along the line before making the cut. When planting out almond, apricot, or peach stones permanently for working upon during the following budding season, make a shallow drill (about i^ inches deep) along the planting line with the end of a hoe blade. Place the stones 3 inches apart in the drill, and press them slightly into the soil with the thumb or finger. Care should be taken to put the stonej^ upon the flat. (See illustration No. 8.) If planted like Fig. 8B or 8C there is a risk of a percentage of the stocks having twisted stems, similar to that shown in No. 9. Cover the stones with \\ in. of sand or light soil If planting in stiff soil and no sand or light soil is available, i inch of well-pulverized soil will be ample. There is a difference of opinion re- garding the proper method of planting stones, nuts, &c. Some maintain that it is correct to place the end from which the root emierges downwards ; this is generally the pointed end. Others hold that they should be placecf upon the flat. I consider the latter to be the correct method, not only from results obtained, but from the natural position in which seeds, &c., are found when shed upon a level surface. Root-Graft Planting. — Root-grafts should be planted well down, to protect the uniting parts from adverse weather conditions which prevail at times in the spring and early summer. It will also give a chance of increasing the root supply by the buds upon the scions striking root. Grafts so planted are not liable when growing to sway, and thereby cause the root below the union to become bent during wet squally weather. The best results are obtained by planting out direct from the grafting bench. If. owing to weather conditions or other pressing work, there should be any delay, the grafts should be heeled in thicklv in a sheltered position for the time. Care should be taken that the tound part is placed well below the surface. Plant out permanently when the first opportunitv offers, and before the binding ^'- '<' "^i 1 ' «" \\ ronc; starts to decay. ' ' method of planting- When planting, handlr with care. Open out a gri|i and plant the same distance as rooted stocks, if required for permanently working upon. After filling in and treafling carefully with the foot, press the soil firmlv around the .scion with the thumbs and index fingers of both hands. It ofter* happens that there is a heavy fall of rain, which cau.ses the prepared soil to become for tiio time being unfit for planting. To plant while in thi."; condition is not only faulty, but injurious. If the soil is of a sandv or porous nature. i)lanting may be rf)ntinued shortly after without injurv to the young stt make two upward cuts, one on each side, in the form of a wedge. (Kig- 11 A.) Then, clo.se to the lower end of the scion, and the opposite side to the bud, pass the blade inwards and upwards, making a cut tiie same length as that upon the root. (Fig. 11 A.) Insert the root, fitting the inner bark of the scion exactly with that of the root, on the one side. (Fig. 1 iC.) Hold the scion in the one hand, and start to tie at the upper end of the cut, working down to the lower. Leave the bud exposed (Fig. iiD), and finish off with two half hitches. (Fig. iiD.) Whilst tying under this method, there is a greater risk of the bark becoming .separated than in the whip-tongue method. The writer favours insertion if the roots are small. The grafts. when finished, should not be allowed to remain dry, but be damped and heeled in light soil in a sheltered position until required for planting out. Roots and cuttings for grafting should be kept heeled in moist soil until required. On no account allow them to lie about and become shrivelled. Such roots or cuttings are useless for grafting. Owing to the Spy carry- ing its foliage late in the the season, it will be necessary to strip oft' any leaves upon the cuttings, i.e., where an early start is being made. Cuttings taken from worked stocks carrying live dormant buds or frcin stools are preFernd. They are not so hard to ( ut as these .secured from old matured trees. Root-grafting may be performed during the months of June, July, August, and early September. Fig. 12 shows the cambium wood, which must be placed together with the r(x)t and scinn if the union is to be a success. \\'h«'n propagating varieties iniiuune from \\'(X)lly Aphis {Schizoncura lauigera), there is no necessity to doiilile work. Select nice Spy roots, and graft them direct! v (whip-tongui- uK-thod). Hut \aritties subject to attack from tliis pi-st must be worked liy grafting or budding upon resistant stork.? that are sufficientlv high alxn-e gnnmd level to |)revent them from slvxiting their own nxjts into the .soil and bet^oming a blighted nia.ss. .■1. K< root grafting lot li. Scion •■ C. R reailv for pl.mtinj; INSERTION METHOD, t aiir) scion united : I). Houml 366 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1911, Many private growers are under the impression that once a variety is worked upon a blight-proof stock it becomes immune against all disease. The following will explain the term " worked upon blight-proof stocks " :— In past years, the apple was propagated chiefly upon seedling stocks raised from selected varieties. Being non-blight-proof, they were in due course attacked by Woolly Aphis. This insect, working below as well as above ground, gave growers a busy time. Finally, they found it impossible to ward off an attack from the roots for any lengthy period. The roots being the vital_ part and suffering mostly, the trees soon became debilitated, and in many instances died out. The introduction of two blight-proof varieties (Winter Majetin from England, and Northern Spy from America), by Messrs. Lang and Co.. nurserymen, proved a boon to apple-growers ' As the roots were free from attack, the growers were able to combat it above ground. The reader will recognise from this that, by working a ^'ariety upon a blight-proof stock, it means " not subject to blight below the bud or graft," and not immunity for the whole tree. Layering. — Undoubtedly the best method for raising Spy stocks is from layers or stools. Once they are established and properly managed, they will produce well-roofed stocks with straight stems for many years. Mark off the prepared soil with the number of rows to be planted 4 feet or 5 feet apart. Place the garden line in position and work the soil back to the centre of the rows from bnth sides of the line, forming a slight depression. Lift the line, draw taut, replace, and open out a grip down the middle of the depression. Then plant the spy stocks selected from layers or stools ; failing these, from root-grafts. Plant 2 feet apart in the rows early in June, and mix a little bonedust with the soil before filling in. In August, cut back to within an inch of the ground-level, so as to get a supply of buds near or below the soil to push out. The following August cut back to two buds any weak or light growth, pegging down the stronger parallel with the row or other planted stocks. The buds upon the pegged-down growths, being now brought into a vertical position, will send up a sufficient supply of shoots for working upon sound lines. About November, mould them up lightly by removing some of the higher soil from the middle of the rows. During the following winter remo\^e soil about the layers and cut away any light shoots that may have rooted, hardening back others close to the main layer. The propagator should not be too eager in removing rooted shoots from the main layers until after the fourth season, but will be repaid by cutting hard back, forming good well-rooted crowns for future use. From now out the operator wfll require to use his own judgment regarding the growths he cuts hard back, and those he leaves for pegging down after removing any that may be rooted. In the winter mould up after cutting away any rooted stocks and the pegging-dowm is finished, and again in November or December. Deep or over-moulding should be avoided. 12. CUT SCION SHOWING DIFFERENT PARTS OF TREE. TO June, 1911-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 367 Stooling. — This method is somewhat similar to that of layering, but instead of pegging down the unrooted shoots they are cut hard back each year, so as to encourage as many as possible to show out. The second season from planting, and after the shoots have been cut back to within an inch or so of the stool, mould lightly and again in November or Decem- ber. If the shoots do not root, this moulding will cause them to become bleached close to the crown of the stool. Upon being hardened back, shoots that give the best results, will be formed. When removing rooted shoots in the winter, leave any that are very small for the following year ; also any that are weak and spindly. Notice illustration showing rooted shoots (now stocks) cut from stool. (Fig. 14). 13. ESTABLISHED STOOL CARRYING ROOTED STOCKS. 14- ROOTED STOCKS CUT FROM STOOL. The cooler and moister districts are the best adapted for the raising of Spy stocks by these two methods (layering and stooling), as the rooting of the shoots is controlled by even moisture during late summer and early autumn. From healthy, old, and well-established stools, and those putting up medium and not over-strong shoots, the best results are obtained. The writer advises that layering and stooling should be worked conjointly. When planting, select a permanent site in the nursery, and one where the layers or stools will not be interfered with. Keep the beds free from weeds and well cultivated. With healthy and well-established stools no manure is required, the aim of the propagator being to encourage meilium and nr>t rank growths. ^-ight or sandy loam should be u.sed for moulding purposes. The illustration on this page .shows a stool that took four years to establish. For twelve years it has produced aiuuially an average of 95 per cent, of well -rooted .shoots or slocks. When photo- graphed, it had twelxe rcnjted shoots. 368 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ro June, 191 i. Pear Stocks. The stock that should be used for propagating the many varieties of pear upon is the seedling raised from pips selected from hardy and free- seeding kinds. Selected seed can be imported so reasonably, either direct from France or America, oi' through any seedsman of repute, that it is questionable whether it pays to troul)le about saving or securing suitable fruit and washing out the seed. Those who wish to save pear seed should be guided by the following :— Only save those pears that have good plump seed, and from varieties that make a good average growth, such as Alexandrina Bivort, Beurre Capiaumont, and T/Inconnue. When the fruit is ready for seed, place them in old cases or tubs, or in pits or heaps, and keep co\ert'(l. When rotten, partly fill a tub or suitable vessel and work up with the hands to a gruel. Add water, mix well, and strain through a sieve fine enough to prevent the seed pass- ing through. Rub well while straining through the sieve. Applying water freely will force out any seeds that may be left in the cores. Continue this treatment until clean. Then spread the seed upon bags or something suitable, place under cover, and allow to dry. When dry, rub well with the hands to separate any seed that may be stuck together. It wilt then be ready for planting. Keep dry and away from mice or other vermin. Tn May. the seed should be sown in drills made t inch in dt'|jth bv 6 to 8 inches in width. The rows should be far enough apart to alloAv the cultivator to- pass through. The bottom of the drill should be fairly level ; sow evenlv, but not too thickly. Take a piece of board the width of the drill and 'about 2 feet in length, and nail a short piece upon one side to act as a handle. Pat the seed lightly with this, and cover with sand or light soil to the depth of t inch. A fairly heavy loam in a moist cool district is most suited for raising seedlings. It will repay the planter to dig into the soil a little bonedust before opening out the drills. The seed beds should be kept perfectly free from weed growths, and removed before they grow to any size in the rows ; or else in removing them injury will be done to the germinating or sprouting seed. 15. TYPICAL STOCKS. A. Apple Stock— Koot Graft; B. Apple Stock— Layer or Stool ; C. Plum Stock~Cuttinnly. die out, <>specially the varietv Oullin's F.arly Peach. The rommon Mus.sel Plum is a gfM^d stock, but owing to its habit of throw- ing up suckers is not likely to court favour with the planter. Owing to 3: Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. the harder wood of the plum, the apricot, like the plum worked upon the peach, and vice versa, is liable to break away at the union of bud or graft with the stock. The peach may be used as a stock, but the writer does not recommend its general use. Plant stones, .selected from mid-sea.son or late varieties, in June or July. The stones should have been kept in a dry state. A good plan is to soak them in cold water a few days before planting, or until the moisture reaches the kernels. Test a few stones by cracking them, and drain off the water immediately upon finding the kernels moist. The soaking process is valuable, particularly if the weather is dry when planting, and likely to remain so. Apricot stocks should be planted out in the nunsery where the soil is well-drained, loose, and warm. The stocks can either be raised in seed-beds, and transplanted the following- planting season, or else planted directly in the beds for budding upon during the following autumn. (See section dealing with planting (page 361.) Peach and Nectarine Stocks. The best stock for propagating these fruits upon is the peach seedling. But in light soils, where the almond thrives better than the peach or nectarine, the seedling almond should be used as a stock. Several old growers in the Cheltenham district near the coast only plant the peach when worked upon the almond, claiming that not only are the trees more robust and productive, but that the fruit ripens a few days earlier than when worked upon peach stock. Peach stones should bs secured from seedling or mid-season varieties, if possible. As soon as the stones are secured, open out a trench in a fairly moist, warm, and sheltered position. Spread a layer of stones about 3 inches in depth, and cover lightly with sand or soil. Continue this treatment until the trench is nearly full, finally covering well over with soil. The stones should not be allowed to get dry or too wet. When planting in May or June remove the top soil, shovel out the stones, and sieve to remove any .soil. A suit- able sieve can be made by making a fraine from 4-in. x i-in. softwood, and nailing J-in. mesh wire-netting upon the bottom. Another method is to crack the stones carefully with a hamm.er and remove the kernels. To do this, get a block and place the stones upon edge, when a sharp clout upon the upper edge will force open the stone. Then spread the kernels upon moist ground in a sheltered spot and cover with moist bags for a few days before planting. When planting, any bruised or bad kernels are ea.sily detected by giving them a slight squeeze. I do not favour this method, and consider it unnecessary. Besides being tedious. B 10. CUTTINGS FOR RAISING ROOTED STOCKS. A. Wronjfly made Cutting — Should have been cut at X ; B. Plum— Pro- perly cut ; C. C^iiince - Properly cut. lo June, 191 i.] Citrus Fruit Culture. 371 there is a risk, if the weather sets in wet and cold, of the kernels rotting through the fleshy seed leaves being brought into direct contact with the soil at the germination period, when they should be protected by the hard outer sheath or shell. The planting of stones should be carried out during May, June, and July. Plant kernels in late July or early August. Almond Stocks. The almond thrives best upon a deep sandy or light loamy soil, well ■drained, and having a warm subsoil. The seedling almond stock is the most suited for propagating upon ; but in soils where the almond does not thrive and the peach does, the seedling peach should be used. The almond may be propagated upon the plum, but the writer does not recorrmiend its general use. Nuts from the bitter or strong-growing sweet varieties should be planted for working upon. As good fresh nuts grow freely, they should be planted out permanently in the beds where they are to be worked. Plant in May, June, or July. (2"(? he continued.) CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. It has been estimated that the people of Victoria consume over four times the amount of citrus fruits that they produce. That is to say, there ij produced only one-fourth of our necessity in oranges and lemons. During the year 1910, 34,528 packages of lemons and 302,966 packages ot oranges were imported into this State. It is calculated by Californian authorities that California will export this year nearly 50,000 car loads •of citrus fruits; 10,000 car loads are also expected to be shipped from Florida ; 10,000 from Italy, and 40.000 from Spain. A car load represents a good many bu.shels. Some of these fruits will assuredly come to Victoria. Can we not produce at least what we require ? Why should our money be sent to the support of other countries when we can readily pro- duce all we need? We have both suitable soil and climate, as evinced from the fact that citrus fruits succeed so remarkably well in many parts of the State. Given suitable conditions, lemons can be produced in almost any portion of Victoria, from Orbost to Mildura ; while, in the warmer parts, oranges are equallv successful. Orange and lemon groves are in existence in all parts of Victoria, particularly in the northern areas. The vield from these during 1910 was only 51,130 bushels: and if it is possible to produce this quantity, there is surely room for extension in citrus culture, when we consumed last year over 330,000 packages of imported citrus fruits. Further, there is probably a large field for a greater quantitv of those fruits, seeing that we Pxport(Nl last year over 37- Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. 12.000 packages of oranges and lemons. An export market thus estab- lished, although only on a small scale, \vill probably be capable of greater expansion. Owing to large areas of suitable land being thrown open for closer settlement in the northern parts of the State, and to the arrival, and expected further arrival, of immigrants, there are signs of great and ^ ^^^hIV ^ifeX *■■■ - ': " ^: 1 . ■■■«*;:«iii«*- vm JBl M-i. HON OF ORANGE TREE, MILDIRA. increased activity in orchard establishment, particularly in the directioi> of citrus culture ; and the new settlers are being urged to plant citrus fruits wherever the land is suitable. When we seriously consider the figures quoted previously, it will be understood that this advice is not given with- out due consideration of our requirements in this direction. We are not lo June, 1911.] Citrus Fruit Culture. 373 keeping pace with our demand, and in this instance Victorians are forced to provide a living for people of other States and countries to produce for us what we can readily grow ourselves. The Soil. The choice of a suitable soil for oranges and lemons should be the first care of all intending citrus growers. So much depends upon the right soil ; and while these fruits will generally grow for a time at least wherever planted, yet they do not possess the power of adaptability in regard to soils, that other classes of fruit trees have. Two points lor citrus soil must be insisted upon; first, perfect drainage, and second, friability of texture. Whether the drainage be natural or artificial, and natural drainage is always to be preferred, this is the first consideration in selecting the site for a citrus grove. There must be no possibility of any stagnant or sour soil conditions at any time during the life of the tree. Such con- ditions will inevitably result in the setting in of one or more fungus diseases on the roots. For this purpose, it is preferable that the presence of a clay subsoil should be guarded against, unless the overlying soil is of such a depth that the roots do not penetrate into the clay to any extent. The subsoil should be physically of a naturally porous condition, and only such a subsoil will produce the best results, both of tree and fruit. If the trees are planted where clay subsoils exist, then these must be artificially drained, either by very deep subsoiling or by agricultural drains, or preferably by both. The .second condition, a friable soil, is also an essential one. A soil where the mechanical conditions are suitable, and in which the texture is loose and friable, approaching to a sandy nature, is the suitable soil for citrus trees. The .soil may be granitic, alluvial, a sandy loam, or it may even be pure sand ; any light loamy or sandy soil will carry the best oranges and lemons. Stiff clay soils, heavy basaltic soils, solid loamy soils, and shallow soils are all to be avoided. It is more important to have a friable soil than a rich soil ; it is more i)rofitable to have a free acting soil, than one rich in plant food ; although a fair proportion of vegetable humus is always desirable. The sand hills on the banks of the Murray and its tributaries, the pine rises and ridges in the Goulburn Valley and in the Mallee, the alluvial valleys on the river banks, and between the ranges, in the North- Eastern district, are all eminently suitable for the cultivation of citrus fruits.- Some of the finest oranges ever produced in Victoria were grown on almost pure sand, on one of the sand hills on the Murray banks near Cobrani. In one season, oranges of the Washington Navel variety were grown weigh- ing 19 ozs. and 21 ozs. each. In every way they were perfect specimens. While, therefore, a good or even rich .soil is not to be despi.sed for citrus culture, a perfect mechanical condition of both soil and subsoil is more to be desired. A poor soil carrying such requirements is better than a rich heavy and undrained one; and if it be possible to establish the citrus grove in land that does not require subsoiling, the results will be successful aufl payable. Preparation of Soil. All tree stumps and roots should be taken out of the citrus site. These are a vorv fertile factor for tlv^ dissemination of several fun-^Mis disea.scs. 374 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 1. The soil should then be ploughed, and, if possible, it should be left in a rough condition, so that it may be sweetened by exposure to the atmosphere. 3t is not advisable to plough too deeply, if the soil be shallow. If the surface soil be of good depth, then it may be turned over to a depth of 8 inches or 9 inches. A subsequent deeper cross ploughing to the depth of 12 inches will be beneficial, as the object of the cultivator should be to get the land worked up into as loose and friable a condition as possible. Thorough preparation for planting is a great aid to future success. Thoroughly friable soil will induce deeper rooting, which is a great neces- -sity in citrus trees. Orange and lemon trees are far more liable to fungus troubles than are other classes of fruiting trees ; hence it is necessary that they should be planted in a thoroughly aerated and sweetened soil, and that these desir- able conditions should be permanently maintained. Planting and Care of Young Trees. When the soil is in a satisfactory condition, the planting may be pro- •ceeded with. The season for planting is still a much debated subject. As citrus trees produce their main crops at a time when other trees are dormant, it is to be assumed that reversal of the time of planting is neces- sary. Therefore, growers have been advised by some to plant in early autumn; by others, in spring; and, by others, in summer. One point is ■certain — the soil must be warm for the reception of the young trees ; this is to impel quick rooting. The young trees must be planted at the same tmie, relatively, as other -varieties of trees are planted ; that is, during their period of dormancy, and shortly previous to the bursting into growth of the new buds. The-y should be planted just previous to the " spring " sea.son of the trees. The adaptability of citrus trees to alteration of conditions is very great, and they will generally grow whether planted in the spring or in the autumn ; but they should be planted when they will receive the least check. Further, after planting, if planted in their " springtime," they will put forth their young growths of foliage and probably flowers ; and so they should be planted so that these new growths will have time to Tipen and harden, before the rigours of winter and the ravages of frost can affect them. Therefore, as soon as the soil is warm in the spring time, planting may be proceeded with. October is generally a good month to do this work. The soil is fairly warm, and the young trees have plenty of time to put forth new roots and thus take hold of the soil before the succeeding winter. If autumn planting be carried out, the soil is warm enough, but the trees do not get sufficient roothold before the cold Tveather sets in. Citrus trees may be planted at any time from October to March ; but best results will follow from late spring planting. The trees should not be planted too closely ; the roots travel laterally to a considerable degree, and the roots are also mainly surface feeders. Mence, too much crowding will weaken the trees, and will necessitate lieavy manuring in after years. Close planting also prevents, to a great degree, a good circulation of atmosphere, which is a prime requisite, citrus trees being evergreen. A distance of 30 feet each way is quite close ■enough for all varieties of oranges. They may be planted at distances of 25 feet or 26 feet, but no closer. Lemons, being of a more compact _^growth, may be planted from 20 feet to 25 feet apart. lo June, 1911.] Citrus Fruit Culture. 375 The young trees will thrive better if received from the nursery and jjlanted in a " balled " condition. That is, the tree is removed from the nursery bed with a good ball of soil, and packed in hessian or bagging. The ball is then placed in the holes, which have been prepared for their reception, and the soil is well filled around it, without disturbing any of the roots, and without breaking the ball. The soil is then settled with a good supply of water. There is no necessity to remove the canvas, beyond untying it from round the stem of the tree ; it will soon decay- in the soil. It is a help to the young roots when they commence their growth, to sprinkle a handful of bonedust in the hole, before placing the tree in position. If the trees are planted by this method, it will not be necessary to cut away any growth from the tops, unless any one branch is unduly prominent. GARDENS. A method ot planting sonietimcs followed in California, and known as the "post-hole" method, is to bore holes with post-hole augers some distance into the soil, at the bottom of the ordinary tree holes. These are filled with well rotted leaf mould or peaty .soil. It is suppo.sed that the roots in seeking their food will grow downwards into these f(Kxl reser- \-ons, and tli;it deep rooting will be tht-rcjix induced. Where a lew trees onlv are planted, it i.s alwavs a help lo them, to occasionally sprinkle the foliage lightly with water in the early morning, and also in the evening, until they have a firm hold of the soil. Any weak tree, or one not growing as successful! v as the others, mav lie helped 6i 76 Joiir)ial of Agriculture , Yicioria. [10 June, 191 i. along in this way. A little help and care, when the trees are young, go a long way towards making a strong sturdy citrus grove ; especially seeing that, as they are evergreen trees, there will be a great amount of weakening transpiration from the foliage every day. Trees of the citrus family are very susceptible to frost, particularly when young ; and, if the grove is planted in regions where frosts are at all frequent, it will be necessary to protect the young trees for two or three seasons in frosty weather, with canvas or bagging. One severe frost will kill a young tree, and it is very necessary to take all precautions to prevent the tree being burned or checked in any way by frosts. Ever- green trees, when planted out in spring or summer, require far more watchful care and attention than do deciduous trees which are planted in the winter. A good watchful oversight of the young plantation, helping on any weaklings t)y syringing with water in warm weather, hoeing the surface soil, an occasional watering, or pinching back unduly prominent growths, according to the want of the young tree, will repay the operator handsomely, and with good success. The question of inter-crops has now to be considered. It will probably bi.: desired that the land shall be immediately reproductive, the planter not wishing to wait for revenue until the grove comes into- bearing. A system of planting other crops between the rows may be judiciously carried out; and while the inter-crop will bring in an immediate result, the work may be done so as to help and improve the plantation. For the first year, the inter-crop may be kept only a few feet away from the young trees, but the distance must be increased as time advances. The .soil must always be kept well stirred ; cultivation must be as com- plete as if there were no inter-crop, and all weeds should be rigorously excluded. The cultivation, as well as the manuring of the inter-crop, will be of great value to the soil. The kind of crop thus grown will be de- pendent upon the season. All classes of vegetables may be used as inter- crops ; tomatoes, onions, potatoes, &c., all do well. Strawberries, gooseberries, and currants are also payable fruits to grow, provided the climate is suitable. Pumpkins, beans, peas, cabbages, cauliflowers, lettuces. and melons may be utilized, if the soil and the markets are satisfactory. A good payable winter crop could be grown from rhubarb. The refuse of these crops will be very valuable as future food for the trees if it be dug into the soil. Cultivation and Irrigation. Trees of the citrus family are generally shallow rooters or surface feeders ; hence, it was urged that, before planting, the soil be well worked and re-worked, so as to assist deep rooting. In cultivating the surface after planting, it will be a matter of urgency that as little damage as pos- sible be done to the root system. Some growers prefer to carry on without any cultivation system at all, merely harrowing the surface lightly, and top-dressing the grove with fresh soil each year. This system will not become universal, as fre.sh soil is generally most difficult to obtain ; still, where possible, it is a most excellent method of renovating and improving citrus soil. Sand dressings are also advantageous; and gutter or creek sand, or any washed sand, will always tend to improve the soil, lightening and opening its texture. Surface cultivation, in the absence of these sys- tems, will always be a necessity ; but, whatever method be adopted, the roots must not be cut or mutilated. lo June, igu.] Citrus Fruit Culture. 377 Light scarifyings and harrowings are all that will be necessary — a con- stant state of looseness must be maintained. If ploughing is resorted to, as a matter of urgency, then shallow ploughing must be the rule. In fairly heavy or in heavy loam soils, ploughing should always be practised aftei irrigation. The spreading of a body of water over the soil tends to con- soFidate the soil particles ; and, in such soils, ploughing must quickly follow a watering. The most suitable system of irrigation for citrus plantations is what is known as the furrow system. The water is not allowed to spread ovei the whole surface area, but is confined to two or three furrows between the rows, being allowed to run slowly through the .soil. By this means, the greater part of the surface is kept loose, and frequently it is quite dry. The furrows should be of a reasonable depth so as to prevent over- flow. This method is to be commended as far superior to the flooding system. The latter style is wasteful, the water not being properlv con- centrated; besides, it is frequently deceptive, e.g., when a fair amount of water is given as a flooding, it may appear to be of a far greater quantity than it really is, and probably the soakage has not extended to any great depth at all. By the flooding system, there is a far greater amount of water lost by evaporation in the summer time, both while the water is on the ground and afterwards while the soil is drying sufficiently to allow cultivation to be proceeded with, and subsequent cultivation is made much more difficult. The young trees may be irrigated within a fortnight of planting ; sub- sequent waterings will depend on various circumstances, such as the season, age of plantation, the climate, and the soil. A young citrus grove will, in the summer, need frequent waterings in small quantities ; whenever the trees show any signs of flagging or wilting, they must be watered. During a hot dry spell they will need a good supply of water ; during cool weather the water mav be withheld, and the surface stirred instead. In older plantations, four waterings each year should be ample ; indeed, in .some seasons, this would be an excess quantity. Mulching is helpful to trees of this class; a good straw, grass, leaf, or even well rotted stable manure mulch, provided it be not heaped around the trunk of the tree, will always h^ useful ; and it will obviate a con- siderable amount of digging and consequent root injury. If any hand work is resorted to, the fork should always be used in preference to any other tool, particular] \ when cultivating near the tree itself. Keep the land well stirred, and never allow the formation of a hard crust. Manuring. Tt has prc\i()usly bet-n stated that c-itrus trees prefer a loose soil to a rich one, but that richness and looseness form a good combination. Still. the.se trees will grow, and thrive very well in pure sand. When the soil is poor in qualitv. feeding to a limited extent will always be helpful to the trees. But, as a rule, manuring will not need to be resorted to for a few vears. or until the trees come into general bearing. It has l>een estimated tliat oranges and lemons remove largt^ly from the soil. pota,%h and nitrogen, especiallv the laiii 1. ^\\^\ ,1 small quantitv of |)hos|)h()ri(" acid. A good chemical fertilizer would be made up of :; lb. bonedusl. i j lb. sulphate of potash, and J lb. superphosphate to each tree, increasing the (|uantity projjortionately with the age of the tree. Care must be taken 378 Journal of Agrlcidture . Victoria. [10 June, 191 i. not to give an excess of potash, as that manure given in excess tends to thicken and toughen the rind, as well as to increase the acid quality of the fruit. Nitrogen is the greatest necessity of citrus trees, and a cover crop of some leguminous plant will always benefit the citrus orchard. Well rotted .stable manure is always valuable and helpful, particularly i"^ it is collected and stored so as to retain the urine as well as the solid manure. In sandy soils, stable manure, by adding humus to the general mass, is probably the best manure. As a stimulant, nothing is more suc- cessful than sulphate of iron, applied at the rate of from i lb. to 2 lbs. per tree. It may be dissolved in 10 gallons of water, and thus fed to the roots, or it may be scattered broadcast between the trees before an irriga- tion, subsequently ploughing or cultivating the soil. A top dressing with new soil, sand, leaf mould, gutter or drain washings, and vegetable refuse matter of any kind will always be helpful as plant food in the citrus plantation. {To be continued.) SPRAYING FOR IRISH BLKxHT. D. McAlpine, Vegetable Pathologist. The efficacy of spraying is no longer called in question bv any one who has given it a fair trial, but for those who have lost their potato crops during the past season, the following facts should convince them that it pays to spray, apart altogether from the increased yields. In the minds of many, the weather is the controlling factor ; but. during this season, which has been the worst on record for the eiicouragement of fungus diseases, the results obtained both with " Black Spot " of the apple and " Irish Blight" of the potato, proved conclusively that spraying done thoroughly at the proper time and with the proper mixture saves the crop in spite of the weather. 1. The following letter has just been received bv the Department from a large potato-grower : — • Adverting to our previous corres'^onleuce, I desire to sa\' that I sprayed my potatoes again about the beginning of March, and, although I have blight on my farm, the sprayed potatoes are remarkably free from it. I have just dug 100 bags, and there was not i per cent, infected; another paddock spraved twice is practi- cally clean, and a strip not five chains away — a few rows that I did not spray — is completely rotten. The disease in this district is in a most virulent form ; a series of hot, misty muggy spells made a heart-breaking mess of things. The disease appeared simul- taneously over a very large area, hardlv missing a farm, and leaving ruin every- where. I used a 2 per cent, solution of bluestone with soda and a high-pressure — 140 lbs. to the square inch — to which I attribute my success. I do not think the last word has been said in the matter of spr.iv pumps. The ])umps driven off the axle seem to lack the necessary power, and T consider a motor an essential. Spraying has failed in a good many Instances here, but I know a good many have only sprayed as a matter of form. It does not seem any good monkeying with Irish Blight. It is a most insidious foe, and we must fight it with the gloves off, but I have seen enough to convince me that Bordeaux — if applieri strong enou'^h, and with sufficient force — will, at least, take the sting out of it. Personally, I would like to see spraying made compulsory, but I do not see how it could be done very well. 2. The good effects of spraying, even when done rather late in the season, was shown in the experimental plots at Kardella conducted by the Department. Over one acre of newly broken up land was planted wdth seed potatoes which had been sent to the destructor, and were very badly lo June, 1911.] Tomatoes and Irish Blight. 379 blighted indeed. It was originally intended to spray a few rows with the copper-soda mixture, but it rained so heavily on the date of our visit that it had to be abandoned. However, on 6th March, two rows were sprayed when the tops were badly blighted but still partially green, mainly to see the effect of the spray on the foliage. It rained heavily just before the spray was applied. About a month afterwards (4th April), the potatoes were ready for digging, and the sprayed rows were conspicuous for the greenness of their foliage, while the others were brown and withered. The spray was in many instances still visible on the leaves, although a considerable amount of rain had fallen since the time of application. On digging the potatoes, the healthy and diseased were carefully weighed and the result was that, while 92 per cent, of the unsprayed were blighted, there were only 55 per cent, of those that were sprayed. This was the best yield in the district, notwithstanding that the " seed " was of such a nature that no one would ever dream of planting it, except for experimental purposes, and the neighbouring farmers who were present at the digging all went away fully convinced of the virtue of spraying. 3. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that the practice of spraying is becoming more and more common as its advantages are realized, and even in Ireland the latest o-fjicial report states :— Some idea of the recent pron;ress made in this matter of spraying may be gained from the fact that, during the last three years, nearly 4,000 spraying machines have been sold through the efforts of the Department in the congested districts of the West of Ireland alone. TOxMATOES AND IRISH BLIGHT. D. Mc Alpine, Vegetable Pathologist. The tomato is so closely related to the potato-plant, as I have shown in the Journal for April, 19 10, that potatoes and tomatoes may be pro- duced on the same plant. A tomato shoot may be grafted on to a potato haulm, and there will be tomatoes above ground and potatoes underground. Conversely, if a potato stem is grafted on to a tomato shoot, there will only be tubers borne in the axils of the leaves. It was to be expected, therefore, that sooner or later, as in other parts of the world, the disea.se of Irish T^light would be found attacking the tomato crop in Australia. It has already been found in tomatoes imported into Victoria from New South Wales, as recorded in this Journal for January, 19 10, also in Queensland, as noted in the Annual Report, 1909-10, but I have just found it (April) for the first time on plants grown in Victoria. A row of tomatoes, containing about 150 vines, was planted alongside potatoes in the Yannathan district, the seed potatoes and the voung tomato ['lants Ix-iiig i)lantcd at the same time — on 27th December, 191 o. About iith March the potalc; tops began to show signs of disease, and in about a week they all collap.sed with Irish Blight. A few days after the potato plants had succumbed, the di.sease was noticed in the tomatoes when the fruit was forming. When I examined the plot on 6th April not a single plant had escaped, and only an occasional ripe and healthv tomato could 1;C found, and it was evident that the tomatoes had been infected from the adjoining potatoes. The tomato plants were still green and flowering, but the lower leaves were often brownish and withered. A careful examination only revealed the presence of Earlv Blight on the leaves, so that altlimigh tltc fimgiis of Irish Blight mav appear on the leaves and st<'ms of tiie tomato pl.mt. just as in the case of the poi.ito, it onlv 38o Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. aftected the fruits at this stage. The fruits were the first portions of the plant to be attacked by the wind-borne spores. Tomatoes were found affected at all stages of growth, from the tiny fruit not the size of a pea, to the full-grown and large-sized lobed fruit. The symptoms are generally well-marked. There is a brownish discolouration, at first in patches, with a tendency to become mottled ; and, when the fruit is sliced, this is seen to be due to the discolouration of the pulp extending more or less throughout. A very simple way in which artificial infection may be brought about, is tc place sporangia in a small phial of water. After being well shaken, a drop is placed on the skin of the potato or tomato, and a cut or stab made through the drop into the skin. Twenty healthy potatoes were infected at the same time in this way, and all became diseased, every one showing signs of it in about seven days. When the skin is unbroken there is not the same certainty of infection. After the discovery of blighted tomatoes in Victoria, plenty of fresh spores Avere available, and an experiment was carried out to test the mutual infection of spores from potato and tomato under exactly similar con- ditions, when applied to the unbroken and broken skin. In each case there was only a single point of infection, and each specimen was placed by itself in a closed jar lined with moist blotting-paper, on joth April, igii. No. One of the healthy tomatoes and potatoes was kept separately under moist conditions, without any development of disease. In nine days, two c^ the tomatoes and two of the potatoes with broken skin, as well as one of the potatoes with unbroken skin, produced the fructification of the Irish Blight fungus. At the end of fourteen days, a tomato with unbroken skm also produced the fructification, but no further developments were observed at the end of a month, and the experiment was considered closed. Thus, a tomato and a potato with unbroken skin, inoculated with spores from a potato, were not infected, owing to some individual peculiarity, but in a previous experiment this infection was successful, and the fruc- tification of the fungus appeared in both instances in sixteen days. Appended is a short account of the behaviour of each specimen. Specimen. Condition. Infection. Time taken to reproduce Spores. Healthy Tomato Unbroken skin Spores from Tomato 14 days " '" Potato .. No infection (16 c?ays in previous experi- ment) .. Broken skin . . Tomato 9 days . . . . J? . . Potato .. 9 days Healthy Potato Unbroken skin ,, ,, . . No infection (16 (lays (Carman No. 3) ni previous ex]>en- ment ) Healthy Potato ,, , , Tomato 9 days Broken skin . . Potato .. 9 days Tomato 9 days Explanation of Plate. :S. 1.— Two tomatoes from Yannathan, taken from the field, and showing luxuriant fructification on unbroken skin. Fig^. 2. — First specimen of Ijliffhted tomato obtained in Victoria. Fig. 3.— Cross section of tomato, showing browning of tissue extending from outside inwards, and producing sporansjia in fiiiit cavities. 4. — Section lengthwise of tomato from Gelliondale, showing browning of tissue extending from circumference. lo June. 1911.] Tomatoes and Irish Blight. 381 TOMATOliS Willi IKISll BLIGHT, 382 Journal of Agriculture , 'Victoria. [10 June, 191 i. No. I showed a depressed area of about three-quarters of an inch on the third day, and on the fourteenth day this had increased to fully one inch in diameter, but without any noticeable discolouration, and on the margin a few tufts of the fructification appeared. At the end of the experiment, the tomato became soft and rotten, and the diseased patch was overgrown with Fusarium. No. 2 was still firm and showed no trace of disease. No. 3 showed a small depressed area at infection point in three days, and on the ninth day the slightly discoloured and softened area was about \\ inch in circumference, and distinctly marked off from the sound tissue. Tufts of sporangia had burst through the skin over the discoloured area, and even beyond it. At the end of the experiment, the specimen was completely rotten. No. 4 was similar to the preceding, and the origin of the spores from the potato did not seem to affect the result. It was completely rotten and ccvered with a thick felt of Fusarium. No. 5. — ^The potato remained quite firm and free from disease. No. 6. — There was no sign of infection on the third day, but on the ninth day there was slight discolouration over a circular area of about half-an-inch in diameter, and tufts of sporangia were seen bursting through the lenticels, even beyond the discoloured portion. At the end, the entire potato was invaded by the fungus, and tufts of sporangia were produced all over the surface. No. 7. — This specimen showed discolouration on the ninth day over an area of about 2 inches in diameter, and the fructification had burst through over and beyond this. At the end, the infection had extended over three- fourths of the area of the potato, and there were two strong apparently healthy shoots and a few smaller ones at the crown end. This was considered a very suitable sample for testing the assertion that the produce of a diseased tuber is not diseased, and it has been planted whole. No. 8 was similar to the preceding up till the ninth day, and both showed a slight discolouration on the third day after infection. At the end, infection extended all over and tufts of sporangia were produced very generally over the entire surface. It has now been conclusively shown that tomatoes and potatoes are mutually infective and that, even with the tough skin unbroken, spores falling upon them when moist, can produce infection, and a fresh crop of spores may appear within nine days. A diseased tomato, like a diseased potato, may naturally produce spores on the unbroken surface while still attached to the parent plant, the fungus filaments protruding through the skin in both cases. But the tomato differs in producing spores internally as well, for the filaments of the fungus ramifying in the pulp bear spores freely in the cavities of the fruit containing the seeds. It is evidently bad policy to plant tomatoes and potatoes side by side, as is often done in our coastal districts, for there is always a risk of one infecting the other, and consequently both crops may suffer. Further, the tomatoes growing in the winter have been known to be affected with blight, and thus the spores may be carried to the young potato crop, and from the potato to the tomato for one-half of the year at least ; until the dry heat of summer arrives to hold them in check. lo June, 1911-] Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants. 383 VERNACULAR NAMES OF VICTORIAN PLANTS. The following list of provisionally adopted vernacular plant names, representing about one-third of the whole Victorian Flora, is only part of the work done by the Plant Names Committee since its appointment in August, 1907. It is now published here so that it may be the subject of general criticism prior to the final adoption of the complete list. Of the plants contained in the other two-thirds of the Flora, already about half have also been fitted with "common" names, and in the interim .he remainder will be dealt with as speedily as possible, and in due course will, it is hoped, be presented for similar criticism in two separate lists. It seems hardly necessary at this stage to contend that popular, common or vernacular names are really necessary or desirable for our plants. Some few there are who still remain doubtful in the matter. It is recognised, however, that a great many scientific names are found by most people exceedingly difficult to get hold of and difiicult to keep in memory and still more difficult to write. It is obvious also that many ot the names are merely labels, entirely lacking in suggestiveness ; that indeeu they were never intended to indicate any particular feature by which the plant might be distinguished. In some cases even, it may be said that the names, since the discovery of allied species, have become actually misleading. This being so, good vernacular names must surely be better for general use than indifferent, bad, or repellant scientific names, and the possession by each plant of one fixed, authoritative English name, as fitting as possible, must be welcomed by plant lovers and others and will undoubtedly lead to a greater general interest in our plants. It is, of course, not imagined that nearly all the following names will meet with general approval. Some are admitted to be unsatisfactory, but for the time they are the best available, and are only put out tentatively and in the hope that others more fitting may be suggested. The Committee will be pleased to receive any criticisms and useful suggestions. For the guidance of such as may feel disposed to offer names instead of those they disapprove of, some indication may be briefly given concerning the Committee's way of working. In dealing w-ith each plant or plant group (genus, &c.), naturally the first question is, has the plant or group a name already? If so, and the plant also occurs or the group is represented in Great Britain, America or elsewhere, the name (or one of them) is, in the great majority of ca.ses retained. If the plant or group is endemic, the name most appropriate is chosen or perhaps varied, ahvays supposing it is not the scientific name of a difi^erent group. As far as possible all the members of a group are given the same substantive name. Sometimes if in popular use and sometimes, when short and euphonious, even if it is not i)i popular use, the scientific generic name is retained. Occasionally, too. the aljoriginal (native) name is adopted. Only in the case of the popular name being out of the c]uestion or incapable of improve- ment or where none at all is di.scoverab!c. is the Committee driven to invent one. In many cases it does so by simply translating the scientific name, but otherwise it has regard primarily to the leading features of the plant or group, perhaps to the locality of its occurrence or to its affinities with other plants more or less removed from it. Always it endeavours to create a name as short, well sounding, and suggestive as possible. Recognising that many of onr plants occur also in other States, efforts have been made to enlist the sympathy and co-operation of the various 384 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 1911. State botanists in our work, so that when finally adopted, the names may have the widest possible range. As matters stand at present the final list will, on receiving the approval of Mr. Maiden, the Government Botanist of New South Wales, Mr. Rodway, the Government Botanist of Tasmania, and Mr. Stoward, the Government Botanist of Western Australia, be published in full and have ofticial recognition at least in Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, and West Australia, and perhaps in the remaining States also. As this work is not being done by one individual but by a committee, it may perhaps be as well to state that the working committee by whom the final decisions are made is constituted as follows: — Chairman: A. J. Ewart, D.Sc. ; Ph.D.; F.L.S. Hon. Secretary: C. S. Sutton, M.B., Ch.B. Committee : Messrs. F. G. A. Barnard, G. Coghill, J. A. Leach, M.Sc, J. P. McLennan, F. Pitcher, P. R. H. St. John. and J. R. Tovey. In addition, many valuable suggestions have been received from Messrs. J. H. Maiden, W. R. Guilfoyle, H. B. Williamson, L. Rodway, R. T. Baker, Maplestone, St. Eloy D 'Alton, ,and A. R. Vroland, also from Dr. Morrison, the Rev. R. Thorn, the late Mr. F. M. Reader, and from a large number of State school teachers. Opportunity has been taken at the same time to include data, wherever such were available, in regard to any economic properties possessed by the native plants mentioned on the present list, as these data may prove to be of general use and may lead to further inquiry. It will be noted that no great departures have been made from the system of naming and classification adopted by the late Baron von Mueller, since to have made all the changes that may ultimately prove necessary in the present list would have made it largely unintelligible to Victorian botanists and plant lovers. MONOCOTYLEDONEA. Botanical Name. Orchide^. Dendrobium — spsciosum, Smith striolatum, G. Keicli. Sarcochilus^ , -i falcatus, R.Br. parviflorus, Lindl. Dipodium — ■ punctatum, R.Br. Oastrodia — sesamoides, R.Br. Spiranthes— au'^tralis, Lindl. Thelymitra— ixioides, Swartz. aristata, Lindl. . . epipactoides, F.v.M. longifolia, R. and G. Forster fusco-lutea, R.Br. carnea, R.Br. flexuosa, Endl. . . antennifera, Hook. f. Macmillani, F.v.M. Popular Name. U.se or Character. EtJC'ALYCE?; PERiaVNiE. Common Bock Lily Streaked Rock Lily Sickle Sarcochilus Common Sarcochilus Spotted Orchid Potato Orchid Lady's Tresses Dotted Hood Orchid Tall Hood Orchid Stout Hood Orchid Long-leaved Hood Orchid Blotched Hood Orchid Pink Hood Orchid Twisting Hood Orchid Yellow Hood Orchid Red Hood Orchid Ornamental plant worthy of cultivation. The same applies to a greater or less extent to the whole of the following genera of orchids as far as Prasophyl- lum lo June, 1911-] Veniacidar Xames of Victorian Plants. 385 Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. MoNOCOTYLEDONEiE— EuCALYCEiE PERIGYNiE — Contimied. Orchide* — continued. Diuris — • alba, R.Br. punctata, Smith palustris, Lindl.. . maculata, Smith peduneulata. R.Br. sulphurea, R.Br. longifolia, R.Br. Orlhoceras — strictuni, R.Br. . . Calochilus — campestre, R.Br. Robertson!, Benth. Cryptostyiis — longifolia, R.Br. lepto(-hila, F.v.M. PragophyUuin — australe. R.Br. . . elatum, R.Br. . . Frenchii. F.v.M. brevilabre. Hook. f. patens, R.Br. fascuni, R.Br. . . Reidicnbachii. F.v.M. nigricans, R.Br.. . rulum, R.Br. brachystachyum, Lindl. despectans, Hook. f. fimbriatum. R.Br. Archori. Hook. f. fnscoviride. Leader Uixoni, F.v.M. .. intricatum, C. Stuart Microtis — porrifolia, R.Br. atrata, Lindl. Corysantkes — • unguiculata, R.Br. pruinosa, R. Cunn. Pterostylis — concinna, R.Br. curta. R.Br. Mackibboni. F.v.M. acuminata, R.Br. nutans, R.Br. . . pedaloglos.sa, Fitzg. peduneulata, R.Br. nana. R.Br. cucullata. R.Br. furcata. Lindl. . . grandillora. K.Br. reflexa, R.Br. reflexa, var. pra;cox (praj' cox, Lindl.) obtusa. R.Br. parvjHora, K.Br. barbata. Lindl. . . mutica. R.Br. . . rula. R.Br. longifolia. R.Br. vlttata, Lindl. . . Caleya — major, R.Br. minor, R.Br. Sullivani, F.v.M. Drukira — irritabilis, (J. Kcirh. Aeianthwt - caudatus, R.Br. . . e.\.sertu'<, K.Br. . . White Diuris Purple Diuris Swamp Diuris Leopard Orchid Snake Orchid Tiger Orchid Tall Diuris Crow Orchid Satyr Orchid Brown Beards Long-leaved Duck Orchid Thin-lipped Duck Orchid Austral Leek Orchid Tall Leek Orchid Stout Leek Orchid Short-lipped Leek Orchid Pale Leek Orchid Tawny Leek Orchid Dense" Leek Orchid Dark Leek Orchid Red Leek Orchid Desert Leek Orchid Tiny Leek Orchid Fringed Leek Orchid Archer Leek Orchid Dusky Leek Orchid Di.xon Leek Orchid Elfin Leek Orchid Leek Microtis . . Tiny Microtis Lesser Red Helmet Greater Red Helmet Trim Green-hoods Blunt Oreen-hoods Short Green-hoods Pointed Green-hoods Nodding Green-hoods Tailed Green-hood.s Maroon-hoods Dwarf Green-hoods Leafy Green-lioods Forked Green-hoods Large fJreen-lioods Strii)ed Green-hoods Early Green-hoods Slender Green-hoods Tiny Green-hoods Bearded Green-liooiLs Small Green-hoods Rusty-hoods Tall Green-hoods Banded Green-hoods Cockatoo Orchid Small Cockatoo Orchid Spectral Cockatoo Orchid Hammer Orchid Tailed Gnat Orchid Comniim <;naf Orchid The flowers are too small and mono- tonous in colour to be of any appre- ciable decorative value, and the plants have no fodder value, and, so far as is known, have no economic importance Grows amongst grass, &c. ; of no economic value "( Grows in shady places ; too small to be / worthy of cultivation Many of the larger flowered species of Pteroglyiis, as well as most of the Orchidece, would look well in " wild " lawns and slirubberies. The flowers of Pterostylis, though without dis- tinctive colours, are curious in shape Grow in slutdy places, under Tea Tree and other vegetation, as also do other species Po.ssibly worthy ci . nli iv;il i<>n as L'arden novelties I'suallv grows in alpine districts (irowHludampshiidv plac.s und.r >lirub3, itc. 386 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. MONOCOTYLEDONEJE — EucALYCE.E Perigyx.e — Continued. Orchid e* — ■continued . Cyrtostylis — reniformis, B.Br. Lyperanthus — suaveolens, 6. Reich. nigricans, R.Br. . . Burnettia — cuneata, Lindl. . . Eriochilus — autiimnalis, R.Br. Caladenia — flmbriata, G. Reich. Menziesii, R.Br. Cairnsiana, F.v.M. discoidea, Lindl. fllamentosa, R.Br. Patersoni, R.Br. latifolia, R.Br. . . carnea, R.Br. congesta, R.Br. coerulea, R.Br. . . deformis, R.Br. Chiloglottis — diphylla, R.Br. . . Gunnii, Lindl. .. Glossodia — major, R.Br. minor, R.Br. iRIDEiE. Dvplarrhena — Moraea, Labill. . . Patersonia — glauca, R.Br. longiscapa. Sweet sericea, R.Br. glabrata, R.Br. . . Sisyrinchium — paniculatum, R.Br. pulchellum, R.Br. cyaneum, Lindl. Hydrocharide.e. Balophila — ovata, Gaudich. . . Ottelia — ovalifolia, L. C. Richard Vallisneria — spiralis, L. Elodea (Hydrilla) — verticillata, F.v.M. Amaryllide.b. Hypoxia — hygrometrica, Labill. glabella, R.Br. . . Crinum — ■ flaccidum, Herbert Calostemma — purpureum, R.Br. Mosquito Orchid Scented Lyperanth Flower of Sadness Wedge-leaved Burnettia Autumn Orchid Fringed Caladenia Hare Orchid Small Spider Orchid Broad-lipped Spider Orchid Tailed Caladenia Common Spider Orchid . Pink Fairies Pink Fingers Slender Caladenia Blue Caladenia . . Blue Fairies Twin-leaved Bird Orchid. Common Bird^Orchid Larger Glossodia Smaller Glossodia Butterfly Iris . . Short Purple Flag Long Purple Flag Silky Purple Flag Leafy Purple Flag Branching Grass Iris Pretty Grass Iris Blue Grass Iris . . Sea Wrack Ottelia . . Vallisneria Elodea . . Golden Weatherglass Yellow Stars Murray Lily Garland Lily .Possibly worthy of cultivation as garden 1 novelties The whole of the species of this genus are especially worthy of cultivation in gardens, 0. Patersoni for its shape, and the last four species on the list for their colour "I No known economic value / Large blue flowered spring orchid, worthy of cultivation Similar to 0. major, but smaller]] The"white" flowers of Diplarrhena and the purple ones of Patersonia, though handsome, do not surpass the garden Iris Usually grow in moist situations ; have a scouring effect on stock Grows around sea coast ; no known economic value Floating or submerged plants ; no V known economic value. V. spiralis I is a suitable plant for indoor aquaria \ Grow in wet or damp situations Decorative plant ; has no other known economic value No known economic value lo June, 191 i.] Vernacular Xames of Victorian Plants. 387 Vernacular Names of Victoriax Plaxts — continued. Botanical Name. Popular JJ'ame. Use or Character. MoNOcoTYLEDONE.E — [continued) — Eucalyce^ Hypogyn.e. LlLIACE^. Smilax — glycyphylla, Smitli australis, R.Br. . . Rhipogonum— album, R.Br. Drymophila^ cyanocarpa, R.Br. Dianella — tasmanica, Hook. f. longifolia, R.Br. revoluta, R.Br. . . Eustrephus — Browuil, F.v.M. . . Oeitonoplesium — cymosum, Cunn. Asteiia — alpina, R.Br. Anguillaria — dioica, R.Br. Schelhammera — umliilata, R.Br. . . Burchardin — • umbellata, R.Br. Bulbine — bulbosa, Ilaworth semibarbata, Haworth Thyaanotwi — tuberosum, R.Br. Baueri,R.Br. .. Patersoni, R.Br. dichotomus, R.Br. CcBSia — vittata, R.Br. . . parvillora, R.Br. Chaimescilln — coryiubosa, F.v.M. Corynotheai — laterillora, F.v.M. Tricoryne — eUtior, R.Br. simple.^, R.Br. . . Slypandra — glauca, R.Br. csBipitosa, R.Br. Arthropodium — paniciilatum, R.Br. minuet, R.Br. strictum, R.Br. . . flmbriatum, R.Hr. Eerpolrion — N'ovui-Zolandia), Hook. I". Sowerbiea — juucoa, Smith . . LaxmannUi (liartlityjia) — gracili.x, R.Br. . . dossil illoru, Done CaUctasia — cyanoa, R.Br. . . Smooth Sarsaparilla Prickly Sarsaparilla Lawyers Turquoise Berr>' Tasman Flax Lily Long-leaved Flax Lily Spreading Flax Lily Wombat Berry . . Scrambling Lily Asteiia . . Early Xancy Lilac Lily Milkmaids Common Yellow Lily Smaller Yellow Lily Bulbous Fringe Lily Common Fringe Lily Twining Fringe Lily Brandling ITringe Lily Banded Grass Lily Small-tlowered Grass Lily Blue Squill Sand Lily Yellow Autumn Lily Small Autumn Lily Xcjdding Blue Lily Tutted Blue Lib- Pale Vanilla Lily Small Vanilla Lily Largi- Vanilla Lily Fringed Vanilla Lily Sky Lily Rush Lily Silverwccd Lily Nodding Silvcrweed Lily Blue Tin.'Hl Lily This plant has been recommended as an alterative, tonic, and anti-scorbutic »Xo known economic value Tiie fibre of this plant was formerly used by the aborigines for making baskets The Dianellas produce a fair fibre, which is obtained by boiling and scraping the leaves Xo known economic value Usually grows in alpine localities ; no known economic value. Fruit edible Rather prstty plant, which profusely in early spring flowers Possibly worthy of cult i vat ion in gardens A supposed poison plant. The " poi- sonous " effect appears to be the result of scouring Somewhat similar to B. bulbosa The flowers of all these species, though mostly rather small, are very beauti- ful. Many may ultimately findj a ' home in gardens Hardy, herbaceous, perennial, ornamental plant ; sometimes cultivated in gardens ~| Ornamental plants ; might be improved I in cultivation Xo known economic value. S. juncea is ornamental, pleasantly scented, and " worthy of cultivation An ornamental plant vat ion worthy of culti- 388 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. Vernacular Names op Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Use or Character. MoNocoTrLEDONE^ — EucALYCE^ Hypogyn.e — Continued. LILIACEjE — continued. Xerotes — dura, P.v.M. longifolia, R.Br. Brownii, F.v.M. . . sororia, F.v.M. . . effu.> u" rim'wr about 1 (Jll.AL L IJ I'Kl-. 392 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. 16 ft. in length. This i.s inserted in a post or stump about 6 ins. immediately over the press, blocks of wood are put on the lid of the press, and the whole is pressed down by weighting the far end of the lever with bags of sand, &c., until the tobacco is pressed to about i ft. in depth. The lever and lid .are then removed and the box again filled to the top. ' The process is repeated two or three times; and, previous to the last pressure, a piece of hessian projecting 3 ins. on each side is placed under the lid as it is put on the filled box, and after the tobacco is pressed the lever is left on and the sides removed. The hessian on the ground is then brought up to the top and sewn with twine to the piece under the lid. The ends also should be sewn up. and haylashing is placed round the whole close to each end, and round the centre, and drawn tightly. It is also wise to rope round the bale longitudinally, where the tobacco has to be taken any distance. Each bale should be branded with the grade of leaf contained, and also numbered as it is finished, so that any one can be selected if required for sampling or inspection. The bales should be stacked on a wooden floor or platform and kept square, exposing as little surface as possible, and covered with bags or hessian until sent to market. A bale should contain from 150 lbs. to 250 lbs. BALED TOBACCO READY FOR MARKET. OPENED PRESS AT BACK. ^^'here tobacco is prepared for export, packing in casks is preferable, the tobacco being less likely to become damaged or wasted. Each cask will hold from 1,200 lbs. to 1,800 lbs. of tobacco, the dimensions being 4 ft. 8 in. high, by 4 ft. diameter at the bottom and 3 ft. 6 in. 011 the top. When packing in the cask the smaller end is on the ground and the tobacco stacked in layers round the interior, the butts of the bundles or hands being kept to the outside and the middle well filled. Pressure is applied three times. The lid is forced down below the top about 3 ins. during the final pressure, and a hoop nailed round inside the top to keep it in place. The weight of the cask, including the lid and hoops, should be taken before commencing operations so that the exact tare can be estimated when weighing. The object of having the cask bigger in diameter at one end is for the purpose of sampling. The outside hoops are cut on the larger ends and the cask lifted off the tobacco, when inspection is required. Casks ic June, 191 i.] Ti'ha:^' Culture. 393 may be purchased for 5s. t-.nh ami toV'acco carefully packed in them can be sent to any part of the world without injury. A lever press is not suited to the cask system, a screw or steam press being best for the purpose. The casks should of course be branded, as the bales are, with weight of tare in addition. Heavy dark leaf will stand more pressure than bright, and very heavy pressing will have the effect of making bright leaf darker in colour, a result to be avoided. Cigar leaf is usually packed in bales of jute or hessian, containing from 100 lbs. to 300 lbs., anrl sometimes in s(]uare boxes holding similar quantities. When it is intended to age cigar leaf, that is, to pack it away for twelve months or more, the box system is best. It is l^etter not to have the box too closely built, so to allow of the easy escape of the gases which are thrown off during the process. All tobacco is better for being aged and is said to improve in quality for six years, becoming milder and sweeter. After the sixth year deteriora- tion takes place, especially in tht- lighter types of leaf. In Victoria, \ery little tobacco is held by the growers for the purpose of ageing. The manufacturer, as a rule, buys from 12 to 24 months ahead of requirements. If it is found necessary to store, the tobacco must be kept under dry conditions, that i-^. well off the floor, and in a dark place for preference. Freights on tobacco art- low in proportion to its value per ton, conse- quently it is a suitable crop for land owners situated at long distances from a market. Marketing. A few hint,-, on marketing lobacco leaf are. perhaps, necessary. In one case, the writer found that a grower, who had been cultivating tobacco for three years, had decided to abandon the crop as unprofitable on account of its being unsaleable. He had tried to .sell his leaf to plug manufac- turers, whereas he had been growing a fair sample of cigar tol)acco. When properly placed, he received a cheque for nearly ;^20o for his product. Cigar leaf is of no use to plug men. and plug tobacco of little or no u.se to cigar men. There is a good demand for Victorian plug leaf in Melh)Ourne. Sydney. Adelaide, and Western Australia. In 19 10. Victoria manufadured alx>ut 4,698,995 lbs. of i)lug tf)bacco. 220.000 lbs. of cigar leaf, and 306.000 lbs. of cigarette leaf, while only 309,000 ll)s. of local leaf were prtxluced. Local buyers are anxious to obtain larger .supplies of the Victorian j)roduct, one Melbourne company alone l»eing j^repareil to take 500 tons anniuilly. There need be no hesitation, therefore, in regard to the prospect of a demand for our leaf for some years to come. N'ot only is there ample room for expansion of the industry, .so far as our home market is con- cerned, but even should we over-produce, there is a practically unlimited mnrket in Lomlon for leaf of fair quality. Values have been increasing steadily of late years, chieflv owing to the fact that the production of toliacco all over the world is not keeping paro with the increa.se in consumption. It was estimated recently in .AmiTica that supplies had fallen 20 per «ent. behind the demand. Manufacturers, both in England and America, complain that, owing to the short su|>plies. it is not possible to age the tobacco to the same extent as fc>rnierlv. The prospect in a new count rv for a toliacco iiulustry is therefore eiiiotiraging. It must alwnys be lM>rne in mind, however, that |X)pul.\r tastes for tobacco incliur to lighter tvpes ili.m |ire\i<>uslv ; and, in ord> r to obtain (5?,S{l. !• 394 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. these, lighter soils must be used for growing and the varieties suited to them adopted. There will naturally always be ,a certain amount of heavy tobacco smoked, but the tendency is towards the lighter kinds. In Victoria, we have soils and climate suited to manv different tvpes which will yet prove highly profitable. (To be continued.) VINE DISEASES IX FRANCE. F. de CastcUa, Government Viticulturist. In recent articles on the wine industry in Southern France we have seen what remarkable results are obtained from intense culture applied to the vine. Attention has been directed to the principal factors which contribute to the very heavy yields obtained, especially those of more direct interest from an Australian standpoint. Remarkable though such yields would be under any circumstances, they become even more so when it is remembered that they are obtained in spite of diflficulties such as we have little idea of in Victoria. Viticulture in France is an almost continual struggle against a varietv of vine di.seases, both fungus and insect, the majority of which are quite unknown to us ; whilst those which we do know, attack the vines of France with a degree of virulence such as we are quite unaccustomed to in Victoria. So far as vine diseases are concerned, we may truly be said to be the spoilt children of Nature. The spray pump, though in common use in our orchards, is not required in our vineyards, in which even the sulphur bellows has, within the past few- vears, at least, .seldom been called into requisition. This season, certainlv. there has been a re-appearance of an old enemy, in the .shape of Oidium. which for a decade or so has been re- markably quiescent. The rich harvest reaped in spite of these adverse contingencies, and after an almost continual and costly struggle, cannot fail to arouse a feel- ing of admiration for the perseverance of the French vigneron, as w^ell as for the science of investigators who have placed in his hands the means of repairing the evils resulting from man's interference with the balance of Nature. The grave vine diseases which made their appearance in Europe during the past century are not. as has been so frequently stated, visitations of Nature, but introductions from North America. Our freedom from the most serious fungus and insect diseases of the vine is an advantage as vet in.sufficientlv recognised by us. It should awaken in us a sense of the remarkable suitability of this State of Victoria for vine culture, and enable us to realize the rich reward in store for those who tend their vines in as careful and thorough a manner as do Southern French vine-growlers. In the lines which follow it is intended to give some idea of the? many difficulties the French vine-grower has to contend against. These remarks are not, like the preceding articles, limited to the department of Herault — ^they apjily to the whole of France. It is worthy of note, however, that the warmer southern parts are a good deal less subject to disea.se generallv tlian the colder and moister regions. Nevertheless, even in Hcraulti the treatment necessarv to protect the vine from its many diseases constitutes a tax which is fortunately unknown to Australian growers. lo June, 191 l] Vine Diseases in France. 395 FUNGUS DISEASES. The fungus diseases which attack the vine in France may be divided into several categories. In the first place, we have the two which have long been known to us under the names of Oidium and Black Spot or Anthracnosis. Then there are others, fortunately unknown in Australia, such as Downy Mildew and Black Rot, which are, both as regards the ravages for which they are responsible and the costly sprayings necessary to keep them in check, the most serious obstacles against which the French vine-grower has to contend. Several others of minor importance also de.serve mention, chief amongst which are White Rot, Grey Rot, Fumago. and .several fungi wliich only exceptionally do damage of any consequence. Lastly, we have different forms of Root Rot or Pourridie. Lengthy descriptions of each fungus, together with their complete life histories, are not here possible. They can be found in special works dealing with the subject. A brief summary of the lead- ing characteristics of each, and of the best methods of treat- ment, is all that space will permit. As regards the second group, which is by far the more serious one, the evidence so far as the chances of their ever becoming a serious menace to our vineyards is most reassuring. It is not, as might be thought, our isolation which protects us. but our peculiar climatic conditions, and more especially the dryness of our atmo- sphere. Even if introduced into Victoria, thev would be unable to develop. That this is not merely a personal opinion, but actual far^. is abun- dantly proved by the parallel case of California. The c-limatic conditions in the greater part of that State are remarkably similar to our own, especially as regards the dryness of the atmosphere. Now. although these fungus diseases are indigenous to the ea.stern States of the Union, where they have existed since pre historic times, thev are quite unknown in California. They have no doulit frequentlv been iiitnuhKcd into that State, as Profes.sor Bioletti pointed out in a recent letter to the writer*, but with one single and not too clearlv proved exception thev have never been seen in that State. The matter has been dealt with at some length in the last Report of the Department of Agriculture (1907-10). Tt is unnecessary to repeat the arguments then put forward, but we may rest assured that the diseases which wreak .so much havoc in many parts of France need never be a .source of anxietv to Australian vignerons. In order to avoid possible confusion, it is necessarv to ex))1ain the dif- fen-nt uses made of the word mildew in I'raiKe ;ind in .\ineri<-;i. In the former country its u.se (spelt mildiou) is (onliiu'd to the luiigus known in America as Downv Mildew, in opposition fn Powderv Mildew, which is the nnme there usnallv gi\'en to Oidinin. OiDHiM (Cndniila spiralis). This disease is so well known Id us as to scareeh need ilcscrijition. It is cau.sed by a inieroscopir fungus belonging to the familv of Rrvsiphea and the gnat fungus grou]) of AscomycctiS. 'I'hough first known as Oidimu Tuckcri and later as hrysiphe Tnckcri. these names have now l)een abandoned in favour of the present one of Uiuinula spiralis, given to it on acroimt of the si)iral filaments attached to the peritheoia or wititer fruits r)f the Inngiis. (No. 3 in illustration.) Tiiese bodies, which are just visible to the naked eye, were not ob.served in France prior to iSyj, though they had, long before this, been regularly noted in America. • Sfi- l{.'|iiiir i.f the I>f)mi'tiii('iit of Au'i'ii'iiKiin-. N'ii'torin. I""7 !" )> "M I' 2 396 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. The absence of this form in France lerl mycologists to consider French Oidium to be a different fungus to that known in America. It was subse- quently found that they were one and the same organism, and that the for- mation of its winter fructifications is a r|uestion of climatic co!iditions.* Such conditions are more fre(]uent in Amt-rira than in France. The formation of perithecia has a practical interest, since it is thought, in some quarters, that the fungus resulting from the germination of spores contained in the.se bodies pos.sesses greater vigour, and is therefore capable of doing more damage than that resulting from hibernating forms. So far as the writer is aware. ]ierithecia of Oidium has not vet been observed in Victoria. The discovery of the.se bodies in Franre in 1893 proved the identity of French and American Oidium and the American origin of the fungus. It made its first appearance in France in 1845, or long before the other vine fungi of American origin we shall shortlv consider. For the first few years, in fact, until a remedv was found in the shape of sulphur, its ravages were very considerable. Nowadavs the damage caused bv it is much less serious than that due to Downv Mildew. OIDIUM {U ucinula spiralis) I. Horizontal mycelium with suckers (black) and upright spore-bearing filaments. [after Durand). 2. The same more highly magnified (after Vialta). 3. Perithecium or receptacles containing the winter spores [after Vialla). The diagrams reproduced illustrate the ditferent forms of the fungus. It differs radically from all other vine fungi in that the mycelium- or vegetative portion is exterior to the tissues of the plant. It runs over the surface, sending suckers into the cells by means of which it obtains its food. From this mycelium, spore-bearing filaments arise on which Conidia or summer spores, serving to spread the disease, are produced in great numbers. This external character of its mycelium makes the Oidium more amenable to treatment than almost any other vine fungus. When, as is the case with the other species which attack the vine, the vegetative portion is buried in the tissues of the plant, it is out of the reach of fungicide treat- ment, since the tissues are more easily damaged by chemical agents than the mycelium of the fungus. In sui'h cases, preventive treatment alone can be successful. With Oidium, on the other hand, direct or curative action is easy, since an application of sulphur destrovs the growing portion. * If, after a period of warm, moist weather, whit^h has pnxhu-ed .an ahiindant jf row th of Myre'iiini, the temperature .surldeiilv fails to near the Invest 'i'nit for 'he t^rowth of the fun^ais (:iO°K. ), they are ))rodiiced rapidly and in j,'-reat numbers.- - I'rof. F. T. Bioletti, Hulk'tin No. 186, University of California Publications, p. 325 .lo June, 1911-] Vine Diseases in France. 397 It, however, has but little effect on the spores, and should the !,ulphur be washed off by rain re-infection may occur. Sulphur, though the oldest, is still the standard remedy. Its action in destroying the fungus is undoubted, though its mode of action is not quite clear — most probably it is through the fumes given off directly under -the heat of the sun. In France three sulphurings are looked upon as absolutely necessary. I St. In spring, when the vine .shoots are 2 or 3 inches long. 2nd. At blos.soming time. 3rd. A few wrecks before the grapes ripen. In Southern France, these three sulphurings are usually sufficient, though they have frequently to be supplemented by further applications. The cost of the three sulphurings, according to figures supplied by the Manager of the Salains du Midi Company at Montpellier, amounts to six shillings per acre, of which the cost of the sulphur represents five-eighths -of the total. In most other part'? rif Fr:in<'f" the thrw ^tnndnrd sulphurings are insufficient. They have to be frequently re- peated, thus raising the cost of the treatment. The effects of sulphur on the general vegetation of the vines are \'ery beneficial, apart from its fungicide action, though in what way this is •caused is not clear. It is compared to a tonic, and many authorities con- sider that, even if Oidium did not exist, the advantages accruing from an application of sulphur are sufficient to justify its use. Sulphur has also a marked influence on the blos.soming of , the vine, counteracting the non- setting of fruit to which some sorts are liable. In the past, in Victoria, it has bee.i considered necessary to only sulphur vines in the earlv morning when the dew is on. This rule is no longer adhered lo in France; in tact, the middle of the day is held to be the most favourable time, except in very hot weather, when application in the hot sun might lead to burning of the foliage. Machines for applying suli)hur have improved considt-rabl) of late. The kna[)sack sulphurer of Vermorrl. and other makes, alread) known in Australia, are a marked improvement on the old-fashioned l)ellows. Traction macliincs, capable of treating a large area in a short space of time, have recently been introduced, one of which is shown in the illustration. These machines are now much u.sed in France in vines closely planted in the row and in trellised vines, where the vegetation along the row is continuous, so that there is no waste of sulphur. They work in a very satisfactory manner. HORSE-DRIVEN SULPHURING MACHINE. 398 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [10 June, 1911.- Permanganate of potash has a powerful action on the Oidium fungus, which is immediately killed by contact with its solution. Sprayed at the rate of i^ per 1,000, it is recommended in cases of very severe attack. As the effects of this solution are transient, it is well to always follow it hy an application of sulphur. Alkaline poly-sulphides are also recommended for the treatment of Oidium, especially in wet weather, when sulphur is too rapidlv washed off to enable it to exert its influence. They are dissolved in water at the rate of I per cent, and applied with a sprav pump. In France, Oidium, though more prevalent than with us. is looked upon, as a less seiious disea.se, and one which it is easier to keep in subjection than either Downy Mildew or Black Rot. A point of practical interest at the present moment is the uselessness of preventive winter treatment in the case of Oidium. After the prevalence of the disease last summer, many growers have mentioned to the writer their intention of applying a winter treatment. Though these have been frequently tried in France, they are considered to be quite ineffectual. The first sulphuring, as mentioned above, which is often omitted by our growers, is of far greater value as a means of preventing outbreaks next season than any winter treatment can possibly be. {To be continued.) ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal. School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Ploughing the orchard should now be completed ; and. where neces- sary, the drainage system should be continued and increased. A dressing of 'Stable manure should now be given wherever it is needed ; and, if any artificial manures are to be used, especially if in the form of bonedu.st or potash, they should be applied now. so that thev will be available as- food for the roots in early spring. A dressing of lime may be given with great advantage to heavy, cold, or .sour soils. Spraying should be started for aphis, mite, and scale troubles ; and, if the pest is at all severe or obstinate, the work should be done before pruning. Crude petroleum, red oil, and kerosene emulsions are all use- ful in dealing with these i:)ests. Planting. It was recommended in the Journal for March and April that land in- tended for new orchard areas should then be ploughed in anticipation of tlie planting season. It will now be of advantage to have the soil cross- ploughed ; and, if it were not previously subsoiled. this should be done at the same time as the ploughing. After the ploughing, the surface should be well harrowed and cross-harrowed, to reduce it to a fine texture and tilth. The trees should be planted out so that they shall be 20 feet apart each way. When the surface has been well cultivated, a furrow may be run across the area at every 20 feet, and the trees planted in the furrow, 20 feet from each other. If the furrows are ploughed, there will generally be no necessity to dig holes for the young trees. They can be placed in the furrows and the soil well and firmly placed around them. The- TO June, igti.] Orcliard and Garden Noics. 399 balance of the furrow could be filled or harrowed in level. Deep planting is a great mistake ; and no tree should be planted at a greater depth than it was growing in the nursery. The roots of the young trees should be well cut back before planting. Varieties to Plant. A number of letters ha\e been received making inquiries on this sub- ject, and it is considered advisable to reprint a list of fruits that were advised for planting for a long succession for either market or home supply. Apples. — Red Astrachan, William's Favourite, Gravenstein, Emperor Alexander, Jonathan, Kentish Fillbasket, Pomme de Xeige, Cleopatra* (in northern districts), Munroe's Favourite* (in northern district.s), Reinette de Canada, London (Five-crown) Pippin, Rome Beauty,* Stewart's Seedling, Lord \\'olseley. Statesman, Rymer, Yapeen Seedling,* Granny Smith,* Yates (in good moist soil), Rokewood. Pears. — William's Bon Chretien,* Howell Beurre Capiaumont, Beurre Bosc,* Louise Bonne of Jersey, Marie Louise, Jo.sephine de Malines,* Glou Morceau. Broompark.* \\'inter Cole,* Winter Xelis, Black Achan, Harrington's Victoria. Plums. — Early Orleans, De Montford, Angelina Burdett* (D'Agen), Diamond, Jefferson,* Coe's Golden Drop,* Pond's Seedling, Fellemberg,* Silver Prune. Reine Claude de Bavay, Grand Duke. Japanese Plums.- — Wright's Early, Burbank, Climax, Satsuma, Wick- son, October Purple. Peaches. — Brigg's Red May, High's Early Canada,* Hale's Early,* Early Crawford,* Royal George, Late Crawford.* Elberta.* Lady Palmerston. Muir,* Salway,* Wonderful,* Pullar's Cling.* Apricots. — OuUin's Early Peach,* Xew Large Early,* Campbellfield Seedling, Large Red, St. Ambroise,* Moorpark,* Dundonald, Royal George, Royal.* Oranges. — Washington Xavel,* St. Michael's Paper Rind.* Mediter- ranean Sweet.* Queen,* Valencia Late.* Lemon. — Lisbon . * kx\ export orchard should contain verv few varieties, the fewer the better : and the grower should concentrate all of his energies on the few varieties grown, in.stead of filling up his orchard with a large number of varieties that will require con.stant and difficult handling. Therefore, a selection only should be made from the above list. Varieties indicated by an asterisk are suitable for cultivation in the N'orthern irrigated areas. Pruning. Fruit trees are pruned to attain \arious rrsults. and these are the rea.sons and objects for pruning: — 1. To frame and shape the tree, so as to space it.s limbs evenly, to admit light and air, and to afford protection from sun and winds. 2. I'o |)r()m<)t peculiarities of the \ariei\. Many early maturing annual plants as. lor insl.uKf. ilunyip wheat, l\arlv York cabl)age. and Early Purple Top turnip, do not shoot or spread out in the same manner as certain other varieties, e.g., Darts Imperial wheat. Drumhead cabbage, and White Stone turnip. Hence, heavier seeding or closer planting should be adopted to obtain the best returns. While, witii those \.irieties that desire a free development of branches or leaves, light .seeding should i»e adopted. If thev are sown thickly, " drawing " results, and, with rcxtt crops, the toj) is develop<-(l at the expense of the rcMit. With cereals, too much flag and 4o6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. stalk are developed. The result is that the crop is exposed to the injurious effects of various pests and adverse weather conditions. When seed is sown at a uniform depth and covered evenl}-, better germination is obtained and a greater number of plants survive. Broad- cast sowing, with harrowing or raking in, leaves the seeds at uneven depths, manv being entirely exposed on the surface. These exposed seeds, of course, run the gauntlet of many destructive agencies. Even if they succeed in getting a foothold, they are later on in life lashed about on their axes by every wind that blows, with the result that of the original number a large percentage fail. When seeds are weak, owing to age, immaturity, or some other cause, fair germination may often be obtained under genial condi- tions; but, when the latter are at all trying, large numbers will fail. Hence, it is advisable to make heavier .seedings in such cases. It is a common rule, in the practice of intense culture, that small seeds should be sown thicker than the plants are to remain. Thus selection is TURNIPS, BROADCAST AND IN DRILLS. permitted. This selection has been a potent factor in the amelioration of garden plants. The plants remaining after thinning are more likely to give good results as it is only the best plants that are left ; besides, the loss of labour, land, and a sea.son is avoided. Relatively, the cost of preparing land for heavy feeding crops is great, while seeds are cheap ; hence, it is better to hazard a little additional seed as a safeguard against failures than to lose the full productive power of the land for a season. In frames or small patches, where conditions can be controlled, only a small allow- ance should be made for failures. The quantities recommended in seed catalogues are usually on a liberal basis ; in many cases, far in excess of the actual number of plants required. However, taking results over a number of years, sowing at different seasons, under changing conditions, with variable seed, there is probably not an un- warrantable excess. These catalogues are of value to the amateur in indi- lo June. 191 l] Seeds and Seeding. 407 eating what (]uantities to sow, but the experienced seeder knows that the points referred to above will govern the quantity to be sown. The examples given in the following table will indicate the results that would be obtained from the sowings usually recommended. They are from a number of ex- periments conducted by the writer several years ago. The seeds were obtained in the ordinary way from a firm of seedsmen and sown in the open garden. A light mulch of short horse manure was provided in each case, and the ground kept continually moist during the process of germi- nation. Seed. Beet Turnip. Parsnip Kadish Quantity Recommended. Crimson 1 oz. to 50 ft. Globe Eclipse .50 .. Bgvptiaii . . 50 ., Eclipse .50 .. Crimson 50 „ Globe Blood Red . . .50 ., Egyptian 50 ,. Crimson 50 ., Globe White Globe 100 ., 100 ,. „ 100 „ Imperial G.G. .. 100 .. ,. 100 ., Champion 100 „ Purple Top 100 ., .. 100 „ Hollow Crown (\ ariously esti- mated) oz. to 100 ft. or ,. 200 „ ,. 200 „ ,. 200 „ ■• ., 200 ,. .. 200 „ Icicle 100 ., 100 .. Giant Crim- 100 „ son 100 „ 100 „ 100 ,. Quantity Sown. 1 )z. to 30 ft 50 ,. 75 ,. 100 ,. ., 120 „ .. 150 .. .. 175 ,. ,. 200 „ 80 „ 100 „ „ 120 ., .. 140 „ ,. 160 ., 220 „ .. 240 ., „ 260 „ oz. to 100 ft 200 .. ., 300 ,. .. 400 „ .. 500 „ „ 600 „ 75 „ 100 ., .. 125 ,. 1 . 150 1 175 1 . 200 E.xtent of Germina- Sowing tion. ft. 180 Very good 150 225 300 480 Fairly good 450 700 Good 800 Very good 280 300 360 420 480 660 720 780 300 Gno.l 600 600 Poor 800 Fair 1,000 Good 1.200 225 Verv good 300 Patchy . . 375 Fair 500 Good 550 ,. 600 " Results Far too thick Very much too thick Much too thick Patchy ; litUe thin- ning Little thinning Very little thinning Verv much too thick Much too thick Verv much too thick Faiilv thick Patchy ; little thick Far too thick Very much too thick Much too thick l/ittle too thick Much too thick Fairly thick Verv mudi too thick Rather thick Too thick Much too thick Little too thick It will be 'i,iien that the quantities were generally much in excess of the actual number of plants required. However, it cannot be claimed that these experiments were in any way conclusive. They indicate, however, that with seed of average quality under genial conditions lighter seedings can be adopted. I have found in experiments conducted at other seasons, under adver.se conditions, that even the heaviest sowings recommended were not unduly excessive, while the light -sowings were a failure. It may be added here, that when conditions are so unfavourable to the germination of the seed they are usually unsatisfactory also to the future growth of the crop. Turnijis sown at the rate of i oz. to 200 feet were patchy, owing to defective germination and attack of flea l)eetle. The sowing of parsnips at 1 oz. to 200 feet was much Um thin, owing to poor germination due to defective conditions, chiefly 1(X) great a variation in temperature. Beet .sown at I oz. to 100 feet, was thin and patchy, owing to defective seed and to the lack of continuous supply of moisture. 4o8 ](Kinial :>T Agricultun-, Yitforia. [lo June, 191 i. Depth to Plant. Owing to the difference in the requirements of \arious seeds, the physical nature of different, soils, and the extreme variation of some soils LETTUCE AND CARROTS ON NARROW BEDS, SHOWING MULCH FOR SUMMER PLANTING. ^amJU ^^^^^^^E-'-'' ^ P ' ^I^M?..'. ■<'''■■ " ''^8 GOOD PREPARATION FOR SMALL SEED. Beet in broad drills on right and narrow drills on left, with lettuce for com- panion crop. 7IO June. 191 i.] Stcds and Seeding. 409 -at different seasons of the year, it is impossible to lay down any hard .and fast rule regarding the depth to plant, that will work season in and season out, with all sorts of seeds, in different soils. An old gardener's rule was to plant seeds twice their diameter in depth. This rule may be ■of some value in planting small or " round " seeds in frames or glass- houses, where the soil is finely prepared and the conditions well under con- trol ; but it is of little or no practical value in field operations. Seeds are -generally planted much deeper. Where horse tillage is adopted and heavy implements used, they often reach ten, twenty, or fifty times their diameter in depth. With many seeds that require the pre.sence of moisture over a long period for germination, it is distinctly advantageous to plant com- paratively deep. This is particularly so during the dry season. W^ith many of the leguminous seeds which contain a varying percentage of what are known as " hard seeds," such as clover, this deep planting is attended with good results. The chief factors that invariably govern the depth to plant are: — 1. Whether the soil is wet or dry. 2. Good or poor tillage. 3. The kind or size of seed. 4. The season. If the soil is wet, and likely to remain so long enough for the process •of germination and for the establishment of the young plants, shallow planting should be adopted. This is particularly so in many of the northern areas where the soils are lacking in nitrogenous matter, and have a tendency to settle down close after rain j which results in the exclusion of air, to the detriment of the seed. Little moisture is required to germinate most seeds ; and even a limited contact with the wet soil in the large sheltered interstices will bring about the desired result. In dry soil, where the moisture is at greater depth and the surface soil is loose and granular, containing a good supply of air, seed can be sown much deeper. They thus get the benefit of soil moisture; find a more genial temperature; and the loose surface jmulch does not present the difficulties in the upward extension of the first seed leaf or leaves, that occur where the soil is close. If the soil is likely to become drier after planting, it should be firmed down over the seed. They thus get a better contact with the soil and the benefit of such moisture as it contains. This is, however, only a temporary expedient, and should ■be adopted with caution, as it hastens evaporation by increasing capillarity. Firming down is adopted with peaty or nitrogenous soils that have a , great surface movement, or where they become open or friable on top. If the soil is dry, the seed will remain without deterioration for a long time after .sowing. Once the process of germination is started, however, they ..should l)e kept continually moist until well above ground- It is obvious that if the soil is well tilled, its particles will lie closer together; its capillarity will be greater, and any seed lying in the smaller particle.? will get a better contact with the soil and the benefit of available moisture; while the reverse will be the case where the ground is nmgh Hence, as a general rule, the setrl should be .sown shallower in well-worke>i than in poorly-worked soil. Large seeds are, as a rule, sown dfcper than small seed. However, this is not .so in a comparative .sense. With tho.se .seeds that are of a fatty or -oily nature, shallower planting should he adopted, unless their covt^ing is of an open, airy nature. In tlif successful projjagation of many plants, Nature will often give a clue to the close observer. Man. to meet his needs, has transported plants far from their native habitat ; and, in their new and strange environs, tii«->t' jilants often show a disability, or fail 4IO Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo June, 1911. to reproduce themselves naturally, because the conditions demanded by their seed are absent. Hence, the propagator has artificially to provide those conditions, and in this connexion a knowledge of Botanv is often a contribu- tory factor to success. Because of being unable to adapt themselves to their new surroundings, hybrid plants and improved varieties often fail to do what is expected of them. Deciduous trees and manv evergreens shed a large quantitv of leaves over the ground beneath them. These leaves provide a natural mulch to the fallen seed and, when thick enough, assist their germination. The writer has found that with .some seed, such as oak acorns, it is best to follow Nature's ways; and, instead of burying them in the soil, where they rot easily, just lay them on the surface with a good mulch of dead leaves spread over them, keeping them continually moist, when a good germination will usuallv result. FRENCH BEANS ON NARROW BEDS. ROUGHLY PREPARED. WITH GUTTERS FOR IRRIGATION. Seed that takes a long time to germinate, and is impatient of extremes in temperature, such as celery, parsnips, &c., should be kept moist continu- ally, until well above ground. \\'hen the soil is inclined to " cake " or set on top, and surface watering is carried out. it is advisable to plant shallow and mulch with short manure. Mulching is impractical in extensive field operations, but is largely adopted in the practice of intense culture. The difficulty of starting seed in summer is the rapid evaporation of moisture and the .setting of the surface soil. The latter does not allow a sufficiency of air to reach the seed. If the sun heat is strong, and the soil dries even for a few hours at a critical stage of germination, large numbers of the seeds will fail, whereas with a mulch of .short manure evaporation is re- tarded. Watering can then be controlled better, while the fertilizing qualities of the manure will leach out in watering, and be a stimulus to the young plants. (To he continued.) lo June. 191 l] }Iaggot Flyin^heep^ 4^ MAGGOT FLY IN SHEEP. H. ir. Ham, Sheep Expert. The fly chieflv accountable for this trouble is the Common Yellow Blow Fly; while the Blue Bottle Fly, in some parts, is also responsible, but not to the same extent. The first serious trouble met with by the writer, through this pest, was about 1897 in rabbit- infested timbered land on the calm warm eastern slopes of the You Yangs, between Melbourne and Geelong. On the Lachlan River, north of Hillston, New South Wales, no serious trouble was experienced until after the break up of the main drought in 1902, and following the almost total destruction of rabbits by poisoning and loss of stock through shortage of water. The scourge gradually manifested itself, .and from then the practice has grown for each boundary rider to carry shears, a necessity previously unknown. About the year 1894 it was considered that an advantage would be gained by increasing the weight per head and the covering of our merino flocks, for the lightest and best merino wool was unprofitably low in value, top grades of Mctorian and New South Wales wool realizing no higher than 7id. to 8id. per lb. Second class merino wool was worth from 6d. to 7d., and sheep growing this wool could be easily made to give the greatest weights. There was no indication that these prices would not continue, for up to then there had been good seasons. This was the commencement of the demand for dense heavy cutting excessively covered sheep; and a special point developed was the filling in with wool about the breech and tail. W'itli the advent of the maggot fly, this became a disadvantage, as the wool acted as a place of lodgment for fluids passing from the body ; for example, when scouring, especially in weaners ; and, in the case of ewes, through liquids soaking the wool at time of lambing. This is most noticeable in .seasons when ewes have greater difficulty in cleaning, conse- quent on their low condition. Well bred merino ewes are most subject to attack by the fly, particularly those that are weak and overloaded with wool, while the bare pointed Leicester type of sheep suft'ers the least. \\'holcsalc destruction of rabbits has been, no doubt, a factor in increasing the number of flies ; and to this must be added the carcases of stock, which afford a .splendid breeding ground. Further, the natural enemies of the fly have decreased. Ring-barking of trees, bush fires, and other causes have discouraged the increa.se of bird life, and underground enemies such as lizards, iguanas, &c. It is no uncommon thing, in the autumn, to find thousands of the brown ca.ses, from which the young flies have developed, in the dust about and under where carca.ses have dried. The maggot takes about a week to attain full size and a fortnight to • not openerl. This f.ict is of special advantage to dairymen - in years o^ heavy crops and abundance of natural pa.stnres, the surplus can be stored, thereby insuring that all years will be good years. — /. M. B. Connor. NiiTK. P;irii'-'iliir« and fliiiiPimioriH of Ihii silo will \w eivon iti tho "PNt i«>UP nf »!>»■ Jnurnal. *n nn- Brti.lideiiling with iiiiprovwl l>|)«.Hof siliw. the iTfition of which is uii ler ateii hv thi- ' >e|iarniifiit. — ElUToll. ri'P, SILO AT MR I>. KKN.MIiV S lAR.M. It is skirted on the Miie side bv 414 Jcurnal oj Agriculture, Yictor'ia. [10 June, 191 i. THE SILO: A FACTOR IN MODERN AGRICULTURE. //. C . Churches, Dairy Supervisor. One cannot mo\e about the country without feeling sorry at the neglect ■on the part of many stock-raisers and dairymen, especially the latter, to conserve the surplus fodder visible in all good seasons. Our congenial climate is, in a measure, to be held responsible for this state of affairs. Owners, in the past, have depended altogether too much on Nature to provide for their herds. Necessity is said to be the mother of invention, but in later times com- petition has been the impelling influence of many an inventive genius. It is certainlv the keenness of competition that is now awakening our rural producers to a sense of their responsibilities. Inertness on the part of dairymen cannot go on much longer. Had our wheat-growers not kept abreast of the times, they would not have been in the envious financial position thev are to-day. Economy in production of fodder means in- creased profits. Competition establishes the price at which the farmers must market their products ; but by the study of approved and modern methods they can regulate their profits. Twenty years ago, few farmers knew what a silo was, and fewer still had ever fed silage to their stock. Silos are no longer a curiosity ; they are every day becoming more popular, and many farmers would think seriously of quitting, if they could not have silage for their herds. The silo dates back to antiquity, but it was not until late in the seventies that their construction was undertaken in this country. They were then mostly of the underground type. To-day, public opinion favours the overhead type, which originated in the United States of America, where it has become very popular. In the principal dairying States of that country the silo is considered an essential adjunct to the dairy farm as is the barn, cow-shed, or other farm building. Advantages of the Silo. The many advantages of the silo over other systems of curing crops foi the feeding of farm animals are so patent that the naked facts, when once known, are sufficient to secure for it a place in the permanent equipment of a dairy farm. Farmers who contemplate erecting silos, or who are doubtful of their utility, should consult the nearest neighbour who has one. I have not met one owner who did not speak highly of silage as a food for cattle. It has been said that " whoever makes two blades of grass grow where but one grew before, is a benefactor to mankind." A silo makes it pos- sible to keep two cows where but one was kept before. One of the direct advantages gained by the use of the silo is that it enables growers to have at command a larger quantity of succulent fodder than is possible by any other system. Silage versus Dry Fodder. Pasture grasses and clovers in a green state form ideal feed for dairy cattle ; but they are only available for a few months each year. The same holds true with all crops grown for fodder. The chief method of pre- servation adopted in Victoria is that of hay-making. It is not customary, however, to dry maize, or to make it into hay. When made into hay, even under the most favourable conditions, all crops lose a considerable percentage of their food value, as well as their natural succulence. The longer they are left in the field the greater is this loss, while in the silo it is compara- tivelv small. lo June, 191 i] The Silo : A Factor in Moderti Agriculture. 415 The influence of well-preserved silage on the digestion and general health of all farm animals is very beneficial. It is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very similarly to natural green fodders. An ample supply of succulent feed is of advantage to all classes of farm animals ; and more particularly in the case of dairy cows. At the New Jersey Experiment Station it was found that silage, as compared with corn fodder, increased. the milk flow by 12.8 per cent. The siloing process is the only known method of j)rovidhig such succulent food the year round. Crops for the Silo. By filling with such crops as oats and tick beans, or in fact any spring crop, a valuable succulent feed will be at hand at a time when pastures in most districts are apt to give out. Then again, in the southern districts, the silo may be filled with maize in the autumn and fed to the cows through- out the winter. In many districts the silo may be filled twice a year. Should natural pastures be so abundant that silage is not required, it will keep for an indefinite period. Crops totally unfit for hay-making can be preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable food. This may not be of such importance in a land of plenty like ours, as it is elsewhere. Many forms of vege- tation, such as thistles, spear-grass, weeds, &c., which could not be used: for cattle food in any other form, may be converted into silage. They do not obtain a higher nutritive content by the process of siloing, but the- woody fibre (cellulose) they originally contained, being acted upon by enzymes or bacteria that cause fermentation, is broken down, and the food' materials original! v contained therein are thereby made more digestible. Pasturing Cattle. Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding, as far as the use of land goes, and can only be practised to advantage where this is cheap. In many places, at present, the land is used only for grazing, and the con- sequence is that the life of the dairy cow alternates lietween times of plenty and those of semi-starvation. As land values and rents increa.se, more stock must be kept on the same area in order to augment the profits. The plough must be used, and here the silo comes in as a material aid. By its adoption, either alone or in connexion with hay. or by the practice- of feeding off catch crops, it will be possible to keep twice the number of animals. A Necessary Adjunct. That the silo is a prime factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of doubt. It is not the sum total in it.self , but it is an adjunct ; and, in the case of dairying, a necessary adjunct to successful and profit- able methods. Its value is difficult to over-estimate. If inconvenient to erect a silo, rlo not turn the cows into the maize, or allow surplus feed to spoil in the paddock. Begin by making stack silage. There will certainly be more waste th.ni if it hml been chaffed and stored in an airtight silo; but "better h;df a loaf than no bread." Tiie cows will think so when the winter sets in. St.ick silage is general Iv the forerunner of a silo. One of the great advantages of tiie silo is that, as an innovation, it Viecomes a stepping-stone to better methods ; it stimulates its owm-r, and' spurs him on to see the results he can obtain from his improved system of management. Tlv ^il" i- P"' m enticing '^i>i'.iil ition Ii\ nir.mv; of .416 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 June, 191 i. which something can be got out of nothing, but a sound business proposition. Tlie voices of our best farmers and dairymen sing its praises, because it has helped to square the ledger, brought increased enjoyment to them in their occupation, and pleasure in their homes. A SUCCESSFUL BALLARAT DAIRY FARM. .4. /. Ross, Dairy Supervisor. In order to produce a clean and wholesome supply of milk for the retail trade, a great amount of forethought must be exercised. This has been done by the proprietors of the farm under review and they can claim LiWELLING, DAIRY AND DELIVERY CARTS. to have been successful in their efforts. The " Roxburgh " dairy farm of Messrs. J. S. Douglas and Son is situated on Smythe's road, 6 miles from Ballarat, from whence milk has been supplied retail for the past 53 years. Their farm originally contained about 1.500 acres ; but 3 years ago 600 acres of timber countrv were disposed of. The soil is a grey loam and is well adapted for growing rye grass and clovers, in addition to fodder and root crops. About 100 acres are annually cultivated. The Dairy Herd. The average number of cows milked during 19 10 was 105, whilst the nverage yield per cow for the year was 510 gallons. A Babcock tester is being installed and a better system of culling out the unprofitable cows M-ill be adopted. TO June, 191 i] A Successful Ballarat Dairy barm. 417 Pure Avrshires form the foundation of the herd. There are at present about 50 representatives, the balance being Ayrshire and Jersey cross with « sprinkling of pure Jersey strain. Several typical Ayrshires are noticeable- in tile herd, notabiv " ( ;<)()diiL>.-, id (■(;uhin-alla ' ' and " ( iracious of Roxburgh." The former is a splendid si)ecimen of the breed, giving 2\ quarts in the flush of the season. She has won several champion prizes. 4i8 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. besides being reserve champion at the Royal Show for two years in succession. Her (laughter, " Gratious of Roxburgh." is also a very hea\y milker. She has won several first prizes for best Ayrshire cow and best dairy cow. The Messrs. Douglas find it a hard matter to dry off some of the cows. They believe in giving each 8 weeks' spell be- fore freshening. Their experience goes to prove that, where cows are fed heavily throughout the sea.son, a prolonged ab- sence from the cowshed is unnecessary. The mo.st striking character- istics of the pure bred in this herd are their colour and general con- formation. About 20 heifers from the best cows are raised each year to replace culls from the ranks of the milkers. The principles which govern breeding for dairy ])urposes, more than tho.se for the show ring, are studied. The balance of the heifers is eagerly sought after by dairymen and other breeders. Farm Buildings. The milking shed, which contains 60 stalls, has been built with a \iew to convenience and comfort for both cows and milkers. There is ample provision made for light, ventilation. and sanitary requirements. Every 6 months the shed is lime-washed and the posts tarred for about 3 feet. The yard is pitched with bluestone and those lo June, 191 i.] -1 Successful Ballarai Dairy Farm. 419 adjacent to the homestead are gravelled ; whilst all roads leading to and from the shedding are macadamised. ]\[ilking operations are carried out under the per- sonal supervision of one of the principals. The udders are washed and dried prior to milking ; the milkers hands are also washed after each individual cow. From the shed to the dairy the milk is taken in covered cans tO' nrntect it from flies and dust. Modern improvements have been adopted in con- structing the dairy. The foundation is concrete, and the double brick hollow walls are 12 feet high, the inside being cemented. The flo<')r is made of concrete and the ceiling is plastered. Splendid provision is made for light, \entilation, clean- liness, and economical work- ing. On arrival at the dairy the milk is run through a Ulax strainer and over a circular cone ccxiler which reduces the temperature to 60 degs. Fahr. Tt is then run into the ean> and is readv for transit to tiie city. All kinds of agricultural implements are to be .seen housed at the farm. An oil engine is utilized for chaff- cutting, fdling the silo, saw- ing w(K)d, etc. HoR.sEs, Waggons, ant) r'ARTS. T<-n horses are em[)li)> in distributing the milk. These are bred on the farm. Six draught honses are also k<'pt for ploughing an general work. 420 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. Two covered waggons and two covered carts are used for conveyance to and distribution .of the n^tlk in Ballarat. INTERIOR OF MILKING SHED. FODDER FOR THE HERD. lo June, 191 i.] Candied Honey. 421 Fodder Crops. All the fodder for the herd is grown on the farm. The Messrs. Douglas -are quite satisfied that silage, when the right mixtures are grown, wdll take the place of the lirewers" grains and bran which are at present pur- chased. This alone will mean a saving of ;^200 yearly. The cultivation methods are carried out on scientific principles. The land is w^orked to a fine tilth and fallowing is extensively practised. Silage is so highly valued that it is intended to build a second silo of 100 tons capacity. The present one is filled twice each season. A crop of barley, rye, peas or tares and beans is .sown in the autumn for summer silage. This .season, 5 acres of black oats, in addition, have been sown and are well advanced in growth. There are 20 acres of maize on the farm. At the time of writing some of this crop was 1 1 feet high and promised to yield about 20 tons to the acre. A .splendid sample of cereal silage was then being fed to the herd, the balanced ration being made up by the addi- tion of good oaten hay chaff, bran, and brew^ers' grains. The cows are fed twice a day for ten months out of the twelve. \\'hen an extra supply of milk is required, it has been found necessary to increase the amount •of concentrated food supplied to the cows. Water Supply. This is practically artesian. The w'ater rises to the top of the bore and is pumped by windmill to a re.servoir which has a capacitv of 10.000 gals. From this .source it is distributed to cement troughs automatically filled. There are also several large dams for supplying water to the dry stock. CANDIED HONEY. F . R. Beulme, Bee Expert. All liquid honey is liable, .sooner or later, to candy, or granulate; that is to say, it becomes first cloudy and. gradually, partially or wholly solid. Honey consists princi])ally of two sugars — dextrose and levulose. The former assumes a crystalline form much more readily than the latter; and it is therefore chiefly the relative proportions of those sugars upon which the rapidity and degree of granulation depend. 'J'he prejMjnderance of the one or the other is due to the flora from which the nectar was obtainerl by the bees. There are, however, some otheir factors in addition which hasten or retard granulation. These are tempera- ture, amount of water, pollen grains, and air bubbles. Generally speaking, honev does not granulate until the approach of cool weather ; and honev gathered during cool weather candies .sooner and firmer than that which is produced in midsummer. Anv honey, however, will granulate .sooner when sulijected to freciuent changes of temperature, than when kej)t at a uniform degree — high or low. The amount of water naturally present in honey varies according to the .sourc(^ of the nectar, the humiilitv of the atmosphere at time of gathering, and the length of time it n-mained in the hives. In Victorian honey it ranges from 12 to 25 per cent. As water is necessary to crystalli/ation, the thinner honevs nale.r div granulate more readilv ; while some of the dense honeys produced in the drv parts of \"ietoria lemain clear and licpiid for one or two vears. 422 Jonnial of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191 i. Pollen grains, which are always present in honey, have no doulit some influence in the granulation of honey in acting as nuclei of crystallization. At any rate, it is certain that the honey from those Eucalypts from which bees gather an abundance of pollen, such as Red Gum and Grey Box,^ granulates very quickly, while that from Yellow Box and Red Box, producing little or no pollen for bees, remains liquid considerably longer. When the modern method of removing the honey from the combs — by centrifugal force in the honey-extractor — was first adopted, it was soon-- found that extracted honey candied sooner than strained honey, that is, honey obtained by bruising the combs and straining through bags. This greater liability to granulation in extracted honey is due to the minute air bubbles incorporated during the process of extraction. Clear honey always realizes a better price than cloudy or congealed ; the latter is the trade term for candied. Producers should therefore aim at their honey remaining clear and liquid as long as possible. This can' be accomplished by the removal of the factors which hasten granulation, namely, excess of moisture, pollen grains, and air bubbles. In a moist district, or in any district late in the season, honey should not be extracted until the combs are well sealed over. When extracting the honey, it should be heated to 160 degrees before being poured into a .settling tank. This can be done by drawing the honev into open 60 lb. tins, and standing these in hot watei until the required temperature is reached. Honev. when hot, is almost as thin as water. Thus, in the settling tank, air bubbles, pollen grains, and fine particles of wax rise to- the surface, while a percentage of water is evaporated at the same time. In some of the larger apiaries an apparatus for heating the honey is inserted between the honey gate of the extractor and the settling tank, to which the honey finds its way by gravitation. It mav be drawn off. while still slightly warm, into tins ready for market. Honev thus treated remains liquid for manv months, presenting a smooth, clean surface when sampled. If, when kept for a long time, it does candy, it may be re-liquified, and will not throw up a layer, of froth as will honey not previously heated. In liquifying candied honey, great care should be exercised not to spoil it by over-heating. The temperature of the water in which the tms are placed should not exceed 170 degrees. The melting cannot be forced without spoiling the honey. A 60-lb. tin candied solid will take four hours to liquify. By over-heating, the flavour and colour of the honey may be spoiled, and yet a little solid piece remain in the tin, from which granulation again commences almost at once. When many tins have to be dealt with, speed should not be attained by increasing the temperature and reduc- ing the length of time, but by setting a greater number of tins going at the- same time. lo June, iqm.] A/ixiLirs to Correspondents. 423 GENERAL NOTES. Vintage Beturns at Bntherglen Vitic-ultiiral College. In the last issue of the Journal, particulars were given of the yields for last vintage, estimated at ^7 per tor for the grapes. Since writing that article, some of the new wine, less than a month old, has been sold, and the returns show a further advance, which will be appreciated by wine- makers. The highest return for Cabernet, estimated at the value of the grapes, was ;^32 iis. 8d. per acre. From an area of i acre 31 perches of this varietv we ol)tained a 500-gallon cask of wine, and al.so had about 9 cwt. of grapes over, which we put in with some Malbec, as there was not enough for a separate cask. The 500 gallons of Cabernet were sold at the cellar door at is. gd. a gallon, or a total of ^43 15s. Even then, we do not get the returns we ought to have done ; for, owing to the imperfect selection of scions, some of the vines are not as productive as if the wood had been more carefully selected from prolific vines. The results are, however, gratifying, especially when it is remembered that Cabernet is usually a shy bearer. In the recent vintage we made a greater quantity of wine to the ton of grapes than ever before. The average for the whole vineyard was 162 gallons to the ton of grapes and 500 gallons per acre of vines. With such returns viticulture pays handsomely. — G. H . Adcock. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. Question= in every branch of a'.'riculture are i^ladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full parliculars as possil>le, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that i ou want to know. All inquiries torwarded to the Editor miist be accompanied by the name and address of the writer. This is very necessary, a.s sometimes insufficient information is furnislied by the iiKpiirer. ESTABi.isHiXG Gardkn". — A. B.C. states that he intends to establish a garden ^-flower, vegetable, and orchard — and plant fodder crops on some land which he holds. The soil is deep sand which grows a very little grass amongst ferns. It is on a rise and is consequently well drained. Water, lime, loam, clay and stable manure are available. Answer. — The land should be lightly ploughed, or skimmed, to loosen the ferns, which should be harrowed out and burned ; as much fern growth as possible should be removed. The portions intended for flowers, vegetables, and fruit should then receive a good surface dressing of clay and stable manure. This should tlien be (lcei)ly jjlougiied in. If ploughing is not practicable, then the clay and manure should be trtiuiicd in. If vines, oranges, or lemons are to be grown, and provided frosts are not prevalent, they thrive well on sandy soils, and no clay need be used at all. Before advice can be given re fodder crops, trees, &c., it should be definitely stated for what purpuse these are required. For instance, if fruit trees are needed, it should be stated whether a commercial, or merely house, garden is required. Irriga'iio.v. — B.Iv. proposes to irrigiic i; .icres of rich, black soil to grow rape, m.iize, anil lucerne. The higliesi point is 30 feet above the water and 120 yards distant. He wishes to know the volumes of water required and the power of pl.mt necessary. .'I>is7i>ir. — (i) The volume of water reipiired |)er acre for irrigation varies with the season, the crop anil the soil. Kor soil of the class described, the first watering in earlv sinnmer will probably run to 250,000 gallons, the second to 150,000, Am] the remaining ones ma\ be kept down to ioo,ooi>, with an efficient system of distribution. Lucerne will benefit by four or more waterings. Maize and r.ijie require three at least. The seed bed should be watered prior to sowing should it nut be naturally moist. (2 and 3) The power of pump and size of pipes depend upon the period within wiiieii it is desired to complete one watering. A suitable jdant would consist of an 8 B.H.P. oil engine and a 4-in. rentrifugal pump. (4) The cost with necessary piping at Melbnurne would be ajiproxiniaiely £220. Mnth engine and pump should be guar.uiteed by the vendnrs. 4^4 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191 i.. Sn.o Elevator. — A.H.D. doubts whether a 4 B.H.P. oil engine will drive - a silo elevator as well as a chaffrntter. He proposes to put up a 12-feet silo, 6 feet: in the ground, and to put cutter on jilatform 6 feet high, doing away with the necessity for elevator. Answer. — The additional work caused by the use of an elevator is very little, probably not more than ^ h.p. A 4 B.H.P. engine is, however, probably fully loaded driving a three-knife chaffcutter. There is no objection to the • proposed method of construction of silo, provided the inner face is continuously smooth and has no break at ground level preventing silage settling. Filling Silo. — A.H.D. asks what would be the capacity of a silo 12 feet high and 15 feet diameter. He also desires to know what weight should be put on it when filled, and whether it should be filled again after settling. An. maize or other fodder, such as rape or lucerne, may be given. Keep charcoal and rock salt in pen. Provide a good warm bed of short straw. REIVIiriDERS FOR JUliY. LIVE STOCK. HOKSEfi , — Those st:il)led can be fed liberally. Those doing fast or heavy work should be (•li)>ped ; if not wholly, then trace high. Those not rugged on coining into tiie stable at night should be willed down and in half-an-hour"s time rugged or covered with bags until the coat is dry. Old horses and weaned foals should be given crushed oats. Grass-fed working horses should be given hay or straw, if there is no old grass, to coiuiteract the purging effects of the young growth. Old and badly-conditioned horses should be given some lioilcd barley. ■Cattle : — Cows, if not housed, sliould be rugged. Rugs should be removed in the daytime when the shade temperature reaches 60 degrees. Give a ration of hay or straw, whole or challcd. to counteract the purging effects of young grass. Cows about to calve, if over fat, should be put into a jiaddock in which the feed is not too abundant. Calves should be kept in warm, dry shed. The bull may now rim with the cows. Pigs :— >Su])ply plenty of bedding in warm, well-ventilated styes. Keep styes clean and dry. Store pigs shoukl be placed in fattening styes. Sows in tine weather should be given a grass run. Young pigs over two montiis old should be removed from lucerne run. Sheep : — The general classing of merino and lamb-raising ewe flocks should be commenced ; none but Toomj^ thick ewes, carrying a bulky Hecce. should be kept. Class rams ; keep only the best in shape ■and fleece, castrate all others ; do not allow them to go entire to be used by those who think any ram good enough. Deep and narrow forequartered rams are responsible for many carcases dressing and freezing ])lainly, although often good sheep from a wool point. Sell aged or barren fat ewes from breeding flocks. Clean filth from breech of ewes of British breeds now commencing to lamb. Wherever l)ossible, send lambs weighing (iO lbs. live weight to market. Early prices are always best ; avoid waiting until the i-usli of the season. Poultry : — -Mating of birds intended for breeding pur])oses should receive immediate attention, ten seconrl- season Leghorns or Minorcas, or six of the heavier birds, such as Orjimgtons, Plymouth Rocks, and Wyandottes (preferably in their second year), with a vigorous unrelated cockerel will be found satis- factory. Table birds bred in July and early August will pay handsomely prior to the Cup Carnival. Do not forget Douglas Tonic in h>\>. Vinkvard : — Proceed with ])runing. burning oil, and plouiiiiing. ('om]>lete, as early as ])ossible, the application of rnaimres other liian nitrates and sul]>hale of ammonia if not already done. .Mark out land for new jilantalions. If groinifl is in good order and not too wet, ])roeee(l with iilantation of young vines (nn])ruTU-d). Remove cuttings or scions from vines previously marked, ami keep fresii by burying horizontally in abnosl dry sand in cool, slidiered ])lace. I'ermanently stake or trellis last year's plantations. Cillfiri .— Rack all youiiL' wines, whetlicr previously raekuil or not. Rack older wines also. For this work choose, as much as possible, line weallicr and high l>aronu'ter. Kill u|i nuularly all unfortiliid wine>». This is a good time for l)ottling wine. ff JUST PUBLISHED. OF "THE . . Destructive Insects of Victoria, G^.^T) ^-"^ r^i/^ By C. FRENCH, F.L.S., F.E.S., Government Entomologist, 170 PAGES, CLOTH. 40 COLOURED PLATES. OBTAINABLE FROM T5e: Depaptment of Sgpiealtape, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. r Commonwealth, Id. Price, 2s. 6d. ; Postages New Zealand, 4d. [ British and Foreign, 7d. APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note covering price and I. \' postage, to be forwarded to "^i^j Oe Secretary /or )\gricuUure, jVlelbourne. (^8' Remittances Irom beyond tlie Commonwealth to be made [^ by Post Office Order. Parts 1., 11., ill., and IV. may also be obtained at 2s. 6d. per Volume. f Parts 1. and lll.-C, Id.; N.Z.. 3d.; B. and F., 6d. each. Postage , ^^ 11. and IV. C, Ud.; N.Z., 4d.; B. and F., Sd. each. A complete list of the Publications issued by the ^'ictorian Depart- ment of Agriculture will be forwarded on receipt of Post Card. SILO CONSTRUCTION. Vol. IX. THE DAIRYING SEASON, 1910-11. Part 7. [Kcuistert'd at the General Post Offir-e, JFelbounie, for transmission l\v Post as a Xewspaper VICTORIAN BUTTER FOR EXPORT. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription Victoria, Intcr-Statc, and N.Z., 3 - ; British a d Foreign, 5,-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— JULY, 1911. PAQB. Review of the V^ictoriau Dairying Season and Butter Export Trade, 1910-11 ... ... ... ... ... ... E. Croice 425 The Babcock Tester on the Farm ... ... ... ... I!. T. Archer 433 " Quality," as applied to Sheep and Wool ... ... ... //. W. Ham 439 Abnormal Growths of the Potato ... ... ... ... D. Mc Alpine 442 Exceptional Growth of Potato Plants ... ... ... D. McAlpine 444 Asparagus ... ... ... ... ... ... B. E. Pe^cott 446 The Root Borer and its Parasite ... ... ... ... H. W. Davey 451 Insects Destructive to Crops— Cut Worms ... ... ... C. Frfuch, jun. 455 Practical Hints on Cut Worm Destruction .. ... ... F, de Caatrdla 458 Vine Diseases in France— Mildew, Black Rot, Black Spot ... F. de Cas,ldla 462 Tobacco Culture— Seed Selection ... ... ... ... T.A.J. Smith, 468 Seeds and Seeding (co?(i«H?eN . Vol. IX. Part 7. tOth July, 1911. REVIEW OF TflE YICTORTAX DATRYIXG SEASON AND BUTTER EXPORT TRADE. l!ll()-D.)ll.* R. Crowe, Supenutcndciti of Exports. The ifct-nt dairying season has proved a record one. the total oversea export of butter to 30th June having reached 24.293 tons. To this must be added a further 1,500 tons representing our Inter- State exports (almost wholly Western Australian). The grand total is 25,793 tons, valued at _;^2,666,265. The previous record was for the sea.son 1906-7, when 21,562 tons, \alued at ;^2. 156,200, were exported. In that year we had over 700,000 dairy cows, whilst for 1910-11 it is estimated that the number was some thousands less. The season began well, and was crowned bv timely summer rains which prolonged the period of lactation in the dairy herds. Commendable efforts were made to provide summer and winter fodder for dairy stock ; and it is sincerely to be hoped that the wisdom of embracing the present oppor- tunity to guard against future possibilities of shortage will not V)e overlooked. In the district where most headway is in evidence, as regards the growth and conservation of fodder, a couple of years ago almost every head of stock was lost for the want of it. \\'hfn visiting this localitv recently I counted 20 silos during a short drive. On manv farms there were two, whilst at one, three were erected side bv side. At the same time, there were farmers who had .so far done nothing in this direction. Even in this di-strict there is room for the manifold multiplii ation of silos. Every l)uttiletl excessive Roported exco.>»sivf .Siimples taken ?nni|>li'S taken whi'ti Cliilled. after TliawiriL.'. I'er cent. !.■) '20 1:? :il(i l(i .T, I'cr cent. l.T 4:i.5 13 SS.S 1 (; .■) 1 ti 7.') 43° Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 191 i. From the above tests it will be seen that the apparently drv butters, upon analysis, proved to be wet in comparison with those showing free moisture. In addition, it was clearly evidenced that the samples taken when the butter was in chilled or frozen condition did not give full results. In future, therefore, the second sample will not be procurable until the butter is brought up to a normal temperature, and not less than 24 hours will be retjuired before the sample can be drawn, after approval is secured. The moisture contents of 160 samples were taken out in duplicate with evaporation and flame tests respectively. The flame test gave higher results; the average difference was 0.285 P^^" cent. Another set of 12 samples was tested in duplicate to find the difference, if any, between taking a test sample from butter when in the ordinary condition, and emulsified. The results were practically the same. The ordinary samples gave 14.921 per cent, against the emulsified, measured when in liquid form, of 15.008 per cent. It would appear tliat, from a factorv manager's point of view, a sample taken from the butter and weighed in its original form should serve his purpose. Some years ago experiments were carried out by officers of the Department in various districts of the State to ascertain the reason of the variation in moisture contents, and to discover some method of control- ling it. These experiments established the necessity of low churning temperatures, first of all to recover the maximum of butter fat from the cream, and secondly to produce a butter of reasonable moisture content. Under the latter heading it was found that the exact degree of tempera- ture did not of itself assist in the determination with regard to the subse- quent moisture. The relative temperatures of the cream and of the rinsing water used in the churn exercised a greater influence in reference to the variation. A high moisture content could be secured by using rinsing water of some degrees higher in temperature than the cream, whilst the minimum resulted from the use of water of the same temperature. Agani, b) not stopping after adding salt and preservatives until the product is finished the maximum of moisture is retained. The stoppage for half a minute once, or better still, twice, during working will permit the expressed moisture to drain away instead of some of it being re-incorporated. It will therefore be seen that there are three controlling factors, and that, given due attention, the moisture contents can be kept within rea.son- able limits. The first is to have the cream reduced to a uniformly low temperature, the second to have the rinsing water used in the churns of the same degree of heat as the cream ; and thirdly, to permit draining to take place at intervals during the process of working. With factories making different grades of butter, the majority of the contraventions against the standard for moisture related to the lower grades. Of the 164 contraventions for non-compliance with standards as regards composition, 3 or 1.8 per cent, was pastry butter, 24 or 14.5 per cent third grade butter, and 86 or 52.4 per cent, second grade. A total of 69 per cent, was thus below the first grade standard. The moisture contents of 6 per cent, of the samples were below 13 per cent. ; 19 per cent, of the samples between 13 per cent, and 14 per cent. ; 47 per cent, of the results between 14 and 15 per cent. ; 25 per cent, of the samples between 15 per cent, and 16 per cent. ; and 3 per cent, of them over 16 per cent. The average moisture contents of unsalted butter were 14.48 per cent., and of salted butter from the same factories 14.12 per cent. There was therefore a difference of 0.36 per cent, more moisture ill unsalted butter. lo July, 1911-] Review of the Dairying Season. 431 There was a pronounced increase in moisture contents with a great many factories after the beginning of a spell of heat. On such occasions it was greater than during a prolonged period of hot weather. This seems to indicate that many managers permit themselves to be taken on the hop, and do not use their refrigerators as of ten or as soon as necessary. Payment for Cream according to Grade. A matter which still remains unsettled because of the nature of the competition which exists for it, is the grading of, and payment for, cream according to grade. It will be remembered that a conference of factory managers, directors of co-operative butter factories, and secretaries, recom- mended that this should be made the subject of State regulation. This has yet to be done, and is promised at the earliest opportunity. The Trafalgar Butter Factory Company has, I understand, decided to adopt the system, and a few other factories have embraced this policy, but it is hardlv likelv to become general until it is made mandatory. Regulating Over-run. Over-run is another matter which might be discussed by this Associa- tion. It becomes, indeed, a burning point when neighbouring factories are in competition, and one which should, in some manner, be controlled. So long as a factory's operations are confined within certain limits, the exact percentage of over-run is immaterial, or rather takes second place to the question of equitable reading of the test. If the over-run be equally high all round, and the factory a co-operative one, suppliers get paid at a higher rate per lb. of butter fat credited per test, although less than delivered ; whilst with a low over-run, the suppliers get a larger numl:»er of lbs. of butter fat credited to them and a lower price per lb. But when a factory competes for supplies against another, one giving a high o\er-run and the other a low one, the question assumes a different complexion. If tests are read finely so that suppliers are credited with 98 lbs. of butter fat for every 100 actually delivered, and a neighbouring factory manager reads the test flush, so as to credit suppliers with 103 lbs. of butter fat for every 100 lbs. actually delivered, the suppliers will get less at IS. per lb. in the one case than at ii|d. in the other. One shilling I'er lb. for 98 lbs. of butter fat (representing the 100 lbs. as above men- tioned) means the purchasing of 100 lbs. for 98s., whilst 103 lbs. (on the conditions previouslv quoted) at iiUl. means the purchasing of 100 lbs. of butter fat for 98s. 'Sd. In some parts of the world, when the composition of milk is below a stated standard, the law presumes that it is adulterated until the contrary is proved. Other countries are at the moment considering whether any over-run larger than 15 per cent, should raise the presumption that pay- ment has not been made on the full test, the manager of the creamery beuig expected to explain the abnormality. This c• nt>tnin<'rt fr'ini th" T) 'p»i-tnicnt of AKriciiltiiro. MeDKinrnP. at 6(1. pT ■(loion. nTiilil -tiito wlvtlior thfi weekly or numthly olioots are Toquircd. 434 Journal of .\gricidturi\ Victoria. [lo July, 1911. for every pound of milk there is, and place in die sample bottle; i.e., if there are 25 lbs. of milk take 25 c.c. into the sample bottle. Put into this three drops of formalin (40 per cent, solution) and mix by giving a gentle MONTHLY CHART. forrhe guidance oF Dairymen in recording each Cow's Milk. (0 0 0 0 i i 1 1 1 T 3 4 5 6 ]_ ^_ ^ 10 }}_ 12 il 14 15 16 17 \&_ 19 20121 22 23 _24j DATE ^r —^ mTTT «aF mTTk hhk; «]r7 m7^ Ti^ "1^" MOK ^ wr ■:^^ milkLik mTlk HS EH 1 — ■ — ■ — — — — ! — — 2 1 j 3 1 1 ] 4 1 ] f 5 , — — 1 6 1 — — — 1 — — 7 ■ — ■ — — — — ' -~ — b= — i 8 ! 3 — 10 1 — i ' ' 12 1 , 13 V- 1 14 — 1 15 I '6 . 17 18 i '^ 20 21 22 1 ^^ \ 24 25 26 ' 1 27 28 29 30 31 i TOTAL 1 . |il«£tK 1 U) 2"° '• 1 y 3.. ,. j 1 H WtRACe 1 — 1 — 3. RULED SHEET FOR MILK RECORDS. rotary shake. Repeat this for six consecutive milkings, except that the- three drops of formalin already added will be sufficient for the whole sample. As each fresh lot of milk is added it should be mixed by shaking lo JuLV. 191 T.J Tin Bahcoch Tcsitr mi iJu Farm. 435 with a gentle rotary motion. The .sample .should not be shaken violently at anv time or the cream may be churned, and this would make the testing iliflifuit. 'I'hi- .sani|)lr nui>i !«• krpt lightly (•(.>rkcil. 'I'hf three drops of lormalin added to tlie first l<'t shouM ke<*p the sanii)le .sw ^ ico = 1.47 lb. butter fat + \ = 1.7 15 lbs. (practically if lbs.) commercial butter. Sulphuric acid. — The sulphuric acid should be a definite strength, i.e., 1.827 specific gravity. It is usually supplied by the agents at the correct strength. Care must be taken in handling it as it is very corrosive. The appearance of the fat, when the test is completed, will indicate if the acid IS the correct strength or not. Instead of being a clear amber coloured column it may have black or white specks mixed through it. Black specks may be caused by the temperature of the milk or the acid being too high when mixed, or too much acid being used, or the acid being too strong. 6 — S i_3 '-—I 8. RE.\bi.\G .\IIi.K TE.ST. 9. RF-.^DING CRE.\M TE.ST 1 O. CRE.AM SAMl'LKR. It will he easy to discover in this way if the acid is too strong. If so, use one or two c.c. less; if the fat comes out clearly, it will be correct. On the other hand there may In- white specks of undissolved curd in the fat column. This may be due to temperature of milk or acid btMng toe low when mixed, too little acid being used, or not shaking sufficientlv to dissolve all the casein when mixing ; this is particularly .so if too much formalin has been used in the sample, or the acid is too weak. If not muci» too weak, one or two c.c. more acid may bring the test out clearly, when tb'r results should lie correct. If ihe stopper is left out of the bottle the acid will ab.sorb moisture from the air and so become weaker. The acid should be water white, but sometimes, through dust getting in or through othei reasons, it turns d irk ; if vou get a clear reading nf the fat the acid will be all right. Do not dilute by adding water. 43^ JtiuruaJ of Agriculture, Yuioria. [lo July, 191 i. Testing Cream. Sampl'Dig. — If the cream is fresh and liquid enough to pour freely the sample may be taken by pouring from one vessel to another three times and immediately dipping a small quantity into a bottle; add three drops of formalin, and cork tightly to prevent evaporation of moisture. If left in an open jar, especially in hot weather, evaporation takes place rapidly and this would increase the test, causing inaccurate results. If the cream has set, as it does when it is thick and ripe, the sample must be taken with a ^Vheal sampler (Fig. 10). This cuts a complete core from top to bottom of the can giving an accurate sample and an aliquot part of the cream. The whole syringeful is taken into the bottle. The cream should be separated to contain between 40 and 50 per cent, fat ; then there should be no difficulty in getting a correct sample. When liquid enough the cream may be mixed by means of a plunger, consisting of a saucer- shaped disc attached to a rod. The Wheal sampler is like a syringe, and the piston must be kept tightly packed so that, when the thumb is placed on the open end of the tube and the rod drawn out tO' its full length, a complete ^•acuum is created ; or. releasing the rod it runs right back to the thumb. Making ihe test.- — The Babcock test is based on the assumption that 18 grammes weight of the material to be tested is delivered into the flask. A 17.6 c.c. pipette will deliver 18 grammes of milk into the flask; but, with cream testing 40 to 50 per cent, fat, 17.6 c.c. would only weigh 15 to 16 grammes on account of the difference in the specific gravity. It is therefore provided by law that cream shall be weighed directlv into the flask. For this purpose seiisiti\ e scales are used (Fig. 4 b). These are obtain- able for about 25s. The sample bottles should be stood in water, 90 to 100 degrees, until liquid enough to run freely. The flask is then balanced on the scales ; approximately by the counterpoise on the beam, then by small shot or pellets of paper on the tray. The weight is moved along the beam to the 9 gramme mark, and cream (being thoroughly mixed) is run in with a pipette until the weight is balanced. If a drop too much is run in it may be removed by a fine tube which can be inserted to the bottom of the flask. Nine grammes of cream, instead of 18, are taken because our flasks (Fig. 6) are graduated to 30 per cent., and the fat of 40 per cent, cream would not all go into the graduated neck. Nine c.c. of water are then run in. After adding 17.5 c.c. sulphuric acid, shake until the casein is all dissolved. There is a frosted spot on the flask on which a number should be marked with an ink pencil to correspond with the number of the sample. The procedure now is the same as with milk. In reading the cream test, the fat is measured from a to c. not to d or b (Fig. 9). The cream flasks are graduated for 18 grammes and as 9 grammes have been taken, the reading has to be doubled. To calculate the result. — The weight of cream is multiplied by the test and divided by 100. This gives the amount of butter fat that the factory should pay for. Example. — A can of cream contains 95 lbs. net. The te.st reads 22. Then 22 x 2 = 44, gives the correct percentage of fat in the cream. 95 )C 44 -^ 100 = 41. 8 lbs. butter fat in that can of cream. Skim Milk. It is quite as important to test the separator milk as to test the cows. Frequently, verv hea\-y loss is experienced through the separator getting lo July. 191 i.] '' Quality," as Applied to Sheep and Wool. 439 out of order or through not being properly worked. A check should there- fore be kept by regularly testing the skim milk. Specia; double necked flasks (Fig. 7) are used for testing skim milk. They have a wide tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask, through which the milk and the acid are run in. As the graduated neck is of small bore, it is possible to estimate the loss of fat clearly. Take 17.6 c.c. of skim milk into the flask, as in new milk, and 17.5 c.c. or a little more acid may be used — up to 20 c.c. It is better to add half the acid and mix it, then the remainder of the acid and shake until all the casein is dissolved. The mixing must be done carefully, so that none of the liquid is forced into the graduated neck or some will be lost. The flask must be placed in the machine with the graduated neck tow'ards the outside, so that, while the machine is running, the graduated neck will be uppermost ; otherwise, some of the fat may lodge behind the tube and not rise into the neck. The procedure then is the same as with new milk. The loss of fat, as indicated by this test, should be kept below . i per cent. or one-tenth of one per cent. It is best to use rain water for testing where possible. If spring water containing lime, &c., is used, it may cause froth to appear on top of the fat column. This should be avoided. " QUALITY." AS APPLIED TO SHEEP AND WOOL. //. ir. Ham, S/uep Expert. " QualitN " is essentially a wool term, and applies to fineness, or breadth of lil)re. Fleeces from merino shee]T are known as broad, medium, and superfine. The first, sheep-breeders know as strong wool ; the second everyl)ody favours ; the last posses.ses quality in its highest sense, but is usually too delicate to stand heat. dust, and dry autumns, and therefore is not always profitable. A merino ram, said to be a sheep of "'great ciuality," need not neces- sarily possess a fleece of similar, class. He mav have a fleece of even fairly broad quality, nr robust staple, and yet be possessed of quality as a sheep. Quality, ill the case ol a shee]). is another word for " good breeding," but with stud sheep the term mi-ans more; for instance, a " frosty" or '' kempy " faced, badly horned, merino ram may have a fleece of good quality, but he would not, as a ram, be said to pos.sess (jualitv. On the other hand, no matter how true a ram may Ix- in face, horn, and trueness of wool in parts, he cannot be said to pos.sess qualitv in any .sense if he has a strong fleece .showing wild coarse W(X>1 on folds and breech. A Lincoln ram mav possess great (juality as a sheep, but the best Lincoln wool would be coarse qualitv. In an export lamb. " sa|)piness '' is ([uality. " Style " in a fleece refers principally to |)erfect crimp and lustre, whereas '" style " in a stud sheep is . The Vermonts are particularly liable on account of their elongated shape. In the normal growth of the potato, single tul>ers are formed at tin- ends or sides of underground branches, but when there is an excess of heat in the soil, the eyes may sprout, irresjx'ctive of moisture; and. i! a fresh growth is set up in the plant, by the necessary heat and n jisture i)eing supi)lie(l after a dry spell, then the eyes or other portions Jl th. plant may enlarge and form tubers direct, giving rise to sev direction ot the Chief 452 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July. 191 r. Inspector, by the other inspectors and myself show this to be the case. In his report, Inspector Hammond states : — Owing to an improvement in the growth of the trees some time after the injection of carbon fumes, it was erroneously attributed to the destruction of the borers at the roots, but Massey jjoints out that, though the carbon fumes destroy the nitrifying bacteria of the soil, they also destroy all the forms of bacteria, amongst which are those that prey upon the nitrifying ones, and these latter, when again introduced, multiply much more rapidly than the others, and stimulate the growth for a short period. On 24th March I treated four Five Crown apple trees in the same orchard. I made holes with a crowbar, as the injector would not put the carbon down suffi- ciently deep. I had ascertained that, in soil such as the one being treated, no grubs live within about 20 inches of the surface. T gave from iS to 21 injections to each tree, using the Pal injector; g to 5 oz. of bi-sulphide being injected into each hole. The holes were about 30 inches apart, and 20 inches from trunk of tree, and were within a circle of about 9 feet in diameter. The quantity of bi-sulphide used .'or each tree was from 6 to 105 ozs. On 25th May, about eight weeks later, I partly grubbed one of the trees treated on 24th March. A careful examination of the soil and roots was made, and five live grubs and one dead one were found. Three of the live grubs were nearly full grown, one about half grown, and one very small. The dead grub was full grown, and in a good state of preservation. None of the grubs were found nearer than 24 inches to the surface. The dead grub was found 30 inches below the surface. I partly grubbed two other trees, not treated, for the purpose of comparing them with the one treated. I found four grubs and a beetle from 24 to 30 inches below the surface in the clay in one tree, and one grub and one beetle were found in the other. No dead grubs were found in the untreated trees, but, apart from this, there was no difference in the appearance of the grubs. In this case the bi- sulphide did little or no good as far as I could see. Inspector Cock, of Bendigo, has carried out experiments in root treat- ment, by the application of bi-sulphide of carbon ; and, in addition, gas lime, lime, cyanide of potassium, and cyanide of soda, with no appreciable benefit . Arsenical Spraying. There is evidence that arsenical spraying is partially effective. Inspec- tors Farrell and Hammond reported that they have found as many as thirty dead beetles under trees sprayed with arsenate of lead, whereas prior to the use of this material no dead beetles were to be found. Though spraying may kill many of the beetles, it cannot, in my opinion, be regarded as other than a factor, and probably a small one, in dealing with this insect. Even if the beetles consume .sufficient of the sprayed foliage to get a fatal dose, death in insects is always slow^ from arsenical poisons. The first thing that takes place on emergence from the soil is the copu- lation of the sexes, so, even if the female were killed by poison, she would be fertile, and probably able to eject her eggs (as many insects do when dying from injuries, &c.), though too feeble to draw the leaf together to protect them. On the othei hand, eggs are not fully developed when beetles first emerge from the soil, and the beetles might be poisoned some time before this happens ; but, notwithstanding that these creatures devour large quantities of foliage, the vitalitv of all insects immediately previous to egg-laying is remarkable. In order to be successful it would be necessary to sprav the fruit trees during their period of growth, as well as all herbage throughout the entire year. Bandaging. Bandages are of little use unless properly attended to and adjusted, as the beetles are capable of walking up clean glass alm.ost as freely as up a lo JuLV. 1911-] Tlic Root Borer and its Parasite. 453 tiee trunk ; and many pass these collars for the purpose of egg-laying, so that the orchardist is depending on something that only stops a percentage of the beetles. At Panmure, every tree is " collared " and attended to every morning right through the season, except in the case of gooseberry bushes. As the larvae feed on the roots it makes little difference to them where the eggs are laid, and possibly a gooseberry bush is just as acceptable as an apple tree. It will therefore be seen that the gooseberry bushes require as much pro- tection as the trees. Messrs. Moore Brothers, of Vauxhall Gardens, Panmure, have for many years kept a daily account of the number of beetles killed on a 7 -acre patch of their orchard of 60 acres, the only part attacked. During 1905, 14,633 beetles were trapped and destroyed. This number diminished until, in 1907, it fell to 7,190 ; in 1909, it increased to 15,360. Not only were these growers extremely careful in trapping the beetles, but greater atten- tion has been given to spraving during the latter years. Still, instead of an appreciable diminution there was an actual increase of over 100 per cent, in the beetles trapped. A Parasitical Enemy. From my own experience, and that of growers like those referred to, it would appear that there must be .some natural check to the multiplication of this insect in the native timber, otherwise our forests would be entirely depleted. The difficulty the beetle may have in emerging from the soil in the unculti- vated lands would probably to .some extent affect its increase, but not sufficiently to account for the com- paratively little damage that it does to our forest trees. I was therefore led to the conclusion that other factors were at work towards this end, and began investiga- tions in this direction, with the result that a parasite very deadly to the borer was discovercfl. On dis.secting a female Leptops in June, i9^o> p^rilitus 1 I'Ptopsi she proved to be full of parasites, .so live beetles were vipkkck d .<» placed in observation cages. In the course of a few days j)arasitic larvae emerged from the.se, and pupated in tiny silken cocoons all clustered together, showing at once that they b, longed to the Hymoioptcra (probablv the Bracoiiidce). From these cocoons the perfect in.sect emerged in October, the time of year when the root borers first appear, but unfortunately before being able to obtain more ijeetles the parasites dinl. The parasite was again ob.served in large num- bers during December at Panmure. and January at Mount Cole, near Ararat — tht- onlv places wlu-rc this in.sect has been so far discovt-rt'd. 'I'he female parasite is furni.shcd with a long le |)lant. The eggs hatch in a few days, and thr young cut worms start to feed at once, anv kind of green food being greedily eaten by them. Even when the grain is just sprouting it is attacked, and ()ften they will eat right into the husk. Thi- coloured jilate sliows .sonn- of the I'oninion iiu worm moths, .md also two other species of closely allied noctuids (night moths). In the museum of economic entomology and ornithology of this Department are specimens of all the Victorian cut worm moths, their eggs, and larvae. The collection may be insportcd by all interested. 45^ Ji>:t>)ial of Ai:^rici(11uri' , Yicforia. [lo July, 191 i. Explanation of Plate. Xatiiral Size. From Nature. I. Chloridca obsoleia. (Toma'.o Moth.) VI. Agrotis spina. (Bugong Moth.) II. Cirfhis unipuncta. VII. Euflexia nigerrima. III. Euxoa radians. VIII. Larva of Agrotis. IV. Persectania evingi. (Climbing Cut IX. Larva curled up. Worm.) X. Pupa of Agrotis. V. Pliisia argentifcra. (.Silvery Moth.) Remedies. By the eradication of weeds and the burning of haulms and stems of harvested crops the cut worm evil may be greatly minimised, as by this means many eggs are destroyed. Growing crops may be treated in the following manner : — Place between rows of an infested crop or at short distances apart, bundles of any succu- lent weed or vegetable which has been previously poisoned by dipping it, after tying in bundles, into a strong mixture of Paris green i oz. to a bucket of water. The cut worms eat the poisoned plants, bury them.selves, and die. In hot, dry weather the bundles should be put out after sundown. Correspondents have frequently inquired whether there is any likelihood of vegetables absorbing Paris green from the mash when placed near the roots. I am assured by the Chemist for Agriculture that there is no danger as the Paris green is practically in.soluble, and therefore cannot be absorbed by the various plants. The poisoned bran mash has also been successfully tried. The best proportion to use is one part by weight of arsenic, one of sugar, and six of bran, to which is added sufficient water to make a wet mash. This mixture is usually made in a wash tub or half barrel. One of the.se is filled three- fourthsful with dry bran, and to this is added about 5 lbs. of arsenic, which is thoroughly stirred through the bran with a spade or shovel ; 5 lbs. of sugar are next thrown into a pail, which is then filled with water, and the sugar stirred until it is dissolved, when the sugar water is added to the bran and arsenic, and the three well stirred. More water is added and the stirring continued until every portion of the mash becomes thoroughly saturated. The mixture should be placed around and through the crop, or at the foot of the tree, plant, or shrub infested, dropping it into the shade when this can be done. Both of these preparations should be kept out of the way of children and domestic animals. With regard to the efficacy of the poisoned bran mash, I have recently received the following letter from Mr. G. Rav, of Lindenow, Gipps- land : — The cut worms were very prevalent this season, but I have had great success in destroying them. I had a crop of English barlev, and, thanks to the use of the bran mash, I have just threshed from 40 to 70 bushels per acre. The caterpillars were two or more inches deep in shady places, and I am sure that I would not have had any returns unless precautions had been taken, Mr. C. W. Mallev, Eastern Province Entomologist in South Africa, reports excellent re.sults with poLsoned baits. He says: — It occurred to me that bv cuttmg up any available green stuff (lucerne, barley, forage, cabbage, rape, young succulent weeds, &c.) into small bits, say half an inch in length, it could be moistened with the poisoned sweet and then scattered broadcast over the lands with least labour and material. In this way, it is distri- buted evenly, and at such frequent intervals, that the cut worms are practically certain to find it before they do the plants. Their fondness for sweets induces them to fully engorge themselves on the bait, 0 fact which makes their destruction certain. There is also no danger to stock, for the pieces of bait are so small that nothing but poultry can pick them up, and it is not likely that even they will get enough to injure them. But, as a jirecaution, tlie}' should be kej)t from the lands where bait has been spread. /, . C \'iilil. Amlfi^eti, Pel r. Fuiuh. I tin . /)(., CUT WORM MOTHS. hotilsloni- &C<' , I'lint. lo July. 1911.] /ir,tcis Daiructive to Crofs. -1:1/ During the |)ast six months several adilitional experimental tests have been made for cut worms, and with satisfactory results. I see no special difficulty in the way of its application on a large scale to lands planted with tobacco, maize, or other crops, and therefore call attention to it for the benefit of any who may have occasion to use it. MeTHOO OI' riiEPAKA'lKlX. Arsenite of soda Treacle, or brown su:^ir Water I lb. S lbs. TO "als. DAIS l',i:i<)K'K AMi Alll'.k A I 1 At K l'.\ (II WOKM: Dissolve tlie arsenite of xiila and the ireacle in the w.itcr. In (he nuMntime. cut up the lucerne, or other green stulf, into small bits, and tiien moisten it with the poisoned sweet. He. careful not to make it loo wet or it will not scatter well wiu-ii brf)ad( asting. I'"or the best results, tlic bait should be distributed a few days after the Kroinid lias been plouglied, and all green, sutculent vegtl.ition destroyed. The cut worms that are ni>l crushed in [jloughing will then I'e i>n ilie surface again, and on aci ount nf their long fast, practically all of them will be prowling around in search of food. In this wav, one application will probablv be sufficient. If injury is noticed .ifter the- \oung iii.ii/c ]d.inls .ip|ie.ir, the ap|)lication shmdil be repeated. Arsf'iiatf of lead spr.iv has proved oiu- of tln' Ik-.s! ifim'difs vt-t dis- ♦•overed. \\ here cut worm.s an- fffdin;^ in ;^ra.s.s j)aiId^. it i.s advisahlc to spiav a strip of tin- crop. .\fttr dcvoiiriii;; tin- gras.s. thov 7707. u 45^ Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 191 i. move on to the crop, and when they come to the sprayed portion devour it greedily, and are soon destroyed. If vegetables are sprayed it is advisable to thoroughly wash them before using. The trench system is a simple and effective method of eradication. A trench or furrow should be either ploughed or dug around the crop towards which the cut worms are feeding. It must have clear cut sides ; those nearest the crop should be undercut so as to prevent the cut worms from crawling out of the trench. Deep holes should be made in the trench at intervals of, say, five yards. When travelling towards the crop the cut worms fall into and crawl along the trench and ultimately into the holes. A few shovelfuls of earth, well rammed, will then speedily destroy them. Should the pest be already in the crop it will be necessary to run a few furrows through it. Another plan that answers well is to place a flock of sheep in the infested paddock adjoining the crop. The constant walking about of the sheep will destroy the cut worms. If cut worms are prevalent in gardens, rake the ground up close to the plants. By this means many of them are turned up ; and, if poultry are allowed to run over the ground very few will escape their notice. Thev are also easily injured by the rake and are then likely to be eaten by ants and insectivorous birds when exnosed on the surface of the ground. Numbers of cut worms are destroyed by hymenopterous and other ,^ara- sites. Very wet and cold weather also keeps them in check. PRACTICAL HINTS ON CUT WORM DEP-;TRUCTI0N. F . de Castclla. Government Viticulturist. At Mr. French's request I have pleasure in supplementing the article in which he deals with Cut Worms, generally, by a few remarks sum- marizing the experience of North- Eastern vine-growers who, during the past three seasons, have found one of the most serious obstacles to. the successful reconstitution of their vineyards in the ravages of Agrotis cater- pillars, commonly known as Cut Worms, as well as of several small beetles* which, like them, hide below the surface of the soil during the day and ravage the leaves and shoots of the young vine at night time. The experience gained by vine-growers may prove of value to other agriculturists, as well as to those about to plant vines for the first time. In these insects we have no new pest, but one which has long been with us. Vine-planters of 20 years ago knew them well, though, owing to the small amount of vine-planting carried out until quite recently, this fact has been forgotten, and cut worms are often erroneously looked upon as a recent introduction. The prevalence of the trouble varies greatly. It is common to find, in the same district, one vineyard whiclr suffers .severely, whilst another perhaps only a mile away, is quite free. Sandy .soils are usually more liable than stiffer ones. In many of the pine-ridge vineyards recently planted near the Murray, damage from cut worms has been severe. Never- theless, trouble has also been experienced in some vineyards planted on stiffer soil, though, as a rule, to a lesser extent. * Specimens >ent to Mr. French were iclentifled ae Hopatium Ausfrate and different spscies of Haplonchya and Hetpronyx. lo JuLV. 191 i-l f-fiiits oil Cut Worm Dalruciion. 459 Preventive Methods. A predisposing cause of trouble is the presence of an abundant crop of weeds at the time the moths lay their eggs. The.se appear to instinctively realize the pre.sence of food for their offspring on dirty land, and to avoid laying their eggs on ground free from weeds. The ground of the young vineyard should be clean and well cultivated from the commencement of winter. Attention to this point alone will greatly reduce the prevalence of the insects. Subsequent cultivation, no matter how thorough, will not give security once the eggs have been laid. In fact, it only aggravates the trouble. As the caterpillars cannot find any plants to feed on but the young vines, their concentrated efforts are all the more severely felt. In the keeping clean of the ground on which young vines are to be planted, or of young resistants which it is intended to field-graft in the following spring, we have a means of prevention, the value of which is not sufificiently realized. Preventive treatment, by destruction of the moths before they hiy their eggs, is also worthy of consideration. Judgment and close observation are necessary in order to hit upon the most propitious time of operation, when the moths are abundant and ready to lay their eggs. Acetylene lamps of special construction are used for this purpose'. The burner is situated a few inches above a shallow tray, lllled with water, on the surface of which is poured a small quantity of kerosene. The insects, attracted by the strong light, get their wings singed and fall into the tray, where they are found in large numbers in the morning. Lamps of this description have been successfully used at the Wah- gunyah Nursery during the past two seasons. It is not easy to estimate to what extent subsequent invasions were prevented by this means, but there is no doubt that large numbers of moths were destroyed. The lamps available were far from perfect, the automatic regulation of the gas supply being more particularly defective. In France, trap lamps of this kind are largely used for the destruction of Cochylis and Pyrale moths, the larvae of which, in the shape of minute green caterpillars, are responsible for an enormous amount of damage in some districts. In parts of Champagne, Avhere such lamps have been used on a large scale, six lamps per acre are considered sufficient. The type of lamp most largely u.sed was one fitted with Bray's patent " Ceto " burner, burning 10 litres (alxjut \ cubic ft.) per hour, and taking a charge of 7 ozs. of carbide, sufficient to last five or six hours. The tray is 20 inches in diamett-r and if inches deep.'*' Though capable of giving gfx)d results in nurseries, trap lamps are not. owing to the large number re(]uired, and the difficulty of attending to the lamps at night, .so practical in the vineyard. Arsenical Poisoning. This is the method of protection which has given the l)e>l results in Victoria. Two distinct systems have been largely used : -• 1. Spraying with lead arsenate in suspension in wairr. 2. The use of baits, in close proximity to the young vin -s. ilacli has its partisans, and each has given excellent results when pro perly a|)plied. According to circumstances, one or other nicthiid may be more suital)le for a given case. It will often be found advisal'Ie to combine both methods. • MM. Mirtiii-Iliit null I'iii^nnl in Pnvr.* A(jricuU, ix\\\ .K\\\i\\-\, IVUii. R 2 460 Jnunial of A<:^riciiltiirc. Victoria. [10 July, 191 i. Lead Arsenate Spray. — The most suitable stivngth seems to be 3 lbs. of any good brand of arsenate to 50 gallons of water. This strength does not in any way injure the foliage or tender shoots, whilst it is sufficiently strong to destroy the caterpillars, especially when thev are young. In fact, in order to obtain the best results from such sprays, they must be used when the larvae first hatch out from the eggs. It is easy to understand that, under these conditions, a very much smaller dose will proye fatal than later on, when the insects have attained a certain size. It must be remembered that they grow^ exceedingly rapidly, feeding the while on the ^infortunate young vine. A careful watch must be kept, and on the very first appearance of the trouble, evidenced by characteristic sm.all holes eaten out of the tender leaves, the whole of the young vines must be immediately sprayed. At the AN'ahgunyah Xurserv, last season, spraying completely prevented any damage, but it was applied from the very first appearance, when none of the cut worms were longer than \ inch. Three separate invasions had to be fought in this way, resulting from eggs laid by three different genera- tions of moths. The first spraying was given about the .second v/eek iii October, the second about a fortnight later, whilst a quite distinct generation of minute cut worms necessitated the conmiencement of a third spraying on 22nd Xovember. In spite of the very sandy nature of the soil, and the fact that the nursery was surrounded by paddocks where the grass was high, conditions favourable to the pest, these three sprayings absolutely protected the young ^•ines from damage. Baits. — In order that spraying may be successful, there must be some green foliage to sprav ; in other words, the young vines must have sent out shoots and small leave.i before the cut worms make their appearance, as was the case in the example quoted above. If, as not imfrequently happens, the cut worms are in the field first, that is, before the vines come into leaf, spraying is useless. This is what frequently happens when the land has, during the winter, been covered with weeds, which have been suppressed by repeated cultivation, just before the vines were planted (or grafted in the case of field grafting). In such circumstances, considerable numbers of quite large cut worms may be about before t.he buds of the voung vinos burst. The deadly effect of these, on the young plantation, can easily be imagined. The young buds may l)e eaten right out, before they break through the protecting mound of soft soil ; other shoots growing from latent buds meet with a similar fate, and the young vine is often killed outright, or, at any rate, so consideral)ly damaged and its start into growth so much retarded as to permanentK injure it. As many as 16 or 20 fair- sized larvae have been found in the soil at the base of a single vine. Field grafts, in spite of the rapid growth they make, are often seriously damaged, if not completely destroyed, in this way. Against such visitations the only practical means of defence is the use of baits. A formula w^hich has given good results is the following : — Bran 10 lbs., molasses 4 lbs.. Paris green 4 ozs. The whole to be made into a paste or dough and placed, in small pieces about the size of a nut, in close proximity to the young vine. These are greedily eaten by the cut worms, which are thus destroyed in large numbers. The baits are no longer acceptable once they are dry. As the weather is hot in October and November, they dry up very rapidly, and cease to be of use after the first night. Baits should, therefore, only be put lo July. 191 i.] 11 mis 011 Cut Worm Dcslructioii. 461 out after sunset. Should all the insects not be destroyed by the first application, it is necessary to repeat the dose. It is well to remoAe the dried-up baits previously put out. on account of the injurious effect of the arsenic on vegetation if left to In- washed into the soil Ijv rain. For this reason, care should be taken not to place the baits in contact with the young vine, but at least an inch or so away from it. In one plantation where this precaution was not observed, many vines subsequently died from arsenical poi.soning. The cau.se of death was at first obscure. The. action of the ar.senic contained in baits, which had been extensively used (with very satisfactorv results .so far as cut worm destruc- tion was concerned), was suspected. Analvsis revealed the presence of arsenic in the interior of the stem of the dead vines, so there appears to be little doubt as to ar.senical poisoning being the cause of death. Paris green, which usually contains more or less free arsenious acid, could probably, on this account. \)r advantageously replaced by arsenate of lead in the bait formula given above. The insolubility of the latter salt would insure safety from a similar mishap. Nevertheless, with due care against absolute contact, there is little or no danger. Although Paris green baits were very extensi\ely used in Rutherglen during the i:)ast three seasons, ir only one case was poisoning reported. Vegetable Baits. — It is probable that good results could l>e obtained by growing, in close proximity to the young vine, plants which the insects ^at readily, and which could, by spraying with lead arsenate, be con- verted into poisonous baits. The.se would be capable of acting so long as the arsenate remained on them, instead of merely for a single night, as is the ca.se with the artificial baits. Arsenical poisoning of the vine would also Ije obviated. Young Soya Bean ])lants are greedily eatt-n l)v cut worms, and it is possible that they would prove very suitable for the purpose. A couple .sown on either side of, and quite clo.se to the young vine, when this is being planted, would give something to sprav with lead arsenate before the vine buds burst into growth. The suggestion is made in the hope that it may prove of service during the coming planting .sea.son. Of course, other plants might prove more suit- able than the sova bean ; it is one. however, which .seems to be verv accept- able to the insects. OiiiER Metiiod.s. There arc no doubt, other ways of combating these troublesome insects, but, .so far as Victorian experience is concerneti. ar.senical poisoning has given the best results. Hand-picking around the young vine, though effe<-tual, is too labf)rious. and con.sequently costlv, as well as verv slow. In 1'' ranee, hand-picking bv the light of a lantern at night, wlien the insects .ire al)Ove ground, is often reecininiemled. The use of strongly smelling .substances in the soil, around the vine, in order to render it an unsuitable refuge for lh«- instrts during the day time, has been recomnvnded. \a])htha!ine and several projirietary mix- tures, such as " \'ai)orite " and others, seem to Ik- suitabh- for the pur- pos«', as well as watering with .solutions of Hen/ole enuilsion, Siil])hide of Potassium. iV'c. .Some of these ha\e been tried, and g«x>d results are claimed for tln-m, but further e\periineiUs .ire ne(^-ssar\ Iw-tore thev can Ik- -contlih'iitlv recommended. In the case of .severe outbreaks, a combination of the \arious niethod.s Jiientioned above is advisable. 46; Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 191 i. VINE DISEASES IN FRANCE. {Continued from page 398.) F. dc Castclla, Government Viticulturist. Mildew {Plasmopara viticola). Mildew, or Mildiou, as it is phonetically spelt in French (the " W " in that language being pronounced like our " V "), is caused by a fungus radically different from that of Oidium, in its botanical relationships, in- its mode of life, and in the methods by which its ravages can best be combated. Though its recognised botanical name is now Plasmopara viticola, it was long known as Peronospora Viticola, and is 'Still often referred to in France, as well as in America, as Peronospora. Botanically. it belongs to the family of Peronosporea and the great fungus group of Oomycefes, and is closely allied to the potato blight (PJi vtofhtlwra iiifestaiis). 1 . 2. DOWNY MILDEW (Plasmopura viticola). I. L'nder surface of vine leaf showing characteristic white tufts (after Charter' n). 2. Diagrammatic section of leaf attacked by mildew showing mycelium (black) between cells of tissue and summer spore-bearing hlanients on under side. The large round bodies, buried in the tissues of the leaf, are oospores [after Vialla)- Though long known in the eastern States of the North American Union, it was not until 1878 that mildew was observed in France; after this, its spread was exceedmgly rapid, not only .in France, but throughout the whole of Europe, the damage done varying much according to local climntic conditions. Should these be suitable, it becomes one of the most serious scourges that vignerons can have to fight against. In outward appearance the disease is easily recognised and distinguished from other fungi. It attacks all growing parts of the vine, but it is on the leaves that it can be most readily recognised. Its American name of Downy Mildew verv aptly describes it, and ex])lains the chief difference which distinguishes it from Powderv Mildew or Oidium. The latter fungus has the appearance of a thin white or greyish powder, the general lo July,. 1911-] Vif/e Diseases in France. 463 appearance gradually becomes darker owing to the discolouration of the underlying tissues. This powdery appearance is distributed generally over the leaves and other growing parts on the upper and under surfaces alike. In the case of Mildew the white downy efflorescences, characteristic of the fungus, are almost invariably situated on the under surface of the leaf. The upper surface, at these points, presents a discolouration, slight, and usually yellowish at first, but finally becoming of a dark reddish brown colour. The downy tufts, usually of a milky white colour, but some- times greyish, are very di.stinct, and cannot be mistaken for any other fungus. In the case of a bad attack, the leaves fall off, sometimes together with the leaf-stalk; at others, they detach themselves at the junction of t"he limb and the stalk, leaving the latter adhering to the vine. The complete suppression of the leaves, when the berries are about the size of buckshot, naturally entails the destruction of the crop, and this would frequently be caused but for spraying with copper mixtures, which have now become indispensable operations in all the vineyards of France. By means of these sprayings, more or less complete protection of the foliage is achieved. Injury to foliage, even when not sufficient to greatly reduce the yield, may lead to a reduction in the quality of the wine. Pessimists sometimes tell one that the wines of France are not equal to what they were a generation ago; they attribute this to the fact of grafting on resistant stocks, a contention which has been recently and abundantly proved to be absolutely false.* Reduction of quality, if any, is due to the ravages of Mildew, and, in certain seasons at least, there can be no doubt that such reduction does occur. In addition to this indirect damage, the fruit of the vine is subject to direct attack, and this at different periods of the growing season. An early invasion of Mildew, about blos.soming time, or shortly after, when the bunches are young and tender, may bring about the complete destruction of the crops in the space of a couple of days. This form of the disease is termed in French Mildiou de la Grappc (bunch mildew). Such •disastrous visitations are sometimes experienced as a result of neglect of the first preventive treatments, which, experience has shown, should in- variably be applied. A little later in the season, the bunches may also be attacked. Their appearance, more or less covered with the efflorescence of the fungus, has led to the term Rot-Gris (Grey Rot) being used at this stage. Berries thus attacked wither and dry up. If attacked before maturity, when the fruit is about to change colour, the whole of the pulp is invnde'd by the fungus. The fruit then becomes soft and discoloured. This form, termed in French Rot-Brun (Brown Rot), may seriously injure the quality of the wine. The diagram reproduced shows the mode of life of the Mildew fungus. Its mvcelium grows exclusively in the interior of the tissues ; never on the .surface, as is the case with Oidium. It is only the fructifications which appear en the outside of the plant. These, as shown in the diagram, consist of much "branched filaments bearing the conidia or summer spores by which the spread of the fungus is carried on during the summer months. These are pio dured in enormous numl>ers. They are light and easily carried Ijy the wind, facts whicli explain the extraordinarily rapid spread of the di.sease. These spore-bearing filaments constitute the milky white down, visible to the • Thi- cfTi-ct of uT.'iftin;,' i>n resistant stocks on Mif iinalit.v of tlio wiiif was fxliauslivtOy (HsiussihI at the IntiTiiutional \ iticiiltiirol Conu'ross o( Antrcrs in li)(i7. The exiilonco tluTiM'ulU'fli'd from all parts o' tiie w "rill proved that the fai't of jfraflinsr "n resistant stocks led to no ree correct or not, the acid suljjhale of iron .solution is still the standard treatment in France. Being much less acid, it is far more convetiient and safer to handle, and there seems to be no reason to prefer the plain sul])hurir acid, which, though •efficacious, is not more so than acid inm sutnhatf. 'J'hc standard fornnila is as follows : — Siili)h.ite of Iron (roininerci.il) ... ... •?; to 40 lbs. Sulphuric aciror germination, hence it is inadvisable to sow them in the open when the ground is cold and wet. Seeds will not germinate below 32 F. owing to water ireezing at that point, and thus preventing its absorption by the tissues of the .seed. How- ■ever, manv .seeds, such as the common annual meadowgrass {Poa annua) and chickweed {A/sine media), will germinate at slightly above that temperature. During the process of germination, care should be taken to enable the seed to obtain a sufficiency of air, as respiration is particularly active at that time. This applies especially to those seeds the reserve products ot which are of a fatty or oily nature, as more oxygen is utilized in oxydizing the fats and oils. It is of some importance, therefore, that the growers have a knowledge of the conditions demanded of different kinds of seeds. Since good germination is best effected in some friable or granular medium, and is the result of growth processes brought about by the action of warmth, moisture, and air in proportions suited to the special require- ments of the seed, it is manifest that if these elements varv to a great ■extent, or are continuously deficient, or in excess, the conditions will be in such degree unfavourable, anle. the weaker .seeds fail. H<'nre, freer sowings should be made at certain seasons, or when the conditions promise to be unfavourable. Under laboratory conditions, or in forcing frames or houses, where con- ditions can Ije controlled to a nicety, seeds usuallv show a higher \italitv test as against the viability {i.e., powers to grow) test in the open ground. Although the seed tester is of great value in indicating the vitality of seeds, or showing their germinating (]ualities, it dot\s not afford an accurate criterion of tlicir viability, ov ability to grow under the less favourable 474 journal oj AgriciiUiirc . Victoria. ^lo July, 191 i. conditions of the field. Many seeds that from various causes, such as un- ripeness, age, and bad storing, are weak, will not, even under normal con- ditions, survive long enough to establish themselves as satisfactory plants. Selection of Kind of Variety. From an economic standpoint, a proper selection of varieties has many advantages. It prevents a congestion of operations and thus minimizes waste. It admits of a more effective utilization of plant owing to the ex- tension of sowing and harvesting operations, ^^'ith fodder crops, it prolongs the feeding period, and with perishable products the marketing period. The intelligent gardener utilizes the early or the late maturing qualities of flowering or culinary plants to suit his various needs. Many varieties of our garden plants show a special adaptability to certain seasons ; not only this, they evince peculiarities in development in some districts that are little marked or entirely absent in other districts. Experience in the cultivation of any given species or variety of plant in a certain district, and a clcse observation of their habits, are the surest way to a proper selection in this respect ; but this is often tedious, expensive, and fraught with many dis- appointments. New settlers or beginners ought to avail themselves of the experience gained by others under conditions similar to those under which they propose to work. This is often the means of saving both labour and expense. Where it is not available, experimental work should be carried out as much as possible. In some quarters conservatism and distrust are shown by growers to- wards "new things."' Many of them still cling to the kinds and varieties that served their fathers well, despite the insistent challenge of returns each season. Doubtless many of the old kinds are good and should not be inadvisedly abandoned, yet opportunity should be given to new varieties to prove their merit. In many cases this opportunity is given in a meagre and sceptical way. However, some warrant exists for the suspicion with which growers regard new kinds that are sold with a lot of descriptive matter. In many ca.ses they are varieties whose constitutional tendencies are not properly established, or which flourish under one special set of conditions, but when subjected to more extensive tests in different districts, their special qualities soon peter out. The selection of kinds will be in- fluenced to a considerable extent by : — 1. The locality. 2. The season. 3. The prospective economy of such crops in relation to conditions. The selection of variety will chiefly depend on : — ■ 1. The suitability to season. 2. The maturing period (early, mid-season, or late). 3. The ability of such variety to resist disease or other injurious agencies. Of course, the grower's object is to secure a variety that possesses those qualities best suited to his needs and conditions. Many excellent varieties of plants and trees lose their best characteristics when grown under unfavour- able conditions, and are easily eclipsed by the less classical kinds, although within a normal range of conditions the former are much superior. With most farm and garden crops, and also flowering plants, a number of varieties are in general cultivation from which to make a selection. These include early, mid-season, and late kinds ; also those best suited to special seasons or conditions. With fruit trees, the period of maturation or ripening of the fruit is well defined, and proper regard should be given to the selection of varieties when starting new plantations. In the vege- table garden, many beginners fail at the outset by assuming that any variety lo July, 1911-] Seeds and Seeding. 475 will do. This is, of course, not so. The right variety will often make all the difference between success and failure. With turnips, for instance, some varieties have narrow leaves, while others have large broad leaves. The latter, if planted closely, draw a lot in dull w'et weather ; while the former thrive under such conditions, but do not succeed when the sun heat is strong. It is to be regretted that few emoluments aw^ait the creator of new types of plants. An improved variety may mean an increase of thousands of pounds in trade. Observe the effect of the Wealthy apple and Bartlett pear in America and Federation wheat in Australia. Not only does a good new variety produce more than the old ; but, being a more desirable article, it will quickly capture the markets from the less attractive kinds. Thus prolificacy and commercial value are increased. The influence of one patient breeder on the improvement, or popularizing, of certain 'species of plants is extraordinary. In this respect we may cite Burbank with plums and Farrer with wheats. These men have demonstrated the poten- tialities in common forms of plant life, and have shown how infinitelv variable are the inherent qualities possessed by such. There 's probably no more fascinating subject of investigation than that of the variation of plants, and no more utilitarian way of enriching one's country and mankind, than bv the improvement of old, and the creation of new, varieties of agri- cultural plants. Gathering and Storing. As a rule, seed should be gathered wEen fully ripe. Owing, however, to the peculiarities of some plants in ripening their seed suddenly and castii.g it some distance from the parent plant by a violent rupture of the seed coat, or by the aid of a special appendage, it is advisable to gather the seed when fully developed but before complete hardening. This is particularly so in the case of many small seeds that are difficult to gather. It is often a good plan to lift carefully the whole plant when a good quantity of the seed is fully developed but not hard and dry, and allow it to complete the ripening process on the plant. In collecting seeds, trueness and improvement in the type should always be the chief objectives. When a good variety is obtained, constant selection should be ob.served in future years to maintain its characteristics. Al though it is generally accepted that ther^ is a dominant tendency for " like to beget like," yet absolute stability is not found in the improved forms of plant life. Once the chief factors (cultivation and selection) that are responsible for the improvement and maintenance of the type are withdrawn an inherent tendencv to " run out," or revert, is ever ready to assert itself. This tendency is usually most apparent in those plants that vary easily or are the furthest removed from original types by breeding. According to L. L. Vilmorin : — 1. The tendency to resemble its jiiirenls is ;jenerally the strongest tenriency in any plant. 2. Ihit it is notably impaired as it comes into conllict with the tendency tc resemble the gePTal line of its ancestry. 3. This latter tendency, or atavism, is constant, though not strong, and scarcely becomes impaired by the intervention of a series of generations in which no reversion takes place. Thus, for instance, a good variety of cabb.igo may, whtre proper culti- vation and .selection are observed, be grown for years without deterioration, but if neglected for one or two seasons a sudden reversion takes place. As a rule, in gathering seeds the general character of the plant should be considererj of more importance tlian the particular attrilmtes of the part 476 Journal of Agricidtiirt'. Victoria. [10 July, 1911. from which the seed is taken. For instance, in gathering melon seed, it is better to select seed from plants that are carrying a good number of well-developed fruits, than from one that has only one or two large-sized fruits. Again, it is not advisable always to .select seed from the most vigorous plants or flower heads. This is particularly so with such plants as some of the Brassicas. The seeds from .shoots that spring from axil- lary buds or side branches from the main flower stem are often better than those from the centre head. With abnormallv vigorous plants, the seed has a tendency to lack uniformity, prol)ably owing to the preponderance of certain food contents in the seed and. the somewhat defective transmission of typical propensities resulting directly from excessive growth in the plant and its inherent tendency to change, and indirectly from environal influences. Inversely, for similar reasons, di.sease-ridden plants do not produce good seed ; in this case, however, it is due to lack of growth. Under-ripe seeds lose their vitality early. Good germination may be obtained from some under-ripe seeds, such as peas, tomatoes, etc., ani the produce from such often exhibit variations in season of maturing, or quality of fruit, that are of economic advantage, but the seeds quickly deteriorate. For general purposes, only fully ripe seeds that have been properly "cured," or dried, after being gathered, should be kept. Seeds are best stored in a dry. well-aired place of uniform temperaiure, where they will be free from the attack of insects. Strong paper or cloth bags and tight fitting boxes are suitable for storing small lots ; while bins of suitable dimensions should be used for large lots. Longevity. It is not intended to submit here a table approximating the life or vitality of seeds under normal conditions. The object of the writer is more to indicate those factors that have an important bearing on the longevity of seeds generally and that come within the sphere of the average horticul- turist or seed-raiser. Where further information is desired. The Vegetable Garden, by Vilmorin, should be consulted, the tabulated lists of which are reprinted in most works dealing with seeds ; or the table prepared by Sturtevant from experiments at the New York Experiment Station ; or the results of te.-5ts carried out under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Notwithstanding the diligence that has been observed in preparing these records in the life of seeds, and the value of such work in reference to storing, sowing, etc., it will be found that, owing to various agencies, such as varietal predisposition, mutability of type, soil, climate, disea.se, etc., great variations occur which make it im- possible to deduce a law that will indicate the economic life in the generality of commercial seeds. Bad seasons, mechanical injuries in threshing, unripeness, disease, careless " curing " and storing, all tend to impair the life of seeds. Many plants that are closely related according to our botanical classi- fication differ w^idely in the relative longevity of their seeds. Even with varieties of the same species a wide variation will be found, not only in tiieir normal life or vitalitv, but in their sensitiveness to injurious agencies. As a general rule, fresh seed should always be obtained if possible, owing to the fact that there are so manv cau.ses bevond the knowledge of the purchaser which may bring about a rapid deterioration in the samples. Even with the best seed there is from year to year a gradual falling off in vitality ; this depreciation is accelerated in a greater or lesser degree by the presence of the agencies before mentioned. lo July, 1911.] Feeding Bees. 477 It should be observed, however, that the seed produced in a good year or in a district suited to the production of that particular class of plant will be more likely to gi\e a good germination and satisfactory results than that obtained in a poor year or in an unsuitable district. It is not chance that has been responsible for the popularity of seed from a certain district or country, as Hunter River lucerne or clover seed from Holland. These places are specially adapted for the production of that class of seed. It is found that plants do not produce good seed in every district in which they will grow well, the conditions for the proper maturation of the seed not being present. Hence, it is not advisable for the farmer or gardener to save all his own .seed where a number of crops are grown. New " blood " should tie obtained. The discriminating grower buys his seed from those districts which have the best reputation for the production of that class of seed, and from the produce of the good' years (within a safe limit of time), if he can obtain it. The size of seed should not be taken as an indication of its life. Many of the small seeds, such as tobacco and some of the Eucalypti, will retain their vitality longer than large seed such as the castor beans. Of the four orders which comprise the more important of our garden vegetables, the .seeds of the Ciicurhitaccoe and the T.eguminos(£ are usually the longest lived ; the Cruciferce are the most affected by unsuitable conditions, such as bad seasons, disea.se. etc. : and tlie V mheUlfenie are the shortest lived. FEEDING BEES. F. R. Ben line. Bee Expert. In Victoria, the past honey sea.son has been quite abnormal, and only in a few instances have the anticipations of spring been realized. The absence of the normal hot weather which usually prevails during the bloom- ing of the Yellow Box and Red Gum Eucalypts, greatly reduced the yield of honey, even in the Grampians country where there was a promise of a record yield. Notwithstanding the unfavourable weather conditions, yields of honey up to 300 lbs. average per hive were obtained in 200-colony apiaries. Over the rest of the State the returns were disappointing, while in the central districts north of the Di\iding Range no surplus honey was obtained from the hi\es. In many instances, the l)ees were unable e\cn to gather suffu imt for winter re(iuirt'ments, and large luimljers of colonies in l><)x-hives have ;;lready died of starvation. Many more will succumb from the same cause, unless attendefl to by their owners. This loss of stock from a preventable cau.se is regrettable, in view of the fact that a .season of dearth of nectar is usually followed by a plentiful yield the next year. It is one of the rules of hce kee|)ing that all colonics should he examir.ed before the beginning of winter, to see whether they have sufficient stores to last them till spring. \\\\\\ colonies in frame-hives their condition as regards stort's iH-comes evident to their owner in the course of the usual operations, liox-hives, howe\er, are seldom looked at after the usual rob- bing time. There are, even now, many who are not aware that their bees are dead alreadv. or will die of starvation before spring. Although tlie proper time for supplying bees with winter stores is .lutunin, colonies still surviving, but on the verge of starvation, niav even now be saved by judicious feeding. Honey, although it is the n.itural 478 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 1911. food of bees, should not now be given them, as it excites them too much ; there is also a risk of introducing the germs of brood diseases which may be present in honey of unknown origin. Sugar syrup is much more suit- able for feeding bees while in a semi-dormant state. This syrup is made of two parts (by weight) of lA sugar and one part water. The water is brought to boiling point and the sugar added, I. SIMPLICITY FEEDER. keeping the vessel on the fire and stirring continuously till the liquid is perfectly clear. On no account should the syrup be left on the stove or fire without stirring, as it burns very easily, and in that state is injurious to bees. To supply this syrup to the bees without waste and drowning it is necessary to have a feeder. Fig. i, known as the simplicity feeder, may 2. HOME-MADE FEEDER. be purchased of a supply dealer at 4d. It is a block of wood, grooved out so as to leave narrow divisions to prevent bees getting drowned. This is the most convenient form of feeder for box-hives. The box is raised at one end, the feeder placed on the floor board, and the syrup poured in while still warm; the box is then lowered again. If a stock of bees is quite out of stores, at least 5 lbs. of syrup should be given and more later L 3. MOST CONVENIENT FEEDER FOR FRAME-HIVES. on, if required. It will be better to give the syrup as fast as the bees will take it than to continue feeding for days ; for the longer the excite- ment lasts the more food is consumed without purpose. As the simplicity feeder is rather small, several may be used under each box so as to shorten the time ; or a home-made feeder may be used, such as shown in Fig. 2. It is a plain shallow box and may be made any size which the dimensions of the covering hive permit. To prevent leak- .age. hot wax should be run along all the inside joints, while a thin board lo July, 1911-] Farm Blacksmiihhig. 479 cut slightly smaller than the inside of the box will float on the syrup and prevent drowning of bees. Both of these feeders may be used for frame-hives also ; in which case they are placed on top of the frames with an empty half super or section super betw'een the hive and the cner. When feeding is finished, feeders and half supers should be removed and the hive roof again put directly over the frames to conserve the warmth rising from the cluster of bees. The most convenient feeder for frame-hives is that shown in Fig. 3. It is simply a frame boarded up to near the top bar, with a hole in the latter through which the feed is poured. It should be waxed inside to prevent leaking and have a strip of wood for a float. This feeder takes the place of an ordinary brood-frame in the hive to be fed. All that is necessary is to raise the hive cover and pour the syrup through the hole in the top bar. It is sold, waxed ready for use, at is. 6d. Colonies fed during winter cannot be given suflftcient food for breed- ing up in spring, but only enough to carry them along till warmer weather. They should therefore be examined periodically whenever a fine day per- mits, and another dose of syrup given when needed. When pollen is being carried into the hives, a sign that brood-rearing has commenced, the stores of syrup will be consumed much faster, and care should be taken that after bringing the bees through the winter they do not succumb to starvation in early spring. In Victoria, the necessity for winter feeding rarely occurs, unless hives have been robbed or extracted without regard to the winter requirements of the bees. The present instance of bees, from which no honey was taken, having to be fed, is the first in the writer's experience extending over 25 years. FARM BLACKSMITHING. George Baxter, Instructor in BlacksjnitJujig, Working Men' s College, Melbourne. Introduction. One of the main drawbacks of farm work is the difl^culty experienced in being able to get blacksmithing work done. In hundreds of ca.ses the nearest blacksmith's shop is many miles away. Frequently, the breaking of a bolt will throw a machine out of action and necessitates a stoppnge of, perhaps, days. Under present conditions it must be carted to a black- smith's .shop or a smith brought to see the extent of the damage. The latter will then take the broken part away, repair it, and return to put it in position again. Often, these vexatious delays, which generally happen in the busy season, could be avoided by the farmer if he or his sons were to learn a few simple exercises in forge work. On every farm there will lie fountl a numl)er of carpenter's tools, such as hammers, chi.sels, and saws. Whilst these are u.sed by the farmer for the building of barns, stables, additions to dwelling, &c., without the slightest hesitation, and very often with considerable skill, he will hesitate to do anything with iron. 'J'his is no doubt due to the fact that carpenter's tools are in almost every house and are accepted as domestic articles, so that everyI)ody lays claim to Ix-iug able to do wood-work to a greater or lesser degree. With iron-work it is different, principally on account of the use of iron-working tools being (onfincd almost t'xclusi\i]y t(j blacksmiths; 48o Jounial of Agriculture, Victoria. \\o July, jqii. also, wood-work is more frequently required than iron. Further, it is possible to do it within a limited space or within the confines of the dwell- ing, whilst for iron-work a workshop and equipment are required. On the farm, a knowledge of blacksmithing is invaluable. There are ploughs, harrows, harvesters, cultivators, picks, forks, &c., to be repaired; and hinges for gates and out-houses, latches, tug-chains, hooks, iron-work for buildings, carts, &c., to be made and repaired. All of this work may be profitably and successfully done, if one is possessed of d-e knowledge of a few elementary principles concerning forging, filing, drilling, and sawing iron. I know of at least one farmer residing in the irrigated areas who sent two of his sons to a metropolitan blacksmithing class — one for two years and the other for one year. After their return to the farm, during the winter evenings, particularly, they had the forge almost constantly at work, I. AGRICULTURAL LEVER FORGE. 2. PORTABLE BELLOWS FORGE. effecting repairs, renewing worn out parts, and making new tools, sharpen- ing and relaying ploughshares, picks, swingle-tree mountings, trace-chains, split links, &c. Every farmer cannot act similarly to the one mentioned, consequently, it would be a decided advantage to build a shop and stock it with the plant requisite to enable him to do blacksmithing work for himself. The object of these articles is to assist those who may become impressed with the value of the suggestion, and instruct them how to lay out a shop, and how to make simple, but. at the same time, useful articles connected with farm work. It is not the intention to deal with horse-shoeing, as I consider it impracticable to learn that branch of the trade from written description alone. In fact, it would be unwise for any amateur to practise. Horse- shoeing must be learnt by doing the work under the directions of an expert ; one reason is that horses' feet are not all alike, and consequently need to be seen and treated according to requirements. 30 July, 191 i.] Farm Black Hiniiliing. 481 The Workshop. For thost; who desire to make a start at blacksmithing the first thing ti; be considered is the workshop. It is not necessary to have an elaborate buihiing for the purpose. A shed 12 ft. square and about the same lieight. gi\es ample room for a small forge, anvil, l.'ench and vice, small tools, and material. It may be constructed with slabs or a framework covered with ))alings or galvanized iron. The roof would be all the better if covered with iron, principally on account of sparks. It is not intended to enter into ^L the details of the workshop construction fur- ther than this. I prefer ^^ leaving it to the individual to adopt his own methods, and adapt m. die materials available to his refiuirenients. The next considera- tion is the forge. There are several kinds that may be used, the selection depending upon the size of the shop, utility of forge, and price. Forges may be divided under two main headings, namely, portable and fixed. In each case, the fire may be blown either with a pair of bellows, or by a fan driven by hand, or foot power. Where the space is limited a portable forge is to be recommended. I prefer one driven by a fan which is fixed beneath the hearth and the fan worked by hand. The rea.sons for choosing the fan in preference to the bellows are : Firstly, that it heats the iron quicker, and secondly, that it lasts longer. The forges illustrated are stocked l>y nearU and shape. Xo. I is a forge sptciallv m.ide for agricuhural work. It stands about 30 ins. fnun the floor anfl the di,iineti-r of th<- hearth measures ]8 ins. Cost. alKUit j£,i 5s. No. 2 is a bellows forge ot .liiout the same size as No. 1. The idice varies according to size. .\'o. 3 is a forge with a rectangul.ir hearth. It is larger .iiid better than the others shown ; the cost is ne<-essarily greater. U'lng al>oul ^8. Whilst the bellows are more eommon in the case of the fixed forge, the fan is more powerful. Ilillows cost from ^i 2s. (m\. upwards. It it is decided to ado[)t the liollows, onr- measuring 24 ins. and costing al»out ^1 13s. would Iw (he most convenient si/e. A fan would cost from ^"3 upwards, but it woulil last longer .md gi\i' a stronger blast. In the lived fi>rge, die he.irth ran l«- built of bricks, stones, hardwood, or iroii. .\n old sqiLire or loninl i.iiik in, ikes .1 splendid forge. In .uiv I'OKrAHLr: l''AN-I>KtVli.N I'OKGF. Willi RECTANGULAR HEARTH. I hardware merchants, and \ar\ in si/e 482 ]our)ial of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 July, ipti. case, the structure is filled with earth, with the exception of a hole left III front of the " tue-iron " for the fuel. The " tue-iron " is either a cast or wrought iron nozzle inserted through a hole in the forge and projecting about 8 ins. Its use is to convey the blast from the bellows or fan to the fire. The cast-iron ones are solid, whilst those wrought are hollow, and are filled with water to prevent burning away. Cast ones cost 4s. 6d. each, and the wrought-iron ones 15s. Although there is a large difference between the prices, I prefer the water " tue-iron," because it will last out many cast ones and be cheaper in the end. The anvil is the next important consideration. Purchases are made according to weight, the price being about ^2 per cwt. Nothing lighter than I cwt. should be used — about i| cwt. is a very convenient size. In the next article it is proposed to deal at greater length with the details of fitting up the shop ; illustrations showing the general arrangement will also be furnished. (To be continue i.) PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from page 371.) C. F. Cole, Inspector, Vegetation Diseases Acts. Stocks (Continued). Cherry. There are three varieties of cherries used as stocks for propagating purposes in Victoria, viz., Mazzard Seedling, Perfumed Cherry {Cerasus mahaleh), and the old well-known so-called Kentish Sucker. Undoubtedly the latter variety is the most suitable as a stock for the general cultivation of the many varieties of cherries grown in this State. Besides being hardy and suiting different soils where the cherr} flourishes, trees grow to a nice convenient size, crop earlv and well, and mature good fruit. Many varieties, like Early Purple Guigne, Bigarreau Napoleon, and St. Margaret, are not so liable to gum as when w^orked upon the Mazzard Seedling. For producing well grown and attractive young trees in the nursery beds, the Mazzard Seedling is hard to surpass. Therefore, it is a general favourite with propagators. The Cerasus mahaleh is very little used as a general stock, as it has a strong tendency to dwarf the variety worked upon it. Trees for the first year or so make good average growth upon this stock, but after this the dwarfing influence is noticeable. One bad feature with the Kentish stock is its suckering from the roots. This can be minimized to a large extent during cultivation by taking care not to cut or injure the surface roots. Suckers should not be chopped off shallow beneath the soil ; if so, they will throw up numerous others. The soil should be carefully removed, exposing the roots responsible for sucker- ing. Cut away and pare with a knife at the junction of sucker and root; then replace the soil. lo JuLV, 1911-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 485 If propagating the cherry upon undrained soil, select a site in the nursery where the soil is loose and friable, or one that the water can readily percolate through, and be quickly got away by open drains. In badly drained soil, the roots of the cherry readily decay. Plum. The Myrobalan and Mariana, belonging to the Cherry Plum variety and already mentioned in this article, are now used for propagating the many varieties of plums. Most of the Japanese varieties thrive well when worked upon them. I consider Mariana the most valuable stCK:k we ha\e so far in general use. Easily rooted, like Myrobalan, from cuttings, it resists wet or un- drained soil better than the Myrobalan. Trees are not so apt to die out suddenly when worked upon it, and many varieties that are shy bearers upon the Myrobalan are prolific upon this stock. On page 344 is r.-pro- duced a photograph of an area of Mariana stocks from cuttings, ready for budding. Although some varieties, like Angelina Burdett and Cole's Blue Superb somewhat over-grow this stock (Mariana) it is no great fault but an im- provement— it influences the bearing qualities of varieties so inclined to over-grow. The somewhat slower growth of the stock retards that of the variety worked upon it. It is not generally known that thousands of the most productive plum trees in this State are worked upon the Mariana, and not upon the Myrobalan as supposed. The ordinary plum is a species of fruit that makes its full growth generally before the New Year and becomes dormant in early autumn. Although the top influences the stock, that of the stock upon the top is much greater. When propagating fruit trees for general purposes, a stock whose habits coincide with tho.se of the species to be worked, especially with regard to the vegetative period, should be used. After heavy rains ni the autumn, plum trees are not so apt to start fresh growth or break into bloom when worked upon the Mariana, whereas the vegetative period of the Myrobalan is prolonged well into late autumn and is very responsive to late rains, especially after a dry spell. The writer attributes the sudden dying out of trees when worked upon this variety chiefly to the exhaustive nature of the stock. In soils and localities where the peach thrives, the seedling peach is a valuable stock for many varieties of the Japanese plums, such as Wickson. Burliank, Kelsey, etc. Most of the varieties similar in constitution and appearance in growth, etc., to those mentioned, are suitable for working upon the peach stock. Varieties having hard woofl and very smooth bark are most suited for tht- j)lum stock, for exami)Ie, Hale, October. T'urj.le. etc. When budding cherry plums or dam.sons. select small healthy stcx'ks, and not large vigorous ones. When making cuttings, see that they are cut straight and about 12 in. in length (Fig. .16). As plum cuttings callus from the cambium expo.sed by the freshly made cut and very seldom r.mt from the buds JH-fore striking root from the callus, it is not necessarv to cut at an apex bud. A pair t>f sharp .secateurs may be used for making- the cuttings, care being taken to see that they cut cleanly. The mattt-r that corrodes upon the insidr of the bhuU" when In use should l">e ke]>t scraped off. otherwise they will not do good work. Cuttings, when made. slxMiId be well heeled in or planted out at once. If h'ft heeled in too long and having callused, it will In? necessary to plant them the same way as rooted stocks. /.<•.. bv opening out a grip, and pl.iiU- 484 Joiiriia! of XgriciiUuri: , Victoria. [10 July, T911. ing about 6 in. deep. Cuttings .should 1k' planted early in June. On no account allow them to^ .suffer from the want of water in October, Novem- ber, or December, or any time previous to the hardening of the roots. If striking the cuttings in beds for replanting the following winter, make a grip and plant the cuttings thickly — about i inch apart. Dc not over-water to encourage strong rapid growth. The soil should not be en- riched. The aim of the propagator is to secure well rooted stocks with moderately thick stems. Thin cuttings from matured wood — up to the size of an ordinary lead pencil — should be selected. The beds for striking cuttings .should be ploughed no deeper than 6 in., the rows being far enough apart to allow the cultivator to pass through. The soil .should, if possible, be light, well drained, and have a warm subsoil. If the bottom of the .soil becomes water- logged and cold the callus or callusing i)arts will decay and the cuttings die out. Undoubtedlv, under most conditions, the better method is to rai.se stock in .seed beds, then lift, and transplant. By following this system the stocks can be graded before planting out and uniformity maintained in the rows. The other system of planting out cuttings, etc., directly for working upon is quicker ; but. if an irregular strike takes place, it means the tilling and loss of a portion of the land that could be put to other use. The plum thrives best in heavy loams, or light soils having a clav sub- soil, well drained. IVIedlar. This peculiar fruit is easily propagated by grafting or budding, using ihe quince as a stock. It thrives well in soils where the quince flourishes, but prefers a sheltered position. Japanese Persimmon or Date Plum. This luscious fruit is propagated chiefly by grafting upon a .small fruit- ing varietv raised from seed. Pips can be saved from anv seeding variety and the stocks used for working upon. Pips may be sown in June, July, and August, in beds. The young seedlings should be sheltered from the hot sun in late spring and early summer. Small leafy boughs, selected from some shrub or tree that holds its leaves well when dry, answer this purpo.se. When cutting twigs, leave the stem long enough so as to hold firmly when pres.sed into the soil. Do not let the seedlings suffer from the want of water. Seedling stocks can be imported directly from Japan. Tlie stocks can be bench grafted (whip-tongue method) or planted out permanently in deep, loose and well drained soil. When well established, graft low down (ground level) when the sap begins to mo\-e in the stocks. Select scions from well matured past season's growth. Cover the union well when bind- ing and mould up with earth, patting well with the hands to expel and keep out the air. Care should be taken when performing this operation not to knock or displace the scion. A good plan is to bind the union with calico dressed lightly with grafting wax. The warm and irrigable districts of the State are more suited than the cool for propagating this fruit. Most of the worked trees sold in Vic- toria are imported from New South Wales. The persim.mon, once established, is hardy and does well in most dis- tricts. It likes a deep loose loam or sandy soil well drained, and watei during the summer months. Seed saved from select varieties come fairly true, and produce good fruit. The trees take longer to come into bear- ing than worked ones. lo July. 1911-] I'rofa<^atio)i of Fruit Trees. 485 LOQ'JAT This fruit can be propagated frum seed, or liv Ijiidding and grafting. The seed should be sown in drills i^ in. in depth and covered with light soil or sand. The following winter the seedlings may be planted out permanenth'. Seed sa\ed from choice \'arieties only should be sown. Trees raised from seedlings take many years before they become produc- tive. Sow : ;. jd in May, June, July, or August. By using the quince as a stock for piopagating upon the loquat is brought into bearing much earlier. The writer's advice to tho.se growing for ])r<>fit is to plant the loquat worked upon the quince. Quince stocks should be field grafted at ground level (whip-tongue method). Select well matured scions, bind well with raffia, and mould the graft with soil. Graft- ing should be performed wlien the sap is starting to rise in the quince stocks, in earlv spring. The loquat tree is ornamental as well as fruit producing. Tn the drier districts of the State it re(]uin\s judicious irrigation during the flevelopm.ent of the fruit 1(1 grrjw it to perfection. It thrives well in almost any free natural or artili:iall\" drained soil. Mulberry. The stock used for prop;!gating the Black Mulberr\ {Morns nigra) \\\)e 486 Journal of Agriculiurc .Vicloria. [10 July, 191 1. selected and cut, leaving a heel at the apex end of the cuttings, i.e., a small portion of the older wood. Cuttings should be about 12 ins. in length and cut with a sharp knife- just below an apex bud. Plant down half their length in the soil and upon a firm bottom. By placing a little sharp sand at the bottom of the cut before planting, better results will be obtained. But it should be under- stood that figs do not strike readily from cuttings planted out in the open, but successfully in heat. As figs sucker and root freely from layers the best method to propagate is by stooling or layering them similarly to the Northern Spy apple. (See page 367). Sharp sand or very sandy soil should be used for moulding purposes. When grafting, select well matured wood for scions. The better varieties may be grafted upon suckers from the commoner kinds (bench or field grafted). Root grafting, the same as apple stocks, may be practised vvith fairly good results. Select clean healthy roots. Graft in August and early September. The fig thrives best in a well drained deep loose soil, and should be well supplied with water during the dry season. {To be coutiiiucd .) ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescoit, Principal, ScJiool of H orticnltnrc , Bnrnlev. The Orchard. Drainage. The continuous rains of the early winter ha^'e, in many cases, shown the- necessity for draining orchards. Where under-soil drains do not exist, the trees are bound to suffer ; if the damage is not immediately apparent, it will be later found that in some way loss will accrue. Either the tree will be weakened by loss of roots through rotting ; or it will be devitalized so- that it will not carry a satisfactory crop of fruit. Too often, surface drainage is relied on to remove the so-called surplus water. There should be no surplus water for surface drains. The water is only surplus or in excess when it is in the soil, and not before it enters the soil. Two cir- cumstances, and two only, permit of surface drainage : first, when it is necessary to carry away excessive storm-water ; and, second, when it is practically impossible to find an outlet for the under-dtains, owing to the low- lying situation of the area. The term "surface drainage" does hot apply to open drains which, owing to their depth, act also as soil drains ; neither does it apply to- graded surfaces which allow a more equitable distribution of the water. Surface drainage is usually applied to a system, whereby a considerable quantity of water is removed by gravitation before it enters the soil, Such a system cannot be too roundly condemned. As much water as can possibly" be obtained by natural means should be induced to enter orchard soils ; and then whatever is in excess will be carried away by under drainage,, provided that drainage, either natural or artificial, oe in existence. lo July, 191 i. Orchard and Garden Notes. 487 WRere suitable drainage is not provided, the tree roots are compelled to remain in the few inches of surface soil. Their feeding area is thus ex- tremely limited ; and when, at any time, rain-water does filter and pene- trate through the soil, it carries with it the soluble nitrates and other plant foods, below the reach of the tree roots. Soil ventilation is only possible with a system of drainage, and air is as necessary to the roots of a tree as it is to the foliage. By the removal of the surplus water and the consequent admission of air into the soil, the soil temperature is rendered far more equable — warmer in winter and spring, and cooler in summer; and such a change must be beneficial to the trees. Drainage is thus an essential for all orchard lands. Where natural drainage occurs, the orchardist is fortunate; but, whether natural or arti- ficial, a system of drainage will always materially increase the crop of fruit, strengthen the trees, and considerablv add to their term of life. Drainage schemes should be carried out at the present season of the year. In closed drains, such drainage media as cinders, charcoal, stones, brushwood, timber, logs, or tile pipes mav be used, but the latter generally give more satisfactory and permanent results ; they are also less liable to silting up than any of the other materials. Drains should be placed into the clav. if this be not too deep ; in any case, they should alwavs be below anv possible interference from cuUi- A-ating implements. Pruning, Spraying, Planting. Pruning should now be well advanced, on the lines laid down in last month's orchard notes. All prunings should be burned as soon as possible. Spraying for scales, mites, and aphis should not be neglected, one of the usual oil emulsions being used for the purpose. Deciduous fruit trees may now be planted, following the instructions given last month. Preparation may now be made for planting citrus trees in the spring. Vegetable Garden. Seedlings from the boxes or seed plots may be now planted out. Care should be taken that all vegetable beds are well raised and thrown up. By throwing up the soil, and thus deepening the paths and the spaces between the plots, the latter are well drained, and the soil is made considerablv warmer. This will greatly facilitate the growth of the young plants. Asparagus mav be planted ; sow .seeds of carrots, parsnips, cauliflowers, onions, peas, broad beans, and tomatoes, the latter l>eing forced on in a frame, .so as to obtain good plants quickly. Flower Garden. Deciduous shrubs and ro.ses may l)e now planted out ; their situations should f)e well firaiiied, and all maiun-c should be well incorporated with the soil. All shrui).s that i)niduce flowers on their new young growths, including roses, should now be pruned, ('are should be taken U) distinguish l)etween tho.se .shrubs that flower on the new wood, and tho.se that flower on the wood of past season's growth. 'I'ho.se that flower on the new wissardi. /'. iinnii, Deut/ia. ( Vanothus. Polygala. &c. It is a safe rule, in pruning shrubs, to w.iit until thev h.we flow<'red Ix^fore 488 Jouriial of Ai^^'i culture. Mct.'r'a. [10 July, 191 i. pruning. This will certainly give the shrubs a somewhat ragged and untidy appearance in the winter, but it is the only way to secure the best flowering^ results. All herbaceous plants such as Sahia, Aster, Delphinium, Polygonum^ Boltonia, Gaura, and Chrysanthemum should be cut back; and, if neces- sary, lifted and heeled in a temporary location for the winter. Plant out Gladioli, Iris, and Liliums. Continue digging, manuring, and trenching. THE VALUE OF MILK RECORDS. /. S. M cFadzCdii, Senior Dairy Supervisor. The system of keeping records of the milk yield of each cow in the dairy herd, in order that inferior milking stock may- be culled out, is . graclually gaining favour with dairymen throughout the State; and those following it are unanimous in their opinion of its value. A letter is to hand from a breeder of Holstein cattle, whose milking herd runs well over 150 head. In referring to his records, which have been for years past estimated from one day's milking per cow per month, he says that he is now taking records weekly, and intends to continue on this method for the future. Thfs is sufficient to .show that the work is proving highly satisfactory to him. Some interesting figures have also lieen received from Mr. F. J. Stansmore, of " Yalart,'' Pomborneit, in connexion with the rt cording of the work of each of his cows during the past vear. Out of a total of 141 head : — iq cows gave approximately 300 gallons each in 12 monllis. 9 -> >, ;, ' 350 10 ,, ,, ,, 400 ,, ,, ,, 16 ,, ,, „ 450 10 '- ., ', 500 21 M ,, .. 550 O ,, ,, 29 ,, ,, ,, 600 ,, ,, ,, " ,. " ., 650 6 „ ,, ., ;oo 7 M ,, ,, 7SO ,, ., ., •^ ,> „ ,, 800 1 ,) 5> ,, 900 ,, ,, ,, As showing the wide variation in milk production that does occur among dairy cows these figures are worth studying by every' dairy farmer ; but, to the owner of the herd, they are of highe.st importance. Through keeping tally of each cow's milk for one year, he is now in a position to cull out many which show little profit over the cost of handling them. He can thus reduce his working expenses, and proportionately increase his average return per cow. The total amount of milk delivered at the factory from the 141 cows during the year was a trifle over 76,000 gallons ; or an average of 539 gallons per cow. For a large herd, this is a very fair return, and it is probably fully 150 gallons over the average yield for the State. The factory milk tests show that only in one month — June — was the butter-fat percentage down to 3.8, the average for the year being a frac- tion o\er 4 per cent. £0 July, 191 i.] Field Experiments at Rotliamsted. 489 Where labour is hired, the combined cost of grazing and handling a milking herd cannot be set down at less than ^^5 los. per cow a year. Allowing lod. per lb. for butter fat the year through, and id. per gallon for skim milk for pig fattening, there are in this herd : — 19 cows which profit only £o 12 6 per cow per annum. 10 ,, >> 2 13 4 „ ,, • it) „ „ 3 13 9 10 ', ,, 4 14 2 ,, ,, If each lot of cows averaging below 500 gallons were culled out, beginning ■with those at 300 gallons, note the possible increase in gallons and profit per row for the herd : — No. of C ows. (rallons. r 'rofit per per Co' annum. Present herd 141 539 £s 10 0 Less 19 cows at 300 gall. 122 552 5 15 5 Less 9 cows at 350 gall. 113 568 6 2 0 Less 10 cows at 400 gall. 103 585 •• 6 8 II Less 16 cows at 450 gall. 87 609 6 18 9 The minimum profit at which a dairy farmer can afford to work his a BoiT- 1 tROI^T VvC^ \^ \' 10"- PlaJ^ K - K 2' 8" ->j I K - - - r 10' - - > i K hJ Plai^ of 5ill D£T,MLS Of Porthole .^ 1 1 3a1' Oregon ■' 1 Galv 'Iron ' 1 1 k \k - - r 10' CM 1 ! ^ ^ DrrAib OF Frami>-G A 0 DETMLofDOOR -1- 5 — ■ — ' i5CAL£ Of f£LT UEIAILS OF FRAMING, PORT HOLE, AND DOOR. 12 in. distani from the first instead of 13I in. ; this is to leave space for the port holes. The distance between the last stud and the last but one will be less than 13^ in. For the purposes of the roof. lo July. 1911- j Silo Construction. 495 put two 24-ft. studs opposite one another and attach to foundation posts. Place the four other 24-ft. studs at third stud position each side of these two. The next operation is the putting on of the single hoops. The.se are alternately on the outside and inside of the studs, the inside hoops taking the horizontal lap of the sheets of iron forming the lining and falling into the checks made as already described. Mark the outside hoops for pjositions of studs before putting up, by bending them round on top of the upper treble hoop and against the outer faces of the studs. The hoops should be fixed to the same studs as marked. This need not be done for each hoop ; every second one wall be sufficient. I'nless this is done care- fully, the silo will most likely have different diameters at different points and trouble will ensue when putting on the lining. The outside hoops should lap over so as to cross two adjacent studs. They are secured at each stud with 2|-in. x |-in. bolts and at laps with 3-in. x |-in. at first stud of the lap and 35-in. x |-in. at the last one. there being a plate washer 5-in. x i-in. x 5 i6-in., with 7-16-in. hole in centre at the end bolt. The inside hoops are fastened to the studs with two 2 -in. nails to each stud. Care should be taken not to have the joints vertically above one another. Nail short pieces of 6-in. x |-in. for the wddth of two studs next the port hole and opposite to the inner hoops ; these will serve as a ladder for access to the top and the port holes. Lining. — 6 ft. x 3 ft. galvanized flat iron (24 gauge) is u.sed. If the studs and hoops have been erected as described, the sheets will have a lap of 3 in. vertically on the studs and i in. horizontally on the hoops. Carefully press the sheets out to the line of the circle before nailing, and start at the centre studs, working out to the side studs. This will make the iron set better. Tack with ij-in. clout tacks on the studs. 3 in. apart at the laps and 6 in. at the other studs. Tack with f-in. clouts (tw'O between each stud) to hoops at horizontal laps, putting clouts ^ in. up and down alter- nately to avoid splitting hoop. The upper sheet in each lap is put outside the lower to keep the weather out and prevent rain working in. Conse- quently, this work must be started from the top of silo. Drive two tacks in the hoop below the sheet at its ends to rest the iron on while tacking. These tacks to be drawn when sheet is fixed. Roof. — Fix two purlins ior ridge 20 ft. long to the centre 24-ft. roof studs, the top of studs being checked t in. on each side for purlins, and purlins bolted to studs with 6i^-in. x |-in. bolts, one to each stud. These jnirlins to project in order to attach block and tackle. Secure in a similar manner, with 5^-in. x g-in. bolts, purlins to the third stud.' each side of ridge studs, which are 24 ft. high as directed, and bottom purlins to ordinary length studs — the sixth on each side of ridge studs. The centre purlins are fixed to suit the pitch given by the ridge studs and the excess length cut off. Cover with 9-ft. sheets of 26-gauge corrugated galvanized iron, allowing a lap of one and a half corrugations, with 2^-in. springhead nails at every ihird corrugation. Fix three lengths of 14-in. galvanized ridging witK springhead nails every 2 feet. Fix four 3-in. X I -in. hardwood battens frfim studs to ends of bottom jiurlins for supports. Port Hole.s. — Port holes arc niadr in every alternate row of iron, the sill of tlie first being pr.-lcrablv at the top of the first inside h(x>i). The sills are made of 6-in. x i-in. hardwood, as .shown in the dr.iwing, fixed to the top of an inside hoop and supported on two short pieces of 4-in. x 2-in. skew-nailed on to outer face of studs. The sides are formed of 4-in. x 2-in. pieces i)lanted on studs, notched for ends 496 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 191 i. of outside hoop and secured with one 4-in. x |-in. bolt. The stops are 3-in. X I -in. Oregon set i in. forward from inside face. The doers are made from the piece of sheet iron cut for the port hole, backed with three pieces of 3-in. x i-in. Oregon, 22 in. long, to fit close to the stops. They are held in position by the pressure of the silage. Elevator. — The length of the elevator will vary with the local conditions, whether the ground is sloping, whether the cutter is mounted on a stage, and so on. In general, the length necessary is about 30 ft. >*^ Scale of Feci Fro NT ELEVATOR FOR I02-T0N SILO. A box having sides made of three 6-in. x i-in. tongued and grooved flooring boards with top and bottom floors of two similar boards, with a cover of 6-in. x J-in. lining boards, is all that is required. This cover should be fixed in 6-ft. sections to allow of easy removal should it be necessary to- get at the chain. The sides and bottom floor are secured by ledges of 6-in. x i-in. flooring about 4 ft. 6 In. apart. The upper floor is supported on 6-in. x i|-in. Oregon bearers spaced about 4 ft. 6 in. apart The ground must be excavated to a suflficient depth under the chaff-cutter July. T911.] Silo Construction. 49 r to allow the end of the elevator to come directly beneath the chaff-cutter, or the latter may be raised on a platform for this purpose or both may be done as shown in drawing. The end of elevator being put in as far as possible below the chaff-cutter, a chute is made with pieces of sheet iron or of iPINDLL I^'OM- •AOJUSTABLC 6 FAR INC, 'ItOCKCT WHtlL <3,' OIA Top Of CLEVATOR 13 OPeM WP To fJOQ€ fROM lowiff e»o ^6'x'i LiNINC I ON CI JU DIN 24 C^utl <^Lr IfoM UPPCR INO DETAILS OF ELEVATOR. wood to connect the ( utter, the wliole l)eing boxed in as far as practicable. It is es.sential that this chute should be as steep as possible to prevent the silagt* from packing up. If the chain be run directly from the (Utter spr(Mket ti. the ilcx.itor sprot th(> slats will runs 498 Jour?ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 July, 1911. up the top or the bottom floor, according to the side fed from. Looking towards the silo, if the feed be from the right hand, the elevator will work up the bottom floor. It is found in practice better to have the slats running up the top floor, and as the right-hand feed is desirable, throwing the cut stuff into the elevator, a third sprocket is fixed above the cutter, as shown in the drawing, and attached direct to the eleva- tor sprocket. The cutter spindle sprocket drives on one side of the chain. The third sprocket and arm are not included in the material sent out, unless speciallv ordered. An extra charge of £^1 is. is then made. The ground end of elevator is rounded off with galvanized sheet iron, allowing just sufficient room for the slats to move round the sprocket wheel when the adjustable bearings are fully extended. The line of this iron will be described with a radius of yf in. from centre of sprocket wheel. The cover of elevator is left off as far as the first ledge, about 5 ft. from the ground end. The bottom floor of silo end of elevator is ■cut back 18 in. and provided with a galvanized iron lip; this is to prevent the slats striking against edge of bottom floor when the silage is being carried up on the top floor. The end of elevator is to project into the top of silo 21 in. The top floor of silo is cut back from ground end ii| in. and the silo end 10 in. ; a slot is cut in the floor at the ground end to allow for the working of sprocket wheel. The adjustable bearings are attached to the outside of elevator at ground end with two 2j-in. x i-in. bolts to each bearing, a f-in. iron washer being placed between head of bolt and inside of elevator. The bearings are fixed so that the centre of spindle is 8| in. from top of box and io| in. from ground end when the bearings are fully extended. The spindle should be fixed in this position when the elevator is working. The bearings for the pulley at silo end o' elevator are fixed so that the centre of the spindle is 8J- in. from top of box and 9 in. from silo end of elevator. The slats or buckets for carrying the silage are of 3-in. x i-in. oregon chamfered on one side, checked f in. deep by 3J in. wide for the attachments which are fixed to slats with two 2-in. No. 14 .screw^s to each and with a V-shaped cut beneath attachment to allow for insertion of sprockets. The elevator is nailed together with 2-in. nails from the inside, the nails well punched, clinched and then punched again. Great care must be taken that nothing will project inside the elevator which may catch the slats. The elevator is supported in the centre, as show^n in drawing, with a T-piece made of a length of 6-in. x i|-in. hardwood, checked \ in. at top and well spiked to a piece of 6-in. x i|-in. hardwood, and fixed at bottom end as shown. The following is a list of material required for the 69-ton silo speci- fied. Some of the items are slightly in excess, in order to meet contin- gencies : — Material jor bg-ton Silo. Red-gum, 6-in. x 4-in. ; 8 6-ft., Toundalion posts. Hardwood, 4-in. x 2-in.; 6 24-ft., 27 21-ft., 2 20-ft., 4 i6-ft., studs and purlins. Hardwood, 6-in. x i^-in. ; 5 12-ft., scaffolding and elevator support. Hardwood, 6-in. x i-in. ; \ 12-ft., port hale sills. Hardwood, 6-in. .\ 5-in. ; 65 i8-ft. , hoops. Hardwood, 3-in. x i-in. ; 2 i6-ft., supports for bottom purlins. Oregon, 3-in. x i-in. ; 4 15-ft., port hole doors and stops, (ialvanized iron, plain sheets, 24 gauge; 56 72-in. x 36-in., lining. (ra'v.Tnized iron, corrugated sheets, 26 gauge, 16 q-ft., roof. Galvanized iron, ridging, 26 gauge; 3 lengths i6-in., roof. Galvanized iron, springhead nails, 25 in. ; 3 lbs., roof. AVire clouts, 12 lbs. 15-in. ; 3 lbs. |-in. Bolts, nuts, and washers, 2 6g-in. x g-in., ridge i>urlins and studs. lo July, 1911-] Silo Coustriiciiou. 499 Bolts, nuts, and washers, 8 55-in. x f-in., other purlins and studs. Bo.ts, nuts, and washers, 8 4-in. x |-in., port holes. Bolts, nuts, and wathers, 80 3^-in. x |-in., treble hoops and studs; lapped hoojis, plate washer, and stud. Bolts, nuts, and washers, 36 3-in. x f-in., lapped hoops Bolts, nuts, and washers, 200 25-in. x f-in., outer hoojjs r.nd studs. Bolts, nuts, and washeis, 16 8-in. x 5-in., treble hoof)S and foundation posts. Wire nails, 2 lbs. 4-in., 4 lbs. 3-in., 14 lbs. 2-in. Plate washers, 24 5-in. x i-in. 5-i6ths-in., with 7-16-in. hole in centre. Cement, i bajj. Material required for 30-lt. Elevator. ^\hite deal, 6-in. x i-in. ; iq 20-ft., sides, flcKirs, anfl ledges. White deal, 6-in. x ^-in. ; 4 15-ft , cover. Oregon, 6-in. .\ i^-in. ; i 8-ft., bearers. Chain, 6o-feet, i 9-i6ths-in. pitch, with coujjler and j)in. (No. 45 link.) 30 Oregon slats, with attachments for No. 4^^ link. I 8-in. diameter sprocket wheel, 16 teeth, with 32-in. H])lni'.les, ig-in. diameter, for No. 45 link. 1 pulley 8-in. diameter x ii|-in. flat face, with 20-in. sjiindle ig-in. in diameter. 2 deadeye bearings. 2 adjustable bearings. I 22-teeth, 105-in. diameter, sprocket vvheel for No. 52 link. 1 lo-teeth, 5-in. diameter, sprocket wheel for No. 52 link. 14-ft. chain, i^-in. pitch, with coupler and pin (No. 52 link). 8 25-in. X ^-in. bolts, nuts, and washers. 8 iron f-in. bolt washers. 2 sheets of 72-in. x 36-in. 24-gauge iroii. The cost may be computed from above list. At present prices of material in Melbourne, it would run into x^3i los., of which ^8 is for the elevator. With an experienced builder, assisted by three handy men, the whole work of erection, including construction of elevator, should be com- pleted within four or five days. After the silo has been erected some time, and the greenness of the wood considerably lessened, the whole of the woodwork, and. in any case, the lower 3 feet, including both treble hoops, should be painted. The hoops close to the ground must not Ije covered with earth ; they are an essential portion of the structure, and should not be weakened by rot or white ants. The floor may be the earth levelled off, or a con- crete floor may be put in. A ring of concrete about 12 in. wide at bottom and 6 in. at top, and high enough to meet bottom of iron and studs, will makt; a good finish and provide a support for bottoms of studs. Directions for Building a ioj-ton Silo. A 102-ton silo is similar in most rt-spects to a 69-ton, having the same diameter, but l>eing 30 f et t high. The foundation posts are 9-ft. instead of 6-ft., and should be sunk 3 ft. in the ground. In all other respects they are similar to the posts for a 69-ton silo. There are thirty- two 2i-ft. studs, six 14-ft. and twenty-six ii-ft. The boring on the 2r-ft. studs is the .same as for a 69-ton silo, except for the addition a i^-in. diameter hole 5 ft. 10.^ in. from the lK)ttom of tlie stud for the third treble h(M)p. The checks are similar in all respects up to the sixth, except that the bottoni of the seventh and last check on the 21 -ft. studs is 20 ft. 2\ in. from the ijottom of the stud. The 14-ft. and ii-ft. studs are halved for 2 ft. of the length from the bottom, ami §-in. diameter holes are bored and countersunk at ' ft. 11 in., 5 tt. 10 in., and & ft. 9 in. Irom \\\r bottom, and checked similarly to 21 -ft. .studs at I ft. 2\ in.. 4 ft. \\ in., and 7 ft. o.\ in. from bottom of studs to l>ottom 500 Journal of AgrlciiUure , Victoria. [lo July, 1911- of checks. The 14-ft. and ii-ft. studs are nailed to die side of 21-ft. studs at the halved ends with two 4-in. nails to each stud. The last check on the 21-ft. stud should then line with the first check on the shorter studs. The 14-fi. studs take the place of the 24-ft. studs in a 69-ton' silo. There are five port holes. The elevator, which is about 40 ft. long, is supported as shown in drawing. The following is the additional material for a 102-ton silo: — Adoitional Material for a 102-ton Silo. Red-tjiim. 6-in. x 4-in. ; 8 g-ft. (No 6-ft. lengths required.) Hardwood, 4-in. x 2-1 n. ; 6 14-ft., 27 ii-ft., 6 21-ft. (No 24-ft. lengths- required.) Hardwood, 6-in. x 5-in. ; 30 i8-ft. Oregon, 3-in. x i-in. ; 2 15-ft. Cralvanized sheet iron, 24 72-in. x 36-in., 24 gauge. Bolts, nuts, and rtaslver.s — 8 S-in. x. 5-in., 24 35-in. x g-in., 7c 2j-in. x |-in.,, 4 4-in. X f-in., 12 3-in. X |-in. Plate washers, 6 5-in. \ i in. x 5-i6ths-in., with 7-16-in. hole. Nails, 3 lbs. 4-in., 2 lbs. 2-in. Wire clouts, 3 lbs. 1-4-in., 2 lbs. f-in. .Additional Material for 40-ft. Elevator. White deal, 6-in. x i-in. ; 15 20-ft. White deal, 6-in. x ^-in. ; 4 i8-ft. (No 15-ft. lengths required.) Oregon, 6-in. x i^-in. ; i 3-ft. Chain, 20-ft., i g-i6ths-in. pitch. (No. 45 link.) Slats anil attachments, 10, for No. 45 link. The additional c( '".t of material in Melbourne would be £^^, of which £^i IDS. is for the elevator. Raising Height of Existing Silo. To' raise the height of an existing silo, the new studs should he halved for a length of about 2 ft. and nailed with two 4 in. nails on to the sides of existing studs. This means that all the studs are 2 in. out of line with the existing ones. This will allow for boring and fixing the new studs without removing anytliing except the roof. ALL WOOD SILO. This is not a stave silo. It is the barrel and hoop type, like the wood and iron silo, the iron being replaced by the wood lining. Those already constructed in the Alexandra districf^ have several defects in regard to their strength, which have been remedied in the descrij^tion here given. This form of silo is likely, in the moist districts, to give satisfaction, and it is certainly cheaper than any other type yet adopted. If the farmer will provide the hardwood, as in the list following, a considerable saving in freight and cartage should result. The weight of roof and elevator material is only 8 cwt. for the 70-ton and g cwt. for the 106-ton size. Directions for Building A-yo-TON Silo. (75 ft. inside diameter and 20 ft. highf) Foundation. — Prepare eight foundation posts of 6-in. x 4-in. red-gum 6 ft. long. Round or split posts will do as long as one side is dressed flat; in this ca.se, it is probable that longer bolts will be required than for sawn timber . See page 413, June, 1911, Journal. fio July, 1911-] Silo Construction. 501 Fix a peg in the centre of site and describe a circle witli a trammel 7 ft. 9^ in. long. Sink posts 3 ft. in the ground .so that the inside face of each post is true to the end of trammel. Keep the top of posts to one level and faces truly perpendicular. Well ram the earth put back. From 'the centre line of face of post to the centre line of next post is 5 ft. \\\ in. ? Double Hoop '-7~-tTi-i t-tm-rrrn 1 1< 1 1 1 1 iiJa-»«-~-».-»i-« 70 TON ALL-WOOD SILO — DETAILS AND GENERAL DRAWINGS. Treble Hooi'S.- \ail three 4-in. x \-\\\. l)oards to the inside of posts, ^carefully springing the first of them to the circle descrilxxl by trammel which has been reduced in Irngth to 7 ft. 9 in. Keep the l>ottom edge •of the first treble h(K)p 9 in. from the ground, c.irr Inking taken to l>reak the joints. A similar treble h wrc.is in clicck ; weed out seed beds. Divide and plant out all lieibaccous plants, such as phlox, (Iflpliiiiiums, rudbeckia, &.c. Plant out gladioli. Comjilete |il,nitiiig of shrubs. Mulch young plants. A'KlMCTAHt.K (JaRDEX : — Ti)|)-(lrcss asparagus beds; plant new asparagus plots. Plant lierb divisions, and pot-atoes. Sow (•al)l)age, cauliliowcr, jieas, carrots, be '.ns, radish, and lettuce seeds. Sow tomato seeds in a hot fr.uiic. Fiuisli digging. ^'J^;l;^ Alii) : — August is tlic best month for ])laiiting vines (grafted or ungrafted). This should be actively proceeded witii and completed before end of month. Scions for Held graftintr may still be iireserved as (let liled last UKUitli. They should all be renu.ved from vines i>efore end of nit.ntli. at latest. Coii- cluile priMiiug and tie down rods. Where black spot has been very ])reva]ent. api'l.V 1st acid iron sulphate treatment (see current Jnnni'il). Apply reaiiily soluble uit roi:enous manures (soda nitrate and ammonium sulphate) towards end of moiilh. Cellar. — Rack again, towards end of month, wines which have as yet only been once racked (spring racking). Fill up regularly all unfortilie.l wines. Clean up generally iu «ellar and whitewash walls, Woo;lwork, &c. JUST PUBLISHED. OF " THE . . Destructive Insects or Victoria/' ______ By C. FREiNCH, F.L.S., F.E.S., Government Entomolog-ist. 170 PAGES, CLOTH. 40 COLOURED PLATES. OBTAINABLE FROM ilye: Depaptment of SgpieiiltiiPe, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. r Commonwealth, Id. Price, 2s. 6d.; Postage Nev, Zealand, 4d. [ British and Fo.eign, 7d. APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note covering price and ^ c, postage, to he forwaixled to V^y Oe Secretary Jor )\gricuUure, jYIelbourae. ^^i Remittances frcm beyond the Commonwealth to be made by Post OfSce Order. ^^ Parts I., IL, III., and !V. may also be obtained at 2s. 6d. per Volume. p r Parts 1. and i!!.— C, Id.; N.Z., 3d.: B. and F.. 6d. each. POSTAGE ^^ „ II. and IV.— C, lAd.; N.Z., 4d.; B. and P., 8d. each. PRESS OPINIONS RE PART V. Aiisiraiasiaii. — "Cannot fail lo be of interest to all engaged in rural pursuits." Leader. — " A valuable publication." Sydney iMail. — "The work is handsomely illustrated, and the letterpress is of the greatest value to Australia." Adelaide Chronicle. — "The juiblication should prove of great service to orchardists and others." Life. — " A valual)le book for farmers." Vol. IX. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. [Re-.'i^tered at the General Poi^t Offi'-e, Melbourne, for transmission t)y I'ost a- a Xeusp i|.per Part 8. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription Victoria, Inter-Statc, and N.Z., 3 - ; British and Foreign, 6,-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— AUGUST, 1911. Cultivation of Sugar Beet ... Leaf Scald or Fruit Spot ... Citrus Fruit Culture {continued) Propagation of Fruit Trees — StoijUs Orchard and Garden Notes Storage Test of Shipping Grapes Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants (continued) Tobacco Culture — Curing Sheds Farm Blaeksmithing — Fitting-up Woi'kshop Millipedes Destioj'ing Vegetables ... Dysentery in Bees and Nosema A ])is Insectivorous Birds of Victoria — White-throated Tree Creeper Experimental Forage Plots, 1910-11 Artificial Manures Acts — Unit Values for 1911 Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 ... Silo Construction — All Steel and Concrete Silos Reinforced Brick Silos Dexter Kerry Dairy Cattle Answers to Correspondents — Sore Teats ... ... ... 579 Feeding Millet to Stock ... 579 Worms ... ... ... 579 Non-Pregnancy of Sows ... 579 Swollen Tendons ... ... 579 Castrating Aged Rams . . . 579 Skin Disease ... ... 580 30th June, 1911- //. T.Easttrhy D. Mc Alpine E. E. Pesirott C. F. Colt E. E. Pescott F. de CaMdla 1. J, Eicart and G. S. Sutton T.A.J. Smith G. Baxter G. French, jun. F. R. Bc'uhne C. French, jun. T. A. J. Smith P. E. Scott H. V. Hawkins A. S. Kenyan P. T. Archer J. S. McFadzean Balanced Ration Ration of Oats for Draught Horse Cow Peas Apple Drying White Ants ... Binding Sand Identification of Plants PAGE. 505 512 515 522 529 531 532 542 545 549 550 552 553 556 564 566 574 577 580 580 580 580 581 581 581 Statistics — Quarter endin Rainfall in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... If, A. Hunt 583 Exports and Deliveries of Perishable and Frozen Produce... P. Croive 584 Exports and Imports of Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. .. J. G. Turner 584 Journal of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscription Rates inside front cover Reminders for September ... ... ... ... ... inside back cover Dest^-uctive Insects of Victoria, Part V. ... ... ... ... back cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .lournal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Cop\^right Act. Proj)rietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, jjrovided the Journal and author are both acknowlede/ed. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Secretary for Agriculture. Melbourne. A complete list of the various pjublieations issued by the Department of Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. THe JOUHNAI9 OP TI16 department of M^ricufture O, (SEW YORI BOTANIC A VICTORIA. qarl>bn. Vol. IX. Part 8. tOth Aug-ust, 1911. THE eH'LTI\'ATION OF SUGAR BEET. Harry T . Eastcrby, General Manager, Maffra Beet Sugar Factory. In view of the general interest now being taken in thie growth of sugar beet for the Maffra Factory, it has been thought advisable to devote a small portion of the Journal to giving a few particulars as to the preparation of the soil, cultivation, and treatment of this crop. This article, however, has necessarily been very hurriedly thrown together, due to the demands upon the writer's time in other direc- tions, and it is proposed to follow it at a later date by more complete details. Selection of Site. In preparing to grow sugar beet, the selection of the land is of very vital importance, and good to rich soils should invariably be chosen. Poor sandy lands that blow or drift, and wet. cold, and late land should be avoided. On the whole, beet appears to thrive best on good warm sandy loams of good (Ifi)th. and it best follows a cereal crop of some kind. Preparation of Seed Hed and Sowing. In order that a gfxxl seed l)ed may be provided, the ground .should be cleared of all rubljish, stubble, or stalks, so that the drill may work quite freely. The land should, if possible, be fallowed in late summer or autumn, so that it may remain open for some time to the sweetening influences of the sun and air, and any weeils that germinate can be killed by the subsetjuent cultivation. Tlie first jjloughing should U- followed in late winter by cross- ploughing and subsoiling to a depth of al)oui 14 in. A proper mechanical breaking an54. I io6 Journal of AgriciiU/irc, Yictoria. [jo Aug., 1911. Having- got the .soil into iinc tilth (and a golden rule in all eultujcd operations is. " Secure tilth before seeding, not after it '"), die sowing •can take place. Some auUioritie.s recommend the u.se of the roller just prior to seeding; others use fine harrows or a float to get th.e r( quisite Jineness. On the whole, the roller has been found to work well. Drilling machines, or " Seeders '''' as th.ey are termed in America, are usually made to sow from three to live rows at a time, so that a large area can wry ijuicklv be seeded. On small ])l(;ts. however, the Planet Jr. .seed drill sowing one row will be found useful and ine\pensi\-e. From very long experience in other countries, as well as in ^'ictoria. rows i8-iii. apart have l)een found to give the best results ; and. while as much as 20 ll)s. of seed i)er acre are used in America, the Victorian experience is that 11 lbs. i)er acre will suffice. The seed may be planted from the middle of .August to the end of Septemljer and should be drilled about f in. deep in moist weather, and not more than i in. deep in drv conditions. The .seed usuallv germinates in from 7 to 1 4 days, and here it is well to state that only the best <]ualitv of seed should b'e u-ed. The Maffra Factr>i-\-. through its DRILLING. Technical Manager. Mr. (_i. S. Dyer, is importing fine qualitv seed this \ear which will be distributed to growers at cost price. One of the conditions made with growers for the factorv is that they shall use the factory .seed only. Small (juantities of .seed will also be made available to those in other parts of the State who wish to grow trial plots. Cultivation. Cultix'ation should be (omnienced as .soon as the beets are just through the ground so as to keep the weeds down. Culti\'ators with flat sweeps or duck feet have been usuallv found most effecti\'e ; as. if the land is in fine tilth, surface cultivation onlv is needed. In dry weather, this method of cultivation is strongly to be recom- mended, as. the broad hoes l)reak the fine capillary tubes that are leading moisture to- the surface, and leave a mulch of soil which effectivelv pro- tects the underground moisture during a drv spell. Should showers fall during such a drv pericci this stvle of cultivation is very "mportant. for when the top .soil is damp, it leads to connexion with the underground moisture and much mav be lost by evaporation : Imt. if the cultivators are lo Aug.. 1911.] CiiliiTufioii II j S//i^ar Beet per day, topjing and Cxirting the roots to the factory, and bringing back the pulp to which he is entitled, tlie tops and pulp would supply ample feed for 20 dairy cows for three months in the year, provided he was harvesting his beets during that jieriod. To those who desire to experiment with this crop, but who are at .present too far from the factory to .sell the nxits, we would say go ahead by all means, prove your crop and your district, and if your are successful you can rest assured that a factory will be ultimately erected in your locality. Meantime, you are improving your land and growing one of the very best crops for fattening off pigs and feeding your dairy stock. The benefit to the land used for growing sugar beets cannot be over- -esliniatt'd. 'J'ln- soil is oiH-ncd \\\> and plant foods from lower down are 5'o Journal of A<^r/cu//.>/n\ VicUiria. [lo Aug., 191 i. hroug'nt to the surfact'. while tin.' rootlrls wliich wxr left in the ground have a, considerable Ininnis \-alue. 'I'he tops, if nut used for feeding, can hf- BADLV SHAliiLi lU-^KT. SHOWING EFFKCTS OF SHALLOW CULTIVATION. ploughed in, and ha\e an exceUent manurial effect; and, of course, add largely to the reserve of humus. In ])loughing out, the ground practically PROPERLY SHAPED BEET, SHO\\ING BENEFITS OF SUBSOILING. receives another suhsoiling which is of incalculahle henetit to the succeecV ing crop. lo Aug., igii.] Cultivation of Si/j^ar J'>e verv suitable for beet, and much of it will not need subsoiling. The following are a few of the results from growers around ISlaffra and further afield who planted beet la.st season : — Mr. B. C. Martin, Tinamba, grew slightly under 3 acres of beet, ancJ paid for every detail at contract rates, allowing 305. per acre for rent of land. His total expenses were ;;^33 4s. 3d., whilst his receipts amounted to ^48, so that he made slightly over jQ^ per acre, without the value of the pulp, which he received free at the factory. Mr. T. Vance netted jQiA 16s. 7d. from one acre of beets after paving 6s. for seed. As Mr. Vance carried cut all his own work he is more than pleased and satisfied with the result. Mr. C. Rowley secured 40 toiis of beet from 2 acres at Xewry. After paying for seed, thinning, carthig. and rent, he came out with a profit of ^10 per acre. Mr. G. C. Johns, of Sale-road, grew 3 acres of beet, and made over /^'5 per acre nett. A en)]) of wheat he grew only ga\e him ^4 per acre. Messrs. French Jiros., the largest indi\idual growers in the Maffra district, put in about 18 acres under beet. They paid contract rates for thinning, hoeing, and ,top[)ing. and were enabled to put ^100 in the bank, while their cereal crops are still awaiting sale. There are many other ca.ses, where returns eijual to or exceeding these have been gained. ( 'ONCLUSION. W'liat sugar beet growing has done for Europe and the United States it can al.so do for A'ictoria. Since the introduction of beet into Germany the productivity of the farms in that country has mare than trebled, 'i'his is due to the fact that sugar beet is a payable crop which can onl\ \>i' successfuUv grown by applying to its culture the common-sense rules that gfjvern any profitable industry. Xietoria pavs out nearly a million pounds for her sugar. Is there anv rea.son whv a large ])art of. if n(,t all. llie sugar cc-nsumed in this State should not be made in Victoria, and this large sum diverted into tlie j)0(k<'ts of our farmers? Mr. Dyer, the Ami-rican Htci l-,.\[)(rt. now at the Maffra Factory, sums up the growing of L)eet as follows: "■ I'hf beet is one of the best r()fitable returns in [jroportion to the care and attention Ixi-.^towed ujjon it. X'arious im])orlvint points are : Secure a good stand by Using plenty of seed and properl) prejjaring the soil ; properly thin when the young lieets have reached die pr(j[ier si/e. avoid thinning out too far apart in the rows; maintain a good state of cultivation. The secret of raising Ix.'ets cheaplv and of gi;ol \i«ld .ind a clean Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 1911-.. LEAF SCALD OR FRUIT SPOT. {Entomosporium viaculaium, Lev.) D. McAlpine, Vegetable PatJiologist. Although this disease has been known for a considerable time in Europe- and America, it has only been discovered in Australia during the present year (191 1). Being comparatively common in America, it has been men- tioned in connexion' with some of the States of the Com- monwealth as if it existed here, but its- presence has not hitherto been defi- nitely shown. Towards the end of March, the- disease was observed in pears of the- varieties B e u r r e Capiaumont and. Williams' Bon: Chretien, growing in sandy soil about 16 miles from Mel- bourne. Only a few trees were affected. A number of other varieties- growing in the same orchards were quite free. The quince is very subject to> this disease ; other pip- fruits, such as the apple, and stone- fruits like cherry, and peach may also be attacked. It was Found for the first time on quince leaves- by Inspector Farrell in May, and on the fruit early in June. Attention was first attracted to this disease by all the leaves of one shoot becoming pale in colour, spotted all over, chiefly on the upper surface, and then falling away early. Then other shoots showed similar symptoms, until the entire tree became involved and its vigour and vitality evidently much impaired. These spots are very- definite and distinct, generally circular in outline; at first, of a ruddy colour, then they run into one another .and become brownish and ultimately the black slightly projecting fructification of the fungus appears upon them. The fruit also becomes spotted, the spots being of a ruddy browm colour. They are the size of pin points to begin with ; then they gradually HEALTHY PEAR TREE. >zo Aug.; 19 h-] Leaf Scald or Fruit Spot. 5^3 •enlarge to about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, when the black fructi- fications are scattered over them. They may run together and form extensive blotches like a brown scab ; and, in bad cases, the flesh may become cracked, just as in the Pear Scab. The fruit also falls prematurely like the leaves ; and, although apparently sound and firm, it soon rots, usually beginning at the stalk end. The grower observed that, on removing the skin, the fruit was not materially injured for use, but the fungus may distort and crack the fruit when severely attacked and render it so unsightly that it does not sell, in addition to rotting quickly. The disease may also appear on the tips of the young branches ; and, by this means, it is con- tinued through the winter, even al- though the disea.sed leaves and fruit are removed. Seedling pears in the nursery suffer seriously from this disease. The \'Oungest leaves are first attacked and fall early, and the young wood is hardened prema- turely, so that bud- liing is either pre- vented or rendered difficult. The spores ha\e a very characteristic shape and are some- what beetle-like in ap])earance, on ac- count of the project- ing bristles. Treatment. It is evident th;a all dead diseased leaves should be collected and burned or at lea>t buried drt-ply. as well as (Iccaving fruit, in order to prevent the spores infecting the tree next season. Spores placed in a drop of moisture on a young living leaf have [produced the minute red spots in about five days ; and, in about three weeks, tl.e .spores were again reproduced, when the weather was dull and moist. Any shoots showing the disease should also be removed. Spraying with Borrleaux mixture is also a preventive. Kipe.iteil trials in the United States have pro\e(l conclusively th;it tiiis mixture is tlioroughly effective, at the same time increasing the size and quality of the fruit. The first application should be made just as for Hlack .Spot, \\lien tlie blossom- buds have opened and ;igain in al)out ;i fortnight. I'EAR TREK AIFECTED WITH I.EAl" SCALD. 5 '4 Jciinial iif A;^riciilt!irc. Yicfjria. [lo Aug., 191 t. LEAF SCALD OR FRUIT SPOT. 1. Leaf Scald. 2. Leaf Spot. o. Spares with projectinj;- In-istles ic Aug., 191 1.] Citrus t ruii Ciilturi. 515 Since this disease has net as yet become general, a sharp look out for it should be kept in the nursery and orchard and the above measures taken to keep it under control. Now that an export trade is being established for pears, it becomes all the more necessary to check anything which tends to depreciate their value. It must also be remembered that nearly all varieties of pear are found to \)v subject to this disease, the Duchess and Keift'er's Hvbrid lu-iug the most resistant of those usual Iv grown. CITlirS FRUIT CULTURE. (C ontbuicd from page 378.) E. E. Pcscott, Principal, Horticultural Scl/ool, Ihiriilcy. Pruning. It is free suital>le for planting out the following spring for working upon . Cuttings can be readily rooted in a close frame placed upon a hot- bed, or in a glass house artificially heated. Plant cuttings in the autumn after the wood has hardened — about the month of May. The writer lias rooted cuttings planted in early spring in a cool house ; also in the open, in a warm district. This should not he practised. Prepare cuttings the same as Fig. 17. Select well matured wood, and rut with sharp- knife, at an apex bud. Make cuttings 6. 10, or 12 in. in length. 17. CITRUS CUTTING PREl'ARED FOR PLANTING. lo Aug., 1911-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. Layering should be carried out in December or early January, the rooted layers being lifted the following spring. When performing this operation, the cut should be made almost straight in and about three parts through the stem to be layered. Then turn the blade upwards, cutting about i| in. along the stem. (See Fig. i8b). Several causes may be the means of preventing this cut portion from rooting, viz. : — • (i) Callusing at the terminal end of the cut and stem. 'I'his can be prevented by inserting a small piece of twig or wood crosswise between the freshly made cut and stem. When layering some species of plants, it can be overcome by giving the cut twig a slight twist and slightly in- clining it in a vertical position before pegging down. But, with those plants or trees having hard or brittle wood, the cut should be made upon the underside of the twig to be put down. When pegging down, slightly lift the twig in a vertical position. This action will cause the cut part to open and remain so. (Fig. 19). 18. tLMriNG CIIKl S l,\VKR.S. .\. Wron;,' inotliod. I>. Correcl incthoil. (J) l!v ciiltiiiu with ;i blunt (ir thick bladcd knife. an( tiK-rehy ihf |)art bruising tlu- bark and canibiuni at phu\- of enlrv. this bang where rooting takes place. (3) Bv allowing the cut tn become dry from the want of pr<'\i(His to the hardening (if the rDofs. (4) Hv excessive w.iterings causing tli<' ealhis tn decav. (5) Hv starting the ( ut lorreetK. ,ind then running it thinlx the terminal end insliad of cutting it a uniform thiekness t length as in I"ig iXi^ (6) Rv starting the (iit in a slo|)ing shallow \\;i\ .md rnniiing it ihinlv like Fig. i8a. Althougli it is not alwavs necessarv to start the cut just bel( it is advisalile to do so. where possil>le. The writer has made •otherwise, .so as to illustrat<' them more clearly. uKasture tow .irds le whole w a bud the cut.s 524 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Aug.. 1911- Before replacing the soil to cover the pegged down layer, apply a- little wash sand or sandy soil about the cut if the soil is heavy. The object of dealing fully with layering is for the information of readers who are not conversant with this method of increasing a variety. It is practised with many of our evergreen fruiting and flowering trees and shrubs. Most of our choice varieties of oranges and lemons are benefited by budding or grafting them upon another variety suitable as a stock in every respect to the variety worked upon it. This is ex- plained fully upon pages 338-9. Seedlings should be lifted from the seed beds in August or September. The tap root, if any, should be cut back. Upon lifting, plant out im- mediately where they are to remain for working upon. Select dull calm weather, if possible. Do not allow the stocks to get dry — keep covered with a damp sack ; temporarily heel in or cover the roots with soil when planting out. If necessary, lightly water the stocks when planted, and continue this treatment when required throughout the summer months. The stocks should be kept well trimmed, and all robbers, i.e., super- fluous shoots, removed either by rubbing them off with the thumb and' 19. METHOD OF PEGGING DOWN A LAYER. finger, or carefully cutting with a sharp knife. Do not allow the stocks- to carry a heavy bushy head growth. When budding, insert the buds well up in the stocks from the ground level (see Fig. 20). Watch the binding to see that it does not cut into the rapidly-expanding stock. When unity has taken place, reduce the head of the stock — this will be the means of starting the bud into growth. Some propagators tie the growing shoot carefully io that part of the stem which is left above the bud (Fig. 20), so as to protect it from rough winds, and to insure a straight vertical growth. When the growth is hardened and no support is necessary, this portion of the stock is re- moved down to the bud, making a clean upward cut. A future article will deal with the proper method of making this cut. Another method, and one that the writer practised, is to reduce the- stock back to the inserted and moving bud — the same as deciduous fruit: lo Aug., ipii-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. S^S' tree treatment — and support the growing bud with a suitable stake. A straight stick or piece of split paling, about i8 to 24 in. in lengthy answers the purpose. All shoots upon the stem of the stock should be systematically re- moved, otherwise they will utilize the ascending sap and starve the growing bud somewhat. When the bud is about 18 in. long it should be topped so as to encour- age it to push out branches. If budded upon healthy, vigorous-grow- ing stocks and receiving careful treatment, many of the buds inserted in December or January will be suitable for planting out during the following winter. Fig. 20 is that of a Lisbon lemon tree, ten months 20. LISBON LEMON lO MONTHS GROWTH FROM BUD. from bud, that was propagated in the metropolitan district. In the nursery, the growth of the lemon is generally more rapid than that of the orange. Grafting should be performed in early spring when the sap is moving. Select well-matured wood for scions. The writer advises those who intend to propagate varieties of the citrus family to plant in 3-row or 4-r(nv lands. This will insure better drainage, which is most essential when propagating or growing this class of fruit. It also greatly reduces the risk of losing young trees ONE METHOD OF SUPPORTING GROWING CITRUS BUD. through excessive moisture when irrigating. ;26 Journal of Agriciillitre, Victoria. [lo Aug., 1911. Under tiornial conditions, citrus trues are easily propagat'.jd. Any one taking up this work in a warm irrigated district would find it re- munerative— very few of the citrus trees planted out in this State are raised here. Like the olive, citrus trees require a percentage of lime in the soil to obtain the best results. Soil conditions were dealt with by Mr. E. E. PescO'tt, Principal, Burnley Horticultural School, in the June issue of the Journal. There is always a risk of losing citrus trees when transplanting from a hot to a cooler climate. At one time, imported trees were generally acclimatized by nurserymen before being sold to the growers for per- manent planting. This is still practised, but not to the same extent. There is a difference in price between acclimatized and unacclimatized trees. Tf growers choose the latter they run the risk of failure. After all, this risk is not very great with healthy trees, if given careful treatment. The trees should be obtained in August or September, and immediately upon receiving them they should be removed from, the package or case in which they are packed. The roots should be carefully and well rinsed in water, so as to remove any puddled clay or sawdust adhering to them. Then cut away any bruised roots or portion of roots so effected. Harden back their growth about one-half, making a clean and unbruised cut at a bud. Use a sharp knife. Then heel in at once in a warm sheltered position, away from the influence of frosts, until planted out permanently. Press the soil firmly about the roots, and water. Under no conditions allow them to suffer from the want of moisture before the autumn. If the soil has not already been prepared it should be worked deeply. It should, if possible, be of a loose sandy or loamy nature, and be well drained. Select a warm sheltered site. When planting, open out a trench to the required depth, and plant about 12 in. apart, so that, if necessary, they can be lifted with a small ball of soil for planting out the following seasons. Spread the roots when planting, care being taken to see that the trees are placed no deeper in the soil than when thev were lifted from the nursery. The rows should be far enough apart to prevent injury to the young growths when ■cultivating amongst them. One of the chief factor.s. in acclimatization is to keep the soil well stirred or mulched, and, as nearly as possible, of even moisture, i.e., a moisture not detrimental to the health of the trees. Many propagators plant the trees just as they receive them from the nursery, not hardening back the growth. The writer has tested both methods, and favours cutting back. When irrigating, care should be taken that one portion of the trees does not receive an excess over the others. If unmulched, the surface of the soil should be well stirred to prevent crusting. This will also .help to conserve the moisture. During hot weather, water in early morn- ing or evening. If irrigating during the heat of the day, there is a risk of scalding the bark, i.e, if the water is allowed to splash upon the stems. It is a common occurrence for citrus trees to shed their foliage after being planted out and to remain dormant until the autumn, when they break away after the first good rains and make fair growth before the cold weather sets in. Again, others remain in this condition ; they respond to no treatment, and finally die out, too severe a check through removal being probably the cause. Very often, they will start to die back from the tips, continuing down close to the bud mark where a few buds have pushed forth shoots. When this occurs, the top should be cut lo Aug.. 1911-] Propagalion oi Fnul 7V( 527 back tc; the growing shoots. that the.se .shoots are not below But the operator should Ije careful to see but above the bud mark. Olive. As olive seed does not always come true or resemble in ([ualit\, &c., the variety from which it was saved, it is necessary, when a superior seedling or variety is to be increased, to resort to budding, grafting, stodliug. or cuttings. To raise stock for working u[)on, sav-' the seed from any vigorous and productive kind. Sow in drills 1 in. in depth and cover with light soil; the seed should be sown as .soon as the fruit is ripe. Seedlings may be lifted and planted out the following winter for working upon Cuttings should be prej)are(l and planted out in the autumn. Cut at an apex bud, leaving some of the foliage (see Fig. 22). When preparing the scion for grafting, it is well to leave a little of the foliage on. Bud the same time as citrus fruits. Graft when the growth is active in early summer, or when the sap is moving. Rooted cuttings, as well as seefllings. may be used for working ujion. Sec that the stocks are watered and grcjwing freely before attempting to work thtni. By cutting back a well-establi.shcd young- tree, at or near the ground level, it will .send up numerous shoots. Tf moul(]c(l Uf) with light soil. the.s<' suckers will root; remove them in Mav or Jmu'. Ke-mould again in early summer. To propagate bv this method, the varietv should be uj)on its own roots, otherwise there is a big risk of getting shoots from the stock as well as the worked variety. Large trees that are not suitable can be headed back and grafted or budded over. If budding, remove all surplus shoots, only heaving thost- required for this purpo.se 22. OLIVE CUTTING J'RI.- PARED FOR PLANTING. Plant out olive trees from May to .Sei)tember. The olive is liarch. and thrives upon any rleep well-drained soil having a warm sub.soil. It will not thrive if over-irrigated or growing upon iniper\ ious .soils. To obtain the best results, th<- soil rc(iuires lime. i.e. if the soil is defu-ient in tliis [)ropertv. Il is a valuaiile tree to grow as a break-wind for citrus trees culli\.ited in the warm and irrigated districts. If suitable varieties are grown, the fruit can l)e utilized for making oib The illustration on j^age 528 shows a fruiting twig taken from a seedling variety. The fruit is small as compareil with that of choice and .selected kinds in general cultivation. A method of propagation .sometimes practised in F.urope pusheil on at once, as it will be necessary, towards the end of the month, to consider the coming spring operations. One season's work should be completed thoroughly, before tiie time arrives to nmimence the next set of operations. In addition to the completion of these necessary works, a start should be made, if it has not already l>en done, to prepare for tht^ planting .53° Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug.. 191 i. of citrus trees next month. This subject was fully deah with in the- article on '' Citrus Fruit Culture"' in the June issue." A sharp lookout should be kept for the root borer beetles which, particularly in the warmer districts, often appear towards the erd of August. If the i)est is at .all present, trapping .should l3e resortt^d to. 'I'he trees should be well examined for the eggs, which are generally laid near the top of the branches, the leaf on which the eggs are laid being folded over. A watch will need to be kept, too, for peach aphis, which makes its adxent in the spring. This insect multiplies so rapidly, once it does appear, that, on the first indication of its presence, the trees should be spraved w hh a strong tobacco solution. They should be examined on the day after spraying, and if any aphides are still alive, another spraying should be gi\en. A vigilant watch, and constant sprayings in the early season, will check this pest, and will be the means of saving much time next month when it will be urgently needed for other works. Peach, almond, and Japanese plum trees are attacked by the peach aphis, 'i'his is also the season when the bryobia mite (red spider) is hatching and breeding. If the trees have recei\;ed an oil emulsion in the winter, no danger may be feared from this mite. But if not, then an effort must be made to keep it in check by spraying the trees with strong nicotine solution or with one of the pro- pi ietary mixtures now on the market. The foliage and j^'oung buds are gieatly damaged by the attacks of this mite, and so to allow full leaf action, it should be attacked before the flowers or foliage come. Woolly aphis will also need attention. If any of these insects are remaining on the trees at the pre>5ent time, no effort should be spared to -eradicate these. This aphis multiplies quickly in the spring. Vegetable G-arden. Asparagus beds may still be planted, and the old beds should be well weeded and cleaned out, finally gi\ing them a good manurial top dressing. Full directions for the management of asparagus gardens were given in last month's Journal. All herb.s may Ije divided and jjlanted out ; and any seedlings ready may also be set out ih the beds. Such plants as suffer from frosts, -a planted out, must be protected and covered. Tomato seeds may be planted in the frames, as well as seeds of cucumbers, melons, marrows, pumpkins, and celery ; and, in the open beds, such seeds as cauliflower, cabbage, carrots, beans, peas, radish, and lettuce may be planted. Onions may be transplanted from the seed beds. The beds will need constant hoeing ; all weeds must be killed, and the surface should be kept worked up fine and loose. Flower Garden. All winter flowering shrubs that ha\e dropped their blossoms may now be pruned. It is important to prune these immediately after flowering, so that the plant may be able to make plenty of flowering wood for next season. Seed beds and plots need constant cleaning and weeding. Weeds must now be kept out of the garden, both by hoeing and handpicking. The s; edlings that are growing in their permanent situations should be thinned / S///ppni!^ GrapiS. 531 Divisions of herhaceou.s plaiit.s .such as Delphiniums, Cannas, Shasta Daisy, herbaceous Chrvsanthemuins, Rudbeckias, Salvias, and Phlox may still be planted out. If it is intended that such plants shall remain in the same location as last .season, they should be lifted, the soil being well dug and manured, and the crowns planted back again. By these- means, the plants retain their \igour, and are able to ]noduce gcwd flowers each sea. son. Evergreen shrubs may now he planted out, the soil having previously l^een well dug and aired. All beds should be well dug over by this time, manure and refuse litter having been dug into the soil. A few corms and tulx-rs of earlv summer flowering liulbmis j)lants may now be planted. STORAGE TEST OF SIIIPPIXG GRAPES. F. de CasicUa, (.J over nine iit Viiicidturist. Of the numerous \ines introduced by the writer in 1908 and planted at the Viticultural College, Rutherglen. a list of which appeared in the Report of the Department, 1907-10, several bore fruit for the first time this year. As some of these promise to be of value as shipping grapes, it was decided to test them by storage in cool chamber, packed in cork dust. These grapes went into the Government cool .stores on 27th April last, being picked and packed a few days previously. They were opened and examined on loth July, so they had been nearly three months in cool storage, where they were kept at a temperature of between 33 degrees- and 34 degrees Fah. On being opened, they were examined by Messrs. J. G. Turner, Chief Horticultural Officer. B. \V. Bagenal, and the writer. Notes were made and points awarded, the latter according to a scale fnjm i to 10. Ohancz. — These opened in almost perfect order. Under i per cent, of damaged V)erries, stalks quite green, and the fruit almost as fresh as though it had been just picked off the vine, lo points. Olivette Vraic. — A very pretty large white grape, distinctly oval or olive .shajJed. Order nearly ecjual to Ohanez. 9^ points. Teneron du Cade net. — ^"ery good order. The berries were bronzed on one side ; they were evidently riper than the ])revious ones when packed. Probably a good shipping grape for districts too late for Ohanez. 9 ponits. Malvoisic des C/iurtre/ix. — Very goofl order. Some l)erries brcn/ed. Yvry large hand.some bunch; l.irge oval berry, remarkably crisp an! of delicious flavour. Stalks very gri-en and berries adhering firmly to them. Th(nigh a few berries were discoloured, ihe decay was \V'.\ communicalcC— co«//,i !Kc?. Botanical Xame. CYPfiRACE.E. Kyllinqia — • mtermedia, R.Br. 'Cyperus — Era^ostis, Vahl. globosus. All ion i unioloides, R.Br. pyamseus, Rottb. tenellus, L. gracilis, R.Br. . squarrosa'5, L. . difformis, L. trinervis, R.Br. . concinnus, R.Br. vaginatus, R.Br. rotundus, L. Popular Xame. Use or Character. MONOCOTYLEDONEJE— ACALYCE^ — HYPOGYNJE. Globe Kyllingia Dark Leaf Rush Rough Leaf Rush Mussel Leaf Rush Dwarf Leaf Rush D3lipate Leaf Rush Slender Leaf Rush Tufted Leaf Rush Distorted Leaf Rush Three-nerved Leaf Rush Neat Leaf Rush Sheath Leaf Riush Xut Sedge lucldus, R.Br. . . exaltatus, Retzius Meleocharis — • sphacelata, R.Br, acuta, R.Br, multicaulis. Smith, .icicularis, R.Br. Shining Leaf Rush Smooth Leaf Rush Tall Spike Rush Common Spike Rush Many-stalked Spike Rush Needle Spike Rush Have a very slight fodder value. C. rfif/i)H(tus is a useful fibre |)lant A trouble.some weed, with nut-like under- ground tubers, which render the plant very hard to eradicate. Proclaimed under the Thistle Act for the whole State \ Yield a fibre by boiling and scraping / the leaves Slight fodder value when jouug lo Aug.; 1911-] YtniacKhir Xaiius of \u1orian Plants. 533 Vernacular Xames of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. MONOCOTYLEDOXE^. — AcALYCE.a: — Hypogynje — Continued. CvperacejE — continved. J'imbristylis — velata, R.Br. aestivalis. Vahl. . . communis, Kunth. .Scirpus — fluitaus. L. arenarius, Benth. crassiusciilus, Hook. f. setaceus. L. riparius. Spreng. cartilasineus, Sjireng. inuiidatu';, Sprcng. prolifcr, Kottb. . . nodosus. Rottl). . . supinus, L. mucronatus, L. pungens, Vahl. lacustris. L. maritimus, L. . . polystachyus, F.v.M. l/ipocarpha — ■ microrephala, B.Br. 'C'horizandra — ■ onodis, Nees- cymbaria, R.Br. ■Oreobolus — Pumilio, R.Br. . . -■C'yathochcete — • diamlra, Nee<;. . . ■('nrpha — alpina, R.Br. ■Schnenus — aphyllus, BoDck. imberbis, R.Br. ericetorum, R.Br. nitens, Poiret nantLs. F.v.M. . . brevifolius, R.Br. melanostachys, R.Br. apogoii, R(cmcr and Schiil sculpt us, B(pck. . . axillaris, Poiret. capillaris, F.v.M. spharoceplialus, t'oir. pauciflorus, F.v.M. .I.t*indospora — • tenuissinm, F.\.M. J-e/ndosjiernia — ■ gladiatuni. Labill. elatius, Labill. .. exaltiitnni. H.Ur. lonjitudinali'. Labill. concavuiii. K.llr. viscidum. H.lJr. . . laternlp. K.Hr. . . globosuni, Labill. lliH'ari-, 11. Hr. . . .somiteres, F.v.M. eanpscens, Brrrk. tortuiisMiii. F.v.HL niiforme. Labill. Ncesij, K until. .. <"ariihnides, F.v.M. Veiled Fringe Rush Summer Fringe Rush Common Fringe Rush Filiating Club Rush Sand Ciub Knsh Aljiinc Club Rush Bristle Chib Rush Grassv Club Rush Gristle Club Rush Swani]) Club Rush Budding Club Rush Knotted Club Rush Soft Club Rush I'uintcd Club Rush Sharp Club Rush Lake Club Rush Salt-niar.'^h Club Rush Spieate Club Rush Button Rush Black Bristle Rush Heron Bristle Rush Alpine Tuft Rush Sheath Rush Alpine Flower Rush Leafless Bog Rush Btardliss Bog Rush Ilratli Bdg Rush Shining Bog Rush Tiny Bog Rush Short-leaved Bog Rush lUack Bog Rush Fluke H(ig Knsh «;inilet Bog Rush Dwarf Bog Rush Bristle Bog Rush Button Bog Rush Needle Bog Rush Coast Bog Rush Coast Sword Sedge I'all Sword Sedge (Jiaiit Sword Sedge- I Swamp Sword Sedge I Hill Sword Se.lge I St ieky Sword Sedge I Broad Sword Sedge ] Clusteri'd Sword Sedge I Narrow Sword Si'dge Wire Sword Sedge Hoary Sword Sedge Twisting Swonl Sedge Tlireail Sword Sedge Stilf Sword Sedge Mueller Sword Sedge i-No known economic- value Tufty sedge, with widely creeping rhizomes ; useful for binding drift sand ; will grow in saline wet places ; produces paper pulp No known economic value Fibre plant used for making seats of chairs and by coopers in caulking ca.sks. Eaten by stock in times of drought "1 Grow in wet or swampy places ; no / known ecnomic value No known economic value Furnishes a tine fibre of considerable strength ; also good paper material No kuown eeoiioniic value Suitalile fcir bindiiigsen^and : :iL-oyield a good paper material Yields a good paper pulp \ No known eionouiie value Stock usually leave the |ilaat uulouehed ; no known economic value 534 Journal of A.griculturc. Victoria. [lo Aug., igii- Vkrnacular Namks ok \'i('Tokiax Plants — cnntinwrL Botiiiiir-al Name. Popular Xanie. Tse or Character. MoNocoTYLEDOKE.i^ — Acai.vce.t: — HvioGYN.i: — " n'iiuc'd. CYPERACE.E — contiiweil. Cladtum — ■ Mariscus, R.Br. articulatum, B.Br. glomeratuni, B.Br. tetraquetniin, Hook. f. schoenoiucs, R.Br. Gunnii, Hook. f. junceuni. R.Br. Filum, R.Br. . . Gahnia — trifida, Lal)ill. . . microstacliya. Bciitli. lanigera. Bentli. Radula, Beutli. . . tetragonocarpa. Boeck. melanocarpa. R.Br. psittacoruni, Labill. Ciiustis — • pentandra, R.Br. flexuosa, R.Br. . . restiacea, F.v.M. Vncinia — tenella, R.Br. . . compacta. R.Br. riparia, R.Br. Carex — cephalotes, F.v.M. acicularis, Boott. inversa, R.Br. . . canesceiis, L. . . echinata, Murray hypandra, F.v.M. chlorantha, R.Br. paniculata, L. . . declinata, Boott. tereticaulis. F.v.M. csespitosa, L. acuta, L. fusca, Allicini (C. B baumii) pumila. Tliuuli. brevisulmis. l{.Br. Gunniana, Buott. lacistonia, R.Br. alsophila. F.v.M. longibracliiata, Bu'ck. Pseudo-cyperus, L. GltAIIINE.I?. /Cr loch! (Ml - pnnctatn. Ham. . . PanicuM - Cf-eiiifolum, F.v.JI. div.iricatissimum, R.Br. .. sauguinale, L. . . leucopliipum, Humb. and Kunth. Saw Cutting Sedge Jointed Twig Rush Soft Twig Rusli Angular Twig Rush Small Twig Rush Slender Twig Rusli Bare Twig Rusli Awned Twig Rush Awned Saw Sedge Slender Saw Sedge Little Saw Seilge Black Saw Sedge Mountain Saw Sedge Black Fruited Saw Sedge Giant Saw Sedge Common Twisted Rush Curly Wig Tall Twisted Rush Delicate Ho'ik Sedge Mountain HiKik Sedge River Hook Sedge Roundhead Sedge Dwarf Sedge Knob Sedge Hoary Sedge Prickle Sedge Dark Sedge Pale Sedge Panicle Sedge . . Rough Sedge Round Sedge Tufted Sedge Slender Sedge . . Tawny Sedge Spreading Sedge Short-stemmed Sedge Green Sedge Grass Sedge Broad Sedge Long-leaved Sedge Galingale Sedge Woolly ( Trass Kanta Grass Spider Grass Summer Grass . . Cottony Panic (irass >>.(i kuowu rcoMoniic value Useful for thati'hing, and possibly for weaving Useful for thatching purpose* anil iia brick-making. Yields a fibre >Xo known economic value Yields a strong fibre materiat No known economic value Yields a strong fibre material No known economic value Binds loose sand No known economic value Yields a paper jiulp Good pasture grass : well stands drought fairly" Good grass for moist meadows. The- grain is eaten by aborigines of South Australia This variable grass is drought-resisting ;- yields nutritious fodder Fairly useful pasture grass ; binds loose darnp soil, but a troublesome weed in gardens Good grass for the dry districts, hut improves on good moist soil. The fibrous portion of the leaf is used by Queensland almrigines to make twine jc Aug.. '911.] Yernaciilar Names of YktoruDi Plaiiis oo^ VERXAriLAR Names of Victorian Plaxts— conft'wwaZ. Botanical Xaiiip. Puliiilar Xaiiie. Use or Cliaratter ^Ionocotyledone.t:- GRAMIXE.K— COH^HHfrf I AcALYCE.T — Hypo :yx.t: — con'.mwd. Paniev.m — continued — gracile, R.Br. . . Cms gain, L. repens, L. niargiuatuni, R.Br. bicolor, R.Br. . . nielanauthuni, F.v.M. effusuni, R.Br. . . Mitclielli. Bentli. decompositum, R.Br. trachyrhacliis. Bcnth. prolutum, F.v.M. spinescens, R.Br. paradoxiun. R.Br, atro-viren.s, Trinius Oplismenus — compositiis, Palisot. Setiiria — glauca, Beauv. . . inacro-itachva. Iliinili Kiintli. viridis, Beauv. . . viTticillata, Beauv. Spill ilex — liir.' Jliiiiiirlhrin - roliipri— 1 |{ lir Slender I'iiiiic lirass Barnyard Grass Creeping Panic Grass Bordered Panic Grass Coloured Panic Grass Black Seeded Panic Grass Hairy Panic Grass Spreading Panic Grass Umbrella Grass Rough Panic Grass Pallid Panic Grass Spiny Panic Grass Tliorny Panic Grass Swamp Panic Grass Creeping Beard Grass Pale Pigeon Grass Bearded Pigeon Grass Green Pigeon Grass Wliorled Pigeon Grass Hairy Spinil'ex . . Spreading Spinifex Small Burr (Jrass Foxtail Mulga (irass .Mitclii-ll Mulga (irass Munrii Mulga Gra^s I'ricklv Cnucli Grass Brciwiit..p Curvi'il Snaki'tuil •ira.'s Snuiili-r Sruiketail (iru^is Of some use wlicu youug. but lieeomes tough and wiry wlien older Good grass in moist situations, especially around stagnant water Grows well in shady i)laces Good pasture gra.ss, though not in the first rank Useful grass, hardy and palatable to stock This widely spread grass yields a fair amount of nutritious fodder Isi'ful for pasture ; alike in coastitl dis- j tricts and dry interior ' \"ery good pasture grass 1 Useful for pasture. Tiie aborigines make ill' niilbt-likc grains into cakes Useful for pasture. A coarser plant than the foregoing, but has similar i)roperties Like the two preceding species, is a valu- able grass for the interior of Australia Of sliglit pasture value. A -senii-aquatic grass ; forms a gooil sward as the water recedes Senii-aquatic grass, similarto P. spinescens Swamp loving grass, nutritious and relished by stock Too closely spread on the ground to be of much use as a pasture grass Good pasture grass for covering newly broken up moist soil : becomes a weed in gardens and orchards Introduced from other States. Useful for cutting as green fodder or for grazing Introduced and naturalized by cultivation. Useful for forming the first coveringover dry. sandy, or calcareous soils Introduced from other States; similar in value to ,S'. viridis Valuable as a sand-stay around the .sea coast: of slight pasture value Xot palatable to stock. It is a good sand- biiider for hot dry regions Though small, is a useful jiasture grass for winter and early spring Though a coarse grass, is of fair pasture value, especially in summer Grows well under the i)rotection of shrubs and stones ; stands severe drought, and is liked by stock Useful gra.ss in sheltered jdaces Valuable for binding sandy land near the sea. and is palatabli- to stock (irows in wet undrained land; of slight pa^tture value ; useful for thatching Showy, moderately tall grass, and is drought-resisting tli'Uenillv found in salt-marshes in coastal distrii-ls; of not much pasture value Similar to L. incurriilu! Suitable for umlriiiu'd \<^:\\\ .■i;i\ , or wit si>ur soils 536 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Aug.. 1911. Vernacular Names of Victoriax Plants — conlinurd. Botaniial Name. Popular Naine. Use or Character. MoNOCOTYLEDONE^ — Acalyce.5: -Hypogyn-^ — coiiimued. Grahine^ — contimte^. Andropogon — • erianthoides, F.v.M. serlceus. R.Br. . . affinis, R.Br. pertusus, Willd. . . annulatus, Forsk. intermediuf?, R.Br. bombycinus, R.Br. refractus, R.Br. Gryllus, L. micranthus, Kunth. halepensis, Sibtli. Smith australis, Spreng. A nihistiria — ciliata, L. avenacea, F.v.M. Alopecurus — geniculatus, L. . . Tetrarrhena — distichophylla, R.Br, juncea, R.Br. acuminata. R.Br. Microlcena — ■ stipoides, R.Br. Hierochloe — redolens, R.Br. . . rarifiora, Hook. f. Aristida — • arenaria, Gaudicli. Behriana, F.v.M. leptopoda, Benth. vagans, Cav. ramosa, R.Br. . . calycina, R.Br. . . Stipa — elegautissin^a, Labill. flavescens, Labill. teretifolia, Steud. eremophila, Reader setacea, R.Br. . . Luehemanni, Reader acrociliata, Reader McAlpinei, Reader Mueller i, Tate semibarbata. R.Br. pubescens, R.Br, aristiglumis, F.v.M. scabra, Lindl. Satintop Grass . . Silky Blue Grass Brown Beard Grass Pitted Beard Grass Ringed Beard Grass Coarse Beard Grass Woolly Beard Grass Turpentine Grass Cricket Gra.ss Scented Beard Grass Johnson Grass . . Southern Beard Grass Kangaroo Grass Oat Kangaroo Grass Bent Fox-tail Grass Hairy Rice Grass Wire Grass Pointed Rice Grass Weeping Grass . . Scented Holy Grass Pur])le Holy Grass Sand Spear Grass Belir Spear Grass Slender Spear Grass Wandering Spear Grass . . Branching Spear Grass Dark Flowered Spear Grass Feather Spear Grass Pale Spear Grass Round Leaved Spear Grass Desert Spear Grass Corkscrew Grass > . : Cotton Spear Grass Graceful Spear Grass Golden Flags Wiry Spear Grass Fibrous Spear Grass Tall Spear Grass Bristly Spear Grass Rough Spear Gra«s Introduced from other States. A goodi fodder grass ; useful for hay Valuable alike for pasture and for hay has good fattening properties One of our best native pasture grasses ;; useful also for hay Excellent perennial pasture grass ; stands- drought well Good grass for pasture or for hay Rather coarse grass ; yields a fair amount of nutritious lodder when young Drought-resisting ; useful for pasturage- when young Fairly good fodder grass. The coarse hay of this species is used by Fijians for mattresses Good pasture grass, with a good leafy bottom Good pasture grass when young, but becomes harsh and wiry when older Introduced from other States. A good fodder grass, also for hay, but becomes troublesome in cultivated ground, as its deep and spreading rcKjts mat the soil Good fodder grass for cattle, hut not for sheep I This is one of the best of our perennial native fodder grasses ; useful for hay. I Horses and cattle are fond of it I Valuable grass for dry situations ; useful for hay ' Valuable perennial fodder grass for ] swampy or moist ground I Too tough to be of much use for fodder I Too tough and wiry to be of much value j for fodder I Similar to the two preceding gTasses Excellent pasture grass for moist situations Of fair pastnre value when young, but becomes harsh when old About the same value as H. redolens k\\ the species of this genus are only useful at an early pericd of their growth. When older, they become troublesome on account of their awns (three-pronged) with sharp points, which pierce the skins of sheep, and even tiieir eyes if the wool around them is not clip])ed away All the species of tliis genus have'a fair ^ amount of pasture value when young ; but,' . when older, develop spear-like awns, which pierce the skins- of sheep, and cause considerable damage. 'They are also dangerous to the eyes of stock, and tlieir presence in wool lowers its value lo Aug., 1 9 II.] Y (macular Names <>f Victorian Plants. 537 Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. Mono* oTYi.EDONE.^^ — Acaly< e.^c — HypOuyn.e — continued. GR.UIINE.E — coiitili lied. Dkhelachne — crinita. Hook. f. sciurea, Hook. I. Pentapogon - Biliardieri. K.Br. Ecliinopogon — • ovatus, Beauv. . . Amphipogon - strictus, K.Br. . . Pappophorum — ■ nigricans, R.Br, {comniune. F.v.M.) Spofubolus — • virginicus, Huiiili. and Kuntli. indicus, R.Br. . . Lindlcyi, Benth. Aijrostis — • Muelleri. Bentli. scabra, Willd. . . venusta, Trinius Deyeuxiu — Forsteri. Kunth. quadriscta. Bentli. quadriseta, var. Montana. K.Br, den.sa, F.v.M. minor, Benth. . . irigida, F.v.M. . . scabra, Benth. . . nivalis, F.v.M. . . Dewhumpnu — csespitosa (L.). Beauv. Triseturn- - subspicatum. I'alisnt Aninojioyon - ave.nacous, K.Hr. Diinthoniu — biparita, F.v..M. earphoides. K.v.M. pcnicillata. K.v.M. rohii.Hta. K.V..M. pauciflora, R.Br, nervosa, Hook. i. Cynodon— Daetylon. IVr> !>.").-)4. Long-hair Plume Gra.ss Short-hair Plume Gra-ss Five-awned Spear Grass Hedgehog Grass Bearded Heads . . Xigger Heads Virginian Kat-tail Grass Indian Kat-tail Grass Lindlcy Rat-tail (ira-ss Mueller Bent Grass Rough Bent Grass Graceful Bent (;ra.>is Toothed Bent Grass Reed Bent Grass Mountain Bent Grass Dense Bent Grass Small Bi'nt Grass Alpine Bent Grass Coarse Bent Grass Snowy Bent Grass Tuited Hair Grass fSi)iked Clat Grass Oat S]iear (Jra.ss Desert Wallaby (;ras.s Small Wallaby Griu-w Goniiniin Wallaby Orn.ss Kibbiiny Wallaby Grass Dwarf Wallaby Grass Swamp Wallaby Grass Inillaii Cnueh (ira>s Useful for pasturage, also for hay Useful grass, though not of the highest value Pasture grass, though not in the first rank Harsh grass, usually found under shrubs and fences, and occasionally affords a bite to hungry stock when better grasses are not available Rather harsh grass ; suitable for fodder when young I Drought-resisting grass ; not readily eaten bv stock This grass has somewhat the habit of couch grass, and is valuable for saline situations Wlien young, it affords a fair amount of pasturage, but becomes tough and wiry when older This is one of the prettiest of our native grasses ; also has fair pasture value Valuable alpine pasture grass Good pasture grass ; is also a good lawn grass, forming a dense turf Of slight pasture value Useful winter grass VGood fodder grass, especially for cattli' Of slight pasture value Alpine grass of fair jiasluie vali;e Tliis perennial tussocky grass has not a high forage value Perennial grass, found in most i)arts of tlie world, and has a good pasture value I Usually found in poor sandstone country, and is sparsely tussocky; of slight fodder value I'scful perennial iiasture grass fur arid localities Useful pasture grass, but not first ela.-s This variable grass, which has .sometimes been sejiarated into several species, is c(jnsidered to be the best of our native gra.sses Usually found in alpine localities; valu- al)le as a fodder gra.ss Small alpine jiasture grass Tall gra.ss ; nutritious and |.iilal.ible to stock Useful pasture grass ; a gooti lawn gra.os, also for binding Iimi:..- sand, but trouble- some in garden- and eultivateil land 538 Jounuil of AgricuUitrc. yictorla. [lo Aug., 1911. Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued.. Botanical Name. Use or Character. M0NOCOTVLEDOXE.5 — AcALYC'E^E — Hypogyn^ — coniinued. Gramin'E.e — continued. Chloris— acicularis, LindL trunrata, R.Br. Eleusine — cruciata, Lamarck Port— Labillardieri,Steud. caespitosa, G. Torster nodosa, Nees. lepida. F.v.M. . . Glyceria — Fordeaua. F.v.M. fluitans, K.Br. . . stricta. Hook. f. dives, F.v.M. ramigera, F.v.M. Festuca — duriuscula, L. littoralis, Labill. Hookeriana. F.v.M. Diplachne — ■ loliiformis. F.v.M. fusca, Palisot Triodia — irritans, E.Br. . . Bistichlis — maritima. Rafin. Bromus — arenariiLs, Labill. Eragrogtis — tenella. Palisot . . pilosa, Palisot . . •diandra, Steud. . . Bro Willi, Nees. . . setifolia. Nees. . . lacunaria, F.v.M. falcata. Gaud. . . Elythrophorus — articulatus. Palisot Trirhaphis — mollis. R.Br. Les.ser Star Grass Windmill Grass B'inger Grass Blue Meadow Grass Tutted Meadow Grass Knotted Meadow Grass Scalv Meadow Grass Sweet Swamp Grass Manna Grass Quicksand Grass Giant Mountain Grass Bamboo Grass . . Hard Fescue Coast Fescue Hooker Fescue . . Eye Beetle Grass Brown Beetle Grass False Spinilex . . Salt Grass Delicate Love Grass Soft Love Grass Short Headed Love Grass Common Love Grass Bristlv Love Grass Mallee Love Grass Sickle Love Grass Spiky Grass Needle Grass Of fair pasture value Good pasture grass, and stands drought well Useful pasture grass Perennial rigid grass, of some value fo saline meadows Valualile pasture grass, readily eaten by stock ; when tall, possibly of use for weaving Perennial; grows in almost pure sand. Produces tuberous enlargements at the roots. Nutritious fodder Of fair pasture value Useful fodder grass for moist situations One of the best fodder grasses for very damp situations Fair pasture value This tall mountain grass grows best in shady places on deep soil along rivulets, Suitable for fodder when young; grows in swamps ; its cane-like stems a useful for thatching Grows well in hiUy places, and is one of the best of the smaller fescues Good grass for binding drift sand on sea- shore This tall perennial grass stiinds cold well, and is liked bv stock This small grass is eaten by sheep, but is not of much value for fodder Suitable for damp situations ; readily eaten by stock Useful for fodder when young Tills dwarf creeping grass is of value for binding soil Though not of the first cla,ss, is a useful fodder grass ; does not stand drought Though small, is a good pasture grass Abundant annual grass ; readily eaten by stock Fair pasture grass Valuable pasture grass ; readily eaten by stock Useful for pasture when young, but becomes wiry when older Wiry grass of little value Small grass, wiry in appearance ; useful for pasture in arid districts Handsome grass ; of little value to the grazier Ornamental grass; of little value for pasturage lo Aug., tqti.] Vernacular Names of Yicfrnaii Plaiiis. 539 Vernacular Xamks of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical \ame. Popular Name. Use or Character. MONOCOTYLKDONE/E — ACALYCE,^ — HyPOGYN.*; — COntiuwd. Geamine.E — continued. Agropyrum— scabrum, Palisot velutinum, Nees. pectinatum, Palisot Arundo— Phra«inites, L. C'allUrix — rol)U'>ta. K.Br. cupressiloriiiis. Vent. calcarata, K.Br. I'odorarpua — alpinu-;. K.Br. Common Wheat Grass Velvet Wheat Grass (■(.ml. Wlieat Grass Cuiniuou Reed . . Murray Pine, or Marons Cypress Pine Red Cypress Pine .\lpine Podocarp Rather harsh grass when in seed, but useful for fodder when young Of little value as a fodder grass Of fair fodder value when young A tall, coarse, perennial grass, growing on the borders of ponds and streams. Not of much value for fodder. Useful for thatching Wood obnoxious to wliite ants. Hard, heavy, light-coloured ; tit for furniture and flooring Its timber is not nnich used, and is light in weight as well as in colour Wood dark and ornamental ; useful for wainscotting, panelling, &e., and is immune from termites Grows in alpine situations ; value of tiinlier unknown CRYPTOGA'VS/E. Vascular :•:«. RHI/()S1'EKM.K. Azolla— pinnata, R.Br. . . rubra, R.Br. MarsilM — ■ quadrifolia. L. . . Piluluriu — globullfera. I,. . . Isoeles — Drumiiiondii. A. liraun liVCOl'OIIIN.K. Psiloluiii — tri(|uetrum, Swartz Tmesipteris — Taunensis, Mrmb. Lycopoditim - Selago, L. clavatuni. b. ('arolini.'iiiiiiii, b. hiterale. K.lir. . . densuiii, baliill. scarlosuni, (i. Korsti-r SeluijinelUi - 1'reis.siana. Spiing. uliginosa, ."Spring. l'l,i,ll„ul<,K.,„„ - l>njriiiii..nilii. Kiiii/le Common AzoUa Red Azolla Xardoo Creeping I'illwort (Juillwort Skeleton Clul) Moss I'eni (lull Moss. . Kir (lull .Moss Coinnion Club Moss Sitreailiiig Club Jfoss Cre<'|)ing Club Moss Mountain Club Moss . .\lpiue (lull .Moss Pr.'iss Chill .Moss Swamp (lull Muss DruiMiimnd Club Moss r I I Troublesome weeds of p.inds. shallow / lakes, (tc. The fruit is edible ; forms part of the food of some of the aboriginal inland tribes Ha-; no pasture value Plant ot mnlst places ; of nn iiasture value Grows in rocky places, itc. Koiiud also in Asia, Africa, and America .j._ Grows on trunks of trees, ferns, in'fern gullies, Ac. ' Yields l.ycopodiiim powiler Capable of pot eullure iu'cri'i'Mliouses 540 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 i. Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — cantinued. BotanicarName. Popular Name. Use or Character. (H FiLICES. Oph iiiijliiKs inn — viilgatum, L. Botrychium — Lunar ia, Swartz ternatum, Swartz Sehizcea — flstulosa, Lab. . . bifida, Willd. . . Trichomanes — venosum, R.Br. humile, G. For.ster Hymenophyllum — flabellatuin. (Lab.) (I tens) australe, Willd. javanicum) Tunbridgense, Smith Gleichenia — circinata, Swartz. dicarpa, R.Br. . . flabeUata, R.Br. Hermanni, R.Br. Todea — barbara (L.) Moore (Os- munda barbara, Thunb.) Cyathea — meduUaris, Swartz. Cunninghami, Hook. f. . . Alsophila — australis, R.Br. . . Dicksonia — antarctica, Lab. (D. Bil- lardieri, F.v.M.) davallioides, R.Br. D avallia — - pyxidata, Cav. . . dubia, R.Br. Lindsayn — linearis, Swartz. trichomanioides, Dry. Adiantum — Jithiopicum, L. formosuni. R.Br. diaplianum, Blume. hispiiluliim. Swartz. yothohfiKi ( ( 'lifiltinthes] — Briiwiiii. Desv. (vellea, R.Br.) distans, R.Br. . . Cheilanthes — tenuifolia, Swartz. Pteris — falcata, R.Br. . . longifolia, L. umbrosa, R.Br, arguta. Aiton atjuilina, L. incisa, Tluinb. comans, G. Forster CRYPTOOAM.^i — Vasculares — continutd. Adder's Tongue Common Moonwort Meadow Moonwort Comb Fern Forked Comb Fern Bristle Fern Short Briistle Fern Shining Filmy Fern Austral Filmy Fern Tunbridge Filmy Fern Coral Fern Wire Fern Umbrella Fern . . Fan Fern (G. dichotoma Hook ; G. linearis, Clarke) King Fern Black Tree Fern Slender Tree Fern Prickly Tree Fern Common Tree Fern Creeping Dicksonia Hare's-foot Fern Rainbow Fern . . Screw Fern Wiry Fern (Lindsava cun eata (Forst.), Chr.) ComiiKiii Maidenhair Beautiful .Maidenhair Filmy Maitlfuliiur Rough Maidenhair Downy Rock Fern Bristly Rock Fern Common Rock Fern Sickle Fern (Pellsea falcata (R.Br.), Fee.) Long Sickle Fern Shady Brake Fern Tender Bracken Common Bracken (Pteridi um aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) Batswing Fern (Histiop- teris incisa (Thmib.), J.Sm.) Hairy Bracken . . A large numlier of our native ferns are handsciiiie dcidrative phmts, which may br jiidwii sui-cessfully in ferneries or giecii-iiDuscs. Tliis applies to the two jirinciiial " Tree Ferns," namely, Dicl-xiDiid iinlarctica and Alsophila auslrulis. wliich may be grown in the open garden it sheltered from winds and protected from too much exposure to the sun by the overhanging foliage of taller trees. The handsome " King- Fern " requires full shade and careful treatment. Various species of Adian- tum, Lomaria, Davallia, Cheilanthes, Asplenium, Aspidium, and Poly- podium are suitable for pot culture in green-houses, and can also be grown on the ground in shrubberies if well supplied with water. The " Filmy Ferns " {Hy- menophyllum) require a continuously moist atmosphere, as well as shade, to be. grown successfully, and, in the open, a hot north wind may kill them completely in an hour or two. Apart from their decorative use, none of our native ferns have any special economic value Often takes possession of newly cleared land if neglected See above remarks regarding native ferns * The nomenclature of the ferns for the whole world has latelv undergone drastic revision. In nearly all cases, the new names are given in brackets after the popular name, since to make all the alterations in the present list would be too confusing for local botanists who have not yet had the opportunity of acquiring the new names. lo Aug., 191 1 ■] Vcniacuhir X antes of \ictorian Plants. 541 Vernacular Names of Vktoriax Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name, Use or Character. Crvptogam.se — Vascular ES — ^onlinu^d. FlhlCES^cnutinued. Loniaria (Blechnum) — Patersoni, Spreiig. discolor, Willd. . . lanccolata, Spii'iij;. alpina. Spreug. . . fluviatilis, Si)ri>iig. capeusis, Willil. capeiisis, var. i)roi-ora Ulechnum — eartilagiueiini. Swart z. Doodia (Woodwurdiu) - aspera, R.Br. eaudata (Cav.). K.Br. Asplenium — nidus. L. Tricliomanes. L. flahellitoliuni. Cav. Hookeraniuni, Colenso ])rrt Rat-tail Sitleenwort Hooker Spleenwcnt Forked Spleenwort Sea Spleenwort . . Mother Spleenwort Shady Spleenwort (Athy- riuni unilirosum lAit.), Pr.) Lady Fern Brittle Bladder Fern I Soft Shield Fern (Dryop- I teris par.asitica. L.) j fat-head Fern (Polystidi- I um aculeatum (J..), j Schott.) I Leathery Sliield Fern ( I'oly- I sticluim adiaiiti forme I I Forst.). .LSm.) I Sliiny Shield Fern iDryoj)- I terisdecomposita i R.Br.), I O.Ktze.) Tender Shield Fern (Uryop- I teris tenera (R.Br.), I C.Chr.) Hairy Shield Fern (Poly- stichum liispidiim iSw.), I J.Sm.) Finger Fern ; <'ipsy Fern Creeping Polvpodv I Spotted I'olviiodv I Scented Polypody (I'. i>ii>- j tulatum. Forst.) ] (Iround Polypody I Soft Hypolepis . . ' Connnoii Rue Fern (PU'uro- I sorus rntipfolius (R.Br.). Fee.) hi'licate Rue Fern (Aiio- graniina h*pt<)phvlln (L.), Link.) See remarks on previous page regarding native ferns. t not Mitticit'iitl y iiii>\i ; and. with the object of saving as much expense as ixjssible, the dimensions have l)een kej)t as small as thf nature of ttie work will ci)n\eniemly ixrmit. The bench is int<-nd'- "g ^ "^^^ tive arrangement is that shown in Fig. 11. 11. connecting rod. Fixing the Anvil. To fix the anvil in position a hardwood block, 2 ft. long and about I ft. square or round, is sunk into the ground to such a depth that the anvil, when placed on top, wall be standing 2 ft. above the floor level. The relative position of the anvil to the fire is shown in Fig. 5. There are several methods of fastening the anvil to the block, the simplest being to make four spikes about 6 in. long and | in. or | in. diameter, and dri\e them into the block in the positions indicated in the drawing. Cooling Tub. It is essential to have water close to the fire as it must be repeatedly sprinkled when coal is used as fuel, to prevent the fire from spreading, and to quench the flame which arises when fresh coal is added. Water is also wanted for cooling the iron, and for tempering steel. {To be continued.) MILLIPEDES DESTROYING \'ECIETABLES. C. French, Jun., Acting Government Entomologist. During tlie last few months vegetable growers have complained about losses caused through what they describe as " small, white, worm-like in- sects.'" Specimens were sent to this Branch for examination and report as to the best means for their suppression. On examining the soil taken from around cabbages, cauliflowers, parsnips, potatoes, and other vegetables, millipedes could Ix* seen in great numbers. Millipedes belong to the order known as M \riopoda. They are of a dirty white colour, measure al)out i inch, and have two pairs of legs on each segment of the body. The following remedies have pr<)\ed very eftectual : — Arsenate of Lead. — Spray a few vegetable leaves with arsenate of lead, 'j'hese should l)e dug into the soil, and renewed from time to time. Benzole Emulsion. — This is a cheap preparation, the cost U'ing about 8d. per i-lb. till (i ll>. makes five gallons). The ground should be thoroughlv w.itrn'(l with an ordinary watering can ; thcrt- is no danger of injury to the plants. Thev luav also be trapped. Place scooped-out turnijis or potatoes in the ground o\t rnight. remove them each morning and dip in boiling water. 55°. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 i. DYSENTERY IX BEES AND NOSEMA APIS. F. R. Beuhne, Bee Expert. Since the publication of the articles on Bee Mortality in the Journal for January, 19 10, which reported the presence in Victorian bees of the Nosefna parasite discovered by Dr. Zander, bee-keepers have looked upon this parasite as a serious menace to the bee-keeping industry. I refer to those bee-keepers who assumed that the abnormal losses of bees in the Grampians country in the spring of 1909 were caused by Nosema apis. The microscopical examinations of bees from all parts of Victoria, made by Mr. W. Laidlaw, B.Sc, Biologist of the Department of Agri- culture, during the past twehe months, show that Nosema apis is present in some bees in nearly every apiary, even in localities where losses have never occurred, and where colonies are in a prosperous and highly pro- ductive condition. This reassuring outlook is further strengthened by an article in the Miinchener Bienen Zeitung of May, 191 1, by Dr. Walter Hein, of the Biological Experiment Station at Munich. After recapitulating Dr. Zander's theory of Nosema apis. Dr. Hein says : — Dr. Zander's theory created much stir; and, in view of the far-reaching con- sequences which he indicated as being proved b\' observations and experiments, it appears desirable to review the Nosema question in the light of scientific observa- tions and experiments made by others. In March, 1910, Dr. A. Maas.sen, of the Imperial Biological Institute, published the following results of some interesting experiments : — A colony of bees experimentally infected did not show Nosema spores in the excrements voided a fortnight later, and only a month later was the parasite found in the chyle stomach of the bees, and still later in the excreta. Two other experimental stocks appeared quite healthy four weeks after in- fection. In six weeks, parasites were observed ; and, even after eight weeks, there were no distinct symptoms of dysentery, although by now the parasite could be found in mosjt of the bees. One of these colonies did not show any symptoms till three months had passed. Dr. Maassen states that it is probable that the Nosema parasite will be found in limited numbers in bees without causing a noticeable inter- ference with the health of the colonies, and that Nosema onlv becomes dangerous when adverse conditions lower the vitality of the bees. In a publication of more recent date (March, 191 1) Dr. Maassen gives the results of later experiments which in many respects contradict those of Dr. Zander. The distribution of Nosema apis is so great that there are perhaps only a few apiaries in Germany where all colonies are absolutely c'ean. Even in only mildly affected colonies, odd bees contained the parasite in enormous numbers. Badly infected bees live remarkably long and remain active. In autumn, 1909, Dr. Maassen wintered thirty colonies which showed a high degree of infection. In spring, three of the colonies showed symptoms of dysentery ; two, hea^•y losses in bees ; and one had died of starvation. The remaining stocks wintered well and built up normally, while even those with symptoms recovered. In all the colonies the parasite could always easily be found. In some of the hives " May Sickness " suddenly appeared without, however, doing much injury to them. The bees examined showed enormous numbers of Nosema spores, but even these colonies recovered and behaved exactly the same as perfectly healthy lo Aug., 1911.] Dysentery, in Bees and Xosenia Apis. 551 ones, during the summer, notwithstanding that Nosema-infected bees could always be found ; only newly hatched bees were in every instance free from the parasite. Dr. Maassen's experiments throw considerable doubt on the correctness of Dr. Zander's view of the devastation resulting from Nosema apis. The twenty-four badly infected stocks which wintered and built up well should at least have shown large numbers of dead bees ; but they did not, and only 10 per cent, of the infected colonies showed symptoms, and even these recovered. After recounting a similar case which occurred in Bavaria, Dr. Hein proceeds : — Other instances could be given of colonies in whicli Nosema was proved to be present to a considerable degree at the beginning of winter without any notice- able detrimental consequences r'^sulting in spring. There was no dysentery and no mortality of large numbers of bees. In dealing here briefly with the Nosema pest, as described by Dr. Zander, I cannot accept his repeated contention : " The diseased bees are hopelessly doomed.' Amongst the lower animals, cjuite a number of parasites are known which may be found in the majority of the individuals of a species in very large numbers, and yet cannot be considered as disease-producing, e.xcept in rare instances. We also know of animals which are inhabited at the same time by a number of harmless parasites which are not con- sidered disease-producing. But when such a parasite-infested animal becomes weakened by starvation, cold, poor nourishment or disease, then these parasites multiply rapidly and hasten death. They therefore can only be looked upon as a secondary or contributing cause. The proof that Nosema always causes dysentery, and the destruction of the affected bees, is entirely wanting. The few experiments made by Dr. Zander are insufficient ; this is proved by Dr. Maassen's experi- ments. The assiunption that May disease is caused by Nosema apis also lacks experimental proof. Even though the parasite is regularly found in great numbers in bees affected with May disease, its connexion with it, as the cause, must be proved by conclusive e\[>eriments before it can be accepted. From the point of view of Nosema apis, adopted by Dr. Zander, his advice for combating the disease is totally inadequate. If the Nosema parasite is, as Dr. Zander assumes, the primary cause of the disease, the remedies recommended by him (except destruction by fire) can only result in maintaining the source of infection, instead of removing it. By transferring to clean hives, re-queening, and removal of combs, the diseased bees are kept alive, and after a few hours or days again cause infection of their new surroundings. The present aspect of the ([uestiou is that Nosema apis is a frequent inhabitant of tees, and should certainly not be treated with indifference. But, to consider the parasite as tlie primary cause of dysentery, as Dr. Zander does, is not justifiable at present. Nosema is present in apiaries; and, with Lni-es weakened by adverse conditions or irrational management, it may get the upper hand through the bees losing their resistance to the parasite. The experiments of Dr. Maassen and others demonstrate that a good strong colony of bees can harbour the parasite for a long time, without loss of vigour and productiveness. With natural, cleanly and rational treatment, it should not be too difficult to maintain colonies in such a condition that they are able to resist the apparently unaxoidahle Nosema parasite. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 i. INSECTITOROIS BIRDS OF VICTORIA. White-throated Tree Creeper {Climacteris Uucofhaa, Latham). C. French, Jim., .\cling Government Entomologist. The \\"hite-thr(>ated Tree Creeper is one of our most useful insect- destroying birds, and is fairly plentiful in many parts of the State. I have seen specimens at the Mornington Peninsula, ^^'erribee Gorge. Melton, and other places. Like other species of Tree Creepers, it has the peculiar habit of ascend- ing trees in a kind of spiral course by a series of short hops or jumps, and disappearing and re-appearing every few seconds; all the while searching for insects in the cre^■ices of the trees. A correspondent in Gippsland whites that he regards this as one of the best insect-destroying birds in the district. He has frequently noticed it working its way round and round apple and pear trees in search of the grubs and chrysalides of the codlin moth and other injurious insects which form its chief food. This species is easily distinguished from the Brown Tree Creeper, which is also a very useful bird, by its white throat ; the centre of the abdomen is also white, while the coat is greyish brown. The female is almost similar in colour to the male, with the exception that it has a small patch of orange- coloured feathers below the ear coverts. The White-throated Tree Creeper builds its nest in the holloAv branch of a tree, usually a dead one. The nest is generally composed of fane pieces of l-ark, grasses, &c., and it is lined with feathers and rabbit or opossum fur. As a rule, the clutch of eggs consists of three, of a dull white colour, with spots of reddish-brown. The dimensions of the egg are: — Length, o.S inch; breadth. 0.65 inch. The breeding time is from the middle of August to December. In addition to Victoria, the White-throated Tree Creeper is found in New South Wales, (Queensland, and South Australia. The accompanying plate will enable readers to easily identify it. It is scarcely necessary to add that this bird deserves e\ery protection from fruit-growers and others engaged in rural pursuits. /.. C Viilti. Atulnsni, l>,l ,/.,;.. /sf.'if f' C' , /Mm/ WHITE THROATED TREE CREEPER. (Cliiiiiictcns leiicopliu-ii. Liitliuni .) lo Aug., 1911.] Experimental Forage Plots, igio-ii. 553 EXPERIMENTAL FORAGE PLOTS, lOlO-lL T. A. J. Siv.it li. Chief Field Ofjicer. Maize. For convenience and information as to tlie varieties suited to different districts, the maize plots ha\e been divided into tliree areas, viz., Northern and Central, Southern, and \\'estern. All the plots were sown with the same weights of seed and manures, that of seed being 28 lbs. per acre, and the manure i cwt. superphosphate and \ cwt. sulphate of ammonia per acre. It is necessary to mention that some of the plots were partially destroyed by rabbits, and in another instance stock had been turned on before some of the later varieties had time to fully mature. On one plot, the maize had been cut and used for green feed ; though the approximate weights were taken by the owner, they are not taken into account in the averages, as only those i)lots weighed by an officer of the Department can be considered, in order to secure uniform calculations. Northern and Central. — -The plots that did best were at Pootilla, Swan Hill, Eallarat, and Bacchus Marsh. Yellow Moruya and Sydney Flat Red ga\e an average return of i6| tons per acre from .seventeen plots. At Pootilla, in a rich red loam, Yellow Moruya returned 25I tons per acre. Boone County Special and Blood Red came next, with an average of 15 tons for the same number of fields. Owing to its small seeds, Blood Red was sown very much thicker than any of the other varieties. If this maize were sown the same distance apart as the others, 1 think that it would yield very heavily, especially as a very noticeable feature about it was the number of cobs that each plant grew in compari.son with those alongside it. Cold- mine gave an average return of i^f tons, and Eclipse and Hickorv King. 13 and i2| tons respectively. Southern. — In the Southern area. Yellow Moruva again leads with an average yield of 16^ tons per acre from eight plots. In the Alberton plot this variety returned 32^ tons per acre, Sydney Flat Red coming next with 15I tons. Farmers all speak very highly of Sydney Flat Red and Blood Red, as they are not so coarse as Yellow Moruya and Hickory King. Eclipse, for the same number of plots, gave an average return of 15]- tons. Boone County Special. 13 ; Coldmine. 12^ ; Hickorv King, ii ; and Blood Red. 10 tons per acre. com})lete the list of varieties sown in the Southern experimental fields. These figures do not rlo the best crops justice, as two of the i)lots were waterlogged for a eonsidfrabic period, thus bringing the averages down considerably. Western. — In the Western area, the averages are lower again than in either of the other two. Eclipse is the only maize that shows an improve- ment. It leads with an average weight of i6| tons per acre for seven fields, Yellow Moruya coming next with 14! tons for the same number. The remaining varieties follow in tin- following order: Hickory King and Boone County Special, 10,^ tons: Svdney V\a\ \\i-A. 10 tons; Hlood Red. 9J tons ; and Coldmine, 8| tons. 'I'he sample of Hickory King st>ed was not the best. Owing to its luning be the .iitenfion required to gi\<' them .1 f.iir chance. 554 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 i. Fertilizers.— The fertilizers used — superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia — might be varied in future to suit different soils and climates, with better effect. In districts with a low rainfall, and in soils containing a small amount of lime, blood and bone manure applied with the first fallow for these crops would probably be more effective. While, on soils containing lime in fair quantity, the superphosphate and sulphate of am- monia will have good effect. Varieties. — Yellow Moruya was much later in ripening than the other varieties, keeping green right' up to the last, the cobs not maturing properly. The stalk was large and coar.se and when cut for green fodder was not. relished by the stock to the same extent as Blood Red, Sydney Flat Red, and Goldmine. It is therefore a good' maize to grow for silage on account of its heavy yielding; capacity and pro- clivity for keeping green, especially in- the Northern dis- tricts. Practically the same remarks apply to Hickory King. The large stalks make it difiicult for cattle to eat it, un- less converted into- silage. It is also a late ripener. Blood Red is a fairly early ripener and cobs well. It has given satisfac- tion when cut for green fodder for cattle. Sydney Flat Red and Goldmine are- next in order, both as regards earlv maturitv and green- fodder. Eclipse keeps- green right up to- the end of the season, has a fine long stalk, is a fair cob-bearer, and is good as a green fodder and for silage purposes. In early dry districts it appears to stand drought better than the others and is an easy variety to- handle for cutting into silage. SojA Beans. The Soja Beans, with two exceptions, did badly, but in nearly every place the heavy rains precluded any chance of their doing well. At Chel- tenham, they gave a return of 12 tons of green fodder per acre, and at Smythe's-road, Ballarat, 10 tons per acre. HICKORY KING AND YELLOW MORUYA MAIZE AT VARRA GLEN. go Aug.. 191 i.] Experinitutal Forage Plots, igio-11. 55^ J'Htrnal of Ag^riciilturc, Yicioria. [lo Aug., 191 i. Millets. Millets were only sown in one plot — at Ballarat. Japane.se gave a return of 7I tons ; and French White. 6 tons per acre. Broom Corn. At Geelong, two \arieties of Broom Corn were sown, and were splendid samples, being pi feet in height ; the weights per acre were — Californian, 6^ tons; Italian, 3f tons. Broom Corn, though not so good a fodder, makes silage practically- equal to maize on analysis, and can be grown where maize is doubtful, being hardier and requiring less moisture. It is necessary, however, to have paddocks well fenced, as stock are very liable to get " blown " if they get access to this crop in the early stages of growth up to the seeding period. Broom Corn can also be grown for the panicles, which yield about 7 cwt. per acre, and are worth on an average £^2^ per ton ; the.se are cut on the green side and the stalk can afterwards be made into silage. THE ARTIFICIAL MANURES ACTS. UNIT VALUES FOR 1911. P. R. Scott, Clioiiist for Agriculture. Since the publication of the last unit values of manures, the principal Act, No. 1930, of 1904, has been amended in many important directions, and the short amending Act of 1905 has been entirely repealed. Experi- ence in the administration of the old Acts disclosed certain weak points and cumbersome requirements, and while these have been remedied and simplified for the more effective administration of the law. the protection to the farmers and others interested has in no way been diminished. Requirements of the Amended Act.s. In lieu of the necessity which existed under the old Acts for manufac- turers, importers, and vendors to submit representative samples of manures- for analysis, a system has been substituted whereby manufacturers or im- porters are required, on or before ist November in each year, to register the brands of their several fertilizers, and at the same time supply to- the Secretary for Agriculture, under declaration, the name and address- of manufacturer or importer, the place of manufacture, the raw material from which the manure is manufnrtured or prepared, a statement of the lo Aug., 1911.] Artificial Manures Ads. 557 percentages of plant foods contained in the manures, and the retail price per ton. From the.se percentages and prices, the unit values of the con- stituents, which have a commercial value, are calculated, and this unit value constitutes the basis for calculating the values of all manures for the period during which the registered brands continue in force. Another important amendment is the introduction of a schedule fixing- a definite limit of deficiency allowable in all fertilizers. When an)- manure is shown to contain less nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash than the proportions stated on the label or in the invoice certificate, to the extent set forth in ^he schedule, the vendor is liable to a fine of ^10 for a first offence, and -Q^o for aiiv subsequent offence. Schedule. Description of .Maiiun Percentages of Deficiency allowed in regard to Ingredients of Fertilizing Value. I Xitrogen. All manures containing nitrogen All manures containing potash All manures containing water soluble pliosphoric acid All manures containing citrate soluble phosphoric acid All manure containing citrate in- soluble phosphoric acid . . Potash readily Soluble. Phosphoric Acid. Water Soluble. Citrate Soluble. Citrate Insoluble . 1 -00 • 1-00* • Note. — Provided tliat the total i)hosphoric acid deficiency shall not exceed 1-50 per cent. Amongst the important sections of the old Act which have not been- repealed are Nos. 5 and 7. These clauses require the vendor to attach to each bag a label or tag, declaring the composition of the manure sold in quantities exceeding 56 lbs., and to deliver to all purchasers of manures- at or before the time of sale an invoice certificate conveving similar infor- mation to that required to l>e stated on the label. Practical L'tilitv of Unit Value System. From the unit values and the guarantee contained on the tags or- invoice certificates, any purchaser of manure is enabled to ascertain if the ])rice asked for a manure is its reasonable commercial value. Tt should be borne in iniml that in Iniying a fertilizer at a stated ])rice per Ion (Ik puK haser is buying so many pounds of plant foods according to- guaranlee. ami it dot's not necessarily follow that the manure for which the lowest price per ton i."; asked is the cheapest one to purchase. Low grade manures are generally expensive in tin- long run. when the- cost of handling, transport, and other expen.ses are taken into consideration. It will be noted thai thi' \ixur asked for mixed manures is generallv higher than the coinmercial \alne which would Ik* arrived at bv means of a calculation from the unit \alne. but it nuist l)e rememlH-red that in fixing the unit values no allowance i>, made b)r the cost of mixing and other incidental e\i)enses. but only the actual value of the constituents which ii.ni' a (oinmereial \alue is taken into account. £ s. d. 0 17 4 0 14 9 0 13 6 0 12 0 0 4 8 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 6 0 5 (> 558 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug., 191 i. The unit values and methods of calculation are shown hereunder : — Unit Values of Manures for 1911. {Calculated from the declared prices of Fertilizers registered at the Office of Secretary for Agriculture.) 1 per cent, of nitrogen in the form of nitrate 1 „ nitrogen in the form of ammonia 1 ,, nitrogen in the form of blood 1 ,, nitrogen in bonedusts, bone fertilizers, or animal fertilizers 1 ,, water soluble phosphoric acid 1 ,, citrate soluble phosphoric acid 1 ,, phosphoric acid in fine bone 1 .. insoluble phosphoric acid in superpliosphates, nitro-superphos- phates, ground phosphates, and guanos . . 1 .. insoluble phosphoric acid in mixed manures, Thomas phos- phate, bone fertilizers, and in coarse bone 1 .. potash in the form of chloride 1 ,, potash in the form of sulphate Method of Calculating the Commercial Value of a Manure. The commercial value per ton of a manure sold in Victoria is obtained by multiplying the percentages stated of the fertilizing substances by the corresponding unit values fixed therefor and adding the separate values together. Examples : — 1. Nitrate of Soda. Invoice certificate or tag, 15.50 per cent. £ s. d. Calculation— 15-50 x 17s. 4d. = .. .. . . 13 8 8 Calculated value per ton = . . . . ..1388 2. Superphosphate. Invoice certificate or tag : — Water soluble phosphoric acid . . . . 17 per cent. Citrate soluble phosphoric acid . . . . 1 ,, Insoluble phosphoric acid . . . . . . 2 ,, Total phosphoric acid . . . . 20 ,, £ s. d. Phosphoric acid (water soluble) — 17 x 4s. 8d. = .. .. 3 19 4 (citrate soluble) — 1 x 4s. = . . . . 0 4 0 .. (insoluble)— 2 x 2s. = .. .. .. 0 4 0 Calculated value per ton . . . . . . ..474 3. Bonedust. Invoice certificate or tag : — Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . 3 • 50 f)er cent. Phosphoric acid .. .. .. .. 19'50 ,, Mechanical condition ; — Fine . . • • • • . . 40 per cent. Coarse . . . . . . . . 60 ,, £ s. d. Nitrogen— 3-5 x 12s- .. .. .. ..220 19-50 X 40 ,. Q^ . 1 11 o Phosphoric acid, fine — ^r^ — / »u x 4h. .. i 11 j, T.1 T. • -1 19-50 X 60 ,, -^ o 1 ic 1 Phosphoric acid, coarse — - = 11-70 x 3s. .. 1 15 1 ^ 100 Total value per ton . . • ■ ..583 1-60 per cent. 11-50 per cent. •65 J, 1-25 jj 1-50 ,, £ .s. d. 1 3 7 2 13 8 0 2 7 0 3 f> 0 6 9 lo Aug., 1911.] Artificial Manures Acts. 559 4. Mixed Manure. Invoice certificate or tag : — Nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia Piiosphoric acid — Water soluble Citrate soluble Citrate insoluble Potash as muriate (chloride). Calculation — IGO X 14s. 9d. = 11-50 X 4s. 8d. = - 65 X 4s. = 1-25 X 3s. = 1-50 X 4s. 6d. = Calculated value per ton . . . . . . . . 4 10 4 General Remarks. All substances containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash,, manufactured or prepared for the purpose of fertilizing the soil or sup- plying nutriment to plants, come under the operation of the Artificial Manures Acts. As regards nitrogen, we find the chief supply in three dif- ferent chemical forms, namely, nitrate, ammonia, and organic. In the nitrate state it is combined with sodium, forming nitrate of soda, which is readily soluble in water, and is in a condition immediately available for plant nutrition. As ammonia, it combines with an acid radicle, form- ing sulphate of ammonia, which is also soluble in water, but is not so readily assimilated by the plant as the nitrate, and its action is conse- quentfy slowei in efrect. In the organic form, nitrogen is found in dried blood, bonedusts, and other organic substances. In this state, it is in- soluble in water, and therefore slowest in action, but it is not so liable to loss by seepage as the two first-mentioned forms. In addition to the above-named substances, new materials possessing nitrogenous properties are being introduced, such as nitrate of lime and cyanamide of calcium; both of these contain lime as a base, and are likely to be of considerable value as fertilizers in the future. Phosphoric acid appears under three headings (water soluble, citrate .soluble, and insoluble), and these terms express the forms in which phos- phoric acid is readily available, moderately so, or difficultly so, respec- tively. The first-mentioned form is, of course, soluble in water, the second is the portion soluble in citrate of ammonia after the extraction of the water soluble content. Citrate soluble form is generally considered to be available as plant food, and is of importance in arriving at the value of a fertilizer. The insoluble phosphoric acid is not of any immediate value to the plant, its action on soils is slow, and its use doubtful. Ex- perience has shown the necessity of fertilizers, which are immediately available to the plant, and for this reason insoluble phosphate is treated with sulphuric acid, and so converted into soluble superphosphate. In bonedusts, bone fertilizers, and mixed manures, there is a consider- able and varying proportion of phosphoric acid in the insoluble state. In Thomas phosphate, the phosphoric acid is contained in an available form. It possesses also a small percentage of free lime, and has qualities quite distinct from ordinary superphosphate, which is more readily .soluble. In all potash fertilizers the potash is of a uniform, roadily available, rh a racier. •Appendi^d is a list of all fertilizers registered in the office of the Sec- retary for .Agriculture for the year 1911, showing the particulars of eacW manure, as required hv fhf Art to bo published in the GoTerumeni Gazette. 560 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug., 191 i. 6 c8t3 a5— , ?'^\ 2-^ °rX ? 5 d o .2 -? £" . = Sx^ o ..a ox; . p i^fe. •3 — 0'.0 0000 -^0000000 O 000 000000 O 00 005000 -^^^o^t^ot^ccwo^ooot^ o lA^ftift iAiaioo»nift t^ o^ »Aiai>ifto 0 oooooooooooo-*o«io ^00 oooooooiooococooop ■4n 0 0 Ci :D n 0 in 00 0 lO 17-50 17-50 18-00 16-00 11-68 ooooomooin'MOMO ^ • • •00000(NOOO'>10«0 C'lWMG^'MrH'?JiO>acM(Mt^O 0 0 05 to .-1 QO »« 10 ■* 35 >0 000000 in too 0 oip in « CO CO « rH in t- 00 Ou^ 0 0 0 0 Xi in in in 0 CO rH r-l •* CO t~ is s ■3| 0000000 ooooo3;oigo ^0 ooooo-noioooiNooo'X'irt ■^•'i*^i-tWrHO^.^^^'-'t^OrHOO 0 01 0 in Tl* 0 OS 01 -H (M 000000 000000 -* tH ■* ■* tH -H in 00 0 0 00000 0 0 m oco .1 .-H CO CO •* r-l T-( ^3 ^1 OOOOOOOO^SOOiACOO^O ^00 00000»A0t^000(*^00ii5 ooot^t^t*t^t>'^^ccoO'*eO'-Hoo ^ -# -* i-H 1-1 rH rH r-l r-l rH t-l r-1 r1 r1 10 5^ e-i t~ oj CO Ol ift IM 00 t~ 0 0 00 10 0 • 0 in 0 0 00 ; ; ; in in o in 05 o 01 o ^ 3 5P 15 . m ss "2 §n * S - 2 «=:«^ .a . .-/-s s s 0^ • — c3 rt cS flj &C ^_, O - - o o o £• P. P. g p. ft ■p. 3 5 ^ *i w ^" 3 "3 -^ijS's P5 p; , «^ gw 2 r^-a ■n - PQ rM c d J2 -_r°=i^ ^0 s -2« -S bto- ^^5 CL;iids: ^Izi OO50OOOO50OOO XO>OOcO»«'M>rtOO?0'^0 OOOOOOOOO « ^ W »^ CO ^ cc CC ift »^ "^ S a S a 5 i s - --tI i-'i.^.s' S u 2 ^ ~ •' • l. N U 5^1 S - B ^ S^ <« <^ 5 0 00 CO ^ 00 00 .5 0 d 0 0 o' 0 c o' P 0 g d 0 0 d P c oSw^ SS.- .o^T^S-j T-o3._i .oS- . ^ 0 15=2 §515 ia^l §5 ^s ii5 §si5 §a f' 'S 5 _• .^•000000000000«>!0«00»tOOOCO!OtOO cS cSH a^OOOOOOOOOO"550t^t*t^O!M«u5-*iomeo«)«)«t>i>oOi)»-*-fococo««M-*'i<'i< 00 ocoo 00000000 "ol 0 .i.-*^ooooo>oooo 0 ^ 0 • • 'M C-l fM to 0 0 0 0 0 is>n»ni«>nmin>a^cotD',DcD-,c»«-,c-xi-x>vo>a>ni«-,Dt^t~i>i>t-x»a)tiOM CS ^ t^ 0 0 ooooooxmmooxoosoooaiiooxooxoooxino-* J ^0 • tX 0^ . . o>n • t~t~o;Doo^-Hi-ixot-oino>noo>i>«t~oOT-i(M>oo«'Mt-Oi •M rH MMC^l'M«u'5in-*^X32t~mMM"*«'N-*'MC-X-*l>t»CDOXXO>CO M as -* 0 OTtiommooo-^xooooo^ooocJ-^oooiniMoooooooiotS 1 ^»^ M >n iACiC0I>t^OO»«'^W'M^CC^C0CiOO»A00Cl0O0-1O»ArH0-J(NO<^-l 0 OO«tauSOO>rt-^CC'MOOOOOOOOOffiOOOifl^'>JOO00(M»OO©5 Q 5? ^ Ot> 00 o>ft lOM 35 oooxo>co^t~t-«)t^Mcooint~e'tinioo>t~mTi«"*Mt- ',0 -^ l« r-l r-l < s 0 w 0 0 1-1 ?^»; M ifS M C; -* t- LAi^OO>^00:^0000-*OOOOiftOO»rtX»-H:0»ftirtXcOiAO!© C4J2 ,^rH ift (M • iC ffl Oi ,o-x>oo3r-XrtXoi»35>n:cxooocaoo»i>i>t-t^in»fflt^i>c5 M •>! t~ 000 OO^OOOCOOr-fOOOOOrH^OO'M'-toOOOOOOOOOO ^ ^^ ^ :^ ifSO-^OOOCCOOOO^OiAiAOiAO^^OOOCOiftCO-^fMOOiOW^OI^IOfMt) ^0 a X-H « r-lTHI>in05-*XT)<-*X'*Xi-ie0053SOiOrHin-*M-l r-1 rH r1 rH r-4 rH r-1 rH rH rH rH jj, a 0 CO 10 00000 o>»oooovoo»nooooo o oooooooo-* Ml 1 -..OvO t* (M ■ »A?oi>coco •iftWoco'MC'ioooooou^^A • ■ ■ -x -•'*cc co-ift 000^ 0 Ift 0 tH tH 0 OC OOrH-HW-^r^-HrH-MrlMtMO rH S-lO-lMffl^-^eOM C as? >-5Q ,.•1 ^' m gfe5 S a "o 0 0 0* ftO o'h W. C( e Pot 0. e, M. e, P. 0. e, F. e, N. 0. e, H. 0. m J.O a S ■ • ■ -t^os • ■ • -Q b • • -g • -o ,S^ • -05 • -o • .SrS a a S-c a -3 'a a -d aa -zi a t) s • i ■■§ 0 • 0 •: :S :::::§::::::: : s 9 a p. la O'm ■a tc a-d ■>>£!■ 03 0 s Manure s, Layiug-do^vn s, Top-dressing s Manure :o Manure 0 Manure, A to Maniu-e, B til Jlanure 11 iSfanure, with to ManiU'e to Manm'e, with n INtanure Bean, and Clove niinous Manure Manure . . ard Manure ard Manure (witl ard Manure icultural Manm-e Manure . . 0 a .S 3 1 § 0 0 0 c Q - . 2-S J "■«'5-« '^ 'S-Ss -^ "^ "^ *" ^ "'3*?'c$4^ '■;2'o*^ O rH o • O O t^ «-< O t^ O '30 :0 t-- OiflO-^OOOOOOOOiniA O O --^ '>5 '-' ^1 t- —' '-' "^^ ^ '"""' ^' O lA O -1* '-'5 O O 'O ift O O 'M '^«5 . -• - d 00 0 0'MOOOOI>0 ^O 00^0'*OOW^COOOCO«:0 _p 21 -00 21-00 19-20 18-45 17-00 19-65 18-00 16-28 17-65 22-70 19-15 22-70 23-30 23-25 18-00 a-§ s? : : : : : Citrate Soluble. 1 M ,=::::::::::::::: OOOiAOOOCOOOCC-lt^^O -500>no'»^o-*7'-^«rtt-'X)*>P • 2 = ■^- = S 3 0.0 0 X: <; P5 .0 P-, 564 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug., 191 i. VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 191M2, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE. Progress Keport for Three Months ending 30th June, 1911. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Wliite Leghorn Golden Wyandotte White Leghorn Silver Wyandotte Wliite Leghorn Black Orpington Brown Legliorn White Legiiorn Black Orpington Black Minorca Silver Wyandotte White Leghorn Black Orpington Golden Wyandotte White Leghorn Surrey Black Orpington White Leghorn Silver Wyandotte White Leghorn White White Black White Black White Black White Orpington Leghorn Orpington Leghorn Minorca Leghorn Minorca Leghorn FaveroUes White Leghorn Silver Wyandotte White Leghorn Black Orpington White Leghorn White Wyandotte White Leghorn Name of Owner. (Qld A. Brebner E. P. Nash K. Gleghorn H. Bell L. C. Payne Mrs. H. J. Richards H. Stevenson T. W. Goto T. O'Loughhn H. A. Langdon F. Soncuni W. G. Swift D. Fisiier . . W. J. Macauley H. R. McChesney Miss A. Cottam W. J. EckershaU S. Brundrett A. Jaques H. McKenzie R. L. Appleford P. S. Wood G. E. Brown F. Hannaford B. Mitchell F. Seymour Hill and Luckmau J. Campbell J. Anderson Rodgers Bros. R. W. Pope M. A. Jones Wooldridge Bro: B. Dettman J. H. Brain F. A. Sillitoe B. Waldon Mis. C. R. Smoe A. W. Hall A. J. Cosh (S.A.) Morgan and Watson P. Mitchell W. B. CrelUn T. S. Goodisson T. Kempster G. W. Chalmers C. W. Spencer (N.S.W G. James . . W. J. Thornton C. H. Busst J. W. McArthur W. J. McKeddie A. Stringer F. Hodges . . W. G. McLister Mrs. C. Thompson G. B. Edwards K. Courtney W. H. Dunlop J. J. Harrington J. Reade P. Hodson . . A. J. Treacy J. D. Read H. HammUl (y.S.\Y J. E. Bradley C. L. Sharman Eggs Laid during Competition. April. May. 55 June. Total. 54 73 182 96 65 61 222 21 25 95 141 0 13 95 108 22 51 71 144 0 2 78 80 16 37 22 75 82 73 28 183 45 73 59 177 28 37 88 153 20 22 39 81 137 127 102 366 63 54 109 226 0 0 32 32 2 0 13 15 29 38 38 105 6 7 14 27 112 67 95 274 49 75 62 186 110 75 83 268 80 125 69 274 52 25 61 138 34 36 38 108 27 64 83 174 2 81 97 180 4 18 60 82 43 48 58 149 58 21 32 111 11 37 33 81 53 25 60 138 123 111 103 337 30 76 98 204 104 114 99 317 11 37 31 79 7 6 5 18 38 128 64 230 78 109 81 268 2 32 89 123 53 43 80 176 123 107 108 338 18 49 43 110 0 4 83 87 33 35 26 94 68 91 74 233 50 73 51 174 80 54 90 224 51 44 62 157 0 0 0 0 55 40 40 135 40 48 37 125 54 44 82 180 0 1 31 32 4 8 31 43 51 41 50 142 69 41 76 186 7 24 8 39 71 12 0 83 50 50 44 144 0 45 54 99 17 25 70 112 0 0 21 21 61 52 17 130 43 40 99 182 14 1 0 15 70 50 45 165 67 45 95 207 62 83 40 185 2,860 3,139 3,873 9,872 Position in Competition. 17 (equal) 11 28 37 26 (equal) 45 47 16 19 24 44 1 9 50 (equal) 54 (equal) 38 51 5 (equal) 14 (equal) 6 (equal) 5 (equal) 29 (equal) 37 (equal) 21 (equal) 18 (equal) 43 25 35 44 (equal) 29 (equal) 3 13 4 46 53 8 6 (equal) 33 20 36 41 40 7 21 (equal) 10 23 Xil 30 32 18 (equal) 50 (equal) 48 27 14 (equal) 49 42 26 (equal) 39 34 52 31 (equal) 17 54 (equal) lo Aug., iyii.] Victofiaii Egg-laying Competition, igii-12. ^(t^ The weather conditions have been ad\erse, the rainfall greatly exceeding that of previous years. For the three months (April, May, and June) -85, 306, and 376 points re.spectively were recorded. On three occasions the temperature fell to }^2 degrees Fah., and twice to 29 degrees, the majority of the readings being between 40 and 47 degrees. The number of eggs laid must therefore be regarded as very satisfactory. Of the 9,872 eggs laid during the quarter, 62 were double yolk. In addition, 18 soft-shelled eggs and 8 underweight eggs (less than ij ozs.) were laid, but are not included in the total. Two pens only (Faverolles and Leghorns) were responsible for the soft-shelled eggs. A mild outbreak of chicken pox occurred ; no deaths resulted, but two birds were removed and replaced. Owing to prolapse of the oviduct, two Leghorns were destroyed. Prolapsis is not uncommon with non-sitting breeds. The Leghorns, Orpingtons, and A\\\andottes have responded well to the attention given them. One pen of Minorcas has not yet laid an egg, whilst only 18 eggs have been returned from another pen of the same breed. These pens have seriously affected the average, but render the competition all the more educational. The varying results have aroused considerable interest. During the period under review there have been upwards of 1,000 visitors, including numerous residents of other States and many oversea arrivals. Some of the latter, who have settled in the irrigation districts, have since erected poultry pens, similar to tliose at Burnley, on their holdings. The competition has thus been of practical value to these new settlers. In addition the University students, in agriculture and veterinary science, and also the students at the Burnley School of Horticulture, ha^■e had instruction in scientific poultry farming. s66 ]oiir7ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo AuG.^ 1911. SILO COXSTRUCTIOX. {Continued from page jOj.) A. S. Ken yon. C.E., Engineer for Agriculture. ALL STEEL SILOS. The patent all-steel silo is manufactured by Mr. A. H. RusselT. tssen- don. The Department has made a special arrangement with Mr. Russell.. whereby, as all .selling charges, &c., are saved, a considerable reduction, in the cost is possible. In addition to the steel sections supplied by the patentee, the Department sends out the roof and elevator material and gear. These silos have the advantage of being white-ant proof, and are ALL-STEEL SILO. not affected by climatic influences. the other types. Thev are also of much less weight than Directions for Building an All-steel Silo. Foundation. — Drive a peg in the centre of the site. Fix a trammel to suit the diameter of silo and mark a circle on the ground for stump- holes. Sink holes for stumps 2 ft. deep on this circle, spaced, centre to- centre, 5 ft. 8| in. (measured in a straight line from inside face of stumps). Sink stumps in the centre of each space on the same circle, keeping the face of all stumps true to the trammel. The faces of stumps will then be 2 ft. ii| in. centre to centre. The tops of all stumps are to be quite level. Walls. — First set up the section with the port holes, which should be so located as to make the transport of silage to the feeding place as easy as possible. This should be fixed only temporarily. Put the top sec- tions inside the circle of stumps ; then erect the bottom sections, putting in- a few bolts in each joint. Do not vet tighten these bolts. Pack the lo Aug., 191 1.] Silo Construction. 567 vertical joints with spun-yarn j put in all the bolts and tigjiten up. Securely fix the sections to stumps with dog spikes. Xow take one of the long lengths of roof timber, attach block and tackle to end, set up against a vertical joint and fasten. This is to be used for hoisting the top sections into position. Bolt horizontal joints loosely, breaking the vertical joint. It will be necessary to shift the up- right timber as each section is placed in position. Do not tighten any of the joints till spun yarn has been packed in. After packing all joints screw up all bolts tightly ; then put the stiffening plates on top of silo. Roof.- — The ridge of the roof .should run in a line with the elevator, which is fixed under the gable. The ridge and intermediate purlins are .•supported on six stanchions bolted to the top of the silo. Each stanchion ALL-STEEL SILO —SECTIONS. Js made of two angle irons riveted together and spread out at foot 13 in. The flanges are cut away for 4 in. down from top and holed for | in. bolts. The foot is drilled for two | in. bolts to correspond with holes in angle iron at top of silo. The two stanchions for ridge purlins are 3 ft. high, the other stanchions 2 ft. high. Bolt on the two longest stanchions opposite one another to carry the ridge purlins, to which they are bolted. Allow the ends to project 2 ft. over each side of silo. This is to permit the use of block and tackle for hoisting. Bolt the outside purlins to top of silo, keeping them parallel with the ridge and 6 in. from inner face ct wall. With the aid pf a straight-edge and square set off so that the ends of these purlins are on a line with a mark made 9 in. in from end of ridge purlins. With the straight-edge, get i)itch of roof and bolt on the remain- ing stonchions to take the intermediate purlins. Cover the purlins with •9-ft. sheets of corrugated iron, allowing a lap of one and a half corruga- tions. Secure with 2i-in. spring-head nails at every third corrugation. Fix three lengths of t6 in. ridging with 2^ -in >]>ring-hcad nails everv 2 ft. 568 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [ic Aug., 191 i. Material for an All-Sfeel Silo. The material required, in addition to the wall sections supplied by the patentee, and stumps, which can be provided by farmer, is as follows : — Hardwood, 4-in. x 2-i)i. ; 2 20-ft., 4 i6-ft., purlins. Hardwood, 3-in. x i^-in. ; 2 12-ft., 2 20-ft., uprights for ladders. Hardwood, 3-in x i-in. ; 2 20-ft., treads for ladders. Oregon, g-in. x 2-in. ; i i6-ft., scatfold. Stanchions, 2 3-ft., 4 2-ft. Galvanized iron corrugated sheets, 26 gauge; 16 Q-ft., roof. Galvanized iron ridging, 26 gauge; 3 lengths i6-in. Galvanized iron spring-head nails, 3 lbs. 2^-in. Bolts, nuts, and washers, 2 5-in. x |-in. Bolts, nuts, and washers, 4 45-in. x g-in. Bolts, nuts, and washers, 4 3-in. x |-in. Wire nails, 3 lbs. 2-in. CONCRETE SILO. The popularity of concrete is steadily increasing for the construction of all classes of buildings. When one considers that it is fire, wh-ite ant. and vermin proof, and added to that the virtue of being cheaper than any other material, and more durable, its u.se should be fully ju.stified. There is very little difficulty in making good concrete if care be taken in the following advice here given. Concrete is composed of metal (broken stone) or gravel mixed with .sand and Portland cement in certain proportions and wetted. In " fine" concrete, no metal is used, small gravel taking its place. Cement and sand alone form a mortar or " compo. " The proportions of the various mate- rials depend upon the air voids or spaces in the metal or gravel, and upon the strength of concrete required, varying with the uses to which it is to be put, engine foundations and hollow blocks representing the strong .side, and building foundations and solid walls the weaker class. The mortar or compo of sand and cement should be sufficient in bulk to fill all the voids in the metal, ])referably somewhat in excess, say about 10 per '^ent. The voids can be found by filling a kero-sene tin with the metal or gravel, making a bulk of 4 gallons ; the whole is then weighed, allowance being made for weight of tin. Water is poured in until flush with the surface and the tin with its contents is again weighed. Thus, as water weighs 10 lbs. to the gallon, the percentage is arrived at. For instance, a kerosene tin of metal weighed 60 lbs. deducting the w^eight of the tin. When filled with water, it weighed 78 lbs. Consequently, the void space was represented by 18 lbs. of water, while the whole volume. 4 gallons, weighed 40 lbs. Thus, the percentage of void was found to be 45. A good mixture in this instance would be 6 parts of metal, 2 parts of sand, and r part of cement. In the example given, the metal was fairlv large — about 2| in. The percentage of void space increases as the size of metal or gravel diminishes, running from 35 to 45 in ordinary cases. For fine work, such as hollow blocks, fine gravel, if not greater than l-\n. diameter, is used. If it is mixed with sand, so much the better. In such a case, cement should be added in a proportion ascertained in a similar way to that already described, and should be not less than one-sixth of the bulk, and about one-half of the sand contents. Before, however, working out the proportions, the material should be selected, care being taken that the metal or gravel is of fairlv strong and clean stone; soft sandstones or limestones are to be avoided. The sand, in particular, should be sharp and washed clean — it should lose but little lo Aug., 1911-] Silo Construction. 569 in bulk by teing washed. Both chiy and loam are drawbacks, particularly the former. Attention should next be paid to the cement. Tests of cement are rather too delicate and complicated for the ordinary man, .so that reliance must be placed on the brand. On the whole, the locally-made cements are to be preferred to the imported makes, as they are all reliable and slow setting, a desirable feature for the amateur builder, while the imported brands, though very good in some ca.ses, are not so in all. A ■cask or barrel of cement weighs about 375 lbs. ; a cubic foot packed weighs 120 lbs. In colonial makes, it is generally supplied in bags, two of which go to the barrel. As a rough-and-ready rule, one barrel of cement goes to the cubic yard of concrete. It must be borne in mind that one cubic vard of gravel or metal is required for one cubic yard of con- crete, the cement and sand serving only to fill up the voids. For mixing, a plat- form or smooth space is required. A mixing board can readily be knocked up out of ordi- nary boards. Frames also are made out of boards to hold, say. half a cubic yard of metal, one-sixth of a cubic yard of sand, and one-twelfth of a cubic yard of cement, or in any desired propor- tions. The sand, which should be drv. is first put in its frame on the mixing board, and then the cement is added. The two are thoroughly mixed by l»eing turned o\er with shovels, and the mixture is spread as thinlv as possible in one layer over the Ix.'ard. The gravel or m.etal is then mea- top (jf the cement and sand. Mixing by d me, after which water is added ; a water- bnsl for the latter purpose. Shovelling is con- that is, when in a semi- slojipy for biutrer sured. sho\el mXCRETE SILO. and spread on ling is thoroughly ing can with a rose is lh< tinued until the whole mass is sufficiently wetted dry condition, but not enough so as to run or \m A batch may be, as mentioned above, half a cubic vard, or work, one cubic yar54. .\ Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 i. ramming be continued after the compo has been worked to the surface and free moisture is showing on the top. Any old work, including that finished off the previous day, should be well wetted and picked over to form a bond. In dry weather, or at any time except in moist weather, the concrete, whether in bulk or in blocks, should be kept damp by wetted bags or other means for a few days to allow the setting action to proceed properly. The Midget Giant Concrete Block-making Machine Company Proprie- tary Limited, of Central Railway Building, Flinders-street, Melbourne, has contracted with the Department to erect silos of the types listed. A machine as illustrated, however, can be purchased outright for ^11, with a complete outfit of plates for making bricks of various shapes and sizes, for building purposes, including silo bricks. The dimensions of the bricks are 12 in. x 6i in. x 6 in., the latter dimension being the thickness of the wall. These bricks, in order to fit in with the circular plan of the accepted form of silo, are circular in section. Concrete is mixed as described above, a sufficient quantity put into, the machine, and the brick moulded; it is then lifted out on a "bearing off " board ; the.se are ordinary lengths, of 6-in. X i-in. flooring boards about. 13I in. long, and put aside until set.. After 24 hours they can be gently re- moved from the boards and laid out in rows and well watered with an,i ordinary watering-can, or a hose spray. They should not be allowed to. become at all dry for at least two, weeks, but should be watered night; and morning ; the more water they have applied, the harder the bricks, will become. If the bricks are ex- posed to the wind, or in an unpro- tected place, they should be stacked; not more than five high, with a small;; space between each stack ; this pre- vents the wind drying the whole sur- face of the brick too quickly. The bricks should not be used for construc- tion of walls for at least three weeks. Care should be taken to lay " bear- ing off " boards on one another when not in use to prevent twisting; suffi-. cient boards for the first day's work only are necessary. One man with the assistance of a lad can make up to 300 of these- bricks per day — sufficient to build a wall 10 ft. by 10 ft. One cask of- cement and i cubic yard of gravel and sand, in the proportions of 5, 3,.. and I, Avill make about 200 of these bricks; or sand only (6 to i), i6o,. bricks. A man with the same assistance, after a little practice, will lay 200 bricks per day. The bricks are set in cement mortar of suitable strength, say 4 to i, in the same manner as ordinary bricks; a double wall is made for the first course, and then a single wall is proceeded with. The bricks break joint at 6 in. in succeeding courses, which allows the hol- lows in bricks to come over each other, and makes a complete wall, allow- ing the free circulation of air throughout the interior. Where sand and gravel, or rough and fine material are not both obtainable, excellent bricks, can be made from sand only and cement in the proportions of 6 to i. MIDGET GIANT MOULDING MACHINE. 10 Aug., 1 9 II.] Silo Construction. 571 Re-ixforcing. — While in the course of construction, the walls must be re-infcrced by laying on the top of e\-ery ring ordinary fencing wire clipped together at the joint and built in with the bricks; for the first 4 ft., three wires to every course, and for the remainder, two wires — one wire only mav be used if thought worth while for the top 6 ft. *The following are the quantities and directions for building a 69- ton silo : — Walls. — In constructing a silo with cement or concrete bricks^^^ the first operation is to make the bricks after the following manner. Good clean sharp drift sand having been procured, and a good brand of cement, clean up a site on the ground and measure out according to previous mstructions. The whole should then be passed through a ^-in. mesh sieve, and watered until sufficiently damp. This can be tested by taking up a handful of the material and giving it a squeeze ; if it holds firmly together, it is ready to be shovelled into the mould of the machine. The height of a 70-ton silo is 21 ft., and requires 1,710 bricks, 90 of which form the footing course; the 100-ton silo requires 720 more bricks. Foundation. — Roughly level site for a diameter of 16 ft., making provision if on sloping land for drains to carry off any flow of water. Fix a centre point by placing a 2-in. pipe firmly in the ground, so as to receive a 2-in. pole; from this centre attach a piece of quartering 7 ft. 3 in. long to act as a trammel, which will describe a circle having a diameter of 14 ft. 8 in. This will be the inside diameter of the silo when built. Care should be taken to fix the pole plumb, so as to obtain the accurate circle. Cut out a trench 6 in. deep and 12 in. wide, the bottom to be level. The inside line of trench will be 7 ft. from centre pole. Then lay therein two rows of cement bricks side by side with cement mortar, gauged 4 parts sand and i part cement, and grout in solidly. The next course should be laid lengthwise, using the 7 ft. 3 in. trammel to keep the same true to centre. Each course of bricks must be well bedded and jointed in cement mortar as above; and, in every course, lay along the centre of bricks lengths of galvanized fencing wire as specified above, clipped together at joint, first gouging out the brick to bed the wire in (this may be done when making the brick by just running the finger over it). Form port holes as shown, two bricks wide by four courses high, the inside face of brickwork to be bagged over smoothly so as to be free oi mortar projection, and the V-joint of outside face struck smoothly with point of trowel. Build in four 7 -in. x |-in. bolts in top of silo wall to bolt down roof wall-plates. When walls are completed, the earth floor of silo is to be levelled off about 3 in. above outside ground with earth filling rammed to an even surface. If the silo should be erected on a very exposed situation and it is found that heavy rain penetrates the wall, a weatherproof coating made as follows may be used: — 2 lbs. soft soap, 12 lbs. alum, and 30 gall, water, applied evenly to the outside of the silo bricks with a white-wash brush. Roof. — The roof to have 4i-in. x 3-in. oregon wall plates bolted down to brickwork, the ridge plate 9 in. x li in. propped up off wall plate with 4-in. X 2-in. stud halved on to same, and stayed with 3-in. x li-in. strut. Raftf.r.s. — The rafters to be 4-in. x 2-in. hardwood spaced 3 ft., centres notched on to wall plates and well spiked to same and ridge. Fix six 3-in. X \l-\n. collar ties to each pair of rafters to I»a(tcn rafters with \ 2 572 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug.. 191 i. 3-in. X i^-in. hardwood, and cover with 9-ft. sheets of 26-gauge corru- gated galvanized iron, lapped one and a half corrugations and secured with 2^-in. spring-head nails at every third corrugation. Fix three lengths of i6-in. galvanized ridging with spring-head nails every 2 ft. Fix four 5-in. X 2-in. Oregon struts from wall to corner of wall plates. Port Holes. — Provide port holes with doors, formed with sheet iron cut 3 ft. X 2 ft. 6 in., and nail on same three .strips of 3-in. x i^-in. hard wood, each 24 in. long. The inside wall to be lime-wa.shed. Material for Cement Silo. The following is a list of the material required for the erection of a 70- ton concrete silo : — Hardwood, 3-in. x ig-in. ; 2 12-ft., 6 lo-ft., 6 i6-lt., dooi Ifdges, cellar ties, and purlins. Hardwood, 4-in. x 2-in. ; 12 lo-ft., rafiers. Oregon, g-in. x ij-in. ; i 20-ft., ridge. Oregon, 5-in. x 2-in. ; 4 8-ft., struts. Oregon, 45-in. x 3-in. ; 2 i6 ft., wall plates. Galvanized iron corrugated sheets, 26 gauge: 16 Q-ft., 'oof. Galvanized iron plain sheets, 24 gauge; 2 72-in. x 36-iri., doors. Galvanized iron ridging, 26 gauge; 3 lengths i6-in., roof. Galvanized iron spring-head nails, 25-in. ; 3 lbs., roof. Bolts, nuts, and washers, 4 17-in. x 5-in. Wire nails, 5 lbs. 3-in. Cement, 16 casks. Sand, 16 cubic yards. Elevator material is the same as for 70-ton wood and iron silo. Department of Agriccttl re. Victorts. APPLICATION FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SILO. 19. The Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. I hereby apply for the construction of a silo and of an elevator to fill same, and I hereby agree to comply with the conditions set forth on back hereof. Signature. Witness to signature Partkti.ars to re Furnished as far as Possnii.E. Name of applicant in full Name of parish and No. of allotment Postal address Nearest or most convenient railway station Distance from station Capacity of silo required No. of stock to which silage is to be fed. Cows Shee]) Crops proposed to be grown for silage No. of acres Make and No. of chaffcutter Diameter of cutter spindle... Size of horse-works Steam or oil engine Make and horse-power Proposed filling arrangements Proposed method of payment — In full or on terms as set forth in conditions Gexer.ai. Conditions. Before tlie erecticm of a silo is commenced, the applicant must either pay in full the amount claimed by the Department of Agriculture as the cost of supplying and erecting the silo, or he must pay one-third of such amount in cash, and lodge two promissory notes each for one-half of the balance, payable at 12 and 24 months- respectively. Should the property on which the silo is erected be sold at any time^ the balance of cost unpaid shall become payable forthwith. lo Alg.. 191 1. 1 Silo C o)isirucUon. 573 The applicant must cart the silo material from the nearest railway station lO' the site ; must meet the builder when advised, convey him to the work, board and lodge him and provide him with the necessary assistance while building. The green fodder must be chaffed and the silo filled and weighted under the- sui:'ervision of an officer of the Department, or in accordance with instructions- issued by the Department. Full records must be kept of the results obtained from feeding the silage and a report made to the Department. Special arrangements may be made for the erection of silos of a class approved by the De])artment other than those listed below, but if the cost is greater than for the same tonnage, the cash payment must be increased accordingly. Details of Capacity^ Measurements, and Cost. IMKAfUURMKXTS — iMMindat'ii Approx. ' C'O.ST, iNCHniXU iLhVATOl!- CaiKU-ity. Ovei-lOU miles Tons (Appiox.) t'(»(. £ t WoocH .)0 l-ii •21 1 3| .S8 40 42 and y 70 14!- 21 S 4 40 42 44 Iron j 100 141 ;5(i S 5 50 52 54 :tAll ) 70 1.". 2(1 8 7 30 (If)) 39 (20) 42(21) Wood ( 1(1.-, 1.". :m\ 8 10 44 (211 49 (23) 54 |25) f .-.(1 LSI ■ii)i U lA .■)() 51 53t All 1 70 1.-) 20] Hi 1^ .■)4 7i7^ 57t Steel 1 !MI I Of 2(1 1 18 y-i 5<) (i(» 621 '. 110 182 20i 20 •> (J4 (J5 67 Midgc-t 1 Con- 1 7<» ].-, 21 2o (!.") (i() 67 Crete 1 Kin 1.-. :{(» 8t 90 91 92 Bloek 1 • If elevator not required, e-ost oi silu as ^ll(l\vn above will be reiluc-eil £b for a il-ft. silo and iK 10s. fora3(i-ft. silo. 1 These prices are only jir-ssible owin^ to pa'entee having' made a speeiiil arran:;enient with the Department whereby all selling charjre', &c., have I'fen saved him. X If ihe api)licaiit provides the necessary haruwooJ, the cost of the material supplied by the Department will be reduced to the amount shown in brackets. For the wood aufl iron and all wcxjd silo, 3 men for 4 to 6 days; for the ;i!l steel si'o, 3 men for j to 5 days; and for the concrete block silo, i youth for 2a tlays, are re(|uired to assist the builder. If die full compltn-.ent of men stipulated IS not provided, the farmer will be charged qs. for each tiip.i short, wiiellitr for a whole or part of a day. For the concrete block silo, the farm- r must supply, on the ground, water, 13 cubic yards of sand, or 12 cubic yards of gravel and 7 of sand, and 2 cwt. of No. 10 fencing wire. Tlie block-maker will take about 10 days, and the builder a. similar i)eriod. The blocks must stand at least 2 weeks before being used. Foundation posts to be su])i>lied b\' llie farmer. Fo' the wood and iron and all woofl silo, they are to be 6 ft. .\ 6 in. \ 4 in. sawn, ^^\\\., or round, with one truly s(|uare face. For the all steel, tlif\- are to be 2 ft. \ 5 in. x 5 in sawn, s])lit or round. Quotations will be given, if desired, for silos without rrettion jr freight. Il i.s iiiiixj.ssiljlc lur nu- iu (uiuliulc thi.s arl'ulc. ihc last while officially Komit'cted with the Department, without reference to the valiial)Ie assist- ance tendered in ronnexion with silo work liv the Foreman BuiUIer, Mr. J. Wilson, th<' Architect. Mr. ( '. M. Neild. and th<' siipL-rvi.-or, Mr. ^ I Surface Level PLAN OF SILO AT MONOMEITIL -ifi^"-- ^ •^ — —^^~—~—7fr/6'." diam.- - SECTION OF REINFORCED BRICK SILO DESIGNED BY MR. BRAZENOR. The wall plate, which was cut at Messrs. James Moore and Sons, South Melbourne, is of circular shape, so as to fit the wall of the silo. It cost ^2. The roof is octagonal, and is made of galvanized iron, but is unnecessarily expensive; simpler and yet effective types are given in the article by Mr. Kenyon. The silo is 18 ft. 6 in. above, and 6 ft. below ground, which gives a depth of 24 ft. clear, whilst the diameter (inside) is 15 ft. It is lined with about half an inch of good cement and is limewashed each time before filling. It took 5,000 bricks and 13 casks of the best cement. The cost works out as follows : — Excavation and concrete ... Material and labour Wallplate, roof, and doors /, s. d s 10 0 ,r 14 6 iS 0 0 /64 4 6 576 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug., 1911. This does not include cartage from the station — about a mile. Since it was erected, tliere has been an increa.se in cost of botli material and labour. The silo is now being filled the fifth time, three times with maize and twice with oats. In filling, care was taken toi trample well round the outsides, not much in the middle. There has been no drawing away from the walls, which is a frequent cause of waste. Mr. Greaves says: — The silo and its advantages have given great satisfaction. Practically no waste, if some weight is used on top. There is no sign of weakness in any part of the structure. By mathematical calculation this structure does not show sufficient margin of safety, though the experience of Mr. Greaves points to it being safe in practice. Mr. J. A. S. Brazenor, architect, Ballarat, who constructed the rein- forced brick water tanks referred to, has furnished the followdng descrip- tion of a silo 20 ft. high x x6 ft. diameter : — Excavate to a sound foundation with a fall to the centre. A footing of bricks on edge bedded level on concrete with 6 in. of cement concrete to form the bottom of the silo. Build the base of twoi rings of 4^ in. bricks on edge; and on this, 3 in. in from the edge, build 9 in. work on the flat, 3 ft. high. Then single l)rick (4J7 in. work) 37 feet <>r higher. No. 8 galvanized fencing wire is run in the centre of each tier, in the mortar. Do not break the wire, but bend it up between the bricks and continue on the next course. All joints of the brickwork toi be flushed up and neatly jointed. Provide openings, say 2 ft. 6 in. wide x 2 ft. 3 in. deep, 3 ft. x 2 in. X I in. iron lintel ; also, to each opening, an iron shutter 3 ft. wide x 2 ft. 6 in. deep, 22 gauge flat galvanized iron. When the cement is set, cut the wire bonds where showing across the openings. The openings, may be 5 ft. from the ground, then 10 ft. and 15 ft. This silo would take 6,500 bricks to build it. The total cost, at Ballarat prices, would be ^43 18s.. allowing 50s. per 1,000 for bricks; cement, i6s. per cask; excavating, is. 6d. per yard; sand, 3s. per yard; wire, IIS. per cwt. ; bricklayers, 12s. 6d. per day; labourer, 8s. j>er day. If a dry sound foundation were available about ^^ 5s. might be saved on the concrete bottom. 10 Aug.. 191 1.] Dexter Kerry Dairy Cattle. 577 DEXTEll KERRY DAIRY CATTLE. /. S. McF adzea)i, Senior Dairy Supervisor. A few photographs of Dexter Kerry cattle are reproduced herewith. At the Melbourne Roval Agricultural Show last year the exhibits of this class of dairy stock attracted much attention. Though this State was the first of the Commonwealth to import the.se cattle, they have not made the headway here that their good qualities would warrant ; and consequently many people have not even seen them. In 1892. the late Mr. David Syme brought out from England a Dexter Kerry bull and three females, but the stock from these were mostly pur- cha.sed by breeders in the other States. The New South Wales Government stud of this breed originated from Mr. Symt-'s importation. DEXTER BULL '" TOM TIT ' (2 years). .Mai I. h Tom Thumb" (imp.) c'.\. " Xo. 12" by •'Denhain MelbouniL- " (imji.) At first glance, they appear small in compari.son with other dairy cattle. a\m\ the farmer who likes a Ijig cow is apt to look on the Dexter Kerry as .somewhat of a toy animal. Their appearance is, however, most decep- tive. They are certainly a very low-set breed, being particularly short in the lower leg, but they are very weighty ; and the cows are heavier than many that would j)ass as average-sizerl animals in some dairy herds. Tn conformation, they .set at defiance the generally accepted rule that a dairy cow should be somewhat lean in appearance, for they have nicely rounded, v.cll-shaped and well-fleslied bodies. Their shortness of limb, and exceptional rib and chest de\'elopment, ])reclude their having anything like the fine-topped shoulder that is .so much fancier! in the taller milking breeds; but even the admirer of the more spare-framed tvpe of dairy cow cannot say that Iht typical Dexter is a coarse cow in any respect. 578 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 i. One of their distinctive characteristics is the nicely shaped udder, with well-pLiced teats of good size and colour; and they are generally found to carry the broad, well-defined escutcheon that js indicative of heavy and continuous milking qualities. Many instances are recorded of cows of this breed giving up to 20 quarts of milk daily, and making up to 400 lbs. of butter yearly. In England, in 1896, one cow was credited with giving over her own live weight in milk in 17 days. Within the past year several cows of this breed in Victoria have had their milk yields recorded ; and they have shown that the Dexter Kerry must prove a valuable addition to the dairy stock of this State. The cow " Waterlily," whose picture is reproduced on this page, has given 714 gallons of milk of 4.2 test in 9 months, and is still yielding 7 quarts ix-r day. A heifer (" Shiela "). now only 30 months old, has yielded 458 gallons of 5.: test milk in 9 months, and a 5-year-old cow, " Killow,"- " w \ 1 By •■ Wateiville Puufii "' (iuii>.j ex. •■ 3Ii>s Haiu " by "Ham" (imp.) has reached 410 gallons in six months. Such records would be very credit- able indeed in a high class herd of any milking breed, and, coupled with their low cost to keep, demonstrate the claim of the Dexters to the soubriquet of the " Closer Settlement cow." The executors of the late D. Syme still have some very good Dexter Kerry stock at Mordialloc. Also, during the past year, two other studs of this breed have been established in Victoria, viz., those of Mr. J. Weldon Power, at Hor.sham, and Dr. S. S. Cameron, at Hawthorn. These have lately been added to by further importations from New South Wales, and Mr. C. K. Harrison, of Sale, has also introduced the nucleus of a herd from the same State. It is only their being practically an unknown breed here that has kept the sterling qualities of the Dexter Kerry cattle from becoming more widely recognised in Victoria ; but now that a forward move has been made tf' spread the breed, and competition at shows among the several breeders :may be anticipated, these useful stock should soon become popular. Aug.. 19 1 1.] Answers to Correspondents. 579 Their docility and handy size will no doubt at once attract the attention of the suburban householder, and they make an ideal family cow ; but, being bred originally from hardy mountain cattle, they are also very good foragers, keeping up condition and milking well under most strenuous conditions. On this account, residents of hilly country who require cows that can make a good showing with little care should give this sturdy milkinc: breed a trial. ANSWERS TO OOKRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a lars^e extent for the purpose of giving information to farmers. V\ie-itioiis in every branch of agriculture are kUuIIv answered. Write a short letter, givinij a-s -full partii-ulurs :i> jiossible, of your local condit-ons, uirl -int. (.i.-ivily what it is that you want to know. All ini/virk'.- /',nriti'll h,/ II,. ,,,i,iie and addrexn of the u'rltcr. Thi^ is very neces.sary. as sometimes insufficient iiifiinii;iTi..ii i- lurnisln.l l)y the inquirer. Sore Teats. — F.B.L., who states that he is " New Chum " milker, inquires whether wa.shing the teats prior to milking would cause them to become sore, or would it be the fault of the milker. He is following instructions given by a prac- tical milker, viz., grip the teats in hollow at base of thumbs and squeeze same with points of fingers, care being taken to have nails cut short. Aiiswer. — Washing the teats with a clean rag before milking will not make them sore, provided you milk in the proper inanner. The advice given you is right. While the teats are sore, wash before milking with warm solution of Condy's Fluid; and, after milking, dry and smear with carbolized vaseline. Feeding Mit.let to Stock. — E.T.P. asks whether millet is injurious to stock. Anstver. — There is no danger in feeding millet to stock, imless the growth has been checked during the growing period, and this may be overcome by " wilting. " Excessive amount of almost any green feed will induce tympanitis in horses, which •should be watched for until the animals are accustomed to the fodder. Worms. — W.H.W. writes : — " I have a mare that does not seem to be doing quite as well as I think she should. (The foal has been weaned about six weeks.-) She has passed several worms about 6 or 7 inches long. Would the worms be the cause of the trouble? Tf so, what treatment do you recommend?" Answer. — (i) If in large numbers, the worms would be responsible. (2) Take of Sulphate of Iron i oz.. Powdered Gentian 2 ozs., mix, and divide into four powders; give one every morning in damp feed. After the last has been given p>iit on bran mashes or green grass for one day. Then give a 6-drachm Aloes ball. You should also have the teeth attended to. Xn>:-Pi.:F.r;xA>jrv of Sows. — H.B. slates that two of his sows, served by a i4-months-old boar, are still not in young, although another sow served a fortnight earlier is due to farrow. Ansrrer. — Perhaps your sows are in too good condition ; if so, reduce them, and, a few days before next "season" appears, syringe out the vagina with water in which a little baking soda is dissolved. You should also keep the boar well forward with a good grain ration. If nuich further difficulty is experienced, the ^ows should be fattened. Swoilen Tendons. — F.W.r. writes regarding his mare, and states that, after a little exercise, the back trnrlons swell, and cause the anim;il to walk on her toes and become very lame. S'evens' ointment and a Ihrec-months' s]>ell have been tried, but the swelling has re-appeared. The mare has always got a cough. /l;.'.fr.'rr. — The mare is suffering from chronically spraineil Icnilons, and mav only be fit for slow work. The oniv treatment advisable now is firing, blistering, and rest for three months. The cough referred .0 is also |)robal)ly chronic, and should not cause anv great anxiety. CvSTRATlNO AfiEn Rams. — P.P. ^nquirps as to the brst method of castrating aged rams. AitsiV'-r. — If flic rams arc in anv (oiidiiion at all, it voiild be advisable to sell them as thev are. There is nothing to be gainerecaution is very imiort.-int. 580 Journal of AgriLiiltKri: . \iciorla. [10 Aug.. 191 i. Skin Disease. — W.J.E. in(|uires as to treatment of calf suffering from skin disease. About half the skin is affected. It is in blotches, the hair looks rough at first, and gradually comes off in masses that stick together at the roots — one- piece off the back was about 2 feet long and 4 inches wide, leaving the hide bare^ except for patches of white scurfy kind of scab. Answer. — It may be a form of mange or ringworm. The affected parts should be well smeared with soft soap, leaving the soap on for three or four days. .Subsequently wash off with warm water, and mop the skin with a clean soft cloth. When drv, rub well into the skin once daily a little of the following mixture : — Oil of Tar I part. Raw Linseed Oil 10 parts. Wash the skin thoroughly once a week, and begin again with the tar dressing. B.\L.ANCED Ration. — S.S.F. states that he is desirous of making up a well balanced grain ration, say oats, peas, barley, and linseeri, for horse smd cow feed. He also asks what would be a good condiment to mix with it as an appetiser. Answer. — 5 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. peas, i lb. barlev, and ^ lb. linseed, given with 3 lbs. bran and 16 lbs. chaff, would give a well balanced ration (having a nutritive ratio I i/.i) for the horse. For the cow, more bran and linseed should be allowed, as well as a larger amoimt of chaff. If an animal is in health, a condiment such as- suggested is imnecessary. Ration of Oats for Draight Horses. — JAY. asks what is a fair ration of oats for a working draught horse doing ploughing or equallv hard work. He has been giving 15 lbs. per day, but finds it too expensive. Answer. — 12 lbs. to 14 lbs. of oats is a fair dailv ration for draught horses in liard work, and little other fodder such as hay or chaff is required in addition. For your ptirpose, however, It may be more economical, as well as efficacious, to feed about 8 to 10 lbs. of oats with 14 or 15 lbs. of best quality chaff or oaten hay. In this ration, allowance is made for a fair proportion of grain already in the chaff or hay. Co\V Peas. — J.W. asks whether cow jieas are suitable for milking cows'; also, whether they taint the milk. Answer. — Cow peas constitute an excellent fodder for milking cov>s. The milk is not tainted. Apple Drying. — M.McD. asks how to dry apples. Answer. — Apples, either green or ripe, of any kind may be utilized for this; purpose, but if made from cooking varieties the product will be better. The}- are prepared by being pared, cored, and sliced, either by hand or machinery ; then rteeped in a solution of \ lb. of salt to a gallon of water and allowed to remain there for two or three minutes, spread on wooden trays of a convenient size — usually 24 X 36 inches — after which they are subjected to the fumes of sulphur for a few minutes, and placed in the sun or kiln' to dry. Paring, coring, and slicing machines- may be obtained from the leading ironmongers at prices varying from 5s. to £'}, or _/'4, the higher priced ones being suitable for factory purposes. Sulphuring is accomplished by obtaining a box, the inside measurements of w-hich are the same length and breadth as the tray, making one side of it a door and nailing cleats a few inches apart on the inside of each end, on which the trays of fruit are placed, the lower tray being a foot or so from the bottom. A little flower of sulphur is then put in a vessel to which a lighted coal is applied and then placed on the bottom of the box; the dooy is closed, and the fruit allowed to remain in the- fumes for five to eight minutes. The object of this is to keeji the fruit from darkening while drying, and to give it a presentable appearance. The fruit should not be allowed to remain in the fumes longer than is sufficient to attain that end, as over-sulphuring is objectionable. If only a small quantity of apples is being treated, it may be suljihured by placing the trays one on top of another with the ends of the lower one resting on two supports a foot or so from the ground. The burning sulphur should be placed underneath, and a sheet or tarpaulin thrown over the whole so as to retain the fumes, and allowed to remain as prevously stated. When so treated, the fruit is placed in the sun or kiln and allowed to remain there till the bulk is suffi- ciently dried, when it is removed, thrown into a bin, and allowed to remain there, turning it over occasionally in the meantime, till the moisture is equalized between the fruit which mav be over-dried, and that which is still on the moist side. When this is accomplished, the product is readv for casing; and, if for sale, is usually put up in 56-lb. boxes. The sulphuring process is only to keep the apples a good colour. If not so treated, they become dark, and do not command a ready sale;, but. if for home use, would be just as pf.latable, if not more so, than the sulphured' article. TO Aug.. 1911.] Ans7ccrs to C orrcsfondents. 581 White Ants. — H.G.H. is an.xioiis to knmv of an effective metho'l of keeping white ants out of buildings. Answer. — Use ant stops made of tin dishes inverted on top of stumps; all nails driven through them must fit tightly. Steps leading up to verandahs or doors must not quite touch. White ants will not thrive without an earth connexion. Binding Sand. — H.CH. asks for ins ructions for binding sand about his premises. Gravel and tar are available. Answer. — Boil tar until a portion allowed to cool is of the consistency of pitch. A little oil may be added. Care must be taken in boiling. The sand should be swept clean and the hot tar sprinkled on through perfora'.ecl tins or sprinklers and then covered with dry sand. Do the work in warm dry weather. Identification ok Pl.xnts.— P.C, W.M., W.J. P., J. P., W.R.R., M.S., S.W., C.E.B., J. I., and G.H.W. forward specimens of plants for identification. W.M. states tliat, when the weed forwarded is in full flow-er, sheep can scarcely bf. moved without several being lost. The lambs, particularly, are liable to die. C.E.B. mentions that many sheep have died from eating the plant of which he submits a specimen. In some cases immediate bleeding under the eye restored the affected animals. Answer. — i. (P.C.). — Panicum Cms Galli, L. Barnyard or Cockshin Grass. A cosmopolitan native grass. It is a fairly useful fodder grass, especially in moist situations along sandy river banks, or around stagnant water, and will also grow on somewhat saline soil, particularly on brackish water-courses and on moorland. The grass seeds freely and germinates readily, and birds are fond of the grain. The seed does not appear to be stocked by any Melbourne seedsmen, but allied plants are the Japanese and Pearl Millets, which are stocked, and could be recommended in preference to the above. 2. (W.M.). — Isolonia fluviatilis, F.V.M. A native plant belonging to the Lobeliacea. AH species of this order contain a sharp burning, or even narcotic milky, sap, which taken internally in excess causes inflammation of the alimentary canal and even death. An allied species, 7. longiflora, is deadly to horses in South America, large doses producing death, small ones violent purging, very small doses merely acting as a tonic stimulant. I. fluviaiilis is less poisonous, but is not a plant to encourage on pasture land. The plant should be hoed up or pulled up after rain, before seeding, and the stock should be kept from the land where it is abundant, especially if other feed is scarce. If the ground is properly cultivated and drained or limed if necessary, it tends to disappear. The plant prefers moist badly drained soil, deficient in lime. The first consideration should be the eradication of the plant. For those lambs that should obtain a poisonous quantity of the weed, the best course to pursue would be the administra- tion of castor oil as a purgative, followed by Blaud fluids as gruel or linseed tea or lime water. 3. (W.J. P.). — Heliotropium curoficum , L. Common Heliotrope. The plant is a cosmopolitan weed, obnoxious on account of its impleasant odour. It is useless for fodder but not poisonous, and is best kept down by cultivation, fallowing, and root croi)s. A drilled and well cleaned croji of maize is also good to clean the ground. 4. (J. P.). — Panicum miliaceum, L. The True Millet. It is very eligible for green fodder. Several varieties occur, one with black grains. They all need a rich and friable soil, also humidity. It is one of the best grains for poultry, but also furnishes a f)alatable and nutritious article of diet in many parts of the tropics. 5. (W.R.K.). — Medicago Inpulina, L. Black Medick. An introduced annual or biennial leguminous plant, which seeds freely, and so maintains itself. It is a useful pasture plant, especially on clay soils unsuitable for lucerne. On dry soils it is somewhat stunted, but steadily improves and enriches them with nitro- genous humus, if not too closely crojiped. It is more luxuriant on richer soils, and then may become almost perennial when continuallv croppeil. It will also grow on somewhat swampy, boggy or nioory ground if this is limed, and is a common impurity in lucerne seetl. 6. (M.S.). — Ccnchrus tribuloidrs. Hedgehog or Burr Grass. A native of North America, but now naturalized anil widely spread in Victoria. Tiie idant is useless for fodder, and obnoxious on accoimt of its burred fruits, wiiich are unusual among true grasses. It can be kept down bv cultivation, or cutting before seeding, or burning olT j)atches where it is thick. 582 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug.. 1911, 7. (S.W.). — Hypericum ferjoratum, L. St. John's Wort. A native of Europe now naturalized in this State. Being a perennial rooting deeply, it is difficult to eradicate. On cultivated ground it can be suppressed by deep ploughing, summer fallowing and root crops. Badly infested pasture land can only be cleared by being brought under cultivation for a time. Conifers will soon suppress St. John's Wort, but it will grow under trees casting only partial shade, or trees planted too far apart. Poisons are too costly and, if effective, render the ground useless for other vegetation for a long time. Land laid down in pasture after cultivation has destroyed the adult p'ants, and can be sprayed with a mi.\ture of i part of Phenyl to 20 or 40 parts of water if seedlings of St. John's Wort reappear. This will keep them down until the pasture is re- established, but it will not destroy old rooted plants. Furtiier information regarding this plant is given on page 17 of Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria. 8. (C.E.B.) Lobelia fratioides. A native plant belonging to the Lobeliacese. Al! species of this order contain a sharp burning or even narcotic milky sap, which, taken internally in excess causes inflammation of the alimentary canal, and even death. An allied plant, Isotoma longi flora, is deadly to horses in South America, large doses producing death, small ones violent purging, and very small doses merely acting as a tonic stimulant. Lobelia fratioides is less poisonous, but is not a plant to encourage on pasture land. The plant should be hoed up or pulled up after rain before seeding, and stock kept from land wliere it is abun- dant, especially if otlier food is scarce. The best treatment for affected animals is as follows :— Horses — (i) Bleed a.'i jugular vein, taking out half a gallon of blood, combined with (2) hypodermic injection of Suli^huric Ether, 2 drachm:.. (3) If the horse is capable of swallowing, give i bottle of raw linseed oil followed by drench of warm milk and treacle. Bullocks. — Same as in horses, but increase hypodermic injection to 3 drachms The next best treatment to the injection of Sulphuric Ether, in the horse or bullock, is — 3 wineglassfuls of whisky in a pint of milk, or aromatic Spirits of Ammonia, Spirits of Nitrous Ether, each 2 ozs. ; water added, 20 ozs. Sheef. — (i) Bleed. (2) Inject 40 drops of Sulphuric Ether. In poisoning by this plant, which is a narcotic poison, a considerable quantity of toxic material is absorbed into the blood stream, which material affects the nerve centres. By bleeding a considerable amount of the toxic substance is removed. 0. (J-I-) Cynara cardiincidus , L. The true garden Artichoke. It was originally a garden escajie, and has now become naturalized as a weed in several parts of Vic- toria. It is not generally considered a serious weed, and appears to be easily kept under by cutting on pasture land or by cultivation on arable land. Since the^ plant has a well-defined and well-recognised economic value, its proclamation would not be advisable, since the Thistle Act demands the complete eradication of any pro- claimed plant wherever, or for what purpose, it may be grown. ro. (G.H.W.) Linaria elatine,\.. Hairy Toad-.flax. One of the Fox-glove family, several of which are poisonous or injurious to stock. The plant in question is an introduced weed, and has no poisonous properties, and we have no record of it as a plant injurious to stock. It has a strong bitter taste, and was formerly employed in medicine internally as a remedy for anaemia, externally for application tcf scratches. It has recently been shown that the closely allied Linaria striata contains a glucoside which yields prussic acid when acted on by the ferment emulsion, so that this poison might be developed in the stomach of an animal eating this plant and another containing emulsion. The plant is a cyclic weed, i.e,. more abundant in one year than in another. In cultivated ground, clean cultivation and the preven- tion of seeding by hoeing, itc, will keep it down. On pasture land, cutting before seeding, scarifying and manuring will help to sujipress it. lo Aug.. 191 1.] Statisiics. ;85 STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria.— Second Quarter, 1911, Table sliowing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with the corre- sponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available- i^cords to date. Quarter. April. Basin or District. c t Amou 2 < points. points. Glenelg and Wannon Rivers 154 226 Fitzroy, P^umerella, and Merri 181 258 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 122 215 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 115 211 Corangamite Cape Olway Forest 226 332 Mooraljool and Barwon Rivers 104 223 Werribee and Saltwater RiA'ers 70 210 Yarra River and Dandenong 126 330 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 164 327 South Gippsland 194 414 Latrobe and Tliomson Rivers 182 313 Macallister and Avon Rivers 43 182 Mitchell River 34 234 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 31 182 Snowy River 66 245 Murray River 8 159 Mitia Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 32 232 Ovens River 52 253 Goulbuni River 44 202 Campaspe River 47 180 Loddon River 36 155 Avon and Richardson Rivers 24 134 Avoca River 31 145 Eaatern Wimmera ... 58 158 Western Wimmera... 81 180 Mallee Di.strict 22 119 The whole State ... 71 201 290 .S59 28!l 227 417 300 318 481 450 394 491 372 408 413 351 297 417 513 389 367 278 217 205 238 175 185 290 points. 285 318 256 245 401 236 210 306 308 312 278 145 226 177 275 180 3(»5 340 254 252 193 180 184 points, points. 384 , 363 378 381 346 i 309 305 277 556 291 363 732 619 542 687 433 420 423 576 243 431 455 466 370 284 224 227 237 1 250 217 238 156 346 464 266 243 372 379 431 378 255 286 253 397 272 527 540 350 310 248 223 221 309 268 181 212 394 306 points, points 828 , 874 918 J 957 101 1,233 1,130 1,360 848 862 867 993 548 880 1.020 899 784 598 465 463 546 494 553 755 78a 647 733 1.199 1.197 695 725 1,331 663 1,342 iI.O08 1,014 1.1.57 969 582 746 612 917 611 1,064 1,133 806 742 596 537 550 704 665 456 •19 IIX) I'oilllS = 1 UK'll. 11. .\. HUXT, Common luealth AI eleoroloffisit. 584 Journal oj \\:^rici(lture , Victoria. [10 Aug.. 1911. Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deliveries from educe. (Oversea). Government Cool Stores Description of Pr Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 30.6.1911. 30.6.1910. 30.6.1911. 30.6.1910. Butter lbs. 7,507,892 1,373,408 7,780,584 89,944 Milk and Cream cases 2,056 226 30 ( 'heese ... lbs. 196,560 13,080 219,730 24,280 Ham and Bacon If 98,040 Poultry head 2,910 390 1,898 1,015 Eggs... . . . dozen 24,574 27,898 Mutton and Lamb carcases 35,155 209,637 1,328 37,279 Beef ... quarters 1,427 6,519 1,G07 Veal carcases 772 916 163 75 I'ork II 1,530 103 648 267 Rabbits and Hares pairs 70,272 ]r)S,930 14,044 44,637 Sundries lbs. 78,014 14,560 R. CROWE, Superintendent oJ Exports. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. iMroRTS AND ExpoRT.s Inspected for (i)iaktkk endinc; 30th .Jink, 1911. Imports. Exports. Description of Imports. Exports. Description of Produce. Inter- Inter- Produce. Inter- Inter- state. 1 state. Liiquats Stale. 211 Oxersea. State. Apples 732 62,290 107,419 4 Apples, Cn - 61 — — — Logs 1,734 5,831 — — tard Mace — 66 — — Apricots . . . 28 — 838 . — Maize — 36 — — Bananas, bs. 77,883 62,417 — — Nutmegs ... 10 99 — Bananas, cs. 6,016 8,736 3,455 — Nuts 464 1,'595 47 — Barley 39,200 60 — — Oats 6,780 4 — — Beans 185 260 — — Olives 39 — — — Blackberries 198 — 63 — Onions 4 24 7,542 — Bulbs 1 325 72 17 Oranges . . . 83,610 490 850 60 Cherries . . . 350 — 910 — Passion 864 — 625 94 Chillies 1 117 — — Peaches 38 — 4,247 — Cocoa beans — 1,543 — — Pears 144 1 101,888 8,447 Cocoanuts . — 204 49 — Pepper — 420 — — Coffee beans — 2,353 — — Peas, Dried 12.595 166 — — Copra — 132 — — Pineapples 8,870 — 625 177 Cucumbers 827 — 44 — Plants 461 269 2,176 643 Dates — 2,244 1 — Plums 71 — 2,031 -- Figs 42 382 5 — Potatoes . . . 1,013 — 59,460 ~ Fruit- Quinces 341 — 505 — Canned . . . — — — 1,766 Ra.spl )erries 9 — — — Dried ... — 16 — 956 Rice 6,167 89,794 — — Mixed . . . 142 25 2,281 — Seeds 1 ,253 8,680 — — Grapes 64 — 879 65 Spice — 136 — < Jooseberries 215 — 70 — Strawberries 11 — — — Green ginger 45 394 — — Tomatoes ... 10,698 — 197 — Hops — 98 — - Turnips 1,837 28 — — Jams, Sauces — — — 1,287 Vegetables 4,148 197 2,955 — Lemons 7,731 76 220 1,360 Wheat 44 5 — — Linseed 8 299 — — Y ams 179 54 — — Totals ... 133,729 79,682 71,177 112,875 Grand 1 Totals ( 275,324 187,677 254,327 122,296 Total number of packages inspected for quarter ending 30th June, 1911 = 839,624. J. G. TURNER, Chief Horlicidtural Oficer. REIVSmOERS FOR SEPTEMBEH. LIVE STOCK. Horses : — Still continue to feed stabled horses well ; feed green-stuff if available. Continue rugging to encourage the shedding of the coat ; good grooming will also be beneficial. Continue giving hay or straw to grass-fed working horses. Feed old and badly-conditioned horses liberally. Cattle : — Cows should still be rugged, but coverings should be removed frequently, in order to enable the animal to get rid of the old coat ; or, better still, a good curry-combing may be given. Continue hay or straw. Give calves a good warm dry shed. (Jive the milk to young calves at blood heat. Pigs : — Supply plenty of bedding in warm well-ventilated styes. Keep styes clean and dry, and feeding troughs clean and wholesome. Sows may now be turned into grass run. Sheep : — Prepare for she:iring. Clean yards to minimize dust ; also remove all straAV, chaff, &c., from sheds and wool bins. For superior wools, procure sj)etial packs ; for ordinary wools, the usual kind will do. Clean all excessively " daggy " sheep before bringing them on to the shearing board. Poultry : — September is one of the best for hatching. Incubators should be kept going, and broody hens set. Care must be taken to kee]) down vermin, as they now breed quickly ; use sprays in houses and Insectibane or Pe.stend in nests — nothing stunts chickens quicker than vermin. The food for young chicks should be tine oatmeal, stale bread crumbs, a little calcined (dry) bone, and a pinch of powdered charcoal. Sliglitly moisten with skim milk, and add very finely jiulped raw onion. Make the whole fi-iable, and feed frequently ('" little and often ") just as much as they will readily eat, as an excess of food only sours and disturbs their digestive organs. Do not feed animal food yet. Skim milk is safer, and answers same purpose. Keep chicken's feet dry — wet grass causes a chill ; and once the birds are chilled, trouble may be expected. CULTIVATION. Farm : — Plant early potatoes, and work up fallow for the main crop. Keep fallow for summer forage crops well worked up with the disc and harrows. Make early sowings of mangolds, beet, tield carrots, and turnips. Push on witli the fallowing in the Northern Districts. Prcjjare land for tobacco seed beds by burning rubljish on tlie site ; afterwards work up to depth of three or four inclies. Orchard : — Commence spring plougliiug ; plough in leguminous crops for green manure as soon as the plants are in full flower. Finisli grafting early in the month. Spray peach and aju-icot trees with Bordeaux mixture as the blossom buds are opening, as a preventive against "leaf curl" and "shot hole" fungi ; watch for peach aphis, and spray when present with tobacco solution. Flower Garden : — Cultivate and work up the surface to a fine tilth — clear out all weeds. Water newly planted shrubs, &c., if the weather is dry. Plant out cannas, early dahlias, chrysanthemums, gladioli, and other herbaceous plants. Vf;GETABLE GaRDEN : Plant out seedlings. Sow seeds for summer use, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, marrows, immpkins, melons, &c. Plant out tomatoes and shelter till frosts are over. Hoe and work u]) the soil siuface. \'iN kyard : — Plantation of young vines (gnfted or ungraftcd) should be concluded before ilie comnuMu-ement of ScptcmlxT ; i)iuning of old vines likewise. Prune vines rccenfly i>lanted just hefoi-e buds comnu-nce to swell (if not jiruned when planted), cuttini; strongest cane liack to two buds. Do uot delay this work until buds have slwt, as fliis seriously weakens tlie young vine. Towards end of niontli. Held iir'ttiui,' may be commenced, if weather lie tine and warm. If cold and wet, post])one initil Oetoher. Swab witlv acid iron sulphate vines which sliowed signs of BLvck Spot last season. To avoid burning, this must be completed lufore the buds commei\ce to swell. Cellar .•— Conclude spring racking early in month, if not already done. Fill up, regularly, iill unfortified wines. JUST PUBLISHED. " THE . . Destructive Insects of Victoria/' By C. FRENCH, F.L.S., F.E.S. 170 PAGES, CLOTH. 40 COLOURED PLATES. OBTAINABLE FROM T5e Depaptment o^ Sgplealtupe:, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. r Commonwealth, Id. Price, 2s. 6d.; Postage] New Zealand, 4d. [ British and Foreign, 7d. APPLICATIONS, accompanied by Postal Note covering price and "^ postage, to be forwarded to ''^ Oe Secretary Jor )\gricuUure, jMelbourne. Jp|l Ren^iua^lce^ Iri m l,e\oiid the Commonwealth to be made by Post Office Order. (^ Parts L, IL, III., and IV. may also be obtained at 2S. 6d. per Volume. r Parts 1. and HI.— C, Id.; N.Z., 3d.; B. and F., 6d. each. Postage \ ^^ ^^ ^^jj iv._c., Ud.; N.Z., 4d.; B. and F., 8d. each. PRESS OPINIONS R£ PART V. Adelaide Observer. — ^' Mr. French lias conferred a distinct benefit upon the prodiicers throughout the Commonwealth." Town and Connhy Jownia/.—'' The valuable descriptions and j^lates of the insects which make havoc are continued." AucUand Weekly News.—'' This work is remarkably interesting and particularly lucid." r 11 ■ i. ] • Canterhury 7'i«w^s.— "Will repay the careful perusal and study of all rnterested in agricultural and horticultural subjects." Otaiio ri««e«s.—" Another admirable treatise on insect life in Australia." Amtralian Farm and Home.-f'lt sliould certainly find a place in every rural home. Southern Sphere.—'' Is oi paramount value to all interested in orchards, crops, or forests." Education ■ Gazette and Teaclvers' Aid.-" ^nture-loverH vviU find their debt of obligation to the veteran naturalist increased by this volume. Vol. IX. THE "ESCUTCHEON." PASSION FRUIT CULTURE. [Rei;i«ter£-(l at the (Jetieral I'ost Oliii'e, Melbourne, for transmission liy Cost as a Newspaper. Part 9. A GQOa DAIRY TYPE. PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription Victoria, Inter-Stat?, and N.Z., 3-; British and Foreign, 6;-.) THE JOURNAL OF THE I)EPAR:rMENT OF AGRICULTURE, A. T. SHARP, Erlitor. CONTENTS.— SEPTEMBER, 1911. The '■ Escutcheon '■ : A (iuide to Milking Merit ... ... J. S. McFadzean Device for Opening and Closing of Cow-bails ... ... II. G. Churches Passion Fruit Culture ... ... .. ... ... J. Farrell Supplementary List of Artificial Fertilizers registered under the Artificial Manures Acts ... .. ... ... P.R.Scott Tobacco Culture — Types, Diseases and Pests ... ... T. A. J. Smith Farm Elacksmithing — Tools ... ... ... ... O. Baxter Spring Management of Bees .. ... ... ... F. R. Beuhne Absorption of Food Substances and Poisons through Leaves ... A. J. Etcart The Soy Bean ... ... ... ... ... . . V. Dfschamp Potato Experimental Fields, 1910-11 ... ... ... G.Seymour Dried Fruits P>eetle ... ... ... .. ... C. F-rPMch, jun. Propagation of Fruit Trees — "J rimming Stocks for Pltinting ... C. F. Cole Orchard and Garden Notes .. ... ... ... L\ K. Pescott Vine Diseases in France — Sweet Hot, Blue Mould, White Rot, Hoot Rot ... ... .. ... ... F. (Ic Castella Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1^11-1012 ... ... H. V. Haichins Answers to Correspondents Repairing " \Vattle and Dab Outbuildings ... 654 Painting Farmyard Fences ... 654 Castration of Horses ... ()y4 Death of Wethers .. ... 654 Value of the ]<>scutclieon ... 655 Pickling Wheat ... .. 655 Skinless Barley ... ... 655 Lucerne ... . . . . 655 Rape .. ... 655 Swede Turnips .. ... 655 Fowl Man lire ... ... 655 Coal Ashes Wood Ashes L^rine .. Sawdust Black Scale Trees Strawberries Strawberry Fly... Kibbed Case Moih Tarpaulins Hard Seeds I Soot on Orange ^fourtial of Agriculture — Copyright Provisions and Subscript ion Rates inside front Reminders for October ... .. ... ... ... inside back Destructive Innect'i of Victoria, Part V. ... ... .., ... back I'AOE. 585 599 601 604 606 610 615 619 621 630 640 (142 648 651 653 654 ()55 655 6 6 656 656 656 656 ti56 656 656 cover cover cover COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Ai tides in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the ]irovision.s of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, jtrorided the Journal and author are. both acknoicledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and -5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture -will be supplied by the latter. THe JOURNAL OF Ylie department of Mgricufture NHW YO VICTORIA Vol. IX. Part 9. 11th September, 1911. THE " ES(Jl TCHEU.N •' : A GUIDE TO MILKING MERIT. /. S. McFadzcan, Scf/h'/ Dairy Snfcr-mor. In puicliasing dairy stock the value of each animal must, under present conditions, be based largely on its appearance. Without the characteristic that is known as dairy type, a well-bred bull or cow will not attract much attention from buyers; and, even if certified to have a good milking pedi- gree, this must lie suppe of cow ; each being accorded .1 valuta \arying with iniiit that has special Ivaring on milking i|uality mu*;! Im "t more than «irdinary interest to buyers. 1 1 '2-24 V 586 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i. II Sept., 1911.] Tlic '' Escutcheon" : A Guide to Milking Merit. 587 There are three lines of \ariation in milk production, viz., the quan- tity of the daily yield; its (juality : and the length of time the flow is sustained. When a cow is in full milk, her daily yield, and also its t[uality, may be ascertained with fair accurac\- by a few days' trial ; but how long she will continue in milk is a matter of no little uncertainty to many. If .she is on sale as a stripper or a springer, the buyer has only her appearance to guide him as to what sort of a milker she is ; and, to most people, a cow at this stage is more or less a risky purchase. In arriving at an estimate of the value of any dairy stock one feature that is of particular significance in regard to milk production is frequently overlooked, viz., the " escutcheon.'" Not many people are acquainted with the intricacies of this feature as indicating excellence in dairy cattle; and there is no doubt that, if it were btttrr understood by dairymen, the know- ledge would be of much service. To this end, .several photographs of escutcheons are reproduced here ; and the description that accompanies them will helj) to illustrate how the future milk ])roduction of a cow may be approximately estimated, even while she is yet a heifer. These photographs are from stock on dairy farms in different parts of the State. In se\tTal instances, the actual yields have been furnished by the owners, and they are given here. Some interesting comparisons are thus shown between the actual and the estimated yields ; and, while there are some discrepancies between these, none are of such a nature as to raise any question against the value of the system which they are intended to illustrate, more especially when the conditions under which the cows are working are considered. Where cows are dependent on pasture they will only milk up to their full capacity if they are in the flush when the grass is at its best. In this way, cows that are grazed are not always seen to best advantage, unless on sown pasture. Very few of tho.se under notice get any feed other than the natural grass; some get a little; none are fed so as to bring them up to their full capacity. Those of one herd were at a big disadvantage this past year through lieing trucked some distance to another farm, the change I'ecessarily interfering with their yield. The term " escutcheon " is applied to that surface over which the hair on the posterior surface^ of the udder and haunches grows upwards, and ui ^ contrary direction to the down-growing hair on the rest of the animal's body. The extent nl this surface varies greatly, in some cows, it covers the whole of the inner haunch u|) close to the rump bones below the base of the tail ; in others, it takes in only a portion of the udder ; while there are innumerable variations between these extremes. More than eighty years ago the theor\ was put forward that the possible (juantity, as well as the term of continuitv of each cow's milk vield. could Ix' predicted from the appearance ol lu r escutcheon ; and. wherever this theory has been thoroughlv tested, it has proved to lie a|)proximately correct. Escutcheons ha\e been classed into ten main varieties, but .some of these are only rarely met with. l-".ach variety is pcxssible of being divided into .several sub-varieties or classes, which is done on ratio of size, as sub- sequently de.scribed. Onlv four of these subdivisions are used here, as these reach far enough for all practical jjurposes. The main varieties, as named, will li»> best luiderstood by reference to the several photographs. nil urn. Fig. 20. Horizontal, Figs. Ji. -i-' I lander.s, Fij^s. i 1. i, .V < 'urvflinr, ligs. 10. ir. 1 2. Left Fl.in.icrs, l-" '%X 1 )pini ii)lin, •■'t,'^- ^^ '4. I ; ."^tlvarje, I'iys. ^, Si|nari\ !•' igs. lb, 17. Di'iiMc Sclv:i^;c, Figs. S, 0. Limousin, Figs. iS. I.). y 2 588 fjunial of Agriculture, Victoria. [i i Sept.. 191 i. a I Sept., 191 i.] The " Escutcheon '"' .■ A Guide to Milking Merit. 589 59© Journal of .\gricultiirc , Victoria. [i i Sept., jqii. In each variety, when of its full possible size, the lower portion of the escutcheon is somewhat shield -shaped, with the corners reaching to the twist of the thigh ; and the sides sloping down from that point to inside the thigh below th^ udder. The upper portion in the four first-named, and also in the Square, curves from the corners of the shield, inwards and up- wards towards the base of the tail. With the exce.ption of the Horizontal, in all others it runs up and across the perineum in varying shapes. Briefly described : — The Flanders e::tends up to about the base of the tail covering all the surface between thf thighs from the udder to the genital opening (vulva). The Left Flanders runs up on the left side only. The photograph of this in No. 4 does not show this left side as it should be, on account of the tufts of down-growing hair running through it, which show in light markings. The Selvage runs up through the middle of the perineum, as is plainly shown in Figs. 5 and 6. The' Dotible Selvage is very clearly shown in 8. It runs up both sides, leaving a strip of descending hair down the centre, which may extend all, or only part of the way, to the udder. The Curveline extends in an arched line across, which is also clearly shown. The Demijohn has the upper portion short, and more or less straight across the top. this upper portion being something of a short selvage ; and the whole escutcheon of this variety when full has the formation of the " ace of -sxiades." The Square may be described as a Flanders with a right angle section cut out of the upper right side. Fig. 16 .shows this \ariety almost ] erfectly. The Limousin has the arched line of the Curveline replaced by an ^ngle in the centre line. Fig. 18 is very exact in upper outline, but is /ather narrow in the shield. The Bicorn may .be described as a diminutive Double Selvage, extend- ing up only a short distance, and ending sharp. That shown in Fig. 20 ia very .small, even of its class. The horizontal has only the lower or shield formation ; the top line crossing from corner to corner more or less straight across. The " leather " ov wrinkling at the top of the udder often prevents these markings from being plainly shown in photographs ; but in handling the cow they will be easily distinguished. The four sub- varieties or classes in each main variety, which are re- ferred to later on as A, B, C. and D respectively, range l)y comparative reduction from what should be the full extent of each in A class, down to what might be the .smallest, in IJ class. The decrea.se from class to class may be roughly estimated at about 25 per cent. Both upper and lower portions of the escutcheon, as well as the number and extent of adverse tufts — which are described later — are to be considered in making this estimate. Besides the ten main \cirifties. with their thirty sub-varieties, crossed forms of the main varieties are frequently rhet with, such as that shown in Fig. 23. These must be valued hv comparison with those varieties from which they are derived, or which at least thev resemble. At various points on the surface of the escutcheon, there will frequently be found down-growing tufts of hair. These indicate a shortening of the milking term. Such markings are of a more or less elongated oval shape. I Sept., 1911-] The '■ EscufcJicon ": A Guide to Milking Merit. 591 592 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ii Sept., lyir and are referred to hereafter a.s "■ tufts"; and the position of each i& indicated in the several photographs as follows: — {a) Cuissard, or thigh tufts (encroaching on udder), Figs. 3 and 4. {b) Perineal tufts (on perineum). Figs. 5 and 8. {c) Ischiatic or buttock tufts (near buttock), Nos. 4, g^ and 10. {d) Babian tufts (at side of vulva), Figs. 5 and 20. {e) Vulvan tuft (descending from vulva). Fig. 2. These five tufts are all faultv markings, to be considered of significance- according to their size and number, and point always to some diminutioiti of the milking term ; and more especially is this reduction marked if the- hair of the tufts is coarse and bright. There are two other markings which must not be confounded with those- five just mentioned, for they are favourable indications. They are : — (/) Udder ovals (on back quarters of udder). Fig. 9. \g) Mesian tuft (dart-shaped, on perineum). Figs. 11 and 12. If the udder ovals are of coarse hair their value is reduced; whereas those- of fine .soft hair are only found on hea^y milking cows. The mesian "tuft" is really an extension of the up-growing hair irt- the form of a dart, occurring in tho.se \-arieties that otherwise do not'runi up the perineum. It points to an extended milking term. As the milk flow is somewhat reduced naturally, shortly after the cow is again in calf, that period is taken as the failing point when estimating the continuity. Thus, reference to a cow as giving fifteen quarts for eight months will mean that her maximum daily yield in the flush will be fifteen quarts, and she will hold to about one month from her next calving. Twelve quarts for six months would mean a twelve-quart maximum from a cow that would dry oft' about three months before freshening again. If a cow^ does not get in calf she may milk on for a year or longer without going dry ; though her milk will vary in quantity according to the food available. The following table may be taken as approximate of the milk produc- tion possible from cows of medium size in the several varieties and classes- as indicated by their escutcheons. It should be explained that, inasmuch as cows usually calve once a year, they may be taken to be in milk three months on the average before falling in calf. This period (three months) ^ has therefore been added in all ca.ses (see last column), so that the full lactation period may be estimated. Class. Variety. Maximum Yield. Holding Period. Full Lactation Period.* A. „ Flanders Curveline and Selvage Left Flanders and Double Selvage Biconi, Demijohn, and Square Limousin and Horizontal 20 cjuarts 19 .. 18 .. 17 ., 15 .. 8 to 9 months 11 to 12 months B. Flanders Selvage. Curveline. and Demijohn Left Flanders and Double Selvage Bicorn and Square . . Limousin and Horizontal 18 .. 17 ., 1(> ., 15 ., 13 ., 7 to 8 montlis 10 to 1 1 months- C. Flanders Selvage and Curveline Left Flanders and Double Selvage Bicorn, Demijohn, and Square Limousin and Horizontal 16 ., 15 .. 14 „ 13 „ 10 „ 6 to 7 months 9 to 10 raontlis- D. Flanders, Selvage, and Curveline Left Flanders. Bicorn . . . . ( 12 . 10 5 to 6 months 8 to 9 months Double Selvage, Demijohn, and Square ) Limousin and Horizontal 8 . . Under properV'onditions of feeding and managtment. HI Sept.. 1911] The " Escutcheon "' .• .4 Guide to Milking Merit. 5Q5 594 Journal of Agriculture , Yici( [i I Sept., 191 i. In estimating the value of the various forms of the escutcheon, the prin- cipal point for consideration is the width and evenness of contour in the lower or shield-shaped portion. As previously mentioned, this should extend well out on the thigh — see Figs. 2, 5, 8. and 22 — and. without in- clining in towards the udder, it should run in unhroken line up or acros.s- the perineum, according to the manner of that variety. Development of this extent, free from ad\erse tufts, and accompanied by udder ovals of soft texture, marks such an escutcheon as belonging to the A class ; and indicates that the cow is a hea\y and continuous milker Each noticeable diminution in the size of this lower escutcheon may be taken as indicating ]6. SQU.\RE, CLAS.S B, Yield, 14 (|ts. (7^ mos.) 17. SQUARE, CLASS B. [a) Right cuissard tuft. Yield, \2 red stock ; though there will he still much variation in the minor characteristii s. From this, it is certain that a closer estimate of the maximum yiekl of an animal should bt> iK)s.sible In one who is familiar with the gem-ral (]iialitv of thf strain from which it has descended than bv one not acquainted therewith. There are breeds, and strains of breefls, in which heavy milk prodn.tion has l>een given special atttMition ; 59st Ix-tween the bails, and her leg roped back to the rear division post, liecause she moves through Inking tired of standing on three Irgs, she rc(ei\t's snndrv kiuxks, and the nsult is siic will not " let down her milk. 6oo Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i. For simplicity of construction, comfort to the cow, and convenience for the attendant, the accompanying illustration of a cow-bail is worthy of ronsideration. The bail is opened or closed by simply raising or lowering a weight at the rear division post. Walking to the head is thus obviated, the cow being both bailed or unbailed from the rear. In the case of heifers and nervous cows this is certainly a great advantage. 3. POSITION OF LOG-LINE AND WEIGHT. SIDE ELEVATION. The following are the details of construction : — t. Small pulley fixed either to rafter in loof or to batten nailed to rafters, and running the full length of shed. 2. Small pulley fixed either to roof of shed as No. i, or to an extension in height of rear division post as shown. 3. Small bolt or block of wood to prevent bail-post remaining on dead centre. 4. Hinge or bolt pivot on cleat or tongue. [a] Length of log line or green-hide fixed to cleat or tongue \c\. thence through pulleys i and 2. (Holes in rafters or screw-eyes may be substituted for pulleys). [b) Weight (to about correspond with weight of cleat or tongue) fixed to. end of line. (c) Tongue or cleat. {d) Bail- post, (e) Extra post to facilitate the security and comfort of the cow. (/) Front division posts between bails. [g] Rear division posts b tween bails. Any size timber may be used, according to the opinion of the builder. Although sawn timber is shown in the drawings, it is not essential — split or rough timber will suffice. The advantage claimed is that the cleat or tongue (c), which holds the bail post in position against the cow's neck, drops by gravitation when the weight {b) is released. The bail-po.st {d), not being allowed to remain on dead centre by a bolt or block of wood (3), drops back with the tongue or cleat and thus releases the cow. II Sept.. .191 1 •] Passion Fruit Culture. 60 r PA88I0X Fill IT CULTURE. /. Farrell, OrcJiard Supervisor. Owing to the increasing demand for Passion Fruit {Passiflora edulis) the area under passion vines, particularly in the Wandin district, is being considerably increased. There are at present many new blocks of land being prepared for planting, and growers look forward with confidence to the further successful establishment of local and export markets for this fruit. The crop was heavy this season and consequently prices were somewhat lower than usual at the commencement. Towards the end of the season, however, they recovered to such an extent that, on the whole, growers obtained a fair average return. Preparation of Soil. Soil of a deep loo.se chocolate nature is the most suitable. The Wandin district is particularly adapted for passion fruit culture. The plants thrive best on new land, and on elevated positions are less affected by frosts than when grown on low lying ones. After clearing operations have been completed, the land should be ploughed and allowed to remain fallow for one year. The following year, prior to planting out, the soil should be well worked and kept free from weeds. When it is intended to plant on land which has been previously cropped, it is only necessary tha't the soil be kept in a good state of cultivation. Raising Young Plants. Young plants are raised from seeds which should be saved from fruit which ripen during May or June. These seeds gi\e a higher percentage of germination than those taken from fruit which ripen earlier. They may be sown during September in pots, boxes, or in drills, and covered with I in. of soil. The seeds may be sown thickly; and, when the plants are about 2 in. high, the weaker ones may be thinned out so as to leave a space of about 3 in. between the remaining plants. Growers who determine on extending their blocks rarely find it necessary to sow seed in order to obtain the plants required ; a sufficient number invariably grows amongst the old vines, as a result of the falling of ripe fruit. The seed W(\ should be kept well watered during dry weather. Planting Out. The young vines are generally planted out when one or two years old. ind usually towards the end of September or early in October, when the frosts have disappeared. Post and wire trellises, from 5 ft. to 7 ft. high, are erected to sup- :iort the plants. The posts are made of rough split timber, ranging from f^ in. X 6 in. to 8 in. x 8 in., with four or five wires, ordinary or galvanized. Hid from 8 to 10 gauge. The posts are usually put 3 ft. in the ground. The distances of the trellises apart, also the distances between the posts, ire regulated by the method intended to be adopted when planting out. There is a great diversity of opinion among growers as to most suitable •listances between the rows and between the vines in the rows. Those mostly adopted by the Wiindin growers are 12 ft. x 16 ft., 12 ft. x 18 ft.. .>r 12 ft. X. 20 ft. Otluis i)lant 9 ft. x 12 ft. or 9 ft. x 14 ft., but these are too close and flo not admit of sufficient light and air. particularly when 6o2 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [ii Sept., 1911. the trellises are over 5 ft. high. Last season, a v'^i.ng grower planted 16 ft. X 16 ft., but this method is regarded by t'le more experienced, growers as a waste of ground. The Trellis. After giving due consideration to the various methods of planting out,. I would recommend 12 ft. x 18 ft., i.e. u ft. between the rows or trellises- and 18 ft. between the plants in the rows. The accompanying rough sketch will serve to illustrate the kind of trellis which is recommended to- be used in conjunction witli this method of planting. No attempt has been made to draw to scale, nor to draw the plants beyond giving a rough idea of the positions taken up by the leaders. The trellis illustrated is 6 ft. high with 6 in. x 6 in. posts 18 ft. apart. The end posts are 8 in. x 8 in. The post marked i is an extra one and is- 8 ft. from the end post. It supports the stay (2). The crosspiece (3) is nailed to it and the end post. When erecting the latter, some growers put it in at an angle, as at 4, but this is unnecessary if the trellis be properly erected. In this trellis 5 galvanized Xo. 10 gauge wires are shown. A few grow-ers use 4 wires of No. 8 gauge. Although this makes a good trellis- I prefer that illustrated. c a e TRELLIS FOR PASSION FRUIT PLANTS. Occasionally, growers plant the young vines one or two years before erecting the trellis and allow them to lie on the ground all that time as at {a). This method is to be deprecated, as too many light and useless- leaders are produced and they must be afterwards cut away when the- plant is being put on the wires. But if the young plant one year old {b) is .sown at the end of Septem- ber, when the frosts are over, a fair growth is produced by the following February {c). The plant may then be put up. The natural habit of the- passion is for its leaders to take hold with their tendrils and climb ; by placing them on the wires, Nature is assisted. A plant tw^o or three years old is show-n at {d). Its leaders are few, but are healthy and strong as- compared wdth {a) and its great number of weak leaders on the ground. Prior to putting the plants on the wires, saplings about f in. in dia- meter at the butts should be w^oven about 18 in. apart, one against the- other, into the wires, on the principle of wicker W'Ork (b). The butt ends should be kept uppermost ; if put in butt downwards, the vibration of the wires would cause them to drop. The saplings make the trellis firm and afford the plants a support on which to climb from wire to ware. Cultivation and Manuring. The soil around the young plants, after planting out, should be kept well worked, so as to destroy weeds and conserve moisture. They should be copiously watered as often as required during dry weather. A little .stable manure should be dug in around the young plants; and, providing the soil be kept well worked, an occasional .sprinkling of bone- dust or bonedust and suprr])hosphate will be all that is necessary to main- tain vigorous growth. II Sept., 191 i.] Passion Fruit Culture. 603 To obtain heavy crops from plants in bearing, intense culture, with a fair amount of manure, is essential. The land between the trellises should be ploughed at least twice a year and harrowed regularly, particularly after rain during summer and autumn. A spring-tooth harrow is very use- ful for the purpose. A liberal supi)ly of staljle manure, when plentiful, should be given; if not, artificial manure as recommended for young plants should be used at the rate of 4 lbs. i^er plant or 8 cwts. per acre and harrowed in during early spring. Pruning. The \ines should not be pruned until the frosts have disappeared. \"oung plants suffer badly from frost. They .should be protected for the first two years by branches of evergreen trees being placed around them; old hessian also .serves the purpose. When a ycung plant becomes frost-bitten, the diseased parts should be removed with a sharp knife; the cut should be made about \ in. into the sound wood. If any of the diseased wood be allowed to remain, decay continues. Superfluous wood and foliage should be allowed to remain on the older vines until after the frosts are over, as they help to save the vines. Thev may then be removed with advantage. Diseases. Old passion vines are very subject to Collar Rot {Fusarium). This disease is more easily contracted, and is more difficult to deal with, when the plants are allowed to establish themselves by throwing up a number of leaders from or below the surface of the ground (e). The stems should be kept clean and about 3 in. long, like (/). This can only be satisfactorily done by putting the plants on the wires while young, and thus rendering the work in connexion with their requirements easy. This disea.se may be kept in check by .scraping off the diseased bark at the collar and sjiraying with Bordeaux mixture. Passion jilants al.so suffer from Brown Spot of the leaf and fruit {Glocosporium). This di.'ease may be suppressed by thinning out the diseased parts, and by the judicious use of Bordeaux mixture. The vines suffer but little from in.sect disea.ses. Occasionally, the stems and roots are attacked by the White Ant {Termes australis). The ants rarely attack young vigorous plants, but confine their attention mostly to old and decaying ones or tho.se which are affected with Collar Rot. Such ];lants .should receive immediate attention, as recommended, when the ants will share the fate of the Collar Rot. If this were found to be ineffectual .-;gainst the ants, kero.sene emulsion might be injected into the disea.sed parts. Old vines which have cea.sed to produce remunerative crops through ft t- 1> t- ec CO Brand. M.L. .. Sickle . . M.L Wischer's Sickle ... Wischer's M.L. . . Sickle '.'. '.'. M.L. '. '. Wischer's Description of Manure. Nitrate of Soda Blood Manure Nitrate of Potash . . Muriate Potash Sulphate Potasti Maldon Island Guano, 50% Ground Phosphate, 80% Guano, 50% Ground Phosphate, 50% 80% .. Guano . . Where Obtainable. a 3 0 .a 1 i 0 Price asked for Manure per ton. is 3 ^ 0 0!= s 0 o3 "1 0 Phosphoric Acid. © Nitrogen. 0 Brand. 1 11 bEPT., 191 1 . J Supplementary List of Artificial Fertilizers . 605 fe . . -73 - s W^ !*. s i e lime ler a d F. Hos 1. 0 1- 0 i b s s c r r 0 ..=».: -H 0 s 1 0 rt ^ obW a n crtta >aio la in >aiaiaia>a>o>oee>a 0 0 KSOOO oot~ lO i-i not- M Total Phosphor Aeid. ^1 s 0 0 >n 0 0 coor~ocooo O0'0«'-'3 0 0'r>n 0 0 000x0 000x0 000 <»•* 0> C5 kftCSOSCi-^CiOS^O 0 0 X'* 0 ■* « iC 0 0 i 1 1 1 c 0 c 0 0 ^ CM oo-sxcoooo-* lOOt»-»iOOCt-X 0 0 0 00 la mom ■* in o> 0 S CO o»a ■ncsiisinincooffi « ift •* l-H N i-c r1 rH in X a. 05 B t 0.' gA §1 0 0 0 lO OOOI'^OOiOt-O O'nox>o>nt-oo 0 0 000x0 in la 0 Od c^ tn in in c 0 0 M rHf-(.-IWOOO»00 Ci meoN M .-c 000 1 ^1 ^! 00 lO o U50 t»o 0 0 in <-i 0 0 m 0 ... .0 000 oox 00 x> — 2 X X(N ox XN ^ rt«OS 1 1 gS? S 0 .ftO t~o ooco^50>nxo m>nxoou5t»in« 0 0 OOOMO iffl 0 or- 0 0 in in o« t~ rt »i c •-> u, ^o«c.irtO«« >a M« locoeo •*e»o "S tt."'- «i "l-l : -. S I •-J ' 2f£ e 5 S s ■|_ •oi -o-g^ "s -"■=■••§. I -^ *' p. eS'- CSCI. ueS 0*k«eS 3 j: ^3 i j: Si— CO fs c« £.Q,c«c.a._ « •acSo-StZ6:-3xc* s rtC Cl.e8T30.tS-3a ^SoQ „,S % }Li h.% =1^ 5^.2- fc £ 1^,^ « *^mx« S« «a« = : ■■■■■■a £3% ;; aS fflc sa -a« s a B->a3 P-i .2 S 4> o > o O 6o6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria.- [ii Sept., 1911. TOBACCO CULTURE. {Coiitijiucd from page 544). T. A. J. SiuitJi, Tobacco Expert. Types of Tobacco for Market. In Victoria, at the present time, there are comparatively few types of either pipe or cigar tobacco produced ; but, as new districts are proved suitable for the growth of tobacco, further types, that will be peculiar to themselves in certain characteristics and have a value of their own for purposes such as wrapper leaf, flavour, or special suitability for some par- ticular purpose, are likely to be found. Different soils and climates pro- duce different types of tobacco; and, as with wines, districts become re- nowned for their type. The term " type " must not be confused with the class or grade. Type means a tobacco with a combination of qualities such as colour, body, flavour, strength and stretch, or a tobacco cured by a particular method, such as flue-cured, sun-cured, or air-cured. " Class " means that it may be of value for .smoking, chewing or snuff; while "grade" means thf different degrees of quality in each type or class such as firsts, seconds and thirds, up to twelve. The tobacco industry in this State produces only three types of plug and cigar leaf, but others will come as the crop is established in new districts, provided that the right varieties are grown, and treatments adopted to suit the prevailing conditions. • As each type gets a reputation for being useful for certain purposes its market value increases and becomes of great regularity, thus insuring to the grower a more reliable income. The photograph of the " Hester " leaf on page 607 is that of a Victorian-grown sample of a type best suited for plug tobacco ; it is use- ful for plug binder or filler and, if of first class quality, sometimes used for wrapper. It is a good .shaped leaf, with little waste in cutting, and is an easy plant to handle in the field. " Lax " is another class of plug leaf. It is a leaf of lower quality than the Hester, but is a heavy yielder, the leaf being fitted chiefly for plug filler. Both of these varieties do well under varying conditions of soil and climate ; but the qualities will not be the same, which means they are of different class and of many grades. In cigar leaf, the buyer is chiefly concerned with the colour, feeling, flavour, texture, combustion and general appearance of the leaf, according to the purpose for which it is required. As in filler leaf, colour or appear- ance is not of so much importance, though texture is of value ; flavour and burn are the main considerations. The bunch-wrapper, that is, the leaf immediately under the cover, requires to be .sound, without holes ; but it must also have strength and stretch sufficient to allow it to expand and contract without breaking under the changes of temperature to which it may be subjected. Flavour is not always a consideration, but is sometimes taken into account as a blend. Appearance is not of great moment. In cover- wrapper leaf, however, appearance is most important. The leaf should have a nice colour and silky appearance and fine texture; it must also have strength and stretch, fine veins, and be able to stand the changes of weather Sumatra leaf is so thin, and yet so strong, in texture, that i lb. will wrap 500 cigars. Flavour is of no great value in cover wrapper, but the burn must be good. II Sept.. 1911.] Tobacco Culture. 607 There are various classes and grades of wrapper leaf. An illustration of " Comstock." grown in Victoria, appears on this page. Each country has its preference for different types of leaf; and. unless- the type wanted is obtainable, no business results. There is a wide open- COMSTOCK'' (cigar). ing in Victoria for tobacco-growing, provided the leaf is produced with care and due regard is paid to s[)ecial types. A nondescript tobacco is always hard to place, and is of low value — it must be regraded and is only purchased as a stop-gap or to work in on a small percentage with other leaf. There is every prospect of special types being grown here, but IIIiSTER. years of careful experimental work will be necessary in the various dis- tricts to prove them, unless a lucky hit is made, as sometimes happens. There is an immense market all over the world for a great number of types and various clas.ses but. as previously mentioned, the popular taste is year bv vear in-ndin^ towanls the lighter aromatic tc'baccoes, and these can onlv be grown on soils ili;it arr not loo (l;irk and rich ; the richer the soil, the greater the nicntinc ((intent. ;in(l more lank tiie toliacco. The colour ol a cigar or plug ol tobacco dot's not determine its .strength, as the urajiper constitnles only about 5% of a cigar, the interior l)eing tile re.d inlluencc in this respect. Heavy pressure will turn light 6o8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i. leaf a dark colour, as will also the different preparations a leaf under- goes. The colours under which the cigar wrappers are known are : — Claro, Very light brown. Colorado-claro, Light brown. Colorado., Brown. Colorado Madura, Dark brown. Madura, Dark. Our local markets are good enough at the present time, prices ranging for plug leaf from 4d. to pd. per lb. The supply for this class of leaf is not likely to overtake the demand for some years at least. Seeing that yields of cured leaf average 1,000 lbs. or more per acre of first grade plug leaf, the profits are considerable, being anything from ;!^2o to ^75 per acre. TYPE OF PLUG TOBACCO. TYPE OF CIG,\R TOBACCO. In comparison with plug leaf, only a small amount of cigar leaf is used in Victoria. Prices have reached is. 6d. per lb. As the yield IS from 700 to 1,400 lbs. per acre, the profits are high, but the leaf must be good. It is more difficult to produce good cigar leaf than plug; greater care is also required in growing, curing, classing and fermenting, and quality such as fine texture, fine vein, and special flavour must be obtained in order to command a market. II Sept.. 1911.] Tobacco Culture. 6o9> It is therefore advisable to begin with a plug tobacco and experiment with cigar varieties in a small way until it is proved that good cigar leaf can be grown. It must be remembered, too, that cigar tobaccoes entail more labour than plug, owing to the additional treatments necessary and the extra number of plants per acre there are to handle. Diseases and Pests. Fortunately, the Victorian tobacco grower is not assailed by diseases- and pests to the same extent as the American, though as time progresses some of them will probably be introduced. The fact that the seed is used in comparatively small quantities and is kept in sealed jars will tend to minimize the introduction of diseases and pests. Our drier atmosphere is not so conducive to the worst diseases that American growers have to combat — and that factor will save us much trouble. Up to the present, our worst enemy has undoubtedly been the disease known locally as Blue Mould {H yoscyami perenospora), a fungoid growth that attacks the young plants in the nurseries generally before they are ready for transplanting. It is worse in or after wet season.s when the first Avarmth of spring is felt (Rusty seasons for wheat are generally bad for Blue Mould). It makes its appearance in the initial stages, under the leaf of the plant, in small round spots the size of a threepenny piece. These, on examination, are seen to be covered with a grey-blue mould, hardly discernable to the naked eye and resembling a light fur. If not checked by natural or other cau.ses, the spots increase rapidly in size and the plant dies in five or six days.' In some cases, a mild attack only takes place and the plant recovers. When a fresh growth of the heart and root takes place, the plants can be put out with safety, but if no fresh growth is made the labour of transplanting will be wasted. A test is often made by pulling up a few plants and cutting across the stem just above the roots and below the leaves. If a black ring is found right round the plant just inside the bark, the plants should be abandoned ; if the ring is faint, or only partially round the plant and the fresh growth spoken of can be discerned, they can be put out in the field. Cold changes fol- lowed by muggy weather are conducive to this disease and care should be taken during such weather to give as little water as possible. The frame beds protect the plants from the wind and maintain a more uniform tem- perature than the open beds and are to be recommended for this reason. They also prevent the loss of moisture by evaporation and so save the necessity for watering to the same extent as is necessary with open beds. Various methods of treatments for the prevention and cure of this disease have been tried but no specific cure has yet been found. Lime, sulphur, Bordeaux mixture, and other sprays have proved of little effect. Treating the soil with steam carbon bi-sulphide and formalin has .shown slight results, but if persisted in will kill the plants. Fumigations with sulphur and formaldehyde candles have also checked the disease in the early stages, but have no good effect in a bad case. The most successful method yet employed is in sowing relays of beds at monthlv intervals from August to November, so as to have beds coming on that will probably miss the critical time for the moist season. Plants will \w- obtained more quickly from l:>eds .sown late than from the early beds — in many cases, in six weeks; and, if transplanted l^efore the end of the year, will produce a crop. As a matter of fact, the late planted crop, though returning a lighter yield, will give far less work in working the land, weeding, &c. ; also, the quality of the leaf from the late crop is- ■6io Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 1911. generally better, provided the land has been kept in good order, clean, and the surface kept broken to conserve the moisture. Only once in 30 years' experiments have I had a total failure in following this method, though mould has appeared to some extent almost e\ery year. The work of attending the beds is slight and does not entail such sacrifice of time, or labour, if as much, as three times the actual quantity of beds recjuired is sown. Cut Worms are troublesome in some ca.ses, and attack the young plants as soon as they are transplanted. Clean cultivation during the autumn and winter will go far to ridding the field of this pest. If they are still found in the .soil, a mixture of arsenic, i part, to flour or bran, 20 parts, with sugar or molasses sufficient to sweeten the mixture will, if placed about the plants in the evening, kill them. Care should be taken to spread the baits about sundown, as the cut worms come out in the night and will not take the baits if dry. Grasshoppers are at times a nuisance. Paris green, i part to 20 parts of flour, will, if dusted on the plants, kill these pests. The same treat- ment will be found effective for the green caterpillar which attacks the plant, the best way in which to administer the poison being from a muslin bag on the end of a stick. The bag is held over the centre of the plant and the stick tapped when the powder will be well sprinkled over the heart of the plant. A very little will be sufficient and it is not wise to apply as much as will whiten the plant. The Tobacco Miner, so named on account of the way in which it burrows between the outer skins of the leaf, is difficult to cope with. Cleanliness in working the land, and burning all affected leaves to destroy the larvae, is the best remedv. Xo treatment has so far l:>een found effective. The Flea Beetle. Wire Worm, Pole Burn, and other troubles of this kind, do not appear to have affected tobacco in Victoria. FARM BLACKSMITHIXG. {Continued from page 549.) George Baxter, Instructor in Blacksmithing, Working Men's College, Melbourne. III.— TOOLS. Having fitted up the forge satisfactorily the next consideration is tools. It will be necessary to purchase a certain number, and with these all others may be made, providing sufficient skill be attained. It will be understood from this that all black.smith's tools and, in fact, the tools of all trades, are with few exceptions made by blacksmiths, so that volumes might be written on tool-making alone. The tools used by smiths are countless, as special tools are made to suit special cases ; and, in many instances, before a job can be carried out, the requisite tools must first be made. The accompanying sketches show the least number of tools to begin with. They would cost about jQi 5s. — a comparatively slight amount when the time they wnll last, together with the variety and amount of work that may be done with them, is taken into consideration. II Sept.. 1911-] Far}n Blacksmithiiig. 611 12. FLATTENER. FULLER. No. 12 is called a fiaftciicr ; and, a.s its name implies, is used for pro- ducing flat surfaces. No. 13 is a fuller, and is used for many purposes, amongst which scarfing iron preparatory to welding is the most important. The Jioi-sctt (No. 14). or hot chisel as it is sometimes called, is for cutting hot metal, whilst No. 15 shows a cold-sett for cutting cold bars. It will be noticed that the angles of the blades are different, that of the hot- sett being much thinner than the cold .so as to enable it to be easily driven into the heated metal ; the difference in the hardness of the hot and cold iron makes this possible. No. 16 is a hardee. It is [jractically a chisel used up- side down, and is one of the most useful tools. The manner in which it is ap- ])lied is to fit it into the sfjuare hole of the anvil, |)lace the material to be cut on top of the cutting edge at the desired position and strike immediately opposite with the hammer. It will be understood that only light bars are to be cut with the hardee. The ht^a\ier ones are cut with the cold or hot setts, according to the temperature of the metal. The use of the hot and cold setts requires the united work of two persons, one to hold the metal in one hand and the tool in the other, while the other l)erson strikes with the sledge ham- mer. When the work is not heavy one individual may. by using the hardee, perform a vast amount o\ work without assistance. .\ hand lianuncr (No. 17) requires no further remark than that the most useful weight is about \\ lbs. No. 18 illustrates the usual form of a dcdgc liamnnr ; one weighing about 10 lbs. would bf best for the pur- pose intended. The S7vage (No. 19) is used for forging metal circular. It is usf(l in ronjiuiction with a swage block or with bottom swages made to fit the anvil. 14. HOT- SETT OR HOT CHISEL. COLD SETT. For the farmer, the swagt- block will be the most useful and. at thi- same tiir.e, chtaper than a .set of bottom swages; for that rea.son, no bottom swage is sliown. The S2i-agi hlock (No. 20) is made of cast iron and is a combination of many tools. All tht- swages that will l^ needed, as well as hcx.igonal shaped tools for forming nuts and l)olt heads, are placed on ^12 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sep,t., 191 i. HARDEE. 17. HAND HAMMER. the four sides of the block. There are also a number of differently shaped holes running through it which are used for numerous purposes. It costs approximately £\ per cwt. One weighing i cwt. will be ample for the requirements. The hand -punch (No. 21) is about 8 in. long and is tapered to \ in. diameter at the point. This is a very convenient size, although other sizes and shapes are made. It is used for making holes in cold or hot metal. If the thickness does not exceed | in. it is punched cold, as in the case of making a hood and chimney for the forge; but above that thickness the metal should be heated. The centre punch (No. 22) is for marking positions on metal. In drill- ing holes, it is essential that a centre mark be made, so as to start the drill at the correct place. Likewise, when a hole is to be punched in hot metal the position is first marked with the centre punch ; the iron is then heated and the hole driven through. If the holes were marked with a. pencil or with chalk, the marks would become obliterated when heated. The various tongs shown are : Flat tongs (No. 23), hollowbits (No. 24), fliers (No. 25), and pincei tongs (No. 26), are about the most useful shapes to start with. The flat tongs, by having a groove along the centre of the jaws, will hold small round or square iror as well as flat. A pair made to grip \ in. flat will hold \ in. or | in. round or square. The hollowbits are designed to grip round metal, but they will hold square or flat as well. It would be best to get a pair to hold f in. diameter ; they may then be used for holding | in. or f in. octagonal steel, or f in. round or square iron. The pliers are called by some " the handy tongs," because they will catch hold of so many different .shapes and sizes. They can be made to pick up a pin ; and, without any alteration, will fit around an object mea- suring 3 in. diameter with the larger bow and i in. diameter with the smaller. The pincer tongs are of a shape that can be used for many jobs. They hold bolt- heads, round or square iron from i in. to \\ in., the heads of tools, chisels. &c. The remaining tools required are as follows : — Flat and half round bastard cut -files ; several round and square files of assorted sizes j a rule (a brass one costing is. is to be preferred to any other, because it is not injured when measuring hot iron — it will not burn like a wooden one or SLEDGE HAMMER. 19. SWAGE. II Sept., 191 i_, Farm Blacksmithing. 61 rust the same as a steel one) ; one or two pairs of cheap calipers for cor- rectly measuring sizes, particuhirly circulai work ; a pair of comf asses ; several spanners, or r.ut-wrenches j and a set of stock dies and tafs for cutting screws. These are rather expensive; HAND PUNCH. „T,tr7firTnm\w-;.:\V\VV.\v,'\VV\,'-v 20. SWAGE BLOCK. 22. CENTRE PUNCH. a full set would be about jQ-^, but a set of say \ in. ; | in. ; | in. ; f in. ; I in. ; and i in. should be quite sufficient for all the requirements on a ^''^^"^- Material. A small stock of bar iron and steel con- sisting of the under- mentioned size will be sufficient to begin with and will cost at the rate of from jQio to ^14 per ton for iron and mild steel, and 4d. to 6d. per lb. for cast ^ in. ; FLAT TONGS. steel. A bar of each onlv should be obtained — i in. 1^ in. ; § in. ; | in. ; f in. ; f in. ; i in. round and square iron; f in. octagonal cast steel ;' I in. and i in. mild ^^^^'- 24. hollowbits. Lighting the Fire. After filling the hearth up with earth and leaving a hole directly in front of the tue-iron. 15—3 en p: 'i^ previouslv instruct- ^^'^^ ed, the fire may be lit. To do so get a handful of shavings, papers, straw. &c. : or. better still, a shovelful of fire from the kitchen and 2^. PLIERS. piaci- inimediatelv in front of the tue-iron. Blow the b>ello\\s gently and fill in the .space with whatever fuel is available. If coal is used it sliould be verv small and should be wetted be- fore ])utting on the ^./^r'''""*^ fire to prevent it ^^'-^-^ ^^^^^J^'^^^^ ing up too f|uicklv. "^ "^ With a forge, when lused as fuel, care must 26. pincer tongs coal is ^%»-^ 6i4 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 1911. be exercised to prevent the bellows bursting. This can happen if blowing be discontinued before the coal becomes thoroughly ignited. The pressure of the atmosphere, acting on the hea\ y combustible gases, drives them back into the bellows ; and, when they join with the air confined within, form an explosive which becomes ignited by the fire and often results in the bellows being blown open. To guard against this disaster, blowing should be con- tinued until the coals directly above the nozzle of the tue-iron become bright, when it may cease without any possibility of injury. A good safe- guard is to loosen the coal with the poker occasionally whilst blowing, which prevents it forming a crust, and allows a free passage for the air to pass through. In quenching the fire, the same thing may happen if there be a good body of fuel above the tue-iron. The action of the water on top of the fuel causes the gases generated h\ fire and water to be forced into the bellows. As a preventive, take the rake and clear the fire away to one side, leaving the nozzle in view ; then throw on the water. Some Fundamental Principle.s. Previous to describing the process of making some useful article, it might be as well to mention that, in order to achieve success in the art, there are several fundamental principles that must be fully recognized. The usual idea of the ordinary layman that a blacksmith is one who makes iron red hot and hammers it into shape is only partly true ; and, if accepted by any one and applied, failure and disappointment will be the outcome. Blacksmithing is undoubtedly a difficult trade to learn, which is due to the fact that it requires originality, quickness of thought and action, de- termination and sound judgment. To acquire proficiency one requires a knowledge of mathematics, an intelligent understanding of the nature of the metals used and the effect that heat and hammering have on them, and long practice. It is not the intention to deal minutely with all the intricacies of the trade or enter too far into detail, but rather to carefully select objects which, whilst having a direct application to farm work, will at the same time possess educational value which will enable one to apply the knowledge so gained in the accomplishment of requirements other than tho.se dealt with here. That it would be impossible to describe all the work likely to be required by the farmer in connexion with the repair of all his imple- ments will be recognized and admitted. It is, however, hoped that the information given in these articles will have beneficial results. The materials used in blacksmithing are wrought-iron, mild steel, and cast steel. Iron is used principally where welding is necessary, as in the case of links of chain, hinges, bolts, &c. In its nature, iron is fibrous like timber. The fibres run longitudinally. It can be bent, twisted, or punched, either cold or hot; it can be welded simply by the application of heat and pres- sure without the use of solder, fluxes, or glue, as in the case of other metals or wood; and, at suitable temperatures, it can be beaten into any conceivable shape without loss of strength. The effect of heat on iron is to soften it; and, when the temperature is raised to 2,700 deg. Fahr., it becomes in a plastic or soft and sticky con- dition, in which state it may be joined together. When the heat is in- crea.sed to about 3,000 deg. it melts. In working iron, it is not always necessary to raise to the welding heat. Such operations as punching, bending and twisting are performed whilst II Sept., 1911.] Spri}ig Management of Bees. 615 red hot without injury to it ; but, if it is required to reduce tlie size of the metal to any great extent, then the welding heat must be employed, other- wise the fibres of the bar become separated. Reducing the size is called ■draiuing out. The welding heat is recognized by the colour the iron assumes. As the temperature increases, the metal first becomes dark red, then light red, orange, and finally sparkling w'hite. No instruments are needed to register the heat, the colours alone enabling one to judge by sight. In no case should iron be allowed to remain in the fire after the welding point has been reached, because it becomes burnt and wastes away. Mild Steel is practically iron, but is produced by a different method t(. the wrought iron. It is of a granular structure and possesses greater strength than wrought iron. It can be welded, but requires greater skill to do .so. Mild steel is largely used for all structural purposes, on account -of its great strength. It can be bent, twisted, and punched, the same as iron, but is harder to work. One advantage to blacksmiths is that mild steel will not split like iron, if hammered out at a lower temperature than the wielding heat. Cast steel is produced by chemically combining carlxjn and wrought iron, which entirely alters its nature. It becomes granular in structure, and has a greater strength than mild steel or iron. It possesses the pro- perty of becoming hard if suddenly cooled, which property makes it so valualjle for the manufacture of tools. It is unlike iron and mild steel, inasmuch as it cannot be welded, excepting when of a low grade and even then great skill is requisite. When dealing subsequently with the manu- facture and re])air of tools a great deal more information will be given concerning the (effect that heat and cooling have upon it. {To be continued.) SPRING MANAGEMENT OF 15EES. F. R. Biulnic, Bee Expert. During the first or second week of September, all hiws should l>e ex- amined for the purpose of .seeing whether each one has sufficient food, a laying queen, and enough bees to enable it to work up into a i)rofitable colony. This examination should be made only on fine mild days, otherwise harm will be done to weak stocks, by letting the warmth escape when open- ing the hi\e and by causing the bees to fly and become chilled. Having lighted the smoker, blow one or two whiffs of smoke in at the entrance, lift the cover at one end. and blow a few puffs of smoke o\"er the top of the frames. When fjuilts .ire used l)etween covers and frames, hives can be o[)ened with less disturbance, less smoke is needed, and it is con- sequently easier to find tin- queens. Ihe amount of stores is the first consideration at this time of year, but no iiard and fast rule can lie laid down as to the actual weight of honey requirei] to maintain and develop the colony. 'J'he (|uantity depends upon the number of bees in the hi\e. the length of lime which may elap.se lit^'ore th( y e;ui find sufficient new nectar in the blossoms of the immediately sur- rounding country, and the weather conditions prevailing during the follow- ing four or (we weeks. In no case, however, even under the most favour- able circumstances, should there l>e less than 5 lbs. of honey (equal to 6i6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i. one well filled Langstroth comb) in the hive. Bees build up in spring on their winter stores, excepting in specially favoured localities with a mild climate and an early flowering flora. From 15 lbs. to 25 lbs. of honey is more like the quantity required in an average locality, to obtain the best results in brood-rearing till sufficient new nectar is available from outside sources. In many instances, bees will be found very short of stores this spring ; and, as the consumption greatly increases as soon as brood-rearing commences, any shortage should be made good by feeding sugar syrup as recommended in the July number of the. Journal. If no feeders are on hand, a clean empty comb may be filled with- syrup by placing it flat in a milk or other suitable dish and pouring the syrup into the cells from a height of about 15 in. When one side is filled, the comb is turned over and the other side filled. To get a fine stream^ of syrup, a jug with a rather pointed lip is the most suitable vessel. When the comb is filled, it should be held or suspended over the dish for a short time, to allow the surplus syrup to run off. The latter would otherwise fall on to the floor of the hive and in all probability attract robbers. Every hive should have a fertile queen ; and, as a minimum, bees on- at least two or three combs. It is not absolutely necessary to see the queen, the presence of eggs and of brood in the .several stages being suffi- cient evidence that the queen is all right. When the eggs, however, are at the side of the cell bottom, and not in the centre, laying workers instead of a queen may be present. A further indication of laying workers, an unfertile young queen, or an exhausted old one, is that the cappings of the sealed brood, instead of being only slightly oval, are hemispherical and project much beyond the general surface of the comb. This is due to the fact that the eggs of laying workers and unfertile or exhausted queens produce drones only. The larvae of the latter are larger than those of w^orkers and being in worker instead of in drone cells there is not sufficient depth, and the cell is therefore lengthened in capping it. If a hive in this condition still con- tains sufficient bees, and is to be retained as a separate stock, the laying workers or the drone-laying queen must be replaced with a fertile one. With Italian bees, which are quieter than blacks, and the queen differently marked from the workers, the queen is usually easily found. Black queens are often very hard to find on account of their sombre colour and the habit of black bees of clumping or running off^ the combs when disturbed. In hunting for queens, or examining brood for disease, it is necessary to see both sides of each comb. To do so, many bee-keepers turn the comb in the wrong way, resulting in a fracture of the cells near the top bar when the comb is not built right down to the bottom bar and it is at all heavy with honey. It also causes spilling when the comb contains new thin honey. A comb should never be turned on a horizontal, but always on- a vertical axis. Combs fractured or strained through handling them the wrong way often mash up in the extractor. When the combs are returned to the hive the bees repair them ; but, as the damaged cells become elongated through the weight of the comb, they are large enough for drone-brood, several rows of which will be found across the comb where it was fractured when the comb is used in the brood-chamber. Combs so- damaged are also very liable to come down in hot weather or in moving bees by road or rail. If combs are handled the right way, no harm will be done to them, even when built from starters and not fastened to the bottom bar of the II Sept., 1911] Spring Management of Bees. 617 ]122t 6i8 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [i i Sept.. 191 r frame. As bees generally, and (]ueens in particular, run to the li(>ttom of the frame when it is lifted out of the hive, it often becomes necessary to turn the frame upside down when looking for the queen. In Fig. i is shown the first ])Osition ; to turn the frame upside down without damaging the comb the top bar of the frame is brought into a \ertical position as . shown in Fig. 2 ; and by swinging the frame halfway round (like a door on its hinges), and then bringing the top bar into a horizontal line, the frame is completely reversed as shown in Fig. 3. As the bees again travel downwards, the queen, if she is on the particular comb, will be noticed. To return the comb to the hive the same movements are again gone through, but in the reverse order of 3, 2, i. If, in the course of the first examination, one or more colonies are found with unfertile queens, the hives should be marked and left alone till the overhaul of all of the colonies is completed. Amongst a number of stocks of bees there are generally, at this period of the season, some which are weak in bees, though possessing a fertile queen. These queens may with advantage be used to replace unfertile ones in colonies with more bees. To transfer a queen, it is first of all necessary to find and remove the one which is to be replaced. The following day, preferably towards evening, the small stock with the fertile queen is placed alongside. Both lots are gently smoked and the combs with brood and bees from both put into one hive, so that each comb from one is between two from the other hi\e. The outside combs of both are put into the other hi\e body which is placed on top of the first, the bees brushed off the combs, and the latter and the hive body removed. If uniting is done later in the season, the second body and combs may be left on as a super. When no small stock with a laying queen is a\ailable, a colony with an unfertile queen may be kept going by giving it a comb of eggs, or young larvae from a normal colony, once or twice a week, according to the number of bees. At the same time, remove one of the combs of drone lar\3e and substitute it for the comb removed from the normal colony which will usually throw out this useless brood. In this way, a colony may even be gradually built u\) : and. when young queens are available from swarmed stocks, the valueless queen can be replaced. It is often very difficult to get a colony with laying workers to accept a queen, all the loees being old ; but. if treated as described, there will soon l)e a sufficient number of young bees and the introduction of a queen may then be safely accomplished. Colonies found queenless, and without even laying workers, should be dealt with in the same way. if still sufficiently strong enough to be worth saving. A mistake, often made by beginners, and even by established bee- keepers, is the spreading of brood with the idea of hurrying brood-rearing. This practice of putting empty combs, or even partly filled ones, between the brood combs, more often results in loss than in gain. It is recom- mended in some of the text books written for countries in which the suddt-n changes of temperature experienced here do not occur. During September and October, colonies haw all the bnx^d they can cover on a cold day, and spreading the combs by putting a vacant one in the middle results in the brood in some of the outside combs perishing from chill. If it appears necessary to give room for brood, the combs should be placed, one at a time, alongside, and not between, tiie brood. (To be continued.) II Sept., 1911] Absorption of Food Substances through Leaves. 619 THE ABSORPTION OF FOOD SUBSTANCES AND POISONS THROrCIH LEAVES. Alfred J. Euart. D.Sc., PIt.D., F.L.S.. Government Botanist and- Professor of Botan v and Plant PJiysioIagy in the Mclliournc University. It has hitherto been generally accepted in Plant Physiology that the leaves of flowering plants are organs specially adapted for carrying out gaseous exchanges with the atmosphere, and that they have comparatively little power of absorbing either water or solids which may be dissolved in water wetting the surface of the leaf. In the case of such plants as mosses, lichens and in the leaves of carnivorous plants, however, a very pronounced power of absorbing water and dis.solved solids is shown. The same, of cour.se, also applies to the leaves of water plants which grow^ completely submerged in water. In fact, whether a leaf will be able to absorb water and dis.solved solids, or not, depends mainly upon the thick- ness and character of the outermost layer or skin, known to botanists as the cuticle. This varies greatly in its thickness and impermeability to water, according to the kind of leaf or the conditions under which it has grown ; but. even in the ca.se of a leaf like that of the beech which has a fairly well developed cuticle, a simple experiment suffices to show that solids can be absorbed directly through the outer surface of leaf. For instance, if a drop of a ver^^ dilute solution of potassium nitrate be placed upon a beech leaf and covered with a small bell-jar so as to check e\'apora- tion, when the drop finally disappears no crystals are left behind on the surface of the leaf ; wiiereas, if the drop is allowed to evaporate rapidly, a little crystalline efflorescence is left behind, owing to the fact that the salt had not time to be absorbed before the water had evaporated. Of course, in a condition of Nature, rain water usual Iv does not contain more than traces of dissolved salts and usually does not remain long in contact with the leaf. Nevertheless, some recent investigations pul)li.shed in the Mitteilungen der PeutscJien Landwirtschafts GeseUschaft. 191 1, page 231. by Profe.s.sor Hiltiier. Professor (if Agriiulture at the University of Munich, .seem to show that quite appreciable quantities of lv>th food substances and poisons ma\ be absorbed by the lea\es when such substances are sprayed on the foliage, either dissolved in water or in suspended form. .Some instances of this power of absorption through the leaves, have long been kncnvn. For instance, if the leaves of a plant happen to have become y)ale coloured, as .sometimes (Xcurs owing to a deficiency of iron in the .soil or to a difficulty in absorbing it, then merely painting the pale surface of the leaf with a dilut<' solution of chloride of iron will restore the green colour temporarilv or perniancntlv to the leaves so treated. Another instance, in this ca.se of the absorption of a poison, is the well known use of copper sulphate to ket]i down ('harhak or Wild Mustard in ct-real crops. The copper sulphate .solution adhi-res long enough to the Charlock leaves to W' ab.s()rl)ed by them and to cau.se tln*ir dtath. whereas the solu- tion runs off the grass leaves without aflecting them to any appreciable extent. Professf)r Hiltner's e\|)erinients seem mainly to have been directed towards detn.se than if the salts were applied to the soil, ('ritical <^xperini<-nts were performed with mustard and .soy beans fr<>m wirKJi it ai)]ieared that neitluM" nitrogenous trays, ])ro- A'ided they were equally effective. Professor Hiltner also gives the results of spraying Magnum Bonum potatoes that were badlv attacked by Leaf Curl disease {Macrosfoiiunt Solani) : — Weight of Percentage Plot. Tubers in kilogrammes. 115-7 of Starch. Un spray ed 15 7 Sprayed witl Potassium Nitrate solution .. 185 3 14-8 ,. Kainit solution 1.-^3 15-2 n Magnesium Sulphate solution 124 15-2 „ „ Sulphate of Iron solution 91 15 1 „ „ Milk of Lime .solution 112 15 „ „ Humus solution ... ' 141 15 4 II " Bordeaux Mixtuie ... 144 14-5 The above solutions were applied in 2 per cent, strengths with the exception of the sulphate of iron (i per cent.), and the milk of lime (4 per cent.). It can be seen that five of these .spraying materials increased to a greater or lesser extent the yield of potatoes and two produced a decrease, but that all of them caused some decrea.se in the percentage of starch as compared with the unsprayed plot. It is evident that a great field for work lies open in the direction indi- cated above and the further results of Professor Hiltner's researches will be awaited with interest. II Sept., 191 i] The Soy Bean. 621 THE SOY BEAN. Victor Deschamf, Analyst. Agricultural Laboratory. Despite the favourable reports published in numerous scientific and trade publications throughout the world, the cultivation of the Soy Bean has not yet been seriously undertaken in Victoria. Although it is unlikely that the bean can be grown in this State cheaply enough to compete with the Chinese product, principally on account of the difference in the cost in labour, it should be a remunerative crop. As a fodder crop, as a soil re- newer, and as a green manure, it has been successfully grown in countries •other than its native habitat and under varying climatic conditions. A.s there are over 300 known varieties and hybrids, some of these should be -suitable for different parts of this State. Economic Uses. The home of the Soy Bean is in Manchuria and Japan and has been •grown there in large quantities for centuries, but until a few years ago no attempt was made to grow it elsewhere on a commercial scale, in the •countries named a small part of the oil, 6 to 8 per cent, only, was extracted by primitive presses, and the residual oil cake used as a fertilizer. The imports of cake to Japan in 1905 were 182,000 tons, while in 1909 the enormous amount of 600,000 tons was exported to Japan alone, show- ing that its use as a fertilizer is greatly on the increase, in spite of com- petition with artificial fertilizers. The estimated total crop in Manchuria for 1909 was over 1,500,000 tons of shelled beans. The photographs ^reproduced on the following page will give some idea of the export trade -at Darien (Manchuria) during that year. The first large cargo of soy beans consigned to England arrived in Hull in March 1909, and amounted to 5,200 tons, and before July of the same year, contracts had been made for the delivery of no less than 200,000 tons, to be utilized for oil extraction and the residual cake for cattle food. According to the London '' Times '" of i9th July, 1910, the requirements ■of the following season in England were estimated at over one million tons. At the minimum price of jQS 10s. per ton this means a business of ;^6,5oo,ooo, but it is doubtful if tht* beans can be bought under about jQ^ per ton, owing to shortage of supply. That an industry of such vast pro- portions should spring up in a few years indicates that all the opportunities of commerce are not closed to those who have foresight enough to starch for new openings for trade. Food for Human Consumption. J'lic beans form an important article of diet for the Chinese and Japanese, being used in some form or other at almost every meal, and by all classes of people. They aie highly nutritious, containing a large amount of edible oil (15 to 20 per cent, of the seed) ; they are also very rich in proteiils and Injue-forming mineral matter — phosphates, potash and lime are prest-nt in large amounts. The most abundant salt in the ash is sodium phosphate. The protein is present in amounts \arying from 30 to 42 per cent, of the lu-an, anil is remark- iilile in that it consists mainly of albumt-noids that resemble milk east-in in composition and digestibility ; in this respect it differs from ;u\y other known bean. Soy bean milk and sauce prepar.itions. and also the oil, are very luitritioMs articles of diet. 62 2 Journal (if AgncultKre, Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i STORING BEANS IN OSIER BINS. DARIEN. PILES OF BEANS AT DARIEN WHARVES. BEANS AND BEAN CAKE AWAITING SHIPMENT. II Sept., 191 i] llu Sov B,a)i. 623 A medical point of view is given in tiie Livicct of 21st Januarj' last:- — On account of the great nutritive value of the Sov Bean, it is well wortli medical -attention, more particnlarh for iliabetic cases, because of its low projxntion of starch. For making biscuits, soup powder, infant and other foods, it will be widely used in future when its dietetic \alue btinnies better kn(jwn. Stock Food {Beans and Cakt.').-- " In J-'.ngland, the l)ean cake is of -even more impcntance than tht- oil, i>'pi>-senting as it does about 80 per -cent, of the raw naali-ritil. The analysis compares yerv favourably with the best cotton seed cake meal. In 1909, the bean cake was sold at ;£6 I2S. 6d. per ton in London, while cotton seed cake costs ^7 los. to jQ'] I2S. 6d." — {Ecoiioiiiisi.) Denmark in 19:0 sent large ordtrs to Manchuria as the result of the success attained by feeding the soy cake to cows. With regard to its -effect on butter, exiieriments made at the Cirencester Royal Agricultural College, England, show that no particular flavour was detected as a result of feeding soy ctike ; and that, compared with cotton cake, the yield of butter was slightly more, and no difference was perceived in laxative effects. On feeding the beans themselves to cows, the butter produced was a trifle soft, but not enough to injure its commercial value, the softness being ria where records of tonnage per acre were kept. Cows will le.idiK e;it this |)l;;nt, after they become accustomed to the taste. For green feed, cut when ne.ir the full l)loom, as at this period the .amount of nutrients is much higher titan when cut at other stages of growth. When wanted for hay, cut when the pods are about half filled and dry; han<:l!e the same as pea hay. No instance of its use in this State as silage is noted, but in the United States it is often ensiled with green maize, making an excellent succulent f(X)d, and being an almost balanced ration. Rotation Crop. In th<' United States it has been found that the yield •of crops of all kimls is increased where lhe\ lolUnv sov l)eans. wheat in large fields showing .111 increase of 5 l»ushels i>cr acre, over that grown on land alongsidt- that had not b<^eii under b<\uis. Wheat generally follows a nitrogenous eroii in ilie iistial n lalion -ehenies on the continent. Fertilizer.— T)m- conclusions arrived at after huudnvls of experiments in other countries is that, if ther<; are no tubercles on the roots, the growing b«>an dle for other crops th(; plant food already in the soil. When the plants are iiKHiilated with tul)t;rcles, inid()ul)ted increase of fertilil\ will result in lli<' form of availal>le nitrogtni to the soil. The large (|uantities of Soy bean eakc e\i)orted to Japan tor use as a lertili/er, (600.000 tons in 1909). without any mention Iving made of 624 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Sept., 191 1 Japan's own quota, speaks for itself, and this in spite of competition with- artificial manures. The Japanese recognize the value of organic manures. Australians do not attach enough importance to the value of humus as- an element of fertility. There is a marked deficiency of this substance over practically the whole of our continent, and this is due to the character of the vegetation. Our trees are evergreen, and consequently do not shed their leaves. In most other countries the deciduous trees predominate, and a large amount of organic matter in the shape of fallen leaves is added to the soil year by year. This becomes decomposed into what is called humus, principally by bacterial action, and this substance becomes one of the great sources of nitrogen for the food of plants. A soil well supplied with humus is generally regarded as fertile. Another great value of organic matter and its resulting humus is its capacity for holding moisture and keeping the soil open in texture. This is why farmyard manure is so appreciated in this country. Soy bean cake, if it can be bought cheaply enough, would be a splendid organic manure for our lands, especially as it also contains a very high percentage of nitrogen, phosphate, and potash. Green Manure. — The remarks under the previous heading apply also to^ the use of the plant as a green manure. Analysis of Green Soy Be-.n Plants. Heidelberg. Varieties grown at Cheltenham Experimental Farm. (Matured (Cut when Seeds were forming in the Pods.) Plant. Pods Removed). Constituents. 1 Ito San. Ouelph. Baiid. Brownie. Variety not knowi. Sample < Sample Sample Sample, Sample as Be- Dry. as Re- > Dry. i as Re- Dry. as Re- Dry. as Re- Dry. ceived. ] ceived. ! ceived. ceived. j ceived. Moisture ; 1 59-70 : .. 61-20 .. 1 60-10 I 60-80 58-0 Ash . . 1 4 02 1 9-98 3-96 10-21 ' 4-34 10-85 4-36 11-12 6-43 15-3© Protein (N X 6-25) .. j 7 90 19-60 7 54 19-4.3 6-74 |16-8.5 6-62 il6-89 8-20 19-53- Crude Fibre (pentosan 1 1 ! free) 5-89 14-62 . 7 -.59 19-56 7-55 18-88 5-93 15-13 5-22 12 -4& Nitrogen Free Extract 21-26 152-75 18-35 47 "29 1 20-11 50-27 21-19 54-05 21-27 50-65- Ether Extract 1-23 1 3-05 1-36 3-51 j 1*26 3-15 1-10 1 2-81 0-88 2-OiV Digestible Nutrients. Digestible Dry Matter . . 24 -98 . 24 ()<> 24-80 24-30 26-04 d ■ d" .2 _c .o" „ Protein 5-45 •§ 5-20 -S 4-65 o3 4-57 2-14 -=« O CO ■ o *5 i 2^* b-* 2"- ., Nitrogen Free s ■• - .. Extract . . 15-52 S'^ 13-40 =- ; 14-68 e-1 15-47 c-- 15-53 C -"' Ether Extract 0-66 ^ 0-73 5 0-68 ^ 0-59 Albu 0-48 Albu 9^ft'"Q 'in Main Shoot. 1 Main Shoot, ' inhcigM. Sf<'Ptlong. 4 feet long. Sample. Sample, 3 feet long. 2 feet long. ;ai Sept., 191 i] The Soy Bean. 625 Varieties. There are nearly 300 varieties catalogued in Bulletin No. 197 — " The .Soy Bean: History, Varieties and. Field Studies, 1910." published by the United States Department of Agriculture. The periods of maturity vary -from 80 to over 150 days. Very early ... ... ... ... 80 to 90 days. Early ... ... •• ... 90 to 100 ,, Medium early ... •. .-■ 100 to no ,, Medium ... ... ... ••• no to 120 ,, Medium late ... ... ... ... 120 to 130 ,, Late ... ... ... ■• 130 to 150 J' Very late ... ... ... ... more than 150 The best varieties mentioned in the Bulletin referred to are : — Very early. — Ogemaw No. 17258. Early. — Karl)' Brown 25161, Vireo 22874, Wisconsin Black 25468. Medium early- — Chernie 18227, Auburn 21079, Elton 20406. Medium. — Ito San 17268, Median. Yellow 17269, Swan 22379, Brindle 20407. Medtum laie.— Brooks i6ySq, Austin 17263, Peking 17852B, 'Flava 16789.4, 'Cloud 16796, Haberlandt 17271. Za/g .'^Mammoth 17280, Hollybrook 17278, Tokyo 17264, Farnham 22312, Flat King -17252, Acm« 14954. Very. late. — Barchet 20798, Riceland 20797. Cultivation. In a general way, any soil that will grow maize will grow .soy beans, providing that the soil is not acid in reaction ; a soil of medium texture containing lime, potash, phosphoric acid in fair amounts is the most suit- able. Good results were obtained on the sandy soil of Cheltenham and on the rather stiff clay hill soil at Lilydale, the potash of the clay being .first made available by winter dressing with lime before sowing. If ix>tash and phosphate are lacking, they should be supplied in the form of artificial manure. Nitrogenous manures are not necessary, except.in the case of poor or sandy soils to give the young plants a start. The plant is said to be drought resistant, and to be able to endure slight frosts. Experiences in this State show that if too much rain falls after sowing the seed, and before the plant has had time to thoroughly establish itself, the results are disastrous. The young plants seem to withstand dry weather better than young French beans of the same stage of growth, and their capabilities of withstanding our hot north winds are about the same. No advantage was gained by soaking the seed before sowing, the germination taking from 10 to 25 days. On stiff soil, I found that the imported sted, giving only 10 per cent, germination by the ordinary sowing, i in. deep, gave a 90 per cent, germination when shallow i-in. drills were opened up and the .seeds covered with decomposed organic matter (grass), using no soil whatever to cover them. Do not sow until the ground becomes warm and all dangt-r of frost is over. No extra growth is got by too early sowing; the weeds will be harder to keep down, and more cultivation will be necessary. Better results are obtained from drilling than broadcasting. The seeds should be sown thickly enough in the row to give a plant every 4 in. to 6 in., the rows to l>e 30 in. to 42 in. apart. AlK)ut h bushel of seed per acre will l)e sufficient. In i)reparing the ground, the .soil should be well tilled. After sowing, the land must be kejtt fairly frtt- from weeds, and the surface .soil occa.sionally stirred, but this should not be done when the young plants are wi-t from •dew or rain. The cultivation shouhl l)e frequent enough to keep the sur- .face soil loose until the l)eans begin to bloom. 626 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i Inpculation of the Seed. — On new land, it is advisable, if possible, ta inoculate the seed with soil from an old soy bean field. Plants that be- come inoculated with tubercles gi\e a much better crop of beans than those that are not inoculated. In the United States a number of different methods for inoculation were tried, and the only satisfactory one was found to be placing the infected soil in direct contact with the beans. If the infected soil is sown broadcast or ploughed in. the results obtained are never satisfactory ; 206 lbs. or 300 lbs. of infected soil will be sufficient for one- acre and it is probable that a field once inoculated will always remain, inoculated. Harvesting Seed. The flowers are either purple or white according^ to variety and are cer 1910. .1 lonsignment was received by the Department of Agriculture from Shanghai, through Mr. J. M. Sinclair, Commercial Agent for Victoria in the East. From this consignment of one variety a number of seeds differing from the bulk in shape or colour were handpicked. These were grown separately at Cheltenham. They were sown on loth October, and were cut for green fodder on jjth February. The following yields were obtained: — Variety. Yield per acre. tons cv\-ts. lbs. Ito iSiiii (yellow I . . ■ . . B.iird (hrowii) . . Brownie (brown) ( Jiiclpli (lirecn ) By the accompanying illustrations it will be .seen that .some varieties grow luxuriantly at Cheltriiham. The soil is very sandy with a clay subsoil. The stvds Were sown in drills 2\\ "^- ••P-"'t on the 10th OctoKr, and 98 per ( tMit. of the seeds of the varieties mentioned germinated in ten days. The land was kept clean for the first two months by inter-tillagf. When photo- graphed, the plants were from 3 to 5 ft. in height, with abundance of "pods and leaves. l''\pcriments were als() condiutt'd ,it H.dlarat. bellarin.'. H<'itlfll)erg. I.ilvdal.' .md otiier centres throughout ilic Stale. .Vlthough .1 moderate .iinount of success was achi<'ved further cxpfrinn-nts will b.- nece.ssary. W ith that ol>ject in view the Dei)artment <>f Agriculture has recently im- ported a large '|uanlitv of se<'d tor distribution. 12 8 .")4 i:{ 10 lU 1 1 li '.tS 1 1 i> •ts 628 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [i i Sept., 191R 11 Sept., 191 i] Tke Soy Bean. 629 Probable Causes of Failure. Every new plant has its peculiarities, its likes and dislikes, as to soil, depth of .sowing, and su.sceptibility to climatic conditions ; these may vary for each particular variety of .soy Ijean. Until we can find out w^hat varie- ties are best suited to these varying conditions we must not condemn this bean. Other countries, for instance, the United States, underwent similar experiences, and for a long time the soy bean was much decried. Some of the likely causes of failures in Victoria wall now be dealt wdth. (i) Bad Germination. — It has been proved that seeds rich in both oil and proteids are very susceptible of having iheir germinative powers destroyed by sweating and heating. As the seeds had naturally to be imported, the result was often a very poor stand or none at all. I ha\'e proved this for the last three years, the acclimatized and fresh seeds in every case giving a germination of 95 to 100 per cent. Seed more than one year old. and imported seed that has sweated in transit, are primarily the cause of bad germination. Until there is a sufficiency of locally grown seed to distribute to the farmers, discouraging reports as to germination results will continue to be received. (2) Variety. — So far, there has been no choice of variety. Some varieties are totally unsuited for this State, although succeeding elsewhere, notably the Buckshot and Mammoth. The former was found to be the hardiest for North Queensland and with opposite results in this State. (3) Alkalinity of the Soil: — It mast he borne in mind that many of the leguminous plants depend for their successful growth on the presence of the right kind of bacteria in the soil, and on new soil there is often con- siderable difficulty in getting the .soy plant inr ."^cab. a parcel of vt-ry scabl)y New Zealand Pinkeye seed was dipped in a bath of i)luestone .solution (i lb. liluestone t 2 3 5 19 1 5 2 2 .5 2 2 4 18 0 4 13 3 ^ 4 3 3 19 0 % 13 2 3 4 2 ■ 2 9 0 2 9 1 1 17 3 0 15 2 5 10 1 5 4 1 c. D. Tns. cwt. qr. Tns. cwt. qr. 11 6 2 11 7 ■-> 7 9 2 8 lt> 1 6 .i 0 7 16 1 6 11 2 7 16 1 ti 9 1 7 19 •> 4 13 3 4 9 1 4 15 3 a 0 1 4 10 1 4 7 0 3 6 3 3 13 2 4 11 •) 3 15 3 1 11 1 . 3 1 11 1 5 11 6 1 0 E. Av Tn:.. erage. Tns. cwt. qr. cwt. qr. 11 17 •-> 10 18 1 7 16 1 7 19 1 7 11 3 7 0 2 7 2 3 7 0 0 (i 8 1 6 11 3 o 16 3 0 8 3 4 4 3 4 14 2 3 12 3 4 6 3 3 4 9 3 8 2 2 9 0 3 1 2 1 13 1 1 9 1 Number of Misses in Plants per Section of Carman So. 3. Section A. B. C. D. E. ■Carman No. 3 . . 22 17 6 IS 20 Averagf. Yield per Acre without misses Tns. cwt. qr. 5 6 2 Tns. cwt. qr. 3 3 1 Tus. cwt. qr. 5 7 0 Tns. cwt. qr. 6 15 2 Tns. cwt. qr. 4 ra 0 Tui. cwr. qr. o 4 0 Varieties. — As far as the cropping ca[)acity of the varieties i.s con- cerned, the heaviest vit'ld was obtained from Clarke's Main Crop, a very vigorous growing, hardy variety, a good cropper and cooker somewhat resembling Up to-Dale in type. This variety is regarded in th>' Old Couiv try as a good disease resister. In one .section it returned ii t<>n^ i; cwt. per acre, the average of all the .sections L)eing lo tons i8 cwt. i (]r. One iiotictMble feature of the variety test is the very s.ilisfai t<)ry yield> «'li(aineayli'!»f(prtl J)i'iin lluiiiscy Tons uwt. (|rs. ^ 18 (t <> *i II 3 a u It should 1k^ stated that the crop on the plot at Romsey was affected with the Blight just in the tubering period, otherwise the crop would have shown a liigher avi-rag<.> yield ; but, allowing that the crop was diminished by one third, it would still ha\t' been much below the a\-erage of the Sutton">; Abundance, 17.2 per cent. X. — S0MMARY OF AVERAQES OF DISEASE IN BdANCRE PLOTS. District. Daylesiorii Dean Romsev per cnt. 28 27 B. C. 0 0 0 c S "p. 3.2 3 73 • % ^ ts 0 0 ^< ^fi per cant. per cent. 16 12-5 23 26 87 93 42 43-8 per cent. 36 32 87 51-6 E. F. cS g"o l-o 0 a 0 0 0-2 0-3 a o< 3-t; a 0.-Z 3 3.;: 3 5 cc=c s !K«2 . ^t- S|l 0 « 0 IM r^-^! (MrnPn per cent. per cent. 36 25 26 26 86 84 49-3 45 G S d g-o ti a 2 ,^°^ « a •-'S 5o 0 * §" 'Sg S 0. s u 0 > (Nf-H • 5-8 100 100 100 100 100 100 11-2 17-8 5-5 6 100 100 100 100 Nil Nil 42 58 42-4 35-9 52 • 3 58-7 D. E. per cent. per cent. 87-6 26-6 66-3 32 87-6 26-6 15-3 2-7 100 100 100 100 100 100 21-2 15-9 22-9 5-5 100 100 100 100 Nil Nil 51 37 51-3 37-2 69-4 52-5 Average. per cent. 44-2 42-7 44-2 6-4 100 100 100 17-2 9-1 100 100 48-6 44-4 58-1 XIV. — Leoxgatha Plot. — Percentage of Irish Blight. Bruce . . Black Prince Adirondak Scruffle Green Mountain Champion Brownell's Beauty Vanguard Scotch Gny State of Maine . . Sections. A. B. per cent. C. per cent. D. E. per cent. per cent. per cent. 33 17 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 44 17 100 100 100 38 35 100 57 44 100 100 100 100 100 74 56 100 46 72 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 22 47 67-2 17 64 33 71-1 91-7 86-7 84-9 Average. per cent. 70 100 72-2 54-8 100 69-6 100 100 100 36-6 80-3 Conclusions. — Opinions differ as to the period in the life of the plant when it is liable to attack; also as to the attack of the tubers, and the actual resistance to attack of certain varieties. From careful observation on the.se points in the field, it was found to attack the plants from 2 in. high up to the last stages of growth. It was evident that when the spores are being carried through the crop it matters little, if weather conditions are fa\ourable, whether the plants are just over ground, or in the last stages of growth, except that in the latter case the injury to the plant is not .so great. In the case of the disease in the tubers, it is controlled entirely by the weather conditions that prevail after the disease has struck the crop. If rain falls shortly after the crop goes down, the tubers are sure to show a high percentage of disease, unless they have reached a stage when the skins are set. The resistance of cei'tain varieties does not appear to be as satis- factory as could be wished. An instance is given of a variety in one dis- trict showing a total loss, whilst in another district among a badly diseased crop composed of nine or ten varieties, it escaped altogether. A"-ain, Up-to-Date. a recognized resi.stant variety, failed in one plot from II Sept., 191 i.] Potato Exferiniciital Fields. 1910-11, 639 di.sease. The .same may be .said of Excelsior and Snowflake. An instance may also be mentioned where a crop of Carman planted the third week ' in November returned 75 per cent, of clean tubers; while an adjoining^ field, planted with the same seed three weeks later, was not worth digging. Plot .\t Shepparton Agricultural High School. The experimental plot at the Sliepparton Agricultural High School was- planted on 4th February. Although this was rather late in the season, the results may be considered satisfactory. The soil was a sandy loam and even throughout. The plot was commanded bv the irrigation channels- and well suited for the application of water ; Init, owing to the abundance of rain and the low evaporation, it was onlv found necessary to irrigate once during the growing period. The results from the manurial dressings, which indicate the necessity of phosphoric acid in liberal quantities, will afford a basis for future operations. Two \arieties were used in i)lanting the plot, viz., Early Rose and (Jarman. The seed of the latter was of such an unsatisfactory character, and the ])lants so irregular in growth, that in estimating the value of the operations and the influence of the manures on the crop, the results have been disju/nsed with, onlv those from the Ivirly Rose variety being con- sidered. Secti<:ii ( ". without any manure, returned 3 tons 6 cwt. i qr., whilst on .section Ai, with a dressing of i cwt. of su{)erpho.sphate, there was a decrea.se of 6 cwt. i qr. indicating that a light dressing is injurious. Sec- tion A2, with the maximum dressing of 2 cwt. superphosphate, gave aa increase of nearly i ton per acre. Section B, with the addition of i cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, shows an increase of only 15 cwt. per acre over the plot with no manure. A remarkable feature of the returns from sec- tion D is that, with the addition of i cwt. of sulphate of potash to the dressing of superphos[)hate. the vield was 6 cwt. i qr. less than the un- manured. The most satisfactory nlurn w.is from the complete manure composed of 2 cwt. superphosphate, i cwt. sulphate of potash, and i cwt. sulphate of ammonia. The results of one year must not Vj€ considered conclusive jiroof that these are the most satisfactory f]uantities of manure. Further experiments are necessary to confirm the aboxt- ;iTid also to test a further increase of suner|)hos|)hatr. XV. — Shepparton Agkicultukal High School Plot. Variety. AL A2. !-'<'cti B. ins. C. D. E. Kurly U..SC CnriMiiii Tonscwf.qrs. 3 0 0 2 11 1 Tons cwt. 4 h 2 7 qw. 3 0 Tons cwt. (|rs. 4 1 1 2 13 2 Tons cwt 3 B 1 10 qni. 1 0 Tons cwt. qrs. 3 0 (1 1 15 2 Tons cwt. qrs. 4 15 1 1 12 0 The f ollowing V C.M.k-S .Xilin.n.l It.'lawar Itisiiiiin ('iii'iiiiiii \ >T 1 el. Is of '11 M 1 1 1 r i 1 1 ■ ak k .Nc. :i t sm all lots we re also ohtr :i ;l lined :-- I'Wt. :|rs. IS :t l.'V 1 .'> II h 3 17 II '640 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. 'j.\ Sept.. 1911 DRIED FRUITS BEETLE. {CarfopMlus hemifterus, Steph.) C. French, Junr., Acting Government Entomologist. The Dried Fruits Beetle is a native of Europe; and, like many other European insects, has spread throughout the world. Unfortunately it has got a firm hold in Victoria, and is causing considerable losses to growers and others interested in the dried fruits industry. Though seldom seen out of doors, it has recently been found in several of the large warehouses where dried fruits are stored. During the last few months quite a number of dried figs, apricots, and prunes, "damaged by it have been submitted to this Branch. Life History. The Dried Fruits Beetle is about g in. long by 1-16 in. broad, with dark-brown, sometimes black, elytra or wing cases marked with yellowish white markings on the upper and lower parts of the cases, the lower mark- ings being the largest.' The wing cases are short, exposing the last two .segments of the body. The insects breed in pantries and other places where dried fruits are Icept. The eggs are deposited on the dried fruits generally in the spring, and hatch in about a week. The larvse at once commence to feed, ultimately turning into pupae. In this state, they remain for about one month, when they emerge as perfect insects. During the time they are at work, they eat part of the fruits, causing .some of them to turn black. The fruit is also covered with excreta from the insects and thus rendered unfit for human consumption. Explanation of Plate 1. Perfect insect, upper view. Magnified. 6. Antenna. Magnified. 2. Perfect insect, under view. Magnified 7. Foreleg. Magnified. 3. Larva. Magnified. 8. Wing. Magnified. 4. Larva. Head and Segments. Magnified. 9. I'erfect insect. Natuial size. 5. Larva. End of Abdomen. Magnified. Prevention and Remedies. When dried fruits are attacked by these insects the only measure that -can be taken is to separate the good from the damaged fruit, a tedious undertaking. The damaged fruit should then be destroyed. Cleanliness in stores is one of the most important matters which should recei^'e attention. Prior to receiving a consignment of dried fruits, the store should be thoroughly swept, and then fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas. The latter will destroy any beetles that may be hiding in the crevices. Great care must be exercised in the use of the gas. It would be advisable, before using it, to communicate with the Entomological Branch and obtain full information as to method to be adopted. Similar treatment for Flour Moths has pro\'ed most effectual in the large mills, and is now coming into general use. When the fruits arrive, the boxes should be wrapped with strong paper -or, better still, placed in large airtight tin boxes. This will prevent attack, <^specially if the fruits are to be stored for a lengthy period. The boxes -should be kept off the floor. The beetles are liable to enter a building .at anv time during the warm weather. II Sept., ipn-] Dried Fruits Beetle. 641 As the Victorian dried fruit industry promises to be very large, great care should be taken by growers and others to see that airtight boxes are used : if not. trouble will surelv arise when they are placed in city stores. \ s K S / 1 ^1 — ■ — C. C. BKiniKllANK, DKI DRIED FRUITS BEETLE. {Carpophiht% hcniipffrus, Steph.) iKKNcn, nniM 642 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 1911. PROPAGATION OF FIUIT TREES. {Continued from page 529.) C. F. Cole, Orchard. Supervisor. Trimming Stocks for Planting. When performing this important operation it is just as easy to make a correct cut as an incorrect one. The chief aim of the operator is directed against the roots, and by careful and intelligent cutting good sound uni- form conditions are encouraged. The future growth of the stock and tree is influenced to a very great extent by the roots. To get an evenly balanced tree, it is necessary to have weil-balanced root growths. The stronger the root supply upon the one side, the greater will be the flow of sap and elaboration of nourishment FAULTY ROOT CONDITIONS. CORRECT TREATMENT. to those parts of the tree influenced by the -stronger roots. Fig. 24 shows such a type of stock, the stronger root conditions upon the one side starv- ing those upon the other ; consequently, the side of the tree corresponding with these roots is the stronger. To rectify this, and to bring about an evenly balanced root condition, the three large roots .should be hardened back as shown in Fig. 25. Figs. 26a and 26b illustrate two common types of apricot seedlings from .seed bed. One has a long tap root, whilst the other has typical and uniform root conditions. When trimming apricot stocks, cut the roots fairly hard back and remo\e any bruised or broken ones. The lateral growths should be cut cleanly and close into the main stem, only leaving two; these are cut hard back at the terminal end to form the head of the ^tock, see Fig. 26b. The lateral growths should not be snicked off in a II Sept.. 1911-] Propagation of Fruit Trtfs. 643 haphazard manner so as to leave short pieces projecting. Such pieces will ultimately die back to the main stem and the bud or buds at their base, if any, will shoot forth. When cut as advised the wounds will heal o\er. leaving a clean and free stem for inserting the bud in season. When root pruning a type like Fig. 26a harden back above, and not below, the small projecting side root and at the place marked thus : — If cut below, the probable result will be that this root will break away and make a strong growth, thus preventing others from pushing out above and forming an evenly balanced root condition. By cutting above at — an even supply of root growths, similar to that of Fig. 26b, wall be forced out. Make this cut straight across and not slanting. If possible, cut all lateral growths bark to tlie base buds, making n straight rod of the stock. AI'RU <)T rVI'ES OF CHERRY STOCKS. I'riii>i'i' tv]n-, loiivctlv triiiiMK'il. /. I'seless t\j>e. JO. I VI'KS Ol' STOCKS .\ND PEAR. a Pi'ar stiM'k. rf. riitiiiiiiiifd jH-ar ifiM-k (fill at liiR-s). Fig. 261/ shows a stiilbng [xar stcnk. The not should be treated the same as Fig. 26a. tht- U:\) lieing lieaded back to the required length. Fig. 26c shows a similar |)tar st1 Hll». WuuU -AM.> Hl.OOM. I St I' ■•s|il:ii.i tioii nil 1 i-f •'■*''')• .veil maturnl. u.h.rvvi.se there is a big risk of having to re-bud the stocks Lend time. The late budding is controlled bv the con-h .on of the sap in the .storks r.-lative t.» tlv- openmg of the bark. J..nuary covers earlv budding and .\pril late. 646 Journal of Ai^ricidiiire , Victoria. [11 Sei't., 1911. When selecting buds, choose only those upon well grown, matured and healthy young growths from productive trees. Exercise care in seeing that wood and not bloom buds are selected- there is a greater risk of taking bloom buds from fruiting than young grcjwing ones. A\'ith fruit-producing trees, there are exceptions where trees are not so prolific and robust as others of their kind. To select buds or grafts and propagate from such trees is faulty, no matter under what conditions this sterility may have been brought about. The aim of ihe propagator is to encourage the bearing, and not the non-bearijiig strain in all varieties of fruits. One type of bloom bud (apple) is illustrated on page 647. Generally speaking, the bloom buds are full, whilst round the wood buds is tinn and pointed. No hard-and-fa.st descrip- tion can be laid down, both bloom and wood buds varying according to the variety. With the Cleopatra, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, and other varieties of apples, also with many pears, the bloom buds upon the young growths differ greatly from those upon the fruiting spurs. They are long and flat upon the underside and round upon the upper, the wood buds being small, dumpy and slightly pointed. Illustration No. 29 shows a few t\ pes of bloom and wood buds ; a and b are buds of the Crow's Duke cherrv. The bloom bud {a) shows a slight difference from the wood bud {b) by being full and round — the avoocI bud is slightlv pointed ; c and d are buds of the Twyford Bigarreau cherry. The reader will notice the resem.blance between them ; also that the bloom bud c is stouter at the base than that of the wood bud d and is of a uniform colour, whilst the wood bud has grey markings ; e and / are buds of the Morello or Plum Stone cherry. They are somewhat similar in shape to c and d; but, instead of the bloom bud e being stout at the base, it is narrower and very full and round towards the middle j g and // show- types of apple buds upon young growths. This bloom bud (g) is easily distinguished from fhe wood bud // ; / is a triple peach bud with a bloom bud on each side of the wood bud ; / is a single bloom bud (peach) ; k a single wood bud (peach) ; and I a triple apricot bud, the node being large and the wood spindly. The reader will recognize from these few examples that, when selecting buds, it is easv to err on the wrong side, especially if one's knowledge of buds is limited. Buds should not be used at the apex or near the terminal end of the growths. With many varieties, the apex buds are imperfect or blind, the terminal ones being weaklv. With plum buds, the writer's experience is that apex buds, from some cause, are liable to drop after the stocks have been cut off close to the bud and when the sap is starting to flow. This is especially so wdth varieties like Coe's Golden Drop and Diamond. With the apricot, almond, peach and nectarine, we find triple buds. Such buds are strong and may be used with safety. Avoid, if possible, apricot buds upon spindly growth having the node large, i.e., the part of the base of the leaf stem and bud. Select buds from clean healthy growtlis, vertical if possible. The propagator will require to be exceptionallv cautious when selecting cherry buds, especially those from fruiting trees and varieties having the wood and bloom buds similar in shape. If. bv- mischance, a bloom bud is in- serted into the stock and union takes place, such a bud will bloom in the spring and then become blind. In this respect, the cherry differs from many other kinds of f ruits j i.e., when a bloom bud is inserted and, while flowering, the blossom is ciit or pinched off, it will usually push forth a shoot. The base of the young growth is not so straight as that direct from a wood bud j seldom does the cherry shoot from a bloom Inid or that part where a bud has been knockeh' 30. TVI'ES 01 HUDS. I'ldp ily |iri'iiiiit(l wiioii biiils. 1/. WfdiiK typi'. c. SdiiihI lypi' lit citi;is bud. out hurt, it is f:ir bciicr. whi-re possible, t<» cut freshlv each dav the quan- tity required. I'ailing this, a good plan is to keep them buried in moist sand or .soil, ("uttings so treated should be rinsed in water when remo\ed. Citrus cuttings sliouM not be allowed to stand in water over 24 hours. If cuttings are willed, slighth' c\\\ olT ,i small piece at the apex end and stand in water for a lew hours. This treatment will freshen them up again. 'I'he time tor budding ih<' dilTerent kinds of fruits will be controlled, to a \iry gnat .At. iit. Ii\ the (umlition of the stocks to be worked. Bud- ding cannot be p.rloiin.d unl.'.ss the bark se[)arates freely from the wotxl, or. in otii.-r words, runs easiJv. Old sttK'ks will re(iuire to be budded ut an impro\ement in quality of the wine, whence the nani^* Noble Rot. In the majority of cases, however, they arc most undesirable. Red wines arc never improved in this way, but suffer damage to their colour, which becomes unstable, owing t(.) the presence of Diastase, a soluble fer- ment secreted by the mould. Such wines are subject to the di.sease known in French as Casse. . . . Blue Mould is always injurious to quality, even in the special while wines above referred to. The mod(" of develop- ment of these fungi is dealt with by Mr. McAlpiiic in thr iniblication already referred to. In France, the most effectual method of guarding against these grajie moulds is by preventive sprayings with l^ordeaux mixtuio or similar copper sprays. The supplementing of these by copjier containing powders, in very wet sea.sons, has proved mo.5t beneficial. White Rot {Charrinia diplodielld). This is another fungus of American origin, which is in some seasons responsible for damage in I'^ance. It is, however, of far less importance than the diseases mentioned above, since onlv berries previously bruised by hail or damaged bv insects are invaded by it. After a hailstorm, not suffi- ciently severe to .seriouslv damage the fruit, spraying with a cojjper spray may be necessary to protect the fruit against White Rot. The fungus causing it, which was long known as CnniofJivrinni dtpli'diclJti. has not been observed in Australia. Root Rot ok Pourridie. Tliis troublcsouK' disease, against which the most effectual trcilmcnt con- sists in improving the drainage of the soil, is not unknown to us in Vic- toria, where it is rcs[)on>il)le for far greater damage than it is usually credited with. • Sec AJtlUioiis to Fuiiiji on the True in Auftmliii, M'AI)iiiiP and ltiil>iiis>iii, ].]i. -H} ;(", icr. 65-' Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Sept., 191 i. It is not due to a siiiylc luiiyu.-, hut to a group, one or other of which may be responsible for the damage, the outward manifestations of which, so far as the mouldy appearance on the roots and. the injury to vegetation are concerned, may be very similar. It is chieflv mentioned here because the fungus responsible for the disease with us, so far avs has been yet ascertained, is only one of the group which attack the roots ol the vine in France. Here we are familiar with Armillaria vullea, which frequently works injury in our orchards as well as in vineyards. This fungus is also known in France (usually under the synonym of Agaricus melhiis). but it is considered, in that country, to be of less importance, as a cause of the disease, than Dematofhora iiecatrix, a quite distinct fungus, which does not appear to have been observed in Victoria. Another species. \iz.. D. glomcrata, also attacks the roots of the vine, mainly in sandy but un- duly wet soils. POURRIDIE. 1. Dematophora necatrix on roots. 2. Same, showinjf tructifleatiors of funjins. 'i. Armillaria melleu, fructiflCitions. i. Same fung'us on root (afier Vialla). Several root fungi usually looked upon as saphrophytic or only para- sitic to a slight extent, may, under certain circumstances, become injurious. Such is the case with Fibrillaria, usually considered to be a harmless fungus, but which has been observed to damage young vines in the nursery. Many other fungi* attack the vine in France, but it is impossible to mention them here. In the above lines, the most important only could be referred to. Sufficient has lieen 'said to show the seriousness of the diffi- culties French vine-growers have to contend against, and the great advan- tage enjoyed by Australian viticulture, thanks to our dry atmospheric con- ditions. The loss of half the vintage of T910 in France is mainly due to fungus diseases — in certain districts the loss amounted to as much as 90 per cent. {To he continued.) * Amonsrst tliese, tliree wliich are somewhat similar in tlieir outward manifestations, are deser\ iny- of passinsr notice since tlie blacli spots they cause on the leaves mifjlit si^'c cause for alarm. Septoriii umpelinwn is resprvnsilile for the disease known in France as MHanose. Cladosporium viticnluiii, and Si'jildxiioriiiiii /''»cA-c/// lire ii^ii.ill) referred to by their yfeneric names. Even in the moist French climate the (l:iiii;i-e (loiif li\ I liise fuiiL:i has hitherto lieen insi.unificant. Aureobasidium vitis {see Additions to. he FuH'ji uH tkc Vine in Aus'nilUij is also ), CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Continued from -page jdj.) H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Competition. No. Position in of Pen. BrePfl. Xanie of Owner. April to ./une. July. Total to Date (4 Competi- tion. 1 months). 12 White Leglioru W. G. Swift 366 113 479 1 40 A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 338 132 470 2 31 R. W. Pope 337 113 450 3 3:5 WooldridgeBros.(Qld.) 317 86 403 4 18 >) S. Brundrett 274 ! 112 386 5 37 E. Waldou 268 ] 101 369 6 20 .. H. McKenzie 268 95 363 7 13 Black Orpington . . D. FLsher . . 226 122 348 8 32 Silver Wyaudottt! . . M. A. Jones 204 114 1 318 9 21 White Legliorn R. L . Appleford 274 43 317 10 46 Black JliiK.rca G. W. Chalmers 224 89 313 11 63 Black Orpiuiiton .. A. J. Treacy 182 128 310 12 66 White Wyauildtte J. E. Bradley 207 102 309 13 25 White Leglioni B. Mitchell 180 121 301 14 44 Black Orpington T. S. Goodisson 233 67 300 15 51 White Leghorn J. W. McArthur 180 108 288 16 36 F. A. Sillitoe 230 54 284 17 55 !. W. G. McLLster 186 97 283 18 39 >. A. W. HaU 176 98 274 19 1 » A. Brebner 182 91 273 20 67 1. C. L. Sharman 185 81 266 21 9 )» ,T. O'Louglilin 177 87 264 22 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdon 153 110 263 23 24 White Leghorn F. Hannaford 174 84 258 24 2 f» E. P. Nash 222 35 257 25 19 f) • • A. Jaques 186 62 248 22 Black Orpington P. S. Wood 138 110 248 1 26 28 5 White Leghorn L. C. Pavne 144 95 239 38 ») Mrs. ('. R. Sniee 123 115 238 29 4 Golden Wyandotte H. Bell 108 125 233 30 3 White Leghorn K. Gleghorn 141 90 231 31 8 T. W. Coto 183 46 229 32 27 ») • • Hill and liUckinan 149 76 225 \ 42 White Orpington . . P. Mitcliell 87 138 225 J 33 58 Faverolles IC. tV)urtney 144 81 225 54 White Leghorn F. Hodges . . 142 81 223 36 65 „ H. Hammill (N.S.W.) 165 57 222 37 41 „ S[organ and Watson . . 110 111 221 38 50 „ C. H. BiLsst 125 89 214 39 47 „ C. W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 157 50 207 40 28 „ J. Campbell 111 87 198 41 49 ., W. J. Tliornton 135 62 197 42 45 !) T. Kemjjster 174 13 187 43 60 » J. J. Harrington 112 69 181 44 43 11 W. B. Crellin 94 85 179 45 .">9 .. W. H. Dunlop 99 78 177 46 23 Golden Wyandotte G. E. Brown 108 57 165 47 11 Brown Leghorn F. Soncum 81 83 164 48 26 White Leghorn F. Seymour 82 77 1.59 49 30 Black Orpington . . Hodgers Bros. 138 18 156 50 62 White Leghorn 1*. Hudson . . 130 24 154 51 53 .. A. Stringer 43 109 152 52 16 Silver Wyandotte . . .Miss A. CottaTU 105 42 147 53 34 White Leghorn K. Dettman 79 66 145 54 57 „ G. E. lOd wards 83 54 137 ti Silver Wyandotte .Mrs. II. J. Kicliards 80 55 135 i ... 52 Whito Leghorn W. J. McKeddie 32 103 135 I '•" 7 „ II. Stevenson 75 55 130 58 01 Silver Wyandotte J. Heade . . 21 n8 109 59 35 Wliitiir].ose men- tioned. Heavy dressings of coal ash will cause scab in potatoes. Woon Ashes. — J.O'B. Intpiires whether wood ashes would be of any benefit to vines. Answer. — Ashes arc umloiibtidly of maniiiial value to vines on account of the potash they contain, which is in the form of carbonate. They also improve the physical nature of the soil. The value varies considerablv. The ashes from small twigs are of greater value than those from solid wood. 6^6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ti Sept., 191 i. Urine.— A.W.T. asks whether the washings of tlie pig st)es, which coasi»t hirgely of urine, may be placed around fruit trees. Answer. — To ])revent any deleterious elTect on vegtlation, urine should if ])Ossible be kept for some time in a tank and reduced considerably with water before applying to the growing jilant. If this is done no danger will follow, but certain advantages from its use will be reaped. Sawdi'ST. — W.J.R. asks whether sawdust will have anv ill effects on orchard soils. Answer. — Sawdust should be mellowed or rotted down before being jdoughed into orchard soils, otherwise some of the resins contained in it may injure the roots. It could be mellowed by using lightly as a mulch, by mixing with lime, or by using as stable bedding and allowing it to afterwards rot. If it could be burned, the ash would be far better for orchard use. In either case, it would ultimately tend to lighten soils. Black Scale .and Soot on OrAxXck Trees. — A.W.T. asks whether spraying may now be carried out; and, if so, what strength should be used. Answer. — Red oil emulsion — i in 35. Spray now, choosing a cloudy da). To make emulsion, boil i gallon of water and 2 lbs. of soft soap until soap is dissolved. Add 2 gallons of red oil. Bring mixture to the boil ; and, by pump- ing the oil back upon itself through nozzle of spray pump, emulsify it. The emul- sion should then thoroughly mix with cold water. Fumigation when the young insect comes out is by far the most reliable remedy. Insect pests and fungus diseases of citrus trees were dealt with on page 520 of the August Journal. Strawberries. — E.A.W. states that some strawberry plants which she has had for two years do not yet show signs of bearing fruit, although looking particu- larly healthy. Answer. — -Some varieties of strawberries do not bear until they are well established. In the case mentioned they may have been planted from weak runners or from old crowns ; both are bad planting methods. Another cause may be the fact that the plants do not bear pistillate flowers, or they may require other varieties for fertilization. Strawberry Fly. — W.H. inquires as to treatment recommended for the Straw- berry Fly. Answer.— ^f^xTk^^ plants with Benzole emulsion — i in 5. The smell will re- n.ain on the plants for some days, but no danger to the strawberries will result. Ribbed Case Moth. — E.L.I, states that his gum tree- have been attacked b) caterpillars. Specimens forwarded. Answer. — The specimens sent are the caterpillars of the Ribbed Case Moth. Spray with arsenate of lead or Benzole emulsion. Tarpaulins. — F.R. asks how tarpaulins are made waterproof. Answer. — Tarpaulins may be made waterproof by saturation (preferably) or by painting the canvas with a solution made as follows : — 10 lbs. of vegetable black; 20 gall, of raw, and 20 gall, of boiled linseed oil. Mix thoroughly; then coat as above and afterwards allow to dry thoroughly. Hard Seeds. — J.R.M. refers to article on " The Nature and Uses of Hard Seeds" v.hich appeared in the December, 1910, Journal. He asks to what tempera- ture the water .should be raised when soaking hard seeds such as Black Wattle, Lightwood, &c., in order to secure a good germination. Answer. — Perhai)s the best practical method of dealing with hard seeds is to pour a large quantity of boiliiig water over them and then leave them to cool in the water. If, on the following day, only a few of the seeds are still hard and unswollen, the seeds can be planted immediately. They should not be allowed to dry again or be planted during very dry weather or in very dry soil. If the seeds are kept in boiling water for any length of time, the " soft " ones will swell and are then killed by a temperature exceeding 70 to 80 deg. centigrade. Hence, unless the water has fallen below this temperature before the seeds begin to swell, the gain in germination of the hard seeds may be more than balanced by a loss of germination in the softer seeds, if the sample is a mixed one. REIVIIflDEHS FOR OCTOBER. m LIVE STOCK. Horses : — • Continue to feed stabled horses well ; add a ration of tireenstiiff. Rii^c at night. Continue hay or straw, chaffed or wliole, to grass-fed horses. Feed old and badly-conditioned horses liberally. If too fat, mares in foal should be put on poorer pasture. •Cattle : — Except on rare occasions, rugs may now be used on cows at night only. Continue giving hay or straw. Give calves a warm dry shed and a good grass run. Continue giving milk at blood heat to ■calves. Pigs :— Supph' plenty of bedding in warm wcll-ventilato:' styes. Keep styes clean and dry, and feeding troughs clean and wholesome. Sows may now be turned into grass run. ■Sheep :— Well-bred fleeces sliould be skirted carefully — the better the class of wool the greater the need. Where the wool is burry, take the heaviest off, keeping bellies and pieces, &c., separate. In country free from burr, only the heavy fribs from arm and (lank need be remo^'ed. It is better management to have ample table room, and extra men skirting carefully, than to hurriedly tear off unnecessary wool and then employ men at the piece table to sort what is known as " l)ioken fleece " or " first pieces." All stains must come otT fleeces, and weather stains from bellies. With crossbreds, separate all coarse fleeces from the finer sorts ; and, with merinoes. the yellow and mushy ones from the shafty and bright. Skirt off any rough thighs from crossbred fleeces. Press in neat bales; avoid" sewdowns." Brand neatly. If any likelihood of lambs not going for export before dry feed comes, shear at once. Poultry : — Incubation should cease this month — late chickens are not profitable. Devote attention to the chickens already hatched ; do not overcrowd. Feed a little lightly- boiled liver, choy)ped finely and mixed with mash. Also add ])lenty of green food to ration, ordinary feeding to be 2 parts jJoUard, 1 part bran, a little dry bonemeal, and plenty of finely-cut raw onion. Mix with the gravy from liver. Give a little three or four times a day, according to the weather. Feed crushed wheat or hulled oats at night for a few days ; whole wheat may then be given. Avoid whole oats. Grit (broken crockery) sliould be available at all times. Variety of food is important to growing chicks ; insect life aids growth. Remove brooders to new ground as often as ]iossible ; tainted ground will retard development. CULTIVATION. Farm : — Plant main crop of potatoes in early districts and ])re])arc land for main crop in late districts. Fallow and work early fallow. Sow maize and millets where frosts are not late, also mangolds, beet, ■carrots, and turnips. Sow tobacco beds and keep covered with straw or hessian. ORfllARD : — Ploughing and cultivating to be continued, bringing surface to a good tilth, and suppressing all -weeds. S])ray with nicotine solution for peach a])his, with Bordeaux mixture for black spot of apple and pear, and with arsenate of lead for codlin moth in early distrit-ts. Vegetable Garden : — Sow seeds of carrot, turnip, ])arsni]), cabbage, peas, French beans, tomato, celery, radish, marrow, and ]iiimpkins. Plant out seedlings from former sowings. Keep the surface well pulverized. Flower Garden' : — Keep the weeds down and the soil open by continued hoeing. Phint out (lel]>hiniums. clirvsan- themums. salvia, early dahlias, &c. Prepare ground l)y digging and maniuing for autumn tlahlia3. Sow gladioli tubers and seeds of tender annuals. Sjiray roses for ai)his and mildew. \inevard : — This is the best month for field grafting. If stocks bleeil too copiously, cut off 24 hours before grafting. Field grafts mu'it be staked, to avoid subs('((uent straining by wind and to insure straiirht stem for future vine. Stakes are also lu-cessary for grafted rootlings for same reasons. Temporary stakes :5 feet long will suffice. Keep a sharp look-out for cut worms. (See .foiinidl for July.) Disbud and tie \i\) all vines, giving special care to young plantations. Beware of spring frosts. (See Jonriud for September, lillO.) Conclude spring cidtivafion (.second |iloughing or scarifying and digging or hoeing roimd vines). Weeds must be mastered aiul whole surfai c got into good tilth. Sidjihur vims when shoots 4 ti> <) inches long; this j)recaution is necessary after last wet seas')iL Cilliir. — -Taste all young wiiu's ; beware of dauyeroiis sym))toms in uufortilicd fruity wines, which may need treatment. I''ill un rcu'iilarlv all luifortiticil wines. JUST PUBLISHED. " THE . . Destructive Insects of Victoria/' By C. FRENCH, F.L.S., F.E.S. 170 PAGES, CLOTH. 40 COLOURED PLATES. OBTAINABLE FROM T5e^ Depaptment o^ Sgpieultape, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, AND LEADING BOOKSELLERS. t Commonwealth, Id. Price, 2s. 6d.: Postage New Zealand, 4d. I British and Foreign, 7d. PRESS OPINIONS RE PART V. Western, Mail (Perth). — "lb would be almost impossible to speuk in too warm praise of its usefulness or of its attractiveness." Adelaide Observer. — "Mr. French has conferred a distinct benefit upon the producers throughout the Commonwealth." T^own and Country Journal.. — "The valuable des(;ri])tions and plates of the insects which make havoc are continued." AucUand'We&kly News. — "This M'ork is remarkably interesting and particularly : lucid."- Canterbury .l^imes. — " Will repay the careful perusal and study of all interested in agricultural and horticultural subjects. " . Otago Witnt-^'i. — "Another admirable treatise on in.sect life in Australia." Amtralian Farm and Home.^-^" It should certainly find a place in every rural home." Southern Sphere. — " Is of paramount value to all interested in orchards, crops, or . forests." Education Gazette and Teachera'' Aid. — " Natiu'e-lovers will find their debt of obligation to the veteran naturalist increased by this volume." Y b b >^ CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING. Vol. IX. NOMENCLATURE OF FRUIT. [Registered at the General Vf>^t om—. Mi-ll/.j\inic, for traiKijiis-iion bv Post as a Newspaper. Part 10^ PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription Victoria, Inter-Statc, and N.Z., 3-; British ard Foreign, 5 -. F. H. BRUNNING, PTY. LTD. SEED & BULB MANUAL FOR 1911 Post free on application. THE LEADING AUSTRALIAN HOUSE FOR VEGETABLE, FLOWER, TREE, SHRUB, &AGRIOULTURAL SEEDS. Specially grown to Contract. PURE BRED SEED MAIZE SEED & BULB MANUAL FOR 1911 Post free on application. Specially grow^n to Contract. HICKORY KING. ECLIPSE. EARLY LEAMING. BOONE COUNTY SPECIAL. SOMERTON WHITE. YELLOW MORUYA. FUNK'S YELLOW DENT. All our Seed Maize quite pure and true to name. Specially grown to our contract by the leading growers in Australia. Samples, Quotations, and 1911 MAIZE LIST (just published) POST FREE ON APPLICATICN. LONGFELLOW. RED HOGAN. EY. YELLOW DENT. RED KENTUCKY MOONSHINE. N. WESTERN DENT. NINETY DAY. PRIDE OF THE NORTH. RYE GRASS. COCKSFOOT, PRAIRIE, PHALARIS, LUCERNE, CLOVERS, CHOU MOELLIEI SORGHUMS, MANGELS, SWEDES, PASPALUM, FESCUES, TIMOTHY, & A" Samples and Prices post free on ajipli. ■itioii PLANTER^S FRIEND ONE HORSE ^'^' CORN DRILL. ^^ An ettieient Machine for the small grower. PLANTER'S FRIEND CORN DRILL. PLANET JR. HORSE HOES, DRILLS & CULTIVATORS. CORN QUEEN PLANTERS, SPRAY PUMPS, FARM TOOLS. 64 ELIZABETH ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.^OCTOBER, 1911, Piopagatiou of Fruit Trees — Bu'Wing (ron/iittud) The Nomenclature of Fruit Orchard and Garden Xotes Toljaoco Culture — Tent-grown Tul^acco Vine Diseases in France — Diseases of Doubtful Parasitism Cool Storage Grapes at the Royal Show Tree Planting Competition Painted sApple Moth The Nitrogen Cycle as it affects Agriculture .Spring Management of Bees (con<27iMed) Farm Blacksmitliing — Forging Closer Settlement Studies — Onions in South (iippsland Pumpkins and Dairying To Start Farming — I. Hints for New Settlers Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 Cheddar Cheese-making Answers to Correspondents — Harvesting Pasp.ilum Seed Mouldy Silage Mating Fowls Death of Turkeys Carbide Waste Flagging ... Grade Bull... Ringbone ... Reminders for November •Soy Beans— Seed for Di.-tribini' C. F. Cole E. E. Pencott E. E. Pk^cott T. A. J. Smith F. de Castdla F. de Ca.¥.ella G. French, jun. E. S. Holmes F. R. Beuhne (J. Baxter '. S. McFadzeaii '. S. McFadzean T. A. J. Smith H. V. Hawkina G. C. Saicfrs 718 Rubber Hose fur Injections •718 Defective Quarter 718 Ditiicult Parturition (Kwes) 719 Molasses 719 Diet for Sow witii Liticr 719 Sheep Books 719 Adding S.ilt to Cream ... 719 PAOl. 657 063 668 671 673 677 678 678 680 683 685 689 691 692 700 701 719 719 7U» 719 719 719 719 72(t 720 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The .Articles in ilie .lonriiiil of the Depari iiiciil tii .■\l''i iciilt uie ul \'i ./mnii'i/ mid author are hoth tirhnoirledffed. The Journal is issued nmuthly. The sub.s(;ription, wliic^h is payable in advancre and includes post;if 11 feet, gn.iwing '_' feet in five weeks, 7.', feet in under twelve weeks. Price, S<1. per Ih., GOs. per ewt. AGRICULTURAL SEED A SPECIALITY. LAW, SOMNER, & Co., Seed and Plant Mercliants, 139-141 SWANSTON STREET, MELBOURNE. Established 61 Year.s. 'PHONE. CENTRAL 729. "yI Journal of Agriculture^ Yicioria. [lo Oct., 191 i. "AUSTRAL" ~ MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have e.stablished tlie AUSTRAL as the Premier MilkingT Machine, and have demonstrated that it does not belong to tliat class of appliances whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood the test of time, and that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE. Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the Austral is striking!}' simple. Minute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets has been entirely dispensed with, its place being taken bj' a single pulsating pump, simple and strong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whether two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The pulsating pump is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. IT IS AN EASY MILKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austra>l has done away with all that. Its action on the cow is as gentle as that of the softest hand, and much easier than the average hired help. After three and four years' milking with the machines, cows are found to be as sound in the quarters as when they started. Enquiry from any Austral user will confirm the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECONOIVIICAL DAIRYING. The working parts are so few and the construction so sim])le and solid, that wear and tear, and consequently the cost of vqjkeeji, are reduced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to separator without an\' handling whatever. With tliis system, so great a saving is effected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwheln in/. A single bucket can be supplied for testing individual cows ; or where spec al requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. . CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. Embodies the famous Link-Blade Bowl 1 The world's standard Oil Engine. In all Structure. Official tests conducted by the .J, si/.es and for all descriptions of farm work. ■Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the 1^ "Globe" in the very forefront for clean (^. VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. skinijuing and easy running, against all 1- t, ■ ■ , 1 ■, competitors. \ British built. Low runmng speed. All sizes from 14 to 200 gallons. Economical on fuel. WINDMILLS, SAW-BENCHES, CH/^FF-CUTTERS, at\d all Farrn aqti Dairy Machinery. When writiuir, pluase nuiiti.iii ilii- -iounial. 59-61 KING ST., J MELBOURNE. W. H. BLflCKHflin lo Oct., 1911.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. ii cc < 2 LU J 1 N m ^ li ''i X 1— wll , 1 a i ! I' \ C3 ■ E pyiiiii Q *\ ill 1 t- ^ ?- K 0 H -. ill!' ^ i GO LU CO 2^ tu .2 CD -«g: " tl Q tS uu ^ -: &S c 0 UJ 1— - 1 3 r^ ^ 4> 55 w 0 3 0 ^ C/5 -O 3 a> Of = 0= E . c -a 0 p in C '3 t3 •3 « (U _5 rt cd -a "s* ^ S « 0 0 .2 CO e 0 0 E 1 1 e 0 rt ^ 73 CO CC S 1 V ry2 CIS 0 0 bn ^. 0 CO H I < 03 ^:r UJ © c/: a 2 2? 0 0 s 0 < Z 111 lu 2 z? 0 hi ^ .2 K ° s -1 VAVA^A^I III ^1 1=1 3 0 >> 1— 1 c 11 0 OJ 1 li C3 ■7 ^VVVWW^ffl cy "e o-.^ CO >- QC il c c •*t *^- *>?-g*^ X >- j; 5 0 « ^ s ^ a a j. 2.*^ fr* <2 - •* \J f^ c -2 '*> 9*^ Pi s'^ ** >;"S"^- ^ 5; 30 a ^, 0 "^ V a. Journal of Agricicltnrc, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1911 piston s Patent Windmills —AT THE ROYAL SHOW.- At tliu recent Royal Show a tine collection of Windmills was exhiV)ited by James Alston, of Queen's Bridge, Melbourne. Mills of all diameters, from 6 ft. to 25 ft. were shown at ^^•ork, suitable to all requirements of farmers or stock raisers, the small Mills being suitable for lifting moderate supplies from shallow wells, while the larger sizes are capable of dealing with almost any depths. A splendid Mill, 25 feet diameter on a 50 -ft. Steel Tower, working an 18" pump, and throwing a stream of water of about 15,000 gallons jser hour, attracted much attention. 'Pliis, we believe, is tlie largest Mill ever shoAvn on the Show Ground. Alston's Patent Steel Windmills have all the most up-to-date improve- ments in their construction. Pumps of many descriptions were shown, including the latest Draw Plunger Pumps for bore use, which admits of the plunger being drawn without disturbing the pipes in tlie bore. rae JOURNAL OP NEW VORK BOTANV. I QAK« ^Re department of M^ncufture or VICTORIA. Vol. IX. Part 10. loth Oetobep, 1911. cr> CsJ PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from page 648.) C. F. Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Budding {continued). The most practicable method for budding fruit trees is that known as the shield or T. To perform this operation, it will be necessary to have ri suitable knife with a keen edge. On page 338 are shown two different budding knives. The white handled one has the part for opening the bark to receive the bud situated at the lower end of the handle, while the black handled one has it at the end and upon the upper side of the blade. For all round work the writer prefers the white handled one, but it is purely a matter of what one gets accustomed to. Both answer the s.'me purpose. Select a part upon the stock to be worked where the Itark is smooth, and 2i to 3 in. above the ground level. Make a cut across the stock pene- trating to the sap wood (31^); and then insert the point of the knife about I in. Ijelow the cross cut, and make an upright incision to it. Fig. 7,2 .^hows the position of the index finger whilst making this vertical cut so as to insure its being ])erfectly straight. If this cut is made untrue the oj^-rator will find it awkward to place the bud in the exact position. With that part of the knife used for opening the bark, raise the bark u[)on each side of the upward rut wide enough to allow the bud to be easily slii)ped into position. (Figs. T^\a and l>.) Th'-n cut the bud for inserting. Start about \ in. below the bud and finish off the same dis- tance ai)')ve (Fig. 34), cutting deep enough to renvnv a thin smo;;th pie<'e of wofxl u|)on the unrlerside of the b:irk containing the 1 ud (3v). Hold the cut bud in position with the thumb and index finger ; and. if necessary, with tin- knib- lift the bark slightly at the top of the incision upon the one side. Then ins do this, place the point of the blade (back part) carefully upon the short piece of the leaf stem; failing this. \\\)0\\ the node, when a slight pre.vsure will i:j?:{2. 2 1'. 65'^ Journal of A^^riculiurc . Victor'u [lo Oct. , 191 1, place the bud into the proper position ready for tying (3i(: and d). Under no condition, place the point of the blade above the bud, penetrating the bark, or upon the bud. If the bark runs freely, an experienced budder will perform this l)art with the thumb and finger, i.e. when inserting certain kinds of buds. Having placed the bud in position, take a piece of prepared raffia and start to bind below the incision, working upwards and leaving the bud ex- posed to the light. Continue binding above the cross or upper cut and finish off with two half hitches. The incision should be well covered and firmly bound (3it'). When tying projecting buds, like cherries, be careful not to strike them with the raffia, injuring or breaking them from the node. Injured buds should be immediatelv reiilaced bv sound ones. 31. METHODS OF BUDDING. a.h. Iiicisiou ready for inserting bud. c. Inserting bud. 0. Bud inserted. Bud liound. In illustration T^\a. instead of the cross cut, the blade of the knife is pressed downwards. This method is a good one when budding citrus trees, mulberries, etc. The top of the cut, when bound, re-unites with the stock, while the cross cut expands. But, for ordinarv fruit tree budding, it has no advantage over the cross cut. There is another method called the reversed T budding, practised at times. The difference is that the cross cut. is made below instead of above, and the bud inserted forced upwards instead of downwards in the stock. Some favour this method when working cherrv stocks, stating that they are not so liable to gum if budded this way. The writer's opinion is that the gumming of cherrv stocks when budded is caused by two agencies : — The excessive sap flow at the time that the stocks are worked, and excessi\-e moisture at the roots causing the subsoil to become sodden and cold through bad drainage. If the stocks are budded when they are growing rapidly and over-flush with sap, there is a greater lo Oct., 1911] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 659 exudation from the freshly made cut or wound than when the flow in the stocks is normal. Gumming may be shallow or deep .seated. If .shallow and from the bark tissue, it is not so injurious. If from the cambium or ■' ^ ^M|^^^^H^ H^H 1 1 ■i ^^■vf4.- POSITION TO INSURE A STRAIGHT VERTICAL CUT. 33. OPENING BARK lO RECEIVE PREPARED Bl'D. wood it is fatal to stock and bud. Cherry stocks should not be budded when the sap is over- free. If .so, there is a risk of a poor take of buds — besides gumming. Cherry buds should be fully matured. Among propagators the methods of making the incision and cutting Inids differ. Some make tht upward cut first and the cross or down cut last, and also start cutting the buds from above and not below the node. When cutting ciuickly from above, there is a risk of cutting the buds too short or thin below the wciXe. The foundation of a bu(' lies in having that portion of the bark. etc.. belov. the nolle cut well and nnt less than ^ hi. in length, if possible. Again, .some cut from below, leaving the top ])ortion longer than is necessary. There is a risk, when severing this part .so as to make it fit the incision, of injury to the bark. <\uising the portion al)ove to die back to the wood-buil. 'I'his is i)articularlv so with th<' citrus. mulberr\ and other tend«-r kiinls. With a little i)rattice. the operator should be able to cut the buds to fit the incision, ami not have the upper i^ortion long and ])rojecting aliove the cross cut when in.serted. Various methods ol iving are in vogue. .Ml answer the one purjiase, 1 lit after years of projjagating by the method alreadv advised the writer finds it to be the best. Resides being iiuick. it f.icilitates work, if •_' V. 1 3 J. CUTTING A nUD. 66o Jouriial of Ai;r!ciiltnrc. Victoria. [lo Oct.. iqii. performed rightU. The practice of tying off l)elo\v the inserted bud is net a good one. If neglected, the rapid expansion of the stocks, especially early worked ones, will cause the binding where finished off to cut into the bark and growing wood ; probably with the first heavy wind it will break off short, the bud being lost. If, on the other hand, the expansion of the stocks is not great enough to cause cutting in. it will be necessary when cutting off the stocks above the buds, in the winter or earlv spring, to release the tied portion of the binding so as to prevent injury. During the time spent over this another stock could be cut off. Bv tving off above the bud, as shown in Xo. t^\c, the binding, owing to the gradual expansion, will break away below the bud or where tying was first started. If, through neglect, the cut in part is not released, and the stock breaks off. it will l)e al)Ove the bud and little or no harm done. It practicallv means that only a percentage of early budded stocks will require attention bv finishing off above; instead of all, early and late, if tied below. 1 ^~^^. METHODS OF PREPARING BUDS. a. Wood removed from cut bud with leaf trace liundle left l)ehind. h. Wood showing leaf traee bundle (x) removed Irom cut bud. c. Cut bud showiu'r wood-nietliod recommended. The time that it takes to go over thousands of budded stocks, about three weeks after being worked, to relea.se every bound stock when tied below, or the time lost in removing this portion of the bandage when cut- ting off the stocks, can be saved and put to better advantage. With buds, even if well cut or in.serted, there is a big risk of failure if the binding is not done well so as to prevent the air having free access to the callusing parts until unltv has thoroughly taken place. The most par- ticular part is the top of the incision and where the bark was first rai.sed. If the top portion of the binding becomes loose before unitv has properly taken place, and even after, the bark will open out, causing the buds to die, particularly if the weather is hot or windv. Bindings should not be loosened or removed too quickly. The best guide is not to interfeiv with the buds until obliged to do .so, i.e. if they have taken, and there is no necessity to re-bud. If re-budding stocks owing to failure, insert bud ujfon the opposite side of the stock and below where the sap has been checked through cutting in. First remo\'e old binding. \^'orked stocks are verv apt to shove out shoots below the inserted bud. This is brought alfout l>v the expansion and the sap flow being checked by the binding. 10 Oct., 19x1.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. f6i Only in rare instances should such shoots be removed before the dis- budding season, i.e. from deciduous fruiting trees. These shoots carry off. to a certain extent, the ascending sap and help to pre\-ent the buds from making a short summer's growth. Pear buds are very apt to start a growth soon after unity takes place; releasing the binding, when safe to do .so, and allowing a free flow of sap to the higher parts of the stock will over- come this somewhat. Removing the thin slice of wood from cut buds before inserting is an unnecessary o])eration, /.(-. if the buds are cut properly. If the worked stocks suffer from the want of moisture, even after unitv has taken place, those buds with the wood removed and inserted during hot or dry weather are much more liable to die out than those where the wcx)d has been left in. When remo\-ing the wood, there is always a risk of injury to the bud ; even if injured, unity may take place, only the bud and that portion encircling it dying. The writer has tested both methods side by side and under same conditions. The results _ have been always in favour of leaving the wood. The manner in which this slice of wood is removed is by inserting the [)oint of the blade beneath the end of the wood and giving a sharp upward jerk. The operation requires practice and care in .seeing that the leaf trace bundle is left behind, filling up the hollow at the base or heart of the bud. Bv starting the removal from the ui:)per end, there is a greater chance of leaving this bundle intact. Fig. 35(2 shows the wood removed from bud with leaf trace bundle left behind {:Sy')- leav- ing an empty cavity at the ba-se or heart of liud. Fig. Tf^c is the bud with the slice of wood left m. Buds that are not th';roughlv matured are easily iTijured by this operation. Tre.'Vtment of Budded Stocks. During the winter or early spring following the budding season, it is all important, if the propagat(.r wishes to produce a tree from the inserted buds which have united with the stocks, to head the latter back 1" till- !iud. The operator should provide himself with a suitable knife (see page 338). a whetstone, and a leather legging. There is always a risk when "cutting off,'' as this heading back is called, of gashing the leg below neglecting the thi' kncf. The legging |)r(;tects the leg and al.so provides a strop for keeping a keen edge ujjon the knife. Place the side of the ft, not the ihi- liiitt and l.flow the insrrtrd buil, care bcin: the 1. liter is not iiijun'il whilst doing so. (It the there is a risk of causing iiijurx to thr bark (;f Ix* operated upon. V.\<-\\ the foot is not necessary when cutting off small stocks). Having |)laced the loot into position, take hold of the top of the stock with one hand, and with the other place the blade of the knife upon the opjjosite siilc of the st(>-k to that of the bud and slightly l>elow it. Then mak<- a qniek rlean upward cut. at \\v same time gi\ing the stock ,1 slight hi-iid towards the body; the 1 ui should be sloping and linish tSi slightK ahow thf bud. Moth actions should in- iirrbirm.d .it the sam..- Tf^. RESULT OF r "DING. toe, against taken that toe is useil the stock to (,6: Journal of Agriculture. Vicioria. [lo Oct., 1911. time. It is surprising how large a stock or bough can be cut off with a small bladed knife with very little exertion. When cutting off, the operator will be able to hold several cut tops in his hand without inconveniencing him in his work. These should be placed in the alleys between the lands, so that digging, scarifying, or other neces- sary work may be proceeded with at once. Failing alleys, place in heaps between and parallel with the rows, using one or two rows in a land for this purpose. Tie in bundles and carry out to the headlands where they can be burnt or carted away. When cutting off, care must be exerci.sed in seeing that a stock carry- ing a dead or injured bud is not operated upon. Any stock with such a bud is left untouched for future use, i.e., for grafting. With mo.st buds that have taken, i.e., where unity between the stock and bud is perfect, they have a fresh plump appearance. But, if the operator is uncertain, he should test by scratching the bark slightly with the point of the knife either above the bud, or upon the node; the latter test is the surest. Cherry buds are very deceptive at times. The node and shield may be alive, but the luid itself, although look- ing fresh and retaining its colour, will be dead. The writer followed the practice of not cutting the cherry stocks until the sap was starting to rise and the buds showed signs of swelling. At this period, cutting off and ground grafting can bi- carried out at the same time. \\'hen cutting off, re- move any binding remain- ing about the bud or around the stock. Fig. 37 {a, b. and c) illustrates 37. HEADED BACK BUDDED STOCKS. common types of cut-off" budded stocks. The cut in Fig.^ 37a is made too far below and above the bud ; the result is that the portion of the stock left above forces the bud when growing into almost an oblique position, besides dying back to the bud and preventing healing taking place across the wound. In Fig. 37/7. this cut is made .straight across the stock and upon a level with the top of the bud. This is also faulty; the probable result is a growth with a crooked stem near the junction of bud and stock. This wound also takes a long time to heal across. Fig. 37^ illustrates the proper method of cutting. Not onlv Avill the wound heal quickly, but the closer an upward cut is made to a bud, with- out causing injury, the more vertical will- be its growth. Under no con- dition, should secateurs be used for performing this work. As there is no occupation in the nursery so severe upon the hands as cutting off, it is a good plan before beginning to bind the handle of the knife with tliin rubber. The first stocks to be cut off will be the plums, i.e., if the tops are required for making cuttings. Then will follow the other stone fruits, apples being the last. After cutting off is finished, carefully remove from: lo Oct.. 191 1.] Tlie Nomenclature of Fruit. 663 amongst the other stocks any that are small or unbiulded and not required for grafting over. Heel them in, trim, and plant out in freshly- prepared soil. Apply artificial manure when planting. It is not a wise plan to re-bud stocks the following summer when grow- ing amongst yearling trees, as the roots of the budded stocks get cut and bruised when lifting the young trees for planting out in tht^ winter. Be- sides, the conditions for making growth are not the same. In order to get the best results the above advice should be closely followed. (J'o be coutiiiUid.) THE NOMENCLATURE OF FRUIT. E. E. Pcscott, Principal. FJorticultural School, Burnley. Introduction. In the science of Horticulture, no .section provides .^u iniertsting, so entertaining, and .so instructive a study, as the study of Pomology. It affords an immense scope for thought, and is in itself a life-study- \Mien one considers all the kinds of fruit, and all the varieties — both multiplying with the increasing years — there looms up at once the thought that here is a section, a science in itself ., so varied, .so full of change, with so much room for observation, that he is at first reluctant to enter upon this study. Immediately, the interesting side of the work appeals, and gradually one is led into working up a most entrancing and instructive .science. Of varieties of apples alone, the total number extends into thousands, and the number is increasing each year. It will thus be seen that a student of Pomology is undertaking no light task when he enters upon the work. The sub-section of Fruit Nomenclature, too, gives ample room for thought — whv fruits are so named, who grew and named them, what the names mean, why thev have so manv svnonyms ; these and other questions crowd thick and fast upon one. Fruit X.ames. It is quite right tiiat each variety of fruit should have a name, and it is only natural that the man who rai.ses a new kind should have the privilege of naming it; but it is just here that trouble is likely lo ensuf. and .serious trouble. A man in an (iiiscure country district raises a new fruit — either by a chance seedling, bv cross-fertilization, or |)erhai)s he comes across a good bud variation or sport. He fiixls liis result to l)e good; he gives .scions to his neighbours ; or. may be. he sells the whole stock to a nurserv- man for commercial usages. Then the new fruit is given a name. Probably, neither the raiser nor the nurscrvman knows but little of pomology, and as a result the fruit is given a name which is already in use. Then, in a few years, confusion, and irritating confusion too, arises. This has really cx:curred ; and not only in fruit, liut also in flower nomenclature. A per- manent committee, with power to revise names, would iirevent all this. Again, a nurseryman may go in for r.iising new varieties as a si-)eci.ilty ; but, unfortunately, his ambition is to prefix or to sulTix each variety with his own surname, and hi* gives t.. ih.- w.ulil perliaps twenty or tliiriv varietie< 664 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 191 i. of fruits with his naiTu^ as an addition to the fruit name; and thus we. have Smith's Red apple, Smith's Superb plum. Smith's Superior plum. Madam, Smith, Bergamot Smith, Smith's Scarlet, and so on — Smith, of course, being here used impersonally. We actually have an " Early Rivers" apple, peach, cherry, nectarine, plum, and damson; a "Thomas Rivers" apple and peach; a "Dr. Hogg" peach, pear, strawberry, and grape; and a " Coe's Golden Drop " apple and plum. It is onlv fair to a man to credit him with a desire to hand down his name to posterity in one or two good fruits ; but it becomes tiresome and confusing when he wishes to prefix or suffix his name to e\'ery fruit he pro- duces, no matter how good it may lie. There is the useless and unneces- sary multiplication of words ; and, in the American Pomological Associa- tion, such names are not allowed, only in very exceptional circumstances. \\'e mast not credit everybody with the desire to err in multiplicity of naming fruits. It is just possible, in fact, it has happened, that growers in different parts of the world, and at different times, obtain equally similar results. A case m point is that of the Plumcot. a hybrid fruit rai.sed recently in America by Luther Burbank. Burbank raised this as a cross between the plum and the apricot. The fruit is as large as an apricot, wkh a deep purple velvety skin. It possesses an apricot-plum flavour, and has attributes of both fruits. Yet it is known that, in two places in Victoria at least, trees almost exactly similar to the plumcot have existed for manv years. Another instance is just as remarkable. Bakehouse's Bergamot is a pear introduced from Tasmania many years ago by the late Mr. Wm. Elliott. It is a remarkably fine flavoured fruit of excellent quality, and has been much admired as an exceedingly superior pear. This year, an amateur grower of Oakleigh submitted to me som.e pears for an expression of opinion. The pears were grown on a seedling tree which was raised from seeds of a late culinary pear. My report on the pear was to the effect that, as the fruits were exactlv identical in appearance, quality, and flavour with Bakehou.se's Bergamot, it was not advisat)le to retain the pear as a .separate variety. It is thus seen that Nature, ui different parts of the world, repeats her .successful efforts. Confusion. Two instances might be quoted as to how confusion will frequently arise. For many years orchardists have been growing the well-known apple, Stone Pippin, which is deservedly considered one of our finest winter fruits. The origin of its name, Stone Pippin, is obscure, as it is- certainly not the true Stone Pippin — this apple is of Scotch origin, and is correctly known as Gogar Pippin, which is most unlike our Stone Pippin, being a true des.sert apple of sweet flavour. The colonial Stone Pippin is really an apple of German descent, known as Griiner Fiirstein. Possibly, some early German colonist brought the apple from the Fatherland, and, from its hardiness, it received the sobriquet of " Stone Pippin." There are three old English apples, known respectively as Birmingham Stone Pippin, Norfolk Stone Pippin, and Somerset Stone Pippin. The colonial Stone Pippin, or. more correctly, Griiner Fiirstein, while it does not accurately answer to the description of any one of these apples given by- English pomologists, yet in certain features it bears a resemblance to the lo Oct.. ipii.] The Nomenclature of Fruit. 66 ^ three, and more particularly to the Somerset Stone Pii)pin. Thus, pro- l)ably some of the early growers, noting this reseml)lan('e, named it Stone Pippin. Again, we have our very excellent dessert apple, Cleopatra, or New York ripi)in. Over forty years ago, Mr. Wm. Clarson, the then Director of the Burnley Gardens, in writing of the apples in the Burnley collection, recorded of this apple " true name not known." It is certainly not Cleo- jiatra, for there is no recorded apple of that name; neither is it New York Pippin, for the true synonym of that apple is Ben Davis. The correct name is Ortley, under wliich n;ime it is largely grcjwn in America. To further instance how confusion in names and varieties may occur, it is interesting to recall the introduction of the apple Jonathan into Vic- toria. This popular apple, which was raised in the New York State, was ordered from America by the Royal Horticultural Society of Victoria some forty years ago. On the tree fruiting at the Burnley orchards, it proved to be Esopus Si)itzenburgh ; at the same time, the tree imported as Marstons Red \Vinter was found to be wrongly named — it was really Jonathan. This caused much confusion, un.til fresh importations of Jonathan trees showed it to be the same tree that was previously imported as Marston's Red Winter. Tn America, Jonathan is variously named King Philip and Philip Rock, in honour of the man on whose farm the original tree gre^v. Wickson also refers to this question in his remarks on the introduction of the i)rune d'Agen into California. In 1856, scions of the French prune were introduced into California from Agen in France by .some French settlers. The growers were disappointed that the resultant prunes were smaller than the commercial French prunes. Because of their .vmallness, these growers named these prunes the Petite Prune d'Agen. Trees of a larger suppo.sed prune were imported and sold as Gros Prune d'Agen, adding a German word to the French name. When shown that if it were a true French prune, the French would have used the French word " grande," and not the German word " gros." the importers said that the prune was reallv German, and was known as the Hungarian prune. And, as a matter •of fact, the \\i&\\ prune hai)i)ened to be neither French, German, nor Hun- garian, but the old English plum. Pond's Seedling. Still, this did not suffice, and a Californian grower visiting France made a special study of the f|uestion. with the result that the original variety proved to be the ])rune d'Agen. In their further search for a larger ])rune, the Robe de Sergeant was introduced. This again led to confusion ; as while Robe de Sergeant was a svnonvm of prune d'Agen. this newly introduced fruit was different again from d'Agen. In this case, it was ultimately found that d'Agen runs larger in various districts and soils, and that in the last case, it was the larger varietv that was introduced. 'J'hus. Prune d'Agen, I'diic i'niiu- dWgcn, Gros Prune d'-Xgcii. Hun- garian I'rune, French Prune. Pond's Seedling, and RoU- de Sergeant — .seven names, alt sup])osed to I>e diff«'rent fruits — really were only two separate fruits. .And the confusion still exists, anil ri-uuires «>^ucidation ; for. while both Hogg and Downing give Prune d'Agen an de Sergeant as svnonvnis, W'ickscn illustrates tbi'm as two different fruits. Then, in Victoria, it is possible to buv trer ^ of Angelina Burdett and Prune d'Agen, and. when they yield, the fruit is absolutely identical. There is growing in an o'-ilvrd in the I thar- district a remarkably tin*- late dessert apple, (juite d'sti"f from anything i bi- we hav<'. The apple is well worthy of cultivation for its superi< r rn;dities. Local growers name 666 Journal of Agricidiure, Yicioria. [lo Oct., tqit. it " Ford's." On inquiry, it wa.s found that the apple was so named owing to the fact that the original tree was growing in a garden which was owned many years ago by a Mr. Ford, who is sup.po.sed to have planted it there. Mr. Ford was communicated with, and he stated that the late Mr. Charles Draper had imported the tree from America many years previously, and, as a special favour, had given him two grafts, which he worked on an old tree. He never knew its name. At present it is impossible to trace this apple. So far as can be ascertained, it is not in the Burnley collection ; but, when the apple is recognized, and its proper location found in pomology, it will still be known to the old growers as " Ford's,'" while bv the newer growers it will be given its correct name. Similarity of Names. It is still a subject for wonder to the uninitiated that River's Early Peach, Early Strawberry, Blenheim Orange, and Liveland Raspberry are apples ; that Peach is a pear ; that Peach and Royal Orange are apricots ; that Sultana is an almond as well as a grape, and so on. We have Norfolk Beauty, Norfolk Bearer, Norfolk Beefing, Norfolk Colman, Norfolk Paradise, Norfolk Stone Pippin, and Norfolk Storing ; and we also have Beaires, Bon CbretienS; Doyennes, and Reinettes in abundance. There is a Mr. Gladstone peach raised by Rivers, of Eng- land, and a Mr. Gladstone peach raised by the late Mr. Haley, of Dia- mond Creek, Victoria. There is a May Duke cherry and gooseberry ; a Prince of Wales peach and plum; a Climax apple and Japanese plum; a President strawberry and plum ; a Sultan Japane.se and a Sultan English plum. Then, there is the name " Dunn's Seedling."" Quite a numljer of apples are locally given this name ; both Munroe's Favourite and Schrceder's Apfel are in different localities given it, while Schroeder's Apfel is some- times called Munroe's Favourite. The tvio apples are entirely distinct. Munroe's Favourite, again, is often called Garibaldi — which it is not ; Garibaldi is another apple. In New Zealand, Munroe's Favourite is known as Ohinemuri — while elsewhere it is variously known as Gander's Seedling, Golden Cup, &c. Then there is the Avell known apple previously referred to, called Cleo- patra, or New York Pippin. Where these names came from is not known. This apple is certainly Ortlev, which is so largely grown in America. Ortley enjoys twenty-two other synonyms in America and two more in England ; and adding its correct name, together with our two Australian ones, this popular American apple carries no less than twenty-seven names. No wonder it is popular. Again, New York Pippin in America is identical with Ben Davis ; while Ben Davis has for another synonym Kentucky Red Streak, which is not the Kentucky Red Streak grown here. The apple known as Scarlet Pearmain in Tasmania is the Scarlet Nonpariel in Victoria, while American and English authorities quote these name's as two separate varieties. The London Pippin is more often called the Five Crown Pippin, erroneouslv so according to correct nomenclature; although the latter more correctly de- scribes its appearance, and would be a more suitable name. Thus, even with apple names, we might well pause and ask where we are. Enough has l^een said on this subject to show how great a muddle exists. One cannot be too emphatic in condemning such nomenclature, and lo Oct.. 1911.] The K onitucJaturc of Friiif. 667 these anomalies should never have been perpetuated ; they would not have been perpetuated had a permanent nomenclature committee been in existence in each country. In .some of the instances mentioned above, it will frequently be impos- sible for purchasers to obtain, and certainly impossible to define, the variety they desire. Thus, the loss to the grower, who w-aits years for his trees to fruit, and then finds that he has a varietv not wanted, and so either has to grow an unsuitable fruit or replace his land, is incalculable. Long Names. Still another fault is the great length of names sometimes given to fruits. Frequently it may be taken, although not always, that a big name is synonymous with inferiority. And so we have Borsdorffer Strie de Boheme apple; King of Tomkin's County Pippin apple; Twenty-fifth Anniversarie de Leopold L pear; Citron-berne Bomi.sche gros.se punitirte pear ; Grosse Weiss und Rothgestriefte Johannesbeere currant : ^^irabelle von Flotow's gelbe fruhbe quetsche plum; &c. Synonyms. There has thus crept into commercial life such a cumulation of names that it is a wonder that j)eople know which fruit to order. Some of our popular and well known varieties of fruits carry a great number and diversity of names. For example, in apples, the old Buckingham is known under 24 names ; Fallawater, an American favourite, owns 18 names. Ortley admits no less than 27, while Xickajack is the pos.sessor of 38. In pears, the same multiplication exists, thus Beurre Diel has 24 names ; Flemish Beauty 29 ; Uvedale"s St. Germain 36 ; (and this must not be con- founded with the variety St. Germains, which is a different pear, anrl has it.self 14 names). The list is topped by White Doyenne, or Doyenne Blanc, which answers to no less than 39 synonyms. The Remedy. The remedy will only be achieved bv unanimity of action lietween officials, fruit-growers, and nurserymen. The adoption of a standard list is the first necessity, and for the older varieties we have such authorities as Hogg. Downing, and Thomas ; later we have Wickson. and the reports of the Roval Horticultural Society of England. But none of these authori- ties deal directly with Australian fruits. Co-operative action, in the direction of a Pomological Committee, is the only remedy ; and nurserymen should agree to .sell no variety, fruit-growers to grow no variety, and officials to recognize no variety, that has not re- ceived the acceptance of such an a.s.sociation. The Pomological Association of America has .seven rules only, and these are subjoined to show the mode of action, which is reputed to be eminently satisfactory. RCI.es AncH'TKI) IIV THK AmKKICAN I'OMOI.OGICAT. AsSOCIATIo.V for N'AMINr. AMI DKscKiniNG Frciis. 1. The orij.;inator or inlrodiuer (in tlie orilcr nanieii) lias the prior ri-jht lo bestow a n.ime upon a new or unnameil fruit. 2. The society reserves the ri<,'ht. in c.ise of long, inapproi)riate, or otherwise objetlionahle names, to shorten, modify, or wholly (.han;{e the snme when the.y shall occur in its discussions or reports ; and also to recommend such chan^jes for general adojition. 668 Journal of Agrjciiliure, Victoria. [lo Oct., ipii. 3. The name of a fruit should i)referably express, as far as jjracticable by a single word, a characteristic of the variety, the name of the originator, or the place- of its origin. Under no orilinarv circumstances should more than a single word be em])loyed. 4. Should the ijuestion of ])riorilv arise between diflerent names for the same variety of fruit, other circumstances being ecjual, the name first publicly bestowed will be given precedence. 5. To entitle a new fruit to the award or commendation of the society, it must ]>ossess lat least for the locality for which it is recommended) some valuable or desirable quality or combination of (jualities in a higher degree than any ])reviously known variety of its class and season. 6. A variety of fruit having been once exhibiteil, examined, and re])orted upon,, as a new fruit, by a committee of the society, will n t there:\fter be recognized as. such so far as subseiiuent reports are concerned. A rule governing the revision of name.s was authori.ze(l bv the Associa- tion at its meeting in Washington in vSeptember, 1891. as follows : — Prefixes, suffixes, apostro])hic terminations, and secondary words, together with words whose significations are expressed in the descriptive columns of the catalogue, are eliminated from "the names of fruits, save in a few cases in which thev ma)' be needful to insure the identity of a variety and in a few timedionnured names. The anglicizing of foreign names is resorted to only in t'ne interest of brevity or ])ionouncability. In questionable cases, subsi(li;uy words are retain.eil in ])arentheses. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pcscoff, Principal. H<>riiciiltiiral ScJiool, Burnley. The Orchard. Cultivation. The necessity of getting a good start is just as important in the orchard as in any other work. The experience of other years has shown that in springtime the ground hardens very quickly, especially in warm or windy weather ; and so early ploughing is always a necessity. Even: if rain follows the spring ploughing, it will be easy to cultivate after- wards. Although a mild summer has been predicted, this is no reasort why ploughing should be delayed. Not only do the weeds need suppres- sing, but the roots of the trees need air. and the .soil requires to be sweetened by the ploughing. 'I'hat the sea.son is an early one is indicated by the early blossoining" of all kinds of fruit trees. The earliest pear tree in full bloom in the Burnley Orchards was a variety known as " Chinese,"' and this was in full Ijloom on the third week of August, while last sea.son it did not reach full bloom until 12th September. Another variety, which was in full l.'loom on 20th September of last vear, was in the same stage on 8th September of this year. The.se indications point to an early .season ; and it will be well to have both ploughing and cultivation completed' early, in ca.se the predictions of a mild season should not be realized. Ploughing and har- rowing should be thorough; and all weeds and herbage should be well covered, and the surface tilth as loose and clean as possible. All cover crops intended for green manure should be ploughed in now. These may need breaking down with a disc, a roller, or with a chain on the plough before covering. lo Oct.. 191 t.] Orcluird and Garden \afts. 669 Spraying. Spraying for all pests and diseases is now a })reeminent work in the orchard. Bordeaux spraying for black spot of apples and pears ; for scab and shothole in apricots and peaches ; for leaf curl of peach ; and for rust of plums and peaches should now be completed. Where there are indications that previous sprayings have not been thoroughly success- ful, a second spraying should be given. Wherever they are present, nicotine sprays should be used to combat peach aphis, and the pear and cherry slug. For the latter pest, arsenate of lead should not be used if the cherries are within a month of ripening. Arsenate of lead is so tenacious, and thus it is likely to remain on the fruit until it is r]\H\ when it would then be dangerous to the consumer. Thus, while this properly of remaining on the fruit for a considerable time is of great value in codlin moth spraying, it is of quite the opposite value when used for cherry slug. Either tobacco water or hellebore is useful for the eradication of this pest, as these substances do not remain long on the trees, and they are quite as effective as arsenate of lead. Codlin moth spraying, too. will be in evidence this month. Owing to the earlv .season, it is just possible that the development of the moth will take place earlier. It is generally assumed that the appearance of the moth is coincident with the bursting of the flowers. This is not always so — the moths frequently come slightly later than the bloom period- In 1908. a large number of apples were in full bloom in the Burnley orchards on 7th Octol)er, while the first egg of the codlin moth was not observed until the i6th October. At the same time, a number of apples were not then in blossom. In 1910, die greatest numlxT of apples were in bl(Kim aliout 15th October, and the first codlin moth egg was ob.serve;uffer considerably. Vegetable Garden. .\ good tilth, and a well pulverized surf.ieo. are the main .soil neces- sities in the vegetable garden this month. l'"re(]ueiu cultivations will keep in the .soil moisture, and will obviate iln' necessity for constant sur face waterings. At the same time, it should Iv rememln'red that the vegetable garden recjuires more water than the flower garden, owing to the quick growth of the plants. (^)uickly grown vegetables are more tender .uul more luscious than slowlv grown ones ; duis. a good water supply 6yo Journal of Agricultiir': , Victoria. [\o Oct.. 191 r. will need to be maintained. Weeds are great moisture robbers, and they should be kept rigorously out of the vegetable garden ai this time of the year. Late plantings of tomatoes may now l)e carried ont ; all early planted plants should be fed, staked, and the laterals pinched back. A little bonedust or superphosphate may be given, but these are not equal to animal manures, if the latter are available. Chemical manures should only be given in a limited quantity. Six or seven cwt. per acre would be a heavy dressing, and this works out at nearly three ounces per square yard. Vegetable growers may easily try this for themselves, and it will soon be .seen that three ounces .scattered over a square yard of surface will appear to be a. verv light dressing. French beans, carrot, parsnip, celery, radish, peis. and turnip seeds may now be .sown. Seeds of cucumber, melon, and pumpkin family may now be sown in the open ground. All seedlings mav be transplanted on favourable days, and it will be well to sprinkli:- the tops when i)lanting out, as well as to water the roots. Asparagus beds may be top-dressed with manure, and kept well weeded. Such weak growths of asparagus as are not gathered for cooking pur- po.ses, although these are invaluable for flavouring and for soups, should be kept cut out of the beds. Celery trenches will need attention at this season . and. to insure good and quick growth, frequent waterings will be necessary. Flower Garden. Flower gardens are troubled with many pests at this season of the year. Rose aphis is one of the most prevalent. Frequent applications of a strong tolDacco s])ray will keep this pest in check. It has been argued that, because this pest disappears on the occurrence of the first hot wind, it is not necessary to worry much about it. This is a very fal- la^cious argument, as the hot winds do not generally come until the aphides have done a considerable amount of damage ; and, further, when the aphides do disappear, many of them simplv go underground to hibernate until another favourable season. Rose mildew will also require combating. The bushes should be sprinkled or dusted with sulphur while the foliage is still wet with the morning dew. Dusting sulphur on the grouno under the bush is also ■effective, the sulphur fumes acting as a check on the fungus. Leaf rolling and leaf eating insects will need to be suppressed by spray- ing with arsenate of lead or Paris green. The surface must be kept well hoed, .so as to keep in as much soil moisture as possible. Dry soils will need frequent waterings, with a hoeing as soon as convenient after each. Preparation will now be made for the planting of dahlias and chrysan- themums. The beds should be well dug over two or three times, well mixing the manure with the soil at each digging. The soil must not be too rich, and a well drained condition is an essential. Bulbs that have finished flow^ering, and that have lost their foliage should be lifted and stored. The foliage must not be cut off, as this means loss of sap and energy. Tender and half-hardy and other annuals may be planted out now. for summer and autumn flowers. These include asters, zinnias, salvias, balsams, amaranthus, celosias. &c. Lrilielia. bedding Uegonia. iresines. alternantheras, &c., may now be planted out. iG Oct., J91 1-] Tobacco Cidiiiri. 671 TOiiACCO CULTURE. {Continued from page 610.) T. A. ]. SiiiUJi, Tobacco Expert. Text-grown Tobacco. The term " Tent-grown tobacco " applies only to cigar leaf production. The .sv.stem is largely in vogue in America, where hundreds of acres of cigar leaf are grown under cover. The object of the system is to produce TENT-GROWN TOUACCO. wrapper leaf of thin texture antl .sound quality. A desirable subtropical effect is insured l)y means of the enclosure inasmuch as it causes a moi.si condition of atmosphere combined with a more regular temper.iture. This makes for a greater rapidity of growth and more delicate flavour. Further, owing to the crop being enclosed with cheese cloth, the tlamage likely to ensue from the ravagts of insect ju-sts and wind is minimized. Sun spots are also avoided. 672 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Oct., 1911. V'ields vary from 1,000 lbs. to 1,400 lb.s. per acre of cured leaf, and values from 2.s. to i6s. per lb., averaging a return per acre of from ^'75 to ^200, according to the proportion of high grade leaf in the crop. Experiments in Victoria have proved that leaf of better texture can be grown by this method, but so far the cost of covering the field would not be compensated for at the prices offered Ijy manufacturers for the local product. Later on, when Victorian leaf gets a reputation for being high class, growing tobacco under these conditions may become more general, especially as it makes the industry possible in places where growing in the open field is not advisable. The structure for the cover is made 9 ft. high and covered on the top and sides with cheese cloth. The frame can be built of poles of any diameter from 4 to 8 in., and placed 12 in. apart, with battens or galvan- ized wire stretched across the top to support the cloth and to prevent sagging. The widths of cheese cloth should be sewn together and sewn to the battens or wires. The whole cost will be from ^60 to ;^8o per acre; though, where timber is plentiful and the owner's labour available, the cost will be lower. A cheap quality hessian will answer, but it is not as good as cheese cloth; it will' have the effect of darkening the interior of the building which is detrimental to rapid growth. The life of the framework is from two to six vears, according to the size and kind of posts used, and of the cheese cloth or hessian, two years. The report of a leading cigar manufacturing firm on Victorian tent- grown leaf is decidedly encouraging. It reads as follows : — They are the best samples of Australian cigar leaf we have ever had submitted to us. We would be prepared to purchase immediately a large (quantity of such leaf at a price which we believe would be profitable to the producer, allowing for the extra cost of growing under cover. The harvesting of tent-grown leaf differs from that grown in the open, in that the evidences of maturity are not so plain, and if the crop is allowed to over-ripen the quality will suffer. A record of the dates of topping the plants should be kept, and the crop cut within eight weeks of the time the bud is removed ; every additional day over that period the leaf will deteriorate in smoking and burning qualities. Irrigation of Tobacco. In view of our present closer settlement policy regarding small irrigated areas, a few hints on tobacco as a crop under irrigation methods should be of value. Seeing that the crop gives such large returns per acre and the area required to irrigate consequently small, no crop should be more suited to small holdings, if soils and climate are right. The greater part of the tobacco produced in the United States of America is grown in fields of from 3 to 5 acres each. Irrigation for tobacco- is practised elsewhere on a large scale, both on small and large areas, but there are a few points that must be observed, otherwise the results will be fatal. In the first place, the soil must be free and well drained to allow of the water getting away from the surface quickly and easily. If the water should lie on the ground for more than 12 hours, the crop is liable to be killed outright at whatever stage of growth it may have attained. Flooding is not a good practice; irrigation by means of furrows between the rows at equal distances from the plants is a safer system. A good watering, with subsequent surface working of the soil before transplanting, is often of great advantage in giving the crop a start. Another watering just before the topping stage, if required, is also advis- able. The water should never be put on later than this, as it prolongs the lo Oct., 191 1-] T7//fc' Diseases in France. 673 ripening period which is not desirable. It also has the efffct of injuring the cure later on, owing to the destruction of the oxydizing enzymes ivf the leaf cell. The bad effect will also be felt during fermentation. Diseases are more frequent and of greater extent in very wet seasons or if too much water is applied artificially. At the same time, water, if judiciously administered as described, will have very beneficial effects in making the growth continuous and be a great safeguard against drought in dry districts. It should be an ideal system for tobacco-growing, as the water supply could be so regulated as to prevent the bad results that follow a too wet season, when the rainfall in the later stages of the growth of the crop is liable to be injurious. If irrigation is practised, it must be always be borne in mind that culti- vation is necessary afterwards, as .soon as the land is fit to break the surface. It prevents coldness caused by evaporation, and also the loss of soil moisture through the same cau.se. {To be continued.) VINE DISEASES IX FRAXCE. {Continued from fai:;e 6~,2.) F. de Cast ell a. Ciovernnient Viticulturist. Diseases of Doubtful Parasitism. The \-ine diseases we ha\e so far considered are due to well defined fungi, the anatomy and life history of which have been so fully studied tliat methods of treatment are now thoroughly established on a sound and logical basis. The same cannot be said concerning several other disea.ses which still give rise to much discussion among scientists. The convenient, if often abused, term of Bacteriosis has been freely used to explain their causation, apparently with reason in some ca.ses. though it is probable that in others the disease is constitutional, and therefore not amenable to direct treatment. These disea.ses are usually confined to individual vines, for which reason their effects are far less disastrous than the wholesale in- vasions of well defined parasitic fungi. Nevertheless, in certain cases, the number of vines affected has been sufficient to suggest parasitic origin, and to at least give cause for serious alarm to the owners of vim^yards in which they have been obser\ed. In view of their probable occurrence in Victoria, it is well to enumerate and briefly describe the most frequent manifestations which, though varying a gCK^d deal and often lacking in definiteness, have been given names, each of which is usually understood to stand for a more or less obscure disease. Vine Apoplexv, or Folletage as it is more commonly known in France, is the most alarming of th<- grouj). The \ ine attacked suddenly fade.s, the leaves wilt and iM-come flabby, usually in the course of a few hours. Xe.\t day, the leaves are crisp and dry, if the weather be warm, and the vine comi>letely dead. The symptoms are exactly as though the main stem of the vine had been severed just below the surface of the ^Tound. Sometimes, a porti<^)n only of the vine is affcxrted, an arm or <;ven (jne half of the vine flying suddenly, the other portion continuing lo live. Death of the wliele vine is, howeNcr, more coiiunon. !•' vfinatelv. 674 journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [10 Oct., 1911. the number of vines thus attacked is usually very small — only an isolated \ine dies here and there, irregularly throughout a block. Even in seasons when it is most prevalent, the total number of vines affected is inconsider- able. Vines in robust health are more aj)t to be struck (Jown in this way than weaker ones. In fact, it is on rich soil, where moisture is abundant, that the most severe xisitations have been experienced. Mid- summer, or from the 15th. July to 15th August in France (15th January to 15th February in Australia) is the season when apoplexy is most frequent. The disease has long been known in France. It was described at some length by H. Mares in 1862, or in pre-Phylloxera days, as occurring on ungrafted vines. It appears, however, to occur rather more frequently since retx)nstitution on resistant stocks. The greater the affinity between stock and scion, the less frequent is this accident. With the usual stocks now in use, such as Rupestris du Lot, the Riparia. Rupestris Hybrids, &c., it is rare for many cases to be noted in a vineyard — with some of the older stocks it was much more frequent. Liability tO' apoplexy is the main reason which led to the abandonment of Riparia Grand Glabre, for example. This ste killed, though only after a good many years. The names gi\en aljox'e correspond to rather different manifestations of the same or, at any rate, clo.sely allied causes. With Gelivure, tlie canes are distorted, and frequently fasciated, especially when they com- mence to grow in the spring; later on, vegetation is depressed, numerous lateral shoots l>eing produced. After the fall of the leaves the young wood presents an abnormal and, often, discoloured appearance. If, as fre(|U(Mitly happens, the internodes L)ecome much shortened, we have the form known as C'ourt-noue (short knotted, in French), though there is really no distinct border line between the two. Should the growth be much depressed, ami the canes numerous ami weak, Roncet is the term ai^plied. Sometimes, these accidents haw been attrilnui'd lo the afli-r effectN of spring frosts. Often, however, this cause could not be blamed for the di.sease, which has long been l(M)ked upon as obscure; and, e\in at tlie pre.sent day, oi)inions dilTer considerably on the subject. It api)ears to be very probai)le that these manifestation-; ni.iv with reason l)e clas.sed as diffirfiit forms of liacteriosis, since we have no English etiuivalent of the difterent l'"rench terms mentioned atiove. There 676 Journal of Agriculture, Yicti>ria. [10 Oct., 191 i. h, unfortunately, in certain (juarters, a readiness to employ the word Bacteriosis as an easy explanation of any obscure plant disease, and tor this reason one hesitates before using it. The best French authorities,, however, now very generally attribute the diseases under review to the presence of bacteria in the \essels and tissues of the vine. They con- sider that the infection may be conveyed from diseased tO' healthy vines by the secateurs u.sed when pruning. They recommend that cuts be disinfected with a 3 per cent, copper sulphate solution, if the disease be at all prevalent. It would appear logical, in such a case, for the pruners to carry a small pot of liquid disinfectant into which their secateurs could be dipped. Chlorosis. — This disease, which manifests itsi-lt by the leave.-; of the vine being yellow instead of green, especiallv in spring, and inter- ference with healthy growth generally, is in almost every case due to the action of excess of lime in the soil, on vines grafted on resi.stant American, stocks unsuited for limey .soils. Though of little importance in the majority of Australian soils, owing to their low lime contents, the question has been one of vast importance in Southern Europe, and it must l)e briefly men- tioi:ied here. It cannot be gone into in detail, nor is it necessary to do so. In cases where the growth of the vine is \-ery considerably interfered with the di-sease is often termed Coftis. Brunissure. — This, curious disease, which manifests it.self by the ap- pearance of dark Ijrown spots or blotches on the leaves after midsummer, has given ri.se to much discussion. Messrs. Viala and Sauvageau attributed it to the development of a Myxomycetous (slime-forming) fungus which they named Plasmodiopliora viUs* in the interior of the leaf cells. Other authorities consider that this discolouration of the foliage is simply due to unfavourable weather conditions, whilst, according to Profes.sor Rayaz. it would be the result of over-production of fruit or, in other words, of overwork by the vine, brought about by excessively long pruning or other cau.ses, such as climatic conditions very favourable to heavy crops. He considers that more than one obscure di.sea.se of the vine is due to this cause, and that over-production may in certain cases even lead to the death of the plant. The point is worthy of attention and should serve as a warning against the unduly long pruning of our newly re- constituted vineyards. Overloading of such vines in their youth would certainly be most injudicious, and it would be only rea.sonable to expect that such would militate against a continuance of heavy yields. Though in some years Brunissure has been sufficiently prevalent to cause alarm and to result in damage to the fruit, through interference with normal development of the foliage, such se\ere visitations are unusual in France, where the disease is only an exceptional occurrence. So far, \^o treatment has been found capable of satisfactorily dealing with it. Ercissement. — This is rather a climatic affection than a di.sea.se, and is the term given to the influence of drought and insufficient summer cultivation. The berries remain small and ac(]uire a characteristic blue tint after mid.summer or just about the -time when they ought normally to be changing colour. The fruit, when ripe, is small, contains little juice or sugar and yields a wine of poor cjuality. This would appear to- be a les.s aggravated form of what has been termed " grape shrivel " in California. * Professor Vial.a also attrilmtes the obscure Anaheim disp.ase of California to ,an allied fudfrns, which he has named Phis mod iophora C'aHfornica. This view, howe\ er, is not shared by Califoriiian authorities. Microscopic observations of these slime fuiigri are ditficnlt and delicate. icOcT.. 19TT.] Cool Storage Grapes at the Royal SIioi, . 677 COOL STORAGE GRAPES AT THE ROYAL SHOW. F. lie Cast ell a, Govertuneut Yitkulturisi. Tn thf \iticultural section of the exhibit of the Department of Agri- culturt' at the recent Royal Agricultural Society's Show, some grapes were displayed which liad been stored for five months in the (Government Cool Stores, with the object f)f providing an object lesson as to the great future which awaits the fresh grape shii)ping industry. Msitors to the Show were much struck with the condition of these grapes. It has, of course, been amply demonstrated that grapes of suit- able varieties, properly packed, can be preserxed for several months in this way. The large shipments regularly sent to London from ^^'ester^ Australia pro\e this conclusixelv, but the duration of storage in the pre- sent ca.se was far longer than is necessary for shipment; they had been stored for five months, whereas transport to Lijndon only takes five weeks. The majority of those shown were of the Doradillo variety, this being the only one. ca])able of withstanding prolonged storage, as vet readily obtainable in Victoria. Considerable plantations of proved " shippers." such as Ohanez, Flame Tokay and Purple Cornichon. which have been recently made, are not vet in. bearing. The Doradillo is a less handsome grape than the.se, though it possesses considerable keeping power. The.se grapes were grown by Mr. (rrimmond, of Wahgunyah, and Messrs. Young Bros., of Mooroopna. neither of whose \"ineyards was irri- gated ; it must, however, be remembered that they were only gathered after the exceedingly heavy rains of last autumn, which were more than equivalent to, and much later than, any ordinary watering. That they shouhl have kept so well, after such a season, is therefore all the more remarkable. The test was a \ery severe one. In addition to Doradillo, there were two cases of Ohanez. the well known Almeria grape; one from the Rutherglen Viticultural College, borne by vines imported bv the writer and ])lanted in 1908. and one from Mr. Crimmond, who has grown this variety for .some years under the name of Daria. The Oiiancz opened in really magnificent condition. There was not a bad Ijunch in the two cases ; tlie few faulty berries requiring removal did not amount to 2 per cent., and these were merely discoloured but quite firm and with no sign of mould. The Doradillo were, on the whole, in very fair order, though not e<|u.d to the Ohautv. Some ca.ses were much sounder than others from the same vineyard. in the best cases, about 5 percent, of faulty berries required remf>val, and these were .soft and jui( y and had to be cut out carefully. Tn the worst cases, there might br 20 p<'r cent, of waste. Some of the bunches Were of large si/c jiid nciv coni|)aci, nnd<"ring it difficult tor the granulated cork to i)enetr.it(' sufficiently Iw'lwt'cn the berries. Sucii very large l)unches could, with advantage, be Iiroken up into .several srr.aller ones when packing. The grapes were removed from cool storage and imjiacked on Monday, llu' first d.iy (if tile Show. On tlie Saturday, alter six days' expo.siire. they 678 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Oct.. 1911. had scarcely undergone any change in appearance; though an odd mouldy spot was visible on the Doradillos none was noticeable on the Ohanez. The newlv introduced varieties, the keeping power of which was tested as described in the August issue, were again examined. They had been repacked and again placed in the cool chamber on loth July. Though still in fair order, they were not in fit condition for exhibition, being clammy and unattracti\e, though few of the berries were unsound. Repacking is \'erv severe on stored grapes, owing chiefly to the rapid condensation, in the form of dew, of the moisture contained in the warmer, outside air, on the \ery cold fruit. It is regrettable that the small quantity available did not permit of second experiment with these sorts, some of which are most promising. TREE PLANTING COMPETITION. In order to encourage settlers to undertake the systematic planting of trees on their holdings, the Government has decided to offer a number of prizes, from £^\o to ^60 each, for competition. Entries must be lodged with the Secretary for Lands not later than the ist January, 19 12, and the prizes will be awarded after the expira- tion of three years from the following ist May. Full particulars will be published in a subsequent issue of the ] ournal. PAINTED APPLE MOTH. {Teia anartoides. Walker.) C. French, jun., Acting Government Entomologist. The painted apple moth, which, in its native habitat, feeds on the leaves of the Acacia, especially the feathery-leaved kinds, such as Acacia Balleyana (Cootamundra Wattle) and .4. decurrens (Black Wattle), has been much in evidence during the past few months. In many localities cultivated trees of the species named have been attacked by caterpillars of this moth, with the result that numerous inquiries for the method of treat- ment recommended by the Department have been received. Like many other native i)ests. this insect has also transferred its tastes to fruit trees, such as apples, cherrit-s, and quinces, and also to garden plants, particularly pelargoniums, ro.ses, and chrysanthemums. If prompt action is not taken, the caterpillars eat the young buds ; and, as they are voracious feeders, do considerable damage in a very .short time. Fortu- nately, in the arsenate of lead spray, an excellent remedy for the sup- pression of this pest is available. The accompanying plate shows the insect in all its stages. iG Oct., 191T.] Painted Apple Moth. 679> I . C . IIIUTri,i;ilANK. DKI . I HKNi II, MIlKXir. PAINTED ATPLK MOTH. (Tcia anartoiilts. Walker.) <)8o ]onr)iaI of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Oct.. 191 r. THE NITROGEN CYCLE AS IT AFFECTS AGRICULTURE. E. S. Holmes, Assistant to Chief Inspector of Farm Produce. The continued growth, of plants and animals is dependent on many conditions, but one of the vital factors governing their development is the proA'ision of nitrogen for their use in such a form as best suits the requirements of the several organisms. The important question of nitrogen supply for the use of growing crops on the farm is one that does- not receive sufficient attention by the majority of agriculturists, and it is in this article proposed to endeavour, with the aid of a simple diagram THE NITROGEN CYCLE. In the above diagram, the arrows indicate the changes brought about by certain actions, e.g., animal digestion converts nitrogenous vegetable compounds into nitro- genous animal compounfls. The flotted arrows indicate the actions which may result in the loss of nitrogen, either as free nitrogen or as ammonia. illustrating the nitrogen cycle, to indicate the changes which nitrogenous compounds undergo under certain conditions, the natural process by which plants and animals obtain this absolutely necessary element for their growth, the losses which occur, and the best methods of conserving and adding to the nitrogen supplies of the farm. As is well known, nitrogen constitutes roughly about three-quarters, by volume, of the atmosphere; but, being an inert gas, it does not readily enter into combination with other elements, and conver.sely, and for the same reason, it is easily liberated from compounds containing it. Hence, the ultimate tendency of nitrogen in combination is for it to be set free lo Oct., 1911-] The Nitrogen Cycle as it A-ffects Agriculture. 68r as gaseous nitrogen, in which form it is not readily avaihihle to ordinary- plants, and animal life. Xow we have the two important facts, that nitrogen is an extremely valuable plant food ; and, at the same time, it is easily rendered un- available so far as its usefulness as food to ordinary plants or animals is concerned. Recognizing both these facts, it becomes a question of no little moment to the farmer as to how he may best prevent the loss of an element in the absence of which his crops will not come to maturity ; but, before considering how losses mav best be prevented, we must fir.'-t consider the changes which nitrogen compounds undergo in the nitrogen cvcle. and the chief conditions which lead to the loss of this element. Xatural Changes. On reference to the diagram, we may take, as a starting point, the nitrogenous vegetable compounds, that is, nitrogen contained as com- pounds in i)lants. When these are devoured by animals as food, thev are converted, by digestion and change in the animal br,dy. into nitro- genous animal com])ound . \\ithin the animal organism, continuous building up and breaking down of the tissues of the f)ody is taking place, and in the latter process nitrogen becomes a waste product and is thrown out of the body in the liquirl excrement in the form of urea. This urea is an interesting compound from many points of view, Imt its chief interest to the farmer centres in the fact that it is very easily converted by certain bacteria and ferments into ammonia, and it is here where a great deal of the loss of nitrogen from farmyard manure occurs. The marked smell of ammonia noticed in an ill-ventilated stable is due to the decomposition of urea re.su king in the formation of free ammonia, and this ammonia being volatile is practically lost to the farmer as a manure, as it becomes (hssipated into the air and so is lost. Certain species of nitrifying bacteria, however, are ca])able under certain condi- tions, such as free aeration, absence of light and presence of a slightly alkaline medium, of converting ammonia into nitrous acid which forms nitrites with such substances as lime present in the medium in which the bacteria are working. Hence, if the manure containing the urea is properly looked after and subxefjuently applied to the soil, the nitrogen in the ammonia formed from the decomposition of the urea is fixed in the form of nitrites. These nitrites are not available to plants as food, but are converted Ijy still other bacteria, working also under a certain .set of conditions, intO' nitrates, and it is in this form that nitrogen is assimilated by plants. It must be rememlH^red. however, that these changes from ammonia to nitrites, and nitrites to nitrates, take place to the fullest extent onlv under favourable c<;nf]itions. and if the soil Ix- water-logged, sour, and uncul- tivated, the rever.se actions may be brought about bv denitrifving bacteria, and th<> nitrogen will be lost. The nitrogen cycle ost. As stated above, the burning of vegetable matter leads to the nitrogen contained in it being set free into the air, and the same result takes place from the combustion of animal matter, or when ammonia or its com- pounds are heated to a high temperature. It is to this practice of burning and the non-conservation of manures that the main loss of nitrogen that takes place on a farm, is due. For instance, when stubble is burned off, timber cleared and burnt, or vegetable or animal refuse destroyed by fire, nitrogen is set free into the air ; and, when manures are allowed to lie and rot, or animal or vegetable matter allowed to decompose with free access of air and direct exposure to the weather, the most valuable constituent, i.e., the nitrogen, is lost in the ammonia formed during the decomposition process. It will be easily recognized that the amount of nitrogen dissipated into the air by the above actions is some- thing considerable ; and, if it were not for a provision of Nature, our soils would much sooner lose their fertility Means whereby Nitrogen may be Regained and ("onserved. It has already been mentioned that Nature has endowed a certain class of plants with the ability to use atmospheric nitrogen for their requirements. It is almost entirely for this reason that the farmer, when he green-manures his land, chooses, wherever practicable, a leguminous (pod-bearing) plant for his purpose. He knows that in this way he has a cheap method of providing necessary food for other crops which have not been endowed with this power of supplying their requirements from the air. Another means whereby atmospheric nitrogen is fixed, is the for- mation of small (juantities of nitric acid during the electric discharges of a thunderstorm. The acid so formed is washed down in the rain and readily becomes available to the plant. It is doubtful, however, whether the above two natural provisions account for the returning into combination of as large a quantity of nitrogen as is set free. In any case, the world at present depends for its supply of easily available nitrates mainly on the deposits in South America; and, for its ammonia supply, on the waste products of coal gas manufacture. The nitrate deposits in Chili must in time run out. and the demand at the present day for nitrates in the manufacture of explosives has put almost a pro- hibitive price on them as manure for crops, except perhaps where intense culture is carried on. Many attempts have been made by chemists to fix atmospheric nitrogen for use as manure, and for manufacturing purposes ; but, owing to its inert nature, fixation is very difficult, and scientific research has not so far led to the discovery of any cheap process. It would thus appear probable that the world would sooner or later be faced with a nitrogen famine if it were not for the consideration that scientists may be trusted to eventually devise some cheap means for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Already considerable (juantities of calcium nitrate and cyana- mide are being made artificially Ijy abstraction of the atmospheric nitrogen by means of electricity, and the resultant products have yielded satis- factory returns. Nature always exacts some penaltv for waste, and the agriculturist who wilfully neglects his nitrogen supplies will sooner or later find his land impoverished and himself involved in considerable financial outlay in bringing it back to fertility. His efforts in maintaining fertility should therefore be directed to the growing of leguminous green crops, lo Oct.. 191'] Spring Mdiiagement of Bees. 683 either as fcdder or as green manure, and to the careful conservation of his bulk manures. Farmyard manure, instead of beyig allowed to rot in the weather, should be pitted, and a small amount f)f some material, such as gypsum, added. Special attention needs to be directed to the lifiuid excrements, as they are of much greater nitrogen value than the solids ; and, if possible, they should be collected in a tank or other receptacle. If they are to be used immediately, dilution with an equal (juantity of water is advisable and a little superphosphate may be added, as the urine of grass-eating animals is deficient in phosphates. It is advisable, however, to u.se some of the liquid excrements along with the .solids in the rotting process in the pit. In fact, the whole may be used in this way if sufficient bulk material, such as straw. &c. , be present. In this way, large (quantities of valuable manure may be prepared ; ind, as the value of the addition of farmyard manure to the majoritv of soils is well recognized, its utilization need not be further advocated here. What needs to be emphasized is the fact that valuable plant food is being continually lost from the majority of farms, mainlv through neglect. If the farm is to be carried on as a business proposition, and to be worked in a businesslike way, then the owner will have to do his best to see that these losses are reduced to a minimum. SPRING MANAGEMENT OF BEES. F . R. Bculnie , Bee Exfert. {Continued from page 618). Under normal conditions, a colony of bees increases rapidly in strength during Septeml)er and October. As .«oon as all the combs of the brood chamber are occupied by bees, and before they are actually crowded, the second or upper storv should l)e put on and the bees induced to commence work in it. This is done bv taking a comb containing honey from the brood ciianii)er and putting it into the second story and directly over the I)rood coml)S, while the frame from the upper story is placed into the brood chamber. \\'hen a colony of bees has become crowded before the super is put on. it will quite likely l)e inclined to swarm and no amount of manipulatif)n will cure it of that tendency till the swarming .season is over. When bees are worked for extracted honey there is much less swarm- ing than when coml)-honey is produced. If a maximum jjrofit from the number of colonies kept is aimed at, the raising of comb honey in i 11). .sections should not be attemptei Agriculiurc, Victoria. lo Oct.. 191 1 . instead of commencing comb-building on the small starters in the section so far away from the brood and separated from it by empty space and the woodwork of the section, they frequently store the honey they gather into the cells from which young bees emerge. This restricts brood-rearing and causes the crowding of bees in the brond chamber, which is such a fruitful source of excessive swarming. This difficulty may be overcome by inducing the bees to enter the sec- tion, or bv compelling them. Bees may be induced to enter the section super by putting on one or rr.ore sections already partly built and containing some honey amongst the empty ones in the super. These partlv filled .sections are known as bait sections. When none are available the bees may be compelled by first putting a super of full sized frames of empty combs, or failing this, ct full slicets ( f fr.undatiiiii <,n the brood-chamber. If thrrc is M-alnl lnniry S\\'ARM RE! .\F!ER LOSING THE QUEEN. along the top bar of the brood combs, the cappings of the honey may f)e lightly scratched with a fork, which will induce the bees to remove it and the queen to deposit eggs therein, thus bringing the brood right up to the top bar. When this stage has been reached, the bees may be brushed off the combs of the upper story and a section super put in its place. As there is now brood in the combs of the hi^•e right up to the top bar of the frames, and as the bees want to place honey above this brood, they will as a rule at once commence work in the .section, pro\ided that honey is coming in. The upper story remo\-ed from the hi\e may be u.sed on another hive for a similar purpose, or as an extracting super. If it contained brood at the time of rem.oval, the largest sheets of it may be put into the brood- chamber. Remove from the latter .any combs containing little or no brood, the oliject being to crowd into the lower story of the section hive as lo Oct.. 191 1.] Farm Blachsmithiiig. 685 much brood as possible so as to leave no room for honey. Keep the colony strong, and compel the bees to build comb and store honey in the sections. Any brood left o\"er may be gi\en to weaker colonies, but only as much as can be taken care of by each. As October is the principal swarming month, a watchful eve should be kept on the hives from to a.m. to 3 p.m. on fine days, unless the condition ol the colonies in regard to the swarming tendency is known, from a record of the ages of the queens and systematic periodical examina- tions to 'see Avhether swarming preparations are in progress. ^^'hile it prevents the absconding of prime or first swarms, the clipping of f|ucens often causes trouble- through the queens getting lost. The swarm returns to thf hi\-f. onlv to issue again, a week or so later, with a virgin ("lueen and a greater number of bees. As a \irgin queen is light and has greater powers of flight, such swarms will usually settle high up in in- accessible places or abscond without clustering. It is therefore not ad- visable to clip queens, unle.ss the hives are near a dwelling from which a view of them can l)e obtaiiied. or the number of colonies is sufficient to keep a special watch on tliem during swarming hours. The illustration shows a hive to which the swarm has returned after losing the queen. FARM BLAOKSMITHING. {CoiifiiiiuJ from page 615.) George Baxier. /iisfnictur in Blacksmit/iiiig. Working Men's College, Melbourne. IV.__1.ORG I XG. If success is to attend the efforts of those about to start practising at the forge, they must be prepared at the beginning to go slowly. The manu- facture of something on which one's fancy is .set, may involve, say, weld- ing .separate parts together or tempering a tool. As either operation re- quires a fair amount of practice and no small amount of skill, it had l)etter be left alone until some of the elementary principles, such as managing the fire, noting the effect that heat has upon iron, bending to .simple shapes. j)r)intiiig a bar. and twisting and ])un(hing. are thoroughly mastered. The objects chosen for this article are \ery necessary ones; and. at the i,ame time, are simi)le in construction. \\'elding jjieces together is pur- l)(.sely avoided ; but, at the same time, a description of how to obtain and judge the welding heat is gi\en, together with the practice of pointing a bar which necessitates a welding heat. In the article, in the Septen.l)er number, .several tools were purposely not dealt with, becau.se it was recognized that they migiit be maA;'.Uk..«i,A»> --'rn'i I" ■'^■' •jj^,i.'.««.««Mia'-m'.wan»■V.ww^.;■..^»VIWtaari.■,hlU.Jtv.^■«;:^V^^i^^BTIh^^'kh';»illg 27. POKER. a ' ' .. simple calculation regarding the length requisite for forming the circle. This will be equal to 3i times the sum of the diameter of the bar and the internal diameter of the circle. Thus, ^ the diameter of the bar l)eing- i in., and the internal diameter of the circle 2 in., the length will equaf (2 + i) x 3! = 7s in. (nearly). In prac- tice, the nearest sixteenth of an inch is con.=;idere(l sufficiently accurate. Mark off this length from the end of the bar; and, with the centre punch, mark the position as .shown at a (Fig. 27). Place in the fire arid heat to a bright red, taking care that the part to be bent is uniformly heated. It should then be removed from the fire and bent as shown at b. To do this place the centre punch mark level with the furthermost edge of the anvil, and strike with the ball of the hand-hammer about ij in. from the centre punch mark ; a few blows only will he necessary to bend it to the required shape. The second operation is to place the bent por- tion on the beak-horn of the anvil, and start by hitting on the point of the bar and continuing striking wherever necessary until- the correct shape be formed, as shown by dotted lines c. This exerci.se is a splendid one for the beginner. It teaches him the value of making calculations, and is also excellent training for the eye and hand. It is remarkal)le how true a person with a practised eye can form a circle on the anvil with no other tool than a hammer. To com- plete the poker, a point should be made on the other end. This operation appears to the onlooker to be a very simple one. but it requires consider- able practice to do it properly, on accouiit of the bar having to be raised 10 Oct.. 191 '•] Farm Black S7mt king. 687 to a welding heat, and quicklv hammered. To know when the iron has been raised to the temperature fitting it to be welded is in itself an ac- complishment ; until one learns how to manipulate the fire and correctly judge the proper heat, it would be almost useless to attempt to do any- thing, because welding plays such an important part in so many things made by blacksmiths. Whene\-er the sectional area of a l)ar of iron requires to be reduced to anv great extent, as in pointing, a welding heat is essential, because if iron be hammered at a lower temperature, with sufficient force to reduce it to a sharp point, separation of the fibres will take place long before the object is attained ; in other words, the bar will split. Once splitting com- mences at the end of the l)ar, persistent ham.mering will cause the split fragments to break off. so that failure and disappointment will be the result. The imi)ortance. therefore, of learning how to obtain the wekUng heat cannot be emphasized too much, for success depends upon it. This know- ledge can only be acquired by close observation and assiduous practice. If. in the attempt tO' forge the point on the end of the poker, the end should split, then the cause can in most cases be attributed to the want of a sufficiently high temperature. Certainly, if after obtaining the welding heat, delay occurs in reaching the anvil, so that the terrxperature has fallen too low before the hammering begins, the result will be the same as if the welding ])oint had never been reached. If the blows are not struck with sufficient force and rapiditv to compress the fibres of the bar, the same thing will happen. Three important points then to be remembered are : — The correct degree of temperature must be attained. On removal from the fire to the anvil, hammering must commence immediately. I'he blows must be struck ({uickly and hard enough to be felt throughout the heated mass. .Assuming that these points are recognized, and the end of the ]X)ker is JK^ati'd. ii should then be (|uickly removed to the anvil and held in such a ])()Niti(!n with one hand, that the end is level with the outer edge of it and the bar is inclined to the face of the anvil, so that the angle formed is slightly greater than the angle of the point required. It i.- struck v.wv blow directly on the end; then the bar is turned a quarter of a revolution to recci\r the ne.\t l)low, and so on, alternately turning and striking. 'l"he n-suli is that the point so formed will ha\e a .square sec- tion. \\'hen a round point is desired, first make it square. Then hammc-' the corners off, striking lighter blows as the operation is nearing comple- tion. I'ORGiNG A Wedge. In ni.ikiiig a wetlge for a hammer or axe, fulkiw much \.\\v same pro- reduri' as that described in connexion with the forging of a poker. The \v«'dgf is, however, l)etter made from a flat bar. In this ca.se more iilows must Ik- struck on the flat sidr than on the filgc. but the first IjIows should Ik- struck on the t-dge in such a manner as to narrow the end to .ibout half its former breadth. It is ihm iiuiird ,ind heavier blows struck on the flat until a sharp edge has been t)l>l.iine(l. In making a wedge, a good plan is to barb the edges with a .sharp chisel. This prevents the wedge from loosenin-f and tallinu out ;is soon as it otherwise would. Journal of Agriculture, \ictoria. [lo Oct.. 191 Forging a Rake. By this time the want of a rake for drawing the fire together will ha\e been felt. As the fire burns away it becomes hollow immediately in front and above the tue-iron. This is due to the heat being greater at that part. If the fire is to be maintained in a .state of efficiency, the .surround- ing fuel must be drawn to the centre so as to make a heap in place of a hole. The tue-iron is so arranged that the metal, when lying level with the top of the forge and with the red hot coals heaped above it, is in the best position to receive the greatest heat. When the fire is allowed to burn hollow, the cold blast is directed on to the iron and consequently it will not heat properlv. The rake illustrated (Xo. 28) is easily made. AVelding has been pur- posely avoided — a better rake would result if the business end were made from a flat bar and welded on to the handle. One made to the follow- ing description will, however, serve the purpose. To make the handle, begin by bending the end as at a ; then, at a distance of 5 in. from the end, bend to shape h, and lastlv as shown at c. To form the rake end. heat about 5 or 6 in. to a low welding heat and flatten cut to about ^ in. thick. The bending .to shape is simple ; no difficulty should be encountered if the illustration be closely studied. Forging Staples. Two kinds of staples are used ; one. pointed at each end. is for dri\- ing into timber, whilst the other is for screwing on to a door or a box lid. Nos. 29 and 30 show tlie difference in design. The driving staple (No. 29) is made by pointing each end of the piece of iron and afterwards bending to a semi-circular shape at the centre. The most difficult part is to get both sides the same length. driving staple. To make the hox staple (No. 30) the bow is bent as in the previous ca.se, but the ends are not pointed by hammering ; they are filed slightly tapered as shown. If a ;^-in. staple be required the ends should be tapered to -^ in. at the ends. A piece of sheet iron, about | in. thick by ic Oct., 1911-] Closer Siillciiieiit Studies. 689 ] \ in. wide by 2 in long, should be cut out ; or, if there be no sheet iron available, a piece may be flattened out from a bar of small flat iron or mild steel. The two holes for receiving the ends of the staple should be drilled, or may be punched with the hand punch. The size of hole requires to be slightly less than \ in. diameter. The bow is then gripped in the vice, allowing about | in. to stand above the top of the jaws. The plate is BOX STAPLE. then driven tightly on to the ends until about | in. stands through the plate. The ends are now rivetted down which prevents them from being drawn out. All that remains to be done is to drill four small holes about ^ in. diameter at each corner of the plate and counter-sink them with a larger drill to suit the head of the screws. {To be continued.) CLOSER SETTLEMENT STUDIES. /. S. McFadzcan, Sej/ior Dairy Supervisor. ONIONS IN SOUTH GIPPSLAND. The splendid quality of much of the land in South Gippsland would justify far closer settlement of that district than at present exists. Thousands of acres there are still covered with scrub, while over large areas the only advancement that has been made towards improving its natural producing capacity is that of ringing the heavy timlxr and burning the undergrowth. Following on this work good grazing for st(xk is obtained; and more especially where the natural pasture grasses have been replaced by sowing some of the stronger growing English grasses, such as perennial rye, cocksfoot, and the clovers. On the lower slopes of the hills and on the more level country there is much first class farming land that might be put to more profitable use than grazing ; for under the jjlough it would be as productive, and consequently become as valuable, as that in any other part of the State. All along the railway lines evidence of the fertility of this o untry may frequently be seen in the heavy crops that are harvested from small areas. In connexion with the various farm comj^^titions held by agricul- tural societies many fine crops of maize, mangolds, turnips. &c.. have previously been reported in this JounioL .\ jihotograph rejiroduced here conveys some idea of a crop of onions that was grown this year close to the Neerim South railway station. The soil there is the deep brown or reddish coloured volcanic loam so frequently met with thinughout fiippsland. Similar lanil ailjoining it is \•^•y^1. 2 c 690 Journal of Agriculture, YicUnia. [10 Oct., 191 i. TO Oct., 1911.] Closer Scttlcmoit Studies. 691 in the rough-cleared state previously referred to; and is being used for grazing dairy stock. This paddock of 4^ acres was also in grass until 2 years ago; since then, Messrs. Foster Bros., working on shares with the owner, Mr. J. Greenaway. ha\-e taken two crops of onions oft' it without using any fertilizer. The crop just harvested was a remarkably fine one; the bulbs being of good uniform size and evenly matured. From the 4J acres, 1,100 bags of first class onions were forwarded to Melbourne, and a few more bags were sold locally. This amounts to approximately a 20-ton per acre crop. In several jjlaces on the Southern line, large piles of bagged onions are to be seen on similar small areas awaiting transport ; showing that this crop is becoming popular throughout the district. Much difterence of opinion exists in regard to the marketing of this crop in the early part of some .seasons when prices are low. At such times, the feeling generally is that it pays to hold the onions till later in the \ear when prices improve. Discussing this matter once with a grower of long experience, he mentioned that he always marketed his crop as soon as it was ready, irrespective of price. In the market one day he was taken to task over this by se\"eral of his neighbours, who considered he fre- quently lost money by selling in a cheap market. He replied by challeng- ing them to show that they made more per acre out of their onions than he did ; and, when the account-sales were compared, he was on the right side. He supported his system of marketing from many points. Being only a small farmer, ready money was an item for consideration with him. Also, no matter how good a crop might be when first bagged, there would always be some to throw out if they were held over for any time ; and the loss from such rejects was at times considerable. The cost of picking over and re-bagging stored onions was also an important item. Again, if the season were fa\ourable and the onions kept well, the expected rise in price more than probably would not follow. Altogether, he showed that a quick sale at current prices for all he grew gave a better cash return per acre than his neighbours obtained bv taking chances on market fluctuations. The asi)ect is the same in dealing with almost any crop on a small scale. If it can be sold straight off when harvested the cost of handling is at the minimum, and no chances are taken on loss through deterioration. Thf man with capital behind him may possibly afford to gamble a little with his prdduce; but. almost inxariably, the small grower will come out best on the immediate sale system. PUMPKINS AND DAIRYING. About a mile finni the Ttjora station, the railway line pas.ses through the farm of Mr. k. H. Downing. 'J'his iiroi>erty is workeil as a dairy farm on the share system by Mr. ('has. I-ousada and family; milking an average of 65 cows the vear through. The cream is sent to the Foster butter factory ; and tlie skim milk is u>ed in raising and fattening the progenv of 9 brood sows. H.iv and mai/e are grown for the dairy herd ; and the silo is made use ot in conserving surplus fodder for winter use. Potat(K-s, peas, and ]unn])kins are grown to provide the bulk of the s<')lid food for the pig-^. The pumjikin crop this vear on thi-> t.inn was a particularly fme one. i'ldni two ;i\ei;m<' >eitions of the 1.'. a( ic paddoc'k, a total of 444 s(|. yards was nieasuicil olT. and the piun[)kins thereon were counted. On this '1 . 2 692 J our)ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Oct.. 191 i. area, there were 169 pumpkins averaging about 50 lbs. each. There were very few small ones, and one of the largest weighed 130 lbs. This rough estimate of the crop gave over 40 tons of pumpkins per acre. These are put through a pulper ; and the 50 pigs on hand consume about 600 lbs. weight of them daily. The variety sown looked like a cross between the Ironbark and Mammoth varieties ; and heavy crops have been grown from the same sample of seed on other farms. As a useful fodder for both pigs and cows pumpkins might be much more generally grown. They occupy the ground for only a few months in the year ; they do not require much attention ; they are easy to harvest ; they keep well ; and they can usually be depended on to give a heavy yield per acre. TO START FARMING. I. — HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A. J. Smith, Chief Field Officer. There is a considerable choice for the new settler in Victoria as to different forms of farming in various parts of the State, owing to the great variety of climate and soils, both in irrigable and non-irrigable areas. As to which class of farming will suit him best and the amount of land he can work to the greatest advantage, a good deal will depend in the amount of capital at the disposal of the settler ; and the labour he com- mands in his family. It has been proved in many cases, and in many places, that men with small capital can make remarkable progress in this State, provided they are thrifty and energetic and are possessed of average ability. For the guidance of all classes of men, both new comers and others who wish to start on the land, it is proposed in this article to deal with the general conditions under which farming, in its various phases, is conducted in different parts of Victoria. To the man with little or no capital, and no family, the best advice that can be suggested is that he obtain employment under a good farmer in a good district until he has saved sufficient to start with a block of land on his own account ; in this way, a prospective settler from oversea will get valuable experience as to local conditions, as well as save money if he is thrifty. A useful farm hand can get full employment at from 15s. to 25s. per week and his board and bed. In five years he may save sufficient to start on the share system, or on a small piece of land of his own, with a good general idea as to the manner in which land should be Avorked to the best advantage. When a man has a family of boys and girls of from 14 years of age upwards he can, with very little capital, -if he has had previous experience on the land, get a farm on the share system — either dairying or wheat- growing — and make from ;^ioo to ;^3oo per annum, according to the scale on which he conducts operations and the ability he displays as a manager. There are other forms of farming on the share system, such as the growing of fruit, tobacco, and broom corn, but all these require greater experience than the two first mentioned, being more in the nature of intense culture. Where the new comer feels specially inclined to take up any of the three latter pursuits he will find it wisest to spend a year or ^D Oct., ipii.] T 0 Start F arming. 693 Tnore with some successful man, in acquiring the necessary knowledge for success in these industries. A useful man can always obtain good wages during the time so spent. In the North- Eastern and Gippsland districts the native timber is highly suitable for building purposes. The young trees, locally known as saplings, grow straight and tall, the bark is easily removed, and they are easily worked and are durable under cover. There is also much good timber for fencing use, the best to stand in the ground being red gum, box, and stringy bark. Fencing posts can be bought from 30s. to 70s. per hundred, according to the district in which they are required. The varieties mentioned also make fine fuel, the timber generally being good in this respect throughout the Statt. The following list of well established farming industries gives a fair variety from which to make a selection : — 1. Dairying combined with pigs, fowls, hay, tobacco, broom corn, sugar beet, fruit, or potatoes. 2. Wheat-growing, with or without sheep. 3. Fruit, including citrus fruits, apples and stone fruits. 4. Market gardening if near a large centre, and small fruits. 5. Lucerne-growing and lamb-raising. 6. Tobacco, broom corn, maize, flax. l>eans. onions, or other intense crops. 7. Viticulture. Dairying. — There are many districts in Victoria suited for this occu- pation. The Western District is famous for dairying, but the price of land is high for the small capitalist; dairying on shares, however, is prac- tised on an extended scale ; or land can be rented, and there are many instances on record of tenants starting either on shares or rented land, who have become owners of valuable farms as a result of their thrift and •energy. Eastern Gippsland and Southern Gippsland are also good dairying por- tions of the State. On practically all the northern irrigated areas where lucerne can be successfully grown, dairying can be profitably carried on. •especially in conjunction with the establishment of a fruit farm. In the North-Eastern District, the upper valleys of the Murray, Mitta. Kiewa. Ovens, King, Broken, and Goulburn rivers, and their tributaries, are all well suited for dairving ; and though not in the irrigation areas command sufficient water for irrigation from private pumping plants. Hav-grovving. — -Hay can be grown practically all over the State, the •cooler districts producing the best quality. For Wheat-growinG; the Northern, North- ^\'(estern, and North- Eastern (West of tlie Sydney line), Wimmera. and Mallee are all suitable. Land in the Wimmera of late years has increased in value enormously owing to its suitability for both wheat and sheep production. Share farm- ing is, however, carried on by some farmers which would enable the small •capitalist to obtain a footing. In the Goulburn Valley. Northern, and North-Eastern districts, the same applies. The Mallee possibly is at present the best opening, as areas are still available for .selection on easy terms. Particulars can be obtained on application to the Lands Department. The rainfall is .somewhat uncer- tain, and though the past six years have been favourable the possibility of a drought in that area must be considered. Fairly large holdings are jnecessary, say not less than 600 acres, in order to allow the system of 694 Journal of Agrjcidturc , Victoria. [ro Oct.. 191 i. fallowing to be adopted. Fallowing is necessary ; and, on a block of 600 acres or o\er. the object should be to ha\-e one-third under fallow, one- third under cultivation, and one-third under grass for sheep each year. The cost of clearing is from 15s. to 30s. per acre, the scrub being cut, rolled, and burnt. When farmed on a fairly large scale, wheat can be grown in Victoria for from is. 4d. to is. 6d. per bushel and returns range up to 4s. 6d. per bushel. Of late years, the price has been good, and a great deal of money has been made by wheat-growers. Prospects in regard to prices are still promising; the world's supply is not increasing in proportion to the demand. The average yield for the past season was over 14 bushels per acre. The fear of over-production need not deter intending wheat- growers, as the total production of Australasia is only about 2% per cent, of the world's wheat, or 12^ per cent, of the production of the British Empire. The cost of cleared wheat land varies very considerably. In remote districts, it can be bought from ^3 los. upwards, and reaches ^12 in those districts well proved as regards soil conditions, and more favoured as regards rainfall. Fruit, according to the suitability of climate and .soil, can be grown over the greater part of the State. The colder portions are most sought after for apples, pears, plums, and currants ; and, as comparatively poor land will produce these varieties, the price is low per acre. Established orchards may be bought at from /^2o to ^60 per acre. For citrus fruits, the sandy soils in irrigated areas are the most suitable, and very fine profits are obtained. These fruits, also apricots and peaches, do best in the warmer districts. It should always be remembered that it takes from four to se\^en years to establish an orchard or citrus grove, and until that period has pas.sed large returns cannot lie expected. The same remark applies tO' vine culture. The cost of planting an orchard and the care of it. until returns come in, is approximately ^£2^^ to £,2>o per acre. In the majority of cases, it is best to build up the plantation by degrees. Market Gardening, in conjunction with other svstems of farming such as dairying, potato-growing, &:c.. will [)av well where conducted near a city, or some of the larger countrv towns. Land for this purpose can be .secured at prices ranging from ^10 to j£,2c^, according to quality and locality. Within 12 miles of Melbourne, there is plenty of available land of a sandy nature that is suitable for such purposes. Tobacco-growing. — ^^"ith regard to tobacco, the beginner had better gain experience on the share system with an experienced grower. There are plenty of opportunities of obtaining land under this system ; or, if desired, land can be rented. An area of 5 acres is sufficient for one maa to attempt tO' cultivate, the labour involved being constant for seven months of the year. Returns from ^20 to jQ€)0 per acre are possible. The North- Eastern portion of the State at present produces the greater- portion of the tobacco grown, principally' on the 0\"ens and King Rivers. But many other parts of Victoria will produce tobacco successfully, such as Eastern Gippsland. and some of the irrigation settlements. This is a crop that lends it.self to mixed farming well. Often it is a successful adjunct to dairying, the acreage required being small and consequentlv not inter- fering with the grazing capacity of the farm unduly. Broom Corn is also profitably grown in the King and Ovens River Valleys in conjunction with dairying, and gi\-es a return for broom fibre 30 Oct., 1911.] To Start Farming. 695 -of from ^5 to ^8 per acre. The seed is useful as feed for horses, cows, pigs and fowls ; and the cane can l)e made into silage, after the fibre and seed are removed. The crop will thrive on any rich river flats where the rainfall is good. Maize for grain will grow well on the rich flats of Gippsland and the Tiver flats in the Xorth-East, wherever the rainfall is good or irrigation is possible. Crops of 70 to 100 bushels are taken oft' the land at Buchan and Orbost, and the rental value of the land is from ^3 to j[^i\ los. per -acre. The cost of production is about 2s. per bushel, including rent for land. Prices range up to 5s. per bushel, the market value generally lea\ing a nice return over and above the cost of production. ToTATOES, Beans, and Onions are grown largely in Gippsland and all these crops combine well in mixed farming. Potatoes are grown suc- cessfully in many other parts of the State, notably in the Warrnambool, Bungaree, and Xorth-I''.astern districts. The average vield is about 3 tons ]Jer acre, and prices vary from £^1 to ;^6. Many farmers devote themsehes wholly to this crop and make money. The cost of potato land ranges from ^5 to ^60 per acre. Onions are grown in the Western District and Southern Gippsland, and land can be rented for their growth -at from £^i to ^3 per acre. Both potatoes and onions are risky crops as ■compared with others, in that they are subject to pests and great fluctua- tion in market prices and, as they can not be kept from one vear to another, nuist lie sold at whatever price they will command. Lucerne-growing, either for dairying or lamb-raising, is lietter suited to the irrigation areas, on those soils which contain a fair percentage ■of lime. The Goulbuni \'alley [)r<>mises to produce large crops of lucerne, as al.so do the settlements near Rochester, Swan Hill, and \\'yuna ; in fact, all the free soils in which lime is present and where water is availal)le are suitable for lucerne. The Lamb-raising industry is not yet developed on small farms in Victoria to any extent, and the profits are not as large as those from d opening for pure seed farms, where seed that can be relied upon for being true tr) type, and clean, could lie produced, and many farmers wouhl be pleased to jiay 25 per cent, to 30 ])er cent, higher rates than those obtained under ordinary market conditions for guaranteed seed. 'J'he Department of .\gri( ultun- has a staff of specially qualified men whose dutv it is to givt- information to any one ai)i)lving for instruction in i ruit-growing. wheat-growing, dairving. toba< < o and i>ol.ito gniwing. viti- culture, stock, mainires, ^^c. 700 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1911. VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Continued from fage 6jj.) H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. No. of Pen. 12 40 31 33 18 20 37 13 46 32 63 66 44 21 25 55 51 39 10 67 9 36 1 24 38 22 19 4 3 58 42 5 8 27 28 50 54 65 41 49 47 2 45 60 59 43 11 53 23 30 62 52 57 16 6 26 34 7 61 35 14 17 56 64 15 48 White Leghorn Black Orpington Black Minorca SQver Wyandotte Black Orpington White Wyandotte Black Orpington White Legliorn Black Orpington White Leghorn Black Orpington White Leghorn Golden Wyandotte White Leghorn Faverolles White Orpington White Leghorn Brown Leghorn White Leghorn Golden Wyandotte Black Orpmgton White Leghorn Silver Wyandotte White Leghorn Silver Wyandotte White Leghorn Black Orpington White Leghorn Minorca Name of Owner. W. G. Swift A. J. Cosh (S.A.) R. W. Pope Range Poultry Farm (Qld.) S. Brundrett H. McKenzie E. Waldon D. FLshcr . . G. W. Chalmers M. A. Jones A. J. Treacy J. E. Bradley T. S. Goodisson R. L. Appleford B. Mitchell W. G. McLister J. W. McArthur A. W. Hall H. A. Langdon C. L. Sharman J. O'Loughlin F. A. Sillitoe A. Brebner F. Hannaford Mrs. C. R. Smoe P. S. Wood A. Jaqiies H. BeU K. Gleghom K. Courtnay P. Mitchell L. C. Payne T. W. Goto Hill and Luckman J. Campbell C. H. Busst F. N. Hodges H. Hammill (N.S.W Morgan and Watson W. J. Thornton C. W. Spencer (N.S.W B. P. Nash T. Kempster J. J. Harrington W. H. Dunlop W. B. Crellin F. Soncum A. Stringer G. E. Brown Rodgers Bros. P. Hodson . . W. J. McKeddie G. E. Edwards Miss A. Cottam Mrs. H. J. Richards F. Seymour E. Dettman H. Stevenson J. Reade J. H. Brain W. J. Macauley W. J. Eckershall Mrs. C. Thompson J. D. Read H. R. McChesney G. James . . Eggs Laid during Competition. April to July. August. Total to Date (5 months). 479 136 615 470 142 612 450 138 588 403 128 531 386 120 506 363 142 505 369 136 505 348 137 485 313 139 452 318 126 . ,444 310 129 439 309 120 429 300 128 428 317 108 425 301 120 421 283 ' 129 412 288 118 406 274 132 406 263 139 402 266 131 397 264 126 390 284 106 390 273 107 380 258 121 379 238 137 375 248 123 371 248 123 371 233 137 370 231 130 361 225 131 356 225 130 355 239 110 349 229 114 343 225 116 341 198 141 339 214 124 338 223 115 338 222 HI 333 221 112 333 197 127 324 207 111 318 257 61 318 187 128 315 181 133 314 177 131 308 179 125 . 304 164 122 286 152 132 284 165 117 282 156 126 282 154 124 278 135 139 274 137 134 271 147 120 267 135 132 267 159 93 252 145 106 251 130 103 233 109 123 232 91 117 208 82 120 202 86 109 195 78 112 190 44 127 171 44 81 125 15 68 83 15,021 8,033 23,054 Position in. Competi- tion . 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 19 20 28- 29 30^ 31 32- 33 34 35- 36 40- 41 43- 44 45 46 iT 48 49 51 52^ 53 56 5r 58 59 60 61 62- 63 64 65 66 lo Oct., 1911.] CJieddar Cheese-making. 701 CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING. G. C . Sawers, Cheese Expert. Cheddar cheese is the most popular cheese with English-speaking people. Its name is derived from a small village of that name in Somerset, England. In that district, this cheese was made over 300 years ago. The system gradually spread to the principal British colonies. In the United States, in 1830, chee.se was sold in the local markets at 2|d. to 4d. per lb. From 1840 to 1850, the Americans began to ship it to Britain. In 1851, the factory system was inaugurated; and by 1866, 500 factories had been built. For the season ended September, 1859, 7,542 tons were exported. From that date the exports increased rapidly, and for a long time the Americans had the British market almost to themselves. Canada then entered into the business. The original system was somewhat complicated, and it required a large amount of experience to produce a cheese of good quality. Even then troubles that puzzled the most experienced makers would affect the quality. The Canadian experts developed a modification of the system under which, by following fixed rules, more certain results are obtained and a more uniformly good article is produced. This is now known as the Canadian Cheddar system; and by it makers of limited knowledge are enabled to achieve greater success than was formerly possible by the most experienced under the American or " Stirred curd " system. The Canadian cheese trade soon grew to one of great proportions, and the quality was such that it commanded the highest prices. Owing to the rapid increase of popula- tion in the United States, the exports from that country have decreased till they have now little influence on the trade. The system was introduced into New Zealand, but for many years the export trade was at a standstill, while the butter exports forged ahead. In 1907, however, owing to various reasons, the demand for cheese increased and uniformly good prices were obtainable. As the following figures show, the New Zealand cheese export trade has steadily developed : — New Zealand Cheese Exports. c 1905 ... ... ... ... 180,874. 1906 ... . ;.. ... ... 265,084. 1907 ... ... ... 449,676. 1908 ... ... ... 792,318. 1909 ... ... ... ... 865,456. 1910 ... ... ... 1,185,704. 1911 ... ... ... 1,222.364. The Canadian system was introduced into Victoria by the late Mr. David Wilson about 1892, when at .several factories the necessary plant was in- stalled. A small quantity was exported and satisfactory prices obtained, u]) to 56s. per cwt. ; but it was not persevered with. Last sea.son, again, a small quantity was exported with very encouraging results, over 6is. per cwt. being realized for some makes. The quality was very favourably commented upon by the experts in the trade in England, which shows that the country and climatt- are thoroughly suitable for the industry. A large expansion in this branch of the dairying industry should therefore occur in the near future. 702 Journal oj Agriculture, Yicioria. [lo Oct., 191 i. Cheese as an Article of Diet. Cheese is highly nourishing, and is one of the staple articles of ft . 35-53 Casein ... ... ... ... 28. 18 Salt, Ash, iS:c. ... ... ... 5.9; Or roughlv, about one-third fat, water, and casein resjiectively. Although due, to some extent, to the butter fat which it contains, the peculiar mellow appearance and texture of choice cheddar are more largely the result of the breaking down w^hich the ca.sein or curd undergoes during ripening. The curd is hard and insoluble in water when first made, but by degrees it becomes softer and more soluble; or, to speak more correctly, gives rise, by the processes of fermentation, to products which are soluble in water. If clieese is consumed before this ripening process has developed, it is neither so wholesome nor nutritious as when properly ripened. The proper ripening of the chee.se depends principally on the manufacturing process and the subsequent treatment of it while ripening. Milk. Milk is a very complex substance and is a perfect food. It will be sufficient to note its principal contents, which are as follow : — Per cent. Water ... ... ... ... 87 Fat ... ... ... ... 4 Casein ... ... ... ... 3 Sugar ... ... ... ... 4.75 Ash 75 Albumin ... ... ... ... .^ The contents chiefly of value in the manufacture of cheese are the fat, casein, water and a little sugar and mineral matter. Nearly all the sugar and albumin, about half the ash, and a little fat, escape in the whey during the process of manufacture. Cheese is made by the action of rennet, which is an extract of the stomach of the young calf. It coagulates the casein and causes it to envelop the contents which are subsequently converted into cheese. Changes due to Bacteria. It is all important that some of the changes which the solids of milk are subject to should be understood. They are principally due to bacteria. lo Oct., 191 1.] Clieddar Cheese-making. 703 While in the healthy udder, the milk is practically free from bacteria, but as soon as ir leaves the udder it becomes innoculated bv various kinds that are always present in the atmosphere. Immediately these bacteria f,rain access to the milk they begin to develop very rapidly. Milk at the natural temperature of the body is a most suitable medium for their development. One form feeds on the sugar, the result of which is that lactic acid is produced. This is the natural souring or ripening of the milk ; and. in cheese-making, it is the adjastment of the various processes of manufacture to the development of the lactic acid that influences the matured product for good or ill. When proper precautions are taken with regard to cleanliness, the majority of germs that get into milk are of the class already mentioned, viz.. those that produce lactic acid. When due attention is not paid to cleanliness, various filth germs get into the milk. These, feeding on the ca.sein and other all)uminoids, produce gases which form the pin holes and round holes in the curd and develop taints and bad flavours. A great varietv of bacteria may get into the milk, if projjer care is not taken to prevent them. If they are subjected to high temperatures, say 130 deg. Fah., and upwards, for a lengthy period, they will he destroyed. Low temperatures will check their de\elo[jment, so that by cooling the milk thev are kept in check, and the development of acidity can be controlled by the cheese- maker. The predominance of any ]iarticular class of germ in the milk has the influence of overpowering or keeping in check those that are in a minority ; hence the use of pure cultures of the lactic acid bacillus which are known as starters. These starters are prepared from a pure culture supplied in a li(jui(l inrm by the Dej)artment of Agriculture or from commercial cultures ohtainahle from the agents in the form of powder. Xeces.sitv for Cle.-^nliness. As in all branches of dairying, cleanliness is of the greatest importance in cheese-making. SufHcient care is not devoted \o the raw material by tho.se w^ho milk the cows and handle the milk before it is delivered into the factory, and it is at this stage that it is more liable to contamination from careless and uncl'Muiv habits. The cows must he provided with a clean water suppl\-. If the suj)plv is obtain. ihle troin ihe ue( ulent fodder, which has .1 laxative etTe( 1. I.xtra care is X\\v\\ necessarv to |)r<-veiu contamination. 'I'he milkers' luuids should he washed iiefore milking e.ich cow. For this purpose, water may he provided in a ti\e or ten gallon oil drum, with a tap. Dissolve some ('ondv's cr\srals in the water. This will help to prcNcnt the s|)re.id nf sore teats or other troi'Mes due to germ lite. 704 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1911. Only well tinned utensils should be used. As the tin wears off, giving- rise to a rusty appearance, they must be re-tinned or replaced by new ones. The utensils should be cleansed by first rinsing with cold or lukewarm water, and then thoroughly scrubbed with hot water in which soda has been dissolved in the proportion of about | lb. to 10 gals, of water. After- wards scald with boiling water and soda, steam thoroughly, .and place upside down to drain and dry. A cloth should never be used in cleaning the utensils — ahvays use a brush. Care of Milk. The milk should be strained through a " Ulax '' strainer, which consists of wire gauze, and wadding disc which is burnt after use. If butter- cloth and wire strainer are used, take a fresh piece of butter-cloth for each milking and double it. RECEIVING MILK AT THE BOISDALE FACTORY. The night's milk should be removed from the shed to a clean milk room and run over a cooler to remove the animal heat ; the reduced temperature also checks the development of bacteria and prevents the milk becoming ove^-ripe. Before the milk is emptied into the receiving or making vat, it is the duty of every maker to examine the milk as to its condition. Thorough work at the receiving platform places one on the high road to success in the labour that follows. While the milk is being received into the vat, it should be stirred gently at intervals to keep the cream from rising to the surface. Use the thermometer to ascertain the temperature of the milk. If over 70 deg. do not apply the steam until you are sure that there is enough milk near at hand to fill the vat. If there is a suspicion that the milk is over-ripe, test it for acidity, as described elsewhere, or make a rennet test ; if it proves to be over-ripe, the whole process must be hurried on to keep ahead of the acid. If, on the other hand, the milk is found 30 Oct., 1911-] Cheddar Cheese-making. 705 to be fresh and sweet, a good starter must be used. Should there be aurface of the inside cheese presents a solid, irompact appearance, free from breaks or holes. Body. — This term refers to the consistency, firmness, or substance of the cheese. Pt-rfect body is indicated bv its being solid, firm and smooth in consistency. Colouring. — Thf colour varies according to demand on the London market. \\'hen coUuiring matter is used, the quantity abided should be 60 per cent, mon- iImm i«. n->-il for the local and inter-State mark-ns. I". X PORT ("rate.s. The cheese crate should be neat, strong and tight, the timber being well f;easoned, and dressed both sides and ends; a further improvement in .appearance is effected by bevelling the edges of the battens. Green timber yiS ] ournal of Agnciiliiirt- .\ic1oria. [ro Oct.. 191 i. should never be used, as it causes the rind to become softened, and is liable to impart a had flavour to the cheese, and to occasion the develop- ment of mould. Care should be exercised to get the crates as nearly .as possil)le the same size as the cheese ; or. in other words, the chee.se should be made of a uniform size to fit the crate. When this is done, they look neater and are pre\-ented from moving about ; the packages also take up less space and unnecessary surplus weight is avoided. The most suitable size for the London market is a cheese weighintc 80 lbs. CHEESE HOOP AND CRATE. The partition between the cheese should be securelv nailed, and the ends of the crates bound with 14 gauge i^liable wire, with |-in. stajiles, or galvanized iron hoop (f-in.). On each end of the crate there must be imi)ressed the full trade descrip- tion, setting out the name of manufacturer or his registered brand, and the word " Australia." together with the net weight of the contents. On each crate it should l)e plainlv stencilled whether the cheese is white or coloured. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Department has been organized to a large extent for the purpose of driving information to farmers. Question* in every branch of agriculture are gladly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full paiticulars as possilile, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is tliat you wanr. to know. Alt inquiries forivarded to the rjtlitor miixt be nccdinjjanied by the name nni address of the writer. Tliis is ver}' necessary, as soun-tiniLS insuMicient information is furnislioil liy tlie inquirer. Harvesting Paspalum Seed. — J.R. asks how paspalum seed should be gathered. Answer. — Strij) bv hand as each head ripens. The seed does not mature evenly ; and, if allowed to get very ripe, will shell. Mouldy Silage. — CO. inquires as to cause of failure of a small stack of silage. On opening the stack, it was found that a sort of white mould had spread right through it. Ausiver. — Insufficient jiressure and the presence of air in the stack are the causes of mould. Small stacks, especially of thick stalked fodders, are always unsatisfactory. Mating Fowls. — J.E.R. proposes to mate a Leghorn cockerel (11 months) with some 85 months' old pullets. Answer. — It is better to mate secoml or thinl season hens with a good cockerel. Chickens bred from immature parents lack stamina. Ten hens are enough to mate with a vigorous cockerel. lo Oct.. 1911-] Aiis-cccrs to Corrcsp(?inlciits. 719 Death of Turkeys. — E.A.W. rei)orts concerninj^ liis bron/.ewing turkeys. ■■' St;ui(l about, with wiiiLJs (lr(ij)]>ei| ; will not t-at : (ir(i|i])in^s \ellow; sick cou]>le of •da\s ; then dead." Atistver. — The turkeys are sulTeriny from severe diarrhtta. Remove all water; avoid feediiij^ grain, and give skim milk only. Also give the following mixture : — Two raw eggs beaten up, i tablespoonful of brandy (or whiskv), I5 grains of ■quinine, and i tablespoonful of skim milk. Mix ihoroughh- and liivide into four doses. Administer bv pouring down over tongue. Carbiije Waste. — E.A.W. asks whether carbide waste will hurt fowls. Answer. — Eggs from yards where carbide waste has been used are sometimes found to possess a disagreeable flavour, due to the carbirle being carried into nests and ini])regnating the eggs. Its action on poultr\- would be similar to that of slaked lime. It is best left alone. Flagging. — W.H.E. writes : " My cow calved three days ago. Her udli'pl'.\ foods, working gradual) v into a full ration of crusheii barley, oats, bran (half liie quaiilil) of the grain) and plenty of skim milk. .Sheep Books. — W.W. asks for names of books dealing with sheep in.in.ige- nienl and diseases. .AnsTtur. — Hawkesworlhs .\nstraliii;i Sheep and Wiwl and Armyi.ige"s .Sheep /h'ctor. The latter cleals mainly with luiglish diseases and is not applical)le in every c.ise to .\ustralia. There is no work ilealing fully with practi(al sheep management and breeding as carried out under our rondilions. During the past four \ears numerous articles f)n the subject have appeareil in the /i^iirnal. AnitlNi; Sai.'I' to ("kea.m. — W..\. wishes to know wheilur ulding salt to cream will in. ike any diflicnlty wiien testing. .Aiis'iver. — No, but it is not advis.ible to idd anything to cream if it is to be sent to a factory for butter-making. Journal of Agriculture. Yictoria. [lo Oct., 1911, REIVIINDERS FOR ]^OVE|VIBER. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Continue to feed stable horses well ; add a ration of greenstuff. Ruy at night. Continue hay or straw, chaffed or whole, to grass-fed horses. Feed old and badly-conditioned horses liberally. If too fat, mares in foal should be put on poorer pasture. Cattle. — Except on rare occasions, rugs may now be used on cows on cold and wet nights only Continue giving hay or straw. Give calves a warn, dry shed and a good grass run. Continue giving milk at blood heat to calves. Pigs. — Supply plenty of bedding in warm well-ventilated styes. Keep styes clean and dry, and feeding troughs clean and wholesome. Sows may now be turned into grass run. Sheep. — Prepare for dipping. Powder and paste dips are most effective, par- ticularly where lice are prevalent. Ascertain exact contents of bath before adding dip. Keep sheep in bath not less than half a minute. Submerge heads. Dip big sheep first, lambs last. Commence early in the day ; sheep can then dry before nightfall. Do not dip sheep when heated or full. Clean out baths occasionally. Poultry. — Provide plenty of green food and shade. Watch for vermin; spra)r perches with kerosene and houses with a solution of 3 per cent, crude carbolic acid mixed with a little lime and soft soap. Keep water clean and cool. Discontinue- feeding maize and reduce meat ration. Some Epsom salts should be placed in water weekly. Fresh skim milk, if available, should be given. CULTIVATION. F.\RM^— Plant main crop of potatoes. Cut hay, maize, si'age. Weed early potatoes."" Sow maize and millets. Weed tobacco beds, and water, if dry. Orchard. — Ploughing, harrowing, and cultivating to be continued. Weeds to be kept down. Secure, pinch, and spray grafts with water. Spray frequently for codlin moth, pear and cherry slug, and peach aphis. Plant out citrus trees. Vegetable Garden. — Hoe and mulch surface. Suppress weeds. Water where dry and hoe afterwards. Disbud and pinch back tomato plants. Sow celery, French beans, peas, lettuce, cucumber, melon, &c. seeds. Flower Garden. — Water and mulch. Cultivate and keep down weeds. Thin out weak wood from roses. Prune all flowering shrubs that have tinished flowering. Lift and store bulbs. Plant out dahlias and chrysanthemums. Liquid-manure herbaceous perennials. Vineyard. — Cultural work, such as scarifying and hoeing, should be actively pushed forward, so as to provide as good a " mulch " as possible during summer. Proceed with tying up, stopping, and topping. Avoid excessive topping, summer pruning being usually more injurious than useful in warm, dry climates. Cincture Zante currant vines when fiower caps are about to fall. Apply second sulphuring, just before blossoming, wherever Oidium vi^as prevalent last 3ear. Cellar. — Same as last month. SOY BEANS SEED fOR DISTRIBUTION. The Department of Agriculture has imported a supplv of Sov Beans (Vellow variety), and is now prepared to distribute the same amongst intending growers. Price — 5s. 9d. per bushel (60 lbs.). Quantity required to seed one acre — ^ bushel. Applications, accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque covering cost of quantity- required, should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Public Offices,. Melbourne. Freight payable on delivery. See article on '' The Soy Bean "' in the September Journal. lo Oct., 1911] Journal of Agricidiiire, Victoria. IX The Milking Machine that is DIFFERENT! To appreciate the superiority of the "ROYAL MEDAL" Milking Machine, it is only necessary to consider the defects which until now have pre- vented the general use of milking machines, and to note how these have been remedied. The "ROYAL MEDAL" has less than half the overhead gear that other machines have. A minimum amount of rubber tubing is used —the "ROYAL MEDAL" has only five short tubes. The "ROYAL MEDAL" strips the cows right out. The "ROYAL MEDAL" Pulsator is right on the teat cup, which means a great saving in engine power. There is not a single bolt or screw-thread about the teat cup — it can easily be taken to pieces with the fingers. There are no corners or crevices in the cup. Brushes go through without taking it to pieces. The cuj)s pulsate independently ; that is why the "ROYAL MEDAL" cannot fall off. The "ROYAL MEDAL" pulsation varies automatically according to the rate the milk comes, and for this reason is pre-eminentl}- a quick milker. a ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES Awarded Silver Medal (Kigiiest Award for a New Invention) — OF — ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, ENGLAND. After extended trial at the Bedfordshire County Institute under the supervision of the Principal, Edric Druce : Mr. Druce in his reiMjrt stated that there was no difliculty in getting the cows to take to it; that the cows were milked absolutely dry; and that tho machine wiis simple and easily manipulatcil. WRITE FOR THE "ROYAL MEDAL" BOOKLET — FREE ON REQUEST. ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES, 34 Queen Street, Ml£I.BOURNK. LONDON OFJ-ICI:: Caxton Hou>c, NVestminster, S.W . JACK H. DAVIES. Mitna^iiiij I^iiTctm: Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1911. 'Phone 4881 Central. The Australasian Mutual Live Stock Insupanee Society m, ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. directors : HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS- Has this simple truth ever struck you? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. J.J. — I We pay prompth-. We pay in full. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY^ AND RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. FARMERS ! A GOOD AUSTRALIAN Why didtt't you jiut your penny in the plate thu morning f" ' Because it uas a foreign vnsfion. and dada say$ il's not right to send capital out 0/ the country." TRADE Are you looking for the Best and Most Economical Binder Tmine ? THEN ASK FOR . MARK. "EUREKA" GRADE. Guaranteed Pure Manila, with our Anchor Brand. Sold by all Storekeepers, Dealers, &c. Manufactured by — James Miller & Coy. [;s., MELBOURNE. WORKS:— YARRAVILLE & BRUNSWICK. (Combined Engine Power, 1000 HP.) 10 Oct., 191 1.] Journal of A.gricuUure , Yidoria. Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy cenires of Europe have given close attention to tlic question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very waler\- food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : slating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not shuw the same corresponding result wiih Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book — "MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMKR, Ron al Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited Dair^ Department S_MlMe> . /^ sunlight Oilcake (jLiaranteed Pure 5ee that tlie name " .Sunli>ilit " is hraiided on e\cr\ cake. Jounnil of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 191 i. Britain's BEST Oil Engine— -^HORNSBY. The recognized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are.... DESIGN QUALITY SIMPLICITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY possesses, proved by the Fact Made in Two Types-Stfctionary and Portable. ^^*' '' ^^^ ^fon all the Largest Prizes ever offered. WHY THE HORNSBY— BINDERS It has the Best and Lowest Cutting Finger Bar. It is Lightest in Draught. It has Simplest Mechanism. It is Strongest, Most Durable, and Most Reliable. "Hornsby** Mowers are Unequalled for CLEAN CUTTING. Hornsby Petrol Engines, Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., MELBOURNE. SYDNEY. BRISBANE. 2,000 IN USE. Tie COBPSE CREATOB RABBIT KllLEB. The Best Made, Most Deadly, and Most Powerful Machine on the Market. "^""^"''*"'-^''^ A. H. RUSSELL, ESSENDON. aeeTscoT All Steel Silos IFOR Gri?.-A.insr, sto:r.a.<3-e Sz, ElSrSIL.A.G-E. PORTABLE. CONVERTIBLE. DURABLE. I Steel Framed, Patent Metal-sheeted, Sectional Cement- Plastered Dips. Any Size. Everlasting and Cheap. FOR CORPORATIONS OR SHEEP OWNERS. Manufacturer and Patentee — A. H. RUSSELL, 6! BUCKLEY ST., ESSENDON. 'Phone 386 ASCOT. Prices from £9 lOs. ^1 write for catalogue. 10 Oct., 191 1.] Journal of Agriculture , Victvria. NATIONflli TRUSTEES Executors & Agency Company of Australasia, Ltd. . . . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE, Esq. HON. DUNCAN R. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, ESQ. This Company acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. °;^= 113 QUEEN ST. U^Tolfin^s st ) MELBOURNE. Savings BanRs Loans ON BROAD ACRES (Up to Three-fifths of Valuation), In sums from £2,000 to £26,000. Interest at 4 per cent. For 3 or 5 years, with option of paying off part on any half-yearly pay-day. ON FARMS (CREDIT FONCIER) (Up to Two-thirds of Valuation), In sums from .£50 to £2,000. Interest at 4.1 per cent. Loans Repayable by Instalments spread over 31^ years, or may be paid off on any half-yearly pay-day, subject to a small charge if paid off during the first five years, but no penalty after five years. ^^S^' Inspector-General of Savings Banks, 29 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA =;' GRUBBING JACKS. Quick. Powerful. Simple. \lr. (h.is. llaniilliiM, MoU'swortli. \'ii'., says." — "I would not be witliout OMP of these .liii-k.i on llio fiirni." ^^ •» ■ Mr. (».('. |{ ISr.mn, TiinLir Mtrthant, Frances, S. A. :— -yf'''\ ^^^9B7^tK0B^A!^- '''*<»5^!'**SC" hl.-._«. "Ilaxi- lieen uniiiif Tre»ln-ll:i Wallnhx .IhcUh now nearly "iv yearn, and ux Ir^iu- us I have unvthiii^ to lift will never be witlimit one." Write for Illustrated Catalogue to — TREWHELLA BROS., engineers, TRENTHAM, VICTORIA. Journal of Agriculture , Yictoria. [lo Oct., 191 i, r DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JBurnley J^ortieultural School. E. E. PESCOTT, -Mtf Principal. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and manageineut of the Burnley Horticultuivil 8ehool have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students uf both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. At the end of the course it is intended to offer each year to four students the opportunity for a further term of two years' training. Such students, to be selected by competitive examination, will, in addition to their training, receive £36 per annum for the first year, and £42 per annum for the second year. Two of the students will be transferred to the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, and two will remain at Burnley. The curriculum at Burnley will include continued training in fruit- growing and all its branches, vegetable culture, and poultry and bee management ; whilst that at the Botanic Gardens, where the students will be I under the control of the Director, Mr. J. Ckonix, will include all prfvCtical j outdoor gardening, including propagating, nursery, and conservatory work. I Classes ha^'e been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two ufternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be £2 per annum. Horticulture for Women. — The importance of Horticulture as a work for women is now recognized; and, at the present day, women are taking u^^ and are working successfully in all phases of fruit, vegetable, and flower culture. SliOrt Lecture Courses. — It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horti- culture, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The following courses have been arranged, and the lectures will be given in the Lecture Hall, and will commence at 2.-15 p.m. : — POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT :- Mr. H. V. HAWKINS, Poultry Expert. 20th October, 3rd and 17th November, 1st and 8th Decembei'. BEEKEEPING : Mr. F. R. BEUHNE, Bee Expert. 13th and 27th October, 10th and 21:th November, 5th December V lo Oct.. 191 1 .] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. SPECIALISING -IN THE SrPPLY OF ALL- FRIEND NOZZLE, "Harvey" Shifting-Handle Ploughs. " Four Oaks " Bucket Spray Pump. " Myers " & " Deming " Spray Pumps. "Jones" High'pressure Spray Pumps. " Friend " Power Sprayer. REQUISITES i IMPLEMENTS Is done by us more than any other firm in Victoria. It will therefore pay you to call and see us or write for Illustrated Cat\logui: (A). Some of our Lines are — " Excelsior " Fruit Graders. Spraying Hose— high quality. Spraying Materials for all Pests. Pumps for all Purposes. "COMET" FARM MOTORS. Our Quality is Qood. Our Prices are Right. Call and See. -p- , -rp -l\/r~cm r r^iz? ^^'^ Elizabeth st. _n _ _il\;_ _LVJ — uLjJ iJ — \K^ JZxj- ]ynE;XjBOTJi?,]srE. DENVER BROTHERS. Established Over 20 Years. t^r PIONEER HOUSE FOR all VETERINARY INSTRUMENTS and SUPPLIES. "ECLIPSE ' Brand. SIX LINES WORTH BUYING. DENVER'S ECLIPSE Mouth Gag. Files and Rasps. Drenching Hit. Milk Fever Syringe. Hmasciilator. Impregnator. "ECLIPSE" Brand. TAKE CARE OF YOUR STOCK WITH DENVER'S ECLIPSE Teat Dilator. Teat Slitter. Milking Tubes. Trocars. Cattk Syringes. Dchorners. Foaling Hooks, &c. WRITj; FOR VKTI:RINARY guide & PRICE LIST.— Senl l>ost f rec- to any address. Contains viilti,ihl<- intorniatinn -for l-.irmcrs. Stockbreeders, tira/icrs, l)iiir> men &c. CORNER OF SWANSTON & LONSDALE STREETS, MELBOURNE. Joiin/al of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1911. THB 'MITCHEIA- THE "MITCHELL" COMPLETE HARVESTER. THE USER'S OPINION. "A report of the work done by your 6 feet Har\ester appeared in the Hoy-sham Times of 7tli January last, and you will probably be jileased to hear that the machine has given me the utmost satisfaction. You will notice by the report that I liad a record crop, which the machine had no difficulty in dealing with, and it made a splendid sample. It was very light in draught, and I would have no hesitation in recommending it to any one who stands in need of a really first- class Harvester." parts of the district excellent I'eturns are also being harvested, but that bagged by SAMUEL GROSS, Mr. Gross, so far, is the highest recorded."' Drung Drung, 201 '10. This is the "MITCHELL" in farm work — not what WE claim in an advertisement, but ITS ACTUAL WORK IN A 50 BUSHEL CROP. As it handles a 50 bushel crop "excellently," don't you think it's safe to handle YOURS' Extract from Horsham T(mt-<, 7 110. A RECORD WHEAT YIELD. 16 BAGS PER ACRE. "What is undoubtedly a record wheat yield for the locality is being gathered in by Mr. Samuel Gross, of the Three Bridges, Drung Drung. 'With a Mitchell 6 feet Harvester doing excellent work and drawn by five horses, Mr. Gross has taken up to 18 bags of Federation wheat per acre, the field harvested yielding a magnificent average of sixteen bags. From other PLOWS, GRAIN DRILLS, ONE-WAY DISCS, HARROWS, WALTER A. WOOD BINDERS, MOWERS & RAKES, "MAX" MILKING MACHINES, "DIABOLO" SEPARATORS, " WATERLOO BOY" OIL ENGINES, "AUSTIN" ROAD GRADERS, HORSE YOKES, CHAFF CUTTERS, "LINKE NOACK" EARTH SCOOPS. HELL& FACTORY & OFFICE: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. SHOW ROOM: 596 BOURKE-ST., hliELBOURNE. Please msnllon this Journal wli.ii writing us. J^cfFigeratiug and lee JVCaking jVtaekinerY ^ ^ ^ ^ 4j Made by HUMBLE & SONS. Geelong, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacou, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A laro-e number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. "Ferrier's" Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, k. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. VICTOHJAN «2g^M®W RAILWAYS. VICTORIA FOR YOUR VACATION. The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES To the Seaside, Mountains, Lakes, and Caves FROM 15th NOVEMBER TILL 30th APRIL. CAMPBELL'S FALLS, ON FALLS CREEK, UPPER YARRA. LORNE. Waterfalls, fern glens, sea and river fishing ; splendid accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean beach and golfers' paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and ocean beaches ; rail and steamer services. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU, with its fcimous gorge, falls, and peaks, the Horn and the Hump, embraces the finest mountain scenery in Australia. Excursion fares all the year round. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS. Mts. Hogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range. THE DIVIDING RANGE. Macedou, \\'oodend, Daylesford, &c. Healesville in the Hills. THE GIPPSLAND LAKES. The most charming chain of lakes in the Commonwealth. THE BUGHAN CAVES. Indescribably beautiful. For full information as to train services, fares, &c., write to or in- quire from the Government Tourist Officer, Tourist Bureau, opp. Town Hall, Collins street, Melbourne. E. B. JONES, Acting Secretary /of Raikvays. BROOM FIBRE INDUSTRY. Vol. IX. TREE PLANTING COMPETITION. Part 11. fRetristererl nt the Oeiifral \'o ill ilio .luunial ui tin- I )c]);irinR-iit ot Agiiciih ui-c ot X'ictoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspa|)ei.-. wi.shing to republish an\' matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and mithor are hot It acknow/edijiil. The Journal i.s is.sucd montlily. Tlic sub.-^cript ior., wliicli is payable in atls.ince and includes postage, is 3.S. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, .-ind 5s. for the Uniled Kingdom and Forciirn Countries. .Single copy Threepence. Subscription.'* .should be forwarded to the Director of A«;riculture. Mell>ourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of .Agricidtnr© will be supplied by the latter. Ji'unuil ,rj Aiir/(-//If/frc. Victoria. Nov No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the '^Billabong's." This important improvement of ours ia protected by patent rights. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of order. Jiy merely turning a screw you can vary the speed of the mill to ^vour desire. Tliis will be found to be of great advantage Mhen Windmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heavj- gales, &c. Stop and Consider. You want a mill to gi\e lifelong service ; therefore, it must be made of good material. Bearings should be so made that they may be cheaply and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing parts should be few ; and, Avhat is most im- jjortant, the mill should liave a lubricating S3'stem tliat Mill insure its being thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste when mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a very light breeze, 3'et stand a gale In our Mill ail these Points are provided for. We know what is required of a good mill — we have had many years of windmill experience. The fact that we have obtained patent rights proves our pro- gressiveness: and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a centurj' answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a cheaper mill, and then have to spend ■£2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4 ; or, suppose your cheap mill iticks up when j^ou most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds' worth of stock ; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is jour saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and get the Rig:ht Article with a Good Manufacturing Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stands; Pumps of all kinds; Piping, Troughing, and Fluming; Farm and Garden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS & SON 39^=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. PTY. LTD. lo Nov., 1911-] Journal of Agriculture. Yictoria. START I I When equipping the dairy with machinery don't let the matter of a £1 or two influence your choice, and prevent you from obtaining the best and most up-to-date plant that money can buy. A mistake made at the outset means just the difference between success and failure. It is false economy to purchase macliinery of any description simply because it is "cheap" — the sweetness of low price never equals the bitterness of poor quality. Before purchasing a cream separator, milking machine, or petrol engine, visit the farms of the prominent and successful dairj'men, and you will find that over 90 per cent, of them have either the "ALFA-LAVAL" SEPARATOR "L-K-G" MILKING MACHINES "FELIX" INDUSTRIAL MOTOR installed in their dairies or milking sheds. You run no risk whatever in purchasing any of the above time-tested machines, because they are guaranteed to be as represented, but should they fail to make good what is claimed for them we will take them back again and pay all expenses. Our full-line Catalogue No. 350S, describes in detail these bcst-of-all machines ; it also gives full particulars and prices of the most modern farm, dairy, and cLtosc-making roauisitcs. Posted free on applic^iiion. Write for it. J. BARTRAM & SON 'CI.. 19-23 KINC STREET, MELBOURNE. SOLE AGENTS :— Galvanized all-steel portable Silos. Every Farmer and Grazier should have a Telephone Service con- necting with the nearest Post Office. Thousands of Au.stralian farmers liave aheady installed Telephones, the ad- vantages of which are so numerous and valuable that it is impossible to measure or appreciate their worth until you have one. A well-known Victorian grazier, Mr. W. Gardiner, writes regarding The " ERICSSON ' TELEPHONE :— " I find the telephone the most useful inven- tion I have on the farm, both in labour and time saving, also for business ])urposes. It has often .saved me the price of itself in one transaction, and has p.iid for itself 50 times over in two cases of calling medical aid when no one could go for it. The " ERICSSON " gives satisfaction in every way." rrii-fs, estimates, and full parlicitlart, on application to — J. BARTRfti & SON PTY. LTD., 19-23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. Represisnting the l. IVl. ERICSSON Telephone Company. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 1911. HavE You a Forge ? '/^NE of the main drawbacks of farm work is the ^^^ difficulty experienced in being able to get blacksmithing work done," writes Mr. George Baxter, Instructor in Blacksmitliing, Workingmen's College, Melbourne, in the July issue of this Journal. " Frequently the breaking of a bolt will throw a machine out of action and necessitate a stoppage of, perhaps, days. Often, these vexatious delays, which generally happen in the busy season, could be avoided by the farmer if he or his sons were to learn a few simple exercises in forge work There are ploughs, harrows, harvesters, cultivators, picks, forks, &c. to be repaired, and hinges for gates and out-houses, latches, tug-chains, hooks, ironwork for buildings, carts, &c. to be made and repaired. All of this work may be profitably and successfully done." Here are some Time and Money-Saving Forges. No. 625 is the Star Portable Model, an excellent Forge for all outdoor work. Requires little or no attention, and can be carried about by One man. Fitted with "Star Australian" geared Blower, which gives a white heat with a few handle turns. 18 in. diameter Hearth - - £5 5s. 22 in. 24 in. £5 15s. £6 5s. ^.o>less Steel Cream Can. MANUFACTURERS of DAIRY UTENSILS IN THE COMMONWEALTH.' ENGINES. SOLE AGENTS for the LAUSON GASOLINE ENGINES. THE SIMPLEST, STRONGEST, & SAFEST. From 1 H.P. up to 100 H.P. A. P. ALLAN & Co., BRUNSWICK-ST. FITZROY. TANK MAKERS of the Commonwealth. Galvanized Ironworkers and Hardware Merchants. TO Nov.. 191 1.] Journal of Agriculture. Yiciorii "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. OUR PURE HERD. lC--^**^<-^' r ONE. ®@ Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal Show, 1909, 1910, 1911. Reserve Champion, IVklbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also holds the reeoid of 142 Firsts, ClKmi]noiis. Si)((ial>, ami (uM Medals for Ayrshire and ]>aii-\ Hii!!. The "Glengarnoek" Stad of Pure, Ayrshire Cattle Has won iiiimineralilt- piizes in the liny. The teinales in tliis iierd are noted tor deep and heavy milUino^ and test well ahove the average, and are kind and (jniet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE At from 5 to 25 Jiuineas each. Special Show Bulls higher. From Be>t ('()\\> only. In i'nn- Hci(|lHjnk BuUs. Kidl pediLTccs and particulars, with photograplis ot' animal tur .sale, his sire and dam, will lie turwarded on applieation. Address INSPECTION CORDIALLY iNVITEO. VISITORS MET AT LANC LANG RAILWAY STATION. A. T. PRIESTLEY, i is^j^StIj^^ Journal oj Aiiriinlturc. Victoria. [lo Nov., 1911. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS. Fee, 5s. per cow. Jersey Bull "DREADNOUGHT"; Calved, 22nd October, 1908. Sire : — Sir .Jack (188). Dam : — Lady Kitchener, by Lord Melbourne. (7w charge of Mr. H. Crnmpler, Block 148, Bamatvm.) Jersey Bull "ROSE FOX"; Calved, 19th August, 1909. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). Bam :— Tuberose, by Magnet's Progress (54 A. J.H.B.). (In charge of Mr. E. W. Prater, Block 106, Bamavm.) Jersey Bull "VERBENA'S BOY"; Calved, 10th January, 1908. Sire : — Acrobat. JJani : — Verbena 2nd, by Snowdrop's Progress 2nd. (In charge of Mes-^rs. Laing and Mundie, Block 70, Bamav-m.) Jersey Bull "NOBILITY"; Calved, 2nd April, 1910. Sire : — Lucy's Xoble of Oaklands. Dam : — Winnie of Melrose .3rd, by Royal Blue. {//( charge of Mr. E. T. Partington, Block 18(i. Bamairm.) Jersey Bull "MILKY WAY"; Calved, 20th June, 1909. .NV;-e :— Starbright Fox (I'.Mtj. /Ay//i :— Milkmaid 34th (590), by Plinlimmon (imp. G2 A.H.B.). [Ill charge of Mr. L. S. Unhinds, Block 91. Nannte-lla.) Jersey Bull "GOLD MEDAL"; Calved, :3rd April, 1910. Sire : — Golden Fox (142 A.J.H.B. ). Dam : — Mellja. V)y Greystanes 2nd. [In charge of Messrs. Jacobs and Keune'li/. Block" A^.^ and 44, Xanneella.) Jersey Bull "MAGNET'S FOX"; Calved, 6th November, 1909. sire :— Fox's Laam :— J)aisy of Prospect (.347 A..J.H.B.), by Cardigan. (/?( charge of Mr. L. H. lludrlyfl. Block 2. Koynga.) Jersey Bull "ZODIAC"; Calved, lOth November, 1908. g-li-g : — Starbright Fox (UM')- Dam : — Zoe 4th (805), V)v Handsome Hero. (In charge of M r. I!. J. Chapped, Block 12F, S»xin Hill.) Jersey Bull "GAY FOX"; Calved, 12th May, 1909. Sire : — Starbright Fox (190). Da7n : — Floss, by Plinlimmon (imp. 62). (In charge ef Mr. F. Cox. Blork 6D, Sican Hill.] lo Nov., 1911.] Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS -'^'^^''"'^^- Fee, 5s. per cow. Jersey Bull "WILLIAM OF AYRE"; Calved, February. 1910. Sire : — Favourites Fox 2ih1. Dam :— Bessie McCarthy, by Snowflake's Progress. (7n chary t of Mr. J. S. Dickinson, Block 13, Nyah.) Jersey Bull "FOX'S LAD"; Calved, 5th October, 1908. Sire : — Fox, by Suowdi'op's Progress 2nd. Dam : — Pansy 2nd, by Duke. (In charge of Mr. Ernest E. Barley, Block 6, Nyah.) Ayrshire Bull "PETER OF WILLOWVALE"; Calved, 30th Sept., 1909. .«^/>-e:— Annettas Pride (248). i>^on :— Madge 2nd (Appendix A.H.B.), bv Red Chief (359). [In charge of Mr. F. Mclvor, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records, e -.— Ernst Bellinge (imp.). D(tm : — Kirsten IX. (imp.). Fee, 5s. (available to 30 cows). Red Danish Bull "HAMLET"; Calved, l.st August, 1910. Sire :^Frnst Bellinge (imp.). Dam : Marianne IV. G. Dam : — Marianne III. (im[).). Fee, 5s. (available to 10 heifers). Red Polled Bull "TABACUM"; Calved, 12th November, 1908. Sire : — Aclon Aja.\ (iiii|i. '. hum : — .Janet, by Primate by Laureate (imp.). Fee, 7s. 6d. (available to 20 cows). Jersey Bull "GAY LAD II."; C.vlvkd, sth Au-ust, 19UG. l^ii-e : — Acrcjbal, liy (litriy.s I'lide (imp.). Dam :— (iaiety, by Snowdrop's Progress II., by Lady Superior's Progress (imp.). Fee, 5s. (available to 40 cows). (Winner of 7 lirst prizes.) i'articulars of extended iicdigrtcs, milking ifcords and prizes may be obtained from, and .irrangement for service made with, Mr. E. STEER, at the Ifomestead Block 21, where the bulls an- k.-pt. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Xov., 191 1 The "BAVE-U" Power Sprayer. THE PIONEER - - POWER SPRAYER OF AUSTRALIA. . Does the work of TWO Hand Sprayers at ONE-FOUF{TH the cost. All ] juit ic-ulai's on a)i])lic,-iti(in to — E.TJSSE]LL & CO. # Engineers. Makers of Irrigation Plants. Engines for all purposes. ^ €> 3k: xx X x^ Xii, -mM. xsxjijso'crxs.zyx:. To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. Proprietary Ltd. You cannot do better tliaii })urchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH Coy Who are Importers and Manufacturers of tlie undermentioned, namely : — Varntshes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw l.inseed Oil, Resfn, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb. Tel. Central 614. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME. FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo Nov., 191 1.] Journal of Agricidii/rc, Victoria. ^ cs c ^9C 3 t> 'J-. c p: x: c ■yi 'yi 0 u c Im c ^ b. c b- a> 1 ■ ^ 'yj •■ s 0 X: 9J """ 0 J= c ^ ^_ C •ec •"-■ 'V/ r. f ^ ■« = H — 1 4» — i» t/J ,_ ^ ' UJ c ■J-, ^ H- .s "^ >r ■a ai ■^ - so E CO CO cc C3 GC cn 0 -< r.O . »** 3 ^ 0 ^^ a* tyj ■3 3 a> NI C/2 c a> c3 t/3 ■>■ 0 Ci, 7i &. 0 3 O. s ?s Ci. l-M 3 "er " 0 -a: 0 E ^ C/5 z "™ tu er supplies, and this question has, in the country named, been designated " Our greatest problem." To Australians, the subject should be of special interest, as Australia is the home of the Eucalypt, the particular tree which is now claiming the attention of the world, and which is being planted in every continent, its great value being recognized and its growth promoted. The late Baron von Mueller, formerly Govern- ment Botanist of Victoria, to whom we owe so much for our knowledge of the Australian flora, wrote the following : — Tile Kuciil) [Its are (Jestined to plav a prominent ])arl for all time to come in the sylvan culture of vast tracts of the ijlobe ; ami, for hardwood supplies, for sanitary measures, and for beneficent climatic changes, all countries within the warmer zones will, with ajtpreciative extensiveiiess, have to ri-lv on our Kucalypts durinfj a yet uncountable period. So highlv are the Eucalypts valued in .\m<'rica that the following official testimony has been given — In fact, they have probably served more .x-sthetic and ulilit.irian jmrposes than anv other forest trees that have been iihintcd 0:1 this continent. ' — It is not suggested that planting shoiiM ix' restricted to one special 5^ variety of tree. Although the Eucalypt is undoubtedly the most valuable *~ timlier tree, many others claim attention on account of their peculiar ^^ • "A Plea for Tree I'laiitinK ami Trre Vr\-*vx\aX'v>\\," Journal oj AgricuUurf. DccimiiIkt. inOfi.--"The C^ Iinportanrc of Tree IMantiii^r," Journal of Agriculture. Si'|>tenil>cr, l!K1t. o '•'"■"■ -" 722 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov.. 191 1. suitability for the purposes of shelter, shade, and windbreaks, and for ornamentation, all of which are of great importance to the farmer. In Southern Europe, in Africa, in Asia, and in North and Sou.tli America, tree planting has been systematically undertaken. The Japanese CHEERLESS AND UNPROTECTED — A NORTHERN DISTRICT HOME. are fully alive to its importance; both in Japan and Korea the work has been instituted. The growing popularity of Arbor Day, the establish- ment of tree growing clubs, and the wider interest being developed in i ( i lii WW** I !l» r' 1 ;. Ill, - 5 . . DEAD TIMBER SURRUlNUiXG A GIPPSL/iXD 1:0:\IE PLANTING. .1 TEMPT AT TREE the subject of tree culture, must be regarded with a great measure of satisfaction. Tn one of th-- papers previnuslv referred to, T suggested that, by offering substantia' prizes, the competitive spirit m.'ght be- lo Xov., 191 1.] Yictorian Tree Plantnig Compctii'n 723 encouraged in this State witli gcod results. I am pleased to state that the Government of Victoria has now accepted the suggestion. The details cf a competitive scheme have been carefully worked out by a committee appointed for the purpose, and consisting of the horticultural represen- tatives of the Australasian (Mr. Joseph Harris), Leader (Mr. D. M. Dow), Weekly Times (Mr. J Callander), with the Conservator of Forests (Ml. H. r<. Macka\), the Director cf the Botanical (lardens (Mr. J. Cronin). and the Surveyor-General. The Committee submits the scheme with the hoi}e that it will ch.im the attention cf a very large number of cur farm.ers and induce a keen competition, the beneficial results of which will be in striking evidence in years to come. If the young people on our farm lands can be en- couraged to devote their time and energies to this good work, thev will derive from :t a great amount of satisfaction and i)leasure. and find in it a most healthy and eniovable recreation. A < ' ,1 , I, I ; \i'\i IIOIVIK WKLl. SCRKKNliU KV VOUiXG TREES. Ill llic [allowing memorandum the lull particulars are set forth. iUid two lists ol trees apiJcnded. The se\en divisions have been so arranged in order to permit, as far as possible, of competitors meeting on fairly e(jual terms as regards climatir cond'tions It is advised that competitors should give their atteiuion to the smaller list (^{ trees (No. i) at first ; and. as (:])poriunitv occurs, make use of the larger and more varied one (.Xo. 1). forms of entry ;iiid ;ill p:irl iculars may i)e obtaineil, either by ]iers<:n:d or written application, at the Ir,(|U!rv Branch, Crowu Lands Department, .\relbnurne. and ;it :m\ of the distriei hmd olfices within the Slate. COMPETITION CONDITIONS. 'I'h(> State Governinenl. in order to eiiroui;ige tree |)lanting in cin- nexion wilh l.ind settlement, has decided lo < Her prizes lor competition, under the lollowing conditions: The .St.lle is ti: be (li\ii|ed into Se\en di\isionS— I. Malice (!TRY AND DrY NORTHERN COUNTRY. Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. Monterey Cypress {Cwpressus macrorarpa). Sugar Gum {Encalyptus corynocahjx). Monterey Pine {Pinus insignis). Pepper Tree (Schimis Molle). Bull Oak (Gasuarina glauca). Silky Oak (Grevillea robusta). Currajong (Sterculia diversifolia). Timber. Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynocalyx). Red Ironbark {Eucalyptus sideroxylon). White Ironbark {Euca.hjp'ns leucoxylon). lo Nov., ipii.] Y ictorian Tree Planting Comfetition. 725 List Xo. 1 — continued. Ornamental and- other purposes. Cootamundra Wattle {Acacia Baileyana). Fals-3 Tree Lucerne or Tagasaste {C>/tisus Cedar Wattle {Acacia tlata). proliferus). Victorian Laurel (Pittosporum wndulalum). Division 3. Southern Country (Coastal, Plain, and Upland). Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynocalyx). Aleppo Pine {Pinus Halepensis). Gippsland Mahogany {Eucalyptus botryoides). Monterey Cypress {Cupressus macrocarpa). Monterey Pine (Pinus insiynis). Pepper Tree {Schinus Nolle). Timber. Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynocalyx). (.anary Island Pine {Pinus Canarie.nsis). Yellow Box {Eucalyptus melliodora). Corsican Pine {Pinus laricio). Monterey Pine {Pimis insignis). Ornamental and other purposes. Sciirlct Flowering (him {Eucalyptus ficifolia). False Tree Lucerne or Tagasaste {Cytisus West Australian Red (ium {Eucalyptus proliferus). calophylla). ('ootaniundra Wattle {Acacia Baileyana). Cedar Wattle {Acacia elala). Division 4. Hn.L Country (not Heavy .Forest). Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynocalyx). Ale])po Pine {Pinus Halepensis). Yellow Box {Eucalyptus melliodora). Monterey Cypress {Cupressus macrocarpa). PepjK?rmint Gum {Eucalyptus amygdalina). Victorian Laurel {Pittosporum undulaium). Monterey Pine {Pinus insignis). Timber. Sugar Gum (Eucalyptxis corynocalyx). Canary Island Pine {Pinus Canariensis). Forest Red Gum {Eucalyptus tereticornis). Corsican Pine {Pinus laricio). Blue Gum {Eucalypttis globylus) Blackwood {Acacia 7nelanoxylon). Ornamental and other purposes. Scarht Flowcrin'^ Chim {Euccdyptus fici/olia). Cedar Wattle {Acacia elata). West Australian Red Gum {Euccdypttis Cootamundra Wattle {Acacia Baileyana). calophylla). White Mulberry (Morus alba). Portugal Oak {Querctis lusitanicu). Division 5. Hill Country (jiore or less Cleared and old Timber Killed). Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. Sugar Gum {Eucalyptxis corynocalyx). Jfontercy Cj'prcss {Cnprissus vtacrocarpa). (i\])\ys\imd y\;ihoii;\ny {Eucaly])lus botryoides). Ak'])pu Pine {Pinu-< Ilalepensi^s). Monterey I'ine {Pinus insignis). \'ictorian Laurel {Pittosporum undulatum). Timlier. Blue (nim {Eucalyptus globuhis). Blackwood {.Iracia mclanoxylon). Mountain Asli {Eucalypius uihygdalina- iwunry \Ai\i\i\Vmc (Pinus Canariensis). regnans). Coisican Pino (Pinus laricio). O rnaincnlal and other purposes. West Australian Red Gum (Eucalyptus White Mulleny (Morus alba). calophylla). False Tree Lucerne or Tagasaste {Cytisus Cootaminulra Wattle (Acacia Baihyuna). prolifeius). Cedar Wattle (Acacia ilaUt). New Zealand Flax (Phiiniium linaz). ■J 26 J ouriial of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Nov.. 191 t. List No. 1 — continued. Divisions 6 and 7. Small Holdings. Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. Gums (Eucalypts) of kinds, according to Loqiiat {Eriobotrya Japonica). locality (vide other lists). Pepper Tree (Schinus Molle). Monterey Pine (Pinus insignis). Victorian Laurel (Pittosporum ^lndulatum). Monterey CyY>vess (Cupressus macrocar pa). False Tree Lucerne^or Tagasaste ' (C?//i.ms Olive (Olea Europcta). proliferus). Ornamental and other purposes. Wattles (Acacias) of kinds, according to Camphor Tree (Cinnamornum Camphnra). locality (vide other lists). Bead Tree (Melia Azedarach). Walnut (Juglans regia). New Zealand Flax (Phormium tenax). List No. 2. Divisions 1 and 2. Mallee Country and Dry Northern Country'. Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. AUSTRALIAN TREES. Currajong Tree (Stercidia diversifolia). White Ironbark (Eucalyptus leucoxylon.) Bull Oak (Casuarina glaiica). Red Ironbark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon). Black Box (Eucalyptus bicolor). Silky (Jak (Grevillea robusta). Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus cnrynoccdyx). , EXOTIC TREES. Monterey Cypress (Cupressus macrocurpa). ^Ionterey^Pine^(P('«?(6- insignis). Olive (Olea Europcea). Locust Tree (Bobinia pseudacacia). Aleppo Pine (Pinus Halepensis). Pepper Tree (Schinus Molle). Timber. AUSTRALIAN TREES. Bull Oak (Casaurina glauca). White Ironbark (Euccdyptus leucoxylon). Black Box (Eucalyptus bicolor). Red Iroiibark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon). Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus corynocalyx). Silky Oak (Grevillea robusta). EXOTIC TREES. ilonterey Cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa). ilonterey Pine (Pinus insignis). Ornamental or other purposes. AUSTRALIAN TREES. Cootamundra Wattle (Acacia Baileyana). (iolden-rain W^attle (Acacia prominens). Cedar Wattle (Acacia< elata). Victorian Laurel (Pittosporum'^xindulalum). EXOTIC TREES. Box Elder or Manitoba Maple (Acer False Tree Lucerne or Tagasaste (C'yiisus negundo). proliferus). Oleander (Neriurns). Division 3. Southern Country (Coastal, Plain, and Upland). Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. AUSTRALIAN TREES. Gippsland Mahogany (E ucalyptus botryoides). Yellow-Box (Euccdyptus melliodora). Yate (Eucalyptus cornuta). Coastal Tea ^ Tree (Leptospermum Icevi- Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus corynocalyx). gatum). exotic TREES. Monterey Cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa). Alep])o Pine (Pinus Halepensis). Nepaul Cypress (Cupressus torulosa). 3Ioi terey Pine (Pinus insignis). Olive (Olea Europcea). Pep])er Tree (Schinus Molle). Canary Island Pine (Pinus Canariensis). loXov.. 191 I.J Y ictorian Tree Planting Comfetition. 727 Lint No. 2 — conli)LU(d. Timber. AUSTRALIAN- TREES. Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynocalyx). Rscl Ironbark (E maty phis sidemxyhn). Yate {Euc'dyplm cornuta). Forest Red Gum {Euzalypiics iereticornis). Yellow B.)x (Ewatyptus mdlioiora\ EXOTIC TREES. Canary Island Pine (Pinus Canariensis). C'jrsican Pine (Pinus laricio). Monterey Pine (Pinus insignis). Ornamental and other purposes. AUSTRALIAN' TREES. Cootamundra Wattle {Acaoia Baileyana). West Australixn Red Gum {Eucalyptus Green Wattle {Acacia decurrens, var. wjr- calophylla). malis). Scarlet Flowering Gum {Eucalyptus ficifolia). Cedar Wattle {Acacia elala). Eugenias of sorts. Acacia longifolia, var. sophorce.* Victorian Laurel {Pittosporum undulatum). Golden Wattle {Acacia pycnaniha). New South Wale's Brush Box {Tristania Willow Wattle {Acacia saliqna). conjerta). Norfolk Island Pine {Araucaria excelsa). EXOTIC TREES. White Mulberry {Morus alba). Fals3 Tree Lucerne or Tagasaste (Cylisus New Zealand Flax {Phormium tenax). proliferus). Tamarisks of sorts. Limo or Linden 'i'ree (Tilia Europrea). Division 4. Hill Country (xot Heavy Forest). Shelter, Shade, and Windbreaks. AUSTRALIAN TREES, PepiKjrmint Gum {Eucalyptus amygdalina). Yellow Box {Eucalyptus melliodora). Gi]t]y'i] pro- vide lor the protection <>! beds ihuiiiL: unl a\(Hn.il)le wcatlnr. 73° ] oiirnal oj Agricidiurc, Victoria. [lo Nov.. 1911. 4. Seed Sowing in Pots. Pans, or Flat Boxes. — The receptacles should be well drained. U.se similar soil and exercise the same care as in the case of seed sowing in oi)en V>eds. ]\fote. — In all cases of seed-sowing, the general practice may be adopted of covering the seeds with suitable soil to a depth corresponding to the size of the seeds. Sowing of Pine Seeds. The ground should be well dug. lined out in 4 or 5 ft. beds, and then raked to a fine surface. The pine seeds should 'be soaked in cold water, and allowed to swell. The water should then be drained off, and SUGAR GUMS AND PEPPER TREES AT MI EARS ATTER PLANTING. the seed placed under cover for a few hours. Drill lightlv the beds in three or four lines, and sew the seed straight awav in the drilled lines, and cO'Ver nyi with the back of a light rake. If the sol is <'rv, water well with watering can and fine rose, and keep' the ground moderately moist. In ten cr ele\-en months' time the seedling plants should be lifted, and transplanted in nur.-^-.ery lines, 3 to 4 in. apart and from 14 to 18 in. between the rows. In this position they can remain for one or two year.'^. TIhv will then be large enough to remo^'e tn their permanent quarters. The sowing should be done during August and September, but th'.s .|uirt'd. The seed will cost from is. 6d. to js. 6d. pt_r ounce. Solving in Belts. — \\'here this can be done it is the cheapest and best. In rangy country, where there are steep slopes tliickly dotted with tree stuni])s and outcrops of rock, and the surface is a tangle of roots, nursery growtli must be planted. Where the soil is free from obstacles of fh's kind, sicd |)lanting can lu- jjroceeded with. The nature (o a fine tilth. Mix the gum seed with drv sandy loam, well sifted, and sow b\ hand broadcast out of a dish, seed bag, or box. 'I'hen j'ass a light harrow over ^22 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [io Nov., 1911. it. This done, the success of the crop will depend on the season. For this work May, August, and September months are the best. On the climate and district will depend the month selected for the work. As the trees advance in growth thin out. and allow them growing space. A mixed sowing should not be done unless the cultivator understands the nature and habit of the trees he is about to mix. Fence off with a temporary drtipper fence. The seed, cultivation, and fence will cost from £2 5s. to £1 5s. per acre, that is, when the planting. is done along a permanent boundary fence. Preparing the (iROund and Planting. Take out .scjuare holes 12 x 12 or 24 x 24 in. wide, and the same in depth ; place the surface soil on one side of the hole, and the subsoil on the other. For shelter planting on exposed sites the holes should be 8 ft. apart; thin out as the trees grow. When the soil is pulverized, and not too wet or too dry, and the holes free of water, fill in by placing the soil as it was taken out. Should the subsoil be poor, mix a little surface soil with it. For planting select dull weather. Dry winds are injurious to plants out of the gronnd ; avoid removing them. For planting it is better that two persons should be employed at the work. When root space is made in the centre of the filled-in hole by one man, the other can place the tree in its position from beneath a cover, and steady it while the fine earth is being filled in and pressed gently round. Pines, Cypresses, &c., should be planted out in June or July, and not later than August. In warm districts, where frosts are not severe, gums (if properly hardened off) can also be planted. They will then he well established before the hot weather sets in. In cool districts, where- frosts are severe, gums should not be set out until all danger is past. In lifting the gums for transplanting, great care must be taken not to injure or expose the roots. Allow as much earth as possible to remain on the roots ; on gums every root is required. If reduced when transplanted into a new soil and position, the remaining roots will be unable to supply the stem and foliage with .sufficient moisture. Hence, so many deaths, through the moisture passing away from the stem growth faster than the roots can supply the sap waste. Gums should be planted out in their permanent place when young and small, say, from 4 to 12 months old. Great care should be taken to exclude all stock from the plantations. As rabbits do great injury to many of the .seedling trees and plants wire netted fences will be a necessity in most localities. Form of Entry for Tree Planting Competition. Full address The Secretary for T.ands, Melbourne. T hereby notify that I wish to be recorded as a comjielitor in the Tree- Planting Competition, in accordance with the jMiblisherl conditions. Situation of property Parish Area Allotment Section Full name of owner Signature Date lo Nov., 1911.] To Start Farming. 733 TO START FARMING. 11.— HINTS FOR BEGINNERS. Wm. Gamble, Farm Superintendent, Dookie Agricultural College. Among the hundreds of people now going on the land in Victoria under the Closer Settlement Scheme are many who have had no experience of farming under local conditions. This class will include all immigrants who take up blocks, as well as those of our own people who are taking up land for the first time. The main difficulty for them will lie in deciding on the branch of farm- ing that will suit them best. And this decision must be influenced by two main considerations : — First, the necessity of obtaining returns in the shortest time possible; and, second, that the amount of ready cash avail- able for equipping the farm is, in most cases, strictly limited. Having decided on the branch to be followed, there remains the problem, " What is the irreducible minimum of expenditure on necessary live stock, plant, and improvements?" The following notes are written in the hope that they m ly be of .some .ser\ice in assisting such beginners during the first three months. The Choice of a Branch. Farming may be divided into two classes: — {a) Dry farming; {b) Irrigation farming. The latter class will be dealt with in these notes. Take for granted that the settler has ^£300 at his disposal, and that a block has been secured in an irrigation area, say, 50 acres, at ^^lo per acre. The freehold of this block may be obtained by 31I annual payments cf ^30 each ; this is equal to an annual rental of 12s. per acre. There are several branches from which the .settler mav make a choice, e.g., 1. Dairying, combined with pigs and poultry; 2. Growing cereals, for grain and hay; 3. Growing fruit for local and oversea markets: 4 .\Iarket gardening (including potato-growing and onion-growing) ; 5. Sheep for the production of export lambs and wool; 6. Wine making ; raisin and currant production. Of these branches, I consider that, for the axerage settler, dairying (with pigs and poultry) offers the best i)rospects. The climate and .soil of Victoria are particularly well adapted for dairying, and the markets are assured. The export trade in butter is firmly established, it amoun'.ed to 25,000 tons for the 1910-11 .season, and the London market can ab.sorb any surplus of the local markets, .so that the industry can be regarded as a jiermaiK^nt one The settler who commences with small lots of live stock, and graduallv increases llum as means allow, cannot go very far wrong. Until the farm is well established, he should be constantly o:ir the watch to avoid incurring umicccssary expense. He should look W(>11 ahead niid ( ultivate a sufficient area to provide ample fodder for the stork, and should consume on the farm all the fodder he grows, turning it int.> butter, bacon, and «'ggs. He will fnid no more |)rcfitable method of dis- posing of his crops. Imi'Kovemknts on the Farm. L'lvler theCrcilit I'"i>nricr system, adv.nucs are matl- bv th.' Lands Pur- chase Hoard for sut h improvements as out buildings, grading, channeling. 734 Journal of A^ncuUurc , Victoria. [lo Nov., 191 1. &c. The amount borrowed may be repaid in lialf yearly instalments at the rate of ^4 15s. yd. per cent, of the loan. This extinguishes the debt in fifteen years. On taking pos.session, the first consideration will be a covering of some kind for the settler himself. If he be a married man, a house will be a necessity, but, while he is finding his feet, an unpretentious building should meet all requirements. For a single man, a tent will be sufficient and, if pro{)erly erected, mav be made very comfortable. Fencing and Oni-hiiiIdi)igs. Fencing: — This will consist at first of a boundary fence, one subdivi- sional paddock, and yards. Out-buildings : — A small stable for two horses and a milking shed of corrugated iron, with a solid floor. I rnplenients, Plant, g^c. The following equipment will be necessary to enable the settler to develop the farm properly : — Cultivation im-plcmcnts—- £ s. d. I 7 O G Plough, one-furrow (or two-furrow, _^8) Harrows, two-horse set lever ... ... ... 3 10 o Swinglebars, two-horse set ... ■• ■-. 100 I I I o o Harness — Two collars, £2 ; two backhands ami chains, 15s. ; two hames, 15s. ; two winkers, 15s. ; saddle aua breeching, £t, ; pluu^'li lines an quite sufficient for the farmer's requirements. lo Nov., 19 rr.] Farm Blacksmiihing. 741 ^ @ ZS- -SI AW Twisting. Like bending, twisting can be performed it a red heat without causing loss of strength. I uisting is necessary in numerous cases ; for 'iistance, if a lians.cr, similar to that shown in l-'ig. .^4, or a flat bar to be used as a stay ( ^' 'g- 35)» requires to be made. Very little description is requisite to en- able one to twist a bar of iron. If the bar be flat like those illustrated, the position of the twist should he marked with the centre punch, heated and coolefl similarly to when making a bend ; with the slight differenre that the length of heated part requires to be equal to the breadth of the bar. To twist round to the flesired angle, one end may be held in the vice or the fork-tool, and the other turned around with a pair of tongs, or a dog; or two pairs of tongs may be used, one on each end. Split Link.s. A si)lit link is one of the m^ost useful articles that the farmer requires. It also aff. rds a good exercise for a beginner at acksmitiiing. The best way to make one is to cut off from a bar a piece of sufficient length. Then point each end wedge-shaped, and afterwards bend each end to a semicircular shape, as shown in Fig. 36Z' ; finally bend in the centre. To find the length to cut off before working in the fire, add the thick- ness of the iron to the inside breadth of the link and multiply the sum by 3I. To the product add twice the difference bftwccn tlie inside length and inside breadth. This will give the neat measurement. To this amount something will need to be added to allow fori wasting away in the fire, as well as for imperfections in working on the anvil. To attempt to fix this anioinit definitely would be impossible, becau.se a gofjd cpiirk workman would not waste as much as a sinw or careless one. Conse- (luently the l)est advice that can be given is : - Firstly, ascertain the amount by calculation that would be needed if no waste t<;ok place and the workmanshij) were perfect ; secondly, follow the description given as clasely as [)f»ssible ; thirdly, study the shajn' of the article. Hy so doing the careful and observant man will find out what allowance- suits his own re(]uirements. ;\ go(vl tra htrd under notice has been bred \\\) from the ordinarv (■'•ossbrcfl ccnvs, which were '" picked up " anywh<'re to commence dairying. A pure Jersev bull has always Iwen used, thr one at prej-ent on the farm being of the Werribee Park strain. .\s each vear arlds its quota of heifers, most <,f the cows are voung. Last year, although there were six two vear dlds in the her they may obtain. Speaking generally, it may be conceded that the reason for the better jirices obtained in Germany, over those of the United Kingdom, is due to the superior system of marketing which obtains in the former country. The spacious auction rooms in Hamburg give buyers opportunities to ex- amine a far larger percentage of consignments than is possible in Covent Garden and other London miarkets. The general merits of our fruits have, therefore, a better chance of being displayed in Hamburg than they have in London. Speaking of the latter centre, it may be remarked that advices show that the prices obtained from private sales of fruit seem much better than those received from sales by public auction. New Centres.— -It seems a pity that better facilities do not exist for direct shipments to many large distributing centres in the United Kingdom and on the Continent. Many of these, such as Hull, Manchester, Glas- gow, Bremen, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Stockholm, and others cannot be reached except by transhipment, and the experience of exporters, w-ho have tried to ship direct to clients in these centres, has not been of a nature to encourage a continuance of these ventures. This, in thr opinion of the writer, constitutes a serious drawback to the expansion of the ex port trade. Those interested in this matter are reconuiicndtd to read the very able report bv Mr. U. \'. Ilillis and published in the Journal of l;;st March, on the i)ossibilities of Manchester as a port to whicii our fruits may be shipped direct. This city and Hull seem to be the two ports which could be at present cxploitrd with most advantage. It should be rememliered that the latter ptrt aninially imports more than three times the value of tlie tetween Vancouver and Aus- tralia. When such is available, shippers may confidently turn their attent'oa to forwarding shipments to that port The following is a list of boats which sailed at different periods of the season together with a statement of temperatures at which the fruit was carried, and the highest, lowest and average prices obtained. Variety of Fruit. Prices Realized. W s. d. I ^ Per Somerset (Federal-Houlder-Sliire line), sailed 13th February. Fruit sold in London, 29th March. (Fruit arrived in first class condition, and met with a ready sale. This vessel brought a large quantity of "Williams' Bon Chretien pears, which were of excellent qiialitv degrees. ) Apples. Alfriston Annie Elisabeth . . Clironical Cleopatra Cox's Orange Pippin Dumelow's Seedling Emperor Alexander Gravenstein Jonathan Kentish Filbasket King of the Pippins London Pippin Munroe's Favourite Peasgood's Xono- such Prince Bismarck . . Ueiiiette de Canada Ribston Pippin Scarlet Pearniain . . Tower of Glamis . . Pears. Beauty . . Beurre Bosc Beurre Capiaumont Beurre Clairgeau . . Beurre d'Anjou Doyenne Bussoch . . Howell . . Xapoleon Vicar of Winkfield Williams' Bon Chre- tien Plums. Light plums (in cases containing 3 trays) Temperature, 30 11 6 11 3 11 0 12 0 12 6 11 0 35 12 6 9 0 207 12 0 10 0 9 U 0 11 0 573 13 6 10 0 90 20 0 8 0 109 15 6 10 0 30 12 6 9 0 136 14 0 9 0 910 15 6 10 0 73 11 6 9 6 20 14 6 12 6 197 11 0 9 0 181 14 0 9 0 40 15 0 9 3 6 11 0 10 0 341 11 0 8 0 161 14 6 8 9 88 13 6 8 3 13 U 0 11 0 ., 11 0 11 0 16 10 0 9 6 59 13 0 9 9 59 13 6 9 3 72 14 0 10 0 236 12 0 7 9 116 12 0 9 0 52 9 3 9 3 49 11 6 11 6 3,833 19 0 9 9 5 40 0 40 0 11 0 13 6 10 0 15 0 10 6 9 6 11 6 10 6 11 0 11 0 9 9 11 0 10 9 12 9 11 9 11 0 9 3 11 6 Variety of Fruit. Prices Realized. 6 cm > W ^-i -rj . . s. d. s. d. s. d. Per Macedonia (P. and 0. Co), sailed 28th February. Fruit sold in London, 11th April. (Fruit arrived in excellent condition, and met a ready market. Made good prices. Tlie fruit was carried at a temperature of from 38 to 40 degrees.) Apples. Adam's Pearniain Alfriston Annie Elisabetli Cleoijatra Cox's Orange Pippin Dumelow's Seedling Emperor Alexander Hoover . . Jonathan Kentish Filbasket King of the Pippins London Pippin Munroe's Favourite Purity Reinette de Canada Eibston Pippin Rome Beauty Pears. Beurre Capiaumont Beurre Easter Vicar of Winkfleld Per Barbnrossa (Xorth German Lloyd), 1st Marcli. Fruit sold in Hamburg 20th April. (Quality lelt much to be desired, fruit somewhat " spottv," and generally of poor appnarr.nce. Demand was extremely strong. Good j)rices obtained.) Apples. Annie Elisabeth . . Cleopatra Cox's Orange Pippin Dumelow's Seedling Emperor Jonathan London Pippin King of the Pippins Munroe's Favourite Rtinctte de Canada 72 13 6 12 0 27 12 6 10 0 5 15 0 15 0 750 14 6 12 6 79 19 0 13 0 161 16 0 13 0 42 12 6 12 0 18 13 6 13 0 2.697 16 0 11 6 58 12 6 11 0 23 13 6 13 0 754 14 6 12 0 388 19 0 11 0 83 13 0 13 0 263 13 6 10 0 21 13 6 10 6 37 12 6 12 0 6 10 0 10 0 10 11 0 11 0 164 10 6 9 0 13 0 11 0 15 0 13 6 15 0 14 6 12 3 13 3 13 6 11 9 13 3 13 0 12 6 13 0 11 6 11 6 12 3 10 0 11 0 10 0 sailed. 9 14 9 14 9 576 IS 6 10 0 75 15 9 13 3 111 15 0 lU 0 30 12 0 12 0 8(12 17 6 11 9 138 16 3 11 0 32 12 6 12 6 352 15 6 11 0 575 u; 0 7 9 14 9 13 0 13 8 12 8 12 0 14 4 13 9 12 6 14 0 lo Nov., 1911.] Tlie Fruit Export Trade, Season igii. 753 Variety of Fruit. Pears. Beurr6 Bosc Napoleon Vicar of Winkfield Prices Realized. 1 60 5 3 < s. rf. s. d. s. a. 21 9 21 9 21 9 18 3 17 0 1" 11 19 3 12 0 15 1 Per Rostock (German- Australian Lino), sailed 4th March. Fruit sold in Hamburg 2oth April. (Fruit arrived in good condition, and sold at good prices.) Apples. Adam's Pearmain American Beauty . . Annie Elisabeth . . Ben Davis Cleopatra Cox's Orange Pippin Dumelow's Seedling Esopus Spitzenburgh Gravenstein Jonathan London Pippin Munroe's Favourite Queen Caroline Reinette de Canada Ribston Pippin Rome Beauty Rymer Willow Twig Pears. Beurre Clairgoau . . Glou Morceau Neverfail Vicar of Winkfield 5 15 0 15 0 12 12 0 12 0 1U8 16 6 9 6 5 10 6 10 6 1,082 21 0 11 0 11 10 9 9 6 35 12 6 11 0 26 14 9 12 3 2 11 6 11 6 703 16 9 10 6 128 14 3 11 0 616 16 6 9 (1 24 17 9 17 0 370 14 0 9 0 25 9 9 8 0 5 11 6 10 3 45 12 0 10 9 47 13 3 13 0 66 19 0 15 0 51 20 3 16 9 5 20 6 20 6 314 14 6 7 0 15 0 12 (1 13 3 10 6 14 4 10 3 12 1 13 3 11 6 13 10 12 3 12 4 17 6 10 10 8 9 11 0 11 6 13 1 15 11 16 11 20 6 12 10 Per Telamon'^ {'&\\xc Funnel Line), sailed 7th March. Fruit sold in London 24th April. (Apples arrived in fair condition, and of good colour. Some pears were over-ripe, and were condemned. .Temperature, 38 to 42 degrees.) Applks. Adam's Pearmain Alfriston Annie Elisabeth . . Cleopatra Cox's Orange Pippin Dumelow's Seedling Ivsopus Spitzenburgh Jonathan King of the Pippins London Pippin -Munroe's Favourite I'riiicc ISismarck Keinclte do Canada Rnuie J$fiauty Ribston Pippin Kymcr . . Stone Pippin Pears. Bcurr6 Clairgcau . . BiMirrC' d'.-Vnjou Josephine Napoleon Vicar of Winkllold Winter Nolis tfnlt-rni;t. \"u-:iv <)| Winkllcld I. mil. 87 13 6 9 3 38 10 6 10 0 75 12 0 9 9 637 13 6 10 6 (i3 15 0 10 0 357 13 6 10 6 6 11 0 8 9 2,698 14 6 9 0 10 11 0 11 0 681 12 6 9 6 325 12 6 9 3 63 11 6 10 I) 1,374 11 0 9 0 13H 12 0 10 I) 29 11 0 9 0 24 10 6 9 3 15 10 6 10 6 24 12 (i 6 0 34 13 6 4 0 103 14 6 1(1 6 « 8 3 4 0 291 11 0 5 6 103 17 0 10 0 88 7 !> 4 0 9 3 13 0 5 0 9 II 14 0 Variety of Fruit. Prices Realized. _^. .c % M' M 1^ < \ d. s. 4. s. d. I'cr Olranto (Orient Co.), sailed 23rd March. Fruit sold in' London 2nd May. (Condition-QfTfruit not very satisfactory. Some pears were over-ripe. Temperature 3.5 to 40 degrees. ) Apples. Ben Davis Cleopatra Dumelow's Seedling Esopus Spitzenburgh Jonathan London Pippin Munroe's Favourite Pomnie de Neige . . Reinette de Canada Ribston Pippin Rome Beauty Kymer Pears. Broompark Josephine L'lnconnue Madame Cole Vicar of Winkfield Winter Neli-: Grapes . . 54 10 0 9 0 322 12 6 9 3 6 11 0 li 0 93 1(1 6 7 6 900 12 0 7 3 853 11 0 8 6 539 11 0 6 9 33 11 0 10 0 231 9 6 7 6 9 9 6 9 6 564 10 6 9 0 43 10 0 8 9 152 10 6 6 0 80 10 6 5 0 97 11 0 8 6 14 10 6 4 3 114 10 6 3 0 116 17 0 5 9 19 9 (1 5 6 9 6 10 6 11 0 8 6 9 6 9 6 9 0 10 6 8 S 9 6- 9 6 9 3 Per Omieto (Orient Co.), sailed Ijstji A]iril. Fruit soldin London 30th JIay. (Fruit arrived in excellent condition, with the- exception of .some pears, which were over-ripe. Temperature, from 34 to 38 degrees.) APPLES. Cleopatra Dumelow's Seedling Esopus Spitzenburgh Exporter .Jonathan London Pippin Aluurue's Favourite Xewton Pippin Niekajack I'erfietidli PoniTue de Neigc Reiu4'tte de Caniula Rome Beauty Rymer Statesman Stone rippin St\irmer J'ipiiin I'K.ARS. Kruonipark Jo.se|)liine Keilfer's Hybrid . . Le Conte. . L'lnconnue Madam Cole Winter Kerganiot . . Winter .\ell^ 172 11 0 9 0 42 1(1 6 8 6 424 12 0 7 9 301 10 6 10 0 403 11 6 8 6 974 10 0 6 0 484 10 6 8 3 223 12 6 10 0 18 9 9 g 9 75 10 0 9 6 8 10 6 10 6 106 9 9 7 6 932 11 6 8 0 264 10 6 8 6 20 10 « 9 3 225 10 0 9 6 152 ID 0 9 6 75 11 *l 8 3 45 20 0 11 0 12 16 9 6 6 44 12 6 11 0 52 14 0 10 6 t U 6 11 6 37 11 0 10 6 t»5 20 0 9 0 9 9 9 6 9 6 10 » 10 0 8 & 9 3- 11 0 9 9 9 3 10 6 8 6 9 3. 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 6 15 0 6 0 11 ft 12 3 11 6 11 0 15 3. 2 V. 754 Journal of A. gri culture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 1911 Prices Realized. ^• d X oc '% « a »i; s. d. s d. «. d. Variety of Fruit. Per Mooltan (P. and O.), sailed 9th May. Fruit .sold in London 19th June. (Fruit was landed in a fairly good condition. There was a glut of fruit on the market. Tem- perature from 38 to 40 degree.s.) Apples. Cleopatra . . 5 6 9 6 6 6 0 Dumelow's Seedling 21 7 0 6 3 6 6 EsopusSpitzenburgh 335 6 9 3 6 5 3 Hoover . . . . 183 5 3 3 6 4 3 London Pippin . . 674 6 6 2 0 5 6 Munroe's Favourite 501 6 3 4 9 5 6 Newton Pippin . . 413 7 6 5 0 6 3 Nickajack .. 113 7 3 5 3 5 9 Variety of Fruit. APPLES — continued. Rokewood Rome Beauty Rymer Statesman Stone Pippin Sturmer Pippin Yates Peaks. Broompark Black Achan Glou Morceau Le Conte . . L'lncounue Prices Realized. _^j o 2 % g W ■< .\Af:^ : heavy, cspcrially Jonatlian, Sturmer Pipjun, and London Pippin. Pears : light. Warncoort. — .Apricots : heavy. .Apples : he.ivv, Jonathan especiallv. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 1911. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from page 66 j.) C. F. Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Grafting. Although grafting is a very old method of propagation, it i.s still largely [practised and is likely to be. Its value as a means of testing the utility (jf new seedlings and varieties, whether for stock purposes or resistance to disease, must l)e recognized amongst propagators as one of, if not, the greatest of crafts practised in Horticulture. For example, the hybridizer is enabled to prove or disprove within a few years from sowing whether a seedling is of any value, commercially or otherwise ; also, it can be ascertained whether a new variety is suitable to .any particular soil or climate. As a general rule, seedlings take many years before they become fruitful ; but, by working a scion of. say, a seedling pear upon a quince tree, using ,a terminal branch, it will soon become fruitful. Budding is superior to- grafting only in this respect that it enables one to perpetuate more quickly a greater quantity from a given variety. A scion carrying four wood buds, if used in grafting, produces one tree ; but, by resorting to budding, it is possible tO' raise four distinct trees. Since the well known Jonathan apple was introduced to Victoria from the United States, where it is known under tlie names of King Philip and Philip Rick^ hundreds of thousands of trees of this variety have been propagated from a single bud ox scion, chiefly by budding. Grafting has, however, many merits that give it preference over bud- ding when practised upon certain kinds and varieties of fruits to gain a desired result. The manual operation of grafting is not so easily per- formed as that of budding. It requires more vigour and skill when making the cuts. Yet, with practice and a suitable knife, (Fig. i), it is easily accomplished. There are many methods of grafting in vogue, but only two will be dealt with, viz., whip-tongue, and bark for practising in the field. Even with these two methods, the manner of making the cuts upon the stock and scion differs somewhat. This is controlled by the parts to be operated upon. Each method will be described in detail so as to enable the operator tO' obtain the best results. Ground Grafting. Ground grafting may be practised in cases where the inserted buds have failed to unite with the stocks, through injury or other causes, and after cutting off is finished, i.e., heading or reducing the stocks back to the united buds. If the grafting is done when the sap is starting to rise in the stocks it gives the propagator a second chance of producing a yearling tree, equally as fast ,as one from a bud in.serted in the previous summer. The operator should first provide himself with a whetstone, a strop for his knives, a folded wheat sack for lise as a kneeling pad, a supply of prepared raffia, and a small shallow box to hold the stone and knives, and also the scions which should be previously cut into the required lengths. It is advisable to have two knives; one for doing the rough cutting, i.e., reducing the stocks ready for grafting. To do this, take hold of the stock by the top with one hand, and with the other place the knife in position. Then bend the stock slightly towards to Nov.. 197 T .] Propagation of Fruit Trees. ':^9 the body, at the same time making a clean upward cut aljout 2 in. in length and quarter the way through the stock. Deftly turn the blade of the knife, and sever with a clean cut the same as when cutting off a budded stock. If the stocks to be operated upon are .small or medium sized, this upward cut may be made right through from one side to the other — ^the same as the downward cut upon the scion. If the latter cut is practised upon a well grown stock, the scion when placed in position will be some- what oblique, particularly if the cut is made short. But, if cut like Fig. 38, it will be in a perfectly vertical position. Having roughly made the cut upon the stock, pare away the cut until it has a smooth, level surface. Then Ijack off the terminal end of the stock, leaving a short sloping cut. This should be made upwards, as shown in Fig. 38. The reason for making the short cut at the back of the stock is to prevent any moisture, when it is moulded up with earth, following down the scion 38. GROUND GRAFTING Willi' TONGUE METHOD. (( ;iii(l ii. StDi-k and scion ]irii]iri-ly ciil, c. I'liitt'cl icailx for liindiiii;'. (/. licJimd rr:ul.\ tor luoiildin^. and interfering wilh the unodv mattiT thai fnniis the callus and unites the scion and sto<-k. When ludkiiig the tongue upon the stock. i)ress the blade of the knife downwards auLJ clo.se to the terminal end of the stock (I'ig. 38). and upwards in thi' scion. 'I'liis tongue will hold tlie stock and scion lirnily together until bound. When selecting cuttings lor making scions, .stv that they carry healthy wood and not l>looni buds. Scions for ground grafting should not be cut long ; two buds above the united ])arts will be ample (Fig. 38. /'. c. if). When the sl(K'k and .scion .ire iirei)ared. place the hitter in [.osition. and exerci.se car<- in .seeing that the caml)ium of the scion tits exactly that of the stock upon the one side (Fig. 38 <). When placed in position, the lower eml ol the .scion should not owrlaj) the cut ujion the sto<-k. II so, an ugly join will be the result. 760 JourJial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Nov., 191 1. After the scion is properly fixed start binding below the union where marked thus x. Work upwards, and see that the union is well covered; firmly bind and finish off as shown in Fig 38 d. The scions may be small, but not larger than the stock to be operated upon, Cut the scions, if possible, so as to leave a bud near the bottom (Fig. 38 b, c), and alsO' a bud near the top of the stock (Fig. 38 a). Such buds attract the rising sap and greatly facilitate union taking place. Ground Grafting Large Stocks. When whip-tongue grafting large stocks in the nursery rows, one side of the stock opposite to that upon which the scion is placed should be cut away. Make this cut the same as that for placing the scion upon, but not so far down the stock (Fig. 39 a). The advantage of treating such stocks in this manner is that the growth of the scion will cover over the face of the cut upon the stock during the first season, whilst the expan- sion from the cambium at the side cut will callus over, mak- ing a neat and perfect union. Bark Grafting Methods. Another way of treating large stocks is to bark graft them. This operation may be per- formed in two ways. The first method is to cut the stock close to the ground and straight across, using a small saw (Fig. 40 a). Then pare the cut neatly, and press the blade of the knife through the bark to the cambium, making a vertical incision about i in. in length. Prepare the scion the same as in whip-tongue method ; then make a straight inward cut at the upper end of the sloping cut upon the scion and three-quar- ters of the way through. Now pare down, making a smooth level surface and thus forming a heel (Fig. 40 b). Gently raise the bark upon each side and ,at the upper end of the incision made in the stock, and insert the lower end of the prepared scion. Gently force the latter between the bark and wood until the heel upon the scion is resting upon the level top of the stock when it will be in position and ready for binding (Fig. 40 c). Bind firmly and well. The advantage of cutting the scion with a heel is that the expansion of the scion across the top of the stock is quicker than when cut without. When bark grafting, do not select large scions ; if so, the part to be inserted will have to be pared well down, so as to bring the cambium upon the scion in direct contact with that of the stock. In whip-tongue grafting, the scion rests upon a level surface and the cambium upon the one outer edge of stock and scion, being in direct contact, if placed correctly 39. ground grafting large stocks. a. Stock ready for sc-ioii. b. Scion in position and ready for l)in(lin'4. lo Nov., 1 9 II.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 76r together. On the other hand, in bark grafting, that portion of the stock upon which the scion rests, and wliere unity takes place, is somewhat rounded. Bark grafting can only b,- carried out when the bark lifts readily upon the stocks. This is when the sap is flowing freely. The second method of bark grafting is performed by treating the stock .some- what simihirh- to the 4i. BARK GRAFTING METHOD. a. Prepared stock, side view. h. Kroiit view. c. Scion iiiserteuld- ing. If so, the first heavy rain will wash the .soil away from the grafts, lie careful not to kncK'k out anv l)U(ls ujxmi (he scions. Do not i)lace the .scions upon tin- stccks below ground level as they are apt to shoot roots. Witli most of the fruits in general cultivation this must l>e avoidiil. Wlicii union has thoroughly taken place and tin- callus hardened, the .soil should be removetl 40. BARK GRAFTING METHODS. Stock prepared for scion. 6. Scion, c. Scion in.serted in stock and ready for bindinjj. d. Bound ready for mouldinj?. whip-tongue method, the sloping cut through the stock being made shorter (Fig. 41 a). The scion is cut the same ;is in the whip-tongue method and forced down between the bark and stock. This method renders the tying somewhat diffi- cult, owing to the raffia slipping upon the slanting cut. After the .scion is inserted, nick the top portion of the laised bark of the stock upon each side of the scion, i.e., if the bark upon the stock is thick. This will allow the bark when binding to close well down to the stock again. Moulding Ground Grafts. After firmlv bimlinif the grafts, it will 42. WHll'-TONGUE METHOD. Hi iicli vriilled slock ri'iuly tor plnntin^. 762 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Nov., 1911. about the grafts, thus preventing the scions from rooting. The planter should never plant trees beloAV the graft or bud, but keep these parts well above ground level- When practising the ground method of grafting upon the apple, it is better to bind with waxed paper or calico. Grafts bound with raffia, and properly moulded with earth, will not require aittention as far as the bind- ing, cutting into the expanding stock, and scion are concerned. Grafting stone fruits should be carried out much earlier than seed. The end of July or early August is the best time. Cuttings should not be used for scions if the buds have started to break. The stocks may be in leaf but the scions must be dormant. When heeling in cuttings for grafting purposes, make a fresh cut at the apex end and press them well down in the soil until they rest upon a firm bottom .sO' as to encourage callusing. Cuttings so treated may be lifted and buried in moist sand or soil to keep them back for late grafting. When bench grafting rooted stocks, they should be planted out when finished, and moulded, i.e., if bound with raffia. This treatment does not apply to vines which are first placed in a callusing box. The writer's practice, when grafting vines in the field, was tO' keep the cuttings well back until the stocks to be grafted were out in leaf. Bleeding is not sd .severe at this period as when the buds are first mo\ing. ij^o he continued.). ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pcscott, Principal, Horticultural School, Burnley. The Orchard. Pests. As a preventive against codlin moth, the trees should be kept well sprayed with arsenate of lead. It has been definitely ascertained that this is the best remedy and all other mixtures should be discarded in its favour. Its permanent qualities, combined with an effective killing strength, render this mixture invaluable; at the same time, it is easily mixed, and so very few brands leave any sediment, that the work of spraying is now reduced to a minimum. If the spraying is careful and thorough, no bandaging need be carried out. The time spent in bandaging will l)e far better employed in an extra spraying. The first spraying should have been given at the time of the falling of the petals ; the second spraying, owing to the rapid expansion of the fruit, should be given a fortnight later. After that, the grower must use bis own judgment as to the necessity for subsequent sprayings. If the moths be at all prevalent, other sprayings will be (juickly necessary. For the cherrv slug, arsenate of lead mav be u.sed. except where the cherries are approaching ripeness ; hellebore, lini*'. or tobacco water should then be used. Cultivation. The work of ploughing and harrowing should be completed imme- diatelv. The frequent rains have rendered (nilti\ation easy, and there should I)e no difficulty in carrying out this work at once. It is always advisable to have the land well tilled before the dry weather sets in. lo Nov., 191 1-] Orcliard and Garden Notes. 763 All crops for green manure should be now under cover ; and, if the orchard soil is at all heavy or sticky, the grower should make up his mind to grow a cover crop next season in order that this condition may be reduced. The orchard should be kept free from weeds, not only for the conser- vation of moisture, but in order to do away with all hiding places of the Rutherglen fly, cut worm moths, &c. (lENERAL ^^"ORK. Grafted and newly planted trees should be frequently examined, and given an occasional watering and overhead spraying, in order to encourage their growth and to prevent loss of moisture from the foliage. It is also advisable to mulch young trees with light grass or straw mulching, not t rich in animal manure. The disbudding of unnecessary shoots, and the pinching back or stop- ping of growths, to prevent them being unduly prolonged, mav now be carried out. This work is particularly important on young trees. Graft ties should be examined, and the ties cut wherever any growth is being made. Where the grafts are likely to make any long growth, they should be well staked and tied. Citrus trees may l>e planted out. watering and mulching them after planting. Vegetable Garden. Celery may now be sown for winter crops. French beans should be largely sown. Cucumber, melon, pumpkin, and all seeds of this family may now be sown in the open. Where these plants are already growing, the longest and strongest runners may be pinched back, to throw the strength into the flowering and lateral growths. Watch these plants for mildew, and use the sulphur freely wherever present, especially on the young plants. Peas, lettuce, radish, turnip, cabbage, and sweet corn seeds may be sown this month. Seedlings from former sowings may be planted out. and it may be well to dip the whole plant in water before planting. This greatly assists the young plant while taking hold of the soil in its new location. Frequent waterings and frequent cultivation will now be necessary, and all weeds must be hoed or hand weeded out; mulching with stable manure will greatly assist the plants. A few beds should now be deeply worked, adding a liberal dressing of stable manure. These plots will be then ready for the celery, cabliage, and other .seeds planted during this month. Tomato plants will now require constant attention, watering, staking, thinning and pinching back the laterals. Flo"wer Garden. Continue lo plant out various Ijcdding and foliage plants, cornis of gladioli, and .seeds of such tender annuals as phlox drummondi. balsam, zinnia, nasturtium, celosia, aster, cosmos, and portulaca. While .seeds germinate and grow fairly well planted out in the open, it is more advisable during the r.ummer months to plant them in sheltered seed beds, or in a canvas or calico frame. The protear, a iieavy surplus has been left on the hanfis of growers and merchants, with the result that the market has become completely disorganized. The imjiortance of the interests concerned has been so great and flu- outcries so cii.ph itic that, for the last fifteen years or so, the (»overnment has been endeavour- ing l)v special legislation to dodge the economic Nemesis that threatens Greek ( urranl growers. It is unnecessary to detail all the expedients that they have resorted to; it may be stated, however, that for the mf)st part they appear to iiave been illusory. In ultimate resort, the further idanting of lurrant vines has been j)rohil)ited by law, anrl a new law has been intr.Kiuccd, giving jiower to the Privileged Currant Company to cause the uprooting of surplus vineyards, subject to the payment of adequate compensation. • Joiininl 0/ the Deiiarlnifnl of AgriruUitrf al Smil/i Aiislriiliii. .-Vllttiist 1010. p. 27. 768 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., ipii- VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Continued from page 700.) H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Competition. | No. of Position in Breed. Name of Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. August. Sept. Date (6 tion. months). 12 40 White Leghorn W. G. Swift A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 615 612 162 143 777 755 1 2 31 " R. W. Pope 588 145 733 3 33 „ Range Poultry Farm (Qld.) H. McKenzie 531 143 674 4 20 505 151 656 5 37 " E. Waldon 505 141 646 6 18 " S. Brundrett 506 131 637 7 13 46 Black Orpington . . Minorca D. Fisher . . G. W. Chalmers 485 452 124 151 609 603 8 9 32 Silver Wyandotte . . M. A. Jones 444 128 572 10 21 25 White Leghorn R. L . Appleford B. Mitchell 425 421 139 143 564 564 }" 44 Black Orpington . . T. S. Goodisson 428 127 555 13 55 White Leghorn W. G. McLister 412 140 552 14 66 White Wyandotte J. E. Bradley 429 113 542 15 39 White Leghorn A. W. Hall 400 133 539 16 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacy 439 95 534 17 •67 White Leghorn C. L. Sharman 397 133 530 18 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdon 402 121 523 19 36 White Legliorn F. A. Sillitoe 390 131 521 20 51 J. W. McArthur 406 114 520 1 -^^ 9 " J. O'Loughlin 390 130 520 44 " Mrs. C. K. Smee 375 138 513 1 23 1 " A. Brebner 380 133 513 4 Golden Wyandotte H. BeU 370 135 505 25 19 White Leghorn A. Jaques 371 133 5O4 26 24 F. Hannaford 379 119 498 27 3 " K. Gleghorn 361 131 492 28 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 371 117 488 29 08 FaveroUes K. Courtenay 356 128 484 30 50 White Leghorn C. H. Busst 338 142 48O 1 31 28 J. Campbell 339 141 48O 1 5 L. C. Payne 349 128 477 33 49 " W. J. Thornton 324 146 470 34 42 White Orpington . . P. Mitchell 355 114 469 35 65 Wliite Leghorn H. Hammill (N.S.W.) 333 135 468 \ 36 27 Hill and Luckman . . 341 127 468 2 " E. P. Nash 318 141 459 38 45 " T. ICempster 315 140 455 39 41 Morgan and Watson . . 333 121 454 40 47 C. W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 318 134 452 41 g T. W. Goto 343 107 450 42 60 " J.J. Harrington 314 132 446 43 59 W. H. Dunlop 308 136 444 44 54 F. Hodges 338 99 437 45 43 '' W. B. Crellin 304 128 432 46 30 Black Orpington . . Rodgers Bros. 282 144 426 47 11 Brown Leghorn F. Soncum 286 136 422 48 62 White Leghorn ' P. Hodson . . 278 136 414 49 52 W. J. McKeddie 274 138 412 1 50 53 A. Stringer 284 128 412 57 G. E. Edwards 271 133 404 52 G Silver Wyandotte . . Mrs. H. J. Richards 267 135 402 I CO 16 Miss A. Cottam 267 135 402 y 53 23 Golden Wyandotte G. E. Brown 282 120 402 J 34 White Leghorn E. Dettman 251 121 372 56 26 F. Seymour 252 117 369 57 7 H. Stevenson 233 123 356 58 61 Silver Wyandotte J. Reade 232 119 351 59 35 White Leghorn J. H. Brain 208 135 343 60 14 Black Orpington . . W. J. Macauley 202 114 316 61 .^6 White Leghorn . . Mrs. C. Thompson . . 190 119 309 62 17 W. J. EckershaU 195 112 307 63 64 J. D. Read 171 131 302 64 15 Minorca H. a. McChesney . . 125 105 230 65 48 .. J. James . . 83 68 151 66 23,054 8,512 31,566 lo Nov.. 1911.] The Broom Fibre Itidustry. 769 THE BROOM FIBRE INDUSTRY. Temfle A. J. Smith, Chief Field Officer. The growing of Broom Corn for the purpose of providing material for the manufacturing of what are known as American House Brooms is an industry capable of greater development in Victoria, and it is one that should be of value to holders of small blocks of land, and particularly so where irrigation is possible. Whilst it has been amply proved that the fibre, of excellent quality, and yielding a good profit, can be grown in many parts of Victoria, considerable quantities are imported annually from oversea, and also from the neighbouring States of the Commonwealth. At the present time, the area under cultivation is approximately 450 acres. The bulk of the locally-grown fibre comes from the Ovens and King River Valleys, where it is grow^n on the alluvial flats having a fair rainfall, or where the land is irrigable. There are many localities in other portions of the State in which the crop could be grown equally well, and I believe that, were the knowledge necessary to produce the crop more generally acquired, the industry would be largely increased and widely distributed. Soils and Manures. Broom corn will grow well wherever maize will thrive. It is a hardier crop than the latter, standing drought to a greater extent, and making better growth under adverse conditions It will not stand frost and is essentially a summer crop. Sandy loams and rich river flats are most suitable ; stiff heavy clays are very unsuitable. Rich chocolate soils will also give good crops. In order to get the best results, the followin^^ fertilizers should be applied about four to six weeks before the s^cd is sown : — Superphosphate ... ... ... ... ... 100 lbs. Bonedust ... ... ... ... ... loo lbs. Sulphate of Ammoni;i ... ... ... ... 50 lbs. Sulphate of Potash ... ... ... ... 30 lbs. The cost of the whole will be, approximately, 20s. per acre. Farm- yard manure, at the rate of 10 tons per acre, is especially valuable. If obtainable, it should be applied in the autumn, and worked into the land. Sowing. The seed should not be planted until the danger of frost is past — from October to December. The land must also be well drained and in a warm condition. If sown in cold wet soils, it is liable to rot and poor germina- tion will result. Seeding at the rate of 4 lbs. per acre is sufficient, if sown regularly ; the drills should l)e 3 ft. apart and the plants 7 to 8 in. in the drills. If sown too thickly, the plants will require to be thinned out, which will add at least 20s. per acre to the lalx)ur hill; the crop will also suffer in both quality and yield, the broom being faulty and of smaller growth. The .seed should never be sown more tlian 2 in. below the surface, as the first shoot is thin and delicate and cannot force its way through, if sown deeply. As seed is so cheap and is re(iuired in such small c|uantilies, it is advisable to grade it, and to sow only heavy samples. Many growers 77° journal of Agncnliure, Victoria. [lo Nov., 1911. immerse the seed in water and float the light seed to the surface; the latter is then skimiiied off and thrown to the fowls. It is also wise to treat the seed with a 2 per cent, solution of bluestone. similarly to wheat iind oats. I . CROI' OF BROOM MILLET. Maize sowers are now titted to sow broom seed ; and, in clean sandy .soils, the hand Planet Jr. seed sower answers well. Cultivation. The land should be fallowed and well worked through the winter to kill the weeds and to get the land in good order. Firming the land with a roller before drilling i.s a good system. As soon as the young plants .are 4 to 6 in. high the whole field should be harrowed. If slightly on the JO Nov. T lie Broom Fibre Industry. 771 thick side, an extra harrowing can be given, always working across tlie drills. Until the crop is 6 or 7 ft. high, it will be necessary to use a Planet Jr. horse hoe between the rows to kee^i down the weeds and to keep the .soil loose on the surface. Where irrigation is practised, two applications of water should suffice; one \vhen the crop is about 12 in. high, and another just after the last hoeing. Sheds. Sheds for drying can be built of bush timber ; provided the roof is watertight, any material will suffice. Plenty of ventilation is an essential, especially under the eaves and gable ends so as to allow the moist air every opportunity of escaping freely. Doors at each end, and sides that can be easily opened up, will be found advantageous, so that the air can be admitted from whichever side the wind is coming;. 2. DRYING .SHED. 'i"he quicker the curing process, the better the sample of fibre, so far as colour is concerned. The green colour is fixed by fast drving, whereas a slow process aflmits of bleaching, which is not desirable. The floors of the shed can Ix* from 2 to 4 ft. apart, one above the other. The former distance economizes the space where shed rooui is not ■-il)undnnt. The 4-ft. hcighl. however, admits of easier working. Harvesting. .A cTfip i)lanted the fust week in Noveinl)ei wdl generally lie readv to harvest in March and .April. The stage at which fibre is cut is important. It should commenie directly the seed V)egins to harden, as it is advisable to have the green colour kept in the fibre. This gives it a greater value. 772 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 191 1. When cut at this stage, the stalks will also be more useful as fodder for stock. In many cases, harvesting is extended over two and sometimes three months, but the colour of the fibre is bound to suffer if the crop is allowed to become over-ripe. As a slight compensation, the seed, how- ever, will develop to a greater extent under such circumstances. There are several methods of harvesting. The most popular, especially where the stalks are required for fodder or silage, is to break down all the stalks to the ground in every fifth row, lapping them on one another the whole length of the row. During the process, the heads are cut off from 4 to 6 in. below the junction of the panicles with the rriain stalk. This operation is performed with a heavy butcher's knife. The 6-in. lengths are left on the short heads and the 4-in. lengths on^ the long. Any sheaths attached to the stalk must be rubbed off, and the heads kept straight in the hand with the butts all one way until a handful is gathered. These are then laid across the stalks on the ground in such a way that the panicles are kept clean of dirt, and the ,air allowed to circulate freelv throughout to dry any surplus moisture as fast as possible. The standing rows are bent over and the tops cut off in the same way and laid on the broken- down row. It is found more expeditious for each cutter to take two rows- at a time ; it will re- quire five quick men to cut an acre in one day. If the crop has been sown thickly it will take longer, as three sm^all heads must be handled as against an equivalent weight in one large head ; the sample will also be inferior. Very small heads and bad heads are better not cut at all, as they will not pay to handle and are also liable to damage the market value of the whole. Once cut, the fibre should not be left in the field more than one day. If rain is feared, the fibre should be taken straight to the curing shed where it should be laid on floors of saplings, battens, or wire-netting to dry. The layers of fibre should not be more than 3 in. in depth and the air should be allowed free circulation from underneath. In conveying- the broom to the shed, the use of large baskets will effect a great saving of time in loading and unloading. In dry weather, the fibre will cure- or dry out in 6 or 7 days ; it can then be bulked with the heads all one way, and the floor used for a fresh supply. In wet weather, it may be necessary to put log fires under the floors to assist in drying out, but this is rarely required. The bulk should be examined every few days to ascertain if heating- is taking place ; if the temperature is rising, it should be broken dowry and re-spread for a day or two. If allowed to heat, the fibre will turre black, and in bad cases will rot away. ROLLER FOR THRESHING. lo Nov., 191 1.] The Broom Fibre Industry 77. Threshing. The seed is threshed by means of a roller — a drum 2 ft. in length and 12 in. in diameter This drum is studded with spikes which are screwed in 4 in. apart, spirally or diagonally. The spikes should be 3 in. in length from the surface of the drum, and the distance between, the rows from 6 to 8 in. A spindle with a pulley on one end is run through the centre of the drum. The roller should be driven by any power available, at the rate of 1,500 revolutions per minute. The draught is very light. Hand power- may be used, but some motive powder will be found best. Where a large quantity is dealt with double rollers are used, the machine being generally home made. A ver\ useful single machine can be bought for ^10. The method of threshing is simple. To do the work expedi- tiously, four hands are required. The first gets the fibre down, and passes the stalks to the second man on the roller, four to five stalks at one time. The seed ends are lighth laid by the latter on the revolving roller, and turned once. By this action, practically all the .seed will be taken off. Care must be taken not to thresh too severely, as damage t^ the brush at the end ol the fibre will be caused. It is better to err ow the light side, if any. When finished, the stalks are thrown on tfi a table where a third man grades the fibre and ties each sample into bundles, about 5 in. in diameter, with twine, and throws them on to the floor of the shed ready for packing. All the crooked or bent broom .should l)e kept separate, and two qualities made of the .straight. The best in length and colour is made the first sami)le. and the shorter and slightly inferir)r. the .second. Illustration \o. 4 shows a tine samiile of first grade millet, known as hurl. The .stalks are rut oft" .ind the liiire put on the outside of the broom. This is quite _' ft. of fine straight fibre and of good colour. Some slightly inferior samples are shown in illustration \o. q. All of tiien-. howe\er, are of value for working into the centre of brooms or for making whisks. As they work in for the same broom they can all be regariled' 4. FIRST GRADE MILLET. 774 Jflnnial of Agricnltiire, Yicloria. [lo Nov., 1911. lo Nov., 1911.] The Broom Fibre Industry 775 as one sample. Plate No- 6 shows bad samples of fibre; C has a bad coarse stalk in the middle, rendering it unfit for a good broom; B and D can only be used for inferior brooms or whisks ; .4 and E cut a great deal of w-aste ; and F is not worth harvesting, and should have been left in the paddock. Care of the Seed. After threshing, the seed should be dried thoroughly. If found to be heating, turn it with a shovel in order to cool it. It should then be well winnowed and bagged. If stored in a dry place, it will keep for years. A 4-bushel bag of seed weighs 200 lbs. and over, whilst poor seed will weigh 160 lbs. or less. Seed Selection. Seed selection should l)e carried out in the field as the crop ripens. Choose only those stalks which show healthy growth, with straight, fine, and long fibre. Before cutting, these should be allowed to ripen until the seed is hard. They should then be marked with a piece of red flannel to distinguish them from the general crop. The varie- ties which give the best results are — Italian, (ireen Missnuri, and Dwarf] Missouri. Haling. Though seldom clone in Victoria.] each sample should be baled separately The operation is performed in a bo> | speciallv made for the purpose. It ha.'- movable sides, and no bottom. The in- side measurements are 42 in. liv 30 in., the sides being 48 in. high. The press is idaced on level ground.] with wires to the number of five placed acro.ss the Ixittom. The fibre is then laid lengthwise in the press, keeping the ijutt to the outside and as level as pos- sible. A falsi' top. with battens nailee con siderablv higlu-r. ranging to J[^^^o per t'ni. 10. AMERICAN HKOO.MS VICTORIAN MANUFACTURE. 7/8 JoKnial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 191 1. In addition to our local market, there should be a fair opening for broom fibre in Tasmania and Western Australia. A sample of Victorian millet sent to England was valued at ^22 per ton, and inquiries made for a supply. Good millet will always pay, and a careful grower will never fall short of a market. On any fairly-equipped farm, the crop can be grown with little expense for machinery ; and, in conjunction with other farming pur- suits, is worthy of a trial in suitable districts. RED POLLS AS MILKERS. Temple A. J. Smith, Chief Field Officer. The following tables show the milking returns from a small herd of Ked Polled Cattle, which has been kept at the Go\-ernment Ibbacco Farm at V\'hitfield for the past milking season. Six of the milkers were on their first calf, six others on their second, and one cow, Beulah, on her fourth. These cows ha\e been fed on the produce of the farm only, no bran or other feed being purchased for them. The natural grasses on the 113 acres on which they were kept are of poor rough quality, but green crops of rye, oats, and mixtures of rye, peas, and vetches have been grown for the herd. Oaten hay has also been liberally fed, together with silage made from rye. peas, vetches, oats, and maize. The cows were selected as heifers by Dr. S. S. Cameron from a herd bred by Mr. M. Evans, of Lima South, who has given special attention to the development of a milking strain of the breed. On several occa- sions, Mr. P_:vans took prizes at the Benalla Show, both for butter-fat test and for quantity of milk. The bull (" Tabacum ") used in the Government herd was purchased from Captain Philip Charley, of "Belmont," Richmond. X.S.W., and is bv the imported sire "Acton Ajax, '' in whose ancestry the milking strain is stronglv developed. His first lot of calves show fine milking features, in addition to the other well-known characteristics of the breed. There has been a good demand for the bull calves, which have been sold at six months old, at prices based on the milk-yielding capacity of the dam. The aljsence of horns is a great advantage in dairy cattle, and in this herd there has been no instance of injury to one animal by another. The cattle are splendid doers, being alwavs in good condition. When dried off they put on beef (]uickly. Being small-boned they are in good favour with the butchers. All the cows in this herd are easv milkers with good teats of fair size. The.se (lualifications. taken in conjunction with the milk yields, lo Nov., 191X.] Red Polls as Milkers. 779 justify the hope that, with reasonable care in selection, the breed will quickly become recognized as second to- none for all-round dairying purposes. The weights of the milk yielded daily were taken, and the monthly fat test made by the Dairy Overseer, Mr. E. Steer, who has taken a great interest in the herd, and handled it successfully from the beginning. It will be noted that seven of the cows milked 283 days. This is due to the fact that thev calved within a few days of each other. The records started from the ist September, 1910, and finished on the loth June, T911. \ IKW i>\' i ilK llhkl>. Consequent on the VVhitlield farm having jjet-n sold, the herd has been transferred to the Department's Heet and Dairy Farm at Boisdale. Gipps- land, where the bulls will bt- available to settlers on the neighbouring beet farms. Yields and Returns of thk Wmit! iki.d Kx!m;kimi:ntai. Fai m Hkkd. (From 1st Si-rTK.MisKK. lilio, to IOth .hNK, 1!UI.) Davs in Weeks Mill< in Butter Cow. Millv. in Millv. gallons. Tests. Fat. Prices. v lines. £ ». rf. Vuelta .. 270 38j 5.5(5-5 7-0-7 8 405 14 9J(i.-ll|(l. 17 10 10 Bullion . . 283 4()J 773 3 4-2-5 0 356-71 9i(l.-lli(l. 15 17 10 Connecticut 283 4l)i 818-2 4 2-4 6 269 -06 9Jd.-lli 10-58 10 June 4 3 4 6 1-81 10} Hivmi (due tj calve, 22nl August, 1911). 1 14 11} 1 16 1 9 1 3 0 19 0 16 0 19 0 15 >s 0 1 li 30 4i 61 4i 91 2i 122 5i 153 7 181 9 212 6 242 n 273 «i 283 91 188 275 334 392 443 497- 546- 571 ■ 575- 35 72 73 67 106 46 133 64 156 01 176 41 198 51 217 58 228 16 229 97 30 112 6 45 05 61 213 6 87 44 91 312 9 124 22 122 382 9 150 55 153 438 1 172 35 181 489 9 194 10 212 549 7 218 62 242 601 0 239 14 273 630 4 252 08 283 636 9 254 75 41 00 80 40 118 16 147 73 172 71 193 12 215 25 237 16 249 69 253 14 2 2 10 4 3 5i 5 19 3 7 4 7} 8 3 0 8 19 3 9 17 7} 10 18 0 11 13 5i 11 17 4 2 4 1} 4 4 8i 5 17 Si 7 0 2} 7 18 4} 8 16 0} 9 15 5} 10 12 1} 11 2 lOi 11 5 2 2 0 If 3 17 9i 5 11 6f 6 16 11} 7 17 9} 8 14 4} 9 11 10} 10 8 10} 10 19 3} 11 3 4i 1 14 \^\ 3 11 4} 5 0 8} 6 3 11} 7 3 5 8 0 8 19 9 14 10 3 10 5 0 lo Nov., 1911.] Red Polls as Milkers. 781 Yield for each Month. Month. September October November December .January February M irch April May June September ■October November December Jair.ary February March April May June September Octol)er November December Janu.iry February March April May June September October November DciiMiilier January February March April May June Milk in gallons Test. Butter Fat. Price. lbs. d. Value. £ s. d. Totals from Calving to Date. Days in Milk Milk in gallons. Butter Fat. 85-8 i r 37-88 Hi 86-1 4 37-88 lU 75-8 4 33-35 lOi 62-1 ■2 26-08 lOi 49-4 4 21-75 10 47-8 4 21-03 9i 51-7 5 23-26 9i 47-4 4 20-85 9i 191 8 9-17 10 3-7 8 1-77 lOJ Cuba (due to calve, 15th August, 1911). 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 lU 30 16 3* 61 9 10^ 91 2 •i\ 122 18 U 153 17 1 181 18 5 212 17 9^ 242 7 ri 273 1 6 283 Muria (d ue to ca September . 83 7 4 3 36-00 Hi October 80 1 4 3 36-59 Hi November . 75 9 4 6 33 91 lOi December . 63 7 4 5 28-66 lOi January 54 1 4 4 23 -80 10 Februarv 52 0 4 2 21-96 9i March 54 9 4 0 21-96 9i April 51 0 4 1 20-91 9i May 90 (1 6 0 13-20 10 June 6 1) 6 2 3-72 lOi l-2th August, 1911). 16 0 15 Oi 10 4i 4 5i 19 10 17 11 17 4i 16 Hi 11 0 5 3i 30 61 91 122 153 181 212 242 273 283 85- 171- 247- 309- 357- 405- 456- 504- 523 526- 83' 168 244 308- 362 415 469 520 542 548 Kentucky (due to calve 24th August, 1911). 71 7 4 9 30 11 Hi 92 7 4 0 37 08 lOi 80 •:> 4 0 32 08 lOi 63 9 4 0 25 56 10 55 7 4 6 25 62 9i 65 3 4 5 29-38 9i 57 8 4 5 26-01 9i 37 4 4 4 16 45 10 8 4 4 4 3 (i9 lOi 8 m 23 13 •^ 53 7 5 84 1 3* 115 0 9i 143 3 3 174 1 u 204 0 13 8* 235 0 3 9 245 92-7 164-4 244-6 308- 364- 429- 487- 524 533 - 1 Cigarette (due to c;ilve, 20th August, 1911). 50 5 1 20-70 lU 90 8 0 36-32 lOJ 68 1 2 28-58 lOi 58 2 0 ■23-28 10 59 0 3 24-78 9i 69 •> 3 29-75 n 58 4 3 25-11 9i 40 3 t> 18-54 10 9 9 (> 4-55 lOi 1 12 1 4 0 19 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 15 0 3 lOi Beulah (not in calf). 96 105 99 72 23 6 9 0 3 « 50 5 II 5-2 5-0 4 9 48-, -JO 52 -59 51-48 .36-15 11 -56 n 9i 10 lOi 1 19 ■1 1 2 1 1 1(1 0 12 3 Pennsylvania (due to September . . 40 0 10-40 llj October 75 1 30-79 lU November . . 71 1 29 -86 lOJ December . . 60 9 25-58 101 Jaiuiarv 49 8 19-92 10 Februarv 44 6 18 60 »t March 49 3 20 70 91 April 47 8 lU 12 9f Mav 19 2 8-40 10 June 5 I 2 24 101 1 1 III u oi calve, 16th August, 1911) 0 16 1 9 1 6 I I II 111 0 14 (I 14 II 15 OJ 9 nil 71 51 H Si 7 0 1 u ■Septfliiil or . . I 43 -rt 4-5 Suni'itra (due to 19 112 II J live, 18th August, a II 19 2J 3(1 ij.' I >i||. 37 75 75 56 108 88 134 96 155 81 176 84 200 10 220 95 230 12 231 89 1 36 00 72 59 106 50 135 16 158 96 180 91 202 87 223 78 236 98 240 70 I 1 30 11 67 19 99 27 124 83 150 45 179 83 205 84 222 29 225 98 16 50 5 20 70 46 141 3 57 02 77 209 4 85 60 108 267 6 108 88 136 326 6 133 66 167 395 8 163 41 197 454 2 188 52 228 494 5 207 06 238 504 4 211 61 33 96 6 48 30 64 202 5 101 25 94 301 5 152 73 125 373 8 188 88 135 397 4 200 44 17 40 (1 16 40 48 115 I 47 19 78 1.S6 2 77 05 109 247 1 102 63 140 296 9 123 55 168 340 5 141 39 199 389 8 l.i9 99 229 437 6 170 11 261 1 456 8 1S7 51 I 270 461 9 189 75 £ s. d. 1 16 Hi 3 13 3 5 3 li 6 5 4i 7 3 5i 8 0 6i 8 18 Hi 9 16 91 10 4 5 10 4 11 1 16 0 3 11 6i 4 1 Hi 5 6 5 6 6 3 7 4 2 8 1 6i 8 18 ei 9 9 61 9 14 9i 8 lOi 1 2i 8 7i 9 lit 10 9 14 0 8 15 li 9 8 10 9 12 7 0 19 10 2 12 4i 3 16 4 16 5 16 6 19 7 19 9i 2i 3i Oi 5 14 lOi 18 9 1 19 3 4 1 2 (! 3 0 7 13 li 8 5 II 16 Oi 2 5 5i .3 12 2i 4 14 1 5 10 H 6 5 0 6 19 lOi 7 15 41 8 2 4i 8 4 H 43 6 I 19-62 I II 19 21 782 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Nov., 1911. URGENT DAIRY FARM WORK. A WARNING FOR THE COMING SEASON. /. ^S". McFadzean, Senior Dairy Supervisor. There would appear to be every j)ro.spect of tlie coming summer being a bad one for dairy-farmers unless they make full use of their present opportunities. Over nearly the whole of the State the oat crops were prevented from making good growth by the excessive rainfall. Many have not stooled out at all, and are more or less overrun with sorrel and other weeds. There is thus almost certain to be a serious shortage in the hay crop. The grass also has not come on as well as could be desired; and it is now running to seed on a \ery short growth. With little hay, and less grass than usual, dairymen should make sure of ha\ing as much summer growing fodder sown as possible. Maize, sorghum, amber cane, Japanese millet, pumpkins, melons, and the like, are all good summer crops ; but a good variety of maize will usually give the biggest bulk yield per acre ; and it is also a fodder much relished by stock when properly grown. However, some such crop should be sown at once, if this has not alread>' been done; and later sowings may be made, with a little care in preparing the ground, even up to the end of January. At least \ acre per cow should be sown; and the sooner it is in the better, for it will then be available all the earlier tO' keep up the milk supply. For quick maturing, the varieties of maize known as Funk's Yellow Dent, and Ec'lipse, may be sown first in November ; while later on, and through December, the heavier-yielding Hickory King and Yellow Moruya varieties should be planted. Then, in January, the Eclipse and Dent may be sown again. When the ground is ploughed it should not be allowed to become dry and caked on the surface; but should l)e kept loose with the harrows. If the land has not been well manured previouslv it is as well to put in a little superphosphate with the seed. The seed should be sown in rows 3 ft, apart ; and not deeper than from 3 to 4 in. Putting the seeds from 6 to 8 in. apart in the rows, from 30 to ;i^^ ll)s. will sow an acre. When hand sowing after the plough, every fourth furrow will be close enough to put in the seed. In ^•ery loose or drv soil, rolling the land after sowing is an advantage, as it sets the soil closer to the seed ; but harrowing after sowing is the better method in damp or loamy soils. As soon as the crop shows through the ground the horse-hoe should be run down betw-een the rows to loosen the surface soil again, to clieck the weeds, and to prevent the soil moisture from drying out. This can be repeated with advantage about every ten da}s until the crop is 18 to 24 in. high ; but only a very light working must be given so as not to stir the soil deeply, or break the roots of the maize. A piece of brush under the scarifier will keep it from running too deep in light land ; and two or three workings are generally sufficient for a crop. A culti\-ation shouild always be given after each rain. The scarifying does all that is required to keep the maize growing, even through verv drv weather. It is the drill sowing and careful cultixation that will make the maize crop a success. 10 Nov., 191 1.] A.usivers to Correspondents. 783 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Stat! of the Deinrtinent has bueii oij^anized to a larj;e extent for the iniipose of ijiv ing- information to farmers. Question^ in ev ery branch of a^^ntulture are ;;latily answered. Write a short letter, giving as full pvrtiiulars as possible, of vovir local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All iii'juii-ies forwardc'l to tin- Kilitur tinist be aceoMpanicd bi/ the name ani uddresa of the writer. This is very necessary, as sometimes insutticient information is furnished by the inquirer. CLE.4RING Muddy W.^ter in D.am. — S. McC. writes : " I have a new dam, and the water in it is a reddish colour. I wish to know if you can advise me how to clear it without tising lime, as the latter is injurious to vegetables and garden j)lants? ' Answer. — If lime be used at the rate of )^ lb. per 100 gallons of water, and mixed well by drawing a log through the water several times, no injury need be feared from using the water. If you prefer an alternative method, you may gain your object by dissolving some ordinarv alum in water and adding this solution to the water in dam, at the rate of i lb. of alum to i;oo gallons of water. See also article on " The Purification of Mudily Waters," bv Dr. Rothera, published in the July, 1910, issue of the Journal. Thom.\s Phosph.\te. — T. P. McL. asks whether the phosphoric acid in Thomas l)hosphate is always in citrate form, and also whether basic slag and Thomas phos- ])liate are identical ? Answer. — Thomas phosphate and basic slag are one and the same fertilizer. In good samples, the greater portion of the phosnhoric acid is soluble in citric acid. 'I'homas phosphate is an imported fertilizer, and is not manufactured in Australia, 'the fertilizer is a by-prodtict resulting from the manufacture of steel. The total phosphoric acid content is ai)])roximatelv 17 per cent., of which at least 14 per cent, is citrate soluble. Ho.ME-MAi)!-; ]^>NEDUST. — j.D.F. inquires as to method of making bonedust in a barrel. Ansiver. — Bones and fresh wood ashes are placed in alternate layers, making the first and last layer of ashes, until the barrel is full. The whole is kept slightly moist. After three or four months, the mass may be turned over once a month for three months, when it will be ready for use. Another method is to mix them with (piarter of their weight of clay, keeping the whole moist with urine or stable liquor fo^ three or four months. A third method is to place the bones in the barrel with I layer of soil at the bottom, and drench them with a hot sol.iticm of lye, mixed in the proportion of i lb. potash lye to 4 lbs. bones. This should be covered with soil and stirred occasionally for four or five weeks. The mixture may then be turned out to dry. Fke.vch G.\RDENING. — j.D.F. asks whether French gardening h.is been prac- tised in Victoria. Answer. — Not so far as is known. Tliis method of vegetable growing is unnecessary in Victoria, owing to our suitable climate, excent for forcing such plants as asparagus, kale, and various salads in small quantities. Bamhoo Bunds. — J.D.F. asks what use in the garden can be made of old 1) imhoo blinds? Answer.— 'V\\Qy can be fastened to a light framework of Oregon .and used as screens and breakwint, the stalks were as thick as his wri.st, but they have since greatly deteriorated in size. Answer. — As rlinharb is a gross feeder, annual dressings of stable manure sliould be given eicii autumn; also give the i)lanls a light dressing of bonediist and blood manure in tiie earlv spring. Tlie beds must be well tlrained. See artide on "Rhubarb ( iiltivalion " in the December, 11)07, 'ssue of tlie Journal. Cow Peas. — J.W.S. asks whether Cow Peas are of any i>raclical value as foi,;-ct„r. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. " lioyal Medal" Milking Machiiiex, 34 Queen Street, Melbourne. Please forward a copy of your Fret Book, li it to he understood that I coitmlrr myself under ;i« ohliijation. Xame Address Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [to Nov., 1911. 'Phone 4881 Central . The Austpalasian Mutual Live Stock Insupanee Society Ltd., A GOOD AUSTRALIAN Why didn't you put your penny in the plate thu morning t" ' Because tt was a foreign mission, and dada says ii'l not right to tend capital out of the country." ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. directors : HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YF.O, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS- Has this simple truth ever struck you? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. We pay proniiitly. We pay in full. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, AND RECOB^MENO IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. FARMKRS ! TRADE Are you looking for the Best and Most Economical Bindet? Tuiine? THEN ASK FOR . . . "EUREKA" GRADE. AiARK. Guaranteed Pure Manila, with our Anchor Brand. Sold by all Storekeepers, Daalcrs, &c. Manufactured by — James Miller St Coy. [:^, MELBOURNE. WORKS:— VARRAVILLE St BRUNSWICK. (Combined Engine Power, 1000 H.P.) lo Nov., 191 1.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid dow^n by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in tlie ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book — MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. /-.--.« M^^ Guaranteed Pure. 5ee tliat tlie name "5unlix;lit" is branded on every cake. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 191 1 "HORNSBY" Petrol Engines {STATIONARY AND PORTABLE) J-IAVE a World-wide Reputation for all round Superiority. There is nothing Equal to them. Just as suitable for Motive Power as the well-known HORNSBY OIL ENGINE. For 30 Years the Has Led and still Leads the Way. Winner of the Six Highest Prizes ever offered. It stands unrivalled for Strength, Simplicity, Light- ness of Draught, Low Cutting, and ease of Man- agement. Will go through the Harvest without a hitch. .X^ Hornsby Mowers are Famous the World over. f^ uy^ Hornsby Oil Engines, Gas Engines, and Suction (Tas Plants are Unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS, LTD., MELSOURNE. SYDNEY. B R I S B A N E . 2,000 IN USE. 1 COBPSE CREATOR RARRIT KILLER. The Best Made, Most Deadly, and Most Powerful Machine on the Market. Manufacturer A. H. RUSSELL, ESSENDON. 'Phone 386 ASCOT. flU steel Silos PORTABLE. CONVERTIBLE. DURABLE. Prices from £9 lOa. SHEEP DIPS. Manufacturer and Patentee- Steel Framed, Patent Metal-sheeted, Sectional Cement- Plastered Dips. Any Size. Everlasting and Cheap. For CORPORATlO/\IS Off SHEEP OWNERS. 12/6 per foot. A, H, RUSSELL, 61 BUCKLEY SI, ESSENDON. 'PHONE 386 ASCOT. e WRITE FOR CATALOGUE. lo Nov.. 191 1.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. NflTlONflli TRUSTEES Executors & Agency Company of Australasia, Ltd. . . . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE. Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, Esq. This Company acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. Offices ; 113 QUEEN ST. ( Corner of ") Little Collins St. J MELBOURNE. Savings BanRs Loans ON BROAD AO RE S (Up to Three-fifths of Valuation), In sums from £2,000 to £25,000. Interest at 4 per cent. For 3 or 5 years, with option of paying off part on any half-yearly pay-day. ON FARMS (CREDIT FONCIER) {Up to Two thirds of Valuation), In sums from £50 to £2,000. Interest at 4.j per cent. Loans Repayable by Instalments spread over 31^ years, or may be paid off on any half-yearly pay-day, subject to a small charge if paid off during the first five years, but no penalty after five years. A5|||ssj Inspector-General of Savings Banks^ 29 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA "MONKEY" & "WALLABY" GRUBBING JACKS. ^i^jM-^ -«--=»^- Quick. Powerful. Simple. Mr. Chas. Hamilton, Molesworth, Vic, says:-"! would not be without one of thisu .lacks on the farm." Mr. O. C. K lirown, Tinilxr Merchant, Franres, S.A. :— "Have lifi-n usinif Trewhella \\all;iliy Jat-ks now nearly six year.', atxl as lonir :is I liave anytliin;^ to lift will never be witlunit IMH-." Write for Illustrated Catnln^ue to - TREWHELLA BROS., engineers, TRENTHAM, VICTORIA. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ic Nov., 191 1. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JSuFuIcY J^ortieultural Sekool. E. E. PESCOTT, ^^Wt Principal. ANNOUNGEMENT. . The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. At the end of the course it is intended to offer each year to four students the oppoi'tunity for a further term of two years' training. Such students, to be selected by competitive examination, will, in addition to thcur training, receive £36 per annum for the first year, and £42 per annum for the second year. Two of the students will be transferred to the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, and two will remain at Burnley. The curriculum at Burnley will include continued training in fruit- growing and all its branches, vegetable culture, and poultry and bee management ; whilst that at the Botanic Gardens, where the students will be under the control of tlic Director, Mr. J. Ckonin, will include all practical outdoor gardening, including propagating, nursery, and conservatory work. Classes ha\e been formefl at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be £2 per annum. Horticulture for Women. — The importance of Horticulture as a work for women is now recognized; and, at the present day, women are taking up and are working successfully in all phases of fruit, vegetable, and flower culture. Short Lecture Courses. — It has also been ananged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horti- culture, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The following courses have been arranged, and the lectures will be given in the Lecture Hall, and will commence at 2.45 p.m. : — POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT :-Mr. H. V. HAWKINS, Poultry Expert. 17th November, 1st and 8th December. ! BEE-KEEPING :-Mr. F. R. BEUHNE, Bee Expert. 10th and 24th November, .5th December. | V ___^ . J lo Nov., 1 9 II.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. SPECIALISING -IN th:: supply of all FRIEND NOZZLE. REQUISITES i IMPLEMENTS Is (lone by us more tli.-in any other firm in Victoria. It will therefore pay you to call and see us or write for Illustrated Catalogue (A). Some of our, Lines are— " Harvey " Shifting-Handle Ploughs. jv " Four Oaks " Bucket Spray Pump. '.^ " iMycrs " & " Deming " Spray Pumps. J Spraying Materials for all Pests. "Jones" High-pressure Spray Pumps. J^ Pumps for all Purposes. " Excelsior " Fruit Graders. Spraying Hose— high quality. Friend " Power Sprayer. "COMET" FARM MOTORS. Our Quality is Good. Our Prices are Right. Call and See. TP -I=P l\/r-ppT T r^TP ^^° ELIZABETH: ST., IDE:F.A.I^T]yLEZSrT OF .A.G-E,ICXJLTXJE,E, VICTOR!/. TO BE PUBLISHED, HZ-^^iisriDBooK: OF Fungus Diseases of the Potato in Australia, By D. McAI.PINE. 2t6 PAGES. Cloth. 51 Plates. r.ill ru'iUs lis to I'lice jiikI l'iist;i^'c will !..• ;_M\rll ill I lie ri«\t i^-lli- iif (liis .Toiiiniil. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Nov., 1911 THB "MITCtfEVt* THE "MITCHELL' COMPLETE HARVESTER. Extract from Horsham Times, 7/1/10. A RECORD WHEAT YIELD. 16 BAGS PER ACRE. "What is undoubtedly a record wheat yield for the locality is being gathered in by Mr. Samuel Gross, of the Three Bridges, Drung Drung. With a Mitchell 6 feet Harvester doing excellent work and drawn by five horses, Mi-. Gross has taken up to 18 bags of Federation wheat per acre, the field harvested yielding a magnificent average of sixteen bags. From other parts of the district excellent returns are also being harvested, but that bagged by Mr. Gross, so far, is the highest recorded." THE USER'S OPINION. "A report of the work done by your 6 feet Harvester appeared in the Horsham Times of 7th January last, and you will probably be pleased to hear that the machine has given me the utmost satisfaction. You will notice by the report that I had a record crop, which the machine had no difficulty in dealing with, and it made a splendid sample". It was very light in draught, and I would have no hesitation in recommending it to any one who stands in need of a really first- class Harvester." SAMUEL GROSS, Drung Drung, 20/1/10. This is the "MITCHELL" in farm work — not what WE claim in an advertisement, but ITS ACTUAL WORK IN A 50 BUSHEL CROP. As it handles a 50 bushel crop "excellently," don't you think it's safe to handle YOURS' PLOWS, GRASN DRILLS, ONE-WAY DISCS, HARROWS, WALTER A. WOOD BINDERS, MOWERS &. RAKES, "MAX" MILKING MACHINES, "DIABOLO" SEPARATORS, "WATERLOO BOY" OIL ENGINES, "AUSTIN" ROAD GRADERS, HORSE YOKES, CHAFF CUTTERS, "LINKE NOACK" EARTH SCOOPS. MITCHELL & COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACTORY & OFFICE: vV WEST FOOTSGRAY, MELBOURNE. I SHOW ROOM: 596 BOURKE-ST., MELBOURNE. Please mention this Journal wlien writing us. J^efrigeratiug ^ ^ and lee JVCaking JVCaekineFY ^^ ^ 4i Made by HUMBLE & SONS, 1 t^. i ) Geelong, Victoria. ^y^ ■' ^ x ffliiliiiMt IhI Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacit}' upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of the.se Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. ^' Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. VICTORIA FOR YOUR VACATION The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES To the Seaside, Mountains, Lakes, and Caves FROM 15th NOVEMBER TILL 30th APRIL. CAMPBELL'S FALLS, ON FALLS CREEK, UPPER YARRA. LORNE. Waterfalls, fern glens, sea and river fishing; splendid accommodai ion. FLINDERS. Ocean beach and golfers' paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and ocean beaches ; rail and steamer services. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU, with its famous gorge, falls, and peaks, the Horn and the Hump, embraces the finest mountain scenery in Australia. Excursion fares all the year round. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS. Mts. Bogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range. THE DIVIDING RANGE. Macedon, Woodend, Daylesford, &c. Healesville in the Hills. THE GIPPSLAND LAKES. The most charming chain of lakes in the Commonwealth. THE BUCHAN CAVES. Indescribably beautiful. For full information as to train services, fares, URN A L OF THE DEPART][ENT OF AGRICULTURE, -^rxG'rOIRX.^, J^TJ-S,T1EIJ^JL.TJ^. A. T. SHARP, Editor. BOTANICAL CONTENTS.- -DECEMBER, 1911. V. Hairkuis G. Baxter A. T. Sharp rrofital)le Duck Farming ... ... ... ... ... // Farm Black.smitliing — Welding Agricultural Credit Banks Building Hints for Settlers — XV. Bull Yard and Siied French Prunes ... ... ... ... P Oversea Markets for Fruit and Fruit I'ulp ... Beneficial Insects— Parasitic Wasps Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1911-1'i ... Orchard and Garden Notes Improvised Motor Spraying Propagation of Fruit Trees — (irafting [continiK d) and Dwartin The olive Tobacco Culture (rovc/uded) Kye Complaints in Horses Answers to Correspondents — Sulla Clover ... .... 844 New Zealand Black Oats ... 844 Thousand Heailed Kale ... S4,") Harrows for Working Lucerne 845 Insects on Wattles ... ... 84.5 Onion Eel-worm ... ... 845 Statistics- -Quarter ending 30th September, I'Jll — Rainfall in Victoiia ... .., ... ... ... Jf. A. Hunt Exports and Deliveries of Perisliable and Frozen Pioduce /'. Croire Expfii ts and Imports of Fruit, Plants, Bull)s, Orain, See. J. (•'. Turner Reminders for January Index T. A. J. Smith J . Canned !i anci F. de Ca->tella J. G. Turner ... C. French, junior H. V. Hau-kin>i E. E. Pescott E. E. Pesvott C. F. Cole L. Macdonald T A. J. Smith E. A. Kendall Plants for Identification.. Fermenting '/at Almond Stocks .-\imonds — V'arieties Non-bearing Apple Tree TAliB, 785 795 SCO 806 809 814 818 820 821 823 824 832 840 841 845 S45 845 846 848 846 847 847 848 848 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. Tlie .\iticU> ill llii: .Journal of llie I >i-|>ailnKiit dI Agriculuiie ol \'ietoriii are protectcil by the firovision.s of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of ne\\spai>ois wishing to reptiliHsh any matter ai-e at libiTty to do so, /n-oriilcd the. Journal anil author are both ac/i'iioirledi/xl. The .Tiiiii-ii!il is issnrd monthly. The subscript ion, wliich is p.-iyubie in .-idvanee and inidudcs. piotagc, is IVn. per :iMiiiim for tlie Commonwe.'dl h ;uid New Zealand, and o-^. \i>v the I'niteil Kingdom and I'oreiirn (.'onntries. Siii'.:h- ropy Threepence. Sniiscriptions .should lie forw:irdeil to the Director ol .\gricnlt iirt\ McliminMc. A comph't*; list of tlie varif)Ms pulilic.it ions issued by ihc Depart mciit ol .\gi ii-idluio will be supplied by tho latter. Journal of Agricidinrc . Yicforia. TT Dec. No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the "Billabong's." This important improvement of ours is protected by patent riglits. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of order. By merely turning a screw \'0u can vary the speed of the mill to your desire. This will be found to be of great advantage when Windmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heavy gales, &g. Stop and Consider. You want a mill to give lifelong service : therefore, it must be made of good material. Eearings should be so made that they may be cheajjly and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing j)arts should be few ; and, what is most im- portant, the mill should have a lubricating sj'stem that will insure its being thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste when mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a very light breeze, yet stand a gale. In our Mill all these Points are provided for. We know what is required of a good mill — we have had many A'sars of windmill experience. The fact that we have olitained patent rights proves our pro- gressiveness ; and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a century answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a cheaper mill, and then have to spend £2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4; or, suppose your cheap mill sticks up M'hen you most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds' worth of stock; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is jour saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and get the Right Article with a Good Manufacturing Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stands ; Pumps of all kinds ; Piping, Troughing, and Pluming; Farm and Garden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS & SON 391=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. PTY. LTD. II Dec, 191T.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. START RIGHT ! ! When equipping the daiiy with niaclunciy don't let the matter of a £1 or two influence youi choice, and prevent you from obtaining the best and most up-to-date plant that money can buy. A mistake made at the outset means just the difference between success and failure. It is false economy to purchase machineiy of any description simply because it is "cheap" — the sweetness of low price never equals the bitterness of poor quality. Before p.urchasing a cream separator, milking machine, or petrol engine, visit the farms of the prominent and successful dairjmen, and 30U \\ ill find that over 90 per cent, of them have either the "ALFA- LAVAL" SEPARATOR "L-K-G" MILKING MACHINES "FELIX" INDUSTRIAL MOTOR installed in their dairies or milking sheds. You run no risk whatever in purchasing any of tiie above time-tested machines, because they are guaranteed to be as represented, but sliould they fail to make good what is claimed for them we will take them back again and pay all ('X])enses. Cur full-line Catalogue No. 350S, describes in detail these best-of-all machines ; it also gives full particulars and prices of the most modern farm, dairy, and cheese-making requisites. — Posted free on application. — Write for it. PTY. LTD., 9-23 KING STREET, IVIELBOURNE. AGENTS : -Galvanized all-steel portable Silos. Every Farmer arid Grazier should have a Teleplione Service con- necting witli the nearest Post Office. Thousands of Australian farmei.s have already instalh-d Telephones, the ad- vantages of which are so numerous and valuable that it is impoi^siljle to measure or a])preciute their worth until you have one. A well-known Victorian grazier, Mr. W. Gardiner, writes ragarding The " ERICSSC?! • TELEPHONE : " I Hnd tiie teleplione tlie most uscfid inven- tion I have on the farm, l)oth in labour and time saving, also for ijusiness purposes. It has often save•, isliiiKi/rK, ami full paiiirii/nr.i, on applicntion to — J, m\m I SON PTY. LTD.. 19-23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. RCPRESLNTING THE L. M. ERICSSON TELEPHONE COMPANr. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 1911. II Dec, 1911.] Journal of Agricidttire, Victoria. IS YOUR FRUITGROWING A HOBBY? OR ARE YOU AFTER £t S. D. ? ? In either case it will PAY YOU to use . . . 9) As it will give you the highest percentage of clean fruit, AND COSTS YOU LESS. (Many growers get 100 "^o clean. You can get the same.) to 50 galls. TO SAVE THE COST OF ONE SPRAYING you should coml^ine- AUSTRAL BORDEAUX PASTE - 4 lbs. AUSTRAL ARSENATE OF LEAD 2 lbs. In this v/ay you control both Black Spot ;in(l Codlin Moth, and the time saved means extra £ s. d. to \'ou. Write for Particulars, nientioiiiii;i Journal of Arjriculture. ::} INTERSTATE AGENTS. N.S.VV.— F. CHILTON, Belmore JIarkets, Sydney. Queensland-COOKSLEY & CO., Turbot Street, Brisbane. S. Australia-H. C. RICHARDS, Blyth Street, Adelaide. I Tasmania-FRENCH BROS., \ i'atterson Street, Launceston. 4' VV. Australia- R. MANNING & CO., ^ \» ellingtori ."street, Perth. I New Zealand-ARCHER & HALLIBURTON, ' C'liri>tc-lmr li. A. J. J AUSTRAL SPRAY CHEMICAL WORKS, J 368 Queen's Parade, Clifton HIM, Victoria. MAIZE FOR FODDER. Craig Mitchell Mammoth White. ENORMOUS CHAIN YIELDER, 150 Bushels to the Acre. Average Yield for Green Feed, 50 to 55 Tons per Acre. Pedif^ree Seed, Ds. per bushel. Cheaper in quantity. Order early to prevent (lisappiMiitment. W'l-ite for our de.scriplive Farm and Mai/.i- List, jiosted gratis ; also General Seefl and Plant Catalogue. The leadin}^ house for Luceme and Rape. Try the NEW GIANT KANGAROO RAPE. For Cattle, Sheep. ll.)r.ses, Pigs, Fowls, it'c, it is unsurpassable. WILL FATTEN TIIKKF MOl'iF SHEEP TO THE ACRE THAN OTHER KINDS. Will grow to a height of 11 feet, growing 2 feet in five weeks, 7A feet in under twelve weeks. Price, 8d. per lb., 60.s. per cwt. AGRICULTURAL SEED A SPECIALITY. LAW, SOMNER, & Co., Seed and Plant Merchants. 139-141 SWANSTON STREET, MELBOURNE. E.stablishecl 61 Years. 'PHONE. CENTRAL 729. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec., 1911. "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as tlie Premier Milking Machine, and have demonstrated that it does not belong to that class of appliances whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood the test of time, and that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE. Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the Austral is strikingly simple. Jilinute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets has been entirely dispensed with, its place being taken by a single pulsating pump, simple and strong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whether two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The pulsating pump is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. IT IS AN EASY IVIiLKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austral has done away with all that. Its action on the cow is as gentle as that of the softest hand, and much easier than the average hired help. After three and four years' milking with the machines, cows are found to be as sound in the quarters as when they started. Enquiry from any Austral user will confirm the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECONOIVIiCAL DAJRYJFC. The working parts are so few and the construction so simple and solid, that wear and tear, and consequently the cost of upkeep, are reduced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to separator witliout anj' handling whatever. With this system, so great a saving is effected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwheln inj. A single bucket can be supplied for testing individual cows ; or where spec al requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. Embodies the famous Link-Blade Bowl Structure. Official tests conducted by the Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the "Globe" in the very forefront for clean skimming and easy running, against all competitors. All sizes from 14 to 200 gallons. CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. The world's standard Oil Engine. In all sizes and for all descriptions of farm work. VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. British built. Low running speed. Economical on fuel. WINDMILLS, SAW-BENCHES, CH/\FF-CUTTERS, and all Farn] and Dairy Machinery. When writing, please mention Uiis Journal. 59-61 KING ST., ^ MELBOURNE. II Dec, T9II-] Journal of Agriculture Victoria. Herd of Prize Winnings and Heavy Milk -j^ and Butter Pro- ducing Strains* YOUNG BULLS AND HEIFERS FOR SALE. MYSTERY VI. OF MELROSE." INSPECTION BY APPOINTMENT. WILlilAIW WOODlVIASOfI, ""^^" MALVERN, MELBOURNE, Vic Journal of Agricitltnre , Victoria. [:i Dec, 191 r. Tlie following allotments on the various Estates are availal)le for aiiplication Irriaration Areas. Est:;:, Kovuna SwairHill ("oliiina Sheppartoi Naimeella Bamawni Area. No. of AMo's. IS totalling 151 acres. 0 „ 492 „ 37 „ 2,6S4 „ C „ n.T „ ii „ 1,90S „ 18 „ 717 „ 72 „ - 3,f)9S ,, Dairying- and Riixed Farming-. Ilona \'ist;i Deepdene EumeraHa Meadowbai:'. Allambee Morven Werribee Kenihvoith Mooralla Cremona Glenalarlalo •2,'.te7 r>,964 51 l,(jfl4 5,888 5,263 600 02'j 499 726 Wheat Growing-. Estate. Cornelia Creeli Oaklands llurstwood Mr. Widderin Xerrin Nerrin N). n] . Ailuls. 7 totalling 2,755 7 jj 4,699 1(1 „ 4,NS4 17 ,j 5,922 11 ,, 3,736 Beet Growing- and Dairying-. Kilnian\' Park totallina Clerks' Homes. Glen Huntly Tooronpra S allotments 66 Workmen's Homes. Pender's Grove .. .. .. 70 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending- over 31i years, with payments at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the ^•alue of permanent improvements effected, repayments extending over fifteen years bearing 5 per cent, interest. For full information and terms ajyply to THE SEC RE TARY, LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. The Finest agon Ever." PATEMT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Carron Boxes and Oil Caps. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. Beware of Imitations. IBuliil'ant Bros., Gillenbah, Narrandcra, write: — 4 '4 11 — "The 7-ton Wool Wagon I got from you four years ago has given every satisfaction. I now want you to send me a 54 in. and 48 in., diameter wheel x 6 in. tyre T'-ton Wagon, with Table 19 ft. x 8 ft. Your Wagons are the Best." Himdreds of others say the same. When you get a Wagon see that it is the Genuine "Hildyard Patent." A wc;i-;cnown and ui>-to-date farmer in Victoria (EIr. E. A. Noa.id, of Xathaliai says :—" I had last season a 6-ton Ordinary English Wagon, and one of the "Trusty" type Steel Wheel Wagons, 40 in. and 36 in. dia. Wlicels, carting in sheaf hay. Although the 6-ti>n wagcm si-enied t flypshipe Cattle The ^^GlengaFDoek" Stud Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE At from 5 to 25 guineas each. Special Show Bulls higher. From Best Cows only, by Tare Herdbook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, with photograi^hs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on application. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. Address %% A. T. PRIESTLEY. 1 VISITORS MET AT LANG LANG RAILWAY STATION. Post V'CLENCARNOCK," Telegraph! YANNATHAN, Vic. ^A> ^^ i sv. m j: ,fr^ .ttf^ b r O I i / ^ O ag, . S I^H^^ "^^ m '. ^<^^^*«,..««.J |iiiiii,ii^iiiiiiiii(if *:» 11 Dec, 1911-] Journal of Agriculture ^ Victoria. '^ Vacuum Harness Oil Vacuum Leather Oil replaces the original and natural oils in leather which quickly disappear when harness is exposed to the weather. Vacuum Leather Oil preserves the leather; keeps it soft and pliable as a kid glove; gives a black fiiiish; makes it water-proof; and pre- vents it from breaking and cracking. Write for book'et : "How to Take Care of Leather.'' VaLUum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd. 90 William Street. Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 191 i. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS. Fee, 5s. per eow. Jersey Bull "DREADNOUGHT"; Calved, 22nd October, 1908. Sire : — Sir Jack (188). Dam : — Lady Kitchener, by Lord Melbourne. {Ill charge of Mr. H. Grumpier, Block 148, Bamaivm.) Jersey Bull "ROSE FOX"; Calved, 19th August, 1909. >S'iire : — Starbright Fox (190). Bam : — Tuberose, by Magnet's Progress (54 A.J.H.B.). {In charge of Mr. E. W. Prater, Block 106, Bamairm.) Jersey Bull "VERBENA'S BOY"; Calved, 10th January, 1908. Sire : — Acrobat. Dam : — Verbena 2nd, by Snowdrop's Progress 2nd. {In charge of Messrs. Laing arid Mtindie, Block 70, Bamawm. ) Jersey Bull "NOBILITY"; Calved, 2nd April, 1910. Sire : — Lucy's Noble of Oaklands. Datn : — Winnie of Melrose 3rd, by Royal Blue. {Ill charge of Mr. E. T. Partington, Block 136, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "MILKY WAY"; Calved, 20th June, 1909. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). i)am:— Milkmaid 34th (590), by Phnlimmcn (imp. 62 A.H.B.). {In charge of Mr. L. 8. Hidancls, Block 91, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "GOLD MEDAL"; Calved, 3rd xipril, 1910. Sire :— Golden Fox (142 A.J.H.B.). Dam : — Melba, by Greystanes 2nd. {In charge of Messrs. Jacobs and Kennedy, Blocks 43 and 44, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "MAGNET'S FOX"; Calved, 6th November, 1909. Sire :— Fox's Laddie. Dam :— Magnet 28th, by Defender (imp.) (2288 H.C.J.H.B.). {In charge of Mr. C. C. Woods, Block 29, Koyuga.) Jersey Bull "CREAM PROSPECT"; Calved, 22nd March, 1910 5j>e :— Lord Creamer (155 A.J.H.B.). i>a?« :— Daisy of Prospect (347 A.J.H.B.), by Cardigan. {In charge of Mr. L. H. Radclyffe, Block 2, Koyuga.) Jersey Bull "ZODIAC"; Calved, 10th November, 1908. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). Dam :— Zoe 4th (805), by Handsome Hero. {In charge of Mr. B. J. Chappell, Block \2F, Swan Hill.) Jersey Bull "GAY FOX"; Calved, 12th May, 1909. Sire :— Stai'liiight Fox (190). Darn :— Floss, by Plinlimmon (imp. 62). {In charge of Mr. F. Cox, Block 6D, Swan Hill.) II Dec, 1911.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT m%-^ontinued. Fee, 5s. per cow. Jersey Bull "WILLIAM OF AYRE"; Calved, February, 1910. Sire : — Favourite's Fox 2nd. Dam : — Bessie McCarthy, by Snowflake's Progress. iln charge of Mr. J. S. Dickin-ioii, Block 13, Nyah.) Jersey Bull "FOX'S LAD"; Calved, 5th October, 1908. Sire : — ^Fox, by Siiowdrop"s Trogress 2nd. Dam : — Pansy 2nd, by Duke. {In charge of Mr. Erne-'it E. Borley, Block 6, Nyah. ) Ayrshire Bull "PETER OF WILLOWVALE"; Calved, 30th Sept., 1909. Sir-e :— Annetta's Pride (243). Z)am :— Madge 2nd (Appendix A.H.B.), by Red Chief (359). {In charge of Mr. F. Mclvor, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records, &c., can be obtained from each bull holder, from the resident Dairy Su[)ervisors (Mr. O'KEEFE, Rochester, or Mr. S. J. KEYS, Swan Hill), or from The Department of Agriculture, Alelbourne. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF BEET GROWERS AT BOISDALE. Red Danish Bull "CLAUDIUS"; Calved, 10th November, 1909. Sire: — Ernst Bellinge (imj). ). Dam: — Kirsten IX. (imp.). Fee, S.'i. (available to 30 cows). Red Danish Bull "HAMLET"; Calved, 1st August, 1910. Sire: — Ernst Bellinge (imp.). Dam: — Marianne IV. G. Davi: — Marianne III. (imp.). Fee, 5s. (avaikble to 10 heifers). Red Polled Bull "TABACUIVi"; Calvki., IL'tli November, 1908. Sire: — Actun .Xjax (imp.). Ihim: — Janet, liy Primate b}" ].,aurcate (imp. ). Fee, 7s. 6(1. (avaihible to 20 cowsl. Jersey Bull "GAY LAD II."; Calved, 8th August, 190G. Sire : — -Acrobat, by Cherry's Pricio (imp.). Iktin : — Gaiety, by Sno\\ (bop's I'rogrc's II., by Lady Superior's Progress (imp.). Fee, 5S. (avaihiblu to 40 cows). (Winner of 7 tirst prizes.) I'articulars of extended j)cdigrrc's, milking records and prizes may be obtained fmni. and arrangement for service made wlHi, Mr. E. STEER, at the Ifonicstcad Hlock 21, whore tlic bulls are kept. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ii Dec, 1911. The "BAVE-U" Power Sprayer. THE PIONEER - - POWER SPRAYER OF AUSTRALIA. . Does the work of TWO Hand Sprayers at ONE-FOURTH the cost. All [iarticul;ii-.s on a|)[(li(_-;ition to — S,XJSSE]LI1, & CO. # Engineers. Makers of Inigation Plants. Engines for all purposes. You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH Coy. "^Cri:- Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namelj' : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb. Tel. Central 614. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE ANO OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. II Dec, 1911-] Journal oj Agriculture, Victoria. b/; 's^ ^ '2, .^ > -^ . 5 ^-r .- c/D CQ C (3J ^ ! o _o (L) *-" S '^ u. a. =! P 0 n >% u b/D (L) 13 4_) U u 0 OJ ■y) (U — ■ o C3 H— O OS %^ CO CO CO H I o < CO >■ -J GO CO E _>» CO a> .52 "i o C3 C/5 e r) f— La 3= ■^ 0 -^ •^ r/5 a> >- IS ^ c KJ > C/5 4> e3 (73 0 0 &. ^ 3 :: •©« 0 c ^ ^ UJ b. S 0 ^_ ^ a> - C/J cS 5^. > — UJ ;• rt tu B ;^ 3 L. ^0 O' t/J _ -3 ® "2 U\Jjs>}/2 z^.. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [i I Dec, 1911. piston s PateRt Wiudmill s —AT THE ROYAL SHOW.- .'\t tlie recent Royal Show a tine collection of Windmills was exhibited bj' James A'ston, of Queen's Bridge, Melbourne. Mills of all diameters, from 6 ft. to 25 ft. were shown at work, suitable to all requirements of farmers or stock raisers, the small Mills being suitable for lifting moderate supplies from shallow wells, while the larger sizes are capable of dealing with almost any depths. A splendid Mill, 25 feet diameter on a 50 ft. Steel Tower, working an 18" pump, and throwing a stream of water of about 15,000 gallons per hour, attracted much attention. This, we believe, is tlie largest Mill ever shown on the Show Ground. Alston's Patent Steel Windmills have all the most up-to-date improve- ments in their construction. Pumps of many descriptions were shown, including the latest Draw Plunger Pumps for bore use, which admits of the plunger being drawn without disturbing the pipes in the bore. THe JOUHNAb OF Tfie department of Mgriculture ov VICTORIA. Vol. IX. Papt 12. 11th Deeembep, 1911. PROFITABLE DUCK FARMING. H. V . Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Of late, more attention has been paid to the production of eggs than to the raising of table birds. Consequently, there has been, and is now, a great scarcity of good edible poultry. The craze for egg production has increased enormously ; and, as prices are maintained, it would appear likely to continue. It is now recognized that the majority of poultry breeders have set tlieir minds to further improve the laying qualities of their birds, few apparently regarding the table fowl or duck with favour. Thirteen years ago there was, in Victoria, much thought and writing about duck raising for profit, and many, attracted by statements regarding the great profits that were to be realized much more quickly than with hens, embarked in the business. The high price of oats, wheat, &c., however, raised the cost of feeding to such an extent that prices then ruling, especially for ducks, did not recompense the breeder sufficiently, and, consequently, the industry suffered. But, with an easier food bill, and the universal use of lucerne chaff, which has now become such an important part of the meal, it is being revived. There is no reason to doubt that good prices will l)e the rule. Capital Required. To commfuce operations, one has always to consider the locality, its suitability and nearness to market; the period of the year; and. above all, the cash at his disposal. There is no doubt that, as l)etween chickens and ducklings, the cost of etiuipment in the latter business is less; for instance, the jkmis and dividing fences iieed not K' more than half the height reth houses and bedding should be thoroughly aired daily. A floor space of 8 ft. x 6 ft. is ample for 25 matured birds. II Dec, 1911-] Profitahle Duck Fanning. 787 Size and Height of Pens. A pen 40 ft. X 20 ft., if properly looked after, will accommodate 25 birds. The height of the wire need not be more than 3 ft., even a 2-ft. division will suffice; but a wide mesh is necessary, as too often, when a narrow mesh is used, birds are strangled — they get their heads through and are unable to withdraw'. Three-inch wire mesh is cheaper and much safer. Ducks cause little worry in penning. They are far more contented in confined runs than are fowls, and do best in lots of not more than 25, as they ha\e a bettter chance of securing their fair share of the mash. Selection of Stock. When the pens and houses are complete, select the stud birds. If inexperienced, seek advice, otherwise serious mistakes may be made at the oullset. The stock birds should be selected both for size and egg pro- duction. It would be utter folly to breed from what are termed " Puddlers," weighing from 3 to 4 lbs. live weight. Large well-formed stock .should be purchased, two years old for pre- ference; the drake should never be less than nine months and unrelated. Should one have only young ducks, then secure an older drake. This class of stud birds will produce large and quickly-maturing ducklings weighing, when ten or twelve weeks old, 12 to 13 lbs. per pair. Much depends upon the feeding, and ducks recjuire forcing to get them up to this weight. If the ducklings are scantily fed, they will be stunted in growth, and at ten weeks will not weigh 8 lbs. a pair. This is important, for after eleven weeks they commence to throw off the downy feathers and their growth is checked immediately. The food given for the next four weeks is merely utilized in the production of the adult feather at the expense of the body, and much of the profit is lost. IsJeep them growing as fast as you can, so as to secure the desired size before the youthful feathers give place to the ariult quill feathers. The poulterer prefers to pluck the young feathers ; the work is easier, and there is less likelih(Xj(l of tearing the skin. Water, (irit, Etc. Ducks that are kept for egg production slimild not l)e allowed free access to creek or dam. Kggs or flesh is wanted ; anil, if the birds are constantly swimming and drinking, the food passes through them too rapidlv. Hut it must not be thought that ducks only require a drink once or twice dail\. ("lean water should always Ije kept in a shady spot, and the drinking vessel S(hould be 7 or 8 in. deep, sufficient for them to dip tln'ir heads well in and to enablr tluin to wash out their eyes — a shallow n-o'ptai. le is useless. Coarse sand should In- i>ut in ihe water; the (lurks enjoy it, and it is g«JO(l for them. Crushed oyster shell, and pieces of broken- up mortar are the best forms of grit, and a.ssist in the making of the egg shell. Powdi-red burnt lime, (•ind«Ts, anil (•hare()al are .Uso g(X)d for the purpose. Ducks consun e much more grit tli.in fowls, and they jjrffer old mortar toanUhing els<-. I" COS. As th<' first five eggs laid are usually infertile, tlK-\ should be used for culinary purposes; reserve the .subse»iuent eggs for the broocovy cross. This is best produced by having four Mu.scov\ ducks mated with a vigorous Pekin drake. It will be found preferable to using the very heavy Mu'covy drake, and the fertility is surer. Latterly. 10s. to t_'s. ] (-r i)air have l)een paid for this cross. I'EEDiNG Breeding Dlck.s. When breeding ducks are penned in yards, they get little or no insect life; and in most eases the grass sodu Unonies tainteft, downy feathers on thighs. Size and Weight: Drakes from 8 to 9 lbs. ; ducks from 7 to 8 lbs. Tmh.W Kl'NNERS. Whilst n-couni/ing tht- value of tl «■ Aylt-sbury ami tin- Pekin as the U'st all round purix)se ducks, the Indian Runner lias tht^ pri(T rl.iim for egg proiluction. It is <]uitr a common (Kcurnnce for n\ ny to l.iy .^.40 oggs in th«' year. The birds of this brtn-rl are small ; the drakrs w«'igh from 4 to 5 lbs., and the ducks a little less. 'I'he plumage is rlo.se and t.ght, giving thmi that 79- Jounial oj Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 1911 racy appearance. The head is flat, the eye quite close to the scalp, and the head very fine and long ; on the scalp there is a dark cap giving it a pie- bald appearance. The bill is thick at the base and long and wedge-shaped ; it is yellow when hatched, gradually be- coming green; the drake's bill is of a more yellowish tint than that of the duck. The neck is long, white, and de- cidedly thin ; so also is the body. The under part is white up to 'he coloured breast; whether fawn or grey, the colour should be uniform. The back reminds one very much of the saddle-back pigeon with its heart-shaped patch reaching to the tail, the tail portion being coloured. There is no appear- ance of keel on the breast, and the bodies are almost upright. The legs are set well aft, the same as those of the Pekin, and are somewhat fine-boned and orange red in colour. There is a diversity of opinion regarding plumage. Some claim that fawn is correct ; while others, grey. Indian Runners cannot be classed as market ducks. They are too small ; and, if over five months old, lack the juicy flavour that is found in the Pekin-Aylesbury cross. It is not uncommon to have them laying at seventeen weeks. They thrive best when given a fair amount of room in which to seek insect life. Especially when in pens, they should be provided with a fair quantity of animal food. They are not big eaters by any means ; but what they do get should be highly nitrogenous, failing which the yield of eggs is much diminished. Water, not necessarily run- ning, is an indispensable item. II Dec, 1911-] Profitable Duck Farming. . 793 A small dam or tank will suffice. Allow them access to it at least once each day. Five to six ducks are sufficient for one drake, which should be of another strain. The eggs are usually white ; but of late they show signs (A having had an introduction of foreign blood, presumably Rouen, which has resulted in thefr laying (sometimes) a greenish-coloured egg. The size of the egg is on a par with that of the average Leghorn, i.^.,. about 25 ozs. to the dozen ; the flavour is decidedly good. Unfortunately, their eggs, like those of all other water-fowl, are not satisfactory when placed in pre- servatives or cold storage. Thus, duck farmers are somewhat handicapped when distant from local markets. Continued inbreeding cannot be too highly condemned. It results in infertility ; in many cases in leg weakness, and in a gradual falling off in the number and size of eggs laid. Xew blood is necessary at least every second year. Incubation. When hatching ducks in a large way incubators should be resorted to, as it is almost useless to attempt to use the duck, and broody hens are often difficult to secure when wanted. The eggs will not keep so long as those of the hen, being more porous. The best incubator is the celebrated English (Hearson's) pattern. It has the tank, and being so perfectly ventilated allows free interchange of gases. Hot-air machines, especially with duck eggs, are not as successful as tank machines. Many failures in this State have been found where the hot-air machines, lacking a moisture tray, have been used, the trouble being that the ducklings die in the shells. In a report of the Biological Division of one of the E.xi)erimental Stations in the United States of America appears the following dealing with the moisture question : — An attempt h;is been made from the bej^inning of last year's experiments with hot-air machines to render the moisture factor as uniform as possible. To effect this the concrete floor of the basement has been constantly kept wet. A constant supply of water w^as thus exposed to the atmosphere of the room. The air was much improved bv this constant wetting in so far as its respirabilit^- is concerned. This being so, surely it is folly to attempt duck-raising in \'ictoria with hot-air machines without the moisture-tray. The Victorian-made tank machines are more than equal to any of the imported makes, and this is especially so in regard to their incubation of duck eggs. Further proof is given from New South Wales, where six machines were tested, two of local make and four imported, the results being — .Australian, first and second; and American, last. Temperature for Duck I'.ggs. Duck eggs re(|uire a little less heat than hen egg.s — loih fltg. is about the right tem|)eratur('. They also need more moisture as hatching time approaches, but not before. The moisture tray should be jilared in machine .seven clear days prior to hatching, i.e., after twenty-one days. Twenty-eight days are required for hatching most breeds of ducks, though Mu.scovies take five weeks. It is absolutelv necessary to turn the eggs at least twice each rlay after the third day. The cooling of the egg-drawer is beneficial to the embyro. The last seven days the egg-drawer should W cooh-d daily for at least fifteen niiiuit<'S many successful breeders ce. It lik<'wise affords the smitli ample oppnitunitirs of tlisplaying his skill c'ind ingenuity. Welding is undoubtedly the most important part of the blacksmith's art. but one who jwssesses any talent at all is not likely to be unsuccessful, if he has a forge, fuel, and iron of any size anci shape. He could, foi instance, make a lx)lt or hinge out of old horseshoes, tyres, or p.irts of any old machine simply because iron can be welded. Small bars can l>e made into pieces of larger st-ction. by doubling the bar over and over until a sufficiently large lump is ma. fowl house, or barn floor; or for a gate. The mt'thod of making this is to take a flat bar, tht- size of which will have to Ix? decided upon according to the weight and sizr of the gate or door, and .scarf wedged .shaped as shown at a, then bend as shown at b. Tht' tMid is next l»'nt annunl the U-ak of th«^ anvil to form the i-ye In order to get the eye of the right sha|H» and size, a drijt (c) is used. It is a rirrular piece of iron or steel, preferablv steel, forged to the shape .shown. After bending on the beak, the liole is irregular and bv driving 798 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Dec, 191 i. the drift into the hole and beating^ the hot iron all around, it is forced to the proper size and shape. When obtaining the welding heat, care must be taken to turn the work over frequently to prevent the dirt sticking to the top side. The effect of this would be to burn small holes in the metal, so that a goo-d finish could not be produced. The scarfed side should be downwards just prior to removal from the fire, in order that it may have the greatest heat at that part. In working on the anvil, the thin edge of the scarf should be the first part struck with light and quick blows, and then heavier and slower blows on the thicker portion of the weld. By this time, the temperature will have fallen below the welding point; but if the scarfing, heating, and hammering have been correctly done, the union should be complete. After welding, the iron is rough, irregular in section, and scaly, and requires to be correctly shaiDed and finished. 40. HINGE. a. First operation— scarfing tli9 end. h. Second operation— preparing tlie weld. c. Drift. d. Finislied hinge. For finishing work of this description, the scales should be removed with a file and the anvil brushed clean previous to using the flatterier for smoothing and straightening the work. If the face of the anvil and flattener be wetted with water during the finishing operations, a much cleaner job is the result. The effect of the water on the heated iron, when compressed as by a blow, causes a rise in temperature which generates steam, and the result is that an explosion takes place and the steam and small particles of scale are ejected and the surface of the iron is left very smooth. Fig. 41 shows another form of a simple pair of hinges, used chiefly on gates. They will permit the gate opening either way, and can be so hung that it will clo.se of its own accord, providing that a .suitable catch is made. It is an advantage to hang a f armvard gate in this manner ; II Dec, 1911-] Farm BlacksmiiliDi^. 799 on riding to a gate, there is no need to dismount to either open or shut it. It can be opened with one foot and pushed forward, so that the rider can continue his journey knowing that it will close of its own accord. The process of forging the top part requires but little explanation, as it accords very clo.sely with the method described in the previous case. The difference is that the eye is in the centre, and that the ends are doubled together, as shown at a ; also, that the welding heat is taken right along and is made, square in section instead of obiong. In some instances, the end is pointed for driving, and in another it is rounded and a thread cut on it with the dies. The latter is the be.st, but requires more work. The rlriving hinge would be used on a rough hardwood gate or post, whilst the screwed one would be most suitable for soft woorl. It would be unwise to drive into the soft wood, on account of splitting. The part with the pin attached is a little harder to make. Up to the welding heat, it is the same as the top part, but having got that far, a 41. GATE HINGE. (I. Kciuly fur woliliiig. piece of round iron is driven tightlv into the hole and allowed to projut through on the bjttoni side from about ^ in. to \ in. The heat is then taken. On removal from the- fire, the first blows should be struck \\\\\\ the objtxt of welding the part adjacent to the pin. It is then re-heateil to welding heat, and the i)in is (|ui{kly put through a holster — a piece of iron with a hole drilled thnsugii it sliglulv l.irger than the diameter of the |.iii and smartly driven down with the hammer. The short projecting piece is thus spread out over the surface, like a rivet, and iit th<- .s;ime time is W'.-ided, nuking it ini[);)ssible for it to fall out. (7'cv be coiitiiiwd.) 8o3 journal oj Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 191 i. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS. .4. T. Sharp , Editor. Consequent on the inauguration and development of the Closer Settle- ment Policy of the Victorian Government, communities of settlers whose aims and aspirations are much in common are being created throughout the State. The fact that the settlers on each estate are united by in- terests in common should tend to largely develop co-operative ideas amongst them. The butter industry, which has assumed such colossal proportions in Victoria, is the outcome to a great extent of the formation of co-operative butter factories in the country districts. Whilst co- operation has in this respect proved its worth as a developing agent, there are numerous other avenues whereby the producers may benefit them- selves, and also the State, by the application of its beneficent principles. Not the least important is that of credit banking. In Great Britain, the useful part which credit banks may play in the successful cultivation of small holdings has been recognized by Parlia- ment in the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907. The County Councils are given power under the Act to promote the formation and extension of credit banks. With the consent of the Local Government Board, they may also assist such societies by making grants or by guaranteeing advances made from other sources. Although Victoria is comparatively well served by the various banks and other institutions, as far as the farming community is concerned, settlers often require temporary financial assistance, such as would not justify them making application to any of the recognized sources. For instance, a plough or an additional cow may be wanted. The amount involved is comparatively small, but the settler has not the money available. At the same time, if he were a member of a local agricultural credit bank, practically a mutual self-help society, his credit would be sufficient to enable him to obtain a loan at a reasonable rate of interest ; the expenses incurred would be easily met by the increased productiveness of his holding. The credit bank is not a competitor with the larger finan- cial concerns, but is an aid to them. At all events, that has been the experience in other lands. Its clients are, as a rule, persons whose capital is but small, and whose requirements are limiited. Origin and Growth of Credit Banks. Co-operative credit had its birth in Germany, but it has since spread throughout the continent, to Great Britain. India, Canada, and Australia. The Co-operative Credit Bank of Victoria, Limited, which will be re- ferred to later, is the pioneer of the movement in the Australian Com- monwealth. The following figures, showing the number of banks in 1909 in various countries, will give some idea of the growth of these credit institutions: — Germany Austria Russia France India Italy In England, there are also 161 Small Holdings Socie'ies, most of which have power by their rules to carry on the business of banking. i5,i=;8 Servia 61^ q,f)68 Belgium ... 568 8,574 Ireland ... 268 2,083 England 39 1,766 Canada ... 31 1.763 II Dec, 191 1 •] Agricultural Credit Banks. 801 Raiffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch were the men whose economic genius gave rise to credit banking. The former started his first bank in 1849, and Schulze-Delitzsch in the following year. In both cases the exorbitant usury charged by the money-lenders caused these benefactors to take action. Their methods varied, but the results achieved by each were eminently satisfactory. To-day, the credit banks of Germany number over 15,000. Those of the Schulze-Delitzsch type were intended more for urban artisans and industrial workers. On the other hand, the Raiffeisen bank is better adapted for dealing with agricultural credit. The outstanding features of the Raiffeisen system are as follow: — 1. They are registered co-operative societies with unlimited liability. 2. The society and its administration are entirely local and confined to a small district, often even a single village. 3. The management 's intrusted to an elected committee of four or five members. A council of supervision of three controls the acts of the committee, seeing, for instance, that the loans are granted regularly. 4. The services of the members of both committee and council are gratuitous; only the accountant or cashier is paid. 5. Loans are granted only to members. 6. The capital represented by the members' shares is small, the bulk consisting of savings deposited with the society. In some districts, as mentioned later, central banks have been established and these supply funds to the branch banks. Advances of Government money are also made. 7. Loans are only granted for some reproductive or economic purpose approved of by the members. 8. Every member of the society is equally with every other member jointly and severally liable for all debts incuired by the society and for any loan which a member may fail to pay. This last prov^ision is not necessary, and has not been adopted in the Victorian institution mentioned. " Capitalization of honesty " has been the keynote which has brought success to co-oix^rative ba: !.ing. By virtue of the circumscribed area in which each society operates, the management is able to correctly gauge the character of the applicant and the purpose for which the loan is to be applied. The result has been that the los.ses have been practicall-y nil. There is also a moral side to the question. In many districts where the banks were opened the people were ignorant and unreliable, but the establishment of the local bank in. which they were all interested has raised them to a higher standard of life. They were put on their honour and responded. Thrift has been encouraged with beneficent results. A current saying is, " Whoever sets up Raiffeisen hanks pulls down work- houses." Prompt payment of interest is insisted upon. When dealing with this matter, H. W. Wolff, the leading authority on Agricultural Banks, writes — The bank will forgive anything rather than impunctu.ility or remissness in this respect. And the cfTect which such strictness has in training nen to business habits is remarkable. Should the borrower fail to apply the monev as was stipulated, without hesitation or mercy the loan is called in, within fo.ir weeks' time, thr sureties being made responsible. rKNTRAI, B.ANKS. In .some countries, for iiistaiicf, in England, France, and Germany, the necessary fluids rcf]uir(>(l by credit banks are supplied by Central Banks. The Central Co-operative Agrirultural Bank Limited (England) was founded in 1908 under the auspici-s of the Agricultural Organization Stxiety, which is rendering such good sor\-icp to the co operative movement in til.- Old ( oiiiitry. Tlie obj.-cts of the li.mk are (<> make advances at 8o2 JoKDial of Agriculture . Victoria. [i i Dec, 1911. moderate rates of interest to properly organized co-operative creilit socie- ties, dividends being limited to 5 per cent. Agricultural credit is making headway in France, where the central or district banks now number 95. In 1895, a law was passed authorizing the Government to make advances, free of interest, to these banks. The following figures show the result of this provision : — iqoo. 1909. State loans ... ... ... /,"24,5oo ... ^1,850,000 District banks ... ... ... q .. 05 Local banks ... ... ... 87 ... 2,08^ Members ... ... ... ... 2,175 •■• '33>.^82 Loans ... ... ... ... /.'76,ooo ... ;^'4,2oi,ooo Members of a local bank must al.so be members of an agricultural association, but the number need not exceed seven. The duration of loans varies according to the nature of the object for which the money is to be applied ; for instance, if for artificial manures or for seed, the term admits of the crop being harvested and sold. The French Ministry of Agriculture has established a bureau for the special purpose of assisting the movement by the distribution of infor- mation. The bureau issues model rules, handbooks, &c., and acts generally in an advisory and administrative capacity. The accounts of the banks are also inspected by the officers of the bureau. There are 37 central banks in Germany. The Central Bank of Neuwied, which was founded by Raiffeisen in 1876, has no less than 4,340 affiliated societies; Munich has 2,080 societies; others, like Erfurt, have as few as 11. The total business (outgoings and incomings) of the Neuwied Bank for 1908 amounted to over ^37.000,000. A Victorian Credit Bank. Reference has been made previously in this article to the Co-operative Credit Bank of Victoria Limited. Although this institution is not, like its Old World prototypes, local in its sphere of action, its shareholders are united by a common bond, ina.'^much as they are past or present officers of the Imperial, Commonwealth, or State service. The establi.<-:hment of a credit bank was first mentioned at a meeting of the advisory members of the Civil Serv'ce Co-operative Society of Victoria, and, as a result, a committee was appointed to consider the matter. The writer was one of the micmbers of the committee ; and, subsequently, he was elected to the first Board of Directors, and continued as such for two years, being Chairman during 1907-8. After careful consideration, the Committee recommended the forma- tion of a co-operative credit bank. The rules were registered on the 4th December, 1905, under the Provident Societie.3 Act, and business w'as coni- menced at the end of February, 1906, with a capital of ;£ti7- 'I'o- day, the paid-up capital amounts to ^^2.343. The following figures, taken from the balance-sheets, indicate the growth of the institution. In addition to writing off the preliminary expenses and \)roviding for reasonable depreciation of furniture, a reserve fund of ^120 has been created. A further reserve, to make provision for possible bad debts, has just been inaugurated, and ;^io placed to its credit. Loans have been granted for quite a variety of purposes, e.g., liqui- dation of loans obtained at usurious rates ; renovation of, and additions to, dwellings; purchase of horses, cows, and vehicles; deposits on land; payment of University fees to enable students to complete their course, &c. II Dec, 1 91 1.] Agricultural Credit Banks. 803 Co-operative Ckedit Bank of Victoria, L'Miticd. Half-jear endiiio August, 1006 ... Fehiuary, 1907 ... August, 1907 February, 1908 ... August," 19().S Februa-y, 1909 ... Angus-, 190;) Feltruarv, 1910 ... Augu.st,"l9lO February, l911 ... August, 1911 £ 4_>5 935 1,674 2,010 2.269 2,3 )6 2,. 398 2,449 2,r>ll 2,369 2,343 Lo.ans. Nil. Amount. £ 95 616 132 1,116 198 1,919 190 1,S48 199 y,214 174 1,665 ISS 2,203 191 1,.598 121 2,202 86 1,629 170 1,811 1,744 18,821 Unless definitely stated to the lontrary in the rules, sli i^e capital in societies registered under the Victorian Provident Societies Act is withdrawable on six months' notice being given to the management. So that ample time would be afforded for the Co-operative Credit Bank ot Victoria lo prove its success or o'her- wise, the original rules provided that capital should not be withdrawable -until five years had elapsed. This period expired in October, 1910, and a slight decrease has resulted, owing to the fact that some of the shareholders have required their capital for other purposes. In drafting the rtile.s, the Raiffeisen system was not adopted in its entirety. For instance, it was necessary that the whole of the capital should be contributed by the shareholders whose liability was limited to the amount of the shares held by them. Although many took up shares simply to help the movement, they have had a fair financial return on their investment. In addition, they have had the satisfaction of knowing that they have been enabled to help others less fortunately circumstanced. As a tlirector, I had ample opportunity of judging of the good work that is being dnne among the shareholders, many of whom in time of financial stress had previously to burrow elsewhere at exorbitant rates. The management is vesled in a board of directors (9) elected by the shareholders. After each annuil election, the directors elect two of their number as chairman and secretary respectively. With the exception of the secretary, the services of the directors are gratuitous. Expenses for rent and clerical assistance have, of course, to be met. 'J'hc following an.' the rules governing the granting of loans: — Ril.E 38. — LO.VNS. (a) Loans, when approved by tlie Board of Directors, sliall hv granted to share- holders on the terms agrceil ui)on in writing. (b) No sharelioider who is in possession of money lent to him bv the Society shall be accc|ited as security for ano lier member retpiiring a lo.ui. unless the Boani of Directors are unanimous that it is s.ifi to do so. (c) .Sliareholders who desire to obt.iin a loan sliall fill up a form st.iting the object for which tiie loan is rc(|uire 1 7^ 1 ^^0 1 1 ^ 1 % 1 "to \ 1 •« 1 1 ^ 1 + 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 Scale i in.M I FC POST. II Dec, ipii-] French Prunes. 809 FRENCH PRUNES. p. J. Cannody, Chief Orchard Sufervisor ; and F. de Casiella, Government Yiticulturist. The following particulars concerning the methods followed in the preparation of French " Agen " prunes, the finest in the world, should l)rove of interest. Though these are often known to the trade as Bordeaux prunes, the case is similar to that of Port wine and Barcelona nuts ; the district where the prunes are grown and dried being situated much further inland and quite distinct from the port of shipment, the name of which has become identified with them in English-speaking countries. The industry is an example of that localization which is so marked a feature of French agriculture and horticulture, for it is restricted to the neighbourhood of Agen, the capital of the department of Lot-et-Garonne, a town of some 25,000 inhabitants. The district proved itself eminently suited for prune production and to the cultivation of this tree growers have very generally turned their attention, with the result that it is now the leading industry ; the average value of the prune crop having reached 20 to 30 million francs, or alx>ut a million sterling, annually. The factors which contribute to the excellence of the product are the suitability of the locality (soil and climate), the variety grown, and the method of drying. Agen is cool, too cool, in fact, for it to be practicable to dry fruit in the sun. It is near the Northern limit of the Olive zone and therefore the climate is more similar to the coast side of the Dividing: Range than to Northern Victoria. This suggests possibilities for this industry in the cooler parts of the State, where the apple is the leading fruit. The thin skin resulting from the cool moist climate seems to have much to do with the high quality of the finished article. The variety grown is exclusively the Prune d'Ente, a sweet and thin- skinned black plum, with a very small pit, which may or may not be identical with the plum known as Prime d'Agen in our orchards. Unfor- tunately, some young trees of the true prune d'Ente, brought back from France by Mr. de Castella in 1908, did not, owing to want of cool storage, survive the voyage, el.se the (Question would be in a fair way towards being decided. It is, however, with drying methods that the present article proposes to deal. For the information concerning this part of the subject we are indebted to an interesting series of articles by Professor E. Rabate,* describing in detail a working trial of prune ovens, or ctuvcs, as they are called in French, held, in September, 19 10, at ^'ilIeneuve-sur-Lot. near Agen, under the auspices of, and financially assisted by, the French Minister of Agriculture, the department of Lot-et-Garonne, the town of Villeneuve-sur-Lot, and the agricultural &c. societies of the region, including the Villeneuve SyndiaU of [irune merchants. Ten different makers competed. Similar trials had previously been held at \'illeneuvt' in i860- '61 and 1879. at Jiergerar in 1872, and at Agen in 1896. The artificially heated drier or evaporator a[)i)ears to be absolutely essential to the production of high class prunes, which are half cooked. • Progrh Agricole. Jltrd .\pril, Till Mav. and 4Hi .lime, 1011. Ktiitli-M jirutiinu". sur Ic soiliuuo des fniits ; K. Kii)»it6|iurti'Mii'iitnlf (l'Ai;rii-iiUiirc do !,ot-ot-(!ari>iiiii'. 8io Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 191 i. or stewed in their own steam, rather than dried in the way we under- stand the process with our sun-dried raisins, apricots, &c. To this s}stem of drying, they no doubt owe their peculiar qualities and in order to turn out anything at all similar we will, no doubt, find it to our advantage to adopt the methods which are the result of long years of practice in France. The Agen prune industry is a very old established one. For fully 50 years drying ovens or evaporators have been in general use* j they are usually of small size and worked by the grower himself, this being more to his taste and financial advantage than the sale of his fruit to a drying factory. Though a few^ large industrial establishments exist, home-drying is almost the invariable rule. The prune grower thus employs his workmen at a time when other Avork is not urgent ; he uses up pruning wood of little value. The prune d'Ente when very ripe, that is to say, when very rich in sugar and capable of giving a high yield in dry prunes, is difficult to carry owing to the thinness of its skin ; finally, the grower is naturally desirous to keep for himself the profit on drying. DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF PRUNE OVEN. (AFTER RABATE 13, recess for fireman; A, co'd air entrance; O, entrance for air to be heated; S, heating chamber; F, fire-box; C, ash-pan; T,T,T, smoke flues; H,H, pipes for removal of moist air; P, door; R,R, rails; W, truck; E,E, shelves to carrying drying travs. — Scale ; about 6 ft. to i in. The ovens most favoured are of rather small size. The dimensions of the most successful models at the 19 lo trial were as follows: — length, 8 to 9 feet; width, 4 ft. n in. to 5 ft. 3 in. ; with a height of about 6 feet above the fire-box. Large orchardists prefer to have several ovens of medium size, rather than one larger one. The highest price which prune-growers are prepared to pay for the machines, exclusive of brick- work, is from ^14 to ^16. Both as regards dimensions and general plan there is a good deal of uniformity, the differences between the com- peting machines mainly concerning details of construction. In a general way, they all consisted of three main parts — a fire-box, a drying chamber ■situated immediately over it, and a truck running on rails on which the trays containing the fruit are stacked : this movable truck permits the rapid withdrawal of the fruit when it needs cooling, as it usually does twice during the drying process. * The special dryiii'.- oven his boen evolverl gradually, and is, no doubt, the outcome of the old time method of dryin^^ prunes in the ordinary baker's oven after a batch o' bread has been baked. This is the ■course recommended in old books on the subject. II Dec, 1911.] French Prunes. 8ir The diagram will give some idea of the arrangement of these different parts. It is only intended to show the main principles ; details vary very considerably with different makes of machines. The drying cliamber is usually built of masonry or brick; the latter permits the use of hollow walls which minimize loss of heat. The fire-box is either of wrought, or preferably of, cast iron. The rails on which the truck runs are immediately over the fire-box. Provision for the entry of fresh air (hot or cold, according to the make of machine) and for the evacuation of moist air, seems of considerable importance, especially the latter. According to Professor Rabate : — It is most important to be able, during the currency of the drying, to vary the degree of mois'ure in the interior of the oven. It is therefore necessary to place, at suitable points, openings, the aperture of which can be altered at will. This is the principal constructional ])oint concerning which investigation is necessary. In the present ovens the exit of moist air is always under control. The exits are narrow, and at given moments they are completely closed. The jjrune then cooks itsself* in an atmosphere saturated with steam. Many practical driers consider that this i)reparation in a moist and hot atmosphere contributes to give to Agen prunes their colour, their gloss, and their so delicate aioma. Evenness of heating, so that drying is equally rapid throughout the machine, is another necessary feature. It is not possible to here reproduce all that is said concerning the structure and working of the different machines ; an account of the drying process in the winner of the first prize will suffice. This was exhibited by M. Boudie, of Allez, par Sainte- Livrade ; its truck was 8 storied, each taking 6 trays, or 48 in all. The absence of any preliminary preparation before undergoing the drying process is noteworthy — Agen prunes are neither dipped in lye nor is the skin pricked mechanically, as is usually the case with Californian prunes. The thinness of skin already referred to, and the high tempera- ture at which drying is conducted, no doubt render this not only unneces- sary but undesirable. Work was controlled with the aid of a thermometer, placed in a recess in the door, 4 ft. 3 in. above the rails. A pane of glass separated the thermometer from the outside air. Two principles were constantly observed : — ist. The temperature should never descend after the mon-.int when, the prunes having been placed in the oven, equilibrium is established. The temperature should rise, or else remain stationary, if it be up to the required degree. 2nd. Moisture should never conden.se on the thermometer pane; if a deposit commences to form, the air entrance must ie opened so as to carry away the surplus steam. The work comprises thn-e phases : Wrinkling. Seconding, and Finishing. W rhikling. "W-XQ empty oven is first heated for alKUit an hour, with all air entran(t's clo.sed, so as to reach 212" F. The truck, loadetl with fruit, is then wheeled into it. The thermometer descends progressively to 140" at the clo.se of an hour. .Mr entrances are gradually opened to carry off surplus moisture. Two hours after the intrndiiction of tlie fruit, the door is slightly opened to see if tlie prunes have not swelled too much. If leakage of juice is feared, the truck is taken out for 5 minut«-s so that the skin may acquire strength. The truck is wheeled in once more and the thermt^meter falls again somewhat, reaching 129"- 133" F. L'nder the.se conditions, • The- i\|.rr!<>.i p;icked in this manner (, kilos tin system), with which Loner cwt., and I am advised tli.it it is likely to keej) at this figure for sever. il months, so otir [ Ill, ,r. Ti, n ililiiU vv.ll 111' >,iidiii:; ihiir ne\t >e.is<)n's I'ulp to this market. 8i6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 191 i. Before doing so it would, perhaps, be advisable for you to cable me to ascertain the prospects in order to prevent dissatisfaction as far as possible. I cabled to you yesterday in the following terms as a result of information received from Messrs'. Becker, Dietz & Co., of 31 Eastcheap, E.G., to the effect that they were willing to buy 100 tons of raspberry pulp at the price mentioned, subject to its being of the same quality as that exported by Taylor Bros., of Tasmania : — " Rasjiberry pulp selling 35s. to 40s. per cwt. Buyers 100 tons these prices quality equal Taylor Bros., Tasmania." I am instituting inquiries as to the prospects on other markets and will apprise you in due course. The London market practically rules the prices and those above given may be accepted as approximate prices obtaining at other centres throughout the TJnited Kingdom (Sgd.) J. W. TAVERNER, Agent-General for Victoria. Hamburg. London, 25th August, igii. Sir, With further reference to the despatch from your Department of the 29th June last I beg to inform you that, having made inquiries in regard to the prospects of trade with the Hamburg market, I have received the undermentioned reports : — Cherries. — In only small quantities cherries may be shipped to this market to arrive here in December and January, at which time we think they would sell at satisfactory prices. The cherries must be packed in small boxes containing about I lb., and 10 of such boxes must be bundled together in one package. Peaches and Plums have been imported into Germany for some years from South Africa during the months January to April and have been sold here at satisfaction. These articles were packed in one layer to the box and 10 such small boxes bundled together. We think if your Government could obtain trial shipments it would be better first to try the English markets and if results there are good to ship some small lots to this market. Passion Fruit does not suit the German taste and therefore it is useless to ship to this market. Tomatoes are coming to our market in sufficient quantities from the Canary Islands and we do not recommend shipments from Australia. Fruit Pul-p is paying a very high duty (M.60 per loo kilos) and therefore no business can be done here. (Sgd.) J. W. TAVERNER, Agent-General for Victoria. GERM.4NY. Sir. London, ist September, 191 1. Following up my despatch of the 25th ult., I have now the honour to give you a copy of a report which I have received from Messrs. Lohmann in connexion with my inquiries as to the prospects of trade in Australian Fruit on the German markets : — Fruit Pul-p. — This cannot be imported into Germany, as there is a duty of 60 marks per 100 kilos, so that practically only special marks of old-established English fruit jams and marmalades can still be imported. Passion Fruit is very little known with us. The fruit is cheap in Australia and if growers are willing to sacrifice in the beginning of the trade some money to introduce the fruit, I feel confident that in three or four years' time this fruit should find its market, but at present it will be impossible to advise any shipments without this word of warning. To?natoes, Plutns, Peaches and Cherries. — Especially in the months of arrival given in your letter under review, there would be a splendid market and extreme prices can be expected. Without knowing the quality, of course, it will not be possible to give you an idea as to prices. You may be aware that Cape Colony for three or four years has been regularly supplying the Bremen and Hamburg Note. — One Mark is equal to about Il^d. (20'40 marks = el) : one Kilo is equal to about '2 J lbs. (45"35 Kilos = 100 lbs.)— J.G.T. II Dec, 1911-] Oversea Markets for Fruit and Fruit Pulf. 817 markets with plums, peaches, grapes and pears, in the months of January to April. Therefore, I would hesitate to give 30U an idea as to prices, but if the quality i; good, you can be sure of excellent pri'ces. Kven in the months of April and May we have realized in IJremen for first-class pears 26 to 28 marks per case, and if they could arrive during the season of January to March, when all the dinner parties of the winter season are still on and when the shops demand 3s. and 4s. per pound for French grapes, you will see that it is not a matter of price but of quality which has to be considered. Packing. — Generally speaking, I will advise not to take too large cases and to pack the fruit in " Holzwools " (wood shavings) or cork shavings. Peaches and plums would be best packed in tissue paper, each fruit separately. The market expenses in Bremen and Hamburg would be 1; per cent, commission and 6(1. per case of about 20 kilos; if the cases were smaller, the price ])er case would be reduced in proportion. Messrs. T.ohmann & Co. have been selling in the Hamburg and Bremen markets, as well as in Berlin and towns in the interior of Germanv, for the last twelve years, and have agents in the principal towns of Southern Germany for certain classes of fruit. Should anv of our producers desire to forward consignments for disposal on the German markets, I would strongly recommend their sending to this firm. (Sgd.) J. W. TAVERNER, Agent-General for Victoria. Denm.ark. London, 13th September, igii. Sir, Following up my previous report I now have the honour to inform you of the result of my inquiries with regard to Denmark. Copenhagen imports fresh fruits other than ajijiles from France, and North and South Africa. Fruit to arrive in this market should be ])acked in boxes 22 in. long and 16 in. broad, in one layer, packed in very fine wood-wool or paper slips. Apples to be packed as at present. The times of arrival as set out in your desjjatch are suit- able, as there are no Danish fruits at the times mentioned. Passion fruit is unknown in Denmark. California is doing a fair business in connexion with fruit pulp and canned peaches, apricots, pears, apples and plums. The import duty on preserved fruit is 13s. 6^d. per cwt. Messrs. Rathe & Holm, 12, Frederikshave, Copenhagen, are recommended to mc as reliable agents who would be glad to receive consignments and do their best to open up the trade. I would recommend that this firm be intrusted with small consignments with a view to testing the Copenhagen market. (Sgd.) J. \V. TAVERNER, Agent-General for Victoria. Germany. London. 2()tli .Se])tember, 101 1. Sir, Following up m\- jirevious despatches with reference to your inquiry of the 2<)th June last, I have to rei)ort that Messrs. Lohmann, of Bremen, inform me that they have made further inquiries with regard to fresh fruit outside apples from Aus- tralia, and now give me the following jiarticulars regarding prices. Herewith I give last vear's current prices for Cajie fruits : — Peaches, packed in small cases containing 12, 15, 18, 20, 24, 26 ami 30 each, according to (juality, size and condition, realized M32, M63, Mo. M122 the case. Plums were packed 20, 24, 28, 30 and 36 to a case and rcilized, according to qualiTy and condition, ^\}\, M5i, M7, M8i per case. Africots were packed 24, 30 ami 36 each case, realizing M;. M(>4 per case. Pears were ]>acked, accorfling to size, in cases containing lO. 20, 40, 44, 45 and 48, realizing, according to <|uality and condition, per case M2a, M42, W~ and MS^. Melons were packed in cases of 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, realizing, ucording to size and quality, Mii, M3, MtiJ per case. Grapes. — 5 kilos (about 11 lbs.) to a case, realized according to ipiality. size of the ''rapes and entire fruit and condition, per case, M33, Msi. M^'J- Dried Fruit (apples and a|)ricots). — .So far, the Californian fruil, which is well known in tlu- Gcrmin market, is cheaper than the .\ustr.ili.m. KioS.S. 'J»i journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 1911. Australian dried apples were offered at Bremen, c.i.f., at 65 marks per 50 kilos, apricots at 65s. to 68s. per cwt. Dried fruits coming from California are usually packed in cases of 125 kilos net. .\ustralian raisins would have to compete against sultanas: the latter realizing now 4060 m;irl:s. Fruit -pulp so far has only been offered in the slia]je of apricots in this market, but it is understood that contracts have been made for delivery at the price of 26-28 marks, but the jjulp so far imported has not been up to the samples submitted, and the Chamber of Commerce had to arrange for arbitration and the pulj) in several instances was sold later on to 23-24 marks. Quite recently there was more demand and spot fruit pulp was asked for at the price of 30 marks per 50 kilos. The main necessity is that the fruit pulp should be divided in halves and they should arrive sound and that the juice be thick and tasty. The fruit pulp received so far has been packed hermetically in tins of 5 kilos. Messrs. Lohmann add that in various cases whole or part consignments arrived in an utterly useless con- dition and were condemned by the authorities. The fruits were mostly packed in wood shavings and each fruit wrapped in tissue j)a])er. (Sgd.) J. W. TAVERNER, Agent-General for Victoria. BENEFICIAL IiNSECTS. PARASITIC WASPS. C. French, Junr., Acting Govcriiiiicut Entomologist. By the majority of people the opinion is held that all insects are necessarily u.seless. This, however, is not the case. Many insects, especially those belonging to the Hyntenoftera order, which includes bees, wasps, ichneumons, &c., are decidedly beneficial and should not be de- stroyed. It is therefore proposed from time to time to give a short account of the various beneficial insects found in Victoria. As the Wasp family contains many examples it will be the first to receive attention. The particular wasp illustrated is Magalyra fasciifennis, and is com- monly known as the Long-tailed Wasp. The male is usually much smaller than the female. The latter, however, varies considerably in size and also in colour. Figs, i and 2 are typical specimens. Its general colour is shining black with small whitish hairs on head, thorax, and abdomen, the latter being smooth. The forewings are dark brown with a dark brown colour across the wings and at the tips, but in some females they are sometimes almost black. The remarkable ovipositor of the female insect often measures nearly 3 in. long. It is composed of three parts ; the actual borer, which occupies the centre, and the two sheaths which act as a protection to the ovipositor when it is not in use. The borer is dark brown, but the sheaths are almost black, and have minute hairlets resembling serrated edges. The three separate pieces resemble horse hair. The insect, by means of its ovipositor, can pierce living timber and deposit its eggs in the larvae of the destructive timber and fruit-tree boring beetles, principally the Longicorns (Long-horned Beetles) and the Bupre- stids (Jewel Beetles). When the insect is dead the parts of the ovipositor usually .separate and fall into a lyre-like form. It is in consequence of this propensity that Westwood, the well-known entomologist, gave the genus the name of Megalyra or Large Lyre. KXPT.AXATION OF Pl.ATE. 1. Male Wasp. (Natural size.) 2. Female Wasp. (Natural size.) 3. Longicorn Beetle. (Natural size.) 4 and 5. Timber bored by larvffi of Longicorn Beetle. (Half original size.) II Dec, 1911.] Betjeficial Insects. 819 LONG lAlLKI) WASl'S (l AND 2) AND LONGUORN lUCKII.K (,3). Tiiiilicr IkiwI Iiv l/iiiu'i<'<>rii llcctli '1 r. 2 Journal of Agriculture , Vicioria. [i I Dec, 191 1. VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Continued from fage 76S.) H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Competition. 1 No. Position in of Breed. Name of Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. Sept. 777 Oct. Date ( 7 months). tion. 12 White Leghorn W. G. Swift 164 941 1 40 A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 755 150 905 2 31 " R. W. Pope 733 168 901 3 33 Range Poultry Farm (Qld.) 674 152 826 4 20 H. McKenzie 656 163 819 5 37 E. Waldon 646 144 790 6 18 S. Brundrett 637 138 775 7 18 Black Orpington . . D. Fisher . . 609 127 736 \ 8 46 Minorca G. W. Chalmers 603 133 736 / ^ 21 Wliite Leghorn R. L . Appleford 564 154 718 10 25 B. Mitchell 564 138 702 11 44 Blaclc Orpington . . T. S. Goodisson 555 145 700 12 55 White Leglioru W. G. McLister 552 146 698 13 32 Silver Wyandotte . . M. A. Jones 572 124 696 14 39 White Leghorn A. W. HaU 539 154 693 15 66 White Wyandotte J. E. Bradley 542 120 662 }■• 38 W hite Leghorn Mrs. C. R. Smse 513 149 662 9 J. O'Loughlin 520 141 661 18 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdon 523 136 659 19 67 White Leghorn C. L. Sliarman 530 127 657 20 36 F. A. Sillitoe 521 131 652 21 1 A. Brebner 513 134 647 22 4 Golden Wyandotte H. Bell 5O5 131 636 23 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacy 531 101 635 24 3 White Leglioru K. Gleghorn 492 142 634 25 19 A. Jaques 5O4 128 632 26 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 488 142 630 27 28 White Leghorn J. Campbell 48O 148 628 28 49 W. J. Thornton 470 157 627 29 51 J. W. McArthur 520 103 623 30 24 F. Hannaford 498 123 621 31 50 C. H. Busst 480 139 619 32 2 E. P. Nash 459 152 611 33 5 L. 0. Payne 477 132 609 34 65 H. HammUl (N.S.W.) 468 137 605 35 45 >! T. Kempster 455 146 601 36 27 . Hill and Luckmau . . 468 125 593 37 8 T. W. Goto 450 140 590 38 47 ", C. W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 452 136 588 39 08 FaveroUes K. Courteuay 484 101 585 ]■ 40 42 White Orpington . . P. Mitchell 469 116 585 ) 69 White Leghorn W. H. Dmilop 444 138 582 42 41 Morgan and Watson . . 454 125 579 43 60 "} J. J. Harrmgtou 446 129 575 44 43 W. B. Crellin 432 140 572 45 62 P. Hodson . . 414 149 563 46 57 G. E. Edwards 404 155 559 47 11 Brown Leghorn F. Soncum 422 134 556 48 30 Black Orpington . . Rodgers Bros. 426 128 554 49 6 Silver Wyandotte . . Mrs. H. J. Richards 402 150 552 50 53 White L-3ghorn A. Stringer 412 139 551 51 52 W. J. McKcddie 412 128 540 52 54 F. N. Hodges 437 87 524 53 16 Silver Wy^mdotta . . Miss A. Cottam 402 113 515 54 23 Golden Wyandotte G. E. Brown 402 109 511 55 34 Wliite Leghorn E. Dettman 372 136 508 56 26 F. Seymour 369 119 488 }57 35 J. H. Brain 343 145 488 7 H. Stevenson 356 130 486 59 61 Silver Wyandotte J. Reade 351 105 456 bO 64 White Leghorn J. D. Read 302 144 446 61 56 Mrs. C. Thompson . . 309 129 438 62 17 W. J. Eckershall 307 125 432 63 14 Black Orpington . . W. J. Macauley 316 109 425 64 65 15 Minorca H. McChesney 230 121 351 48 3. James . . 151 91 242 66 1 31,566 8,815 40,381 -II Dec, 1911-] Orchard and Garden Notes. 821 ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Fescott, Principal, Horticultural School, Burnley. The Orchard. Care of Young Trees. The care of the young tree at this .season of the year is one of the •.most important of orchard operations. A very considerable number of young trees has been planted out during the past planting season, and it is thought advisable to draw attention to this. Whatever care and attention are given to young trees will be amply repaid to the grower in after years, •owing to the vigour, sturdiness, and other qualities thus imparted to them. It is a mistake to plant a young orchard, and, after cutting back the trees, "to leave them practically to their own devices, other than following the usual methods of soil cultivation. The trees, after the early summer cultivation and cleaning of the .soil, should be mulched with straw, grass, or leafage of some description. This mulching should not be crowded around the stem, its object being mainly . to create moist and cool soil conditions, and to encourage a free root •establishment. The mulch material should be occasionally stirred, and no weed or grass growth should be allowed to accumulate amongst it. Where mulching material is not available, a very frequent earth mulch should be .given, bv constantly stirring the soil within a few feet of the young trees. In addition to mulching, it will be beneficial to spray the young trees with water wherever possible, particularly on hot or windy days. At such limes, the transpiration of moisture from the foliage is very excessive and continuous, and a water spray is thus very helpful to the young trees. Further, all unnecessary buds should be rubbed off. particularly on the -main trunk ; and all growths in the centre should Ije pinched back, so as to force as much sap as possible into the growths which will ultimately form the framework of the tree. Similar attention should also be given to grafted trees ; although they may not need mulching to the extent that young trees do, yet the water sprayings and disbudding work will l)e of great benefit to them. Ordinary orchard work will now include cultivation. Frequent soil Avorkings will be necessary so as to keep a surface mulch and to keep •down weeds. SpR.^VI^G. Spraving witli arsenate of lead for various i)ests will now be rccfiving attention. 'J'ht-se include the ctKliin moth, cherry slug, root borer, looper ■c.at«T|)illar, and various leaf-eating insects. Thf question of the number of sprays necessary to keep the codlin moth in check is receiving attention in various parts of the world ; ami the " one spray method " in the control of this in.sect is Ix'ing considtTal)|y advanced. Last season, extensive exixTimcnls wen- carriee filled with the p<^ison — the young larxne seeking entrance therein will l»e killed by endeavouring to eat their way through. -Trior to these experiments. Professor Melander reported, in 1909, that a 822 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [iiDec, 191 i. single thorough spraying had afforded practically 100 per cent, clean returns over hundreds of acres in Washington, Colorado, and Utah. In the 1910 experiments, very satisfactory results were obtained from the one spray ; at the same time, it was concluded that further experiments and investigations were needed before final conclusions would be reached. It was also decided that the filling of the calyx cup with poison is of prim.e importance. If it could be shown that, in ^'ictoria. the codlin moth laid her eggs invariablv in the calyx, the one spray method would Ix- of extreme importance. But it has been already noted that the moth, with considerable frequence, places the eggs on the sides of the fruit, and also on the foliage. Consequentlv, under such conditions, the one spray method would appear to show a weak spot. It would be intere.sting to determine, in each zone in the State, the exact number of spravs really necessary to keep this pest in check. Ex- periments are now in force at the Burnley orchards to this end, and reports will be made at the end of the season. Vegetable Garden. Constant culti^■ation (especially with the hoe), weeding, and watering \\ill be the principal duties at present in the vegetable garden. Tomatoes will require frecjuent manuring and watering. Keep all unnecessary laterals pinched out, and also pinch the tops when the main growth is long enough. In the early fruiting varieties, such as Earliana, a vigilant watch will need to be kept for the tomato black spot. All inmiature ripening fruits should be well examined for this. Diseased fruits should not be thrown on the ground, to cause re-infection ; they should be burned. Pumpkins, marrows, melons, and similar plants will require a con- siderable quantity of water, keeping excessive laterals and runners pinched out. Asparagus beds should now be allowed to mature their growths, ceasing to cut the stems. A mulching with stable manure will be helpful. Hoe and clean all potato and onion beds ; plant out seedlings of all kinds, and sow seeds of cabbage, cauliflower. French beans, peas, lettuce. &c. Flcwer Garden. All spring flowering bulbs that have ripened their foliage may now be lifted, if required, and stored for a few months. It is not necessary to lift ail classes of bulbs. Daffodils and similar bulbs may remain in the one location for some years. But it is generally necessary to make annual or at least biennial inspections of hvacinth and tulip bulbs, to prevent their rotting. Dahlias may now be planted out, i^articularly those that are being grown for exhibition and for late lilooms. The roots should be well watered when planting. Seeds of zinnias, cosmos, asters, and other autumn flowering annuals may still be .sown, sowing in the open being now preferable. Carnations, camellias, daphnes, and other plants hard to strike from cuttings, may now be layered. Rose plants mav now be somewhat jieglected. It will be advisable to mulch the bushes with a light mulching material at the present time, with- holding the water supplv for the present. 1 1 Dec, 191 1.] I Diproviscd Motor Spraying. 823 All weak and tall plants should be staked and tied securely to prevent breakages. The summer heat and winds are responsible for a considerable loss of moisture from plants, and they .are correspondingly weak ; conse- quently, support will be needed. The soil should be frequently stirred, watering and hoeing being continually carried on, except in the rose beds. Surface cultivation must always be thorough, leaving the soil well broken up. IMPROVISED MOTOR SFRAYIXG. E. E. Ptscott, Principal. Horticultural School, Burnley. To the orchardist who carries on fruit-growing operations on upwards of 15 acres, a motor pump is one of his present day necessities. The motor pump is easy to manage, and is a great saving of labour ; the work I.MI'KO\ ISKl) -MOTOR Sl-KAVER. of spraying is jlso portormed with much greater speed than formrrlv. The cost of motor pumps stvms at first glance somewhat prohibitive ; but when it is considered that twu men can do the whole of the work, and that the time saved is a very great consideration, it is not long before the ma(iiine pays for itself. Some orchardists and agriculturists have ing<'niouslv m.ule u>e of their motor cycles for the purpose of power work, and apparently the motor cycle engine is very u.>>eful for this object. In the August. 1907. number of X\\Q journal. .Mr. J. M. B. Connor gave a description. illustr.\ted. of the power of a motor cycle being ailapted for working the ghalT ( iitt«'r. In this instance. .1 i'\ li.p. motor cycle w.is used for driving ,i t\vo-l»l;ided chaff cuttir. whiih suppbed ciil fond for ,1 lierd of 30 cows. 824 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Dec, 191 i. It has remained for Mr. H. Vince, of Bridgewater-oa-Loddon, to- show how the motor cycle may be utilized as an improvised motor spray pump. Mr. Vince's motor cycle is an ordinary 3I h.p. machine, and when utilizing the power for spraying purposes, it is attached to a wooderv triangular frame in such a way that it can be easily disconnected ; at the same time, this frame gives a solid bed to prevent excessive vibration. The cycle wheels, handle bars, and saddle are removed, to prevent oil and caustic sprays from damaging them. The machine is then fitted on to a two-wheeled dray, along with an ordinary barrel spray pump. The pump is driven by a belt off the engine pulley, over the large wheel which is shown in the illustration, the axle of which has a crank which works the pump. Mr. Vince uses a fan, cut out of a piece of tin, and attached to the outside of the engine pulley, to keep the cylinder cool. The cycle is covered with a tarpaulin, when necessary, to prevent any spray material from settling upon the various parts. Mr. Vince's orchard has an extent of upwards of 60 acres, and the whole of his spraying is done with the motor cycle power. The machine works at a pressure of from 150 to 180 lbs., and the motor will run all day with but little attention. Tt can be disconnected in a few minutes, and again shortlv transformed into a motor cycle. By this ingenious means, not only is the spraying done more expedi- tiously, but the drudgery of hand pumping ,is done away with, and the labour of one man is saved ; it requires but two men to attend to the horse and machine, and to do the spraying. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from page 762.) C. F. Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Top or Head Grafting. This mode of grafting is largely practised upon the apple in the nursery row. If a variety does not sell by the time the young trees are two years old from graft or bud. the operator, by heading them off first below the branches and adopting this method, may have another tree of a desired variety within six months. Top graft the young trees about 18 in. above ground level. A top graft put on in the spring is equal bv the following winter to a two-year-old tree from bud. Fig. 43 shows a young tree so treated carrying a graft with five months' growth (defoliated). The variety is Rome Beauty. When selecting scions for this method, see that they carry all wood and not bloom buds so as to form a uniformly branched head (Fig. 43). In Fier. aa a scion carrying three bloom buds and one wood bud has been used ; consequently, a tree with a poor head growth is being formed. Consequent on this the wood bud is breaking away and drawing the sap. This reduces the elaboration of sap to the bloom buds and causes the fruit to set. The probable result will be a short lateral growth shooting forth from the bloom spur during the summer (Fig. 44). The reformation of such a type and the bringing about of uniform head conditions, by pruning, will depend solely upon the wood growth having suitable buds at the base on which to operate. That part of the scion, and also the strong oblique growth, should be hardened back to the basal II Dec, 1911.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 825 parts where indicated by lines in Fig. 44. The aim of the operator is to get a straight vertical growth. Having secured this latter growth the following winter it should be cut back to within four buds from the base Such buds will produce the desired uniformitv of head. The quicker and better way is to re-graft. This can be performed after the young tree is planted out permanently in the orchard, and when the buds are starting to move. Such a type would not be satisfactory to a nurseryman or to a purchaser. If the stem of the stock or young tree to be operated upon is not very thick, the cut should be made straight through, simi- larly to the scion, and long enough to insure the latter being vertical when plac(Ml in position. If, on the other hand, the stock should be somewhat large, make the cut straight through and then back off at the terminal end of the cut (Fig. 45 a). The length of the cut should be from \\ in. to i^ in. when ready for placing the scion in position. With Figs. 46 a and b the cuts upon the stock and scion are too short. Ijeina made straight through. When placed 4 5. lui'Ok iiK.AUi.K.M' iiN(;.\iKrnoi>, FIVE MONTH.S' GROWT!! OF .SCION. ' '^ '''••'^'' ■'' ""^ ^VRGNGLV SELECTEE SCION. t<)g<-lhir. tin- ]M).siti<)iis will In- far from vertical. Fig. 46 c shows tile |M>.siti<)n of the material together. It will then l)e ready to cut into the required width and li-ngth (average size — | in X 6 in.). Cut with a pair of scissors or a sharp knife. When using the latter, place and cut the waxed material upon a wooden slab or board. Properlv pre- pared waxed paper or calico should readily separate when required for bind- ing. Do not prepare more material than is required for immediate use. It should be sheltered from the rays of the sun. Grafting Wax Formula. The chiff trouljle when prc])aring thi 47. result ok i'oor graeting- 3 years' growth. wax is to niakr il suil.ililc lor b;)tli warm and coUl ucalluT. it is likrlv in warm weather to be too pliable, and too hard when tlie weather is cold. 'I'his will b<- avoided bv adopting the following formula : — Boil togftlur, until dis.solved, the following : 3 parts resin (pul- verized). 2 [wrts beeswax, and 1 part fat or lard. First place the wax and the fat in the vessel. Be careful that tin- mixture floes not ignite; if it should, do not throw w.iter o\ir it. but Mncllur with a bag or some similar matirial. Tt-s\stem, all varieties will not make medium sized trees upon it. This is princijjally due to the soil and environment not suiting the sttx'k. L'|)on strfjng growing .soils, and in hxalitit'S where ajjple trees worked upon otlur stocks make rank growth but are not very productive, the result should be s.itisfactory, provided a fair trial is given. It is not necessary for tlu* grower to plant a large area in oid«r to tt st wlutlifr this sl(Hk is suitable for the district ; cnr tree of a .select«'d varictv i- .miplc. \\ hen propagating upl 1 , 1 GROWN ON COLE S PARADISE STOCK. Eight years old. 10 ft. high ; 8 ft. across. and are unproductive, such varieties to be worked upon this stock. Besides, more trees per acreage may be planted, if necessary. The pear is usually dwarfed by using the quince as a stock. As many varieties of pears do not flourish when worked directly upon the quince, it is necessary to^ use the pear as an intermediate stock, i.e., by first working strong growing varieties, like Beurre d' Amanalis, Jargonelle, Vicar of Winkfield, &c., upon the quince, and then working the desired variety upon the pear. Pears worked upon the quince should not be grown upon dry or sandy soils, especially in localities where the rainfall is limited ; if so, the proljable result will be disappointing. There are other stocks u.sed for dwarfing, but they have no advantage over the quince. The following kinds, when used as stocks, have somewhat Ti Dec, 1911-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. of a dwarfing inlluenre uijon others, viz., plum stock upon the peach, nectarine and almond; peach stock upon the apricot; Kentish and Cerasus Mahaleb cherry upon the cherry; Citrus tnfoliata upon the citrus family. Certain kinds of fruits — apples, pears, &c. — may \^ checked and d.varfed by root-pruning, i.e., by digging a trench around the tree a suit- able distance from the base of the trunk, and then working beneath the same as if lifting the tree with a massive ball of earth. When performing this operation, care should be exercised that the roots are cleanly severed, and that no top r;:Gts are left uncut. The distance of opening out the 51. r7 12,422 11,S64 15,980 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 17,762 16,164 16,954 12,998 16,464 It may be noted that the year 1909-10 was, with two exceptions, the Ijest since the inception of the olive industry in that State as far as pro- eduction is concerned. Vet, 15,753 gallons of oil were imported into South Australia during that period, which is the record importation for anv one year. The following figures indicate the (juantities imported into the Com- monwealth during the last five years: — - Imports oj Olive Oil into the Cominomve alth. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. Total (5 years). State. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Victoria Xew Soil til Wales Soutli Australia ... Qaeenslaiid ^Vestern Aii.stialia Tasmania 13,038 14,531 4,111 876 3,357 247 15,:^00 19,058 8,2.56 861 2 162 244 16,425 17,247 9,442 931 4,111 181 12,883 21,273 12,013 901 1,SS4 251 17,297 25,986 15,753 997 3,512 105 74,943 ,.: 98,095 49,575 4,-566 15,026 1,028 Total for CoinmouweuUli ... .36,160 45,881 48,337 59,205 63,645 253,233 The above figures show a steady increase in the importation of olive oil, despite the fact that the Commonwealth duty amounts to 2s. per gallon. This increa.se is most marked in Xew South Wales. Notwithstanding the sheltering barrier of protection and the increased prospect of profits, records are not available to slmw a warrantable iiicrea.se in the extension of plantations. Xo returns are availaliie in the (iiflerent States respecting the importa- tif)n or production of jjickled olives, as they come in with other pickles ane- (]uina variety. introroiluc(d, their comnienial \alue r.uinoi Ik,- <'stiui.i|ed. It i.s obvious, however, that not 836 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ri Dec, 1911. much of the produce is finding its way to the market, as is the case in other States. At the present time, the only two places in Victoria where olive oil is manufactured in a commercial way are, I believe, Dookie Agricul- tural College and Mildura. Olive growing was started much later in the latter place than in the former. In New South Wales, some valuable work has been done, and is still being done, in testing the olive in different parts. This is advanced most, I believe, at the VVagga Experimental Farm, where a number of selected varieties are growing. However, these plantings are as yet small and in widely scattered parts. No particulars regarding the production of oil (if any) are available. Botanical Note. The numerous varieties of olives in cultivation to-day are descendants of, or varieties from, the original species Olea eiirofoea, which belongs to the natural order Oleacea. Some doubt has existed among botanists regarding the original habitat of this species. It is now more generally accepted, however, that it is a native of Asia Minor. According to de Candolle, it was introduced from that place, by inunigrants, into Greece, Italy, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. It has again been taken, mainly by people of Southern Europe, to different countries scattered prac- tically all over the more temperate regions of the world. Different species of Olea are found in several of the warmer coun- tries of Asia and Europe ; in the West Indies and Mauritius ; one in North America, and two in Australasia. The two species native to Australasia are O. panicidata (R.Br.), commonly known in different localitie.Si as Marble Wood, Native Olive, Iron Wood, &c. ; and O. apctala (Vahl), the " Maire '' of New Zealand. We have also several species of Noielaa, which belongs to the same order. These are known variously by their vernacular names, as the Silkwood Olive (A^. Ugustrina), Queensland Olive (A^ ovata), and Mock Olive {N . longifolia). These trees must not be confounded with the true native olives, nor yet should the Olive Plum {Eloeodendrum melano- carpum and E. australe), or the Olive Berry Tree {Elaocarpus cyaneus), as they belong to different orders. The order Oleacccc comprises 17 genera and at least 124 species, which have a very wide distribution. Some botanists include in this order the Jasminum, which resembles the olive in many respects, but the latter is now more generally separated with the Nyctanthes, under the order Jas- mincce, which contains about 50 species. Not only does the natural order to which the olive belongs provide us- with a tree of the very first economic importance, and several others of lesser importance, but it supplies many of our well-known garden shrubs and ornamental trees, such as the Privet {Ligustrum), Fringe-Tree {Chion- antJius), Jasmine Box {PJiillyrca), Lilac (Syringa), Flowering Ash {Fraxi- nus oriius), and the Common Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). Nearly all of the members of this order are very easily propagated by cuttings or layers. Climate. The cultivated olive is undoubtedly one of the most hardy and adaptable of trees. Although grown for ages in the countries bordering on the Medi- terranean, it has been carried from this region to various parts of the world where the climate is found to be similar. As yet, the number of olives in this country is comparatively small. At the same time, they are scattered over a very wide area, and are suflficient to indicate the effect of our conditions on the olive. If one is to judge by the contentment and general thriftiness of the tree wherever it is met with. II Dec. 1911-] The Olive. 837 it cannot be doubted that our soils and climate are eminently suited to the olive. Of course, like many other trees, the olive will grow well in places where it will not fruit profitably ; and, in this connexion, there is room for experiment in determining its peculiarities. It was believed by some that the trees would not fruit well beyond 90 miles from the sea. This idea, however, has proved to be entirely erroneous, and in several places in Aus- tralia it is fruiting some hundreds of miles inland. In fact, it flourishes so well in our semi-arid inland districts, especially where irrigation is avail- able, that it is doubtful if it would do better, or even as well, in. the coastal districts where the annual rainfall is good. The olive succeeds best in a warm, somewhat dry climate, where the temperature does not fall blow 20 degrees F. It is inadvisable to plant in districts where the thermometer gives a lower register than this. Severe frosts seriously damage the trees. 10 degrees F. being said to prove fataL I wo ORIGINAL TREES PLANTED BV SIR S. BORE 7 CWT. IN 1910. DAVKM'CiRr M.iny of the [ilantntions in France were killed in JaiuKuy, i8jo. owing to this cause. A temperature of 14 to 18 degrees F. usually causes serious damage, particularly if it occurs in late winter or early spring, when the nt,w wfKjd is on the trees. Injury to the fruit usually takes place at about 24 degrees F. ; this is especiallv so with son'e varieties. It will be seen then that the climatic conditions of the gn\iler part of inland Victoria, where thci elevations are not gr<'at, will be fnund suitable tor olives. The.se con- diti ms also extend over enormous are. is in the other States. Son . Owing to its thriftiness and tenaiitv ol lile. it is thought \l, due to the better maturation of the wood under drv conditions. P'ig. 6 shows a tree two years old over 6 feet in height, with a pro- portionate breadth. This tree was grown under irrigation, and was carrying several fruits. The writer has, however, known five-year-old trees in other places carrying good crops. It is believed that in the warm districts, under irrigation, crops could l)e cj.nfidently expected from trees of that age. Although it is generally considered that the olive does not come into fruit- ing early, it has been demonstrated that under irrigation, where good growth is made and proper pruning takes place, tlie trees will ccne into- fruiting as early as a number of our other fruit trees. With the {)rogress that has been made in the North of late vears with irrigation and the ultimate extension that must take place if our Northern plains are to yiehl their latent harvests, olive culture must eventuallv ex- tend ; following, so to speak, in the trail of closer .settlement. There are few trees, in fact, more suitable for ornamental, shelter, antl economic 1 lanting, and few that thrive better under irrigation. The State Rivers and Water Sii|)])ly Commission has aln;ul\ obtained .several humlred trees for tile initiation of ditch |)Ianting. When once establish<*d alongside the- cl.annels these trees ought to do well, and will evt-ntually convert to prolific use strips o( l.nid that at i)resent are waste. {To hi ctuitiuucd .^ 840 Ji'uniiJ of AgriciilfKre, Victoria. [ti Dec. 1911. TOBACCO CULTURE. {Continued from pngc 6yj.) T. A. J. S/i/it//. 7\)hacco Expert. Summary. In concluding this series of articles on tobacco culture, in which most of the essential i>oints in connexion with the production of the cro]) have been dealt with, I desire to emphasize tihe fact that the consumption of tobacco is consistently on the increase all the world over. Consequently, the markets for good leaf are more likely to improve than deteriorate as time goes on, and the prospects l)efore the industry an- fhrr,>f()r<' ^ood. CIGARS MANUFACTURED FROM VICTORIAN-GROWN LEAF. Only a few districts in Victoria have so far taken up tobacco growing as a commercial enterprise, and in these fine profits have been made. There are many parts of the State which possess suitable soils and climates, some of which ma\ at any time produce leaf of better quality than any yet produced. But, until these are exploited, no results can be expected. Land fitted to produce high-grade leaf need not necessarily be high priced, and the cost of pr'ovingi the crop is slight, as a very small are:i under tobacco is sufficient for the test. No machinery beyond that already used on the average farm is required, and the labour involved is light right throughout. It is a crop that lends itself to the system of mixed farming, and is especially suited to places situated a long distance from the market centres, owdng to its high value per ton, and good keeping qualities. There is no reason to doubt that many thousands of pounds' w^orth of tobacco leaf could and should be girown in Victoria, but it rests largely with the land-owners to establish the industry, in which effort the Depart- ment of Agriculture is willing to assist by supplying any information that may be desired by applicants. II Dec, 1911-] f'ye Comflahiis in Horses. 841 Any person with average intelligence can grow tobacco; at the same time, brains will always assist those who aim at producing something better than their neighbours' crops. An effort should always be made to grow, cure, and treat the crop to the best possible advantage. in order to obtain the highest qualities attainable in whatever type or class of leaf. I am indebted to the works of Messrs. Killibrew, Myrick, and Milton Whitney for much valuable information relating to tobacco culture in America, with respect to soils, moisture contents, &c. This I have endea- voured, as 'far as possible, to apply to local conditions, of which, as a grower, I have had 30 years' experience. EYE COMPLAINTS IN HORSES. E. A. Ken Jail, B.V.Sc, Yclcrinary OiJicer. The following descri])tion of two forms of eye complaints in horses, recently met with in the northern district of Victoria, will doubtless prove of .some interest to readers of the Journal, more particularly those who are owners or breeders of horses. As there are .several peculiar and interesting features in connexion with these complaints, it is propo.sed to first outline the class of animals affected, and the condition of the eyes when examined j and, subsequently, to add some remarks based on information concerning them. The accom- panying drawings will assist the reader to follow the description of the complaints. Case No. i. — A black filly foal, born on 20th October, 1910. This animal, well -conditioned and sound in all other respects, has arrested development of both eyes and was born in this condition. In place of the natural glol)es of the eyeballs, there is merely a globular fleshy mass surrounded by the natural red lining (conjunctiva) of the eyeball and lids. That portion known as the " white of the eye," and which normally forms the outer coat of the eveball itself, is prac- tically non-existent, having become a part of the fleshy mass referred to; while the usual clear " watch glass " front of the eye is replaced by a small bluish lump, about the size of a black currant, standing out pro- minentlv in the (ciitre of the mass. Needless to sav th<' foal is totally blind. Case No. 2. \ grey light mare, aged 14 \ears. anil d.ini of the filly foal referred to. This animal is affected with old standing " cataract " in the off eye. while the front portion of the near eye has I>een accidentally destroved. The mare is rjuite blind and was s nnrni:il ns in With regard to the other cases, all of which are "cataract," there are several interesting features. Cataract itself is a diseased change in the lens of the eye which diminishes its transparency, that is to sav, the lens, instead of remaining, as it should, perfectly clear and transparent, becomes more or less whitish or opaque. X — I FIG. -|. 1 RONT VIEW OF EVE IN FOAL. CASE NO. I . a. C'ornea. /. So-called '" white of the eye." k. l-'.yelids, forced apart to e.\()ose front of eyeball. FIG. 3. VERTICAL SECTION OF EVE IN FOAL. CASE NO. I. a. Cornea, corresjiondinj;; to Fig. la, ()| .ii(iK', ilark coloured, shrunken and [>r(jtrudin«,'. /. So-calle.l " while of the eye" prominent, red and fleshy. k. F.yelids. This loiidilioii partially or conipirlcly prevents the rays of light passing into the rye In-yond the lens (compart- the horizontal lines passing into the eye in Figs' i and 2). The general effect of cataract is partial or i the name ani address of the loriter. Tills Is very necessary, as sometimes insutticient information is furnished by tlie inquirer. Sulla Clover. — J.W.S. assumes, from the analyses published in the Decem- ber, 1910, Journal, that Sulla Clover would be valuable as a green manure, &c., for stock food. He proposes to plant some on a portion of his farm where the worn-out sandy soil wants improving, sowing from i to 2 cwt. of bonedust and superphosphate with the seed. Answer. — Sulla Clover is valuable as either green manure or as fodder. Sulla Clover does best in soils containing plenty of lime, and a dressinp of lime would probably be wise, in addition to the bonedust and superphosphate proposed. New Zealand Black Oats.— W.H.T. inquires re New Zealand black oats. Answer. — New Zealand black oats are heavy yielders in suitable soils and ■climates. They require a good rainfall and are useful for fodder and gram, yielding up to 100 bushels per acre. They are sown in early winter and ripen about the middle of December in cool districts. They thrive best in a rich sandy loam. II Dec, 1911-] AtL\7iers to Correspondents. 845 Thousand Headed Kale. — H.H.S. writes : — '• I have a field of thousand headed kale that I have fed off, leaving the stalks still in the ground. If I leave them until next season, will they grow again and be as good as new plants?" Answer. — If they have not been allowed to seed, the plants will grow again, but will not yield as heavily as freshly grown plants from new seed. Harrows for Working Lucerne. — A.J.B. asks what kind of disc harrows i« most suitable for cultivating lucerne in sandy soil. Answer. — A tooth disc harrows with diamond pointed teeth. Insects on W.attles. — H.C. forwards specimens of insects that are on the trees in his wattle plantation. Answer. — The wattles are attacked by two kinds of insects, viz., the Wattle Thrips and the Wattle Pinara. A good spraying with Benzole emulsion will soon rid the trees of these pests. Onion Eki.-worm. — A.F.B. asks whether onion seed from a district where eel-worm is prevalent is likelv to h^ infected. He also makes inquiry regarding the habits of the onion eel-worm. Answer. — Onion seeds obtained from a district badly infested with the onion eel-worm (TylencJius devastatrix) have been extensively grown in sterilized soil by this Department, and in no case was there any infection of the plants. If the seed from an infected district is dusty, it is possible there may be eggs in the ■dust, and clean ground become infected in this way. In purchasing seed, see that it is free from dust. The life history and habits of the onion eel-worm were •dealt with in the March, 1910, Journal. Plants for Identification. — E.B. and M.W.W. forward specimens for iden- tification. E.B. asks whether the plant forwarded has any medicinal properties. It has been recommended as a cure for rheumatism. Answer. — (i) E.B. — Plantago coronofus, L., Buckshorn Plantain. Though allied to the Ribwort Plantain, it has practically no fodder value. It is native to Euro{)e, Asia, and Australia, is very variable in size, seeding freely and usually growing on drv sandy or stony situations, especially near the sea. It is an in- dicator of poor soil. Manuring by encouraging taller and useful vegetation does much to suppress it. Irrigation has the sanr.e effect, and, to a certain extent, also merely scarifying the surface. It was formerly regarded as a remedy for hydro- phobia. The young leaves have a diuretic action, and this by aiding in the re- moval of uric acid from the blood might help to remove some symptoms, generally considered to be rheumatic in character. It would not, however, be advisable to use the plant for rheumatism without previously seeking the advice of a medical man. The young leaves are sometimes used in salads, for which purpose the plant is often grown in European gardens, especially in Greece; but, under ordinary •circumstances, it is nothing but a weed. (2) M.W.W. — The specimen was somewhat damaged, but is Oxalis cernua, Thunb., South African Wood-sorrel. It is a troublesome weed, particularly in sour land rich in humus. Aeration, drainage, liming, good cultivation antricts and situations, this combination nivcs very cood results. b .7 fa 846 Journal of Agrici(l!:ae, Victoria. [11 Dec. 191 i. Almonds. — E.A.W. asks for names of soft-shelled almonds. He al.'io asks whether trees will bear sweet almonds if grown from nuts. Answer. — Brandes Jordan, Early Jordan, and I.X.L. Trees may bear sweet almonds if grown from the nut, but the shell will be always hard. NON-BEAKING AppLE TiJiiE. — I'^.A.W. states that a Northern Spv apple on blight- proof stock, although 12 years old, has not yet borne fruit. It is apparently healthy. Answer. — Northern Spy apple trees are always a long time coming into bearing, as a rule never showing any fruit until from 7 to 10 years old. If the tree has been heavily pruned each year, or if the leaders have been allowed to grow too upright, the tree would be thrown out of bearing. Prune the tree very lightly ; take out any central upright growths, and do not feed or manure heavily. STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria. Ttiirt) Quarter, 1911. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with the corre- sponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available records to date. July. August. September. Quarter. Basin or District. 0 -*^ 43 a bo a u a 50 a 01) a ^ « 3 a E* ° ^ < 0 ^ Is > indies I2 3- Aver 9 0 „• < inclies. inches. inches. inches. inches. inches. Glenelg and Wannon Rivers 2-74 3-46 119 3-12 3-49 2-91 7-42 9-49 Fitzroy, Eunieralla, and Merri 3-10 3-77 1 35 3-33 3-53 3-08 7-98 10-18 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 2-08 2-52 1-34 2-64 4-22 2-64 7-64 7-80 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 1-83 2-42 117 2-51 4-58 2-58 7-58 7-51 Corangamite Cape Utway Forest 3-48 4-11 2-46 4-11 5-34 3-80 11-28 12-02 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 1-91 2-32 1-20 2-52 5-42 2-53 8-53 7-37 Werriheeand .Saltwater Rivers 1-60 1 -96 1-04 2-17 4-25 2-36 6-89 G-49 Yarra River and Daudeuong 3-23 3-15 1-58 3-09 3T8 3-33 7-99 9-57 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 3-20 3-10 1-46 3-30 3-28 3-50 7-94 9-90 South Gippsland 2-37 3-79 2 25 3-91 4-05 4-07 8-67 11-77 Latrobe and Thomson Rivers 3-22 313 1-82 3-48 3-23 3-79 8-27 10-40 Macallister and Avon Rivers 1-68 • 1 45 113 2-24 219 2-02 5 00 5-71 Mitchell River 2-88 214 0-89 2-09 3-21 2-61 6-98 6-84 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 2-80 1-89 0-84 1-86 4-13 2-26 7-77 6 01 Snowy River 3-55 2-83 116 2-49 5-95 3-10 10-66 8-42 Murray River 1 69 2-09 0-74 195 1-38 1-86 3-81 5-90 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 3-63 4-39 1-37 5-34 2-25 315 7-25 10-88 Ovens River 3 24 4-64 1-54 3 50 2-05 3-33 6-83 11-47 Goulburn River 2-40 2-95 ro9 2-64 2-05 2-47 5.54 8-06 Campaspe River 1-82 2-72 1-07 2-53 2-48 2-58 5-37 7-83 Loddon River 1 -40 1-92 0-82 2-00 2-95 1-77 5-17 5-69 Avon and Richardson Rivers 1 44 1-60 0-60 180 3-47 1-59 5-51 4-99 Avoca River 119 1-92 (f59 rs7 319 1-60 4-97 5-39 Eastern Wimmera ... 1-98 2-46 1-03 2-55 3-98 2-16 6-99 7-17 Western Wimmera ... 1-90 2-50 0-92 2-20 1-87 2 06 4-69 6-76 Mallee District 0-95 1-41 0.52 1-46 2-46 1-37 3-93 4-24 The whole State 2-11 2 -.33 1-06 2-43 3.11 2 -38 6-28 7-34 H. A. HUNT, CommomveaUh AI eteoroloc/ist. II Dec. 1911.] Statistics. 847 Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deliveries from 'roduce. (Oversea). Government Cool Stores. Description of 1 Quarter ended Quartpr ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 30.9.1011. 30.9.1910. 30.9.1911. 30.9.1910. Butter lbs. 4,823,228 4,919,760 5,148,752 3,752,392 Milk and Cream cases •^m 481 20 SO Cheese lbs. 11,520 5,040 14,210 23,320 Ham and Bacon II 28,500 10,080 Poultry head 10,0t)5 1 ,630 2,658 2,385 Eggs... . . . dozen 60 4.375 6,529 Mutton and Lamb carcases l(i2,8U 69.038 19,789 3,440 Beef... quarters 2,600 4,502 Veal carcases 381 932 53 194 Pork ;/ 1,009 11 1,476 105^ Rabbits and Hares pairs 909,390 991,056 198,545 140,091 Sundries lbs. 14,010 60,664 R. CROWE, Superintendent of Exports. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports. (io'xls Apples ... Apples, Cu.stard . Bananas, bunches Bananas, cases Barley ... Beans Bulbs ... Chillies ... Cocoa beans Cocoanuts Coffee beans Copra Cucumbers Dates Figs Fruit- Canned Dried Mixed Oreen ginger Hops Jams, Sauces, &< . Lemons Linseed Lo(|Uiits Inter- state. 4,755 29 3,109 1,678 3,022 44 1 21 36 109 130 113 102 S 2" '9 11 Oversea. 1 59,271 15,668 2,835 605 27 154 1,485 1,019 1,465 133 Exports. Oversea. 1,833 Imports. Exports. 11 — 70 l.S 2,005 1,738 64 1,111 1,871 1/6 Logs Mace Maize Melons ... Nutmegs Nuts Oats Onions . . . Oranges ... Passion ... Paw Paws Pears Pepper ... Peas, Dried Pineapples Plants ... Potatoes Rice Seeds Spice Sirawberrii'S 'I'onuitoes Vegetables Wheat ... ^'arIls Inter- State. Oversea. Oversea. 1,502 12,993 — 102 — 913 32 7 _ 355 246 2,S38 — 6,317 7 — 1 55 158,571 849 2,171 — 11 65 — 2 — 119 471 — 2.873 3 — 16,075 — 266 373 686 334 104 — 454 9,294 4.13:{ — 1 ,025 4.789 683 — 126 — 42 — — 1,781 1 — 14.5J5 448 4 ITU Totals 21,161 s:<,5.-)0 8,558 ( Irand ToUiIh 2.S7,.'.I(» 110,:i3S 11,340 Total MimilKTof packages inspected for (pnuli-r ending ."lOth SeptendKi-, 1911 = H59,188. J. (;. TURNKR, Chief Horticultural Officer. 848 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Dec. 1911. REMINDERS FOR JANUARY. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Stabled. — Over-stimulating and fattening foods should be restricted. Water should be allowed at frequent intervals. Rub down on coming into stables in an overheated condition. Supply a ration of greenstuff to all horses. Brood mares should be well fed on succulent food if available ; otherwise, oats and bran should be given. Foals may with advantage be given oats to the extent of i lb. for each month of age daily. Provision should be made for shade shelter for paddocked horses. Cattle. — Provide supply of succulent fodder, clean water, and shade shelter. Pigs. — Sows. — Supply those farrowing with plenty of short bedding in well- ventilated sties. Those with litters old enough may be turned into grass run. All pigs should be given a plentiful supply of clean water. Sheep. — Disturb sheep as little as possible during hot spells. Remember, rams work mostly in the cool of the day, and crossbred ewes ^.re only now coming in season. The older the feed becomes the greater the necessity for salt in northern areas; in wormy country it should be available at all times. If the least sign of worms e.xists, commence drenching weaners at once, and enable them to become strong before winter. .Salt, 2 cwt. ; Stockholm tar, 2 pints; and powdered resin, I pint (or I lb.) ; is a useful lick for young lambs in wormy areas. Poultry. — Separate the sexes ; the cockerels should now be fattened and marketed. Grade the young stock according to age and size, otherwise the younger birds will not thrive. Avoid overcrowding. Do not force pullets too much with animal food ; build them up with a good variety of food, but avoid maize, and give but little meat. CULTIVATION. F.4RM. — Get all crops harvested and stacked as soon as possible. Horse-hoe maize,, potatoes and other summer crops. See to insurance of stacks of grain and hay. Orchard. — Keep the soil well scarified and weed free. Cultivate after irrigation or rain. Do not allow the surface to become caked. Spray against codlin moth, pear slug, vine caterpillar, and woolly aphis. Summer prune strong growing shoots and laterals. Vegetable Garden. — Plant out all seedlings when ready, from former sowings. Stir and mulch the surface. Dig each ]>lot as it becomes vacant. Sow seeds of cauliflower, cabbage, peas, French beans, Kohl Rabi. &c. Flower Garden. — Keep the soil moist and cool by watering, hoeing, and mulching. Stake tender and lengthy plants. Water and shade young plants. Sow pansy, Iceland poppy, cosmos, aster, &c. Vineyard. — This is the slackest month in un-irrigated vineyards — all ordinary work should be completed before Christmas. It is only exceptional operations, such as scarifying after rain or sulphuring in case of oidium, that must be carried out. In irrigated vineyards the application of water, and the cultivation it necessi- tates, must receive attention. Cellar. — Fill up regularly and keep cellar as cool as possible. Towards end of month commence to make preparations for the coming vintage. INDEX OP VOLUME IX, The Index of Vol. IX. will be supplied with the first number of Vol. X., viz., 10th January, 1912. ri Dec, 1911.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. XVll THE "ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINE. THE MILKER THAT IS DIFFERENT. 'pHE "ROYAL MEDAL" Milking Machine is a comi)lete depart iire from any other milker on the market. It is entirely original in principle, and there are reasons — sound, substantial reasons — for every difference. I HTHP: construction of the "ROYAL MEUAL" \ has cost the inventor twenty years" careful steady work, and his aim has been to eliminate tho.se features of the milker which have made most machines a failuie. QRADUALLY the "ROYAL MEDAL" was perfected and completed, and now stands far above anv maoiiiiie of its kind. This is an accurate illustration of the " ROYAL MEDAL" with the cups in milking position. — « — Note it has only LEARN MORE ABOUT "ROYAL MEDAL' MILKING MACHINES. FILL IN THE COUPON BELOW, Post it to us, and by return mail we will send j'ou our Catalogue. It will give you the fullest possible infor- mation about the "ROYAL MEDAL" milker. It will tell \ on wliv the machine is DIFFERENT from all others ; give you details as to its construction, work- ing, &c. It will al.so place befoie you letters from a number of dairymen telling how much they owe to tlie "ROYAL MEDAL" milking machine. No dairyman or farmer should be without a copy. " ROYAL MEDAL" IKING MACHINES, 34 {^wc\i\^ Street, MHLBOURNE. LONIH)N OFFICi: : Caxton House, Westmlntter, S.W. JACK H. DAVIES. .W/i(jatiunlix;ht " is branded on c\erv cake. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ti Dec, 19 r I Britain's BEST Oil Eng^ine— THE HORNSBY. The reco;^nized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are . . . DESIGN SIMPLICITY QUALITY ECONOMY Made in Two Types— Stationary and Portable. THESE the HORNSBY possesses, proved by the Fact that it has Won all the Largest Prizes ever offered. WHY THE . . . HORNSBY— BINDER It has the Best and Lowest Cutting Finger Bar. It is Lightest in Draught. It has Simplest Mechanism. It is Strongest, Most Uiira!)le, and Most Reliable. * * Hornsby " M o wer s are Uuequalleil for CLEAN CUTTING. Hornsby Petrol Enj^ines, Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. k^CSI & SOMS LTD., MELBOURNE. SYDNEY. BRISBANE. 2,000 IN USE. Tl8 COBPSE CREATOR RARBIT KILLER. The Best Made, Most Deadly, and Most Powerful Machine on the f^arket. Manufacturer : A. H. RUSSELL, ESSENDON. 'Phon e 386 ASCOT. flU steel Silos PORTABLE. CONVERTIBLE. DURABLE. Prices from £,Q 10s. SHEEP DiPS. Manufacturer and Patentee — Steel Framed, Patent Metal-sheeted, Sectional Cement- Plastered Dips. Any Size. Everlasting and Cheap. FOR CORPORATIONS OR SHEEP OWNERS. ■ l^ 12/6 per foot. A. H. RUSSELL, 61 BUCKLEY ST., ESSENDOH. 'Phone 386 ASCOT. WRITE FOR CATALOGUE. II Dec, 191 T-] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xxi flATIONAli TRUSTEES :; Executors & Agency Company Australasia, Ltd. . . . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Manapring Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. .MICHAEL MORNANE, Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McKRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, Es* This Company acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wilis, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. °c^= 113QUEENST. (Liu^c^olL^Jst) MELBOURNE. Savings BaiiRs Loans ON BROAD AORES (Up to Three-fifths of Valuation), In sums from £2,000 to £25,000. Interest at 4 per cent. For 3 or 5 yc ir.s, with option of paying off part on any half-yearly pay-day. ON FARMS (CREDIT FONCIER) (Up to Two-thircls of Valuation), In sums from <£50 to .£2,000. Interest at 4.^ per cent. Loans Repayable by Instalments spread over 31^ years, or may be paid off on any half-yearly pay-day, Kubject to a small charge if paid off during the first five years, but no penalty after five years. ^^^^^^- Inspector-General of Savings Banks^ 29 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA := * GRUBBING JACKS. Quick. Powerful. Simple. .Mr. <'li.iM. Il.'iiiiiltnii, Moli'.sworth, Vic, 8uy»:— "I would not b« willioiii oiu- of tlu-fii' .liicksi on the (.■irm," Mr. i loiiir ivs I Imvc uiiMliiii^' to lift will never ti imt??f^^ "" "•"•••• ..„.: - :-. " Write for Illustrated Cat.ilo\clbourno. On receipt of Post Card a copy of the Prospoctu5 of cither Collei^c will bo posted. NEXT SESSION COMMENCES MARCH, lOtQ. INTENDING STUDENTS MAY NOW BF FNR0:LED. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Dec, 1911 THE •MirCHEtf THE "MITCHELL" COMPLETE HARVESTER. Extract from Horsham Time-'^, 7 1 10. A RECORD WHEAT YIELD. 16 BAGS PER ACRE. "What is undoubtedly a record \\ heat yield for the locality is being gathored in l)y Mr. Samuel (iioss, of the 'I'hree Bridges, Drung Drung. With a Mitchell 6 feet Harvester doing excellent work and drawn Vjy five horses, Mr. (iross has taken up to 18 bags of Federation wheat jier acre, the field harvested yielding a magnificent average of sixteen bags From other parts of the district excellent returns are also being harvested, but that bagged by Mr. Gross, so far, is the highest recorded." THE USER'S OPINION. "A report of the work done b}' your 6 feet Harvester ajipeared in the Homham Times of 7th January last, and you will probably be ])leased to hear that the machine has given me the utmost satisfaction. You will notice by the report that I had a record crop, which the machine had no difficulty in dealing with, and it made a splendid sample. It was very light in draught, and I would have no liesitation in recommending it to any one m lio stands in need of a really first- class Harvester." SAMUEL GROSS, Drung Drung, 20 I'lO. This is the "MITCHELL" in farm work — not what WE claim in an advertisement, but ITS ACTUAL WORK IN A 50 BUSHEL CROP. As it handles a 50 bushel crop "excellently," don't 3'ou tliink it"s safe to handle YOURS? PLOWS, GRAIN DRILLS, ONE-WAY DISCS, HARROWS, WALTER A. WOOD BINDERS, IVIOWERS & RAKES, "MAX" MILKING MACHINES, "DIABOLO" SEPARATORS, "WATERLOO BOY" OIL ENGINES, "AUSTIN" ROAD GRADERS, HORSE YOKES, CHAFF CUTTERS, "LINKE rJOACK" EARTH SCOOPS. TGHELL& COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACT CRY & CFFICE: ± WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. I SHOi/l/ RCCM : 596 BOURKE-SI, MELBOURNE. Please mention this Journal wlien writing us. iJ^cfrigerating ^ ^ and lee jVCakirxg JM^aekiuery ^ ^ Made by HUMBLE & SONS. Geelong, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. " Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Paptlculaps on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng-ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. VICTORIA FOR YOUR VACATION. The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES To the Seaside, Mountains, Lakes, and Caves FROM 15th NOVEMBER TILL 30th APRIL. LORNE. Waterfalls, fern glens, sea and river hshing ; splendid accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean beach and golfers' paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and ocean beaches ; rail and steamer services. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU, with its famous gorge, falls, and peaks, the Horn and the Hump, embraces the finest mountain scenery in Australia. Excursion fares all the year round. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS. Mts. Bogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range. THE DIVIDING RANGE. Macedon, Woodend, Daylesford, &c. Healesville in the Hills. THE GIPPSLAND LAKES. The most charming chain of lakes in the Commonwealth. THE BUGHAN CAVES. Indescribably beautiful. CAMPBELL'S FALLS, ON FALLS CREEK, UPPER YARRA. For full information as to train services, fares, &c., write to or in- quire from the Government Tourist Officer, Tourist Bureau, opp. Town Hall, Collins street, Melboiirne. E. B. JONES, Acting- Secretary for Railways. New York Botanical Garden Librar 3 5185 00265 1204 y':. 'V*;/ > ^' .,-,^ '- /• . rAS^