JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Official organ American association of economic entomologists VOLUME 3, 1910 Editor E. PoRTEE Felt Associate Editor W. E. Beitton mHAKr SEW YORK Business Manager k:>t » \fCA! E, DwiGHT Sai^derson Advisory Board WiLMON Newell C. P. Gillette H. T. Fernald Herbert Osborn L. 0. Howard S. A. Forbes JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY PUBLISHING CO. Concord, N. H. 1910. \) o ARt Contents Page. Table of Contents ii American Association of Economic Entomologists: Officers vii List of Meetings and Past Officers vii List of Members ix Proceedings of the 22d Annual Meeting: Part 1 : Business proceedings 1 Part 2: Papers 12-65, 113-222 Proceedings of the 8th Annual Meeting of Horticultural Inspectors: Part 1 : Business Proceedings 65 Part 2: Papers 69-82, 223-250 Current Notes 109, 255, 327, 387, 443, 507 Discussion and Correspondence 437 Editorial 105, 251, 320, 382, 439, 505 Obituary 383 Reviews 107, 252, 321, 385, 440, 506 Scientific Notes 104, 222, 250, 319, 436, 504 Papers AiNSLEE, G. G. Notes on Aphis maidiradicis ^ 157 Atwood, G. G. BrowTi tail moth on imported nursery stock 71 Ball, E. D., Titus, E. G., and Greaves, J. E. The season's work on arsenical poisoning of fruit trees 187 Barber, T. C. The Coccidaj of Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. 420 Blshopp, F. C. a unique insect catching machine 314 Britton, W. E. The official entomologist and the farmer 12 Notes of the season in Connecticut 434 Cs| Burgess, A. F. Some insecticide methods used in combating the ^2 gipsy moth 38 Notes on Calosoma frigidum Kirby, a native beneficial insect 217 Chittenden, F. H., and Marsh, H. O. Note on the oviposition of the tarnished plant-bug 478 Cockerell, T. D. a. The Coccidaj of Boulder County, Colorado 425 CoLLiNGE, Walter E. Collembola as injurious insects 204 'Withdrawn for publication elsewhere. CONTENTS Collins, C. W. Some rosuKs from fooding eggs of Porlhetria dispar Page. to birds 343 CooLEY, R. A. Notes on spraj'ing experiments for the oyster shell scale in Montana 57 Notes on the 10-lined potato beetle in Montana 178 Cotton, E. C. A constant low temperature apparatus for bio- logical investigations 140 Davis, John J. Insect notes from Illinois for 1909 180 A list of the Aphididaj of Illinois, with notes on some of the species 407, 482 Davidson, W. M. Further notes on the Aphididse collected in the vicinity of Stanford University 372 Dean, W. Harper. Some notes upon the life history and habits of the sorghum midge 205 DiCKERSON, E. L. Notes on Rhynchites bicolor Fabr. 316 Felt, E. P. Observations on the house-fly 24 Spraying for the codling moth 172 Recent observations upon European insects in America 340 Gall midges of Aster, Carya, Quercus and Salix. 347 Recent experiments with the codUng moth 474 Fernald, H. T. Nursery inspection in Massachusetts 272 The new entomological building of the Massachusetts Agri- cultural College 445 FiSKE, W. F. Superparasitism : An important factor in the natural control of insects 88 Work with parasites of the gipsy and brown tail moths i 179 Fiske, W. F., and Burgess, A. F. The natural control of Hetero- campa guttivitta 389 Gillette, C. P. New sprays for the codling moth 29 Some insecticide tests for the destruction of Apliididse and their eggs ' • 207 Plant louse notes, family Aphididse 367, 403 GossARD, H. A. The make-up and value of exhibits at state and county fairs 329 Hammar, a. G. Methods in rearing the grape root worm, Fidia viticida Walsh and the codling moth, Carpocapsa pomonella Linn, i 169 Headden, W. p. Arsenical poisoning of fruit trees 32 Headlee, T. J. Notes on the corn ear-worm 149 Hertzog, p. a. Notes on the "cigarette beetle" 198 Hewitt, C. G. The larch saw-fly, Nematus erichsonii ^ 149 Hinds, W. E. Fumigation box materials 394 ^Withdrawn for publication elsewhere. CONTENTS V Hinds, W. E., and Turner, W. F. Carbon disulfid fumigation Page. for the rice wee\al in corn 47 HiTCHiNGS, E. F. The unprecedented appearance of the saddled- prominent 146 Howard, C. W. Locust destruction in South Africa 260 Howard, L. O. European conditions as affecting imported nursery stock (Summary) 76 On the habit with certain Chalcidoidea, of feeding at puncture holes made by the ovipositor 257 The new French export plant inspection service 499 Kelly, E. G. O. Studies of the development of Ewpelmns allynii French and Stictonotus isosomatus Riley 202 Lowe, F. B. Studies in insecticides^ 47 Nice, M. M. Food of the bobwhite 295 Norton, J. B. S. Some obscure diseases of the peach 228 O'Kane, W. C. Work on the apple maggot 169 Parrott, p. J. The cherry ermine moth 157 Pierce, W. D. Some new species of weevils of economic impor- tance 356 Pierce, W. Dwight. On some phases of parasitism displaj'ed by insect enemies of weevils 451 Quayle, H. J. Aphelinus diaspidis Howard 398 The orange tortrix, Tortrix cilrana 401 Scutellista cyanea Motsch. _ 446 Common name of the black scale 473 Rane, F. W. Present conditions of the gipsy and brown tail moth work in Massachusetts 36 Rosenfeld, Arthur H. Blattid notes 100 Insects notably injurious in Louisiana during 1908 and 1909 212 Sanborn, C. E. Notes on the state nursery laws of Oklahoma and their effect 82 Sanderson, E. D. Controlling the black fly in the White Moun- tains 27 The relation of temperature to the growth of insects 113 Insect notes from New Hampshire for 1909 210 The Insecticide Act of 1910 275 Severin, Henry H. P. The San Jose scale and its relation to climatic districts or life zones in Wisconsin 101 Severin, H. H. P., and Severin, H. C. The effect of moisture and dryness on the emergence from the egg of the walking-stick, Diapheromera femorata Say 479 Shaw, N. E. Increasing the demand for orchard inspection 77 'Paper not received in time for incorporation in the proceedings. CONTENTS Sherman, Franklin, Jr. What should be the form of our certifi- Page. cates? 223 Smith, John B. Amara avida Say as a strawberry pest 97 Surface, H. A. Some new facts in regard to Ume-sulfur solution i 47 Results of various remedies for San Jose scale in Pennsylvania orchards, as seen by the inspectors in the orchards ^ 223 Symons, Thomas B. Local inspection, public sprayers and the osage orange hedge 236 Thompson, W. R. Notes on the pupation and hibernation of Tachinid parasites 283 Titus, E. G. On the life history of the alfalfa leaf weevil 459 Washburn, F. L. The work of the association of horticultural inspectors 69 1. Further observations on Empoasca mali; 2. Notes on Papai- pema nitela and P. cataphracta 162 Webster, R. L. Insects of the year 1910 in Iowa 502 Weldon, G. p. Life history notes and control of the common orchard mites, Tertranychus bvmaculatus and Bryobia pra- iensis 430 Woglum, R. S. Value of sodium cyanide for fumigation purposes 85 Woodworth, C. W. Codling moth control in California 470 Yothers, W. W. The effects of fumigation with hydrocyanic gas on the human system 317 Index 509 'Withdrawn for publication elsewhere. »^IC ENTOMOLGGY MERfCAN .- OMIC ENTOM<. )ciate Edit Mana ness JYianan you! ONTENT» nnoa! Meeting: of ilie Arr i.iie Farm : i'a.p(ir iiut reoexv(».d in ART ■ ORK . . '■'■ 'DEN American Association of Economic Entomologists (Organized in 1889) OFFICERS President E. D. Sanderson, Durham, New Hampshire First Vice-President H. T. Fernald, Amherst, Massachusetts Second Vice-President P. J. Parrott, Geneva, New York Secretary A. F. Burgess, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. LIST OF MEETINGS AND PAST OFFICERS First Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C, Nov. 12-14, 1889. President, C. V. Riley; First Vice-President, S. A. Forbes; Second Vice-President, A. J. Cook; Secretary, John B. Smith. Second Annual Meeting, Champaign, III., Nov. 11-13, 1890. (The same officers had charge of this meeting.) Third Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C, Aug. 17-18, 1891. President, James Fletcher; First Vice-President, F. H. Snow; Second Vice-President, Herbert Osborn; Secretary, L. O. Howard. Fourth Annual Meeting. Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 15-16, 1892. President, J. A. Lintner; First Vice-President, S. A. Forbes; Second Vice-President, J. H. Comstock; Secretary, F. M. Webster. Fifth Annual Meeting, Madison, Wis., Aug. 14-16, 1893. President, S. A. Forbes; First Vice-President, C. J. S. Bethune; Second Vice-President, John B. Smith; Secretary, H. Garman. Sixth Annual Meeting, Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 14-15, 1894. President, L. O. Howard; First Vice-President, John B. Smith; Second Vice-President, F. L. Harvey; Secretary, C. P. Gillette. Viii JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Seventh Annual Meeting, Springfield, Mass., Aug. 27-28, 1895. President, John B. Smith; First Vice-President, C. H. Fernald; Secretary, C. L. Marlatt. Eighth Annual Meeting, Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 21-22, 1896. President, C. H. Fernald; First Vice-President, F. M. Webster; Second Vice-President, Herbert Osborn; Secretary, C. L. Marlatt. Ninth Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Aug. 12-13, 1897. President, F. M. Webster; First Vice-President, Herbert Osborn; Second Vice-President, Law- rence Bruner; Secretary, C. L. Marlatt. Tenth Annual Meeting. Boston, Mass., Aug. 19-20, 1898. President, Herbert Osborn; First Vice-President, Lawrence Bruner; Second Vice-President, C. P. Gillette; Secretary, C. L. Marlatt. Eleventh Annual Meeting, Columbus, Ohio, Aug. 18-19, 1899. President, C. L. Marlatt; First Vice-President, Lawrence Bruner; Second Vice-Presi- dent, C. P. Gillette; Secretary, A. H. Kirkland. Twelfth Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y., June 22-23, 1900. President, Lawrence Bruner; First Vice-President, C. P. Gillette; Second Vice-President, E. H. Forbush; Secretary, A. H. Kirkland. Thirteenth Annual Meeting, Denver, Col., Aug. 23-24, 1901. President, C. P. Gillette; ITirst Vice-President, A. D. Hopkins; Second Vice-President, E. P. Felt; Secretary, A. L. Quaintance. Fourteenth Annual Meeting, Pittsburg, Pa., June 27-28, 1902. President, A. D. Hopkins; First Vice-President, E. P. Felt; Second Vice-President, T. D. A. Cockerell; Secretary, A. L. Quaintance. Fifteenth Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C, Dec. 26-27, 1902. President, E. P. Felt; First Vice-President, W. H. Ashmead; Second Vice-President, Lawrence Bruner; Secretary, A. L. Quaintance. Sixteenth Annual Meeting, St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 29-31, 1903. President, M. V. Slingerland; First Vice-President, C. M. Weed; Second Vice-President, Henry Skinner; Secretary, A. F. Burgess. Seventeenth Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 29-30, 1904. Presi- dent, A. L. Quaintance; First Vice-President, A. F. Burgess; Second Vice- President, Mary E. Murtfeldt; Secretary, H. E. Summers. Eighteenth Annual Meeting, New Orleans, La., Jan. 1-4, 1906. President, H. Garman; First Vice-President, E. D. Sanderson; Second Vice-President, F. L. Washburn; Secretary, H. E. Summers. Nineteenth Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y., Dec. 28-29, 1906. President, A. H. Kirkland; First Vice-President, W. E. Britton; Second Vice-President, H. A. Morgan; Secretary, A. F. Burgess. Twentieth Annual Meeting, Chicago, 111., Dec. 27-28, 1907. President, H. A. Morgan; First Vice-President, H. E. Summers; Second Vice-President, W. D. Hunter; Secretary, A. F. Burgess. Twenty-first Annual Meeting, Baltimore, Md., Dec. 28-29, 1908. President, S. A. Forbes; First Vice-President, W. E. Britton; Second Vice-President, E. D. Ball; Secretary, A. F. Burgess. Twenty-second Annual Meeting, Boston, Mass.. Dee. 28-29, 1909. President, W. E. Britton; First Vice-President, E. D. Ball; Second Vice-President, H. E. Summers; Secretary, A. F. Burgess. February, '10] I-IST OF MEMBERS LIST OF MEMBERS ACTIVE MEMBERS Ainslie, C. N., Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Baker, C. F., Claremont, Cal. Ball, E. D., Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah. Banks, C. S., Manila, P. I. Banks, Nathan, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Benton, PYank, 925 N Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Bethune, C. J. S., Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Bishopp, F. C, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Britton, W. E., New Haven, Conn. Brooks, Fred E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantow^n, W. Va. Brues, C. T., Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. Bruner, Lawrence, Agi-icultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Neb. Burgess, Albert F., V. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Burke, H. E., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Busck, August, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Caudell, A. N., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Chambliss, C. E., U. S. Department of Agi'iculture, Washington, D. C. Chittenden, F. H., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Cockerell, T. D. A.. University of Colorado, Boulder,- Col. Comstock, J. H., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Conradi, A. F., Clemson College, S. C. Cook, A. J., Pomona College, Claremont, Cal. Cook, Mel. T., Newark, Del. Cooley, R. A., Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont. Coquillett, D. W., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washirgton, D. C. Cordley, A. B., Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Oregon. Cotton, E. C, Agricultural Experiment Station, Knoxville, Tenn. Crawford, J. C, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Crosby, C. R., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Davis, J. J., 4261 Waveland Ave., Chicago, 111. Dickerson, Edgar L., Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. Dyar, H. G., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Ehrhorn, E. M., Honolulu, Hawaii. Felt, E. P., Geological Hall, Albany, N. Y. Pernald, C. H., Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. Fernald, H. T., Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. Fiske, W. F., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Forbes, S. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Franklin, H. J., Amherst, Mass. French, G. H., Normal Avenue, Carbondale, 111. Garman, H., Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky. Gibson, Arthur, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Gillette, C. P., Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Col. Girault, A. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Gossard, H. A., Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. Gregson, P. B., Blackfalds, Alberta, Northwest Territory, Canada. X JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Grossbeck, John A., Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. Hammar, A. G., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Hart, C. A., Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana, 111. Headlee, T. J., Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kansas. Heidemann, Otto, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Herrick, Glen W., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Hewitt, C. Gordon, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Hinds, W. E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. Hine, J. S., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Hitchings, E. F., Waterville, Me. Holland, W. J., Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, Pa. Hooker, W. A., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Hopkins, A. D., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Houghton, C. O., Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Del. Howard, L. O., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Hunter, S. J., University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. Hunter, W. D., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Johnson, Fi-ed, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Johnson, S. Arthur, State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo. Kellogg, Vernon L., Stanford University, Cal. Kincaid, Trevor, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. Kirkaldy, G. W., Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, Honolulu, Hawaii. Kirkland, A. H., Huntington, Mass. Kotinsky, J., Honolulu, Hawaii. Lochhead, William, Macdonald College of Agriculture, Montreal, Canada. MacGillivray, A. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Marlatt, C. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. . Morgan, A. C, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Morgan, H. A., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Morrill, A. W., Phoenix, Ariz. Moulton, Dudley, 11 Ferry Building, San Francisco, Cal. Murtfeldt, Miss M. E., Kirkwood, Mo. Newell, Wilmon, College Station, Texas. Osborn, Herbert, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Parrott, P. J., Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Patch, Edith M., Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Me. Pergande, Theodore, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Perkins, R. C. L., Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, Honolulu, Hawaii. Pettit, R. H., Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich. Phillips, E. F., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Phillips, J. L., Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Phillips, W. J., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Pierce, W. Dwight, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Popenoe, E. A., R. P. D. No. 2, Topeka, Kan. Pratt, P. C, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Quaintance, A. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Quayle, H. J., Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. Reeves, George I., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. February, '10] LIST OF MEMBERS xi Riley, W. A., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Ruggles, A. G., Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. Rumsey, W. E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. Russell, H. M., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Sanborn, C. E., Stillwater, Oklahoma. Sanders, J. G., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Sanderson, E. Dwight, Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham, N. H. Saunders, William, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Schwarz, E. A., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Sherman, Franklin, Jr., Division of Entomology, State Department of Agri- culture, Raleigh, N. C. Sirrine, F. A., 124 Sound Avenue, Riverhead, N. Y. Skinner, Henry, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa. Smith, J. B., Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. Smith, R. I., West Raleigh, N. C. Stedman, J. M., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Summers, H. E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Surface, H. A., State Zoologist, Harrisburg, Pa. Swenk, M. H., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. Swezey, O. H., Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, Honolulu, Hawaii. Symons, T. B., Agricultural Experiment Station. College Park, Md. Taylor, E. P., Mountain Grove, Mo. Titus, E. S. G., Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah. Townsend, C. H. T., Office of Entomologist, Lima, Peru. Troop, James, Agi-icultural Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind. Van Dine, D. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Viereck, H. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Walden, B. H., Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. Washburn, F. L., Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. Webb, J. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Webster, F. M., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Webster, R. L., Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Wheeler, Wm. M., Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Boston, Mass. Wilcox, E. v.. Agricultural Experiment Station, Honolulu, Hawaii. Woglum, R. S., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Woodworth, C. W., Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. Worsham, E. L., Capitol Building, Atlanta, Ga. Yothers, W. W., Orlando, Fla. ASSOCIATE MEMBERS Adams, C. F., Fayetteville, Ark. Ainslie, George G., Clemson College, S. C. Back, E. A., Orlando, Fla. Barber, H. S., U. S. Department of Agi'iculture, Washington, D. C. Barber, T. C, State Crop Pest Commission, Baton Rouge, La. Bartholomew, C. E., Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. Beckwith, H. M., Elmira, N. Y. Bentley, Gordon M., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Beutenmiiller, Wm., American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. xii JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 5 Bourne, A. I., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Braucher, R. W., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Buck, J. E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Bullard, W. S., 629 Water Street, Bridgeport, Conn. Caesar, Lawsou, Guelph, Ontario, Cauarta. Campbell, J. P., Athens, Ga. Chase, W. W., State Board of Entomology, Atlanta, Ga. Clapp, S. C, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. Clifton, R. S., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Coe, Wesley R., New Haven, Conn. Collins, C. W., Melrose Highlands, Mass. Condit, Ira J., California Polytechnic School, San Luis, Obispo, Cal. Couden, F. D., Pioneer Building, Seattle, Wash. Grossman, S. S., Orlando, Fla. Currie, Rolla P., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Cushman, R. A., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Dean, George A., Kansas Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kan. Dean, Harper, Jr., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Doran, E. W., Belhaven College, Jackson, Miss. Engle, Enos B., Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg, Pa. Evans, W. E., Jr., Painesville, Ohio. Farrer, E. R., South Lincoln, Mass. Fisher, Warren S., Highspire, Pa. Flynn, C. W., Assistant Entomologist, State Crop Pest Commission, Baton Rouge, La. Foster, S. W., JJ. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Fowler, Carroll, Duarte, Cal. Frost, H. L., Arlington, Mass. F\illaway, D. T., Agricultural Experiment Station, Honolulu, Hawaii. Gahan, A. B., College Park, Md. Garrett, J. B., Assistant Entomologist, State Crop Pest Commission, Baton Rouge, La. Gates, Burton N., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Gifford, John, Princeton, N. J. Goodwin, W. H., Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. Green, E. C, Brownsville, Texas. Hardenberg, C. B., IT. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Hargitt, C. W., Syracuse University, Syracu.se, N. Y. Harned, R. W., Agricultural College, Miss. Harrington, W. H., Postofflce Department, Ottawa, Canada. Hayhurst, Paul, Fayetteville, Ark. Herms, W. B., University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Hertzog, P. H., Lewisburg, Pa. Hodgkiss, H. E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Hollister, G. H., 331 Garden Street, Hartford, Conn. Hood, C. E., Dallas, Texas. Hooker, C. W., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Horton, J. R., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Houser, J. S., Agricultural Experiment Station. Wooster, Ohio. Hudson, G. H., State Normal and Training School, Plattsburg, N. Y. February, '10] LIST OF MEMBERS Hyslop, J. A., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Isaac, John, Sacramento, Cal. Jarvis, T. D., Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Jenne, E. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Jennings, A. H., Ancon, Canal Zone, Panama. Johannsen. O. A., Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Me. Johnston, F. A., 84 Pleasant Street, Amherst, Mass. Jones, Charles R., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. Jones, Paul R., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Kelly, E. O. G., V. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Kidder, Nathaniel T., Milton, Mass. King, George B., Lawrence, Mass. Knab, Frederick, TJ. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Koebele, Albert, Alameda, Cal. Kraus, E. J., Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Oregon. Lewis, A. C, State Board of Entomologj^ Atlanta, Ga. Lowe, F. B., Detroit, Mich. Mackintosh, R. S., State Board of Horticulture, Auburn, Ala. Mann, B. P., 1918 Sunderland Place, Washington, D. C. Marsh, H. O., TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Martin, George W., 1804 Grand Avenue, Nashville, Tenn. McConnell, W. R., State College, Pa. McCray, A. H., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. McMillan, D. K., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Merrill, J. H., Danvers, ^Mass. Metcalf, Z. P., Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. Morse, Albert P., Wellesley, Mass. Mosher, F. H., Melrose Highlands, Mass. Ness, Henry, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. Nicholson, John F., Stillwater, Okla. Niswander, F. J., 519 East Seventeenth Street, Cheyenne, Wyo. O'Kane, W. C, Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham, N. H. Paine, C. T., San Jose, Cal. Palmer, R. M., Victoria, British Columbia. Parker, John R., Amherst, Mass. Peairs, L. M., Agricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Md. Philbrook, E. E., Portland, Me. Pike, Asa O., Springvale, Me. Piper, C. v., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Popenoe, C. H., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Price, H. L., Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Price, Wm. J., Jr., Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Randall, J. L., 707 Bijou Building, Pittsburg, Pa. Rane, F. W., State House, Boston, Mass. Reed, E. B., Esquimault. British Columbia. Reed, W. V., State Board of Entomology, Atlanta, Ga. Ripley, E. P., Weston, Mass. Rogers, D. M., 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Rolfs, P. H., Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Fla. Rosenfeld, A. H., State Crop Pest Commission, Baton Rouge, La. Runner, G. A., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Xiy JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Russell, H. M., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Sasscer, E. R., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Satterthwalt, A. F., Harrisburg, Pa. Schoene, W. J., Geneva, N. Y. Scott, W. M., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Shafer, G. D., East Lansing, Mich. Shaw, N. E., State Department of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio. Smith, C. P., Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah. Smith, Harry S., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Smith, L. M., Carbondale, 111. Snyder, T. E., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Soule, A. M. G., York Village, Me. Southwick, E. B., Arsenal Building, Central Park, New York, N. Y. Spooner, Charles, Middletown. N. Y. Stene, A. E., Kingston, R. I. Stiles, J. C, Blacksburg, Va. Stimson, James, Santa Cruz, Cal. Summers, John N., Insectary, Amherst, Mass. Terry, F. W., Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, Honolulu, Hawaii. Thaxter, Roland, 7 Scott Street, Cambridge, Mass. Thompson, W. R., Melrose Highlands, Mass. Timberlake, P. H., Melrose Highlands, Mass. Toumey, J. W., Yale Forest School, New Haven, Conn. Tower, W. L., Porto Rico Experiment Station, Mayaguez, P. R. Turner, W. F., Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. Urbahns, T. D., Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. Vickery, R. A., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Walton, W. R., 810 North Eighteenth Street, Harrisburg, Pa. Weed, C. M., Lowell, Mass. Weed, Howard E., Railroad Exchange Building, Chicago, 111. Weldon, G. P., Grand Junction, Col. West, J. A., Urbana, 111. Whitmarsh, R. D., Amherst, Mass. Wildermuth, V. L., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Wilson, H. F., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Wood, H. P., Dallas, Texas. Worthley, L. H., 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Yothers, M. A., Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing, Mich. Yothers, W. W., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Young, D. B., Geological Hall, Albany, N. Y. Zimmer, J. F., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. FOKEIGN MEMBERS Ballou, H. A., Imperial Department of Agriculture, Barbados, West Indies. Berlese, Dr. Antonio, Reale Stazione di Entomologia Agraria, Firenze, Italy. Bordage, Edmond, Directeur de Musee, St. Denis. Reunion. Carpenter, Dr. George H., Royal College of Science, Dublin, Ireland. Cholodkosky, Prof. Dr. N., Militar-Medicinische Akademie, St. Petersburg, Russia. Collinge, W. E., 55 Newhall Street, Birmingham, England. February, '10] LIST OF MEMBERS xv Danysz, J., Laboratoire de Parasitologie, Bourse de Commerce, Paris, France. Enock, Fred, 42 Salisbury Road, Bexley, London, SE., England. French, Charles, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne, Australia. Froggatt, W. W., Department of Agriculture, Sydney, New South Wales. Fuller, Claude, Department of Agriculture, Pietermaritzburg, Natal, South Africa. Coding, F. W., Newcastle, New South Wales. Grasby, W. C, 6 West Australian Chambers, Perth, West Australia. Green, E. E., Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon. Helms, Richard, 136 George Street, North Sydney, New South Wales. Herrera, A. L., Calle de Betlemitas No. 8, Mexico City, Mexico. Horvath, Dr. G., Musee Nationale Hongroise, Budapest, Hungary. Jablonowski, Josef, Entomological Station, Budapest, Hungary. Kulagin, Nikolai M., Landwirtschaftliches Institut, Petrooskoje, Moscow, Russia. Kuwana, S. I., Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishigahara, Tokio, Japan. Lampa, Prof. Sven, Statens Entoraologiska, Anstalt, Stockholm, Sweden. Lea, A. M., Department of Agriculture, Hobart, Tasmania. Leonardi, Gustavo, R. Scuola di Agricoltura, Portici, Italy. Lounsbury, Charles P., Department of Agriculture, Cape Town, South Africa. Mally, C. W., Department of Agriculture, Grahamstown, Cape Colony, South Africa. Marchal, Dr. Paul, 16 Rue Claude Bernard, Paris, France. Mokshetsky, Sigismond, Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Simferopol, Crimea, Russia. Mussen, Charles T., Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, New South Wales. Nawa, Yashushi, Entomological Laboratory, Kyoraachi, Gifu, Japan. Newstead, Robert, University School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, Eng- land. Porchinski, Prof. A., Ministere de 1' Agriculture, St. Petersburg, Russia. Porter, Carlos E., Casilla 2352, Santiago, Chili. Pospielow, Dr. Walremar, Station Entomologique, Rue de Boulevard, No. 9, Kiew, Russia. Reed, Charles S., Mendoza, Argentine Republic, South America. Reed, E. C, Museo, Concepcion, Chile. Renter, Dr. Enzio, Agrikultur-Economiska Forsoksamstalten, Helsingfors^ Finland. Ritzema Bos, Dr. J., Agricultural College, Wageningen, Netherlands. Sajo, Prof. Karl, Godollo-Veresegyhaz, Hungary. Schoyen, Prof. W. M., Zoological Museum, Christiania, Norway. Severin, Prof. G., Curator Natural History Museum, Brussels, Belgium. Shipley, Prof. Arthur E., Christ's College, Cambridge, England. Silvestri, Dr. F., R. Scuola Superiore di Agricoltura, Portici, Italy. Tepper, J. G. O., Norwood, South Australia. Theobald, Frederick V., Wye Court, Wye, Kent, England. Thompson, Rev. Edward H., Franklin, Tasmania. Tryon, H., Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Urich, F. W., Victoria Institute, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies. Vermorel, V., Station Viticole, Villefranche, Rhone, France. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1 ( FBONT18PIECE ) Proceed 1 E. P. Felt 2 Herbert Osborn 3 C. P. Gillette 4 C. Gordon Hewitt 5 W. E. Britton 6 A. F. Burgess 7 H. E. Summers \ J. B. Smith 9 J. L. Phillips 10 R. A. Cooley 11 A. F. Satterthwait 12 Edith M. Patch 13 T. B. Symons 14 P. J. Parrott 15 S. J. Hunter 16 H. A. Surface 17 E. D. Sanderson 18 N. E. Shaw 19 E. C. Cotton 20 F. L. Frost 21 A. G. Hammar 22 J. J. Davis 23 T. J. Headlee 24 G. H. Hollister 25 A. I. Bourne 26 H. P. Wood 27 C. W. Hooker 28 R. W. Braucher 29 B. H. Walden 30 H. J. Speaker 31 C. R. Crosby 32 F. H. Mosher 33 L. M. Peairs 34 A. H. Rosenfeld 35 G. W. Herrick 36 M. H. Swenk 37 H. S. Smith 38 J. N. Summers 39 Robert Parker 40 F. L. Washburn 41 C. T. Brues 42 W. C. O'Kane 43 W. M. Wheeler 44 H. L. Price 45 John Barlow 46 R. A. Vickery 47 P. P. Williams 48 F. B. Lowe 49 W. S. Abbot 50 Fianklin Sherman, Jr. 51 J. L. Randall 52 R. I. Smith 53 H. E. Hodgklss 54 O. A. Johannsen 55 A. F. Conradi 56 G. G. Ainslie 57 W. A. Thomas 58 R. L. Webster 59 W. E. Rumsey 60 L. Caesar fari JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS Vol. 3 FEBRUARY, 1910 No. 1 Proceedings of the Tw^enty-Second Annual Meet- ing of the American Association of Economic Entomologists The twenty-second annual meeting of the American Association of Economic Entomologists was held at Harvard Medical School, Brook- line, a suburb of Boston, Mass., December 28-29, 1909. The business proceedings follow in Part I, while the addresses, papers and discussions will be found in Part II. PART I The meeting was called to order by President W. E. Britton at ten o'clock a. m., Tuesday, December 28th. The attendance averaged one hundred members and visitors. The following members were present: George G. Ainslee, Clemson College, S. C; Arthur I. Bourne, Washington, D. C; R. W. Braucher, Washington, D. C; W. E. Bi'itton, New Haven, Conn.; C. T. Brues, Forest Hills, Mass.; A. F. Burgess, Washington, D. C; Lawson Caesar, Guelph, Canada; C. W. Collins, Melrose Highlands, Mass.; A. F. Conradi, Clemson College, S. C; Mel. T. Cook, Newark, Del.; R. A. Cooley, Bozeman, Mont.; E. C. Cotton, Knoxville, Tenn.; C. R. Crosby, Ithaca, N. Y.; R. A. Cushman, Washington, D. C; J. J. Davis, Urbana, 111.; E. B. Engle, Harrisburg, Pa.; E. R. Farrer, South Lincoln, Mass.; E. P. FeH, Albany, N. Y.; W. F. Fiske, Melrose Highlands, Mass.; S. A. Forbes, Urbana, 111.; H. L. Frost, Arlington, Mass.; B. N. Gates, Washington, D. C; H. Garman, Lexington, Ky.; C. P. Gillette, Fort Collins, Colo.; A. G. Hammar, Washing- ton, D. C; T. J. Headlee, Manhattan, Kan.; G. W. Herrick, Ithaca, N. Y.; C. Gordon Hewitt, Ottawa, Canada; W. E. Hinds, Auburn, Ala.; E. F. Hitchings, Augusta, Me.; H. E. Hodgkiss, Geneva, N. Y.; W. J. Holland, Pittsburg, Pa.; 3 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 G. H. Hollister, Hartford, Conn.; C. W. Hooker, Washington, D. C; L. O. Howard, Washington, D. C; S. J. Hunter, Lawrence, Kan.; O. A. Johannsen, Orono, Me.; F. A. Johnston, Amherst, Mass.; Nathaniel T. Kidder, Milton, Mass. ; F. W. Lowe, Detroit, Mich. ; A. D. McGillivray, Ithaca, N. T. ; J. H. Merrill, Danvers, Mass. ; F. H. Mosher, Melrose Highlands, Muss. ; A. P. Morse, Wellesley, Mass.; W. C. O'Kane, Dui'ham, N. H.; Herbert Osborn, Columbus, Ohio; J. R. Parker, Amherst, Mass.; P. J. Parrott, Geneva, N. Y.; Edith M. Patch, Orono, Me. ; L. M. Peairs, College Park, Md. ; E. E. Philbrook, Portland, Me.; J. L. Phillips, Blacksburg, Va.; Asa O. Pike, Springvale, Me.; W. J. Price, Blacksburg, Va.; J. L. Randall, Pittsburg, Pa.; F. W. Rane, Boston, Mass.; W. A. Riley, Ithaca, N. Y.; E. P. Ripley, Weston, Mass.; D. M. Rogers, Boston, Mass.; A. H. Rosenfeld, Baton Rouge, La.; W. E. Rumsey, Morgantown, W. Va.; E. D. Sanderson, Durham, N. H.; A. F. Satterthwait, Harrisburg, Pa.; Wm. Saunders, Ottawa, Canada; N. -Ji!. Shaw, Columbus, Ohio; Franklin Sherman, Jr., Raleigh, N. C; Henry Skinner, Philadelphia, Pa.; Harry S. Smith, Melrose Highlands, Mass.; J. B. Smith, New Brunswick, N. J.; R. I. Smith, West Raleigh, N. C; A. M. G. Soule, York Village, Me.; A. L. Stene, Kingston, R. I.; H. E. Summers, Ames, Iowa; J. N. Summers, Amherst, Mass.; H. A. Surface, Harrisburg, Pa.; Myron H. Swenk, Lincoln, Neb.; T. B. Symons, College Park, Md.; W. R. Thompson, Melrose Highlands, Mass.; P. H. Timberlake, Melrose Highlands, Mass.; R. A. Vickery, Wash- ington, D. C; B. H. Walden, New Haven, Conn.; F. L. Washburn, St. Anthony Park, Minn.; R. L. Webster, Ames, Iowa; W. M. Wheeler, Boston, Mass.; R. D. Whitmarsh, Amherst, Mass.; E. L. Worsham, Atlanta, Ga., and L. H. Worthley, Boston, Mass. Among the visitors present, the following were noted : Frank A. Bates, South Braintree, Mass.; M. B. Cummings, Burlington, Vt.; G. R. Cushman, Baltimore, Md.; W. P. Headden, Fort Collins, Colo.; P. L. Huested, Blauvelt, N. Y. ; F. N. Fagan, Columbus, Ohio ; W. H. Gates, Baton Rouge, La.; C. F. Jackson, Durham, N. H.; W. S. Regan, Amherst, Mass.; H. J. Speaker, Port Clinton, Ohio ; Dr. C. W. Stiles, Washington, D. C. ; L. R. Taft, East Lansing, Mich.; P. F. Williams, Auburn, Ala., and R. Wooldridge, Melrose Highlands, Mass. A number of ladies were also present at each session. The report of the Secretary was read as follows: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY At the time of the last annual meeting the roll of the Association included 252 members. The membership was then increased by the election of one active, 38 associate and two foreign members and 16 associate members were transferred to the active roll. During the year one member in each class has been called by death, namely. Prof. Mark Vernon Slingerland, B. H. Guilbeau and Dr. A. Giard. The present roll contains the names of 118 active, 124 associate and 46 foreign members, so that the year has shown an increase in each class of membership and a net gain including all classes of 36. Nearly twenty applications for membership have already been received by the Secretary and referred to the Committee on Membership, which forecasts a substantial gain in membership before this meeting shall have closed. February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' PROCEEDINGS 3 The Secretary has revised and circulated tlie list of common names of insects adopted by the Association, as directed at the last meeting, and together with the increasing correspondence and the work required on the Journal has not lacked employment for such spare time as could be devoted to the work. The records of the dues paid by members has been transferred to a card catalogue so that the information can be more readily available. By vote of the Executive Committee the Secretary was authorized to expend for clerical assistance such amount as was deemed necessary, the total not to exceed one half of the unexpended balance of the previous year; $15.50 has been used for this purpose. The Association is in a good financial condition, as will be seen in the following statement: FINANCIAL STATEMENT. Balance on hand, December 28, 1908 S91.57 By amount received f or due.s, 1909 164.00 To stenographic report 1908 meeting $32.45 stamps and stamped envelopes 38.91 printing 38.50 card catalogue case and cards 6.35 clerical work, secretary's office 15.50 supplies 1.80 telegraph and express charges •. .87 $134.38 Balance in treasury 121.19 $255.57 $255.57 Respectfully submitted, A. F. Burgess, Secretary. By vote of the Association, the report was accepted and referred to the Auditing Committee, for special report later in the session. The report of the Committee on Nomenclature was presented by Mr. Herbert Osborn, and, after a general discussion and various changes which were made in the insect names recommended for com- mon use, it was adopted in the following form : REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NOMENCLATURE The committee recommends: First, That the use of a common name for both larval and adult forms of an insect be permissible in cases where a common name for each form is already in general use and is properly dis- tinctive; the policy for adoption of such names by this Association to be the same as for adoption of any single name, that is, each name to be considered on its merits; Second, That use of different names for a given insect for geographic regions be discouraged, and officially indorsed only when the circumstances clearly require such usage in order to meet the conditions existing in such region. In the majority of such cases it is believed that it will be better policy to omit or postpone the official adoption by the Association of any name of this class and permit the problem to solve itself if possible by common usage of the names in question. 4 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 It is recommended that the list of names adopted at this meeting be included as heretofore in the Proceedings of the Association. A plan of publishing the list in uniform style, as additions are made from year to year, is suggested for consideration. This list, to properly serve its purpose, should be kept up to date and should be readily accessible to all writers on economic entomology. The committee desires to thank the members who have shown an inter- est in the matter of common names for insects and expresses the desire that this interest will continue. Respectfully submitted, Herbert Osborn, a. l. quaintance, Committee. LIST OF COMMOX NAMES ADOPTED DECEMBER 28TH. 1909 Pomace fly Drosophila ampelophila Loew. Asparagus miner Agromyza simplex Loew. Beet leaf-hopper Eutettix tenella Baker. Coffee-bean weevil Anecerus fasiculatns DeGeer. Sugar cane borer Diatrcea saccharalis Fab. Cotton aphis (or Melon aphis) Aphis gossypii Glover. Cranberry spauworm Clcora pampina/i'ia Guen. Citrus mealy bug Pseudococctis citri Risso. Diamond-back moth PluteUa maculipennis Curtis. Elm span worm Enn')inos suhsignaria Hbn. False potato beetle Leptinotarsa juncta Germ. Grape colaspis Colaspis hrunnea Fab. Green fruit worm Xylina antennata Walker. Greenhouse thrips HcUothrips licemorrhoicldUs Bouche. Hag moth PhoTietron pithechim S. and A. Hop flea-beetle Psiilliodes punctulata Melsh. Tobacco worm Phlegetliontius quinque-maculatus Haw. Orange thrips Euthrips citri Moulton. Green peach aphis Mi/zvs persicce Sulz. Black peach aphis Myzus persicce-niger Smith. Periodical cicada Tihiceii septendecim L. Rocky mountain locust McIanopJus spretus Uhl. Flower thrips Euthrips tritici Fitch. Shot hole borer Scolyttis rugulnsus Ratz. Southern pine sawyer Monohammus titillator Fab. Striped garden caterpillar Mamestra legitima Grote. White marked tussock moth Hemerocampa leucostigma S. and A. Water-cress leaf beetle PhirUon aruginosa Suffr. Water-cress sowbug MaiicascUus hrachyurus Harger. Western pine beetle Dendroctonus ■ bremcomis Lee. Southwestern pine beetle Dendroctonus harberi Hopk. Roundheaded pine beetle Dendroctonus convexifrons Hopk. Southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm. Arizona pine beetle Dendroctonus arizonicus Hopk. Smaller mexican pine beetle Dendrnctonus mexicanus Hopk. I February, '10] entomologists' proceedings 5 Larger mexicau piue beetle Dendroctonus paraUelocoUis Chap. Colorado pine beetle Dendroctonus approximatus Dietz. Mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus monticolce Hopk. Black Hills beetle Dendroctonus ponderoscd Hopk. Jeffrey pine beetle Dendroctonus jeffreyi Hopk. Eastern larch beetle Dendroctonus simplex Lee. Douglas fir beetle Dendroctonus pseudotsuyw Hopk. Eastern spruce beetle Dendroctonus ptceaperda Hopk. Engelmann spruce beetle Dendroctonus engelmanni Hopk. Alaska spruce beetle Dendroctonus horealis Hopk. Sitka spruce beetle Dendroctonus obesus Mann. Redwinged. pine beetle Dendroctonus rufipennis Kirby. Lodgepole pine beetle Dendroctonus murrayance Hopk. Allegheny spruce beetle Dendroctonus punctatus Lee. European spruce beetle Dendroctonus »ucaHs Kug. Black turpentine beetle Dendroctonus terebrans Oliv. Red turpentine beetle Dendroctonus valens Lee. The report of the Committee on Testing Proprietary Insecticides was presented by Mr. E. D. Sanderson. Mr. Sanderson stated that the main work that had been done by the com- mittee had been an effort to secure a national insecticide law and that the progress in that direction had been reported in the last issue of the Journal OF Economic Entomology. The prospects of the passage of such a law are very good and the matter will be taken up at the present session of Congress. He requested the support of the members in furthering this legislation. Voted that the report be accepted and the committee continued. ]Mr. Myron H. Swenk reported for Mr. Laurence Bruner, chairman of the Committee on AlSliation, that some progress had been made in this work, but that no further report could be submitted at this time. By vote of the Association, the report was accepted as a report of progress, and the committee continued. The President introduced Dr. C. W. Stiles of the United States Marine Hospital Service, who stated that he wished to call the atten- tion of the Association to a movement which was being made to secure greater permanency for insect nomenclature. He stated that the matter was to be considered at the next meeting of the International Zoological Congress, next summer, and for the purpose of securing a list of accepted binominal names to submit to that meeting, he requested that as many zoologists as possible forward to him a list of names which they considered authentic. These names are desired within the next three months, so that they can be edited, and from them a list will be selected for submittal to the meeting next summer. The idea of this movement is to secure more stability in the nomen- 6 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 clature, and no one is expected to change the names accepted by the congress, without its approval. Botanical as well as zoological names are desired. It was suggested that a committee be appointed to take charge of this matter, and by vote of the Association it was referred to the Executive Committee. The President appointed the following committees : Nominations — S. A. Forbes, E. P. Felt and W. E. Hinds. Resolutions — Franklin Sherman, Jr., C. P. Gillette and E. D. San- derson. Auditing — T. J. Headlee and E. L. Worsham. Owing to the absence at the meeting of Mr. H. T. Fernald and Mr. W. D. Hunter, members of the Committee on Membership, the chair appointed ]\Ir. H. E. Summers and the Secretary to fill the vacancies on the committee. By a vote of the Association, the President was authorized to appoint a committee of three members to draft suitable memorial resolutions for the members who had died during the year, and Messrs. Herbert Osborn, C. R. Crosby and F. L. Washburn were appointed. The Secretary read an invitation from Dr. Ludwig Von Graff, Pres- ident of the Eighth International Zoological Congress, requesting that delegates be appointed to attend the meeting, which will be held at' Gratz, Austria, from August 15th to 20th, 1910. By vote of the Association, the matter was referred to the Execu- tive Committee, with power to act. A letter was read by the Secretary from Prof. H. A. Gossard, of Wooster, Ohio, expressing his regrets that he was not able to be pres- ent at the meeting, and bring with him the Ohio Exhibit of Insects, used for exhibition at state and county fairs. Owing to illness and other unexpected difficulties it was not possible to send the exhibit, but Professor Gossard promised to prepare a fully illustrated paper for the Journal. At four o'clock p. m., Wednesday, December 29th, the papers of the program having been disposed of, the final business of the session was transacted. Mr. Sanderson suggested that some action be taken whereby at the next meeting members of the Association might be provided with a distinctive button, so that they could be readily distinguished from members of other affiliated societies present at the convention. On motion, it was voted that the matter be referred to the Execu- tive Committee, for its consideration, with power to act. February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' PROCEEDINGS 7 The report of the Auditing Committee was presented by Mr. T. J. Pleadlee, as follows : REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE Your Auditing Committee for the 22nd annual meeting begs to report that it has carefully examined the accounts of your secretary, and found them in most satisfactory condition. Respectfully submitted, T. J. Headlee, E. L. WOBSHAM, Committee. By vote of the Association, the report was accepted. President Britton stated that on account of a recent ruling made in the United States Department of Agriculture, it was not possible for members of the Association to secure their expenses when attend- ing the annual meeting of this Association, and he suggested that some action should be taken to provide for the expenses of the Secretary at the meeting, and then presented the report of the Executive Commit- tee, which is as follows : REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE In June this Association was invited by Sir William Ramsay to send a del- egate to the International Congress of Applied Chemistry to be held in London, May 22d to June 2d, 1909. As it seemed desirable to have the Association represented and as we are not yet able financially to send a delegate so far and pay his expenses, your president asked Doctor Howard, who had planned a trip abroad, if he could not attend this meeting as a dele- gate. Finding this impracticable, one of our foreign members. Prof. A. E. Shipley of Cambridge, England, was asked to do so, and kindly repre- sented the Association. About the first of October the President was asked to appoint a delegate to represent the Association at the dedication of the new building of the College of Physicians at Philadelphia, November 10th. Dr. Henry Skinner was appointed, and kindly consented to be present. On December 13th the President learned from Mr. W. L. W. Field of the plans to unveil during Convocation Week a tablet upon the site, in Milton, where Dr. T. W. Harris formerly lived. Mr. Field asked if he could be authorized to state that this Association would be represented at the unveil- ing. The authorization was gladly given, and Professor W. M. Wheeler was appointed to be present on that occasion as a representative of the Asso- ciation. The Executive Committee authorized the Secretary to expend money for the clerical work of the office to an amount not exceeding one half the unexpended balance of the previous year. This balance was $91.45. So far $15. .50 has been used for this purpose. The committee further recommends 8 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 that for the coming year the Executive Committee be authorized to pay the Secretary such amount as it sees fit as a small honorarium. Respectfully submitted, W. E. Britton, President. H. E. Summers, Second Vice-President. By vote of the Association, the report was accepted and its recom- mendations adopted. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by- Franklin Sherman, Jr., as follows : REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS The committee on resolutions submits the following: Resolved, That the American Association of Economic Entomologists hereby expresses its appreciation of the courtesies extended by the local committee on arrangements, the Cambridge Entomological Club, and the Corporation of Harvard University. Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to the editorial management of the Journal of Economic Entomology for the excellent stand- ard which they have maintained for the official organ of this Association. Resolved, That we again declare our conviction that the control of the Gypsy Moth and the Brown-tail Moth in New England is an economic prob- lem of the first magnitude, and of the most vital importance to the entire country. Furthermore, we would emphasize the importance of the several New England States and the United States Department of Agriculture continuing with undiminished vigor the policies so ably prosecuted during the past few years. Resolved, That this Association urges upon Congress the necessity of legis- lation to provide for inspection to prevent the introduction of dangerous insects and plant diseases, and we recommend that this Association appoint as a committee Messrs. Symons, Worsham and Atwood to represent it in furthering such legislation. Resolved, That we again endorse the bill now before Congress for the con- trol of the purity of insecticides and fungicides (H. R. 2218). Respectfully submitted, Fkanklin Sherman, Jr., E. D. Sanderson. C. P. Gillette, Committee. Voted that the report be accepted and its recommendations adopted. The report of the Committee on Memorial Resolutions was presented by Mr. Herbert Osborn, as follows : February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' PROCEEDINGS 9 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON MEMORIAL RESOLUTIONS Your committee to prepare resolutions relative to the members of the society who had died during the past year, beg leave to report as follows : Prof. M. V. Slingerland, President of this Association in 1903, who died ]March 10th, 1909, had won for himself an enviable place among American Entomologists by the accuracy and originality of his obser- vations and by the clearness and directness of his writings. As an Economic Entomologist, while insisting on absolute scientific accuracy, he never lost sight of the necessity of presenting the results of his studies in a form available for the public. He was an inspiring and sympathetic teacher and numbered as his friends all who had associa- tion with him. His untimely death is a distinct loss to Entomological Science. By the death of Prof. B. H. Guilbeau, the Society has lost one of its younger members who had already proved his ability as an inves- tigator and teacher. His worth was generally recognized, and those of us who had the privilege of meeting him on the occasions when he attended our sessions were impressed with his qualities of earnestness, sincerity and friendliness. In the death of Prof. A. Giard, we recognize the loss of one of our most distinguished foreign members. His contributions to Economic Entomology have for many years been recognized as of special merit, and the Society feels that Entomological Science is deprived of an able exponent. Resolved, That these resolutions be placed in the published records of this meeting of the society, and that copies be transmitted to the families of these deceased members with an expression of our sincere sjTQpathy in their personal loss. Respectfully submitted, Herbert Osborn, F. L. Washburn, C. R. Crosby, Committee. By vote of the Association, the resolutions were adopted. The report on the Committee of Membership was read by Mr. J. B. Smith, as follows : REPORT OP THE COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP Dr. L. O. Howard has nominated as foreign members: Prof. Nikolai M. Kulagin, of the Landwirtschaftliches Institut in Petrooskoje, Moscow, 10 .TOruXAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Russia; Prof. G. Severin, Curator of the Natural History Museum in Brus- sels, and Prof. S. I. Kuwana, of the Imperial Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion of Japan, Nishigahara, Tokio, Japan. The committee recommends that these persons be elected as foreign members. The committee recommends for advancement from associate membership to the list of active members: Mr. C. T. Brues, Mr. C. R. Crosby, Mr. J. J. Davis, Mr. H. J. Franklin, Mr. A. G. Hammar, Mr. E. F. Hitchihgs, Mr. Fred Johnson, Mr. A. D. MacGillivray, Mr. H. M. Russell, Mr. M. H. Swenk, Mr. O. H. Sweezey, Mr. J. L. Webb and Mr. W. W. Yothers. Your committee recommends the transfer from the foreign membership list to the list of active members of Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, of the Central Experiment Farms, Ottawa, Canada. Dr. W. B. Alwood has presented his resignation as member of the Asso- ciation to the Secretary', and your committee recommends its acceptance. The following names are presented for associate membership: Arthur I. Bourne, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Lawson Caesar, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. S. C. Clapp, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. Wesley R. Coe, New Haven, Conn. C. W. Collins, Gypsy Moth Parasite Laboratory, Melrose Highlands, Mass. Samuel S. Grossman, Orlando, Fla. Wm. E. Evans, Jr., Painesville, Ohio. Edward R. Farrar, South Lincoln, Mass. Warren S. Fisher, Highspire, Pa. S. W. Foster, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. C. B. Hardenberg, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. R. W. Harned, Agricultural College of Mississippi. William B. Herms, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. P. H. Hertzog, Lewisburg, Pa. G. H. Hollister, Hartford, Conn O. A. Johannsen, Orono, Maine. F. A. Johnston, Amherst, Mass. Nathaniel T. Kidder, Milton, Mass. Joseph H. Merrill, Danvers, Mass. Z. P. Metcalf, Raleigh, N. C. Albert P. Morse, Wellesley, Mass. W. C. O'Kane, Durham, N. H. John R. Parker, Amherst, Mass. E. E. Philbrook, Portland, Maine. Asa O. Pike, Springvale, Maine. Edw. P. Ripley, Weston, Mass. T. E. Snyder, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. A. M. G. Soule, York Village, Maine. John N. Summers, Amherst, Mass. William R. Thompson, Melrose Highlands, Mass. Philip H. Timberlake, Melrose Highlands, Mass. William R. Walton, Harrisburg, Pa. R. D. Whitmarsh, Amherst, Mass. February, '10] entomologists' proceedings 11 V. L. Wildermuth, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. L. H. Worthley, Boston, Mass. James F. Zimmer, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Nine active members are in arrears for dues for three years, and the committee recommends that the Secretary notify these members of their delinquency. If within three mouths they have not paid the full amount due, the Secretary is instructed to strike their names from the list of members. Ten associate members are in arrears for dues, three years, and the com- mittee recommends the same action. Respectfully submitted, John B. Smith, H. E. Summers, A. F. Burgess, Committee. By vote of the Association, the report was accepted and its recom. mendations adopted. The report of the Nominating Committee was read by ]\Ir. E. P. Felt, as follows : REPORT OP THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE The committee submit the following nominations: President, E. D. Sanderson, Durham, N. H. First Vice-President, H. T. Fernald, Amherst, Mass. Second Vice-President, P. J. Parrott, Geneva, N. Y. Member of Committee on Nomenclature, H. Garman. Members of the Advisory Board of the Journal of Economic Entomology, C. P. Gillette, Fort Collins, Colo., and Wilmon Newell, Baton Rouge, La. Councillors for the American Association for the Advancement of Science S. A. Forbes and H. E. Summers. Respectfully submitted, S. A. Forbes, E. P. Felt, W. E. Hinds, Comntdttee. By vote of the Association, the Secretary was instructed to cast a ballot in favor of the members named in the report as officers for the ensuing- year. It was also voted that the time and place for holding the next meeting be referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act. The Secretary announced that on the following morning an excur- sion would be made to Arlington to witness a spraying demonstration at the office of Messrs. H. L. Frost & Co.^ There being no further business, the meeting adjourned. ^ Thursday morning, December 30th, 1909.— About 25 members were pres- 12 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 PART II The address of President AV. E. Britton was presented at the open- ing session Tuesday morning, with Second Vice-President Summers in the chair, and was as follows : THE OFFICIAL ENTOMOLOGIST AND THE FARMER By W. E. Britton, New Haven, Conn. It is with hesitating steps that I attempt to follow the path, at first but a trail, blazed by the pioneers of American Economic Entomology, and later trodden by their followers, so illustrious — some of whom are no longer with us. That path is now a well-worn thoroughfare. Seem- ingly little grain can be left along its borders, so many careful workers have gleaned by the wayside. In looking over the list of subjects treated in the addresses of for- mer presidents of this Association, I find that almost every phase of Economic Entomology has been ably discussed, but conditions are ever changing, and it remains for me to call your attention to a few pres- ent aspects of the subject, and to leave with you a few somewhat dis- connected thoughts regarding them. My subject, "The Official Entomologist and the Farmer," needs pel-haps a word of explanation. By "official entomologist" I mean such men as are employed by the various states and territories and by the Federal Government to study insects and their relations to man and his crops. It includes state entomologists, state nursery inspec- tors, commissioners in charge of suppressing certain important pests, experiment station entomologists, professors of entomology in agricul- tural and other colleges, and members of the working staff of the Bu- reau of Entomology at Washington. Certain museum curators also might well be included under the term. It may be assumed at the out- ent at the demonstration, as guests of Mr. H. L. Frost, and after examining his office and extensive storehouse, containing all kinds of insecticide ma- chinery, the demonstration was held. A high power gasolene sprayer was used, and the members had an opportunity to observe the solid stream system of spraying. Several new devices, in the way of couplings, nozzles, etc., were also on exhibition. All those present expressed much satisfaction in having had an oppor- tunity to be present at the demonstration, and a vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Frost for his courtesy and hospitality. February, '10] britton : entomologist and farmer 13 set that the official entomologist is an economic entomologist, because men are not usually employed by nations, states, or even universities and colleges to investigate the purely scientific aspects of entomology. Such an official, therefore, is supposed to be in readiness to impart information at all times and places regarding insects and their injury, and how to suppress them. For the purpose of this discussion we should not limit the term ' 'farmer" to the man who tills the soil as his chief business, but should rather give it a broader interpretation and make it include the "gentleman farmer" and the resident of the village and city; in fact, anyone and everyone who can be helped by the official entomolo- gist or who seeks his aid. In other words, the title might read, "The Official Entomologist and His Constituency." What are the qualifications of a model official entomologist? For the first essentials we can probably do no better than to quote from Mr. F. M. Webster's excellent paper before this Association at the Baltimore meeting a year ago in regard to the requisites of an assistant. "With all of us who have the management of men there comes a time when an emergency arises and someone must be detailed to a most difficult piece of investigation, where only the most resourceful, per- severing and trustworthy are to be employed, and lucky is the man who gets the opportunity. Now if I were to be asked to indicate some of the most essential qualifications for such a man I should say, first, honesty, and, second, common sense. "^ Let us adopt these qualifications as being the two most important ones also for the official entomologist. Indeed, lacking them he can never be a real success in this or any other profession. The impor- tance of training should not be overlooked, and right here let me say that many, perhaps most, of us have gone into our work and our positions with very scanty training. In fact, the great demand for workers during the past few years has necessitated the acceptance of many otherwise excellent men who are not sufficiently trained in entomological methods and technique. This cannot be helped, and in such cases the men must get their training through actual experience in their work, which is perhaps after all the best school. If these men have honesty, common sense, energy and a little ingenuity, or resource- fulness, they will soon outstrip others w^ho have had far better training in whom these qualities are lacking. The entomologist must do something more than gather facts ; he ^Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. II, p. 99, April, 1909. 14 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 must be able to interpret their meaning. He cannot always be in his office or laboratory, even though it is a great convenience to his people to find him when they call. He cannot always be in the field, but he should have a thorough knowledge of the conditions there. In fact, he should have a good general knowledge of all phases of his subject, and it is desirable that he be a specialist and an authority in a few of them. Probably few of us possess all qualifications necessary to make us ideal official entomologists. Perhaps everyone has some of them. As his work increases, he must have help, — and if funds are available, scientific and clerical assistants are secured. He must then plan and direct their efforts as well as his own. He must possess tact, must be a good organizer, and must be able to judge the ability and capacity for work in others. He must be able to manage men. New problems are then introduced in regard to the proper credit for work done by his assistants. The ideal official should err on the side of generosity rather than that of selfishness in such matters. It is true that the assistants can usually do much of the routine work where no credit is expected or given in publication. In his relations with other entomologists he must be courteous, and give credit where credit is due. He should refrain from engaging in personal controversies, though he should not hesitate to stand up f cTI:* the right as he sees it. Too many of us have our attention occupied by work of a routine nature because of a lack of help. It is extremely important that the entomologist be given some time for research work in order that he may aid in increasing the sum total of human knowledge in his chosen subject. There are still many problems to be solved, and the official entomologist from his wealth of experience and observations can sur- vey the field with a broader view than the beginner. Unfortunately, in many cases the official has little time for investigation and whatever is done must be done by assistants. At any rate, some research work should be done. To gain knowledge through observation and research is clearly the first essential of the profession. The second essential is to bring this knowledge before the public. And let me say that right here is one of the problems of the official entomologist as well as of every experi- ment station worker. The most intelligent farmers, and a certain num- ber of merchants, manufacturers and employees, as well as scientists, are always in touch with such work and often aid the official in it. But there is always a great mass of people who have never heard of the state entomologist or of the agricultural experiment station of February, '10] britton : entomologist and farmer 15 their own state, and who are entirely ignorant of all such matters. They must be informed. I say must because their own welfare and the public interests are at stake. The public health demands it. Health officers and medical men are now calling upon official entomolo- gists for expert evidence and advice about the breeding places of mosquitoes and flies, and this support should be given them wherever possible. Ignorance of the law — man's law — excuses no one; but in ignorance of nature's laws our greatest dangers lie. The compara- tively recent discoveries of the spread of human diseases by insects make it imperative that no opportunity be neglected to place the proper instruction regarding entomological sanitation before the peo- ple. This should be done, however, in a dignified way, and the commonest method is by means of publications. Lectures, illustrated by lantern slides and by insect specimens, are also an important means of getting the facts before the people. The press is our most powerful ally, but the modest entomologist shrinks from the publicity acquired if he is interviewed too often by the reporter, and also hesi- tates to send information to the papers. Perhaps some of this public- ity can be avoided if the information is given out as coming from the institution instead of from any particular individual connected with. it. I believe that educational exhibits at fairs and agricultural meetings are of the greatest value in educating the people. They should be arranged in an attractive manner, and supplied with neat descriptive labels that give real information. In an exhibit of this kind at a Con- necticut fair in September, twenty cages of living insects attracted more attention and excited more interest than any other portion of the exhibit. The living insects shown included mosquitoes, both. Anopheles and Gulex, in larval, pupal and adult stages, and a number of caterpillars, which could be readily procured at that time of the year, most of them being common pests of the field or garden. We should avoid the vaudeville methods practiced by some zealous workers for the betterment of mankind. Dignity and good taste should be maintained, or we had better dispense altogether with this means of educating the public. In order to do effective work, an official entomologist must have the confidence of his clientele. It is not always easy to gain this confi- dence. Personal contact with the farmer, honesty and frankness regarding entomological matters, and prompt attention to the details of each inquiry will help much. It is always better to say ''I don't know," if that indeed be the truth, than to allow the farmer to learn that fact from some other source. 16 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 I have given some of the requirements of the ideal official entomolo- gist. Few of us, I fear, can meet them. Nevertheless, in spite of all his shortcomings, the official entomologist is often of great practical value to the state. For instance, in case of a local outbreak of a serious insect, if there is an authorized entomologist with forces already organized and a small fund at his disposal, the pest may be not only kept from spreading, but perhaps actually exterminated in that locality, thus saving great losses of crops as well as tremendous expenditures of money to later subdue the pest and get it under con- trol, if that is even possible. The experience of the New England states with the gypsy moth, Porthetria dispar Linn., and the shipment into this country of nests of the brown-tail moth, Euproctis chrysorrJuBa Fabr., on nursery stock last year, in the absence of any system of Federal inspection, would seem to make it not only expedient but ahnost necessary for the safety of property and other interests, that each state not having such a department should at once organize one. An instance from my own state will serve as an example : On December 14th, 1909, I learned that the gypsy moth had been reported from the town of Wallingf ord. That very day we verified the report, and the following day had men at work destroying the egg-masses, getting 2,000 the first day. Since then the work has been continued, and over 5,000 egg-masses have been destroyed. The infestation is a bad one, covering at least three quar- ters of a square mile, but the pest must be exterminated. It is need- less to say that any prompt and effective suppressive measures would be out of the question in a state without funds available for the pur- pose and an organized entomological force ready to act. There are still many farmers in each state who have never heard of their own agricultural experiment station or even of the Federal Department of Agriculture, — but their number is growing less and less — and these institutions are now more firmly entrenched in the minds and the work and lives of the people than ever before. The taxpayer may have borers in his squash vines, San Jose scale on his fruit trees, or lice on his cattle; he likes to have some central bureau of the state or Federal government where he can apply for information entomological and feel that he will receive the best of advice. Having just mentioned some of the qualifications of the official entomologist and the proper development of his department for effi- cient service, it now behooves me to say a few words about the ideal farmer, or member of the entomologist's constituency. He is often a hard working man, with little time for study, and his interest has never been aroused in the living things around him. He is too often February, '10] BRITTON: ENTOMOLOGIST AND FARMER 17 bent on ' ' making both ends meet. ' ' The most intelligent are usually ready and willing to aid the entomologist by furnishing information about the prevalence of certain insects, and report regularly to him. They take their teams at a busy season and drive him around the neighborhood in order that he may get a better idea of conditions prevailing there. Cooperative experiments are arranged and often carried out faithfully, to the advantage of both owner and experi- menter. Occasionally we have experiences similar to that of an experiment station botanist who had conducted a cooperative experiment on the grounds of a truck grower to test the efficiency of sulphur treatment to prevent celery leaf blight. The treated plants promised well, and one day he visited the place to make final notes in the field before the crop was harvested. Before reaching the field he saw the owner, and, asking him about the celery, was disappointed to learn that it had just been dug. ' ' Oh, that is too bad, ' ' said he. ' ' Well, I don 't think so, ' ' remarked the owner, with a laugh ; ' ' I got two dollars a crate for it. ' ' But most farmers are willing to do the fair thing when they know that the entomologist is working for a small salary to learn truths which may benefit them. I have known them to greatly inconvenience themselves in order to give him ample facilities for conducting experi- ments, the results of which were of no particular benefit to them, or at least not more so than to other farmers. Of course it must be expected that the farmer will be more inter- ested in the practical results of the experiments than he will be in any scientific value which they may possess, yet many farmers have a full realization of the necessity of a careful study of an organism to deter- mine its life history as a means to an end — practical methods for its control. We all find it difficult at times to answer the questions put to us by some of the growers, and their shrewdness is often amusing. I have known a correspondent to send insect specimens to his own experiment station for identification and at the same time send duplicate lots to a similar institution in another state and to the Bureau of Entomology at Washington. If the replies all coincide, presumably he gets the right name for the insect. A further consideration of the matter only makes it more evident that the official entomologist in order to be efficient in his helpful- ness to the farmer should do something more than write long-range prescriptions. He can go to the field occasionally, view the conditions, and will then probably prescribe differently and more to the purpose. 2 18 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [YoL 3 The fariiier will know him better and will soon have more confidence in hinL The entomologist, too, will have more respect for the farmer and h.is methods, and more interest in him and his particular problems because of the contact. It Avill prove mutually advantageous. The literature of economic entomology has been discussed several times in the meetings of this Association, but I wish to mention it here on account of its bearing upon my subject. Some official entomologists publish annual reports. Others publish in the reports of the institu- tions with which they are connected, and such reports appear to be a fit place to publish the full accounts of any experiments or inves- tigations, or descriptions of methods and technique. Descriptions of new species or important facts regarding the life history or habits of an insect should be published in monographic treatises or in ento- mological journals. These publications are of great service to other workers, but do not as a rule appeal to the popular mind, especially if somewhat technical in their nature. The popular bulletin or circular fills a distinct place in the list of publications of any official entomologist or experiment station worker — and I believe this has been conceded by those who have previously discussed the matter. Such a bulletin should give a brief, concise, non-technical account of the insect and directions for its control. Though we can place no definite limits as to the size of such a bulletin or circular, in general it should be brief. Often all that it needs to contain can be told in four or six, and seldom requires more than twenty-four pages. If very long, it should be provided with a table of contents and a brief summary. Illustrations are of the utmost importance in the popular bulletin, but they should be good ones. Photographs of insect injury are usually better than drawings, and the larger species can be shown very well in photographic illustra- tions. There are many details, however, that can be shown only by drawings, and zinc cuts are often used for all the illustrations. Such a bulletin as I have mentioned is usually sent to all names on the mailing list. But there is frequently a demand for another form of imparting information, and some experiment stations issue special bulletins or circulars either to convey brief, timely information or to assist in the correspondence. Several forms of these have been given a trial at the Connecticut Station at New Haven. For instance, aside from our numbered series of reports and bulletins, we issue occasionally the "Bulletin of Immediate Information," which is mailed, not to the names on the regular list, but to a certain class, such as fruit growers, truck growers, dairymen, or nurserymen. This February, '10] brittox : entomologist and farmer 19 publication is supposed to contain timely information not important enough or of enough permanent value to go as a regular bulletin. Like the other bulletins and reports, it requires a special wrapper for mail- ing, and can be sent out under the usual frank. We have also used for the same purpose the "postal card bulletin" for short articles of timely information. These are printed on postal card stock 4x7 inches in size, with the frank and space for the address on one side and the printed message, with possible illustrations, on the other. These publications all have their place, and are of value in impart- ing timely information, and are of great convenience to the official entomologist as an aid in answering his letters. But none of them can be sent out in quantity without a mailing list and considerable work in addressing envelopes. During the past summer another method has been tried which has long been in use by advertisers. We call it the "correspondence slip" or "dodger," and it consists of a single sheet of paper of the proper size to go into the letter envelope without folding. It may be printed on one or both sides, and is adapted for only very brief messages. Where possible a characteristic illustration is used in one corner, and perhaps the seal of the institution in another. These slips are not mailed to any list of names, but are simph- placed in all the letters sent out from all departments of the institution at the time when the information will do the most good. They are also enclosed at other times, when the correspondent needs the message which they bear. In this way they reach many names not on the regular mailing list, and serve the purpose of calling attention to the work of the institution perhaps outside of the particular subject of the letter, and also out- side of the department where the letter was written. They bear no date, and therefore are just as good a year hence as today, provided there has been no change in our knowledge of the facts or of the best method of treatment. So far only six of these slips have been pre- pared, and each has been printed on a different color of paper, but of course the list of tints would soon be exhausted. Press bulletins are also in vogue at some institutions, and serve their purpose admirably. I realize, however, that many entomologists through no fault of their own are unable to bring forth publications that could be considered as ideal or even satisfactorj\ The plans are made by others higher in authority, and the rules of the institution prevent the entomologist from carrying out his own wishes and ideas. Perhaps there are scanty funds for publishing ; or so much attention is required in teaching that there is no time for anything else. Such conditions, of course, are to be deeply regretted. 20 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Fellow-members, it is truly a matter of congratulation that we now have so many young and earnest workers in the field of entomological research, and each one doing the best he can. There are many prob- lems yet unsolved. Let every worker rejoice in the opportunity. There is a chance for each to contribute his full share in the days to come, for the good of the whole race. The next paper on the program was entitled "A First Course in Economic Entomology," by F. B. Lowe, Detroit, Mich. A FIRST COURSE IN ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY By F. B. Lowe, Detroit, Mich. [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere.] At the close of this paper, the session adjourned. Afternoon Session, Tuesday, December 28th, 1909. The meeting was called to order at 1.15 p. m. by President Britton, who called Second Vice-President Summers to the chair. Chairman Summers : The next thing on the program will be the discussion of the presidential address. Mr. Sanderson : All of us certainly appreciate and are in full sym- pathy with the remarks of our President made this morning concern- ing our relation to the farmer. One of the greatest factors in securing the application of the methods of insect control devised by the entomol- ogist is in the entomologist keeping in touch with the farmer and put- ting himself on the farmer's level so that he can appreciate his view- point and can make such suggestions as will appeal to the farmer. One of the greatest aids in this work is the actual demonstration of the methods advised in the field. Where these methods are used, it is wonderful how readily many farmers will take up new methods. I remember when the first work was done on the boll weevil in Texas and we felt that it would be some time before we could secure the adoption of the methods devised by the planters, but owing to the demonstrations which were carried on thruout the state, it was but a few years before the method of cotton growing was largely revo- lutionized. It makes but little difference whether one is working in the "West or in the East, the North or the South, if the farmer is approached in this way. When I commenced an agitation for spray- February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' DISCUSSION 31 iug in New Hampshire four or five years ago I thought it would be many years before any large number of our farmers would be spray- ing their orchards, but during the last year there were over 400 who did so. That is a small number, but the state is small, and it shows a tremendous progress in a few years. Mr. Hitchings: Our President referred to the exhibits made at the fairs and similar associations in the state, and I think that this is a very important factor in our work, as by such exhibitions we come in contact with many farmers. In the past two years, however, we have had so many demands in this line that we could not attend to all of them. Mr. Felt: I wish to express my personal pleasure and gratifica- tion at the address delivered by our President this morning. I think, in reference to circular letters, however, that these should be used with discretion. In New York state, I fear the recipient of such a letter would pay undue attention to things which are not of primary importance. I prefer to deal directly mth the local conditions of the correspondent. A jMember : We do not as a matter of practice use circular letters, Dut I recognize the practicability of giving certain information in that way. I believe our experience has justified this, and of course in cer- tain instances I feel it is better to give the information desired, and not allow the recipient to draw his conclusions, according to his own understanding of the matter. A Member : I think that point of Doctor Felt's will appeal to some who receive circular letters. If a question is asked one of our inspec- tors, and the man receives a letter, he will appreciate it very much more, and will take advantage of the suggestions made much more often, than if a brief letter, is ^\Titten him, and a circular tucked in. In some cases it might be better to wT:'ite a few more letters and give more detail to the man who applies for information, rather than send out a great number of circular letters that would never be read. Mr. Headlee : We think that it is a great mistake to send all pub- lications to every member of our mailing list. A man who opens a large number of franked envelopes and finds nothing of value is likely to develop the habit of throwing such matter unopened into the waste basket. In fact, I think that this habit is now so well fixed in certain quarters that to insure especially important information reaching the person for whom it is intended it is necessary to enclose it in a regular tvv'o-cent envelope. The mailing list should be so revised for each, mailing that the information will always be sent where needed. ]\Ir. Hewitt : I wish to thank our President for his very excellent 22 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 and suggestive remarks, and I would also like to add my experience to that of Doctor Felt, I think that the entomologist should in all cases cooperate with the farmer or fruit grower, as the case may be. By distributing circular letters in this way, you are liable to be treated with scant courtesy, whereas if you send a man a letter, if only a few lines, you will be able to deal with his particular case, and he will be more likely to reply to your letter. I do think we can hardly be too careful about our correspondents, as to the results obtained by carrying out our recommendations. I always endeavor to ask the correspondent to kindly give me the results of the application or the suggestions. In regard to the distribution broadcast of these circulars, take an extensive country like Canada, where you have entirely different con- ditions to meet in Quebec, in Ontario, and in British Columbia, and you will see that it is impossible to deal with these widely separated provinces by a circular letter, giving the same remedial measures, and although in some cases a very large correspondence may be entailed, I find it is better for ourselves and for the correspondent if we pay as much personal attention to his inquiries as possible. I am sure we have all been deeply interested in the points which our President raised, and I should like again to thank him. President Britton : I might say here that it was not my intention to suggest that circular letters be used entirely ; but it is a question whether we should spend so much time in copying over and over again formulae for making Kerosene Emulsion and Arsenate of Lead, or whether it would not be better to have these formulae printed ' and include one with a personal letter. Mr. Washburn : The entomologist can, of course, tell whether he is successful in using this printed matter. Our experience in Minnesota is to send the advice to a farmer, and that is the end of it. They might possibly tell us the results of this advice, if we were to write for it, as suggested by Mr. Hewitt. Most of the farmers will not take the time or trouble to write. Mr. Hewitt : In reply to Professor Washburn, I have unfortu- nately had only about three months' actual experience in Canada, but in the old country, where I had a wide correspondence with the farm- ers and others, they were always willing to cooperate with the ento- mologist, and in Canada I have found on the part of the more edu- cated farmers men who are willing and interested enough to inform me of the results of the experiments. Mr. Parrott : All I wish to say is that I am thoroughly in accord with our President's views. The entomologist's correspondence is February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' DISCUSSION 33 rapidly increasing and we find in our own experience that printed circulars very much simplify the work of correspondence. We employ the leaflets to supplement our letters. Mr. Sanderson: The idea of following up a letter at the proper time with another one to ascertain whether the advice or suggestions have been followed out has appealed to me, but I have not been able to definitely prove the value of such a scheme when carried out sys- tematically. At our station we have adopted the scheme of making a card record of all inquiries of correspondents by the subjects of their inquiries. There is cross reference to another card catalog ar- ranged by post offices. This enables us at any time to refer to all of the inquiries we have had upon any one of the leading subjects upon which we have frequent inquiries. It has been my feeling that if occasion- ally we could send a letter to these parties asking whether they had followed out our suggestions and if so what the results were, that we would find that in many cases the suggestions had not been properly carried out and only partial success or failure had resulted. This would be brought out by such correspondence and the correspondent could be advised as to his trouble. Thus failure which would be blamed on the station might many times be prevented. This is simply the application of the methods used by every business office to the work of station correspondence, and altho possibly it should come under the work of an extension department rather than that of an experi- ment station, it seems to me that it is highly desirable that some such scheme be carried out. Mr. Walden: The timely information slips are prepared just in advance of the proper time to combat the insect or disease to which the slip refers, and are distributed among the difi'erent departments of the Station to be inserted in all correspondence. For example, a man may write to the Station inquiring about fertilizers ; the chemical department wuU reply to this letter and enclose a slip regarding, per- haps, the canker worm. The man may be interested in this matter, and if the slip does not contain sufficient information will write to the entomological department for more detailed instructions. We have in this way received inquiries from men who perhaps were not familiar with work of our department, and I think we get in touch with more people through these slips that we could in the ordinary way. At 1.45 p. m. President Britton resumed the chair and called for the next paper on the program, which w^as read by Mr. E. P. Felt, Albany, N. Y., as follows : 24 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 OBSERVATIONS ON THE HOUSE-FLY By B. P. Felt, Albany, N. Y. An attempt was made the past season to obtain accurate data respecting this insect's behavior toward light. The principal object of the experiment was to determine the possibility of storing manure and other substances in which this pest breeds, in dark or nearly dark cellars or compartments. Outline of Conditions. A fly vivarium was located in the writer's back yard (a typical village lot) at Nassau, Rensselaer County, N. Y. This building was a nearly light-proof structure 6 x 10 feet in outside dimensions and with a height of 6 feet 4 inches in front and 5 feet 6 inches in the back. To facilitate the location of materials, etc., the spaces between the joists were numbered consecutively, beginning at Fig. 1. Plan of fly vivarium (original). the door on the north wall and running around and including in the enumeration the spaces of the partitions as well as the outside wall (Fig. 1). A light-proof window (18x18 inches) was made in the south wall near the southwest corner (at station 16) and another in the west wall (at station 13). Light-proof partitions, arranged some- what like those in a photographer's dark room, divided the interior (Fig. 1) in such a manner that there was a constant decrease in the light as one progressed from the door back through the partitions and around to the darkest corner near the middle of the south end (station 12). Ventilators w^ere provided in the roof at A and B (Fig. 1). There is in the southeast comer, at station 23, a small closet 21 inches deep and 3 feet above the ground. The interior of the building was painted a dull black the latter part of April. The door located at the February, '10] FELT : HOUSE-FLY 25 northwest corner is 2614 inches wide and 7I14 inches high. This door was allowed to remain open throughout the season, and the entrance of animals or children prevented by the use of a coarsely screened (%-inch mesh) door having an interior clear space of 23x67 inches. The building was so situated that August 24, at 8 a. m., rays of the sun reached back to the base of the corner of station 8 and a little later in the day would extend to the base of the pail at station 6. There vras sufficient illumination under these conditions at station 18 so that one experienced little difficulty in discerning objects located there. Mackerel kits containing horse manure thoroughly sterilized by steam were placed at stations 6, 12, 18 and 23. The vivarium was located about 20 feet from one barn where a horse was kept, the manure from the animal being thrown outdoors. There w^as another barn, where at least two animals were kept throughout the summer about 40 feet away to the southwest and another barn about 50 feet due east. This latter had been occupied in previous years by six to eight horses, and when the vivarium was constructed it was expected that an equal num- ber of animals would be kept in the building throughout the summer. Owing to a change of plans but one horse was kept in this barn, and as a partial result of this change there have been considerably fewer flies than in previous years. Furthermore, the excessively cool weather continuing well into June greatly delayed the appearance of the house-fly in numbers. Relatively cool weather continuing throughout the summer has also served to prevent rapid breeding. This combina- tion of causes has resulted in house-flies being much scarcer than usual. Experiments. House-flies were becoming somewhat abundant June 23d and operations were commenced by placing mackerel kits nearly filled with sterilized horse manure, at stations (see numbers on figure) 6, 12, 18 and 23. House-flies becoming more abundant the latter part of July, another set of pails with horse manure was placed at the sta- tions indicated above and, in addition, one just outside the door. Rather abundant rains kept the last named pail nearly full of water, and numerous Muscid larvee were observed in the contents the remain- der of the season. House-flies entered the \'ivarium freely, being rather numerous at station 23 and frequently working back to station 6. Muscid larvoe were in pails at both of these stations and one, which may possibly have been a Musca, at station 12. Fruit flies, Drosophila species, were observed in numbers July 21 at station 6, evidently being drawn in part by swill placed there for the purpose of attracting flies. This species was very numerous about the pail, alighting in numbers on the walls above, but scarcely penetrating into the darker portions 26 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 of the vivarium. Psychoda alternata was relatively abundant in mid- summer about stations 23, 6 and less so at station 12. Toward the end of the season some were observed at station 18. This latter occurrence may possibly be explained by a mouse burrow admitting a small amount of liiiht in the near vicinity of the pail. Conclusions. The above data, while not so conclusive as could be desired, show that the house or typhoid tiy does not breed freely in darkness. This pest exhibits a decided preference for sloppy filth in light places. It is practical and thoroughly in accord with the best agricultural practice to either draw out and spread manure at fre- quent intervals, or to store it in cellars or sheds. The relatively cheap cement underpinning makes it comparatively easy to construct dark cellars, places where manure or other fly-breeding material can be kept without producing swarms of flies. These measures, while particularly adapted to the farm, will also prove of service in villages and cities. Mr. Hewitt : As one who has been working on this question for some years, I should like to thank Doctor Felt for his interesting paper. I have found my own observations exactly coincide with those of Doctor Felt ; that is, that flies breed more abundantly under bright conditions than in dark places, although the flies crawl down into the dark crevices to deposit their eggs. A Member: Will not flies oviposit in the manure before it can be removed to the dark cellar or pit? Mr. Felt : I think it makes no particular difference whether the eggs are deposited in the manure or not, since, if there is considerable breeding, it is comparatively easy to arrange a light though flyproof trap which would attract the flies and prevent the insects escaping from the manure cellars or pits. Mr. Cooley: I would like to ask whether the temperature inter- feres in any way. Was the house as warm as the area outside ? Mr. Felt: If Professor Cooley could have entered the fly viva- rium, he would have agreed that the flies had a pretty warm reception. It was quite warm at times. The house is standing, and will probably be used another year. President Britton: The next paper on the program will be read by Professor Sanderson, Durham, N. H. February, '10] SANDERSON : BLACK FLY 27 CONTROLLING THE BLACK FLY IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS By E. DwiGHT Sanderson. Durham, JV- H- In 1904^ Dr. C. M. Weed showed that the larvae of the black fly might be destroyed by an application of phinotas oil and -later Mr. A. F. Conradi, who performed the experiments, gave a further report. - The experiments at Dixville Notch conducted at that time were en- tirely successful, and but very little trouble has been experienced from black flies in that locality since then. For the past few seasons the residents at Appalachia in the valley immediately north of the Presidential Kange, have been greatly an- noyed by the black flies and appealed to us for some practical means of controlling the pest. It was found that the neighboring streams were alive with the larvae, and in view of the previous experiments it seemed entirely feasible to destroy them by the use of phinotas oil. My assistant, Mr. W. M. Barrows, spent the greater part of the month of July at Appalachia investigating the habits of the flies and in mak- ing experiments for their control. Two species occur commonly, the white legged variety {Simulium venustum) causing very little annoy- ance, the biting being done by Simulium hirtipes. The life history of these species is unknown in this region. There is a general belief among the inhabitants that the flies are to be found over winter in the timber, and reliable observations are given us of parties being- troubled by the biting of the black flies high up on the mountains the second of October after there had been a heavy snow and frost in the valley. It has been supposed by -some observers that the small larvffi passed the winter on the stones ; in any event the flies are more numerous during early summer and again in later summer. In early July we found but few young larvae and were unable to find the eggs, most of the larvaa being full grown and pupating. By the middle of July many flies were emerging from the pupte. It is evident that if the flies hibernate they would be unable to deposit their eggs until after the high water of spring subsided. An accurate knowledge of the life history of the insect will be absolutely necessary in order to determine the best season for carrying on measures of control by oil- ing and will probably also have an important relation to the effect of the oil on the fish. It was found that phinotas oil applied to the stream by throwing it ' Bulletin 112, N. H. Agr. Experiment Station. = See Bulletin 52, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agric-ulture. 28 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 out with a cup in the rapids by a man wading down stream would destroy the larva effectively. The larvce are found almost entirely on the rocks where the water flows over them very swiftly and breaks into rapids or spray. Rocks in smooth running water have very few larvaj upon them. In the preliminary experiments a net was stretched across the JMoose River, a small stream 10 to 20 feet wide, and the water was oiled for a distance of 100 yards above the net. The man applying the oil can walk nearly as fast as it floats down stream and the fish descend the stream ahead of the oil. Where the fish were caught in the net many of them were overcome by the oil, but as it passed on and the water cleared up within 15 or 20 minutes, all revived and showed no subsequent ill effects. This experiment was repeated three times in which individual fish were overcome each time, but survived with no ill effect. After these experiments it was determined to oil a considerable stretch of the stream, which was done in the same way. This applica- tion was entirely effective in destroying the larvae, but unfortunately it resulted in killing a considerable number of the fish, due to the fact that the volume of oil was such that the fish descending the stream with it were subjected to it for too long a time. From our previous experiments we feel certain that had nets been stretched across the stream so as to catch the fish and so that they would not have been subjected to the oil for over 15 or 20 minutes, no trouble of this kind would have ensued. Our observations also lead us to the opin- ion that the oil might be applied much more economically by the use of a knapsack sprayer and a nozzle, preferably a Bordeaux nozzle, by which the oil could be applied directly to the worst affected rocks in a spray which could be directed immediately on them. This would use much less oil and would consequently have less effect on the fish. The method of merely throwdng the oil in the stream with a cup forms an emulsion of the whole volume of water in the stream. The oiling vras carried on both in the river, wdiich has a gradual fall, and also in Cold Brook, which descends the mountain side very rapidly over large stones as shown in plate 2. The application was equally effective under both conditions. The numbers and position of the larva on the large stones in Cold Brook are indicated by plate 3, in which they are somewhat indistinct owing to an inch or two of water flowing over them. From these experiments and observations we are led to believe that the destruction of black flies in the resort regions of our mountains is entirely as feasible as the control of mosquitoes in low country such as the vicinity of New York and New Jersey. To work out practical P5 February, '10] GILLETTE: SULFID OF ARSENIC 29 methods will involve an accurate knowledge of the life history of the flies and of their ecology, and experiments to determine the effect of the oil on fish as applied at different times and by different methods. We hope to be able to carry on such investigations in the future, but as such work involves considerable expense, for which we have no funds definitely appropriated, the completion of the work may not be possi- ble in the near future, so that it would seem well to call the attention of others to the work, since they may have a chance to give it the requisite study. Pbbsident Britton : We will now listen to a paper by Prof. C. P. Gillette, Fort Collins, Col., on "A New Arsenical Poison for the Cod- ling Moth." NEW SPRAYS FOR THE CODLING MOTH By C. P. Gillette, Fort Collins, Col. When Doctor Headden announced^ his conviction that the arsenical sprays used for the control of the codling moth are, in many instances, killing the apple trees, he was asked to suggest some poison that would be less injurious to the trees and still give promise of killing the worms. He suggested trying sulfid of arsenic (ASg S^ ), and ex- pressed the fear that it would not be sufficiently soluble in the diges- tive fluids of the larvse to kill them. Knowing something of the great digestive powers of insects, I expressed to the doctor a very strong desire to try arsenious sulfid in comparison with arsenate of lead in some codling moth spraying experiments already planned for 1909. Doctor Headden first prepared a small quantity in liquid form which was tested upon different kinds of foliage in the insectary to determine the strengths that might be safely used upon the leaves. It was nearly time to begin the work of spraying for the codling moth, and as we could not obtain a sufficient quantity of this poison near at hand for the experiment. Doctor Headden converted his experi- mental laboratory into a laboratory for the manufacture of arsenious sulfid.- Enough was made to use upon a few trees and was sent to ' Bulletin 131, Colo. Agr'l Exp. Sta. ^Doctor Headden describes Ms preparation of the poison as follows: The arsenious sulfid was prepared by the usual method, i. e., -precipitation by hydrogen sulfid. The washed precipitate was dissolved in lime-sulfur solution, usual strength. The lime-sulfur solution was used because it dis- solves, or is assumed to dissolve, the arsenious sulfid to a sulf. arsenite with- out the formation of an oxygen salt, the arsenite which I wished to avoid, as 80 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 ]\Ir. George P. Weldon, field entomologist of the Experiment Station, located at Delta, with instructions to use it in comparison with arse- nate of lead. The arsenate of lead was being tested at 2, 3 and 4 pounds to each 100 gallons of water in one application only when the petals were about nine-tenths off. The arsenious sulfid was used in two strengths to correspond with the two stronger preparations of arsenate of lead in amount of metallic arsenic contained. The applications were made by Mr. Weldon with a hand pump with moderate force, but the treatment was thorough and in every way was made as nearly like the lead arsenate sprays as possible. The results of the experiment as tabulated by Mr. Weldon are here given : The trees sprayed Math 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 100 gallons of water averaged 94.7 per cent of their fruit free from all worm injuries. The trees that were sprayed with 3 pounds to 100 gallons bore fniit that was 95.5 per cent free from worm marks. Trees sprayed with 4 pounds to 100 gallons bore fruit that gave exactly the same percentage of worm marks as when 3 pounds were used. The trees sprayed with sulfid of arsenic had 93.6 per cent perfect fruit upon trees sprayed with the weaker preparation, and 92.7 per- fect from the trees where the stronger solution was used. The check trees average 58.9 per cent sound, or perfect, fruit, so far as worm injuries were concerned. All of the experimental blocks, both sprayed and checks, were in a large orchard, all of which was sprayed. Check trees in such a ease benefit greatly by the spraying of surrounding trees and do not show the contrast that they should with the results upon sprayed trees. Two orchards in the same vicinity, one very poorly sprayed and one not sprayed at all, bore apples that were 70 to 85 per cent wormy. So this test of sulfide of arsenic as a spray for the control of the codling moth indicates that this poison may be as efficient for this I am convinced that a pure preparation of lime arseuite is not good to use. The solution probably contains the whole of the arsenic in combination with sulfur. The lime-sulfur compound is easily decomposed by the carbonic acid of the air, while the arsenious sulfid withstands the action of water, air and carbonic acid very effectively. The sulfid of arsenics As,, S., contains essentially 61 per cent of its weight of metallic arsenic, while lead arsenate contains less than 10 per cent (9.87). The chief thing, however, is not that it may be placed on the market at a lower price, but that it will remain longer in the soil in an insoluble form than the compounds heretofore used. It is only a mitigation of the evil, however, not a complete avoidance of it.— W. P. Headden. February, '10] GILLETTE : SULFID OF ARSENIC 31 purpose as the arsenate of lead, which has, in the past few years, ahnost completely taken the place of other poisons for the control of the codling moth and other leaf-eating insects. Three other sprays, viz., lime, Black Leaf Extract, and Sulfate of Nicotine, were also tested in hopes that they might prove benefieial. As with the arsenical sprays, each was used but once, as the petals were nearly all off. Good lump lime, 50 pounds to 100 gallons of water, seemed to give no protection at all, as the percentage of perfect fruit on these trees averaged 58.9, exactly as in case of the check trees. Black Leaf Extract was used in the proportion of 1 gallon diluted to 50 gallons with water. The trees sprayed with this mixture gave fruit that was 77 per cent free from worm injuries, or about 18 per cent more perfect fruit than in the check block. Sulfate of Nicotine was used in the porportion of 1 part in 750 parts of water and seemed to give slight protection, as the trees sprayed with this mixture bore fruit that was 73 per cent free from all worm injuries, an improvement of practically 14 per cent over the fruit of unsprayed trees. Even this application indicates a protection of almost exactly 33 per cent of the fruit that would have been wormy if untreated, for the check trees had but 41.1 per cent of their fruit injured by worms. While I would not feel warranted from this year's experiments in holding out very strong hopes that the codling moth can be sufficiently controlled by the use of nicotine sprays, I am encouraged to continue the experiment through another year and shall probably extend the number of applications to three or four. One or two summer sprays with either of these tobacco preparations will usually pay for them- selves in their destruction of plant lice, red spiders and brown mites. And then, if these nicotine sprays will enable us to get fairly good protection from the injuries of the codling moth, it will be a boon to those whose orchards are already sick and dying from the excessive use of arsenical mixtures. My chief hope, however, for relief from the overaccumulation of arsenic in our soils in a form that is detrimental to the growth of vegetation, lies in the use of the very insoluble sulfide of arsenic. This compound also has the important advantage of being very much cheaper than arsenate of lead, and if we can use it in solution it will do away with the use of stirrers in the spray tanks, which will be another decided advantage. I have also used this poison successfully, as an arsenic-bran mash, for the destruction of grasshoppers, and as a spray for the destruction 32 .KUKXAL OF ECONOMIC FJXTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 of cherry slugs, and the larva3 of the white ermine moth, Diacrisia virginica Fab., but I did not compare the results in these cases with the effects of other arsenical poisons in parallel tests. Mr. J. B. Smith: Will Professor Gillette please tell us how this poison is prepared and where it can be secured? Mr. Gillette: The poison was prepared for me by Doctor Head- den and the method of making it is explained in the footnote given in the paper. I do not think it can be secured at present, unless it is made up specially for the purpose. Mr. Forbes : I realize that it is getting late, yet I think if the sub- ject of arsenical poisoning on fruit trees is not taken up we will lose a great deal of information which should be of great value to the members of this Association. Doctor Headden has been working on this matter in Colorado, and while some of his results may refer directly to Colorado conditions, I think the whole matter should be of great interest to our members, especially as some of us have conditions to deal with which are in a way similar to those in his state. I trust we shall have time to hear from Doctor Headden concerning this matter. President Britton : We will be glad to hear from Doctor Head- den. ARSENICAL POISONING OF FRUIT TREES By W. P. Headden, Fort Collins, Col. [Summary of remarks] There are some facts in regard to which all agree, namely, that we have many sick fruit trees; particularly apple and pear trees. I do not for a moment wish to assert that all of these sick trees are suf- fering from arsenical poisoning, nor that all of the dead ones have been killed by arsenic. But I do believe that many of them have died from this cause. Other causes which might have produced death are winter killing, accumulation of nitrates in the soil, fungi of different kinds, possibly blight and still other causes. The trees referred to have not been killed by freezing. We have very little of this in the state, and these cases present no similarity to those attributed to arsenical poisoning. The fornfer in this latitude produces its injury above the surface of the ground, and the injury is really effected beneath the bark. Arsenic begins its attack below the surface of the ground and on the outside of the bark, converting February, '10] headdex : arsenical poisoning 33 it into a black friable mass, which may be found of all thicknesses, from thin layers forming scarcely more than a discoloration to masses involving the whole thickness of the bark and the woody tissue under- lying it. We find many trees showing this progressive destruction of the bark and tissues. The same statement holds good for the roots, which are attacked with the crown of the tree. Sun scald, a form of winter injurj^, is an entirely different thing, both in location and appearance; while the bark may be killed in spots, its structure is not destroyed. It is not a blight of any form; a large number of inoculation experiments have been made which have uniformly failed. It is not due to the attacks of fungi; these have never been found in these trees in such association with the disease as to even suggest a causal relation. It is not due to drowning or excessive water, for we find cases of badly corroded crowTis in localities where the water plane is many feet below the surface, and a permanent excess of water kills and rots the feeding roots. It is not due to alkali; what- ever we may understand by this term, we have in some districts what is popularly designated ''black alkali." This is not the "black alkali" of California; we have so far as I know absolutely no alkali in Colorado, consisting largely of sodic carbonate. There is one occurrence of sodic carbonate in the state, which I described in the American Journal of Science April, 1909. That this so-called black alkali is dangerous and kills trees is true. The active agent in this case is some nitrate, calcic, magnesic or sodic. The crowns of trees killed by this are invariably healthy unless involved by the presence of arsenical poisoning, as may be the case in orchards that have been sprayed. I have seen many trees killed outright in a few 'days by these nitrates. The two cases, i. e., death due to arsenical poisoning and death due to nitre poisoning, are in toto different. I have seen one case in which the arsenic had lodged in the crotch of a tree and produced the same results as about the crown. This case was easily distinguished from the effect of snow, etc., lodged in similar places. All that has been said so far pertains to the corrosive action of arsenic, but it may be justly asked how may we know that arsenic produces the effects described? Our answer is we have observed the destruction of the bark, the disintegration of the woody tissue and the killing of trees by arsenic. So far I have referred to the corrosive action of arsenic when it accumulates in the soil about the crown of the tree. There is another phase of the question which I believe we find in some orchards much more pronouncedly than the one already presented, and this is the 3 34 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 question of absorption of arsenic by the roots with the nutrient solu- tions. We have some cases of trees decidedly small for their age ; the bark has an unhealthy color, the foliage is small. The trees make very little growth and yield fruit of medium size but of very high color. We find some trees in these orchards with corroded crowns, but the trees to which I now allude are not affected in this way. Some of these trees have died, the heart wood was found to be stained, the bark was yellow and cracked and the woody tissue was rich in arsenic. The general condition of the orchards is one indicating malnutrition. Neither a lack nor an excess of water can be appealed to as factors in these cases, for the land is in all cases that I have in mind high and the supply of irrigation water abundant. There is, further, no defi- ciency of plant food in the soil, provided the results of a chemical analysis have any value whatsoever. All of the orchards in which I have found these conditions obtaining are well cared for, and the condition cannot be attributed to neglect. These trees often show bleeding from wounds made in trimming, also from longitudinal cracks in the bark. The material which collects on these wounds or flows from the cracks in the bark is rich in lime, 25 per cent calcium oxid, and also in arsenic. I cut off a limb in April and gathered 2.2 grams of the dried juice from the surface of the wound in early May and found it quite rich in arsenic. It seems evident that this arsenic must have been gathered from the soil by the roots, at least the arsenic was at that time in motion through the tree. I have further proof that the roots gather arsenic from the soil. The wood of peach trees not themselves sprayed, but growing in ground that contains arsenic, has been found to be quite rich in arsenic ; leaves gathered from trees that had not been sprayed this season, but heavily sprayed during preceding seasons, contain arsenic, and fruit grown on such trees con- tain arsenic. In these cases there is no question of absorption of arsenic by simple contact with the spray material. It is in the solu- tions which diffuse through the tree and nourish all of its parts. This seems to me to reduce the question of systematic poisoning to the one question of how much arsenic a tree can tolerate. The small size of the trees and their general condition of malnutrition corresponds to the observed effects of arsenic in cases in which we know it to have been applied and produced the injury. There is still another question, one which I have referred to when- ever considering this subject, i. e., what may be the significance of the lime in these dried juices? These orchard soils, in fact nearly all of our soils, are limey; much of our land is underlaid by marl; it is, however, also true that much arsenite of lime has been used for February, '10] entomologists' discussion 35 spraying. Now nearly all, if not all, of these marls contain arsenic, but in small quantities compared with the surface soils. These things, apparently, all work together to produce the effects described, but neither the marl nor the arsenic in the marly soils can be blamed for the arsenic in the trees and the fruit, for this is a very widespread condition. I have examined fruit from the following states: Cali- fornia, Colorado, Michigan, New York, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsyl- vania and uniformly found arsenic. No one, however, need to be alarmed about the amount of arsenic present being in the least dangerous, for they would scarcely obtain an ordinary medicinal dose if they ate ten pounds of apples a day. Arsenic, however, can be detected in the urine of parties eating very freely of such apples. I will, however, reserve this subject for discussion elsewhere. Mr. Headden exhibited samples of roots which had been injured by arsenical poisoning, as well as small tubes showing the results of analysis of fruit trees from various sections of the country, and one of these tubes contained a mirror Avhich had resulted from the analy- sis of an elm tree that contained a considerable amount of arsenic. Member : I would like to ask whether Doctor Headden has noticed any connection between the appearance of arsenical poisoning and the amount of moisture. Is it more likely to appear in a tree stand- ing in dry or wet soil ? Mr. Headden : Colorado orchards are irrigated, and it is possible that the arsenic is carried do^^Ti to the roots sooner with us than where the soil is not treated in this way. Nevertheless, analyses have shown that sick trees on almost all kinds of soil showed the presence of arsenic in considerable quantities, if they had been sprayed. Mr. Washburn: I would like to inquire how Doctor Headden secures his samples, in order to determine whether the tree is suffer- ing from arsenical poisoning, and how large a piece of bark would be necessary to detect the poison. Mr. Headden: I have always endeavored, in taking the samples, to refrain from selecting any of the outer bark of the tree, as this is liable to be covered to some extent with poison, especially trees that have been recently sprayed. The wood just below the bark is usually selected for this purpose, but in cases of root injury the woody tissue of the roots is used, but not the bark. Mr. Washburn: Is not this fact more striking in alkali soil? I 36 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 would also like to ask how much of the wood it is necessary to use as a sample in making an analysis? ]Mr. Headden : In some cases I have found that a piece of wood an inch or two long and an inch wide would be sufficient to show the pres- ence of arsenic. Generally I use about two ounces. In a soil normally alkali and dry, some trees that have been sprayed from one to four times have shown effects of arsenical poisoning. Mr, Sanderson : Does poisoning result from the insecticide coming in contact with the trunk of the tree, or are the roots alone affected? Mr. Headden : I do not know how much, if any, poison may be absorbed by the contact, but where it collects about the crown it cor- rodes both the trunk and the roots. Mr. Sanderson : Is there any more poison in the roots of the tree than in the trunk? ]\Ir. Headden : I do not know. I have separated the small branches and analyzed them and found abundant evidence of arsenic. Mr. Felt : How soon, after spraying, does a tree die ? Mr. Headden : I have known a young tree to die after three spray- ings. Professor Gillette and I examined an old orchard, and not one of the old trees showed any effects of poisoning, but every young tree gave signs of the trouble. The age of the tree when first sprayed may make some difference. President Britton : As Prof. F. "William Eane, of Boston, is now present, we will listen to his paper on the present condition of the ''Gypsy and Brown-Tail Moth Work in Massachusetts." PRESENT CONDITIONS OF THE GYPSY AND BROWN- TAIL MOTH WORK IN MASSACHUSETTS By F. AV. llAXE, Massachusetts State Forester The work against the gypsy and brown-tail motlis was placed under the State Forester by an act of the last General Court. IMany changes in organization and previous policies have been made. The infested territory has been divided into fifteen divisions instead of six as here- tofore, and the force of experts now responsible to the main office is nineteen as compared with fifty. The superintendents of divisions have been provided with motor cycles, and the State Forester feels confident that the organization is capable of doing more effective work than ever. The w^ork of spraying has increased in usefulness and thereby much of the more expensive hand suppression work like turning of burlaps has diminished. The Department of State Forester has established a supply store, which is proving a great saving of February, '10] rane : gypsy moth work 37 money in the purchasing of supplies. The organization of local work- ers so as to accomplish more effective results is being undertaken at the present time. The number of acres sprayed throughout the infested district dur- ing the season was 7,776, the number of burlaps put on 698,597, and number of tanglefoot bands 26,313. We have 150 power sprayers and 250 hand outfits employed in the work. These figures are of course approximate. Parasites. The introduction of parasites into the field has been carried on more effectively than ever before. The United States Gov- ernment entomologists assure us of more hopeful indications than ever from their work. The State Forester is having prepared a special report on the para- sitic insects that will, it is believed, prove of great interest to our people. The fungous disease and wilt disease of the moths are also receiv- ing attention by noted experts, and it is hoped beneficial results will be forthcoming from these sources. Prospects for the Coming Year. The prospects for the coming year look very bright. It must be recognized that this work neces- sarily must take time and patience on the part of our people, but with better equipment and a thoroughly organized corps of men ready and willing to exert themselves when the work must be done will go very far towards balancing conditions until the insects can be brought under control. Modern Forestry and Insect Warfare. The more the subject of modern forestry is studied the clearer is it shown that if forestry practice was carried on as it should be for economic results, the great expense incurred in fighting insect pests like the gypsy moth would be reduced to a minimum. The gypsy moths give us the greatest trouble in wild, neglected woodlands and in thickets and tangles found along the highways, or on poorly kept estates. One thing our people cannot help but recognize is that where mod- ern methods have been practiced through thinning and exercising some sort of management for the good of the trees, here conditions are not as bad as elsewhere. Then, again, under the latter manage- ment, should the infestation increase, the conditions are so much more favorable that the expense of warfare against the pest is greatly re- duced. It is really possible that the gypsy moth scourge may cause certain sections to practice modern forestry and thereby in the end gain 38 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 financially in getting a better forest product, both in volume and qual- ity, than would have happened had the insects never appeared. From the experience gained already, we have demonstrated that where we have a clean stand of pine the forest can easily be pro- tected against the gypsy moth. There are few species of forest prod- ucts worth more than white pine to grow commercially at present here in Massachusetts. What is true of the pine is more or less true with other evergreens, hence in the gypsy moth infested territory it is good forestry to grow these species. The first thing to be done, therefore, with all woodlands is to prac- tice modern forestry management for the benefit of future products regardless of gypsy moths or other depredations; then let come what may conditions are of the best to overcome them. There is little to be gained in treating egg clusters and combating moths on dead or ill shaped and weed trees and stumps, as one's efforts ought to be centered on those that have prospective value. We are recommending, therefore, that everyone begin at once to practice modern forestry management and then the insect warfare will be greatly reduced. President Britton : We will now listen to a paper by Mr. A. F. Burgess, Washington, D. C. SOME INSECTICIDE METHODS USED IN COMBATING THE GYPSY MOTH By A. F Burgess, Washington, D. G. From the time that the gypsy moth first became destructive in Massachusetts and active measures were begun to secure its control and suppression, an effort was made to devise cheap and effective means of attaining that end. The results of a large number of experi- ments have brought about the adoption of a system of treatment throughout the year, which is very effective in controlling the pest, although the expense involved precludes its use in woodland areas of low valuation. The purpose of this paper is to point out some of the methods which have been found effective, and draw attention to their possible utility in combating other insect pests. It is hoped that this may lead to a discussion of the methods used and that it will be pos- sible for some of them to be tried experimentally in other parts of the country. Treatment of Egg-Clusters. The egg-clusters of the gypsy moth are laid in masses which are covered with hair from the bodies of the February, '10] BURGESS: insecticides, gypsy moth 39 females. The best method of destroying the eggs is by saturating the masses with crude coal tar creosote. To this material is usually added a small amount, about 5 per cent, of coal tar so as to discolor the treated clusters. In parks and on city streets, where valuable shade trees have been planted, this method might be employed in treating egg-clusters of the white-marked tussock moth, Notolophus leucostigma, as this insect sometimes becomes a great nuisance in such places. As an illustration of some of the methods that have been employed it might be stated that during the present year many of the shade trees in Washington, D. C, which were badly infested with egg- masses of the insect, are being treated by the workmen employed by the District of Columbia. The egg-masses are being burned off the branches of the trees by using a gasoline torch. If it is desirable to destroy these eggs the creosote method would seem to be preferable. It is a well-known fact that the eggs as well as the pupae of the insect are sometimes attacked by hymenopterous parasites, and in cases of heavy infestation it might be desirable to collect these masses, place them in suitable outdoor cages for the purpose of rearing of para- sites in order that these beneficial insects could be liberated, after which the young caterpillars should be destroyed. Treatment of Larvae, Most of the members of this association are probably familiar with the burlap method used in the gypsy moth work. Trees are banded with strips of burlap cut about eight inches wide. The burlap is fastened with a string at the center and the top turned dowTi in such a manner as to make an excellent hiding place for caterpillars. A large number of different species of insects frequent these burlaps, and in some sections quantities of such injuri- ous species as the elm-leaf beetle in the larval and pupal stages are often found beneath them. An adaptation of this method might be used in the fall of the year on the base of the trees, for the purpose of furnishing hibernating quarters for injurious insects. I have been informed by Mr. C. W. Prescott of Concord, Mass., that he has been able to capture and destroy large numbers of hibernating asparagus beetles by using this method. It is cheap and in some cases may be used to good advantage. Banding trunks of trees with tanglefoot, a sticky material which prevents caterpillars from ascending them, is being used more exten- sively each year in the gypsy moth work, and although a method involving a similar principle has been used for many years, viz. : band- ing apple and elm trees with tar or printers' ink for the purpose of preventing female canker worms from reaching the small twigs or 40 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 branches, it might be well to mention the successful use of the material. The greatest advance in the perfection of methods for destroying the gypsy moth has been along the line of new spraying devices. Pre- vious to the year 1900 hand pumps mounted on barrels or hogsheads were used for furnishing power. Since that time gasoline engines have been utilized to a greater or less extent, especially in the large fruit-growing districts throughout the United States. This method was tried in the gypsy moth infested territory after the work of sup- pression was resumed in 1905. A gasoline engine with a suitable pump mounted on wagon trucks with a spray tank having a capacity of 300-500 gallons has been employed. The Vermorel or Bordeaux nozzles and lines of i/2-ineh hose were used, and it was necessary to climb tall trees in order to treat them thoroughly. It was not possi- ble to cover very many large trees in a day when an equipment of this sort was used. As early as 1895 a steam spraying outfit was devised and used in Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York, by Mr. J. A. Pettigrew for treat- ing trees for the elm-leaf beetle. With this outfit high pressure was developed, so that the trees were sprayed from the ground. A descrip- tion of the sprayer was published by Dr. L. 0. Howard in an article entitled ''The Use of Steam Apparatus for Spraying," in the Year- book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1896. After Mr. Pettigrew was made Superintendent of Parks of the City of Boston he continued to use a similar outfit for treating elm trees infested with this insect. In the spring of 1905 the "solid stream" method of spraying was tested by General S. C. Lawrence of Medford, Mass., the trees treated being badly infested with the gypsy moth. The outfit used was built by the firm of Stephen B. Church of Boston, the power being supplied by a high power gasoline engine. The experiment was entirely sat- isfactor}', and since that time this system of spraying has come into general use on the gypsy moth work. Mr. George H. Kermeen, one of the representatives of this firm, was an early advocate of the method and through his efi^orts many people were interested in its use. It should be stated that the successful application of the solid stream spray requires a high power engine, a strong pump equipped with a suitable air chamber and a nozzle constructed in such a manner that the stream will be carried to the top of high trees before it breaks into a mist. For park and woodland work, where trees from 50 to 75 feet in height are to be treated, the best outfits now in use are provided with a ten horse power gasoline engine of the marine motor or auto tj'pe and a triplex pump capable of discharging at least 35 gallons a February, "10] BURGESS : INSECTICIDES, GYPSY MOTH 41 minute. One and one-half inch hose is used, and nozzles similar to those supplied with fire hose are fitted ^\'ith adjustable tips of %. 3-16 and 14-inch aperture. A U-shaped tank of from 400 to 600 gallons' capacity is mounted on the front of a set of wagon trucks and the machinery on the back part. Since this method of spraying was adopted many improvements have been made by manufacturers. This has been due largely to sugges- tions made by the officials engaged in the spraying work and has re- sulted in a great increase in the efficiency of the machines. In field work it is usually desirable to use a oue-fourth-inch nozzle tip and to maintain a pressure above 200 pounds. With an outfit of this sort about 12 acres of woodland can be treated each day at a cost averaging $10 per acre. When forests are sprayed it is necessary to lay long lines of hose from the machine, which whenever practical is located near a supply of water. Effective work has been done when the spray mixture had to be forced through a hose over a quarter of a mile in length. Mr. D.. M. Rogers, Special Field Agent of the Bureau of Ento- mology, who has charge of the gypsy moth field work in New England has devised an apparatus known as a "water tower," which is mounted on the top of the spray tank and is used for treating road- sides. It consists of a steel tube about 20 feet long, which is attached to a mast six feet high. The bearing on the mast, which is about four feet from the end of the tube, is fitted with a universal joint, so that the nozzle, which is attached to the outer end of the tube, can be moved in any direcion desired by the operator. The short end of the tube is reinforced with a quantity of lead so that the tube nearly balances on the mast. The supply hose is attached to this end, and by using this device it is possible to spray two miles of roadway in a single day at a cost of less than $2 an acre. During the past few months a new sprayer has been devised and built by Messrs. L. H. Worthley and Melvin A. Guptill of the Mas- sachusetts State Forester's office, which has given very satisfac- tory results. Special care was taken to overcome the objectionable features of the machines previously built, and it was possible to do this and at the same time decrease the weight of the outfit and add to its efficiency. A new type of nozzle has also been devised by these gentlemen and a coupling which does not reduce the diameter of the hose at the point of connection. These devices will be exhibited and demonstrated before the close of the meeting. The spraying outfit used on the gypsy-moth work should be of spe- 42 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 cial value for treating trees in parks and cities, and in most cases they can be used for such work without any special modification. For orchard spraying or treating low-growing trees, the same system could be used, but it would be necessary to reduce the weight of the outfit and make changes that would render it more suitable for this class of work. All spraying must be done rapidly and thoroughly if satisfactory results are secured. This system of treatment seems to answer these requirements, and if modified sufficiently to conform to the spe- cial kind of work desired it should give satisfactory results. Mr. Headlee : Has the dust sprayer been used in Massachusetts on the gypsy moth work ? I noticed in the exhibition room an apparatus for spraying trees, using dry arsenate of lead, and would like to know what success has been attained with this method of spraying. Secretary Burgess: So far as I know, the dust method of spray- ing has not been used on the gypsy moth work. Last season some experiments were conducted with a bomb made somewhat similar to the bomb shells used for fireworks. This shell carried a charge of dry arsenate of lead, which was shot up into the air and exploded, so as to distribute the poison over the trees below. Its oL^y use is in inaccessible woodland areas, where it is impossible to use a wet spray. This device is only partially successful ; one of the troubles being that it was not possible to secure a grade of dry arsenate of lead which was fine enough to be distributed evenly over the trees. Mr. Frost : The gypsy moth problem in New England is a most extensive one, and owing to the large areas of woodland which are infested, I believe at the present time is more of a forestry problem than an entomological problem. The forest area which is infested is largely covered with deciduous trees, which suffer greatly from the attacks of the insect. Last winter the gypsy moth work was placed in +l-'e hands of the state forester, and I am inclined to think the pr >blem can be worked out better along forestry lines. While in Europe during the past summer, I was surprised to note the large number of coniferous trees which exist, as compared with the relatively small areas covered with deciduous growth. It seems to me that this may be one factor in holding the gypsy moth within bounds in that country, as the young caterpillars cannot feed upon coniferous trees. I am inclined to think it will be necessary to reforest large areas in the gypsy moth infested district, by replacing the hardwoods with February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' DISCUSSION 43 pine. By following up this method, it will be possible to control to some extent the damage caused by this insect. Mr. Headlee .- Do I understand that a new coupling has been de- vised for use on the gypsy moth work? We have had considerable trouble with the couplings which we have used on hose in our spray- ing work, and I would be glad to hear more about this plan. Mr. Eane : ]\Ir. Worthley and Mr. Guptill have devised a new style of coupling which has proven of great value in the gypsy moth work. I hope Mr. Worthley will explain the coupling fully. Mr. Worthley : One of the troubles which we have always had in our spraying work has been that the diameter of the hose at the coup- ling was considerably reduced, when we used those now on the mar- ket. This being the case, it has been necessary to use li/o-inch hose in order to carry a sufficient amount of liquid. The new coupling which has just been devised is of the same size as the inside of the hose, so that the stream is not choked when pass- ing through the coupling. This will enable us to use 1-inch hose, and will reduce the expense of equipment and the labor involved in laying lines of hose for spray- ing operations. Mr. Sherman : The last few papers on the program have detailed two radically different methods of spraying, and the remarks made by Doctor Headden seem to indicate that we should depend on some other method than heavy arsenical treatment in order to control leaf- eating insects. These matters are of great interest to the entomologist and should be more thoroughly investigated. Mr. Frost : I w^ould like to make some remarks in regard to the injury to trees as a result of spraying with arsenical poisons. Since 1896 we have repeatedly treated many trees, of all kinds, with arsenate of lead, and in this work have used about one pound to ten gallons of water. In spite of this fact, I have failed to see any trees which showed signs of injury from the poison. Many people are prejudiced against spraying if they are led to believe that the trees will be injured, and this has caused considerable trouble and annoyance in the past. It seems as though, if the trees were going to be injured by arsenical spraying, many of them would have died from this cause in eastern Massachusetts, but I have been unable to find any indications of this trouble. Mr. Worthley : I would like to ask Doctor Headden if forest and shade trees are injured by arsenical poisons in the same way as orchard trees. 44 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Mr. Headden : The only record I have along this line is the ease of an ehn tree which had been sprayed. Analysis showed a large amount of arsenic in samples taken from this tree. Mr. Gillette: It is probable that orchards will ordinarily suffer more than forests, for the reason that most of them are cultivated, which serves to work the poison into the ground and bring it in con- tact with the roots more rapidly than would be the case in forest areas. If the orchard is irrigated, this would also tend to convey the poison to the roots more readily than if artificial watering was done. President Britton: While we are discussing the gypsy moth, I think it will be well to hear from the officials in various New England states who are engaged in the work- of suppressing this insect, and I will now call on Professor Hitchings from Maine. Mr. Hitchings: Our work in Maine has followed along the same lines as that in Massachusetts. We, in ]\Iaine, have felt that we could not improve on the system adopted in Massachusetts, where the insect has been fought for many years, as our conditions are quite similar, and therefore we have been carrying on the work in the same way. In Maine, the field Avork is in charge of a special agent appointed by the Commission of Agriculture, who has charge of the men. The force is divided into sections, and we feel that very effective work has been done in controlling the insect and keeping the infested section in good condition. The situation at the present time is a serious one, and it is neces- sary for every effort possible to be put forth, in order to hold our own in the conflict. Our investigations lead us to believe that in some localities the young larvfe of the gypsy moth must have been carried by birds or four-footed animals. The locations of some of the colonies in the woodlands gives strong evidence that this is the case. President Britton : I notice that Captain Philbrook is in the audi- ence, and as he is the special agent, having charge of the field work in Maine, I know you will all be glad to hear from him. Mr. Philbrook: I don't know as there is anything to add to that which has already been said. I might mention one point which has not been touched upon — in regard to the spreading of the moth — and that is that invariably in woodland colonies we find that at some time previous a portable saw- mill has been temporarily located in the vicinity. In some cases these sawmills have been shipped from localities badly infested with the gypsy moth, and this evidence shows that the insect can be distributed in this way. February, '10] ENTOMOLOGISTS' DISCUSSION 45 So far as Maine is concerned, the conditions in the towns are very good. We find this year that there are several large colonies in the deep woodland which had not previously been discovered. President Britton : We would now like to hear from Col. Thomas H. Dearborn, who has charge of the gypsy moth work in New Hamp- shire. Mr. Dearborn: I have been much interested in the gypsy moth discussion which I have listened to this afternoon. We have in New Hampshire a large infested area, although the greater part of it was not known to be infested until within the last two years. Within a week, a force of gypsy moth men have found in a woodland near Dur- ham, N. H., a very bad infestation, and this leads me to believe that the insect has been established in woodland areas in the state much longer than we have suspected. Numerous other colonies strengthen this opinion, and I am inclined to think that if the woodland area of the state could be examined many large colonies w^ould be found which have been present for a good many years. President Britton : I do not see Professor Stene in the audience. Is there anyone who can report from Rhode Island? Mr. Polke : I am not in charge of the moth work in Rhode Island, but have worked with Professor Stene and am thoroughly acquainted with the conditions there. We have copied Massachusetts as regards the methods which are used for fighting the gypsy moth, and I fear we are going to copy Massachusetts too far, in that there is serious talk of withholding our appropriation at the coming session of the Legislature. The condition of the infested territory in Rhode Island is improv- ing each year, and if we are able to bring sufficient pressure to bear on the Legislature, so that the appropriation for the work will be con- tinued, the moth infested area can be greatlj^ reduced next year. Mr. Sanderson : I have always felt that we did not have sufficient information concerning the methods of the spread of the gypsy moth. We know that the brown-tail moth has spread in a northerly direction, and this has been presumably due to the fact that the prevailing wind is in this direction during the period when the heaviest flight of the moths takes place. The spread of the gypsy moth has been in a north- erly direction, and it seems to me that this matter is of sufficient im- portance to the whole country so that it should be thoroly investi- gated. It is quite possible that the young larvce-bearing aerostatic hairs may be carried by the wind. 46 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 President Britton: We will now call on Mr. Rogers, who has charge of the gypsy moth field work in the United States Department of Agriculture. Mr. Rogers: Since Mr. Headlee spoke about the bomb, I would like to say a few words in regard to it. We have large tracts of wood- land which are inaccessible to spraying machines carrying water. Mr. Fiske asked me to show this device in the exhibition room for distributing dry arsenate of lead over the trees while they are wet with dew, or after a shower. We have met with no marked success in its use, and it is shown only as a novelty, hoping that it might interest some of you. The government moth work is conducted in cooperation with the officials of the different infested states. We have now over four hun- dred men at work in the field, clearing roadsides of underbrush, de- stroying the eggs of the gypsy moth, and cutting clusters of the brown-tails. We have about one hundred men doing scouting work and about thirty in Maine, with a crew of twenty or more in Rhode Island. I would like to mention a device which we have used with consid- erable success in spraying, which we have termed a water-tower. It is a long piece of steel tubing hung by a universal joint from the top of a short mast ; the hose from the pump being attached to the lower end. The operator stands on the top of the tank and uses the part of the tube below the mast as a handle for swinging the nozzle about over the trees. The nozzle is about twenty-five feet above the ground, so that we can cover the top of trees one hundred feet high without climbing. Mr. Worthley of the state office is making some experiments with a new nozzle, which I think, if explained, would benefit all of us. President Britton : We would like to hear from Mr. Worthley be- fore closing this discussion on the gypsy moth work. Mr. Worthley : Mr. President, I think this subject has been very fully covered this afternoon, but I would like to mention the fact that the state of Massachusetts is exerting itself to the utmost in its war- fare against the gypsy moth. We have carried on the campaign over a large area of country, and the residential sections which were infested are now in a very good condition. The woodland problem is the most difficult one to handle. The work is being pushed as vigorously as possible. Mention has been made of the new nozzle which has been devised for the spraying of trees. This wiU be exhibited before the meeting closes, and a demonstration of its work will be made. By using this February, '10] hinds and turner: carbon di-sulfid 47 device, it is possible for sufficient pressure to be maintained to spray- trees seventy to eighty feet high without climbing them. I trust as many of the members as possible will examine these spray- ing devices, jvhich are being used in this section, and we should cer- tainly be glad to receive any suggestions looking toward their further improvement. President Britton: The next paper will be presented by Prof. H. A. Surface, Harrisburg, Pa. SOME NEW FACTS IN REGARD TO LIME-SULFUR SOLUTION By H. A. Surface, Harrisburg, Pa. [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere.] President Britton : We will now hear Mr. F. B. Lowe, Detroit, Mich., who will present a paper entitled "Studies in Insecticides." STUDIES IN INSECTICIDES By F. B. Lowe, Detroit, Mich. [Paper not received in time for incorporation in the proceedings. — Ed.] President Britton : The next paper on the program will be by Mr. W. E. Hinds, Auburn, Ala. CARBON DI-SULFID FUMIGATON FOR THE RICE WEEVIL IN CORN By W. E. Hinds and W. F. Turner At the meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists held in Baltimore one year ago, announcement was made of a project for the investigation of the use of carbon di-sulfid as a fumigant. An out- line of this project was given, and also, in a separate paper entitled "Carbon Di-Sulfid Fumigation for Grain Infesting Insects," a brief statement was made as to results obtained up to that time. The work of this investigation has been continued during the past year with a gradual increase in the scale of the experimental work as the results obtained have seemed to demand and warrant. In addition to the project upon fumigation, another project for the investigation of the life history, economic relationships and injury of the rice weevil {Calandra oryza L.) has been approved for the Ala- bama station. The imperative need for work along the lines contem- plated in each of these projects has been frequently emphasized dur- 48 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 ing the past year by a large number of inquiries as to methods of exterminating insects in stored grain. There is no question but that the rice weevil is at present the most seriously injurious species of insect occurring in Alabama, and agricultural conditions at the pres- ent time indicate that the importance of its control will be greatly increased in the near future. During the past one or two years, there has been a general movement through the Southern States to increase the cultivation of corn. One of the most potent factors in this cam- paign has been the continued spread of the Mexican cotton boll weevil. The demonstration farm agents, under the direction of Dr. S. A. Eiiapp, have largely extended their work. State departments of agriculture have conducted campaigns through the offering of large cash prizes for the best yields of corn per acre, and many corn clubs, as they are called, have been formed. As a result of these and other educational influences, there has been during the past year more attention given to corn culture in the Southern Gulf States than was ever previously given to that subject. Crops of from 100 to 150 bushels per acre have been raised in many cases. Boys, who have entered the competition in the corn clubs have, as a rule, secured bet- ter yields than did their fathers; the demonstration farms generally yield crops of from two to three times the average in their localities. But possibly one of the most potent factors in the new effort to raise more corn has been the high price which corn has commanded during the past year. Planters who have raised only cotton, and depended upon buying what corn they might need, have been obliged to pay from 75 cents to $1.25 per bushel for corn. A large proportion of this corn has been shipped into Alabama from other states. Planters have come to realize that they cannot profitably produce cotton alone and buy corn at $1.00 or more per bushel with which to feed their working stock, nor can they afford to raise hogs and feed them upon com, for which they must pay such prices, and they have become con- vinced also that the South is capable of producing practically as large corn yields as those obtained in what are known as the corn producing states. During 1908 the com yield of Alabama was estimated by the best authorities at approximately forty-four million bushels, having a cash value of about $37,000,000, or about 84 cents per bushel. The yield for 1909 will, in all probability, prove to have been even greater than that of 1908 and of higher average market value. The large percentage of injury to corn held through the winter has been one of the factors in keeping many planters from raising more corn. While the injury is liable to vary from year to year, it is fre- ^ »• fl p. 2 ?t9 2 2 o rt ® February, '10] JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Plate 5 FUMIGATION BOXES Fig. 1. Three sections open and doors removed after gas had been driven out. Inlet line of ventilation pipe along top. Fig. 2. Rear view of boxes. Outlet ventilating pipe.s at bottom leading out of window. Windows in box for watching temperature fluctuations, insect behaviour, etc. (Original.) February, '10] HIXDS AND TURNER: CARBON DI-SULFID 49 quently sufficient to destroy a large percentage of the feeding value of the corn before the middle of the winter. In some localities, partic- ularly where the land is overflowed during the winter, it appears that the corn is but little affected, while upon uplands especially, ears some- times contain a hundred or more adult weevils before the first of November. Badly infested corn is almost worthless, since it is not attractive even to hogs. Horses and mules frequently refuse it entirely. Besides their effect upon the feeding value, the weevils injure very materially the value of the seed for planting. Kernels from which weevils have emerged will rarely germinate at all, and if they start to grow the plant is weak and backward. In the experiments to test this effect, sound kernels were placed in germination boxes in compar- ison with an equal number which showed but slight traces of weevil injury and also with another lot of kernels from which weevils had emerged. The germination from sound seed was perfect and the growth of the plants vigorous. The slightly injured lot gave 20 per cent germination, but only 10 per cent yielded plants of normal strength. The badly infested lot did not sprout (PI. 4, fig. 1). In another series of tests, corn was selected which showed an amount of weevil injury which was considered as a fair average for the condi- tion of corn used for planting at planting time. One hundred kernels taken as the average ran on one side of the middle of an ear, gave 80 per cent germination with about 65 per cent of normal growth. One hundred sound kernels selected from the opposite side of the same ear gave 100 per cent of germination with normal growth (PI. 4, fig. 2) . The results of these and numerous other germination tests show that weevil injury is in all probability responsible to a considerable extent for irregular stand and lack of uniformly normal growth in the corn fields of the badly infested area. Evidently this is quite an important factor in keeping down the average production of corn to the low yield of about 13 bushels per acre which has hitherto been obtained. Among the species of insects which injure corn, the boU worm or corn ear worm (Heliothis ohsoleta Fab.) is the first of importance in the time of its attack. Besides the injury which these worms do di- rectly, it is evident that they prepare the way for increased injury by other species, which later attack the grain. A considerable degree of injury is inflicted by some of the grain moths, both before and after the corn is harvested, but the principal injury after harvesting is attributable to various species of Coleoptera, among which we have found the following particularly abundant : Calandra oryza, Cathartus gemellatus, Cathartus advena, Silvanus surinamensis, Tribolium fer- 4 50 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 rugineum and Tenedrioides mauritanicus. In tlie course of observa- tions upon the rice weevil, records are kept relating to each of these other species. It appears that any treatment which insured the de- struction of all emerged adults of the rice weevil, was very likely also to destroy the unemerged stages, with the possible exception of the egg, which we have not found in sufficient abundance to enable us to test its resistance satisfactorily. The experiments made thus far indicate that there is a wide working margin between the treatment necessary to destroy infesting insects and that which mil endanger the vitality of the infested seed. It is now certain that no single dosage can be safely recommended for all conditions and subjects in this grain fumi- gation work. The percentage of moisture content in seeds is impor- tant as affecting their degree of resistance to the gas. It is also certain that the temperature prevailing at the time treatment is made has a great deal to do with the effectiveness of a given dosage. Thus, a dosage which will kill all stages of the rice weevil at 67 to 70 degrees F. is not likely to kill more than 60 or 70 per cent at 60 to 65 degrees F. The influence of temperature must certainly be considered as two- fold. First, upon the evaporation of the liquid and the diffusion of the gas, and, secondly, upon the condition of activity or inactivity of the treated insects. It appears that with the high temperatures, when the weevils are most active, a far smaller dose of the insecticide is needed to destroy them and the killing time is really much shorter than when the temperature is below 65 degrees. It seems quite prob- able that this effect of temperature may partly explain the widely varying results which have been reported in the use of carbon di-sulfid. According to the chemists, the specific gravity of carbon di-sulfid liquid is 1.29, while the vapor is 2.63 times as heavy as air. One vol- ume of the liquid is said to yield 375 volumes of the vapor. Seventy- seven and six-tenths pounds of the liquid is required to saturate 1,000 cubic feet of air at the temperature of 68 degrees, and 84.4 pounds at a temperature of 72 degrees. It is evident, therefore, that in the usual application but a small fraction of the saturated atmosphere has been used. In our experimental work, we began with small scale tests, using glass bell jars of two litres capacity, in which the proportion of gas could be controlled and its loss by diffusion entirely prevented. A satisfactory method of obtaining any desired dilution of the gas is as follows : Through a stopper in the bell jar or bottle, two tubes may be passed, both of which should be tightly closable from the outside in some way. One tube should reach to the bottom of the jar, while the February, '10] HINDS AND turner: carbon DI-SULFID 51 other merely passes through the stopper. A similar arrangement is provided for another bottle containing the carbon di-sulfid liquid. On one of the two lines connecting the bell jar and the liquid recep- tacle, a rubber bulb is inserted, which should be provided with valves so that all air passing through it will be propelled in one direction. By working this bulb a few minutes with the valves open, a saturated atmosphere may be easily obtained at any temperature and the amount of liquid per thousand cubic feet determined if desired. The valves may then be closed and connection made with another bell jar of sim- ilar size, and so that in a similar manner the atmosphere charged with bi-sulfid may be divided between the two jars. This gives an atmos- phere of one-half saturation, and further division may be made in this manner. Working in this general way, it has been determined that one fourth or one eighth of a saturated atmosphere may be very nearly as quickly effective in destroying weevils as is the full strength, but in either case the question of temperature seems to be equally impor- tant. In any case, it is certain that the killing strength of the gas for the rice weevil must be maintained for at least one hour. If fur- ther dilution is used, the length of the exposure must be increased to secure death. In order to test the effect of various strengths of treatment upon a larger scale, we have constructed a fumigation box to facilitate the work. One of these boxes is so arranged that 25, 50 or 75 cubic feet capacity may be utilized. The boxes are so made as to be practically gas-tight, and the doors fitted with double bearings which are thor- oughly felted. The doors are entirely removable and fastened in place by six refrigerator bars each. The liquid di-sulfid is introduced through the top of the box by a graduated burette, the dosage quanti- ties being determined in cubic centimeters instead of fractions of an ounce. Arrangement is made for ventilation by a line of three-inch piping connected with a blacksmith's forge fan, and with similar exit pipes through which the gas from any section of the box may be quickly driven out of doors upon the conclusion of the experiment. The openings to these pipes are tightly closed by conical plugs cov- ered with felt. The appearance of the boxes and the method of their use is shown in the accompanying illustrations- (PI. 5, figs. 3, 4). These fumigation boxes have greatly facilitated the application in various tests, but the amount of labor involved in determining the effect, par- ticularly upon immature stages, has been very great. As indicating the nature of the results obtained in this work, the following table has-been prepared: 53 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. •6 •*. •as. •*. •*.■*■#. 03 o o a 00 TT CO (0 •a 0? o o ■* IN eo •o ■^ ^ '^ ^ o u ,Q -H IS cd (D <9 1^ n eo •* ■* e in o a ■o »-< '-' ■ei o 5 ■a DO o "3 ® el eo I- en CO CO c« W e CO (c o o 05 oc 00 c» 1 oj ■c *-< '-' T-H 1-1 c- b ■««. ■o g rt rt » in O rt (0 CO m t^ Tt4 ,-, -H 00 00 c« 5 cn c in o 1 ^5 •^ CO t- in in tP O CO — 1 TK r^ CO t- CA (N ^ t-^ lO in •w eo IN OOO'I Jed "SQT > 1— 1 1— 1 1— 1 >; «„«>«> t i-i • c9 CO CO t- eo eo eo OS eo o^ CO X « 01 00 •^ »-! »~i »-i .1 e V > s> (0 ID Col r.ry, Ohio State >!•■ i-jcoxo^: U) t}\ C. P, Gillette Eerbekt Osborv S. A, FouHi •: jounkAL OP Economic entomology publishing go. Concord, N. H. Enleted u teond-Atm matter M»r. 3.. 1908. at the post-office at Concord, N. H,. under Act of Ccrvjreu of Mar 3, 1879. CONTENTS Proceedings of the 22d Aaaual Meeting of the American Association of Economic Entomologists Tlie Relation of Temperature to the Growth of Insects /•;'. D. Snmhrson 113 A Constant Low Temperature Apparatus for Biological luvestigations E. a Cotton 140 Tiie Unprecedented Apjiearance of the Saddled-promineut E. F. Hitclwigs 14G The Larch Saw-fly, A^wotuo <;nc/(S0M// (.'. G. Hewitt 149 Notes oa the Corn Ear- worm T. J. Ileadlee 149 Notes on Aphis madiradicis^ G. G Aimlie 157 The Cherry Ermine Moth F. J. Parwtt 157 1, Further ohserxsitions on Empoanca mali ; 2. Notes on Papaipema iiiiela and P. cataphracta F. L. Washburn 162 Methods in rearing the grape root worm, Fidia vitieida Walsh and the codling moth, Catpoeapsa pononella Tuinn^ A. G. Hammar 109 Work on the Apple Maggot W. C. O^Kam 169 Spraying for the CJodling Moth E. P. Felt 172 Notes on the 104ined Potato Beetle in Montana R. A. Cooley 178 Work with Parasites of tlie Gipsy and Brown Tail Moths^ If, F. Fish 179 Insect Notes from Illinois for 1909 John J. Davis 180 The Seasons Work on Arsenical Poisoning of Fruit Trees E. 1). Ball, E. G. Tiins and /. E. Greaves 187 Notes on the "Cigarette Beetle" P. A. Hertzog i'!> Studies of the Development of. Eupelmus alli/nii French and Slictonotwi isosomatus 'Rilej E. G. 0. Kelly 202 CoUembola as Injurious Insects Walter E. ColUnge 204 Some Notes upon the Life History and Habits of the Sorghum Midge IF. Ilarpn- Dean 205 Some Insecticide Tests for the Destruction of Apliididae and their . Eggs C. P. Gillette 207 Insect Notes from New Hampshire for 1909 E. D. S'lnderson 210 Insects Notably Lijurious in Louisiana during 1908 and 1909 Arthur H. Rosenfdd 212 Notes on C'cdosoma frigidwn Kirby, a Native Beneficial Insect A. F. Bum-x 317 Proceedings of the 8th Annual Meeting of Horticultural Inspectors Results of Various Remedies for San Jose Scale in Pennsylvauia Orchards, as seen by the Inspectors in tJie Orchards^ H. A. Surface 238 What Should be the form of our Certificates ? Franklin Sherman, Jr. 223 Some Obscure Diseases of the Peacli /. B. S. Norton 228 Local Inspection, Public Sprayers and the Osage Orange Hedge Thomas B. Synions 236 Scientific Notes 222, 250 Editorial »51 Reviews '-^''- Current Notes '■^■'^ r.lidrav.Ti for puViliciition olsewUere. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS Vol. 3 APRIL, 1910 No. 2 Proceedings of the T^venty-Second Annual Meet- ing of the American Association of Economic Entomologists (Continued from the Fehruarij issue) Morning Session, Wednesday, December 29, 1909 The meeting: was called to order by President Britton at 10.15 a. m. President Britton : The first paper to be presented is by Mr. E. D. Sanderson, Durham, N. H., on "The Relation of Temperature to the Growth of Insects." THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO THE GROWTH OF INSECTS By E. DwiGHT Saxdersox. Ditrha)n, N. H. At the Chicago meeting of this association in 1907 the writer showed (24a) that upon purely theoretical grounds there could be no uniform accumulation of temperature or "thermal constant" for the various stages of insect growth, but that the relation of temperature to growth phenomena was probabl}^ different for each species and might be expressed by a curve, the abscissas of which represent degrees of tem- perature and the ordinates represent the time factor. The importance of considering the so-called law of the velocity of chemical reaction as influenced by temperature was pointed out and it was shown that the velocity of reaction varies at different temperatvires. It was shown that both the so-called thermal constant and coefficient of velocity increase as the temperature is lowered from the optimum of the 114 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 species, and that the curve for each species and phase of growth or activity of that species must be plotted before the influence of tem- perature can be exactly stated. It was then stated that we proposed to determine such curves for a number of common insects which could be reared in large numbers at constant temperatures. This we have done and the results are briefly indicated below. The writer fears that his previous paper was possibly too condensed to bring out the prin- ciples suggested and trusts that a ceftain amount of repetition in the present paper may, therefore, be pardoned. In the paper cited (24a) the "thermal constant" for insects was defined as "that accumulation of mean daily temperature above the 'critical point' of the species, which will cause it to emerge from hiber- nation or to transform from any given stage." This idea of a " thermal constant, " or " accumulation of " or " total effective temperature," as expressed by other writers, is a relatively new one in entomological work, although a vast amount of work has been done upon the subject in relation to plant growth by European botanists during the past century. The first attempt to determine such a constant for an insect in America, so far as known to us, was that of Abbe in connection with the hatching of the eggs of the Rocky Mountain Locust (la). No similar study of the relation of accumu- lated temperature seems to have been made until that of Simpson (25) in connection with his Codling Moth investigations in 1903. Simpson gave the "effective temperatures" and the accumulation for different stages of growth, merely stating that "effective tempera- tures" were those over 43 °F. In the following year Hunter and Hinds (12) in their discussion of the relation of temperature to the Boll Weevil use the same method and state, "In considering the influence of temperature upon the weevils it has been assumed that, as has been found to be the case with other animals, 43 °F. would be about the lowest temperature at which the weevils would be active . . . For this reason it is better to speak of the 'effective temperature,' meaning by that the number of degrees above 43°F." The next year Quain- tance and Brues (19x) in their discussion of the relation of tem- perature to the Cotton Bollworm use the same method, but definitely attribute the origin of the idea to the paper of Merriam (17), and show that 45° gave rather a more constant sum of effective tempera- tures than when 43°F. was used as a basis. In 1904 the writer (24) endeavored to show a method whereby the emergence of the boll weevil from hibernation could be determined by the accumulation of temperature and in 1906 Newell and Martin (19) made practical use of the data of Hunter and Hinds in determining the time of migra- April, '10] SANDERSON : TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 116 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 30° C. Dajs tion of the boll weevil into Louisiana. More recently Hunter and Hooker (13) have made a practical application of the principle in connection with the time of hatching of the cattle tick as related to the time for pasture rotation necessary for its control. In his previous paper the writer has indicated that the point above which temperatures are "effective" varies with the species and is by no means constant at 43°F. This point was termed the "critical point," but as will be further explained below the term "critical point" is inapt and we believe should be abandoned. The use of 43°F. as the starting point for accumu- lating "effective temperature" seems to have originated with Merriam, who at- tributes it to Marie-Davy and other European phenologists. That such a view is wholly untenable and that the point above which growth takes place varies widely with species and their stage of growth is readily seen by an examination of botanical literature. Abbe has cited this literature exhaust- ively and shows that 43 °F. refers only to the germination and growth of wheat, and that each plant has a different "minimum temperature for germina- tion" and growth. He quotes the ex- periments of De Candolle (4) in the germination of seeds, which are shown graphically in figure 6, showing that growth may commence at. 0°C. for Sinapsis alba up to 9°C., for Zea mays. This has been fully studied by other botanists, notably by Sachs (23) and the literature of the subject has been thoroughly digested by Davenport in his Experimental Morphology, up to 1897, in which he shows that the same principles apply to animals of all classes. That the minimum temperature aft'ecting growth is variable is well shown in figures 24, 25 and 26, in which it may be seen that Toxoptera and Lysiphlehus may develop at 1.65 °C. while Margaropus and others will not develop under 5° to 10° C. If then there is no uniform minimum above w^iich the temperature may be accumulated as effective, but this varies with each species and phase 50 Fig. 7. Relation of tem- perature to time of pupa stage of Malacosoma ameri- cana (original). April, '10] SANDERSON : TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 117 of growth, if there be no "thermal constant" {physiological constant of Merriam) as far as a mere accumulation of temperatures is con- cerned, and if the velocity of reaction varies according to the range of temperatures; what then is the relation of temperature to the phenomena of insect growth and how may we express it in numerical terms ? To answer this question we must first have facts and then seek an explanation. During the past year we have reared different stages of several insects at fairly constant temperatures. Large numbers of most of the insects have been employed so as to secure fairly accurate averages. Ordinary bacteriological incubators were used for temperatures of 80° and 90°F. An un-iced refrigerator maintained a fairly constant temperature of about 65°F. in winter and 70°F. in 20° 30^ c. 20° 30° C. Days Relation of temperature to the period of incubation of eggs. Fig. 8. Euproctis' chri/sorrhaa. Fig. 9. 8ain ia cecropia, ovigmal. summer. A constant temperature apparatus in which the cold from an ice chamber was balanced by the heat from a gas jet and controlled by an electric thermostat gave close to 60°F. and an ordinary refrig- erator was iced so as to maintain approximately 50°F. The details of the work involving a large amount of labor were carried on by Mr. and Mrs. C. F. Jackson,, to whom the writer is greatly indebted for the results. Only an outline of the results will now be given, the details of the experiments being published later. The pupge of Malacosoma ameri- cana, figure 7, were transferred to six different temperatures upon pupation and the emergence of the moths noted. At from 16° to 32° C. they emerged in the time shown by the curve, but at 10° and 12° C. all died. It will be noted that from 20° to 30° C. the coefficient of velocity is practically 2, while below 20° it increases very rapidly. 118 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 This will be seen to be generally true for the insects cited, as it has been found for most animals and plants so far studied which live at normal temperatures.^ lO--^ Days 30 30° C. 10° 20° 30° C. Fig. 10. Relation of temperature to egg and pupal periods of Tenebrio molitor (original). The eggs of the brown- tail moth, Eiiproctis chrysorrho^a, were placed at the same temperatures and their curve is shown in figure 8. They also failed to hatch at 10° and 12°C. and also at 32°C., showing that the latter is above the optimum for a constant temperature. In this ^The coefficient or index of the velocity or rate of growth or activity is usually expressed in terms of the difference between two temperatures 10 °C. Rate at T„ + 10 apart, and is expresf>ed by the formula - , in which the rate Rate at T„ is the rate of activity or time of growth at the given temperature, T„. To determine the coefficient between any given tempei-atures with given rates we have the formula — R-'tte at Tn — y12_, in which X is the difference in tem- Rate at T„ + X '^ X perature between the two points. Thus if the pupa transforms in twenty days at 20°C. and in ten davs at 30°C. the coefficient of velocity is _-X— -=2. 10 10 April, '10] SANDERSON: TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 119 120 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 10° 30- C. Weeks case the coefficient of velocity is greater, being about 3 between 16 and 21°C. and about 2.2 between 21 and 26°C. The eggs of Samia cecropia also failed to hatch at the low tempera- tures, but hatched at 32° C. though the latter temperature is seen to be above the optimum from the fact that the time did not decrease above 26° C. See figure 9. The eggs and pup^e of Tenetrio molitor were handled in the same manner. The larvae have also been used, but as yet we have no definite results, owing to difficulty in rearing them under the arti- ficial conditions. The eggs and pupas both failed to transform at 9° or 10° C. though they did so at 12 °C., showing that the minimum temper- ature for growth is slightly below the latter temperature. The curves, fig- ure 10, for the egg and pupa are of interest as they are based on a large number of individuals and show a similarity which is to be observed in other species, indicating that the eggs and pupa^, Avhere they exist under similar conditions are similarly af- fected by temperature, while the ac- tive larvffi is much more quickly in- fluenced by changes of temperature. The eggs of Leptinotarsa decemlin- eata were similarly studied and the results are shown in figure 11. The time at 12° C. is questioned because of inaccuracy in the records. The major portion of the curve is of in- terest when compared with the work of Girault and Rosenfeld in which the time of incubation was determined in Georgia and Ohio under natural conditions, using the average mean daily temperature for the period. It will be noted that the curves between 23.5° and 28° C. are very similar, but that in Georgia the time is prolonged at 29°C., while in our incubators it continued to shorten up to 32.5°C. This may possibly be due to dryness of the atmosphere in Georgia at the time of the observations, of which we have no records. It is known that lack of moisture at high temperatures very quickly lowers the optimum for development. In our own work we have not used apparatus by which we could maintain a constant degree of moisture, but vessels of water have been placed in the incubators and fairly Fig. 12. Relation of tempera- ture to life cycle of Cidex pipiens according to data of Kerschbau- mer (original). April, '10] SANDERSON : TEMIT^KATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 121 normal conditions, record of which we have, have been maintained. In exact Avork to determine the effect of temper- ature the moisture conditions should be constant, as with many species the mois- ture influence is as much or more impor- tant than that of temperature in determin- ing the optimum for development. Similar observations on the time of hatching of the eggs of Malacosoma ameri- cana, the time of emergence of the cater- pillars of the brown-tail moth from their winter nests, the hatching of eggs of the gypsy moth, and the pupal stage of Samia cecropia, Papilio asfcrias and Epargyreus tityrus, have been or are now being made, but cannot be summarized at present. Other data is at hand, however, show- ing the same facts. Thus Kerschbaumer (15) has given data from which the curve for the life cycle of Culex pipiens as in- fluenced by temperature has been plotted (figure 12), and Regener (21) and Ratze- burg (20) have shown the same for the different stages of Dendrolimus pini, shown in figure 13. One of the most care- ful studies of the relation of both temper- ature and moisture to the development of an insect is a recent one of Hennings (9) with Tomicus typographus Linn. Hen- nings reared all stages and secured the complete life cycle of this species at four different temperatures with 55% and 96% moisture. Figure 14: sliows the curves plotted from his data and shows graph- ically the effect of moisture as related to temperature for the species. Hennings points out that no thermal constant for the development of the species, which sev- eral European students of forest insects had endeavored to determine, could pos- sibly exist as at 24° C. there would be an accumulation of 624° when at 14° C. it would amount to 1400.° Other activities of insect life as related to temperature show similar curves, one 10' 20° 80° C. Days s? ^'^?E EHfe mi m Fig. 13. Relation of tem- perature to development of Deudrolinnis phii, from data quoted by Bachmet jew ; egg, pupa and larva from Rege- ner, 1865; larva plus pupa from Ratzeburg, 1839 (origi- nal.) 132 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 or two of which have been plotted by Bachmetjew (2a). Thus the rate of pulsation of the heart of the silk worm has been given by Tichomirow (26) figure 15, and the food eaten by the larvge of Den- drolimus pini by Regener (21), figure 16, all indicating the same gen- eral relation of temperature to insect activity. 10° c. 20° c. 10° C. 20° C. 10° c. 20° c. Days Fig. 14. Relation of temperature to different stages of Toiuicns typographus Linn; solid line represents 55 per cent and dash line 96 per cent moisture; as given by Hennings (1907), original. Recent records of some of our own workers have also given data from which we have been able to plot curves which are approximately cor- rect, though the diverse conditions and lack of exact temperature records, make them only approximate. Thus we have taken the weather records for Paris, Texas, for 1904 and have determined the average temperatures for the egg. larva and pupa stages of the Boll Worm as given by Quaintance and Brues, which are shown in figures 17 and 18. The excellent work of Jenne upon the life history of the Codling INIoth in Arkansas has given us the best data concerning the egg stage of that insect, which we have plotted in figure 19.^ ^ Unfortunately no temperature records are available for Siloam Springs, Ark., where the work was done, but we have used the weather records of Fayetteville, which is but twenty-five miles east and has practically the same climate, so that the average temperature would be almost identical. April, '10] SANDERSON : TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH Herzcontraktionen pro Minute bei Raupen von bombyx mori 60 123 e o •a < V Q 10 12 M 16 Temperatur 18 20 24 % 80 Fig. 15. Relation of temperature to the rate of heart contraction of larvae of Bombyx mori, according to Tichomirow (26), from Bachmetjew. 124 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol.. 3 15 14 13 12 0 JO Ui V 9 > V3 C 8 6 - FUTTERMENGE Ft)R DENDROLIMUS PINI L. Fig. 16. Relation of temperature to the amount of food eaten by larva of Dendrolimm pint, according to Regener (21), from Baelimetjew. April, '10] SANDERSON : TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 125 The pupal stage has been similarly plotted from his data, figure 20, and with it are given the records of Melander and Jenne (16) in the Yakima Valley, Washington, in 1904, those of Gillette in Colorado in 1901 and our own for the last four seasons and for rearings made at constant temperatures. It is interesting to note the close approxima- 30° c. Days —4— - b=r : ! : 1 : , : ; I 1' ! h^— — -^ \-^ y;=:ss 'U.lli.iM' ^-^ M uii rn— W: 1 [=h- ^_^ — - 1 ' i 1 : : : . : 1 : , , : ■ ' : 1 , _ -J — , Ms t^ i>H -- ■^■'■'^' ; ,': — 1 ' ' '^—r — r ^— ^ ' ; : ' ::'!!"■ — - - kp , ' '^ . ^ i-l ! II ~^— i , ' ■ ; , J , ! ■ ' ] 1 ' 1 1 _: ^ ^— ^.^ -^ 1 ' ■ ■ ' ' ' ' ' ! " /I ' ' — *1 1 ^ , 1 ■; ■ 1 ' , ' ' i ' : i ■ ■/ 1 • ' ■ ' — -^ t-* -.-^^ h-v — ^ — ' ' ' M • ' i • ■ ; f .- 1 ' ' . . ' ' ( 1 ' ' , ■ ' , ' 1 ■ ±t:::: 4- j ' 1 ' ' TT++- ^: — ! : / — U-^ ^^^ 1 ■ , ■ ; ^^-4 + -T-t-r ^— -~^-tf p.- -^^ — -4-— i . . P-1 ^ - , — -+^.— t-;^ p ■ -- -T — ^/-jz — ytj - -■' ■ T- ■ I4|_L • 1 t 1 ■ t • ; ■ ■ t ■ ■ ' ) ' -1-rf T'-H- -j-i 1-^- r ■' -^-^ , , 1 / . . . , i 1 ■ 1 , ' ■■ r ■ ■ ' 1 I ! 1 , i ' ' 1 1 ; 1 ' !■ 1 • 7: ,1^ L-i— ; : : ; ■ : ' ' I ■ i . . ! — — . / . . . ^ 1 1 . . . . I . . ■ ■' ' ' ' : 1 ^-.-^— ''''j-7 1 ■ . ■ ■ ;-.-„^ -i-;.f.- -*:■■■ -r-Li.; . ^ -^^^-^-^ -Y- ^„^ , K— ■■'!'■ -.>.!] ;: : , ; 1 1: nr^ ■ ' ' 1 ' ' ' -_ ■ t ■ ■ ^- — - /' . , . ■ 1 ■ ' ' ' i • ; 1 ^~i- ■^—r ^7] ^ 1 Ur^ - — 'I'll -^ — r'ilT'itl -l^^^ — 1 — - 1 1 i 1 i _-_-.— i-~ -■-■■ - t t - 1 ^ - - ^- ■ ' ' ' 1 11 EJ+F -f— '1 ! , ' ' 1 ; ; mT ■ • i ■ [ 1 • ; ■ ■ , 1 , , 1— ^-^ '■■['' ■ • ■ r • 1 < ■ ■ : ' -,-,-. ^ — — ^ ' M — r-\-- ill: 1 ■ ' , 1 i +^ ' , :,',!,, , , , 1 ! ; , 1 — ■ M-- m" — pr "T 1 1 1 - + ':■■:! .LL'U ill! .iLLi ± Lu.lL 111, 1 1 1 ; . . 1 . , i Fig. 17. Relation of temperature to incubation of eggs of Heliothis ohso- Jeta. according to Quaintance and Girault ( original ). tion to the curve of all this data from diverse sources. Later we hope to be able to make a more complete study of the relation of tempera- ture to the codling moth. The subject is complicated with the pupa of this insect by the fact that the spring pupge may be derived from the two broods of the previous year, w^hich may possibly be differently affected by temperature. The curve for the codling moth pupa also shows how quickly it is influenced by temperature, showing why it is that so much longer is recptired for the pupa in early spring and how 126 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 the accumulated temperature decreases accordingly with the advance- ment of the season. The curve also indicates that but little develop- ment of the codling moth takes place below 55°F. and that it is very slow under 60°F. This data is sufficient to indicate the general relation of temperature to the rate of growth, or activity. A few days after the presentation of my last paper upon this sub- ject I received the second part of Bachmet Jew's Experimentelle Ento- mologische Studien, published in 1907 (2a). This is an encyclopsedic 10^ 30° C. 30° C. Days 30 50 70 g r-t E tta ^^-- uxt i^tjat iiJSEsii Fig. 18. Relation of temperature to larval and pupal stages of Heliothis ohsoleta, according to Quaiutance and Girault (original). work dealing with all entomological phenomena in their chemical and physical aspects. It is a monumental work which will serve as a guidebook for entomological students of these subjects in the future. In the first part of this work (2) Bachmet jew dealt with the relation of low temperatures to insect life, but in the second part he discusses the whole range of temperature as related to insect activity and brings out the relation of the temperature and time factors with great clear- ness. His views are well summarized in figure 21, briefly as follows: '(2a, p. 859.) For every species there is a certain range of tempera- ture, K to W, in which it is normally active. At a certain point its growth or activity is most rapid, an increase or decrease of tempera- April, '10] SANDERSON: TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 127 ture from this point alike resulting in retarding the growth or activity. This point is the optimum (Z.). "When the upper temperature limit of activity is passed, at W, heat-rigor ensues. If the heat be increased to a point A, death will result in a short time. This point, A, is known 10° 14° 20° 26° C. Days ;h: p.: I i Fig. 19. Relation of temperature to the incubation of eggs of Carpocapsa pomonella in Arkansas, according to Jenne, 1908 (original). as the maximum. But a temperature above A may be -endured for a short time before death, but if the insect is brought to a temperature of B death is practically instantaneous due to the coagulation of cer- tain proteids of the protoplasm. Although heat-rigor occurs at any point above "W, the effect of it is due to the length of time of the exposure. Thus a varying length of exposure, according to the amount 128 Days 10° JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 20° [Vol. 3 30° C. Fig. 20. Relation of temperature to tlie time of the pupal stage of Corpo- capsa pomonella: — . . . according to Jenne, Arkansas, 1908; g — according to Gillette, Colorado, 1901; mj — according to Melander and Jenne, Washington, 1904; xs — from author's data. New Hampshire, 190G-08 (original). April, '10] SANDERSON: TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 129 5 (J? ?D O 3 5 Eigcnc Temperamr der Zcllen. = 'r Co 5 •^. g t> s -aimsouf^ »i03tmaj3j | - - / ; > / k / J, / i / P ; \ C '/ % / ■ * ( n o c z o / < c N ° c / Q % H / - % 9> / ^ ' =r 2 / M t D / ^ n / • •0 5) O H O r -" r/ ' / > 1 / g S ? / »■ » / a f ? / a. z g. / Kf N *■ y ? PI • r r r { < z / > / S / ^ / 1/ / 5 / 1 a / ^ /. vi ' / H / o / T) / i , / s / ' / ^ / sE 130 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 of temperature, as long as the temperature remains below the maxi- mum A, will not kill the organism if it be returned to normal tem- peratures, while it will die if maintained at a constant temperature above W. Metabolism does not necessarily cease during heat-rigor at temperatures above W, but is greatly retarded. If the temperature is lowered, then at a point K, cold-rigor sets in and activity ceases. If it be cooled below freezing to a point T^, termed the "critical point," the internal heat of the insect rebounds to a point N,. But if the body temperature again falls below the critical point, as at T3, then death ensues. If after the critical point has been reached and the rebound occurs, the insect be removed to normal temperatures, it will usually revive, depending upon the length of time it has been under-cooled. As in heat-rigor, metabolism does not cease at temperatures producing cold-rigor, though no activity is apparent, but below a point Tg, all metabolism ceases. Death at low temperatures is held to be due to molecular rearrangement and mechanical injury, whereas death at high temperature is due to chemical changes in the proteids. The relation of both excessive heat and excessive cold is therefore seen to depend upon the time involved and the rapidity with which the organism is cooled or heated and Avitli which it is subsequently brought back to normal temperatures. This, very briefly, is my understanding of Bacluuet Jew's views which he supports by the citation of the whole literature bearing on the subject. In his Experimental Morphology Davenport brought out the same facts as regards both plants and animals, but uses a slightly different terminology. The point at which metabolism ceases at high tem- peratures is termed the maximum, and at which death is immediate, the ultra-maximum, and likewise, the point at which metabolism ceases with low temperature is called the minimum, and the "critical point" of Bachmetjew upon the maintenance of wdiich death ensues, is called the ultra-minimum. This term is preferable to that of "critical point," for both minimum, optimum, and maximum are critical points in the relation of temperature to the life of the organism, and the term has been so differently used by different groups of workers and by different sciences that it lacks definiteness. The temperature below which cold-rigor ensues is often termed the "minimum temperature for activity" or growth, or germination, but as the true minimum is somewhat below this, we may better term it the point of cold-rigor, and the temperature at which heat-rigor commences the point of heat-rigor, the latter also being below the real maximum. April, "10] SANDERSON: TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 131 Entwickelte und ausgeschlupfte Raupchen in "/^ S S 1 "~- — -- — ~., f ' p"" ~— - --h^^ !too •«>», •>. ^ ■"^ -a ">* N N N^^ ! \ N ^•>- \ N *N s \ / k k \^ S f N y • N ■> \ t ^ \ \ __ _ — -V"' '" \ \ \ 1 A ( •••' \ \ 1 \ 1 • ■■' •-T ' i\ 1 ..- \ \' . *> • -•< . ••■ * \ ' — \ ' \ \ i \ ' \ V j \ \ ! i| 1 U-. •- ^l L.-j '.._ ...J — — 1 \ -4— -n~ - — ^ 1 — i — -^\i - I • / 133 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 5q Gesammtzeit der Puppendatrer m Tagen. a rtJ B a> CL m- ps O O B a c w td as p o o cr l-b 3 tg essesssszses April, '10] SANDERSON : TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 133 The effect of short exposure to heat above the point of heat-rigor is well shown by the ex- periments of Bellati and Qua j at (3) in which silk worm eggs were maintained at con- stant high temperatures for a few seconds and the subsequent mortal- ity then noted. The curves in figure 22 show that the higher the tem- perature the shorter the time eggs may be ex- posed to it, and al- though the eggs may be exposed to a lower tem- perature for a much longer time, if they re- main at any tempera- ture above that of heat- rigor, they will die. The fact that metab- olism continues at low temperatures has been shown by Merrifield (18) in his experiments with pupae of Eugonia autuninaria and alni- aria exposed to 2° and 0°C. respectively for varying lengths of time and then developed at room temperature. As shown in figure 23, the pupa; of E. autuninaria at 2°C. as the time for emergence after they were brought to normal 20^ 30^C. -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° C- Days 30 S- '■ 70 Fig. 24. Relation of temperature to the de- velopment of Lt/siphlebiis tritici, A, and Toxoptera grcDiiinum, B, according to Hunter and Glenn (original). 134 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Number op Young per Female pfr Day. Fig. 25. Relation of temperature to the number of young borne per female per day of Toxoptera graminum, according to Hunter (original). April, '10] SANDERSON: TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 135 temperature was less the longer they were held at 2°C., while the pupie of E. alniaria showed no development at 0°C. and their subse- quent development was retarded by it. Evidently the former species was slightly above, and the latter slightly below its respective mini- mum. It is known that short exposures to temperatures below the minimum retard the development of some species and hasten that of others, depending upon the species, the temperature and the time exposed. The influence of low temperatures has also been nicely shown in the studies of Hunter and Glenn (11) on the Green Bug (Toxoptera graminum) and its parasite Lysiphlebus tritici. The rates of growth of these insects are shown in figures 24 and 25, which are plotted from the records given, showing that development may take place at a mean 1.65°C., while the point of cold- rigor is slightly higher for Lysiphlebus. which shows no activity below about 4° or 5°C., while the ultra-minimum or "critical point" of Baclunetjew, at which death occurs, is about - — 8.33°C. or 17°F. Similar phenomena are shown by the rate of reproduction of Toxoptera as plotted in figure 25, in which it is seen that reproduction may actually occur at a daily mean of — 7.8°C. and that it is frequent at a daily mean of 0°C. This curve is of additional interest, however, because it gives the optimum of the species, about 20°C., from which the rate of reproduction grad- ually decreases, though it is known to occur at about 29 °C. until the aphides cease feeding at 32°C. and death ensues at 37.5° to 40°C. It is interesting to contrast these points of cold-rigor hovering around 0°C. with those of the Boll worm which is about 10°, as well as several others previously cited, and that of the Cattle Tick which is about 5°C. It is evident, then, that the point of cold-rigor and the minimum must be determined for each species, and for each phase of its growth. Dr. L. 0. Howard (10) has given these points for several houshold pests and has shown how such a knowledge may have most practical value in the prevention of insect injury in cold storage. Similar data has been given by Duvel (6) for weevils affecting cow- peas. Recently a tobacco manufacturer has applied to us for aid in the destruction of a pest of stored tobacco, which we believe may possibly be accomplished by the use of low temperature. From the above data it is evident that any accumulation of tempera- ture to secure a thermal or physiological constant cannot be based on a mere addition where variable temperatures are involved, for it is evident that every degree has a different value in relation to the time factor. Thus as the mean temperature rises with the advance of the season both the time for the pupal stage and the total accumulated 136 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 temperature for the pupal stage of the codling moth decrease with the advancing season. Though a fairly constant "total effective tem- perature" for any given phase of an insect's life or activity may be secured for the summer months when there is a fairly constant mean temperature, such an accumulation will have no meaning in regard to the same phenomena in spring and fall when the temperatures are more variable. Thus in the total "effective temperature" in the hatching of the eggs of the cattle tick as given b}^ Hunter and Hooker, eggs laid from September 15 to October 15 require a total of 837.6° to 1,510.8° over 43 °F. to hatch, while those laid in April and May require from 981.6° to 1.139.1° accumulation. Were the moisture factor also considered, it is evident that the range of such an accumu- lation is too large to make it of much practical value, except by always using the minimum possible. Thus if we are to relate the phenomena of insect growth and activity to temperature, we may say that they will be about so and so between certain temperatures or at certain seasons when such temperatures normally prevail, as Hunter and Hooker have done in the case of the cattle tick. Or, if we wish to be exact, we must secure the temperature curve for the species, based on the observation of a considerable num- ber of individuals kept at different constant temperatures, or possibly better at temperatures having a diurnal variation with constant maxi- mum and minimum, and with fairly constant moisture conditions. That the moisture factor must not be neglected is shown by the work of Hennings (Ic.) and by that of E. C. Cotton, on the cattle tick, presented before this association, but never published. With such a curve plotted it would be possible to give each degree of temperature for whatever time unit used, a definite valuation in relation to the accumulation of temperature necessary for any stage of growth or activity at the optimum temperature. Thus in the case of the cattle tick, see figure 26, if the optimum be considered to be 28 °C. at which temperature 21.5 days are required for the eggs to hatch, then each day at 28° C. has a value of 4.65% of the whole, or .0465. As twenty-five days are required at 25°C., each day at 25°C. has a value of .04, and so on the value of a day at 20°C. is .02, at 15°C. is .01, and at liyo°C. is .00666. A table for the value of the degrees between these points may now be made so that the valuation of every degree to be considered may be given. Using these values, when an accumulation of 100% or 1 has been secured the true "thermal con- stant" should have been reached, for all the time relation to the vary- ing temperatures has been reduced to a common unit. Were the effect of moisture similarly studied so that the effect of different April, '101 SANDEKSOX : TEMPERATIRE AND INSECT GROWTH 137 ^ X a; 03 ■^ X 138 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 degrees of moisture at each degree of temperature were known, it should be possible to give a valuation for each degree of temperature which when the total equalled 100% or 1 would give the true physio- logical constant for the stage of growth or activity concerned. Such a proceeding would, of course, be entirely impractical except in the case of an insect of great economic importance in the control of which the application of such data would have immediate practical value, as in the case of the cattle tick. But if we are to deal with tempera- tures in relation to entomological phenomena, and are to give the mat- ter any study at all, we may as well seek to have an understanding of the principles concerned even though we may not always use them in an exact manner. How closely accumulations of tertiperature values made by the above method will agree with the observed phenomena under varying conditions the writer has not had opportunity to deter- mine, though the computations are now being made. The method seems, however, to be much more exact from a theoretical standpoint, than any heretofore advanced, and whether it includes all the factors necessary to determine a thermal constant or not, it is evident that some such process of computing the values of each degree of tempera- ture from a curve established for each stage of growth, and by which they are reduced to a common basis, must be used before there is any possibility of securing a thermal constant for any given phenome- non of growth where subject to varying temperatures. Authors Cited 1. Abbe, Cleveland. First Report on the Relations Between Climate and Crops. Bulletin 36, U. S. Weather Bureau. 1905. la. Abbe, C. In First Report U. S. Entomological Commission. Thermal Constant for Locust Eggs. p. 425-432. 1878. 2. Bachmetjew, P. Experimentelle Entomologische Studien, I. Temperatur verhaltnisse bei Insekten. p. 160. Leipzig. 1901. 2a. Bachmetjew, P. Experimentelle Entomologische Studien. vom physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkt aus. Zweiter Band. p. 999 + CVIII, Pis. 31. Sophia. 1907. 3. Bellati, M. e Quajat, E. Sur 1' eclosion anticipee des ceufs der ver-a-soie. Arch. ital. Biolog. XXV, Fasc. IL 1896. Cited by 2a. 4. Candolle, A. P. de. De la germination sus les degres divers de tempera- ture constante. Biblioth. Univ. et Revue Suisse, Tom. XIV, p. 243-282. Cited by 1. 5. Davenport, C. B. Experimental Morphology. Vols. II 1897-99. New York. 6. Duvel, J. W. T., Cold Storage for Cowpeas. Bull. 54, Bureau Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. p. 49. 1905. 7. Girauit, A. A. and Rosenfeld, A. H. Pysche, XIV, p. 45-57. 1907. April, '10] SANDERSON' : TEMPERATURE AND INSECT GROWTH 139 8. Girault, A, A., Annals Entom. Soc. America, I, 155-178. 1908. 9. Hennings, C, Biologische Centralblatt, XXVII, 324. 1907. 10. Howard, L. O., Some Temperature Effects on Household Insects. Bulle- tin 6, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr. p. 13. 1896. 11. Hunter, S. J. and Glenn, P. A., The Green Bug and its Natural Enemies. Bulletin of the Univ. of Kas., IX, 2, p. 221. 1909. 12. Hunter, W. D. and Hinds, W. E., The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. Bull. 45, n. s., Div. Ent, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1904. 13. Hunter, W. D. and Hooker, W. A., The North American Fever Tick. Bulletin 72, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1907. 14. Jenne, E. L., The Codling Moth in the Ozarks. Bull. 80, Part I. Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1909. 15. Kerschbaumer. Malaria, ihr Wesen, ihr Enstehung und ihre Verhus- tung. Wien und Leipzig. 1901. Cited by 2a. 16. Melander, A. L. and Jenne, E. L. The Codling Moth in the Yakima Valley. Bull. 77 Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1906. 17. Merriam, C. H., Laws of Temperature Control of the Geographic Dis- tribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants. National Geogi-aphic Magazine, VI, 228-238. 1894. 18. Merrifield, Frederic. Systematic Temperature Experiments on Some Lepidoptera in all Their Stages. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, Pt. I, p. 131-159. 1890. 19. Newell, Wilmon. The Boll Weevil, Circ. 9, La. Crop Pest Commission. 1906. 19a. Newell, W., The Cattle Tick. Circ. 10. La. Crop Pest Comm. 1906. 19X. Quaintance, A. L., and Brues, C. T. The Cotton Bollworm. Bull. 50, Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1905. 20. Ratzeburg, J. T. C. Die Forstinsekten. 2 aufl. 3 Band. Berlin 1839-44. 21. Regener, E. Erfahrungen uber den Nahrungsverbrauch der grossen Kiefernraupe. Magdeburg. 1865. Cited by 2a. 22. Riley, C. V. 1st Report U. S. Ent. Commission, p. 231, 353, 1878. 23. Sachs, Julius von. Lectures on the Physiologj' of Plants. Eng. trans. of H. Marshall Ward. Oxford. 1887. 24. Sanderson, E. D., Some Observations on the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. Bull. 52, Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1904. 24a. Sanderson, E, D., The relation of Temperature to the Hibernation of Insects. Journal Econ. Entom., I, 56-65. 1908. 24b. Sanderson, E. D., Influence of Minimum Temperatures in Limiting the Northern Distribution of Insects. Jour. Econ. Entom. I, 245-62. 1908. 25. Simpson, C. B., The Codling Moth. Bull. 41, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1903. 26. Tichomirow, A., Die kunstliche Pathenogenese bei Insekten. Arch. f. Anat. und Phys. Supp.— Bd. 1886. Citen by 2a. ]\Ir. Hewitt: I should like to thank Professor Sanderson for his most interesting paper on the relation of temperature to the growi;h of insects. I think one of the most important features of his ad- dress is that he has given a very excellent summary of Bachmet Jew's 140 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 work, which, although well known to some of us, may not be known to many practical entomologists, and lie has pointed out lines which can be followed up by those who wish to study insect control, and I believe that in a few years we shall haA^e results of a practical value accruing from these studies. One of the most difficult insects to control at pres- ent is the fruit fly. or apple maggot {Trypeta pomonella) , and it is stated by Mr. C. P. Lounsbury, Cape Colony, South Africa, that by keeping the fruit for three weeks at a low temperature, the contained maggots of Ceratatis capitata were killed. I should like to suggest that temperature records should be kept in Centigrade rather than Fahrenheit, as the former is the method which is now used on the con- tinent for all scientific work. In studying a number of Dipterous larva? upon lines similar to those of Professor Sanderson, I have confirmed the idea that the different stages of life history, such as larva and pupa, are all individually affected by temperature, and that temperature affects the life history, not as a whole, but by affecting each instar and stadium individually. I think we are all extremely indebted to Professor Sanderson, and I wish again to offer him my sincere thanks. Secretary Burgess: I think this paper is very important, and one with which we should get in close touch. It is one, however, which requires considerable study. The matter of temperature plays a very important part in the parasite work which is being conducted at the Gipsy Moth Parasite Laboratory. President Britton: We will now listen to a paper by E. C. Cot- ton, Knoxville, Tenn. A CONSTANT LOW TEMPERATURE APPARATUS FOR BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS By E. C. Cotton, Knoxville, Tenn. One would probably be well within the truth in saying that every working entomologist has "pigeonholed" several fundamental prob- lems in economic entomology the solution of which he has been obliged to defer because of the lack of funds, time and special apparatus. The passage of the Adams Act by the National Congress made it possible to commence the solution of some of these basic problems,. most of which will require several years to complete. Under the pro- visions of this Act men in the experiment stations all over the country are devoting their Avhole time and energy to the working out of single April, '101 COTTON : LOW TEMPERATURE APPARATUS 141 problems, and, what is more promising of results, they are usually provided with ample funds to secure the special apparatus needed in their work. At the Tennessee Station we have one of these problems and for the solution of certain phases of it we soon discovered that apparatus for securing and maintaining constant low temperatures was essen- tial. A careful search through the catalogs of both domestic and foreign firms dealing in laboratory supplies convinced us that there was nothing on the market to satisfy our particular needs. Incu- bators and other devices for securing and maintaining constant tem- peratures above the melting point of ice were listed by all of them but nothing for temperatures below that point. We then set to work to devise and construct a piece of apparatus for this purpose, which, because of the intense interest expressed by those who have seen it in an incompleted condition and its wide applicability to biologic problems, it has seemed advisable to describe at this time. Our particular problem concerned itself with the North American Fever Tick and the effect of low temperatures upon the various phases of its life cycle. We know that a certain low temperature is fatal to all engorged adult ticks under a given set of conditions and also that a lower temperature under another set of conditions will not seriously aft'ect them. Why? What are the governing factors and under what conditions do they act ? We know that low tempera- ture inhibits egg laying. What is the critical temperature for this function? Ever since the successful application of the law of accu- mulated effective temperatures to the boll weevil problem, there has been a demand from those engaged in tick investigation work for a similar law relating to the fever tick. Mr. Hunter's paper entitled *'A Tentative Law Relating to the Incubation of the Eggs of Mar- garopus annulatiis," which was presented before this Association two years ago, was an attempt to satisfy that demand. Recently we have attempted to apply this law to the immense mass of data accumulated at the Tennessee Station during the past three years, but I cannot flatter myself that we have achieved any great success. The trouble is that the upper and lower limits are too far apart and the excep- tions too many and too serious. There seem to be some controlling factors which we have not yet mastered. What are they? These are all questions of vast importance from an economic point of view and moreover questions that must be answered if we are to know the fundamental laws on which to base a more successful scheme of tick eradication. Various investigators have felt the need for low temperature con- 142 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 trol and have used many devices to secure this end. Among other things ice cream freezers and domestic refrigerators have been drafted into service, the cooling agent in all cases being ice with or without salt. In this way they were able to secure temperatures down to the melting point of ice, but anj^thing like constant temperatures below about 42° or 43° Fahrenheit were out of the question. This method is very unsatisfactory at best, as it requires a great deal of personal attention and introduces the factor of human fallibility. As we wished to go below 32°F. and to maintain the temperature constant for long periods of time we soon saw the necessity of artificial refrig- eration. The list of active agents used in artificial refrigeration is not an extensive one, hence our choice of the gas we would use was not difficult. Anhydrous ammonia, which is probably the most widely used agent, was soon eliminated for the reason that our plant was to be installed in the basement of the agricultural building, in Avliich, in addition to the laboratories for the regular Station workers, are located class rooms and laboratories for the accommodation of a large number of students. The presence within this building of any considerable quantity of so penetrating and irritating a gas as ammonia could scarcely be attended with an\i:hing less than serious inconvenience. Then, too, in our investigations we are dealing with living animals, hence small leaks, which are almost sure to occur when working with high pressures, might result disastrously. Sulfur dioxid was soon disposed of for the reason that the gas is highly poisonous and also that the compressor using it operates with a partial vacuum on the low pressure side. While this machine is quite efficient when air can be kept out of the system every one recognizes the fact that a vacuum is very difficult to maintain and a little air leaking in seriously lowers the efficiency. This process of elimination left only carbon dioxid, which was finally chosen. Safety and non-offensiveness of the gas were the prin- ciple factors in this determination. With this gas leaks of consider- able magnitude can exist without serious inconvenience to the operator or other occupants of the building. There is also practically no danger that the insects or other life under investigation will be killed off in the middle of an experiment requiring several months to com- plete, even if the whole charge of gas were to escape into the room. The plant (PI. 6) consists of a compressor of two tons refrigerat- ing capacity, a Ti/o-horse-power motor, a brine tank of 200 gallons capacity containing the expansion coils, a brine pump and an insu- lated box containing four chambers, each supplied with cooling coils April, '10] COTTON : LOW TEMPERATURE APPARATUS 145 through which the brine circulates. The flow of brine through each of these coils is controlled by a balanced valve operated by a thermo- regulator. The compressor is of the two-cylinder upright type and when in operation the high and low pressure sides stand at 70 and 30 atmos- pheres respectivelj'. The machine is so strongly constructed that there is no special danger attendant upon its operation at these high pressures. A motor of G^/o-horse power is required to operate this machine and a reserve of at least 1-rated horse power should always be allowed for a compressor of this size, more for larger sizes. The brine system consists of a brine tank, pump, coils and the nec- essary piping to connect them. The brine tank is constructed of 3-16- inch boiler plate, is 3 feet in diameter and 4 feet high and contains 200 lineal feet of expansion coils giving a radiating surface of about 68 square feet. This tank holds approximately 200 gallons of calcium chlorid brine, which we are using in preference to sodium chlorid brine because the latter is so destructive to iron piping. The brine piping, with the exception of the coils in the chambers, which are 1 inch, is %-inch galvanized water pipe (PI. 7.). The brine tank, piping and pump are well insulated against loss of cold by a wrap- ping of two thicknesses of 1-inch hair felt with one layer of water- proof insulating paper between. A tight-fitting cloth cover is then fastened over the whole and painted to keep out moisture (PI. 6). The brine is circulated by an automatic water lift or pump, operated by city water pressure. The pressure of the brine in the pipes^ between the pump and the balanced valves, is automatically main- tained equal to that of the water acting on the pump. When any one of the four valves is opened the brine flows through, reducing the pressure and starting the pump, which continues to operate until the valve closes and the pressures in the water and brine systems again balance. The brine tank thus serves as a storage reservoir for cold, which is automatically fed into the coils as needed to maintain the desired temperatures in the chambers. The insulated chambers consist of a box 10 feet long, 3 feet wide and 3 feet high, the interior of which is divided into four compart- ments, each 2 feet square inside. The outside walls consist of an outer and an inner casing of yg-i^ch matched pine ceiling with four thicknesses of 1-inch hair felt and five layers of waterproof insulat- ing paper alternating between. The inside partitions, between the chambers, are built up of two walls of yg-inch matched pine ceiling with three thicknesses of 1-inch hair felt and four of paper alternat- ing between. Each of these chambers is to be maintained at a dif- 144 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 ferent constant temperature: No. 1 at 60°, No. 2 at 50°, No. 3 at 43° and No. 4 at 32°. The radiating surfaces of the coils were estimated to easily maintain these temperatures, being 453, 733, 1,153 and 1,453 square inches respectively. In one side of each chamber is a door 15 inches each way, which seats on two felt-lined surfaces and is fastened by the usual eccentric refrigerator door hasp. In each door is a window, 9 by 10 inches, containing six panes of glass with five air spaces between (PI. 8). \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\T^ Fig. 27. Section through wall of cool chamber, showini and balanced valve with connections. thermo-regulator The insulation of these chambers is so nearly perfect that there can be but little loss through the walls. The desired temperatures are secured by pumping the cold brine through the coils, which are placed in the upper part of the chambers. This arrangement allows the free use of the floor of the chamber and also locates the coils at the point of higliest temperature and theoretically should yield the best results. Inside the chambers and just below the coils are located the bellows of the thermo-regulators. This location gives a quick response to any changes of temperature 'of the coils themselves. Plate 7 Back side oi cool chambers sliowiiigbriue piping aud balauced valves before iusulation was applied April, '10] COTTON: LOW TEMPERATURE APPARATUS 145 The thermo-regulators, which are the vital part of the plant, were made by a local firm. The mechanical principle involved constitutes the most important forward step in temperature control that has been made in the past century. They are simple, extremely sensitive, reliable and almost indestructible if properh^ handled. The re^lator is in the form of a very thin, steam brass bellows about 5 inches in diameter and 314 inches high and is partly filled with an easily vola- tilized liquid after which it is hermetically sealed. A rise in the temperature of the air in the chamber causes a por- tion of the liquid to volatilize, exerting an expansive pressure on the bellows, which is so housed tli^t it can expand in one direction only. To the free end of the bellows is fastened a pin which extends through the wall of the chamber, and engages the lower end of a rocker arm to the upper end of which is attached the stem of the balanced valve. The balanced valve remains closed so long as the air in the chamber is at or below the temperature for which the bellows is adjusted. "When the temperature rises above this point the bellows expands, exerting a thrust against the lower end of the rocker arm, opening the valve and allowing the cold brine to flow through the coils until the temperature again falls to the predetermined point. Adjustment is secured by means of a 5-pound sliding weight carried on a rod 12 inches long, projecting at right angles to the rocker arm (Fig. 27). In actual practice the valve is probably never opened wide. The rising temperature begins to act on the liquid in the bellows before the temperature for which the latter has been adjusted is reached. This opens the valve the merest trifle, allowing a very thin stream of the colder brine to pass through and mix with the body of brine already in the coils, reducing its temperature and closing the valve before enough brine has passed through to entirely replace that present when the valve began to open. A pressure of 10 to 15 pounds on the brine system admits of a more sensitive control than a higher one because with the higher pressure the whole body of brine in the •coils is pretty sure to be replaced by brine several degrees colder before sufficient cold radiates from the coils to close the valve, con- sequently the temperature of the air in the chamber will be carried several degrees below the desired point before the balance is again ■established between the brine and the air. Mr. Conradi: I would like to ask the cost of this low temperature apparatus, as described. Mr. Cotton : About fifteen hundred dollars. 3 146 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Mb. Conradi: And what is the daily cost of operation? Mr. Cotton : About seventy-five cents. President Britton : The next paper on the programme is by Mr. E. F. Hitchings, Waterville, Me. THE UNPRECEDENTED APPEARANCE OF THE SAD- DLED-PROMINENT ( Heterocampa guttivitta) By E. F. Hitchings, WatcrviUe, Me. Past History. This insect has appeared in the writings of eminent entomologists under at least five different genera and ten different species, but it has never been regarded as of enough importance to receive a common name until the season of 1908, when, on account of its extensive ravages in Maine, it was by mutual agreement of the Experiment Station and the Maine Department of Agriculture called the Saddled-prominent. Doctor Felt, in his twenty-third report of New York, has suggested the name "An tiered maple caterpillar." This is open to criticism, for in the first place the caterpillar remains in the antlered stage for only a few days, in the second place maple is not its favorite diet. It prefers beech above all other food plants. During the recent in- vasion it fed freely on such other trees as oak, white and yellow birch, maple, hornbeam, hazel, apple, pear, plum, cherry, etc. The insect was first named by Walker in 1855. Beginning in 1864, Packard assigned it to no less than two genera and five species, while "Walker seemed to vie with him and placed it under three genera and four species. It did not come into prominence sufficiently to be men- tioned in Insect Life. Distribution. I quote from the fifth report of the Entomological Commission : It was reported as found feeding on white oak October 9 at Providence, R. I. "Found on sugar maple July 10 at Brunswick, Me. The egg was found July 3 on the red maple at Brunswick, Me." Hatched July 10th. Packard quotes in a footnote from Dr. Dyar: "I have twice found a peculiar variety of guttivitta, one at Woods Hole, Mass., one at Jefferson, N. H., in which a large brown dorsal patch was retained in the last stage." Riley reported it in Marjdand on oak, hickory, walnut and birch on July 9, 1882. French found it in Union County, 111., on June 20. The above quotations April, '10] HITCHIXG3: SADDLED-PROMINEXT OUTBREAK 147 go to prove that the insect has never occurred in great abundance at any one period. Extent of Infestation. According to the writings of Doctor Felt in New York and Professor Sanderson in New Hampshire this pest has apparently been working its way east across northern New York, Vermont and New Hampshire. From thence it has come into Maine. This outbreak was first noticed in 1907. It appeared on the New Hampshire border at Fryeburg, and extended into Androscoggin, Kennebec and Somerset Counties a distance of over 150 miles. In some sections tliis strip w^as at least fifty miles wide. Its ravages are confined principally to the ridges of hard wood growth. Whole woodlots of from ten to several hundred acres have been stripped bare of foliage. It has been a serious blow to the maple sugar in- dustiy of Maine. In one sugar berth in Sidney the owner reported stripping of the tops of the trees in 1907. The following spring 3,000 trees were tapped. In the summer of 1908 the trees were completely denuded, but put out a second crop of leaves in the fall. The same trees were tapped last spring and allowed to run the same length of time as on the previous season with the result that only about forty per cent, as much syrup was secured. The trees were again partially stripped during the past season. Undoubtedly many of them will not survive the shock. A fifty-acre woodlot of beech which had been stripped more or less completely for three seasons when examined the past fall showed at least fifty per cent of dead trees. Orchard Injury. The damage done has not been confined to forest sections, but orchard and shade trees have suffered alike. In many instances whole orchards have been completely stripped of leaves, the fruit standing out on the branches as lone sentinels of the destruction wrought. One orchard that was stripped during the past season was visited on the first of October and the trees were found in full bloom again. Nature was endeavoring to reestablish the promise of seed time and harvest under very discouraging conditions. Life History. The life history of this insect is much the same as that of others of the same family, so that it seems unnecessary to go into it in detail. From my notes of 1909 I select the following: "Moths were flying in abundance during the last week of June. Were attracted to light and remained at rest on the house during the day. On June 30th in the orchard of F. H. Morse of Waterford, Oxford County, found many eggs. They were laid singly on the under side of the leaves and a curious fact was noted that but a single egg was found on a leaf, although there were thousands of 148 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 moths in that section. The eggs are much flattened and are attached very firmly. About fifty per cent of the eggs were hatched and some few had passed the first molt. The owner was instructed to spray his orchard immediately with lead arsenate, 2 lbs. to 50 gallons, but failed to do so until about three weeks later, at which time it took a double dose of the poison to successfully control the caterpillars. "On July 27th, 1908, visited the orchard and woodlot of Nathan Sanborn in Cumberland County. Found several hundred acres of beech, oak, etc., stripped, while hundreds of apple trees were bare and the elms and maples about the house were being defoliated. Turkeys, geese and chickens were busily engaged in adding their mite to the exterminating process. A chicken caught by a hawk but re- leased by the hawk being frightened, was dressed otf, a post mortem examination revealed seventy-five full grow caterpillars of H. gutti- vitta in its crop. The chicken weighed when dressed only one and one-half pounds. Associates. Associated with H. guttivitta, in many cases in great abundance, were Anisota virginiensis and A. ruticunda, together with Symmerista alhifrons. Enemies. Among the enemies noted were a few birds (I believe the great scarcity of birds during the last few years accounts for the wide devastation by this pest) predaceous bugs, especially Podi- sus modestus and beetles of which Calosoma calidum and C. frigidum took the leading part, were quite numerous. Hymenopterous para- sites were much in evidence, so were Tachinid flies, but the leading controlling factor was the presence of a fungous disease which was so effective that whole colonies were practically wiped out. Our friend, the skunk, was busy in some sections. In one instance where a heavy growth of hard wood was completely stripped, no pupse could be found, the ground being dug over completely, apparently by skunks and foxes. Future Outlook. All appearances at the present time point to an early control of this phenomenal outbreak by the above named agents. Mr. Felt: I just want to call attention to Mr. Hitchings' remark in regard to the absence of insectivorous birds, and to state that we have in New York for the last decade suffered greatly from leaf eating caterpillars, presumably on account of the great scarcity of birds. I understood Professor Hitchings to give voice to the sentiment that this caterpillar spread from New York and New Hampshire to Maine. It seems to me the insect became unusuallv abundant over a large April, '10] HEADLEE : THE CORN EAR WORM 149 area at once. In other words, it is not a migration, but an unusual development due to favorable climatic conditions or to the absence of natural enemies. President Britton : Doctor Hewitt will now present his paper on the Larch Saw Fly. THE LARCH SAW FLY (NEMATUS ERICHSONII) By C. Gordon Hewitt, Ottawa, Canada [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere] Mr. S. J. Hunter: The speaker, in introducing his remarlis, stated that this species was parthanogenetic. I would like to know upon what grounds he bases this statement. Mr. Hewitt: By the simple fact that no males were present, and also from the fact that I have reared larvae from unimpregnated females. Afternoon Session, Wednesday, December 29, 1909 Meeting called to order by President Britton at 1.00 p. m. President Britton : The next paper on the programme will be presented by Mr. T. J. Headlee, Manhattan, Kansas. NOTES ON THE CORN EAR-WORM By Thomas J. Headlee, Manhattan, Kan} The fact that corn, which is one of the main sources of income to the people of Kansas, has suffered a damage of about 3.5 per cent to each of the last three crops through the ravages of this insect, coupled with the acknowledged fact that no satisfactory method for its control on corn has been devised, has compelled the writer to plan a study of the com ear-worm for the purpose of finding how it may be controlled. Undertaking the study of this problem was ^ The writer desires to acknowledge the aid rendered him by his student assistant, Mr. Walker McColloch, who under his immediate direction carried out the details of this study, the practical results of which are recorded in this paper. 150 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 rendered still more urgent through the discovery- made by our vet- erinary department that intravenous introduction into horses of certain molds and bacteria found growing on the excrement of the larva in many cases produces symptoms of blind staggers, and that introduction per orem produces well marked cases. As the research has gone forward the writer has become increasingly aware of the magnitude of his task. He has come to see it as one requiring the most fundamental sort of study for its completion. He has no thought of attempting to offer at this time a complete solution for the problem, but hopes merely to set forth briefly a method by means of which this insect's injury to corn may be materially reduced. Only such facts of the corn ear- worm's life history and habits as are necessary to the development of methods of control will be considered in this paper. A majority of the third brood of larvge enter the soil and prepare their winter burrows as has been described and illustrated by Quain- tance and Brues.'^ The pupge into which they transform average three and one-half inches below the surface with one and seven inches as extremes. (This average was determined by the examination of 503 pup^e collected from different cornfields about Manhattan during the springs of 1908 and 1909.) Here they remain until June of the following year. Having found the larvae feeding in great abundance in weed patches and alfalfa fields in the early fall of 1908, the writer fully expected to take the pupae in such situations. Although last spring a 10' x 10' area in a patch of velvet leaf, which in the fall of 1908 was infested with many larva? of various sizes, and several 5' x 5' areas in alfalfa, where in the fall of 1908 the moths deposited their eggs thickly, were selected and carefully examined, nothing could be found. It is probable that parasitic enemies and sharp frosts destroyed the larva?. The data thus far accumulated indicate that the corn ear-worm hibernates mainly in the soil of infested cornfields. The number of pupae varies directly as the field examined has been slightly or badly infested, and although more than one half perish before emergence time from one cause or another, enough survive as a rule to infest almost one hundred per cent of the ears of the new crop without outside aid. The moths begin to emerge in late May and reach maximum emer- gence in early June. Very soon after fertilization the females deposit ' Dr. F. S. Schoenlebei- and assistants, chief of wliom may be mentioned Mr. Thomas P. Haslam, of the veterinary department, Kansas State Agricultural College, have recently found this to be the case. ' 1905, Quaintance and Bi-ues, Bui. No. 50, Bu. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agric. April, '10] HEADLEE: THE CORN EAR- WORM 151 eggs on various useful plants and on weeds, but seem to prefer corn plants to anything else. Indeed, so emphatically is this the case that from the date of emergence to the hardening of the corn, few- eggs are laid anywhere else in the vicinity of cornfields. Until silking begins the eggs are placed on the corn blades and the larvae feed on the tender curl of the corn. After silking commences the eggs are laid almost exclusively on the silk. After the silks dry and shrivel, so long as the stalk, blade and husks remain green, a few eggs are deposited. Gradually all such oviposition ceases and the moths turn their attention to various weeds in and around the cornfields and to adjacent fields of alfalfa. At this time they deposit hundreds of eggs on alfalfa, red clover, velvet leaf, foxtail, bladder ketmia, lamb's quarters, sunflower, soy beans, millet, Amaranthus, sp. and smartweed {Polygonum pennsylvanicum) . CHART NO. I ^^__^_ CD Ld O < I— CD RRnnn ADULT_ EGG LARVA. PUPA ^ HATE ? 9 S —^ 3 dg %( <^/ ^8 2 CO CD E H s s s Chart No. 1. — Diagram sliowiiig the possible numljer of broods of corn ear- worm at Manhattan, Kan. l=pair of first-brood adults from emergence to oviposition; 2=the average of 40 eggs from deposition to hatching; 3=the avei'age of 10 larvae from hatching to pupation; 4=the average of 9 pupse from pupation to emergence of adult; 5=pair of second-brood adults from emergence to oviposition; 6=the average of 30 eggs from deposition to hatch- ing; 7=the average of 10 larvae from hatching to pupation; 8=the average of 10 pupae from pupation to emergence of adult; 9=pair of third-brood adults from emergence to oviposition; 10=the average of 25 eggs from deposition to hatching; ll=the average of 11 larv£e from hatching to pupa- tion; 12=the average of 9 pupae from pupation to emergence of adult; 13=pair of fourth-brood adults from emergence to oviposition; 14=that portion of the third brood of pupae which forms the overwintering brood. While there Is no doubt whatever that the larvae prefer corn and will be found upon it so long as it is present and sufficiently succu- lent for food, there is also no doubt that they are able to develop upon a diet of alfalfa, bladder ketmia, velvet leaf and sorghum and are able to finish their growth on many species other than these. From the time the larvae appear until the corn grows too hard for 153 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 their liking they are found elsewhere only occasionally. After the com ripens they may be found in great numbers in alfalfa, in patches of velvet leaf, on bladder ketmia, and on ground cherry. This fall they were especially abundant in alfalfa. The possible number of broods was determined in an outdoor,, screen insectary by getting eggs from the first moths that emerged in the spring which would oviposit in confinement, breeding these through to moths, taking eggs from the first to emerge, and so con- tinuing throughout the season. Chart No. 1 will serve to give a summary of the results. Examination of this chart shows that the insect experiences three full broods and a partial fourth at Manhattan. The first extends from June 8, 1909, to July 18, 1909, occupying 40 days, under an average mean temperature of 76.1°F. and relative humidity of 78.6° ; the second from July 18, 1909, to August 21, 1909, occupying 34 days, under an average mean temperature of 77.6°F. and relative humidity of 77.2° ; the third from August 21, 1909, to October 13, 1909, occupying 53 days, under an average mean temperature of 72.8°F. and relative humidity of 67.3 °F. The fourth brood is only partial and the young do not reach maturity. Most of the third brood of pupae do not transform to adults in the fall but remain in the ground as the overwintering brood. The actual number of broods has been determined by making fre- quent and regular countings of the number of eggs borne by corn plants of different ages and by observing the prevalence of moths and the age of larvre in the field. The variation in the number of eggs per corn plant for different counts is not sufficiently pronounced to reveal the presence of very distinct maximums indicating distinct broods until the tremendous increase due to the arrival of the third brood appears. The results of plotting the counts for 1908 and 1909 from field corn and constructing curves are shown in chart No. 2. The observer experienced difficulty in the field in separating the first brood from the second, and still more in separating the second brood from the third, and after the arrival of the third lost all dis- tinction between the broods. From the time the third brood came on moths could be found in large numbers and eggs and larvte in all stages at any time. The number of broods as determined by field observations alone is three, but a partial fourth might very well occur as all above-ground stages of the insect may be found until heavy frosts. Study during 1908 had indicated: (1) that early winter plowing would, as has been stated in the literature of this insect, greatly April, "10] HEADLEE : THE CORN EAR- WORM 155J reduce the number of such overwintering pupfe as would survive^ if undisturbed; (2) that the keeping down of weeds in the cornfields, along' fences and over neglected places might prevent those larv£e CHART NO. 2 DATE Chart No. 2. — Deposition of eggs on field corn in relation to time of silk- ing of each variety in each plot. which develop after the corn is ripe from reaching maturity, and that disking the alfalfa in early spring might destroy such as transform to pups in alfalfa fields, thus greatly reducing the numbers of the pest ; ( 3 ) that early planted corn was less injured by the larvae than 154 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 corn planted later and that this difference was probably due to the fact that the early planted corn finished its silking before the third brood came on in full force. In support of finding No. 1, it may be said that in the spring of 1909 four 10' X 10' plots, examined in a field which on September 22 of the preceding fall showed sixty-four per cent of the ears infested and which had been plowed in early winter, gave no living pupae; while two 16' x 16' plots in a field which showed a somewhat larger per cent of infestation the preceding fall and which was undisturbed until spring showed six living pupge. In regard to finding No. 2 it may be said that while, as stated earlier in this paper, our examinations indicate that most, if not all, the pupa? of corn ear-worm winter in the soil of infested cornfields, there is no doubt that the presence of weeds in and around the corn enables many belated larva? to finish their growth. Weeds, therefore, should not be tolerated in such locations. The parasitism of the larvge infesting weed patches and alfalfa fields, particularly the latter, in the autumns of 1908 and 1909 has been exceedingly high and the early hard frosts have destroyed large numbers. Possibly these agencies may account for the absence of pupae in such places. In order to determine the exact relation existing between time of planting and injury and to find out the exact cause of this difference, six standard varieties of corn were planted at different periods. A two and one-half acre plot of ground of uniform character was selected and divided into six plots. In each plot three 150-feet-long rows of each of the six standard varieties of corn were planted. These strains ranged from one hundred and fifteen to one hundred and thirty-five days in time of maturing. They were Leaming, Reid's Yellow Dent, Boone County White, McAuley, Kansas Sun Flower, and Hildreth. The land had previously been in use for wheat breeding. The soil was prepared by spring plowing and working. The corn was cultivated at first deeply, then shallowly, and kept thoroughly clean to the end of the season. The plots were planted as follows : Plot No. 1 April 15th; plot No. 2 May 1st; plot No. 3 May 15th; plot No. 4 June 1st ; plot No. 5 June 15th ; plot No. 6 July 1st. Except for cold weather in the spring, some wind and hail in July, the season was excellent for corn production until the middle of August when the drought became so severe that the yield of plot No. 6 was practi- cally ruined. Plot No. 1 produced corn on cob at the rate of 39.8 bushels per acre; plot No. 2 46.5 bushels; plot No. 3 49.7 bushels; plot No. 4 46.7 bushels; plot No. 5 26.1 bushels; and plot No. 6 corn hardly worth gathering. Plots No. 3 and No. 4 produced more corn April, '10] HEADLEE : THE CORN EAR WORM 155 than plot No. 2 because they experienced less harm from hail and wind. After ripening the corn was gathered into bags, keeping each row separate, and the damage carefully determined. First the average percentage of ears infested in each variety of each plot was determined, then the average percentage of grains destroyed on infested ears of each variety in each plot. The results are graphically represented in charts Nos. 3 and 4. a UJ CD ■< o UJ LjJ O LiJ NO. 3 PLO DATE © = LEAMING ♦ = RE IDS YELLOW DENT * = BOONE CO. WHITE a = M9AULEY «■ = KANSAS SUNFLOWER X =H1LDRETH NO Chart No. 3. — Percentage of ears prod infested by one or more larvae. OF PLANT NG uced by each variety in each plot Chart Xo. 3 clearly shows that the corn in plot No. 2, which was planted May 1st, experienced the smallest percentage of infestation, and that the infestation became constantly greater as the time of planting grew later. Chart No. 4, while the curves are very irregular, shows that in general the smallest number of grains destroyed on infested com was to be found in corn planted May 1st. Thus it is seen that both the largest number of clean ears and the largest number of sound grains per infested ear were produced in corn planted May 1st. To be more exact it may be said that corn planted May 1st produced 6.1 per cent more of its total number of ears clean than that planted April 15th, 14.6 per cent more than that planted May 15th, 30.5 per 156 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 cent more than that planted June 1st, 35.8 per cent more than that planted June 15th, and 36.2 per cent more than that planted July 1st; and it may also be said that the corn planted May 1st lost 1.3 per cent less grains from ears that were infested than that planted April 15th, 1.2 per cent less than that planted May 15th, 3.1 per cent less than that planted June 1st. The outcome of this experiment CHART NO. 4. Cbai-t No. 4. — Perceutage of grains destroyed on Infested ears of each va- riety in eacli plot. indicates that early planting on uninfested or cleaned soil will reduce the com ear-worm damage about 40 per cent. Chart No. 2 shows not only the egg laying of the actual broods, but shows this feature in relation to the time of silking of each variety in each plot. It will be noted that plots 1 and 2 finished silking before the third brood of eggs were deposited and reference to charts No. 3 and No. 4 Avill show that they experienced the least injury. Plot No. 1, with the exception of Hildreth, in which silking came much later than others, remained in silk longer than plot No. 2, thus exposing it for a longer time to oviposition with resulting greater damage. The silking of Hildreth in plot No. 1 is sufficiently later to account for greater injur}-. Plot No. 1 received a "set-back" from April, 'lOj PARROTT : CHERRY ERMINE MOTH 157 cold weather which no doubt accounts for its relatively slow growth. In plots No. 3, No. -4, No. 5 and No. 6 the damage is progressively greater as silking comes more and more completely into the time when the third brood is active. The reason, then, that earlj- planted corn experiences less injury than corn planted later lies in the fact that early planted corn passes through its most attractive stage — silking time — before the third and by far the largest brood has appeared, or at least before it has a chance to do its full work. The experiment further shows that corn planted so early as to get a "set-back" suffers more from this insect than if it were planted just a little later. Clearly the optimum time for planting is just as early as the corn can be put in the ground and escape injury from cold weather. In summing up the practical results of this study, it may be said that the individual corn grower by planting his crop on uninfested or cleaned soil as early as the season will permit may reasonably expect to escape forty per cent of the injury he would otherwise experience. President Brittox : The next paper Avill be read by Mr. George G. Ainslie, Clemson College, S. C. NOTES ON APHIS MADIRADICIS By G. G. AixsLiE, Clemson College [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere.] President Britton : Mr. P. J. Parrott will now present his paper on the Ermine Moths. THE CHERRY ERMINE MOTH {Hyponomeuta padella L.) By P. J. Pakeott, Geneva. N. Y. During June, 1909, several cherry seedlings, completely covered with silken webs, were brought to the Entomological Department for examination by Mr. John ]\Ianey of the Division of Nursery Inspection. The unfamiliar appearance of the nests and the enclosed caterpillars, coupled with the fact that the specimens were taken from 158 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 a plantation of imported nursery stock, led to the conclusion that the insect was a foreign species, and probably an Ermine Moth. Some of the larvie were kept in breeding cages to obtain some adults which began to make their appearance on July 9. These were compared with descriptions of various authorities, and the insect was identified as the Cherry Ermine Moth {Hyponomeuta padella L.), and a state- ment to that effect was published in the Journal of Economic En- tomology, Vol. 2. p. 305. To make certain the identity of the species which we had bred, several specimens of the moths were later sent to Dr. Paul Marchal of the Entomological Station of Paris, who confirmed our identification. This is the first time that the pest has been reported to exist in the United States, and the attention of entomologists is called to the circumstances of its introduction and discovery, and to the economic importance of the Ermine jMoths as fruit pests. General Characters of the Ermine Moths. These moths belong to the genus Hyponomeuta of the Tincina. There are only a few species but the genus is widely distributed. The moths are small, with an expanse of wings varying from twenty to twenty-five milli- meters, according to the species. The anterior wings are snowy-white or greyish, marked with black dots, hence the name Ermine Moths. The hind wings are darker and have long fringes. The classification of the moths is attended with considerable difficulty because of the confusion which has prevailed in the synonymy and the exceeding variableness of the characters which distinguish the species. This is not surprising as the caterpillars and moths of one species resemble like stages of another. The caterpillars of several species have host- plants in common and life histories are very similar. The caterpillars are gregarious and live wdthin a silken web. The cocoons are spun in close proximity to each other in the nests. Species Attacking Fruit Trees and Host-Plants. European writers have generally held that -there are two common species which live on fruit trees, viz. — H. tnalinella Z. and H. padella L. The former is a common pest on apples. It has also been recorded as oc- curring on the wild service tree (Sorhus tormenalis) and Doctor Mar- chaP has reported its presence in destructive numbers on the almond (Amygdalus cotrununis) . The latter, popularly known as the Cherry Ermine Moth feeds principally on the cultivated plum, blackthorn {Primus spinosa) and hawthorn {Cratcegus oxyacantha) . Other ^ Mai-clial, Paul, Bulletin de la Societe d' Etude et de Vulgarisation de la Zo- ologie Agricole, No. 4, p. 13-26. 1902. April, '10] PARROTT: CHERRY ERMINE MOTH 159 host-plants mentioned by various writers are the cultivated. and wild cherry, medlar, apple, Sorbus aucuparia and Fra.ciiius excelsior. The moths of these two species are very similar in appearance and are frequently indistinguishable. Representative specimens of malineUa have the front wings and the fringe white, while padeJIa has the fringe and a portion of the front wings more or less tinted with greyish. Doctor ]\Iarchal is of the opinion that malinella is a variety of padella, which has adapted itself to the apple. Differences are also to be noted in other stages. Rebate and Bernes- state that the cater- pillar of padella is of a greyish-yellow in color, the cocoons are thin in texture, of a greyish-white color, and are more or less isolated in the nest, while the larva of malinella is lighter in color, the cocoons are thicker, and are grouped in clusters. Other species attacking fruit trees are H. mahalehella Gn., which is common on the mahaleb cherry; H. evonymella L. {^padi Z.) which subsists on the European Bird Cherry {Prumis padus) and has been reported as occurring on the cultivated cherry ; and H. irrorella Hb., which usually feeds on the willow and is said to have attacked culti- vated plums. A Native Species of Ermine Moth, There is one native species, H. niultipunctella Clem., which according to Chambers'* is very common in Kentucky. Dyar * records the Atlantic States as its range of dis- tribution and Gaumer has obtained specimens of the species in Kansas. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves of Euonymus afropurpurens Jacq. and spins its webs over the plant as is characteristic of the insects of this genus. Through the kindness of W. D. Kearfott I have been able to examine specimens of the adults, which differ from the foreign species described by the larger number of black dots on the front wings and the marked difference in the coloration of the hind wings of the sexes. All the wings of the male are white, while the female has the anterior wings white and the posterior wings dark grey. Economic Importance. The Ermine Moths are regarded abroad as very destructive pests of fruit trees, and because of their importance to horticultural interests, standard European works of reference on orchard insects usually contain a verv- complete account of these species. Marchal (1) reports that in certain areas of France muli- nella appears almost every year in more or less destructive numbers, and that in some communities where there have been serious outbreaks for successive years, almond trees have been killed. In 1902, malinella ^Rebate, E. and Bernes J., La Chenille Flleuse du Prunier, p. 1-32, 1909. 'Chambers, V. T., Can. Ent, Vol. 4, p. 42, 1872. * Dyar, H. G., List of N. A. Lepidoptera, p. 489, 1902. 160 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 and padella were very abundant and destructive throughout France. The species mahalebella is very cojnmon on the niahaleb cherry at Fontenay, and during some seasons the wild cherries in the hedge- rows were entirely defoliated. During 1897 and 1901, this species was very abundant. Theobald^ regards malinella and padella as im- portant pests in England. The former was very troublesome in this country in 1865, 1877 and 1880, and during the first two named years whole orchards were devastated, the foliage being as bare as midwin- ter. The latter feeds normally on hawthorn, often quite defoliating the hedgerows. Saracomenos" says that a large number of fruit trees such as apple, pears and plums which are grown on an extensive scale on the Island of Cyprus are attacked by malinella and padella. These prove very injurious as they destroy the crops, and if they appear in numbers for a series of years they may cause the death of the trees themselves. The damage occasioned to apple and plum trees is always great. Rebate and Bernes- report that outbreaks of padella occur periodically. In 1843 in Lot and Garonne all trees were attacked but in the following year the pe.st failed to appear. From 1867 to 1871, in 1882 and again in 1888 considerable damage was done by the insect. The outbreak of 1901 was followed by a more severe one in 1902, and it was not till 1904 that the insect was under the control of its natural enemies. During 1908 the caterpillars again increased to destructive numbers, and as was predicted serious depredations occurred during 1909. It is feared that greater damage will be done by these pests during 1910. Other writers comment in like manner on the destruc- tive capacity of these insects. Life Histories and Habits. The life histories of the different species are very similar. According to Marchal (1) the female 7nali- nella deposits her eggs during July on small twigs in oval patches about four or five millimeters in diameter. The eggs are covered with a glutinous substance which is at first yellow, but which gradually becomes brown, resembling the color of the bark. In each mass there are from fifty to eighty eggs, which are placed in rows, overlapping one another like tiles on a roof. Hatching takes place during early autumn, but the tiny caterpillars remain sheltered through the winter under the protecting crust of the egg mass. During the follow- ing spring the young larvae abandon their hibernating quarters, and enter the expanding buds, where they assemble in numbers between the sepals of the calyx and petals of the blossom buds or between two = Theobald, F. V., lusect Pests of Fruit, pp. 86-91, 1908. ' Saracomenos, D., Cyprus Journal, No. 11, p. 275, 1908. April, '10] PARROTT: CHERRY ERMINE MOTH 161 leaves of the leaf buds. In the early part of May they then burrow into the parenchymatous tissues of the leaves. As many as a dozen of the caterpillars may exist in one colony. The presence of the pest is indicated at this time by the injured leaves turning red in spots. Later abandoning their mines, the larvae feed openly on the foliage, and spin webs in which they live together in colonies. During the month of June the larger tents are formed, and in severe attacks the tree is stripped of its foliage, and is covered with a sheeting of the dirty, ragged remains of their discolored webs. The cocoons are spun side by side in the nest, in which the larvae pupate and from which the moths commence to appear in early July. The life history of padellu differs from that of maUneUa in that the larva? are not leaf miners. Distribution of the Cherry Ermine Moth, The Cherry Ermine Moth has only been found in one locality in the State of New York. Eight nests were obtained, and with the exception of a few cater- pillars, which were kept in the laboratorj^ to breed adults, the material was destroj^ed. Repeated examinations failed to find any more evi- dences of the insect in this plantation, which like all other plantings of foreign stocks, has been under very close supervision this year, because of the discovery during the early spring of nests of the Brown- Tail Moth among these same importations. Present knowledge indi- cates that the Ermine ]\Iotli has not established itself in this state. Inspection of Foreign Shipments of Nursery Stock. The dis- covery of this insect is a good example of the importance and value of efficient inspection and of the need of a closer surveillance of for- eign shipments of nursery stock. Owing to their destructive character, entomologists should be on the lookout for evidences of the Ermine ]\Ioths in nursery plantations, especially of recent importations, as these insects can be introduced in such shipments, and if once estab- lished they may prove a serious menace to our nursery and orchard interests. For the protection of nurseries, inspectors should be on the alert for plants, enclosed with webs, which should be immediately uprooted and destroyed. Sprajdng with arsenicals has been found in France to be an effective remedy for the treatment of orchards. President Britton: The next paper will be read by Prof. F. L. Washburn, St. Anthony Park, Minn., entitled "Further Obseiwations on the Apple Leaf Hopper (Empoasca mali) and Notes on Papai- penia nitela and P. catapKracta. 4 162 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 1. FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON EMPOASCA MALI; 2. NOTE^ ON PAPAIPEMA NITELA AND P. CATAPHRACTA By F. L. Washburn, St. Anthoiiii Park, Minn. FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON EMPOASCA MALI In a paper read before the Association last year the following statements were made concerning this insect, as the result of two years' work: {a) Fall laid eggs were not found on any herbaceous plant. {b^ The insect winters only in the egg stage, (c) Oviposition in sum- mer was found to occur on the petiole of apple and clover, with the probability of its occurring on other herbaceous plants, (d) List of •food plants was given, (e) Five nymphal stages were reported, cov- ering a period of about twenty-two days. (/") Adults may live four- teen days or over; (1907 experiments indicate that they may live thirty days or more), (g) The location and appearance of the winter egg blister, and the contained egg was discussed and illustrated, [h) Certain observations on remedial measures were given. This work was done to a very large extent either personally or under the direction of Doctor Franklin, and the work this season has been continued under his supervision. The following data are either new, or confirm the findings of the two previous years. This species deposits its winter eggs only on perennials, and of perennials, as far as can be determined, only on the apple. One young nymph was found on the willow, and one on- plum. In each case these trees were only fifty yards from apple trees, and the nymphs may have been blown to the former trees or carried on larger insects or on the feet of birds. It seems desirable, for the sake of conven- ience in following the records bearing upon the life history of this insect, to arrange our findings in chronological order, therefore: June 4th to 10th. At the time when nymphs were found on the apple nymphs were also gathered from the elm, white oak. red oak, gooseberry, black birch, white birch, linden, and reared to adult con- dition. These were all found to be species other than E. mali. Cur- rant bushes, box-elder, mountain ash, dogwood and other perennials were examined carefully during the first two weeks in June, but no nymphs or adults of any species were found. One nymph was found on willow June 11th, and two on plum June 7th. The one on willow and one of those on the plum were reared and proved to be E. mali. These have been referred to above, and their occurrence on these trees possibly accounted for. April, '10] WASHBURN: EMPOASCA AND PAPAIPEMA 163 As proof that no winter eggs are laid on herbaceous plants we cite the results of experiments in which such plants badly infested during the summer and fall of 1908, and still plainly showing the effects of attack, were brought into the insectarj' and kept in the cold room through the winter. Upon some of these plants living specimens were found as late as October 8th. No individuals, however, survived the winter, nor did nymphs emerge from the tissues in the spring of 1909. June 4th. No adults on apple trees, but nymphs in all stages. Adults found on alfalfa adjoining apple orchard, but no nymphs, this being a further proof that this insect does not pass the winter in the egg stage on alfalfa. Sweeping this field from time to time resulted in securing the following collections of adults on the dates named: June 4th, 46 ; June 9th, 91 ; June 11th, 192 ; June 14th, 177. On the 12th and 13th there were heavy rains, which may account for the falling off from June 11th. June 21st, 268, one nymph first stage. This is the first appearance of summer broods on herbaceous plants according to our observations. The field which we had been using was then cut, and the following observ^ations were made on a smaller field: June 25th, 275 adults and a few nymphs of the first stage. July 9th. Nymphs on clover in large numbers, no nymphs on alfalfa. August 24th. Raspberry leaves badly infested. August 26th. No egg blisters on apple branches. September 13th. Egg blisters present on apple trees near clDver field in considerable numbers, so numerous that probably egg laying- had begun several days previously, yet it would seem that ovipositing was still going on at that date, since these blisters were not so numer- ous as they were late in the previous fall when egg-laying was over with. September 17th. Very few nymphs found on alfalfa and clover. Number of Broods : May 21st eggs hatched in insectary from apple twigs collected by Franklin in the fall of 1908. Since the emergence of these nymphs from the egg blisters may have a possible bearing upon remedial measures, I may be pardoned for taking the time to describe the process. The nymphs emerge from the blisters through the opening made by oviposition, making this opening some- what larger during the process. We found that if the weather was warm emergence was complete in a few minutes. In one case it took five minutes from the time the vertex of the head appeared until it got completely out of the blister. In another case it took over thir- teen minutes. Young hoppers were observed still emerging from egg blisters in large numbers as late as May 26th, at which time the 164 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 flower buds on the apple trees were on the point of opening. These observations prove that there is now no question but that the egg blisters so carefully measured by Franklin last fall on the branches of the trees in the apple orchard were those of E. niali. June 4th. First young of the second brood collected on alfalfa. July 17th. Adults first appeared from the young of June 21st; possibly they were present a few days earlier, for experiments and observations of 1907 and 1908 both show there is an average of twenty-two days in the nymphal stages. Some of these adults of the second brood were placed on selected box elder seedlings, free from any insect, in lamp chimney breeding cages, for two days. On July 31st the first young appeared. The egg stage at this season of the year varied from seven to thirteen days, nine and one-half days being the average. If we add twenty-two days to this date, the time of hatching the egg, we get August 22d, the date on which the first of the third generation became adult. Winter egg blisters were not found until fairly late in September, therefore it would seem that these adults of the third brood lay eggs for a fourth summer generation. Further, the finding of nymphs nearly as late as November 1st, 1908, would also indicate a fourth brood or partial fourth brood in Minnesota. Economic Work : Doctor Franklin conceived the idea of a hopper dozer to be carried along nursery rows by two men. This hopper dozer consisted of a frame of wood, covered with light canvas, the canvas being covered inside with either crude oil, or some sticky substance. Such a machine was constructed, having a padded cross bar in such a position as to jar the tree, the purpose being to cause the hoppers to fly off and come in contact with the oil or other sub- stance on the inside of the canvas. We found, however, that this bar, which was to serve as a bumper, was too far forward, and caused the tree to bend forward and strike the tree ahead, frightening the leaf hoppers from that tree, and hence nearly nine tenths of the hoppers escaped. Learning from this year's experience we perhaps can remedy these defects, and try the same thing w^ith certain modifica- tions next year. The crude oil which we used was not satisfactory, but the tanglefoot we found to be excellent. We made an imperfect trial of lights, with negative results. It has also occurred to us that in the spring of the year nursery trees might be sprayed with a resin compound, or some sticky sub- stance in connection with some of the standard solutions used at this time of the year, so coating the branches with a material harmless to the tree and preventing the emergence of the nymphs. April, '10] WASHBURN: EMPOASCA AND PAPAIPEMA 165 Parasites: We have reared no parasites from Empoasca mali. NOTES ON PAPAEPEMA NITELA AND P. CATAPHRACTA Papaipema NITELA : Eggs of tliis species, figured on page 153 of our Twelfth Report, were laid about September 15th, 1908. A good many hatched on May 24th and 25th, 1909, the hatching being com- pleted May 29th. In all about one hundred caterpillars emerged. They at once showed the leaf-mining habit by making galleries in the leaves of giant bur-elder seedlings, which happened to be in the cage where they hatched, completely riddling the leaves of these plants (see drawings and photos). The caterpillars in their earlier stages moved like Geometrids. On May 28th about eighty-four larvae from this hatching, which had not had the opportunity to establish them- selves in mines, were placed upon selected bur-elder seedlings. Ac- cording to Doctor Franklin's notes this was done about 5.30 on the above date. At 8 a. m. the next day, May 29th, they had all made quite elaborate galleries in the leaves of these seedlings. On June 2d, after about four days of leaf mining, it was noted that they were working down toward the bases of the leaves, and some had entered the petioles. On June 4th many of the larvae had bored into the stalks — the tallest plants at that time being about five inches high. On July 7th many of these plants had been killed by the borers, and the larvae so deprived of their food plants had entered their second plants. At this date host plants No. 2 were about two feet high, and the galleries therein were about four inches long. On July 22d the larvae were from one to one and a fourth inches long, and the galleries had increased much in extent. In one plant two caterpillars were found, and in this one the entrance hole of the lower caterpillar was nine inches from the ground, and that of the upper, thirteen inches from the ground, the galleries in each case being above the entrance holes. On August 17th about all the larva which we had reared from eggs had disappeared from the plants. A few of the galleries contained pupae. Therefore, P. nitela larvae may attack two plants in the course of its life, but evidently never more than two. The first moth reared in captivity from the above material, emerged August 24th (one week earlier than last year), and the last one October 1st. Two seasons ' observations indicate that the pupal stage lasts, on an average, twenty-three days. P. nitela was reared from the following food plants this season : Nicotiani, lamb's quarters, tomato, giant ragweed, cocklebur, peony, 166 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 burdock and giant bur-elder, the last plant being, for the two seasons during which this pest was under observation, the worst affected. On August 1st two larvfe of P. nitela were found in giant ragweed, with their entrance holes twenty-one inches above the ground, and three other larvse on the same date were discovered with entrance holes six feet above the ground. On the same date twelve nitela larvffi were found in a single giant bur-elder three feet high. Some of these were in the stalk, and some in the branches. In every case the burrow ascended from the entrance hole. On September 3d many empty burrows were found (evidently of both P. nitela and P. cataphracta) in hemp and other plants, indicating that a large per cent of the larvee enter the ground to pupate. P. CATAPHRACTA : On July l-tth these were first observed working on young box elders. From this date on they were found to be quite common until nearly August 23d, when the last found larvae pupated in captivity. Pupation, however, began August 7th, which is about the same date it was observed last year. On August 13th the first moth in captivity emerged. The food plants as observed in 1909 are as follows : Burdock, box elder, giant bur-elder, hollyhock, cosmos, peony, larkspur, dahlia, thistle, aster, ragweed, tiger lily. It was not found at all in either hemp or golden glow this year. In both 1908 and 1909 it was found most common in burdock. The highest entrance hole in any plant found this year was four feet and two inches from the ground. The burrows did not extend below the lowest hole in any case. I wish to state, however, that from personal observation I do not think it safe to say that they never burrow below the entrance hole, since I believe I have sometimes found the galleries in this position. Observations on the Migrations of the Larvae in Search of Food Plants: As shown above, the larva^ of one of these species, and probably both, may infest two food plants, and experiments were carried on with a number of nearly or quite full grown larvas to observe their movements in seeking food. Larva were placed in various locations in our experiment garden, and their movements watched for several hours, frequently until they stopped apparently exhausted and finally died without being allowed to enter any food plant. It would seem from these observations, in which we marked carefully the course of each larva, that they seldom if ever travel any considerable distance in a straight line from the place where they first hatch. The caterpillar making the best record in actual distance, traveled in all seventy-nine feet before stopping from exhaustion, but this course was so irregular and tortuous that when it finished April, '10] WASIIBrUX : EMPOASCA AND PAPAirEMA ]67 it was only fourteen feet in actual distance from the starting point. Another larva traveled a distance of fifty-six feet before becoming exhausted and at that time was only sixteen and one-half feet from its starting point; a third traveled a total distance of fifty-five feet, and ended twenty-four feet from the starting point, this being the farthest distance reached from the starting point of which we have record. These larvae were all practically full grown. Occasionally ants appeared to attack the larva? and cause considerable annoyance. Plants, the lower part of whose stems were covered with tangle- foot, were completely exempt from injury. It was repeatedly ob- served in these experiments that when a larva got within a foot or two of a food plant, it had to be constantly turned away from it, since it showed great determination to reach the stems of the desired plant. The two charts shown illustrate the devious routes of two of these larvae. In one it will be noted that a fairly straight course was taken through plot 46, filled with tomatoes. This was undoubtedly brought about by the fact that although it sought to enter the tomatoes, it was kept away from them constantly, hence the somewhat straight course through that plot. Each plot as shown was four feet square, and the space between the plots was four feet. The parks about Minneapolis and St. Paul are kept remarkably clean and free from weeds, and several days spent in examining flower beds in these parks resulted in finding that they were almost entirely free from the attacks of stalk borers. When these pests were present they were always found in beds located in a neglected corner of the park near some weedy patch, it being evident in these cases that the larva^ came from the weeds. Economic Suggestions and Experiments : It is very evident that where flower gardens and their environment can be kept perfectly free from weeds, freedom from attacks of this pest is assured. From our own observation it is clear that it is very desirable to clear up weeds that start during the latter part of May and during June in such places, because at that time any young larv® which may be min- ing the leaves of the weeds, will be destroyed with the weeds. Further, it is not probable, from what we have seen in our own experimental garden, that these pests make extensive migrations to other plants. Occasions arise, however, when an owner of a garden cannot control adjoining ground, which may be weedy, in which case it is necessary to find some means of keeping the larvae out of the garden entirely. Without going into details of the experiments which we have tried this last summer, experiments which called for the planting of very 168 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 many plots similar to what are shown on these charts, using such food plants as hemp, peony, dahlia, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, golden glow, asters, tiger lilies, hollyhocks, giant bur-elder, giant ragweed, burdock, daisies, sunflowers, etc., we may say briefly that the most effective barrier found was a thin board smeared with tanglefoot on the outside. This board was about one eighth of an inch thick, and about five inches wide, and placed in the ground edgewise, around the four sides of the plot. The tanglefoot should be put on an inch or so above the ground, so that it could not be easily coated with earth by the spattering occasioned in the event of heavy showers; and whatever sticky substance is used, it should be of such a nature as to either remain sticky, or be kept sticky by several applications, from June 1st to August 1st. The fact that the larvas show a strong tendency, when within about two feet of their favorite food plants, to go to said food plants directly, suggests that possibly a barrier of weeds might be placed around a garden, thus providing the caterpillars hatched outside the garden with food, and making it unnecessary for them to travel to the flower beds. These would have to be burned in the fall, of course. They would have to be in position during the last of May, or early part of June. Parasites : These two species appear to be extensively parasitized, since we have reared many individuals of Tachinids from them. From P. cataphracta, Hypostena variabilis Coq., and from P. nitela also an Exorisfa sp. also Masicera myoidcea Desv. in large numbers, the last named being identified by Professor Aldrich. From a breeding cage containing both species we reared what I regard as Ichneumon Icetus, and evidently Ichneumon orpheus Cress. From some material emerging from the pupa of P. nitela Professor Aldrich also named for us an Ortalid, CJuetopsis aencea Wied. We have considerably more parasitic material from these two species of at least one genus and parasitic. Mr. Sanderson : I would like to inquire if the leaf hopper causes serious damage to old apple trees? Does the work of this insect affect the growth of old trees seriously ? Mr. Brues: In regard to the Ortalids, it is well known that the species of at least one genus are parasitic. Mr. Sanderson: The reason I asked these questions was because some trees in New Hampshire have suffered in the past season from the attack of leaf hoppers. April, "10] OKANE : THE APPLE MAGGOT 16» Mr. Felt: I do not know what the conditions are in New Hamp- shire. Some injurj^ has resulted in New York State, but upon sub- mitting specimens to Mr. Van Duzee they were determined as Typhlocyba rosce Linn. President Brittok: The next paper on the programme will be read by Mr. A. G. Hammar. Washington, D. C, entitled "Methods Used in Rearing the Grape Root-Worm {Fidia viticida Walsh) and the Codling Moth." METHODS IN REARING THE GRAPE ROOT-WORM, FIDIA VITICIDA WALSH, AND THE CODLING MOTH, CARPOCAPSA POMONELLA L. By A. G. Hammar, Bureau of Entomology, North East, Pa., Field Station This paper was accompanied by lantern slides showing breeding cages and other devices used in the rearing of the insects, with a sum- mary account of the results obtained with the Grape Root-worm. [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere.] President Britton : The next paper on the programme will be presented by Mr. W. C. O'Kane, Durham, N. H., entitled "Work on the Apple Maggot." WORK ON THE APPLE MAGGOT By W. C. O'Kane. Durham, X. H. In New Hampshire today the most serious orchard pest is the Apple Maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella, Walsh. Four factors contribute to this: 1. The apple is a principal crop in New Hampshire. 2. The infestation is now general throughout the lower two thirds of the state, including the entire apple growing section. 3. While formerly found in early or sweet varieties, usually grown for home use, the insect is now spreading rapidly to the winter fruit, which is the commercial mainstay of the orchardist. 4. No positive, effective and practical remedy is known; at least, none that we may recommend with certainty to the grower who happens to have a careless neighbor, that does not keep his fallen fruit picked up, or to the man whose trees may lie partly along a 170 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 stone wall where drops are sure to lodge undetected. Incidentally most orchards in New Hampshire are provided with such walls, varying in thickness from eighteen inches to five feet. Twenty years ago Professor Harvey in Maine published his mono- graph of the Apple Maggot. It was a good piece of work. The anat- omy and histology of the insect were worked out; the fact was dis- covered and proved that the egg is inserted beneath the skin of the apple, not laid on the surface; matters of consequence in the life his- tory were determined ; and remedial measures were suggested. Since then Rhode Island has done some work, and the subject has been touched on elsewhere. No investigation in entomology is ever complete. Matters un- thought of, or untouched because they seemed trivial, turn out to be important. The Apple Maggot is no exception. There are gaps in our knowledge of the insect. And it remains still a half-solved prob- lem, which means that, economically, it is not solved at all. We have undertaken to fill these gaps, so far as we can ; and to find the remedy, if it lies in our power to discover it. To trace the spread of the insect in the state, and to get at certain economic phases of the problem, we are securing from the growers detailed reports of the conditions in their orchards. We furnish them with two printed blanks. One contains a list of seventy-two varieties of apples, and we ask them to indicate those that are badly infested, those moderately infested and those free from attack. The other contains numerous questions. We ask them what their loss has been this year ; how long their trees have been infested ; how their trees are situated — whether in sod, cultivation or pasture, whether any lie along a stone wall. We want to know if they have ever allowed any sheep in their orchard, any pigs, any chickens, any cows, and — what is equally to the point — what time of year were they turned into the orchard and when removed. We ask them if they keep the fallen fruit picked up, and — again an important point — how often. Other similar questions are included in this blank. These reports are coming in rapidly, and are both interesting and valuable. Some of the data may be crude and some unreliable, but much is to the point and all is suggestive. In the matter of life history and habits we are giving particular attention to some eight or ten problems, all of them now more or less obscure. We want to know what becomes of the larvae in winter apples — for they are there, half grown, as late as December. A lot of these apples are now" under observation. Records have been made in various orchards that will form the basis for a study of the flying April, '10] OKANE : THE APPLE MAGGOT 171 powers or wandering habits of the adult female — in other words, the possible danger zone of an infested tree. Later we hope to deter- mine the time that elapses after the female emerges before it is ready to lay eggs, and the feeding habits during this period. This fall we have started on a study of the depth to which the larvae go to pupate, under various conditions, and the time that elapses after the larva issues from the fruit until it begins to pupate. Most winter apples in New Hampshire are kept for a while in storage of one kind or another, either in a fruit cellar or under refrigeration. We have secured infested and non-infested apples of the same variety, from the same orchard, and of as nearly identical quality as possible. We have placed these in storage, to observe the deterioration of the one as compared with the other, both during and after storage, and the effect on the vitality and development of the larv«. Apparentl}^, in orchards of a hard, winter variety, such trees as are infested will show fruit ripening a little in advance of the rest. We have set ourselves to find out whether this fruit ripens prema- turely because of the presence of the larv« in it, or whether certain trees with a trifle earlier bearing proclivities offer fruit more attrac- tive to the egg laying female. By means of limb cages, and con- trolled infestation, we hope to accomplish this. Data are in shape, and plans are now being made, for a thoro tryout of methods of control, on a sufficiently large scale to be con- •clusive. These will include cultural methods, such as deep plowing; repeated, shallow cultivation; removal of fallen fruit; and the use of livestock, especially hogs, sheep and chickens. Another plan that will have a thoro trying-out is the use of sweet- ■ened arsenicals to poison the adult prior to the beginning of egg laying. The success achieved by Mr. Mally in South Africa this last season, in adapting this remedy to the Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata, Wied., leads us to hope for good results here. The insects are not the same at all, but their habits are similar. Finally, in a biological way this insect presents an interesting ques- tion of possible races within a species. It is a fact that we may have ■early, infested fruit close to late fruit, with the latter free from Attack. Equally is it true that in other cases the late fruit is badly infested. The question then arises : Whether within this species there may not be definite racial limits corresponding to the widety diver- gent characteristics of early summer apples and of late winter fruit ; these limits defined by the inability of a race maturing normally in the one to adapt itself in the next generation to the variety inhabited 172 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 by the other race, altho these two races show no structural differences. By isolating fruit with limb cages and making use of artificial infesta- tion we hope to get some interesting lights on this problem. It is of immediate practical value because it means danger or no danger from infested wayside or farmyard trees lying near commercial orchards. Probably the foregoing will keep us rather well occupied and doubtless other phases will turn up later. Some of the members of this association have had experience in working out a problem of this type. We should be very glad to re- ceive from these any suggestions as to what to do and what not to do in our work. Mr. Braucher : AVhat is the best method of protecting fruit from this insect, and how can you tell whether the fruit is infested? My experience has been that there is not much indication of infestation on the outside of the fruit. Mr. O'Kane: In the case of certain varieties of apple, it is some- times difficult to determine whether or not fruit is infested with this insect, although it is always possible to do so by. critically examining it with a hand lens. President Britton : Doctor Felt will now present his paper, en- titled "Spraying for the Codling Moth." SPRAYING FOR THE CODLING MOTH By E. P. Felt, Albany, N. Y. The main purpose of our experiments was to test the relative efficiency of a coarse driving spray, such as that produced by a typi- cal Bordeaux nozzle with a pressure of over 100 pounds, in compari- son with the fine misty spray of the Vermorel nozzle and its various, modifications. Comparisons were made between single sprays of each of the above mentioned kinds, applied just after the blossoms fell (plots 1 and 4), between two sprays of each kind, one given just after the blossoms fell and the second just before the sepals closed (plots 2 and 5), and finally between two such sprays and a third applied with a Friend nozzle the last week in July, for the purpose of destroying the second brood of the codling moth (plots 3 and 6). These experiments were conducted in a young orchard belonging to Mr. W. H. Hart of Arlington, X. Y., near Poughkeepsie, the first April, '10] FELT : THE CODLIXG MOTH 173 being duplicated in the orchard of Edward VanAlstyne at Kinder- hook. The Hart orchard is on a moderately high hill, the trees being thrifty, about fifteen years old, 15 to 18 feet high and 30 feet apart. Each plot consisted of approximately forty-two trees, six trees in a row one way and seven in a row the other way, the central six being the actual experimental trees and invariably Baldwins, though some of the barrier trees were Northern Spys. The experimental trees were carefully selected for uniformity of size, fruitage and infesta- tion. An examination of one resulted in finding thirteen empty codling moth cells and of another, none. These were not in the experimental area. The orchard as a whole had not been sprayed much prior to the past season. The spraying followed the usual practice of orchardists, the aim being to cover the entire tree and especially to hit the tips of the young apples with the spray. The Bordeaux nozzles were set so as to give a maximum of rather coarse spray which would not break up into fine drops till about six feet from the nozzle. The aim of this application was to drive the poison straight down into the tip of every young apple, the nozzle being held about 18 to 24 inches from the fruit so far as possible, and the pressure being maintained at about 150 pounds. This gave a stiff, penetrating spray which repeatedly passed the stamens and collected in the lower cavit}', especially in the first application. Despite the above, it was found practically impossible to fill the lower calyx cavity in all cases, espe- cially was this true during the second spraying after the stamen bars had withered a little. An examination showed that the dried tips of these organs were very likely to become entangled and present a most effective barrier to the passage of the spray. In practice it was found much more difficult to cover a tree thoroughly with the Bordeaux type of nozzle than it was with the much broader and more evenly distributed spray coming from the Vermorel nozzle. The trees were sprayed with 514 pounds of Grasselli's arsenate of lead and 10 pounds of copper sulfate to each 150 gallons of spray, enough lime being added to neutralize the copper sulfate as deter- mined by the Ferro-cyanide test. The first application was made May 20, the second May 31 and the third June 28. Two check trees were left in the immediate vicinity of the experimental plots. Observations upon the growth and development of the fruit were made at interv^als during the season, and on September 13 and 1-1 the dropped apples were collected and carefully sorted. It was then found that there were from 14.91 per cent to 26.67 per cent of wormy fruit under the experimental trees, while the check trees had 73.91 174 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [ToL 3 and 81.02 per cent, respectively, of wormy fruit. The apples were picked October 5 to 7 and the remaining windfalls and all on the trees carefully sorted, and these figures, combined with those obtained earlier in the season, were brought together in the following table. SUMMARY OF PLOTS Total No. of Fruit. Clean Fruit. Wormy Fruit. Plot. No. Per cent. No. Per cent. Range of per cent between trees. Range in No. be- tween trees. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Check. 30,177 10,316 9,680 20,313 19,275 7,710 3,251 29,818 10,206 9,582 20,017 19,084 7,633 2,366 98.81 98.93 98.99 98.55 99.01 99. 72.73 359 110 98 296 191 77 885 1.19 1.07 1.01 1.45 .99 1. 27.27 .63- 3.16 .61- 2.66 .32- 2.64 .96- 2.64 .49- 1.51 .59- 2.74 25.71-33.57 30-111 6- 30 4- 29 36- 80 15- 61 4- 23 217-668 Bearing in mind that plots 1 to 3 were sprayed Avith Vermorel nozzles and 4 to 6 with Bordeaux nozzles, as described above, it will be seen that in each of these groups there is a successive decrease in the number of wormy fruit obtained from the various plots. This, while apparently significant, has no bearing upon the problem, since there is a similar decrease in the total number of fruit upon the trees of the various plots. The percentages of clean fruit or the percent- ages of wormy fruit, it will be seen, are remarkably uniform for each of the six plots, showing that so far as this orchard is concerned under conditions obtaining the past season, there was very little difference between treatment with a coarse driving spray applied at a relatively high pressure and a finer spray which under no conditions could be driven with much force. Furthermore, it is impossible from a study of the percentages, to find any very marked benefit from the second and third applications unless it be in the case of the treat- ments with the Bordeaux nozzle. Even then the latter only approxi- mate and hardly exceed the results obtained with the Vermorel nozzle. As pointed out before, it was found much more difficult to cover a tree thoroughly with the Bordeaux than with the Vermorel nozzle. Reference to the check trees shows a material benefit accruing from even one application, since the sprayed plots gave at least 98.55 per cent of worm free fruit, while the unsprayed or check trees produced but 72.73 per cent of worm free fruit. April, '10] FELT : THE CODLING MOTH 175 An analysis of the records of individual trees in the various plots summarized in the following table, discloses an interesting condition. VARIATION IN INDIVIDUAL TREES Plot. Maximum Tree. No. Fruit. Per cent Wormy. Minimum Tree. No. Fruit. Per cent Wormy. Range in No. of Wormy Fruit. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8,745 3,649 2,298 5,044 5,137 3,.S21 2,507 226 417 3,002 994 767 3.16 2.66 2.64 2.64 1.50 2.74 30-111 6- 30 4- 29 36- 80 15- 61 4- 23 The maximum tree of a plot invariably produced the lowest or nearly the lowest percentage of w^ormy fruit, while the reverse was true of the minimum tree. It will be seen that the variation in num- ber of wormy apples on the various trees was not very great, indicat- ing a fairly uniform degree of infestation. Were such to be true we would expect a lower percentage, as shown by the figures for wormy fruit, on the heavily laden trees. A reference to the record of the plots as a whole shows practically no variation in the percentages of wormy fruit between the more and the less productive plots. This may be due in part to the fact that the plots sprayed two and three times yielded less fruit than those receiving one application of poison — the smaller yield offsetting in a measure the benefit derived from the second and third sprayings. It may be inferred from the above that unusually favoring condi- tions resulted in this somewhat anomalous showing. The first experi- ment, that is, a single application with the Bordeaux and the Ver- morel nozzles was also tried at Kinderhook under different condi- tions, since the trees were older and, moreover, were in the vicinity of still older trees. There is every reason for believing that the codling moth was more abundant in this latter orchard than in the first named. Two plots were laid out in the same manner as at Poughkeepsie and thoroughly sprayed. One plot gave an average of 98.96 per cent of worm free fruit and the other of 98.27, while the check trees produced but 73.08 per cent of worm free fruit. Owing to there being no engine available for these latter experiments and the difficulty of maintaining a suitable pressure by hand, the 176 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 spraying was not as thorough as that at Poughkeepsie. The result is shown in a slight lowering in the percentage of perfect fruit. A study of the wormy fruit gives some interesting data, since it was found on plots 1 to 3, that 10% to 18.36% of all the wormy apples were entered at the end, an average of 14% end wormy. Similarly, in the case of plots 4 to 6, the variation was from 9.94% to 12.50% ot an average of 11.50% of end wormy apples in the total infested. Comparing these percentages with the 69.37% end wormy of the infested apples on the two check trees, it will be seen that the major proportion of the codling moth larvae destroyed, must have l)een killed in or about the blossom end because of the enormous reduction in the sprayed fruit of the number of end wormy apples. There is a slight percentage in this respect in favor of the coarse spray with the Bordeaux nozzles. Duplicate experiments in another orchard at Kinderhook gave 17.51% to 18.9% end wormy fruit on the sprayed trees, while on the check trees there were 37.28% end wormy fruit. It is evident from the above that the spraying results in the marked reduction in the percentage of end wormy fruit, and that this benefit is secured in large measure at least, without regard to the amount of poison driven into the lower calyx cavity. The results given above would seem to justify, so far as the Hud- son River is concerned, the belief that one thorough spraying with a Vermorel nozzle within a week or ten days after the blossoms fall, will result in protecting a very large percentage of the fruit from ■codling moth injury. Mr. Rumsey: I have a set of photographs with me showing the :final results of a test we made at the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station to determine the relative merits of a mist spray and a coarse, high pressure spray for the codling moth. Before passing the pictures I will give some details of the experiment. Fifty- three Ben Davis trees were used in the work. Twenty-four trees were sprayed four times with three pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of Bordeaux, using a "Vermorel" nozzle with a pressure of about one hundred pounds. The same number of trees were sprayed once with one pound of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water, using a "Bordeaux" nozzle, connected to the spray rod by an attach- ment bent at an angle of 45°, with a pressure of two hundred to two hundred and fifty pounds. The spray was applied just after the petals fell. To the trees which received four sprayings the last spray w^as applied July 21. Five trees of the same variety were reserved April, '10] FELT : THE CODLING MOTH 177 as checks. Five trees were also selected from each of the different methods of treatment. The fruit from the fifteen trees was examined about every two weeks during the season, beginning with the June drop. A record was made of the wormy apples as to whether the worms entered at the calyx, side or stem of the fruit. While the test was made primarily against the codling moth a record was also kept of the curculio marked apples. The percentages marked on the photographs are simply those obtained from the picked fruit as seen in the pictures. "When we take into consideration the dropped apples from the check trees, the per cent of wormy and curculio marked fruit will be increased as it may also be in the sprayed trees. The average per cent of wormy and curculio marked fruit as seen in the pictures is as follows : - Check trees : per cent wormy, 36 ; per cent curculio marked, 34. Mist spray : per cent wormy, 3 ; per cent curculio marked, 11. Coarse spray (high pressure): per cent wormy, 2; per cent cur- culio marked, 11. Mr. Sanderson : Doctor Felt 's results correspond exactly with what I have secured in New Hampshire. I would like to know what results he got from the use of the Friend nozzle. I wish there was some way of using the word "Ver- morel, " as applied to the different forms of nozzles, without using the one name. I think we had better refer it to the Committee on Nomenclature, and get a name for the special kinds. It has been suggested that this form of nozzles be called the "Disc" type, which term seems worthj^ of adoption. My experience has been that the Friend is superior to the old noz- zle. As regards the driving spray: I do believe that the driving spray is superior in that you can get the spray into the tree, and get the fruit treated, w^hich you cannot do with a mist spray. Mr. Felt : I have the very highest respect for Professor Sander- ■son's opinions, but I must take a diametrically opposite position. I must say, from my observations, that you mil have great difficulty in covering the trees thoroughly \nth a driving spray. Mr. Braucher: The first season that I used the Bordeaux nozzle my experience was the same as Doctor Felt's; I was unable to cover the trees thoroughly when using a single nozzle. By using two nozzles the past season with a Y and a 45° crook, having the nozzles set so the two fan-shaped sprays were parallel to each other and to the iorizon and at right angle to the extension rod I was able to do very 5 178 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 satisfactoiy work. When the nozzles are properly set and the coarse spray is used the fans meet about four or five feet from the nozzles and at 200 pounds pressure give a fine driving spray that can be directed downward into the calyx cups and do very satisfactory work. Secretary Burgess: I would suggest to the members that after they see the spraying demonstration tomorrow, they try an adapta- tion of the solid stream spray, as I believe it is the coming system for treating apple orchards. President Britton : The next paper will be read by Prof. K. A. Cooley, Bozeman, Mont., entitled "Notes on the Ten-Lined Potato Beetle in Montana. " ' NOTES ON THE TEN-LINED POTATO BEETLE IN MONTANA By R. A. Cooley, Montana Agricultural College During the summer of 1907 and again in 1908 frequent observations were made on the life history of the ten-lined potato beetle in a small patch of potatoes in the home garden at Bozeman, ]\Iontana, and the writer became convinced that only one brood of larva was produced. The principal points in the life history were followed during both seasons, including the first appearance of the adults, the eggs on potato and on closely related wild plants, the development of the lar- vae, their disappearance for pupation and the subsequent appearance of fresh adults. In both seasons the adults disappeared without depositing eggs for a second generation. It seemed desirable, however, to make cage experiments, and accordingly adults were taken into the insectary on June 19, 1909, Our notes for this season show that the first adult was observed on June 2. On June 7 adults were becoming plentiful and were seen on potatoes in the garden, and on June 13 eggs were being laid plen- tifully. The beetles taken on June 19 were then clearly of the over- wintered brood. These beetles in the cages laid eggs promptly and plentifully. The first eggs hatched in thirteen days and the larvae went into the earth on July 13. The first adults appeared on July 30, and after feeding for a few days disappeared into the earth on August 13. Most of the over-wintered females died after laying a few clusters of eggs, but one individual continued to lay at frequent intervals April, '10] COOLEY : POTATO BEETLE IN MONTANA 179 up to September 1, when no further attention was given to the cage. This female was alive and laying eggs nineteen days after adults reared from her eggs had gone into the earth for the winter. This female would eat her own eggs when food became scarce, and the larva would eat eggs at any time. Observations out of doors carried on during three years show that the beetles had practically all gone in- to the earth for the winter by August 27. The non-appearance of a second brood of larvae in Bozeman has thus been noted three years in succession. The elevation of Bozeman in the Gallatin Valley is 4,800 feet; the latitude is about 46°. We have not made definite observations on the number of genera- tions per year in other parts of Montana, but it seems probable that in the lower valleys of the state where the growing season is longer, the usual two broods will occur. This beetle is still spreading into new territory in Montana. It has been introduced into Flathead County only during the last few- years. Its first appearance in other valleys in the state is still fresh in the memory of residents. On the testimony of early residents it is clearly an introduced species in the Gallatin Valley which is east of the main divide of the Rocky Mountains. In the Gallatin Valley the species thrives in a wild state on Sola- mim triflorum, which is an abundant weed in unplowed fields. The adults migrate into potato fields from the surrounding native vege- tation in great numbers, and in one brood constitute a serious pest. President Britton : I wish to state at this time that it was im- possible for Doctor Howard to be present at the meeting, in order to tell us about the parasite work which is being carried on in Massa- chusetts. The introduction of the parasites and natural enemies of the Gipsy and Brown-Tail Moths is one of the largest experiments of the kind ever attempted. Doctor Howard, however, has authorized Mr. Fiske to make a statement in relation to the progress of the work, and we will now be glad to hear from him. WORK WITH PARASITES OF THE GIPSY AND BROWN- TAIL MOTHS By W. F. Fiske, Bureau of Ent07nolo[/y [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere] 180 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 President Britton: Mr. John J. Davis, Urbana, 111., will now present his paper, entitled: "Insect Notes from Illinois for 1909." INSECT NOTES FROM ILLINOIS FOR 1909 By John J. Davis, Offlcc of the State Entomologist, Urhana, III. The following notes are taken from observations by the writer, and, unless otherwise indicated, were made in and about Chicago. Insects of the Truck Farm and Vegetable Garden The common asparagus-beetle (Crioceris asparagi Linn.) is not very widely distributed, for it is known to occur only in a compara- tively small area northwest of the city. Where found, however, it is a pest of great importance every year. The imported cabbage- worm (Pontia rapce Sch.) was not so gen- erally destructive as in previous years, but in restricted localities, and also in the west-central part of the state, the crop was a total failure because of it. The cabbage-maggot {Pegomyia hrassicce Bouche) is annually a pest of greatest importance ; in fact, the growing of early cabbage and cauliflower has been almost entirely discontinued because of it. Midsummer and late cabbage is seldom noticeably injured, nor are the cabbage plants often injured in the seed-bed. Many of the remedies which have been proposed by writers were tried, and only two gave favorable results, these being the tarred felt cards and hellebore decoction, the latter proving the more satisfactory. Applications of commercial fertilizer are of much value. The cabbage-aphis {Aphis brassiccb Linn.) was not so generally destructive this year as in previous years, when it has ruined large acreages of cabbages. The striped cucumber-beetle {Diahrotica vittata Fab.) is seldom a very important pest, and when present it is usually readily con- trolled by the use of some simple repellant, such as air-slacked lime, dust, land plaster, etc. This year no appreciable injury was done by this insect. The melon-aphis {Aphis gossypii Glov.) has never been destructive to curcubits out-of-doors in the vicinity of Chicago, but in west-central Illinois it is usually one of the most important considerations in the growing of melons. This year, however, it was much less common than in former years. Greenhouse cucumbers, an important product, are often badly injured by the melon-aphis, but where fumigation April, '10] DAVIS: ILLINOIS IXSECTS 181 with hydrocyanic acid gas or tobacco is practiced, it seldom becomes troublesome. The squash-bug {Anasa tristis DeG.) was found destructive in a few isolated localities, and in every instance the injured vines were near an out-building or other desirable hibernating quarters. More often the injury was to young cucumber plants in cold frames. The fickle midge (Sciara inconstans Fitch) is one of the most destructive hothouse cucumber pests in northern Illinois. The mag- gots attack the roots and stem of the plant, gnawing the tissue and eating into it. Affected plants may be recognized by a characteristic wilting, and by their slow growth, and unless treated they will soon die. Never have I found appreciable injury except where fresh manure was used. The susceptibility of various varieties is well shown in the photographs. Two varieties, Davis Perfect and a com- mon white spine, were grow^n in the same range, the cultivation, planting, manuring, etc., being identical. The Davis Perfect, a cross between a white spine and English, was scarcely injured, and had large healthy foliage, while the common white spine was practi- cally ruined. The use of a soaponified creosote preparation, applied at the base of the plant, proved of value, but further experiments should be made with it before it can be recommended as a certain remedy. Nicotine extract and "lemon oil" also proved beneficial. The use of old rather than fresh manure is certainly most com- mendable. The greenhouse white-fly (Aleurodcs vaporariorum West.) and the red spider (Tetranychus himaculatus Harv.) are always pests of cu- cumbers under glass in this state. As is well known, the former can be controlled by the proper use of hydrocyanic acid gas, but the red spider, after once getting a good start, is not so easily dealt with. Nothing that we have tried has proven satisfactory. Horse-radish w^as injured in certain localities by the horse-radish flea-beetle (Phyllotreta annoracm Koch^). Greenhouse lettuce was badly attacked by the variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hbn.), and the European lettuce plant-louse {Macrosiphum lactucce Kalt. ?). By poisoning the lettuce leaves and laying them on the bed before setting out the plants, injury by the cutworms was, in most cases, prevented. The plant-lice were easily controlled by the use of tobacco or hydrocyanic acid gas fumigation. The onion-maggot {Phorhia cepetorum Meade), although doing much injury in several places, was not nearly so numerous as in years previous. ^Determined by C. A. Hart. 182 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 About mid- August, the onion thrips (Thrips tabaci Lind.) was very abundant, and did much damage to onions, and especially to the onions for seed. They attacked the seed-pods before the seeds had hardened, and in many places the seed crop was a total failure. The Colorado potato-beetle {Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) was about as abundant as usual. The apple leaf -hopper {Empoasca mali LeB.), which was very destructive to potatoes last year, v/as a slight offender in 1909. A new pest of the potato and other crops for this part of the state has made its appearance within the last few years, and this year it has spread over a much larger territorj^ and has become a pest of prime importance. This insect is one of the wire worms {Limonius confusus Lec.^), and, according to our observations in Cook County, differs from most wireworms in that it is most abundant and destruc- tive in the higher parts of the infested areas. This species was found damaging potatoes, tomatoes, onions, cabbages, radishes, and sweet- corn. The English soil-fumigant, Apterite, which has been highly recommended by one or two English entomologists, was tried, but without any noticeable benefit. Insects Injurious to Flowering Plants The corn root-aphis {Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes) was not nearly so destructive to asters as last year, but, nevertheless, injury was reported from a few localities. In greenhouses, aphids were not especially abundant, except in a few cases. Those which were found doing noticeable damage were Myzus persiccB Sulz. on carnations, Macrosiphum circiunflexa Buck, on easter lily and maidenhair ferns, and M. sanhorni Grill, and Aphis rufomaculata Will, on chrysanthemum. The variegated cutworm {Peridroma saucia Hbn.) was found dam- aging greenhouse carnations, smilax, and Asparagus plumosa. It is especially fond of the tender young asparagus shoots. Our experi- ments showed the poisoned bran mixture together with the trap lantern a very satisfactory remedy. Hand picking was useless in the asparagus houses. The greenhouse leaf-tyer {Phlyctcenia ferrugalis Hbn.) is another greenhouse insect which is with us every year, attacking chrysan- themums. It is of no importance on any other plant. The use of arsenate of lead, beginning when the plants are small, has given us satisfactory results. ^ Determined by C. A. Hart. Plate 9 Cucumbers showing susceptibility to Sciara attack. On the right is the common, white spined variety and on the left Davis perfect Plate 10 Davis perfect cucumbers showiug relative immunity from Sciara attack. Grown in same range as those illustrated on Plate 11 Plate 11 Common, white, spined cucumbers showing injury by Sciara and grown in the same range as those illustrated on Plate 10. Sciara was very abundant in these houses I April, '10] DAVIS : ILLINOIS INSECTS 183 The southern fern cutworm (Callopistria floridensis Guen.) is an insect which has only recently made its appearance as a destructive pest of greenhouse ferns, especially the Boston ferns. It was first reported from Onarga, 111., in 1907, and since then it has required strict vigilance on the part of the Onarga florist and two other florists in Chicago to keep it from destroying their entire stock. Although only known to occur in these three greenhouses, in Illinois, it is a pest of much importance where found. This species was described in 1852 by Guenee from a single male collected in Florida, and, so far as we have been able to learn, it was not reported again until this year in the Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1908, where the Bureau of Entomology reports it as a destructive insect on ferns in Washington, D. C, greenhouses. Our experiments show the use of pyrethrum spray late in the afternoon or in the evening, together with the trap lantern, to be the best means of combating them. The onion thrips {Thrips tabaci Lind.) is the most generally de- structive pest known to the Illinois florist, roses and carnations being seriously damaged. They are abundant every year, and especially so during the early and late summer months. Nicotine extracts are the most generally used and have given the best satisfaction. Clean cultivation in and around the green houses is of much value. Our experiments show the thrips to be most active on the outside of the buds early in the morning, consequently spraying or fumigating at that time of day is desirable. The greenhouse thrips (Heliothnps hceniorrhoidalis Bouche) is only occasionally injurious. The past year it has been found damag- ing the Norfolk pine, smilax, and calla lily. Annually for the past ten or twelve years the rose-midge (Neoce- rata rhodophaga Coq.) has been the cause of thousands of dollars loss to several Chicago rose growers. This insect is not so prevalent now as in former years, because most of the florists who were at one time troubled with it have either discontinued growing roses or have changed the crops grown in previously-infested ranges. In other words, those florists who are now troubled with this pest have been growing roses continuously in those houses originally infested or in nearby houses. Where this species occurs it is the most destructive greenhouse pest known. Hydrocyanic acid gas was thoroughly tried, but it was ineffective against the maggots at a strength which would not kill the plants. The cabbage plutella (Pliitella muculipennis Curt.) has made its 184 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 appearance as a serious greenhouse pest, attacking stock and sweet alyssum. Another unusual greenhouse insect, which has recently appeared, is the garden flea-hopper {Ilalticus uhleri Giard). It attacks smilax, the only greenhouse plant found to be appreciably damaged. An interesting cercopid {Philcenus spumarius'^) was found very abundant on greenhouse rose stock which had recently been imported from Europe. Inasmuch as this species had never been noticed before by us, it is probable that it was imported with the stock. The white frothy masses produced by the nymphs were very conspicuous on the immature rose buds and in the crotches of the more tender branches. Insects Injuring Shade Trees and Ornamental Shrubs The bronze birch-borer {Agrilus anxius Gory) is found throughout the parks of Chicago, and is doing much damage to the birch trees. It has also been especially destructive in several of the nurseries. The imported poplar and willow curculio {Cryptorhynchiis lapathi L.) was first found, several years ago, in the south part of the city. We now have records of the occurrence of this insect in all parts of the city and in several nearby nurseries, where it has been introduced on stock from nurseries in the east. It is a serious pest at present — the most destructive of the many poplar insects — and is continually spreading. What is supposed to be the linden borer {Saperda vestita Say) was found this fall doing much damage in one of the large cemeteries. Only the European lindens were attacked, but all of these, both the permanent plantings and the nursery stock, were dying or dead from its work. Adults have not yet been bred and the identity of the species is uncertain. The comus borer {Oherea tripunctata Fab.) is found infesting much of the dogwood plantings in the park systems. From a large number of larvjB examined last spring 44 per cent were found para- sitized with an ichneumonid. Ranking in importance with the birch and poplar borers is an un- determined ninebark sesiid borer- which has proven to be an important pest of ninebark, Physocarpus opuli-folius, this shrub being one which is commonly planted in the Chicago parks. The borer usually ^Determined by Mr. C. A. Hart. " Since writing tlie above Mr. C. A. Hart has determined those bred from ninebark and Cornus as Sesia scitula Harr. and those from Viburnum as Sesia pictipes G. and R. April, '10] DAVIS: ILLINOIS INSECTS 185 infests the lower parts of the branches, but in some cases, especially in large branches, they may be found three or four feet above the ground. They burrow in the sapwood, often completely girdling the branch. The same species has been bred by us the past year, from Cornus and Yihurnum. A leaf-roller (Exartema pennunclamim Clem.) did much damage to Physocarpus opulifolius in some of the parks. It hibernates as a larva in folded leaves, and is found in destructive numbers only in those places where the leaves are not raked up and destroyed. A second leaf -roller {Olethrcntes hemidesma Zell.^) was found quite abundant in some of the nurseries attacking Spircea vanhutteL The first brood did the most damage, a large per cent of the second brood being parasitized. Another insect which was conspicuous as an enemy to Spircea van- huttei is the spirse sawfly (Prisfiphora hivittata Nort.^) It w^as common in several nurseries, and in one of them a large acreage of Spircea was kept completely defoliated throughout the year by its ravages. Only in one park was it found, and here only in one clump of shrubbery, thus indicating that it has just been introduced there. I have been unable to find any record of the life history or food habits of this species. The eggs are deposited along the edge of the leaf within the tissue, the insertion of the ovipositor being made at the edge of the leaf between the tissues. The larvae like other closely related species are voracious feeders. The adult larvae make their cocoons in the soil just beneath the surface. The second brood of the white-marked tussock-moth {Hemerocampa leucostigma, S. & A.) was nearly as destructive as last year, when large numbers of trees in the parks and boulevards of Chicago were defoliated. The tussock-moth is by far the most common and de- structive leaf-eating insect in Illinois. The zebra-caterpillar {Mamestra pida Harr.) was found defoliat- ing the cut-leaf elders in one park. It also damaged Tamarix and Hydrangea. In the parks, and especially along the boulevards, the large webs of the fall web-worm {Hyphantria cunea Dru.) were found. They were not abundant enough to be noticeably injurious, but the webs gave the trees a most unsightly appearance. I have never found the spring canker-worm {Paleacrita vernatc^ Peck) common in Chicago, but in the vicinity of Big Rock, fifty miles. ^ Determined by C. A. Hart. 186 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 west, they have been very abundant for the past three years. Many fine old elms have already succumbed to its attacks. Apatcla populi Riley was unusually abundant in all parts of the city, in some cases poplars being defoliated by them. The red spider {Tetranychus bimaculaUts Harv.) was not so abun- dant as last year, but nevertheless it was present in destructive num- bers, especially on elm. Not only do the infested leaves become yel- low and sickly looking, but they also fall prematurely. The wooly aphis of the hawtliorne {Schizoneura cratcegi Oestl.) was present, as usual, in very destructive numbers. It is found almost wholly on Cratcegus crus-galli, and is abundant in all the parks. The scale insects are of much importance in Chicago, the two most prolific and destructive being the scurfy {CJiionasjns americana John.) and the oyster-shell {Lepidosaphes ulmi L.). Although the San Jose scale is present in Chicago, it multiplies very slowly, and does not readily spread to nearby trees and shrubs. Inasmuch as the scale is prolific and destructive twenty miles outside of the city, it ap- pears probable that the reasons for its slow growth and spread within the city may be due to one or all of the following : Few birds are to be found in the city, and this lessens its chances of dispersal. The soot and smoke, which is ever present, in combination with moisture, forms acids, and this doubtless kills many individuals or weakens them so that they are unable to survive the winter or it may retard their growth. Further, the shrubs and trees in the city are poorly nour- ished, and it is knovm that scale insects are less prolific on such plants. Mr. Surface: The English sparrow is the chief transgressor in carrying the San Jose scale in our state, and if it was abundant in Chicago, I would suggest that it might be the chief cause of the trouble. Mr. Braucher: I am inclined to believe that the slow spread of the scale insects in Chicago is partly due to climatic conditions and to the effect of the lake. In making observations on the time of hatch- ing of the eggs of scale insects including the oyster-shell scale, I found there w^as several days' difference in the time of hatching of the eggs of the same species whether they were on trees close to the lake shore or whether fifty to one hundred yards back in the park. Where there is such a difference in so short a distance the lake must have a marked effect in checking reproduction and development and consequently the spread of the insect. Mr. Davis : The San Jose scale is a very injurious pest near April, '10] BALL AXD OTHERS : ARSENICAL POISONING 187 Chicago, and causes damage in close proximity to the lake, but seldom mthin the city, so I do not think the climate has much to do with it. Mr. Surface : I would like to have one more w^ord as regards the spread of the San Jose scale. It moves wdth the wind, and in the orchards the wind should carry it more rapidly. That would be the reason for its spreading more rapidly in orchards and less rapidly in cities ; although in the latter it is also disseminated by the English sparrow. The follow^ing papers, owing to the absence of the authors, were read by title : THE SEASON'S WORK ON ARSENICAL POISONING OF FRUIT TREES By E. D. Ball, E. G. Titus and .1. E. Greaves. UiaJi Experiment Station, Logan As was suggested in a former paper^ by the senior author, the determination of the effect of arsenical spraying on the life of our fruit trees is a problem of immense importance to the fruit interests of the country. The immediate solution of the problem is, however, of most vital importance to the western fruit growing sections as it is in these sections that the greatest amount of planting is now being done, a planting that would not be justified if the profits of orchard- ing are likely to be curtailed as has been recently suggested.- It has, therefore, seemed advisable to present at this time a brief, preliminary report of the results of the investigations carried on by the Utah Experiment Station during the season of 1909. Work of the Season The season's work consisted of a study of the orchard and soil con- ditions in all of the principal apple producing sections west of the Rocky Mountains, together with various field and laboratory experi- ments to determine the effect of different strengths of arsenical com- pounds and different methods of application on plant growth. The study of w^estern fruit conditions was mainly preliminary in nature and was undertaken with a view of determining the actual extent of the injury and to discover, if possible, the most favorable locations for the inauguration of detailed experiments. The experiments un- dertaken w^ere also largely preliminary in nature and for the purpose 'Ball, Jl. Ec. Ento., 2, p. 143, 1909. ^Headden, Jl. Ec. Euto., 2, p. 245, 1909. 188 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 of mapping out the problem and determining methods of approach. No single line of investigation was carried on long enough or thor- oughly enough to warrant definite conclusions from this line of evi- dence alone. The results of the different lines undertaken, however, were in such close agreement with reference to the general principles involved, that taken together the results were very significant and seemed to warrant this preliminary publication. It might be well to note in this connection that on account of the serious and lasting nature of the pear blight injury to the larger portion of the pear orchards of the inter-mountain region, and the impossibility of separating this injury from that of other causes, that the investigation was confined to the problem as presented in the apple orchards. A Study of Western Orchard Regions In the investigation of orchard regions a study was made of the more typical orchard soils especially wdth reference to their alkali content and general seepage conditions. Two or more of the oldest and longest sprayed of the commercial orchards located in each of the typical orchard regions Avere usually chosen and thoroughly inves- tigated. On these orchards soil borings were made to ascertain depth of soil and distance to ground water and for chemical analysis. Sam- ples of surface soil were collected to study the deposition of arsenic and samples of the trees taken to study its accumulation in the trees. In each of the orchards, the number of sprayings applied and the amount and kind of poison used were ascertained where possible. These orchards were taken as representatives of the better orchard conditions. In each valley at the same time, an attempt was made to ascertain the places where the greatest losses of trees were taking place and the conditions under w^hich they occurred were investi- gated. Owing to sickness, the chemical investigations of this part of the work have not been completed and it is impossible at this time to give the detailed statement of the chemical findings. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that even under the most favorable environment there is an occasional loss of a tree through accident or individual weakness, and that even more fre- quently trees are permanently injured, especially in the region of the crown, through the ordinary processes of orchard cultivation. The Pajaro Valley in California is the principal apple shipping section of that state. The soils are deep and range from loamy to heavy adobe. No irrigation water is used and no indication of alkali or of seepage conditions could be found in the principal orchard dis- I April, '10] BALL AND OTHERS : ARSENICAL POISONING 189 trict. The orcliard of ]\Ir. C. H. Eogers of Watsonville was chosen for investigation as being the oldest and longest sprayed of the com- mercial orchards. Spraying has been carried on in this valley for seven years and the average number of sprayings applied has been about four. Nowhere in the valley was evidence seen of injury to the trees of any kind other than accidental. The Rogue River Valley of southern Oregon has a similar soil and uses very- little irrigation water. No traces of alkali were seen except for a very slight spot in the lowest portion of the valley and the scarcity of water prevents the possibility of seepage conditions. The Burrell and Bear Creek orchards are two of" the oldest in the Medford district and have been sprayed for a number of years, ever since spray- ing was undertaken in the valley. No injury could be found on any of the trees in these orchards or in any others examined except for the small alkali spot before mentioned, in which a few young Newtons that had never been sprayed, were dying. In the Hood River Valley the soil is much lighter, consisting of volcanic ash, and little water is used, the orchardists depending very largely upon the excellence of their soil mulch, as they are compelled to do in the Eogue River Valley. No traces of alkali were seen in this valley and seepage is almost unknown, being confined to small and isolated spots in which the character of the injury is perfectly evi- dent. No injury that could in any way be attributed to the effect of arsenic was found in this valley. Two of the oldest commercial orchards, those of Sears and Porter and of Cliriss Dethman, were examined carefully. One had been sprayed for twelve years and the other for considerably longer, both of them heavily, as is the usual manner in Hood River, but without any apparent injury to the trees. The Wenatchee Valley in Washinglon is one of the younger orchard valleys, but is already experiencing some trouble. In a num- ber of places trees were seen dying of apparently typical cases of collar rot and often the last tree in the row, where the water had been allowed to stand was found to be dying or dead. They suffered somewhat from sunscald one season several years ago and the injury- is still noticeable on many of the older trees, but wherever the trees were found to be dead or dying without showing the sunken area at the base, the evidence of excess of water, together with traces of alkali along the edges of the furrows where the water had stood, was always in evidence and where the collar rot condition was the most prevalent, brownish or whitish margins were present along the irrigation furrows and these areas were quite damp and sticky at the time the writer visited this section. Mr. Z. A. Lanhan's orchard and that of Mr. P. 190 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 P. Holcomb are among the oldest of the typical commercial orchards and have been sprayed rather heavily until recently. They do not, however, show as much indication of the trouble as many of the orchards which have been sprayed less and are located under less favorable soil conditions. The Yakima Valley is located on the Snake River some distance below Wenatchee and like its sister valley has a variety of soils and a considerable amount of hardpan and seepage lands. Mr. William Richards has sprayed his orchard eleven years, six or seven times per year. Gibson Brothers, on similar soil, have been spraying for the same length of time. These orchards are both of them above the danger of seepage and very slight traces of alkali were visible and as far as they were observed, the orchards have not suffered in any way from their spraying. Mr. W. I. Huxtable's orchard which is on the higher lands of Knob Hill, was investigated and a white, impenetrable hardpan was encountered at about four feet, which seemed to be char- acteristic of the soils of this region. The trees in this section showed no apparent injury but on some of the older orchards the leaves were slightly yellow and the fruit small, indicating a lack of soil fertility. That it could not be due to any effect of the arsenic applied was evi- dent from the fact that the same condition was observed on both apple and peach orchards. At a little lower level than this a large number of young trees just coming into bearing were observed to be dead or dying. Most of the trees affected were Spitzenbergs, and many of them had never been sprayed. In every case, however, the dead trees were found on the lower sides of the orchards where the irriga- tion water had been allowed to bank up against the roadway or ditch bank. In many of these places the ground showed unmistakable traces of alkali and the condition was apparently growing worse as the newer orchards showed only slight traces of it. It seemed probable that unless more care was used in handling the irrigation water in the future, considerable areas would be injured in this way. A Ben Davis orchard was seen in this section that had been irri- gated very late in the fall and as a result, almost every tree had been winter killed on the southwest side, the injury extending in some cases even to the upper sides of the limbs extending toward the northeast. This was the most severe case of scalding that has been observed and was considered to be caused by arsenical spraying until attention was called to the fact that every single tree was injured on the southwest side. The Payette-Boise Valleys in Idaho are the largest apple pro- ducers and like other Snake River valleys, have considerable amounts. April, "10] BALL AND OTHERS: ARSENICAL POLSONING 191 of liardpan at varying depths. These valleys are older than those in the lower Snake Kiver district and the seepage conditions have grown worse from year to year until now large parts of a number of orchards on the lower levels, have been killed by alkaline ground water. On the higher levels the soil shows traces of alkali, but where the drain- age is good no injurj^ as yet has appeared on the trees. The orchards of Capt. J. H. Shawhan and of Bower and Hunter near Payette, of Hon. Edgar Wilson at Meridian, and Judge Fremont Woods near Boise, were studied as typical of the better class of orchard soils in these valleys. These orchards have all been heavily sprayed for a number of years, representing the oldest of the commercial orchards in their districts and those that have received the greatest amount of spraying and yet they showed no sign of any injury attributable to that cause. These orchards all show distinct traces of alkali and it would seem to be a favorable condition for arsenic injury, if such occurs. In Utah a number of new orchards have been examined in which Ben Davis and Gano trees are dying of collar rot, the greater number of them, however, being cases occurring in family orchards and on town lots where no spraying has ever been done. In Mr. Lars Nord- ing's orchard at Hyrum, five Black Ben Davis trees, planted five years ago, began to die this season. This was the first season that they had borne and only one of them was sprayed, and even at the time that the spray was applied, the characteristic darkened area with oozing sap was seen at the base of the trees. In the Grande Valley in Colorado a number cf orchards pointed out as being t^^pical cases of arsenical poisoning were examined, and in every case except one, unmistakable seep conditions were encoun- tered within five to seven feet of the surface and in some cases even closer. Mr. F. T. Smith's orchard was typical of this class of orchards and in this case a considerable area showed a decided burning of the leaves in the early part of the summer. Mr. Smith reported that upon examination, at that time, he found the soil to be verj^ dry and free from seepage conditions to a depth of six feet. When bored with a nine-foot augur later in the summer, the first six feet were found to be as dry as before but before reaching the seventh foot, the augur sank of its own weight into a soft, sticky ooze that extended as far as the augur would reach. In another place in which a strip had died near one end of an orchard, a soil boring made at the same time, only proceeded a little over two feet before the augur could be pushed clear down to the handle in a material similar to that found before. Mr. M. P. Hickman 's orchard which was upon one of the higher mesas 192 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 aud is claimed by other investigators to be free from alkali troubles, was the only exception to the finding of definite seep conditions and even in this orchard the second and third foot were found to be sandy and very wet and at the eighth foot another layer of wet sand was encountered. Along the edges of this orchard the alkali showing- was quite marked and in an oblique strip running through the orchard in which most of the trees had died, some of them with rather typical collar rot conditions, the sides of the irrigation furrows showed un- mistakable traces of alkali. It was also noticed that a crop of weeds had sprung up in the area where the trees were affected while the remaining portions of the orchard were quite bare, the cultivation having been the same throughout, indicating that the rising ground water had been sufficient to germinate seeds in the affected areas. The orchard formerly owned by Dr. F. R. Smith is one of the oldest orchards in this valley and is located on top of one of the fruit ridges. This orchard is twenty-three years old and has received one hundred and eight heavy sprayings, perhaps the greatest amount of arsenic that has been applied to any orchard in this western country. As Doctor Smith relates, he sprayed until the water ran down the trees and saturated the bands, soaking the ground. For five years he used the Kedzie formula double strength and sprayed seven times a season. The orchard shows no indication of having been injured in any way by this excessive amount of spraying. This amount of poison is far more than would be necessar\' to protect a tree for its entire life under present methods of application. There is no sign of alkali in any part of this orchard, lying as it does on the crest of a narrow ridge, and in this orchard there seems to be the ideal condi- tion for testing the possible effect of arsenic when free from the contaminating influence of alkaline waters, and as yet there is no evidence of injury. In fact, the orchard is in a remarkably healthy condition with the exception of one tree which is subject to overflow from a nearby ditch. In the Delta-Montrose District a number of orchards which were pointed out as being affected by arsenical poisoning, were studied. Nearly all of the orchards of this section are located upon high mesa lands. The soils on the surface are usually fertile but vary consid- erably in depth. On boring, the soil augur usually encounters a cal- careous hardpan, or "marl" layer, as it is called, at from eighteen inches to three or more feet from the surface. This layer is from one to two feet in thickness and is often penetrated by the roots of the trees. Throughout this entire district the Jonathan apples are more or less affected and in some orchards a considerable number have April, '10] BALL AND OTHERS: ARSENICAL POISONING 193 died. Mr. L. W. Sweitzer's orchard, near Delta, presents a typical case of this kind. The Jonathans are becoming affected in small groups, while the blocks of Winesap, Gano and Black Twig are ap- parently uninjured. Upon examining the soil in the places where the Jonathans were dying, it was found that in everj^ case the marl was near the surface in these areas, so near that oftentimes it would be pulled up with the roots of the trees. As has been noted by previous writers'' when large limbs are sawed off from affected trees, they con- time to bleed and deposit large masses of calcareous material. It is possible that the excess of this material in the sap is the cause of the trouble, but whatever it is, the Jonathan seems to be practically the only tree that is affected in this region, the Ganos in this same orchard being very healthy. Located as these orchards are on rather high and well drained mesa land, there is little trouble from alkali or seepage. The Ashenfelter orchard near Montrose is located upon a mesa in which this marly layer is particularly close to the surface and here the condition of the trees suggests a lack of fertility in the soil. This condition was apparent in this particular orchard before it came into bearing, and, therefore, before sprays were applied. This condition has been referred to as systemic arsenical poisoning. Summary of Orchard Investigations: It will be seen from the above descriptions that in the regions like the Pajaro Valley, the Rogue River and Hood River Valleys, where little or no irrigation water is used, and where if anything the orchards suffer from lack of water, and the soils are comparatively free from alkali, the troubles under consideration are entirely unknown. That in every district in which the alkali is present in sufficient amounts to appear on the surface and where water is sufficiently abundant to cause seepage in the lower districts, that more or less of these root rot or collar rot conditions occur. In bad cases of seep- age whole orchards are stricken within a year or two, oftentimes after they have borne a number of heavy crops. This may be due to a gradual rise of the ground water, or to the gradual extension down- ward of the roots of the trees. In milder cases, only here and there a tree is affected and these often linger along for a number of years, sometimes in a dry year, partially recovering, only to be stricken again in a wet one. If there is any perceptible slope to the ground the trouble will usually be more marked on the lower end of the irrigation furrows. Where alkali is evidently the cause of the death of the trees, no variety seems to be exempt, all being equally affected. Headden, Col. Exp. Sta. Bull. 131, p. 25, 'OS. 6 194 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 In a number of the higher valleys of Utah in which there is very little trace of alkali but where oftentimes the ground water is close to the surface, the apple trees of the Ben Davis and Gano varieties suffer from a condition which is commonly known as "collar rot." These trees often linger along for many years, new areas at the crown dying and then gradually healing over as the tree recovers, only to die in a new or larger area at a later date. This trouble seems to be almost exclusively confined to the Ben Davis-Gano type of tree and is occasionally met with throughout most of the apple growing regions. The real cause of this condition is still in doubt. It is usually first noticed just above the surface of the ground as a darkened area of bark which often exudes a few drops of a dark- colored, g-ummy liquid which later dries, and as the tree grows, this spot becomes a sunken area from which the bark gradually rots away. The Grande Valley offers by far the worst case of seepage injury to be found in the western country. As the water has been taken out onto the upper lands, the lower ones have gradually been destroyed by the rising water. Hundreds of acres of orchard have already died and been removed and hundreds more are now more or less affected. Here, as everywhere else, the alkali condition is no respecter of variety or age. Every kind of a tree that occurs in the path of the seepage areas is killed and many young orchards of only one or two years' growth are dying. In fact, during the past season more trees under the bearing age were killed than were those above that age. It has been claimed that the higher regions, especially the mesas, were above the possibility of seepage, but this season has abundantly demonstrated that even these regions are not entirely exempt, as yearling trees on soil which has never grown apples before were killed in considerable numbers by white alkali within a few rods of the top of one of the best fruit ridges, as is shown in an accompanying photograph. "With this picture in mind it is easy to see how it would be possible for trees to be killed by seepage on any of the adjoining mesas of similar elevation. There may be, and probably is, a small amount of the collar rot condition as found in Utah, present on some of these higher lands since the Ben Davis and Gano in certain sections seem to suffer more than other varieties. But it seems a rather peculiar logic to reason that these varieties are dying from arsenical poisoning in a valley where Jonathans are scarcely affected, and in the case of the very next valley to account for the death of a large number of Jonathans by arsenical poisoning w^here Ben Davis and Gano are not affected. Plate 13 A bad " collar rot " case showing a partial recovery and gruwiug over ou cue side. Notice the dead bark above and on the left side L> 03 6C J«s I ClO a a OS § April, '10] BALL AND OTHERS: ARSENICAL POISONING 195 Experimental Results It has been claimed that the greatest injury to the trees from the application of arsenieals was through their corrosive action in de- stroying the bark at the base of the trees. In order to test this ex- perimentally as well as the possibility of the tree absorbing sufficient free arsenic through its roots to cause systemic poisoning, varying strengths of spraying compounds were applied to different Ben Davis trees. One set of trees received as much lead arsenate as would be re- quired to protect them for ten years ; another set for twenty years, and still another set with the amount required to protect trees for forty years. This would be approximately the amount applied to a tree during its entire life, as there are several years in which no sprays are applied at the beginning, and an occasional year in which there is no fruit and therefore no application of spraying material. All of the trees matured their fruit in perfect shape and even in the case of the heaviest application, the leaves were not seriously burned. The material was applied in the form of a spray with sufficient water so that it ran down the limbs and trunk in streams and dripped off from every part of the tree on to the ground to such an extent that, while the tree was whitened, and remained so all summer, the ground under the entire head of the tree was so saturated with the arsenic as to appear mouldy white to a depth of three or four inches. All of this poison was applied at the regular spra^dng time in the spring and the trees were irrigated in the normal manner during the season. An examination made in the fall disclosed no apparent injury to the bark of the trees at the crown and the roots near the surface had a normal healthy appearance. Part of these applications were made where there were weeds, alfalfa, and strawberries beneath the trees, and even with the heaviest applications no injuiy was observed upon the vegetation. It will be necessary, of course, to continue this experiment for a number of years before any definite conclusions can be drawn, but it would seem that if the arsenic in the soil is freed in sufficient quan- tities from a few years' spraying to seriously injure or kill a tree, that enough arsenic would be freed in one year under like conditions from the excessive amount applied in this case to show some injury. In order to further test the corrosive action of the arsenical com- pounds, the various spraying mixtures were applied directly to the bark of medium sized limbs of bearing trees, and maintained in con- tact with these limbs for a period of forty-five days during the latter part of the growing season. These experiments will be repeated on a much larger scale the coming season and it will, of course, be neces- 196 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 gary to study the effect for several years before it will be possible to give positive results. Each spraying solution was applied in three strengths, double the normal, ten times and twenty times the normal strength. The double strength arsenate of lead produced no effect on the limb. The limbs upon which the two higher strengths of this solution were applied, showed a very slight burning on a few of the leaves soon afterwards, but the injury did not increase through the season. The Kedzie arsenate showed no injury in any of the three strengths used. Paris green in double strength showed no injury at all. The ten and twenty times normal strength caused a slight burning along the edges of the leaves. A soluble arsenate (sodium arsenate) was also applied in three strengths, one-twentieth, the same amount, and twice as much as there would be of insoluble arsenic applied in the form of lead arsenate in a year of normal spraying. The two weaker strengths showed no injury at all. The double strength produced a browning of a few leaves early in the experiment but this did not increase and never became at all serious. The above summary of the first year's work is, of course, in no sense conclusive but it would seem to indicate that the bark of an apple tree is not seriously affected by the normal spraying solutions even where they remain in contact with it for considerable times. The fact that the weaker strengths of the soluble arsenate produced no apparent injury is also quite suggestive because if the spraying solutions should fall into an alkaline soil at the base of the tree it is not likely that there would be more arsenic set free in a single season than was applied directly to the tree in this case, and there- fore, if injury should be produced under the latter condition, some other factor would be necessary to account for the condition, other than the arsenic alone. And as alkali has killed thousands of trees where no arsenical sprays have ever been applied, it would seem natural to infer that the death of the trees, even where both sub- stances were present, might be due, in a large measure at least, to the alkaline factor. A number of other experiments have been carried on, such as growing various crops in soil taken from around the base of trees said to have died from arsenical poisoning; growing crops in soils in which large amounts of the different spraying solutions have been mixed, etc. Up to the present time, all of the results tend to confirm the conclusions drawn in the cases cited above. April, '10] BALL AND OTHERS: ARSENICAL I'OISONING 197 The chemical examination of- the orchard soils and of the trees for alkali and arsenic have not been completed, but the results so far are almost uniform in showing very small amounts of arsenic in the trees, from soils that are low in alkali, while all examinations so far in which a comparatively large amount of arsenic was found in the trees, have been from localities in which the alkali was so abun- dant in the soil as to be in itself a menace to orcharding. Conclusion While no definite conclusions can be drawn from these preliminarj- investigations as has already been suggested, it would appear that the injury to the apple trees in the western country may have a number of different causes. The evidence that alkaline seepage alone is suf- ficient to cause the death of fruit trees seems to be conclusive. The fact that the only places in which Jonathan trees are found to be dying in any numbers, where other trees similarly situated are not, are on areas underlaid with marl, suggests very strongly that there is some relation between that condition and the death of this variety of trees. The loss of a number of trees that have not been sprayed, in different sections where the alkali is apparently not present in suf- ficient quantities to be the killing agent, and the further fact that only the Ben Davis-Gano type are killed under such circumstances, indicates that we have a further factor to be considered, which we are at present calling "collar rot." That free arsenic if present in sufficient quantity will kill fruit trees has never been questioned, but the fact that all over the country the orchards which are located on suitable soils free from the other conditions mentioned, are showing no injury even where heavily sprayed for long periods of time, would seem to warrant the conclusion that has been previously stated by the senior author, that arsenical poisoning cannot be the primary cause of the death of the greater portions of our fruit trees. That where alkali is present in any quantity it is probable that the arsenic of the spraying solutions wall be set free and will assist in the injury to the trees, .but the question whether the alkali would be strong enough in this case to destroy the orchard within a few years without the other factor, is a problem yet to be solved. 198 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 NOTES ON "CIGARETTE BEETLE" By P. H. Hertzog. Ijeicishurg, Pa. Perhaps the name cigarette beetle carries a wrong meaning to the average tobacco dealer and layman, as the name may suggest that the insect is associated only with cigarbttes. Hence some tobacco dealers pay very little attention to it, inasmuch as they have no cigarettes. But since leaf tobacco suffers the greatest loss, it would be more appropriate to call it ' ' tobacco beetle. ' ' Although the insect has been found feeding in various drugs and food, the fact remains that in this country, it is most conspicuous on account of the great injury and destruction to all forms of cured tobacco, such as leaf tobacco as well as manufactured tobacco in the shape of plug, snuff", cigarettes and cigars. The beetle is less than one tenth of an inch long. Its color is brown and on that account it is not readily seen while on tobacco. The injury is mostly done by the larvae which are worm-like grubs. But also adult beetles harm tobacco by eating their way out, thus leaving a hole about the size of a pin head. In case of cigars the eggs are usually wrapped in along with the tobacco while the cigars are being made. The egg then hatches in about ten days. Then the young larvEB eat through the tobacco including the wrapper. They often follow the veins of the leaf. One grub may thus make a number of perforations in its meandering course. Several packers have declared to the writer that the insects can tell the difference between a good and an inferior quality of tobacco, and that they invariably choose to work in a good quality, such as expensive wrappers. Of course, this must be considered as a matter of chance and then, too, their work is sooner discovered in such tobacco. The tobacco dealer has to consider it as a serious pest, however. Its presence in his establishment may mean thousands of dollars' loss and in addition may injure his trade, which is, perhaps, even a greater loss. Therefore, it is to his interest as well as to the tobacco industry that his place and other houses nearby should be as free from the pest as' possible. It must be remembered that the beetle is a most rapid breeder under favorable circumstances, and that it is found in all states in the Union, wherever tobacco is handled or stored. During the past summer it was unusually abundant. The Bureau of Ento- mology of Washington, D. C, has received more inquiries this season from various sections than it has for some time. The above bureau April, '10] IIERTZOG : "CIGAKETTE BEETLE' 199 has taken steps to gather more definite statistics as to the extent of damage and distribution. In buildings heated during the winter, and in Marm climates, it may breed the entire year. In a cold build- ing they are inactive. In the latitude of Pennsylvania there are two broods running into each other, but the adult beetles are most abun- dant during the middle of June and again the middle of September. The real proposition and question is how to get rid of it. A small quantity of tobacco may be readily and satisfactorily fumigated. But a large warehouse full is a different proposition. Especially so when the house is not of a very tight nature or when the cases are stored four or five rows deep and three or .four layers on top of each other. Under such conditions it is impossible to fumigate successfully, since the gas could not readily reach the interior and lowermost cases. A packer will ask, will not the gas deteriorate the tobacco by bleaching it or imparting an odor? Will fumigation really kill the insects? During my summer's work, it was necessary in each instance to try a few cases in a sample room to show the merits of the work. In each instance the owners were pleased. As to the success of fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas for the cigarette beetle, entomologists are somewhat divided, yet most see in it the most practicable remedy. This paper is based on the result of its use. It must be remembered that tobacco is one of the most difficult products to fumigate because the leaves pressed tightly against each other and the whole mass packed and pressed into the case forms an almost impenetrable mass. Fortunately most of the insects are on the outer portions of the case and especially at the butt end of the tied hands or bundles. It is- there that they can gain the best entrance both into the case and into the tobacco. ]Most of the injury is done from the butt end in for about ten inches. The interior of the case, where the leaves are the most valuable, is usually free from insects. They eat inwards along and even through the ribs, piercing the leafy part at random. The gas may follow them in their channels. However, in order to do so a large amount of gas is necessary and a long time is required for it to penetrate. Hydrocyanic acid gas gave most excellent results this summer. Yet it was by no means perfect. The ordinary directions and precautions for fumigating were followed. The formula per 1,000 cu. ft. of room space was 12 ounces of potassium cyanide, 20 ounces of sulphuric acid (liquid measure) and 40 ounces of water. The building is in very good condition, being as nearly gas tight as is to be expected. The gas was allowed to act over twenty-four hours. There was a two- foot aisle between the cases, but they were three cases high. The 200 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 lower row rested on scantling. Each case was opened by loosening the middle board at each end, that is, along the aisles, which end, fortunately, was the butt end. We think that such an arrangement and the opening of cases is very important for successful fumigation. The first fumigation took place on July 10th. The bulk of the first brood had matured by this date. The beetles were numerous and active, flying about the room, collecting at the windows, crawling over the cases and laying eggs on the tobacco. A great many had died a natural death before, since many dead ones were found on the window sills and floor. No doubt many of these had previously laid their eggs. Probably the building sliQulcl have been fumigated two weeks before so as to prevent egg laying. The gas killed practically all adults, pupae, and larvae. Although a few in each stage were found alive in protected places in the interior of cases, but only a few. A few adults were found at the windows immediately after ventilating the rooms. These no doubt were stragglers who had left the building and returned again or they may have come from some other house. The windows from now on were kept closed to keep outside beetles out. Fly paper was used liberally on the window sills and window sashes to catch stray beetles, who were usually attracted to the light. This proved to be useful. The most important floor was fumigated four weeks after the first fumigation. The entire building was fumi- gated to catch the second brood during the second week in September. After this last fumigation there was relief from the pest. Workmen say they have not seen any adults since. However, at this writing (December), a few larvae have been found after careful searching. Let us now see the fate of another house which was not fumigated. During the middle of September the second brood was at its height. Beetles were evident by great numbers crawling over cases of tobacco, in tobacco, at the windows and flying about wholesale. They were most active about dusk. Although this house was not fumigated they fought the insects with great vigor, using some novel methods, which helped much to keep the pest down. As has been mentioned before, the beetles are most active during the evening and since they are attracted by light, advantage was taken of these factors. A number of frames were arranged and lined with fly paper, placing a light in the middle, for the night, to attract the beetles. This was kept up during the bad season. Fly paper was tacked against cases and freely suspended from beams. The papers were changed as soon as they were covered with insects. Another method that deserves attention is that of a suction ar- rangement. An electric motor was fastened to a force suction April, '10] IIERTZOG : -CKtARETTE BEETLE" 201 machine. A large funnel from two to six feet in diameter was at- tached to the suction machine by means of a hose. The machine contained a fan or bellows which was run by the motor. Lights were fastened to the rim of the funnel. When the current was started, the fan caused a strong suction, drawing in dust and insects from the funnel end, while the insects were blown out at the other end into a screen cage, which was attached to the receiving end. The size of the funnel depends on the power of the motor. The funnel may be shifted to cover more space. The entire apparatus may be mounted on a truck and moved by one man while another man shifts the funnel while the apparatus is moved along a row of cases. A funnel six feet in diameter, with sufficient power, will draw insects into it over an area of twelve to fifteen feet. By this method two persons have gathered over a pint of beetles in a single night. The method no doubt is a great help in keeping the numbers down, but it does not get at the root. It gives many beetles a chance to mate and lay eggs before they are captured. It is not thorough enough and only a part can be partly treated at a time. It may also be added that it is rather an expensive process, especially when electric lights are used. The method was used because the proprietors feared that fumigation would deteriorate the quality of tobacco. Comparing the above and fumigation, we must say that the results are decidedly con- spicuous and in favor of fumigation. Although the latter costs more, it is very much more satisfactory. In the fumigated house practically no beetles were evident after the middle of September, while the other house was full of beetles until cold weather set in. The tobacco was also full of worms or larvi^. One packer had intended to keep his tobacco at a low temperature of about 40°F. Since the larvs are dormant in cold weather, it was thought that they could be starved. In order to do this it would have been necessary to equip the building with ammonia pipes. But when a contractor stated it would cost about $15,000 to $20,000 to simply install the plant, not counting running expenses, the plan was aban- doned, especially so because the plan would have only been aia experiment. Steaming tobacco in the sweat room is sufficient to kill the pest in all stages. It ought to be kept in the room for two or three weeks at a temperature of about 120° to 140° F. Tobacco thus treated is. free from the pest until reinfested. If the egg is not killed outright, its hatching is hastened and the young lar\'a is then readily killed. Eggs normally hatch in about ten days. Unfortunately if tobacco is thus treated it may become reinfested during summer, the eggs. 202 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 being laid by stray beetles, if the tobacco is exposed during the manu- facture of cigars. In order to guard against this, cigars before leav- ing the factory should be fumigated thoroughly in a small room with HON, then aired and packed. This would not cost much but it would practically insure the manufacturer's business. The writer knows several parties, who turn out cigars that are free from the pest, although the tobacco was formerly- infested. But by steaming the tobacco the pest was killed and then the tobacco is manufactured in a different town where there are no insects to reinfest. If a single beneficial suggestion has been given or if the paper will induce some one to rid their house of the cigarette beetle by means of H C N, or otherwise, the writer feels that the paper has not been in vain. For a fuller account of the cigarette beetle the reader is advised to consult Farmers' Bulletin No. 120 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. STUDIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF EUPELMUS ALLYNII FRENCH AND STICTONOTUS ISOSOMATUS RILEY By E. O. G. Kelly, Bureau of Entomology These two valuable parasites have been known to science and ento- mologists for about twenty-eight years. In 1881 and 1882, Prof. Gr. H. French reared adults of what is known as Eupelmus allynii from wheat straw and described the insect as Isosoma allynii. Pro- fessor French and Dr. C. V. Riley discovered that the insect was parasitic on Isosoma grande and that it did not belong to the genus Isosoma. Doctor Riley decided that the species belonged to the genus Eupelmus and it still remains Eupelmus allynii. During this same winter of 1882, Doctor Riley reared and de- scribed adults of Stictonotus isosomatis parasitic on Isosoma grande. Doctor Riley, Doctor Forbes, Professor French, Professor Webster and many other students of insects affecting cereal and forage crops have reared these parasites from the straw ; and considerable has been written regarding their economic importance, but the larval habits have not heretofore been described. The females of these two species have rather long pointed oviposi- tors with which they readily pierce the hard straw containing Iso- soma sp., and puparium of the Hessian fly. The females put their April, '10] KELLY : EUPELMUS AND STICTONOTUS 203 eggs into the cells of Isosoma larvtp, but not always on the larva itself ; and inside the puparium of the Hessian ^y, but, again, not into the larva. Life History. During the early fall the egg hatches in three to six days, after deposition the tiny larva attaches itself to the host larva and sucks its life blood; they do not consume the skin of the host. The larvae reach maturity in six to fifteen days and pupate in the Isosoma cell witliin the straw, and within the puparium of the Hessian fly. The pupa? are naked in both species. The pupal period ranges from seven to twelve days. Eupelmus allynii hibernates in both the larval and pupal stages. Stictonotus isosomatus liibernates as pupa. Both species are found in cells of Isosoma sp. and in puparite of Hessian fly at this date (November 26, 1909). There were two distinct broods this year — one in early summer, the other in fall. Descriptions. The eggs of the two species are quite difl^erent ; that of Eupelmus is whitish in color and pedicellate. The bulb is elliptical in form, about .25 mm. in length and .12 mm. in width ; the pedicel is slender, of imiform diameter and nearly as long as the bulb. The egg of Stictonotus is whitish in color, elliptical in form and about .3 mm. long and .12 mm. in width. The lar^^ae of the two species, though quite similar when viewed without the aid of a magnifier, magnified they present some striking differences. Eupelmus larva? have four distinct rows of bristles on the body, each segment having two dorsal and two ventral; the head bears two tiny brown mandibles; they vary in size from 2 to 4 mm. in length. Stictonotus lurx-x are more cylindrical, have no bristles and no mandibles; they are 2 to 4 mm. in length. Both species are yellowish white in color. The pupfe are quite different, Eupelmus being black with light rings on the abdomen, while Stictonotus has a dark thorax and yel- lowish abdomen. A very interesting feature of parasitism presented itself while these studies were in progress. Eupelmus allynii lavwe were found attached to pupse of Stictonotus isosoinatis and reared to adult; and Stictonotus isosomatis larva were found attached to pupae of Eupelmus allynii and reared to adult. Parasitic larva were found attached to parasitic larvae whose identity could not be determined because of mutilation or because of the desire of the writer to rear the secondary parasite. However, both species were reared from these laiwae, the host not being determined. In several instances ter- tiary parasites were found but failed to mature. 204 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Some undetermined secondary parasites were reared from the larvae of both Eupehnvs and Stictonofus. The writer is indebted to Mr. T. H. Parks, agent and expert, in the Bureau of Entomology, for his kind assistance in collecting and rearing these parasites. COLLEMBOLA AS INJURIOUS INSECTS By Walter E. Collinge, M. Sc, F. L. S., F. E. S., Berkhamsted, England In a communication read at the Oxford Meeting of the Associa- tion of Economic Biologists^ I drew attention to the part that various species of Collembola play as injurious insects and instanced many cases reported by Carpenter,- Curtis,^ Ormerod,* Murray,^ Guthrie,* myself," and others, where they were the direct cause of damage to roots and seeds of healthy plants, and I incidentally pointed out, in referring to the nature of the injury, that they also play an important part in exposing different plants to the attacks of fungi by the injury they cause in wounding their surfaces. Since then two facts have come to light which have an important bearing upon the subject. The experiment I made I described as follows: "During the past twelve months very careful observations have been made upon a series of common species which have fully estab- lished the fact that to orchards, numerous bulbs, beans and peas, the Collembola are distinctly injurious. "The method adopted has been as follows: "Shallow boxes, containing about four inches of moist soil, have been used, and into these perfectly healthy bulbs and beans have been placed. Into each box examples of different species of Collembola have been placed. The tops of the boxes in some cases were covered with a sheet of glass, and in others with a piece of wood. "After the experiments were completed the soil and diseased bulbs were carefully examined, and apart from fungi no other pests were ' Journ. Economic Biol., 1909, Vol. IV, p. 83-86 = Proc. Assoc. Econ. Biol., 1905, Vol. I, p. 14. ^ Farm Insects, p. 432. * Rpt. Obs. Inj. Insects for 1904, p. 110. ^ Economic Entomology, Aptera, p. 404. ^The Collembola of Minnesota, 1903, p. 4. ' Rpt. on Inj. Insects for 1905, p. 10. April, '10] COLLIXGE : COLLEMBOLA INJURIOUS 205 found, but in all cases the Collembola had ineeased largely in numbers. ' ' At the time it did not occur to me to inquire "where did the fungi come from?" But since then this same soil has in part been u.sed to pot bulbs in and the remainder was thrown onto the garden. In the pots and in the garden where this soil was placed there is now arising' an abundant crop of different fungi. As none of the fungi have previously been noticed in the garden and do not now occur, excepting in this restricted patch and in the pots, I think I am justified in concluding that the spores were originally introduced by the Collembola. Doctor Buller® in his recent work states: "The gills of expanded fruit bodies are frequently visited, not only by Fungus Gnats, but also by Springtails (Collembola) . . . Some fruit bodies of Pohj- porus squamosus, which were growing on a log and had not yet become fully expanded, w^ere infested with small black Collembola. There were as many as fifty to the square inch, and each one occupied a liymenial tube which was just wide enough to hold it. The Spring- tails (genus AcJiorutes), infesting Stropliaria semiglobata, and some other species of Agaricine^e, were found to contain spores in the mid- gut," and it is well known to students of this interesting order that large numbers are found in such habitats. Hence these minute insects, quite apart from their own depredations, may prove a source hy which various plant diseases may be introduced by spores which they carry upon their bodies. This I have proved to be actually so hy washing various species in water and then examining the liquid, after the removal of the insects, in such case spores of fungi were particularly numerous. SOME NOTES UPON THE LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE SORGHUM MIDGE {Contarinia [Diplosis] sorghicola Coq.) By W. Harper Deax, Age)it and Expert, Cereal and Forage Insect Investiga- tioyi><, U. S. Bureau Entomology Contarinia sorghicola Coq. occurs practically throughout the sorghum producing sections of the United States east of the 100th meridian. West of this line it is not known to occur at this writing. This species infests the seed of the many varieties of Sweet Sorghum, » Researches on Fungi, London, 1909, p. 20. 206 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Kaffir Corn, Broom Corn, Milo ]Maize and Johnson Grass {Sorghum halapense) . In one instance the writer induced this midge to oviposit within the seed of the common Fox tail grass {Setaria glauca); although the latter had not been listed among the hosts of C. sorghicola Coq. The females oviposit within the seed glumes, placing the eggs close to the ovary. The newly hatched larva:? absorb the plant juices from the ovary and remain close against the latter until they have com- pleted their growth and transformed into pupa?. The pupa? work their way upwards from the ovary until the apex of the seed is reached. There they remain until the adult is ready to emerge. At that time the pupa? work their way still farther up until about two- thirds of their length projects from the apex of the seed. In this position the adult liberates itself, leaving the cast pupal skin attached to the spikelet. The larva? are not cannabalistic ; often as many as six in different stages of growth are found within a single seed while the writer has frequently removed eggs, larvae and pupa from one seed. The Sorghum Midge is most thorough in its destruction of a crop of seed. In Midge infested sections rarely less than 90% of the growing seed are infested during the height of the season. The first and last heads are the ones least infested. Copulation takes place immediately after emergence of the adult, the males hovering about the sorghum heads and seizing the females as fast as the latter leave the pupal skin — often before their wings have dried sufficiently for' flight. ■Immediately after copulation and when the wings are sufficiently dr>' for flight the females begin ovipositing. This is continued ener- getically until the quota of eggs has been deposited. The time required for development from egg to imago varies con- siderably and is largely controlled by prevailing temperature and humidity. In the low country of southern Louisiana the time was much longer than in south central Texas where the heat is extreme and humidity very low. The parasite, Aprostocetus diplosidis Crawford, is the predominant Midge parasite in Louisiana. During the summer of 1908 this para- site was successfully introduced into the fields around San Antonio, Texas, by Prof. F. M. Webster through the cooperation of Prof. "Wilmon Newell of the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission. Tetrastichus sp. Craw, has been bred from Midge infested sorghum seed by the writer along with the parasite Aprostocetus diplosidis Craw. April, '10] GILLETTE : INSECTICIDES FOR Al'HlDS 207 The Argentine Ant {Iridomyrmex humilis Mayr) ranks first among the Louisiana predaceous enemies of the JMidge. This ant has not been found by the writer in Texas. The Argentine Ant in Louisiana attacks the Midge when the latter is in the pupa projecting from the apex of the seed just prior to the emergence of the adult. In this position it falls a ready prey to this enemy which seizes the pupa between its mandibles and draws it from the seed. . In Louisiana and also in Texas the writer has observed the fly, Psilopodinus flaviceps Aldrich, capture the adult midge when the latter is crawling over a seed head preparatory to ovipositing. Several species of Odonata have been observed by the writer evi- dently capturing adults of the midge as the latter swarm about the seed heads although actual dissection of the stomachs of these flies has not been made in order to settle this point definitely. SOME INSECTICIDE TESTS FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF APHIDIDAE AND THEIR EGGS By C. P. Gillette, Ft. ColUm, Col. For some years past I have been making comparative tests of dif- ferent insecticides for the destruction of plant lice (Aphididce) and their eggs. The object of this paper is to announce a summary of the more important results only. I shall not even take time or space to refer to the work that others have done along the same lines. The more important substances used have been emulsions, soaps, lime-sulfur preparations, and tobacco extracts in which nicotine is supposed to be the only active agent. For the Destruction of Eggs Kerosene emulsion was used in 35 different tests. In 8 of these no eggs were found hatched. Of the 27 applications which did not fully prevent hatching, 19 were above 16% oil, 8 were above 33% oil, and 2 were 50% oil. With less than 25% oil in the emulsion the eggs seemed to hatch as well as those imtreated. Eggs of 4 species, Aphis ponii, A. vihuniicola, ChaitopJiorus negundinis and Melano- xanthenum smitliw, were used. Scalecide w^as used in proportions varying between 5 per cent and 25 per cent. Eggs hatched from 20 out of 22 treatments and from all strengths. Thompson's Soluble Oil was used in 14 tests and in strengths 208 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 varying between 5 per cent and 20 per cent. Some of the eggs hatched from all strengths used. The conclusion reached was that none of these oils can be depended upon to kill eggs of plant lice, though the lice that hatch upon twigs treated with the higher strengths very largely die from contact with the oily surfaces after hatching. With these miscible oils, eggs of the same species were employed as in the kerosene emulsion experiments. Soaps — Bowker's Tree Soap and Good's Whale-Oil Soap were used for 77 different treatments in strengths varying from 2 pounds to 1 gallon of water down to 1 pound in 6 gallons. None of the eggs of A. pomi, A. cornifolm, Ch. negundinis or Mel. smithke, which were treated with 2 pounds to 1 gallon, hatched. Eggs of the same species, and also of A. viburnicola hatched poorly when treated with a prep- aration of 1 pound to 1 gallon. Weaker dilutions seemed entirely valueless. Lime Sulfur Mixture made by the 15-15-45 formula was also used against eggs of all the lice above mentioned and also those of Myzus el(£agni. In this strength the lime-sulfur was a marked deter- rent to hatching but all species hatched to some extent and some rather freely. Weaker applications had little effect. Over 70 appli- cations were made. Where strong lime-sulfur applications are made, many lice die from contact with the lime-sulfur while struggling to extricate themselves from the egg shell and others die after leaving the shell and before taking food. I might add that eggs of Brijobia pratensis hatched freely after thorough treatment with the 15-15-45 strength of this mixture. Rex Lime-sulfur was also used many times in one-fourth, one- sixth, one-ninth, and one-twelfth full strength and with no better results than were obtained with the home-made product just men- tioned. Tobacco Extracts Black Leaf Extract was used twice in one-twentieth strength and no eggs hatched. It was used 8 times in one-thirtieth strength and no eggs hatched. Seven applications were made in one-fortieth strength and in 5 cases none hatched, but in the 2 others a very few hatched. Weaker dilutions did little good. Nikoteen was used 23 times in strengths varying between 1 in 100 and 1 in 500 parts and in only 3 cases did any lice hatch and these were all Myzus elcEagni. The eggs of this species were the most resistant of any used in the various tests. April, '10] GILLETTE : INSECTICIDES FOR APHIDS 209 Sulphate of Nicotine was used 54 times in strengths varying be- tween 1 in 50 and 1 in 500 and in no instance did an egg hatch. The species used were A. pomi, A. cornifolice, A. viburnicola, Ch. Tiegundi- nis, Mel. smitliice, and My. dceagni. The last named species was not treated with dilutions below 1 to 150. Eight applications of 1 to 750 resulted in a few hatching in one instance only. In weaker dilutions the number hatching gradually increased. Nico-Fume was used in 55 applications in which the dilutions varied between 1 in 50 and 1 in 1,000 and in no case did a single egg hatch. In 1 to 1,200 some hatched ; in 1 to 1,500 more hatched, and in 1 to 1,800 still more. I hardly dare give out these results with the tobacco preparations; they are too good. I shall not fully believe them myself until I have tested them out another year with similar results. All the applications that I am reporting were made in an insectary and the eggs were treated by dipping the twigs bearing them 3 or 4 times in quick succession into the various insecticides and then setting the twigs in moist earth in the insectary to be under observation until the lice hatched or until all hope of hatching was past. Results With the Lice Time will not permit me to go into this part of the work except to state that, in a general way, the results with the nicotine preparations run parallel with those above given. Black Leaf killed most lice well, down to a 1 per cent dilution and Sulphate of Nicotine and Nico- Fume killed most lice, well down to 1 part in 1,000, Nico-Fume having somewhat the advantage over the Sulphate in results. In closing I would like to call attention to the fact that there is a great difference in different species of the Aphididje as to their power to resist the action of contact insecticides. The eggs of CJiaitophorus negundinis were more. easily killed than those of any other species that I have worked with while the eggs of Myzus elceagni were the most difficult to destroy. I have found a thorough application of either Sulphate of Nicotine or Nico-Fume in the proportion of 1-1,000 to either Aphis pomi or Schizoneiira lanigera will kill 100 per cent of those actually treated, while a similar treatment of the black chrysan- themum louse, Macrosiphum sanhorni, will not kill one. Even 1 part in 100 is hardly strong enough to kill the latter species well, and 1 part in 200 is very inefficient, if used in the usual manner. I find, however, by adding a small amount of soap, 1 pound to 50 gallons, the efficiency of these tobacco extracts is greatly increased. 7 210 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 In case of M. sanhorni, for example, I found the addition of soap enabled either Sulphate of Nicotine or Nico-Fume to kill well down to 1 part in 800 or even 1,000 of water. The action of the soap seems to be merely to cause the fluids to wet and spread out upon the surface of the bodies of the lice instead of accumulating in drops and run- ning off. INSECT NOTES FROM NEW HAMPSHIRE FOR 1909 By E. DwiGHT Saxdersox, Durham, N. H. Insect life was unusually abundant and injurious in New Hamp- shire in 1909. Aphids were unusually common during the late spring and early summer. Aphis pomi did much more injury than usual, especially to young apple trees and there were numerous complaints of its work. Aphis setarice was common on cherry and plum thruout the state, curl- ing the foliage very badly. The pear leaf blister mite {Eriophyes pyri) has been common on pear for many years but has never been reported as a pest of apple until the past season in which we have received several reports from different parts of the state. It is interesting that New York State seems to set the style in insect pests as well as in other matters and that the neighboring states soon have the same troubles. The only explanation of the appearance of this mite in its new role as an apple pest is that suggested by Professor Parrott to me which may be due to dry seasons, of which we have had three in New Hampshire. The apple leaf hopper {Etnpoasca mali LeB.) has been remarkably abundant and has caused a speckling of the apple foliage by a seeming destruction of the ehlorophyl sap. I have not been able to observe any particular injuiy to old trees altho the numbers of insects have caused our fruit growers some alarm. The spittle insect on pine (Aphrophora paraUela) was very abun- dant, as in 1908, but we have been unable to relate its work in any way to the so-called pine blight. Its work is of no economic signifi- cance so far as we have been able to observe. The Fall web-worm and other caterpillars affecting apples in late summer have continued to be abundant as during the last two seasons. The antlered maple worm (Heterocampa guttivitta) devastated the same territory as in 1908 and its injury was fully as severe. We had hardly expected to see severe injury by it this year but in view of the repetition of the outbreak this year we can see no reason why it may not be expected to be destructive in 1910. The trees in the worst April, '10] SANDERSON: NEW HAMTSIIIRE INSECTS 211 infested area have now been stripped of their foliage two years. Last year most of them leaved out in the fall but this year I am informed that many of them have failed to leaf out again. Undoubt- edly many have already been killed and should they be stripped again immense areas of hard wood will undoubtedly be killed. Should this occur it would be the most serious injury to forest trees by a leaf eating caterpillar of which we know in this country. So far no para- sites have been observed which are doing very effective work against the pest but the ground beetles, particularly Calosoma frigida, were present in large numbers and undoubtedly did very effective work both as larvffi and adults. The striped maple worm {Anisota ruhi- cunda) and the spiny oak caterpillar {Anisota stigma) were again abundant on maple and oak over the same territory affected by the antlered maple worm. For the last two years the elm leaf beetle {Galerucella luteola) has been becoming more abundant in the cities in the southeastern part of the state. The present year many of the trees in Newmarket, Exeter, Dover, Manchester and Nashua were entirely stripped of their foliage where they had not been sprayed. Another season effective work will undoubtedly be done against the pest by spraying. The unusual prevalence of this insect so far north can only be accounted for by our exceptionally dry summers and the rather open winters of the last two years. It is beyond its northern range as previously known to us and we shall expect to see it disappear and only break out under similar climatic conditions in the future. It may be possible, how- ever, as Dr. H. T. Fernald has suggested, that it, as well as some other insects, will adapt themselves to a more northern habitat. The brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhcea) is increasingly abun- dant in the more recently infested territory but altho we have made no careful survey of its spread, it seems to be spreading but very slowly toward the Connecticut Valley and to have reached its northern limit as we have previously predicted. Practically no serious injury is done by the insect in most of the territory^ north of Lake Winnipe- saukee. In the worst infested region, as for instance in Durham, over 95 per cent of the caterpillars were killed off by a fungous disease altho there Avas hardlj' a normal rainfall. With normal rain- fall in the spring and late summer the pest will undoubtedly be greatly reduced in numbers in the future. Spraying with arsenate of lead to destroy the young caterpillars during the first two weeks in August has been found exceedingly effective and cheap for both apple and shade trees, both in our own work and in that of our fruit growers. The gipsy moth (Porthetna dispar) continues to spread and we 212 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 regret to state that except for the work being done by the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture that practically nothing is being done for its control either by the enforcement of the law or by the education of the people. The outlook for any possible control of the gipsy moth in southern New Hampshire is exceedingly dark and we are inclined to the belief that the only result possible is a very general and wide- spread destruction of the timber in southern New Hampshire, particu- larly the white pine, upon seeing which the people will probably awake to the necessity of handling such problems in a thoro going and scientific manner. The boll weevil has been a great blessing to Texas. "We have already seen a considerable benefit from the brown-tail moth in New Hampshire in compelling the care of neglected orchards and the destruction of scattering trees. It is quite probable that the gipsy moth may be the means of arousing an appreciation of the value of our timber and shade trees and the rational growth and care of farm woodlots. INSECTS NOTABLY INJURIOUS IN LOUISIANA DURING 1908 AND 1909 By Arthur H. Rosenfexd, Baton Rouge, La. This article is prepared as a sort of continuation of the article by Mr. Wilmon Newell and the author, published in Volume 1 of the Journal of Economic Entomology.^ We realize that a paper of this nature is not of particular interest at a meeting of this kind, nor does it require a great amount of scientific acumen to prepare such an article ; however, we think that the value of such papers for reference use justifies their presentation here. Cotton Insects Practically the entire cotton area of Louisana, embracing some 34,000 square miles, is now infested with the boll-weevil, Anthono- nius grandis Boh. As a result, the cotton acreage of the state has been much reduced, and this season Louisiana has made the shortest crop in all of her history — about 273,000 bales, against 517,000 in 1908, 610,724 in 1907, and 769,222 in 1906. The boll-worm, Heliothis ohsoleta Fab., has been, as usual, pres- ent in all parts of the state, but has not been particularly severe during the past two years. ^ "A Brief Summary of the More Important Injurious Insects of Louisiana," Jour. E. E., Vol. I, page 150. April, '10] ROSEXFELD: LOUISIANA INSECTS 313 Neither the cotton caterpillar, Alabama argillacea Hiibn., nor the square-borer. Uranotes melinus Hiibn., have made their pres- ence particularly felt during the past two years, but the past spring the cotton aphis. Aphis gossypii Glov., was very abundant, and badly injured the stand of cotton in many cases. This was undoubt- edly due to the cold April. The cotton aphis is always a serious pest in cold, wet springs. The cowpea pod-wee\41. Chalcodermus (eneus Boh., seems to be decidedly on the increase, judging from the large number of reports and specimens we have received during the past two springs. Early in the season, while the pod-weevils are waiting for cowpeas, they heavily infest the cotton, and often materially injure the stands by puncturing the leaf and terminal stems of the plants. The garden web-worm, Loxostege similalis Guen., the differential locust. Melanoplus di/ferentialis Thos., and the leaf -footed plant bug, Leptoglossus phyllopus Linn., have caused little trouble. Sugar Cane Insects The two principal cane insects, the cane borer, Diatrcea saccliaralis Fab., and the "pou-a-poussiere," Fseitdococcus calceolaria Mask., have been about normally abundant, although we have found that the infested territory' is larger than we knew of in 1907, in the case of both insects. The Bureau of Entomology has taken up a study of sugar cane and rice insects, in cooperation with the Louisiana State Crop Pest Commission, also a study of the Argentine ant, which is supposed to be the principal means of transportation of the "pou- a-poussiere. ' ' Insects Injurious to Cereal and Forage Crops None of our principal corn insects, the boll-worm, the cane borer, or the Southern corn root-worm, Diahrotica dnodecimpunctata Oliv., have been more than usually abundant on com. The rice maggot, LissorJioptriis simplex, Say, did a great deal of damage the past spring. Thousands of specimens were sent into the Commission, which had flo^^m to lights. The sugar-cane beetle, Ligyrus 7'ugiceps Lee, was not reported as unduly numerous, but the author noticed vast numbers of them at Crowley, La., in the heart of the rice-belt, attracted to the lights of the city. Thousands of them were lying upon the walks under each electric light, and thej^ were flying into houses and stores in great abundance. 314 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 The fall army worm. Laphygma frugiperda Sm. & Abb., was seriously abundant in some sections, particular injury being done to young rice. The author saw one 10-acre corn field near Hammond, La., made as bare in a few days as if there had been no crop on the land whatsoever. The destructive pea aphis, Nectarophora pisi Kalt., and the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lind., did considerable damage in St. Bernard Parish, the extreme southeastern parish of the state, though the dam- age was not as serious by either species as in 1907. Truck Crop Insects A few specimens of the Colorado potato-beetle, Leptinotarsa decem- lineata Say, have been received at the office of the Commission, but this insect is usually conspicuous by its absence. The sweet potato borer, Cylas formicarius Fab., has been, as usual, quite common in South Louisiana, and the ever-present Harlequin cabbage-bug, Murgantia histrionica Hahn., has been heard from only occasionally. The imported cabbage worm, Poiitia rapm Sch., has been more numerous the past fall than in many years. On account of decreased cotton acreage, considerable truck has been planted in some sections of Louisiana, and a large amount of fall cabbage was this year grown. Most of the cabbage growers are yet unfamiliar with the insects attacking this crop, and, as a result, the imported cabbage worm did an unusually large amount of damage. The past fall, also, was notable for its tremendous number of bean leaf-beetle, Ceratoma trifiircata Forst. Cowpeas and all sorts of beans were badly riddled, and applications of arsenate of lead seemed to have little effect. The striped cucumber beetle, Diahrotica vittata Fab., was another common insect which was unusually numerous the past season. The squash lady beetle, Epilaclma horealis. Fab., is always found in small numbers, scattered over the state. Insects Injurious to Stored Products The insects in stored food-stuffs, etc., in Louisiana, are legion. Among the commonest are the drug-store beetle, Sitodrepa panicea Linn., the saw-toothed grain-beetle, Silvanus surinametisis Linn., the rust-red flour beetle, Triholium ferrugineum Fab., the cadelle, Tene- hrioides mauritanica Linn., the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma testa- ceum Dufts, the rice weevil, Calandra oryzce L., the granary weevil, April, '10] ROSENPELD: LOUISIANA INSECTS 215 Calandra granaria Linn., Alphitohius diaperinus Panz., Bhizopertha pusilla Fab. and others. Oiir three most common cockroaches are the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana Linn., a closely related species, P. iriinnea Burm., and the cosmopolitan croton bug, Blatella germanica Linn. Insects Affecting Deciduous Fruits The same Coccids as were noted in the article by Newell and Rosen- feld, mentioned above, have been noticed during the past two years, and none have increased to an alarming extent. The San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst., has been held well in check in the nurseries in which it occurs, and we have not been able to locate any newly infested districts for the West Indian peach scale, Aidacaspis pentagona Targ. In September last, Mr. C. W. Flynn, while inspecting nurseries in New Orleans, sent in some Coccids on young fig trees from China, said by the nurseryman to have been brought to him by a sea-captain. Doctor Howard identified these scale insects as Aster olecanuim pus- tulans Ckll. Mrs. Fernald, in her catalogue, gives as the habitat of this insect, Jamaica, Porto Rico, Antigua, Brazil, Br. Guiana, Gre- nada, Monserrat, Mexico and Florida. As this is a new insect to us in Louisiana, we had the nurseryman destroy the few fig trees infested. The peach-borer, Sanni)widea exitiosa Say, and the plum-curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst, have been about normally abundant, but the shot-hole borer, Scolytiis rugulosus Ratz., has done more than its usual damage, especially to peach, this being doubtless due to the fact that a late freeze last spring materially weakened a number of peach trees which were pretty well advanced. The woolly apple aphis, Schizoneura lanigera Hausm., and the ap- ple-tree tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americana Fab., have been very little in evidence of late. This is also true of the American procris, Harrisina americana Guer. An insect which we did not before know to occur in the state is the strawberry root louse, Aphis forhesi Weed. In April, 1908, a few specimens were sent in, and an investigation by the writer re- vealed the fact that it was very common all over Tangipahoa Parish, our principal strawberry section. During the past spring this insect was also found by the writer at Baton Rouge. The destructive mealy-bug, Fseudococcus citri, Risso, is commonly abundant on figs, Japanese persimmons, and oranges. 216 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Citrus Fruit Insects On the orange insects there need be no especial comment except in the case of the white fly, Aleyrodes citri H. & H. This insect has again gained a foothold in Plaquemines Parish, the principal orange- growing section of the State, and this season has done considerable damage. Efforts are being made to hold this insect in check by means of the various fungus enemies which have given good results in Florida, and with fair results. The white fly was formerly very abundant in the orange groves of Plaquemines Parish, but was prac- tically eradicated there by the destructive freeze of February, 1899, which killed most of the orange trees in Louisiana and Florida. Insects Injurious to Pecans The walnut caterpillar, Datana integerrima G. & R., has done con- siderable damage to pecan foliage, while the fall webworm, Hyphan- tria cunea Dru., and the hickory twig-girdler, Oncideres cingulata Say, have been about normally abundant. More than the usual num- ber of complaints of attacks of the pecan huskworm, Enarmonia prunivora Fitch, have been received. In December, 1908, Mr. T. C. Barber collected a number of newly budded pecan branches (ring budded) which showed indications of the attack of boring larvfe. On investigation a number of Sesiid larvse were found, in one case thirty being dug from a single limb. They seemed to enter through the wound caused by the budding and to work upwards from the bud. This caused a large swelling at the point of injury, which was covered with the borings of the larvse. Three infested limbs were placed in the insectary, and in March the adults began to emerge, something like fifty specimens emerging from these three small pieces of infested limbs between March 24 and April 28, 1909. Doctor Dyar kindly identified the moth as Sesia corusca Hy Edw. The obscure scale, Chrysomphalus ohscurus Comst., has been found abundant on pecan trees all over Louisiana. Cecidomyia carym 0. S. is also abundant in all parts of the state, on wild pignut as well as on cultivated pecan. We have on record one case of severe injury to a pecan tree at Morgan City, La., by an ambrosia beetle, identified by Prof. F. H. Chittenden, of the Bureau of Entomology, as Platypus compositus Say. The two May beetles, Lachnosterna prunina Lee, and L. fusca Froh., which were very destructive locally in some sections in north- April, '10] BURGESS : CALOSOMA 217 Avest Louisiana in 1905. haA'e not made their appearance in such de- structive numbers since that time. Insects Injurious to Shade and Ornamental Trees In this class we have found nothing of especial importance, the pests mentioned in the above-mentioned article being present in about normal quantity. The Gulf Fritillary, Dioue vanilke Linn., is almost always found upon the passion-vine, Passaflora incarnata, with which a number of the galleries in various parts of South Louisiana are covered, and the dropping of the spiny red and black "worms" has "almost caused" untold cases of feminine hysterics! The larvae of Eomaledra sabaJella Cham., (kindly identified by Mr. Busck), have caused considerable injuiy to palms in Calcasieu Parish^ in the southwestern part of the state, during the past summer. ' They fold the leaves and feed inside the inclosure thus made, skeletonizing the leaves. Insects Attacking Men and Live Stock Nothing of interest has transpired among these insects during the past two seasons. We have had no severe outbreaks of the buffalo gnat, Simulium pecuarum Eile.y, reported to us. This insect at times appears in destructive numbers, and the loss of a large amount of stock always results. The horn-fly, Hcematohia serrata R.-D., has been very abundant in parts of the state, and has caused considerable annoyance to farmers in the infested districts. The various species of Tabanus and Chrysops have been noticed in about their usual numbers. The chicken mite, Dermanysus gallinice Redi, has been several times sent into the office with complaints of injury and annoyance. NOTES ON CALOSOMA FRIGIDUM KIRBY, A NATIVE BENEFICIAL INSECT^ By A. F. BUKGESS, Melrose Highlands, Mass. During the past three seasons extensive investigations have been carried on at the Gypsy jMoth Parasite Laboratoiy at Melrose High- lands, Mass., in order to secure more accurate knowledge of the biology- of the European parasitic and predaceous insects that are being introduced for the purpose of securing the natural control of the Gypsy and Brown-Tail Moths. Considerable data has also been obtained concerning native species which destroy some of our common ' Occasional contributions from tlie Gypsy Moth Parasite Laboratory, III. 218 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 insect pests, an unusual opportunity was offered in 1909, on ac- count of the extreme abundance of the Saddled Prominent {Eetero- campa guttivitta) in Maine and New Hampshire. For tw^o years previously large areas of deciduous forests in these states had been defoliated by this insect, and its unusual abundance and the noticeable character of the injury caused led many land- owners to fear that irreparable damage would result. During the summer of 1908 reports relative to this insect were issued by Miss Edith M. Patch," Entomologist to the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Prof. E. F. Hitchings, State Entomologist of Maine, and C F. Jackson'', Assistant Entomologist, New Hampshire Agricul- tural Experiment Station, and last summer the outbreaks of the previous year were followed up by the above officials and their assistants. In each of these reports mention was made of the fact that certain predaceous beetles, particularly Calosoma frigidwm, were found in considerable numbers in the badly infested sections and as this genus of beneficial insects is receiving special study in connection with the Gypsy moth work, it seemed desirable to secure as much data as possi- ble to determine whether the species was doing any considerable amount of good. Accordingly an arrangement was made with Prof. E. D. Sanderson and on July 31 Mr. W. F. Fiske and the writer accompanied Professor Sanderson on a tour of a part of the infested district in New Hamp- shire. A visit was made to several badly infested localities in the town of Tamworth, in the foothills of the White Mountains and a colony of larvte of the European beetle, Calosoma sycoplianta was lib- erated. These insects had been reared at the Parasite Laboratory in Massachusetts and previous to this time over 6,000 had been liberated in Gypsy moth infested colonies in that state. The caterpillar stage of that insect having passed, it was thought desirable to liberate this colony in New Hampshire where the beetle larvae could obtain suf- ficient food to attain full development. Adults of Calosoma frigidum were common in this locality, where they were observed climbing the trees and feeding freely on the Heterocampa larva. No beetle larvas were observed at this place. Another badly infested area was visited in the same town. A large acreage on the hillsides had been com- pletely defoliated and many Heterocampa larva were crawling about on the ground and the trunks of the trees in a vain search for food. This area had been defoliated the previous year. Many beetles were ^Bulletin No. 161, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. ' 19th and 20th An. Repts. N. H. Agric. Expt. Sta., 1908, p. 514-531. April, '10] BURGESS: CALOSOMA 219 found and several larvae were seen on the ground feeding on the eater- pillars. A square yard of ground was carefully examined by Mr. Fiske and the writer, and 12 frigidum larvsB were found just beneath leaves and litter. They were busily engaged in feeding on the cater- pillars that had crawled under the forest cover for the purpose of pupation. On the following day a badly infested area was examined near White Horse Mountain, near North Conway, and although it was not possible, owing to lack of time, to make a thorough survey of the defoliated area, very little search was required to discover many of the beetles. This colony was located on the side of the mountain and the caterpillars were not as far advanced as those seen at Tamworth. At one place on the edge of the badly infested area upwards of 100 beetles were found busily engaged in climbing the trees and feeding on the caterpillars. Few Heterocampa larvte were found under the leaves and no beetle larva were seen. Mr. C. 0. Bailey, Secretary to the Massachusetts State Forester, informed me that while driving at Effingham, New Hampshire, August 1, 1909, he observed large areas of woodland that had been stripped by Heterocampa. At one place the trees had been completely de- foliated and countless numbers of the caterpillars were seen crawling across the road. They were being attacked by Calosoma frigidum, which species was present in large numbers. As few parasitic insects were observed it was thought desirable to make another trip later in the season in order to check up the data secured, and accordingly on August 21 Mr. Fiske and Mr. Harry S. Smith went to North Conway for that purpose. After finishing the investigations made in the localities visited on the previous trip Mr. Fiske returned, and Mr. Smith spent several days examining other defoliated areas on Mount Kearsarge and in the surrounding territory. A summary^ of the notes made by Mr. Smith, so far as they relate to Calosoma frigidum, has been very kindly placed at my disposal, while those bearing on certain parasitic forms will be used by him after more information has been secured next season. At the time of this visit Heterocampa w^ere nearly all in the pupal stage beneath the leaves and rubbish on the ground, and as frigidum larvffi were present in considerable quantities, and actively engaged in feeding on the pupce counts were made to determine the relative percentage of pupae destroyed. About a square yard of ground was examined in each locality, 29 sets of data being secured. In five of these no frigidum larvse were found but the number of pupae that 220 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 had been destroyed ranged from 60 to 100 per cent, the average being- 78 per cent by the beetle larvae and 4.5 per cent by all other enemies. In these areas the trees had been stripped early in the season and the beetle larvas had become full grown and gone into the ground to pupate before the examination was made. In the remaining 24 areas examined frigiduni larvae ranging from newly hatched to nearly full fed w^ere found. In one case 21 larvae were discovered feeding on pupre. At this time the number of pupae that had been killed by the larvae of frigidwni varied from 11.7 per cent to 80.2 per cent, the average being 54 per cent of the total number of pupaS. Where the lower percentages were found a con- siderable number of small frigidum larvse were present. The follow- ing table has been compiled from the data secured : TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF HETEROCAMPA PUP^ DESTROYED BY LARV^ OF CALOSOMA FRIGIDUM Stages of C. frigidum larvae found Pupae of Heterocampn First Second Third Adults Healthy Eaten Para- Dis- sitized eased 54 Des- troyed 2 3 2 8 4 4 2 1 2 2 7 2 1 171 15 23 8 502 6 14 3 6 19 10 14 27 47 13 36 14 1 6 * 34 12 30 23 5Q 4 30 15 37 9 8 2 4 21 16 11 37 51 44 10 39 16 19 10 38 28 52 15 50 4 1 15.3 62.& 39.4 2 15 80.2 1 2 14.7 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 57.1 1 11 7 57.1 3? 70.0 1 3 2 1 1 4 1 3 1 1 2 1 heat? 2 " 44.4 47.8 1 72.5 65.3 48.3 43.5 2 6 52.0 53.3 95.0 \ 62.2 1 52.5 70.a 2 63.4 39.5 56.1 "" 15 44 62 566 1 Also one larva of Heterocampn. 2 Also two larvae of Heterocampn. April, '10] BURGESS: CALOSOMA 221 Several of the larvae included under the column ' ' Diseased ' ' prob- ably died from exposure to heat. No later examination of this territory could be made so it is impos- sible to state from actual counts the percentage of pupae that were destroyed before the beetle larvie became fidl fed. The data available showing the amount of food consumed by the larvae of frigidum in its different stages is far from complete but from such feeding records as have been obtained at the Gypsy Moth Parasite Laboratory, together with those secured by the writer several years ago when the life history of this species was investigated,* it appears that the following amount of food for each stage is a very conservative estimate; first stage 2, second stage 5, and third stage 7 full grown gypsy moth larvae. If the beetle lar\^£e found continued to feed until full grown or "until the food supply was exhausted, as would be the case in some of the areas examined, they would at the end of the season destroy, on the average for all the areas examined, 92 per cent of the pupae present. It is, of course, impossible to determine the number of Heterocampa larvas that were destroyed by the beetles and their larvae but from the above data it is easy to see that the increase of the species was greatly retarded during the past season, in the localities mentioned, by this beneficial insect. Calosoma frigidum is found throughout New England and is often present in large numbers during outbreaks of caterpillars. There are specimens in the United States National Museum at "Washington, D. C, which were taken in Illinois, Maryland and Michigan, which indicates that this insect has a wide range. It is probable that the unusual increase of this species in the in- fested district in New Hampshire is due largely to the abundance of a satisfactory food supply. A study of the reproductive habits of a limited number of specimens, made by the writer in 1896, showed that 186 eggs were deposited, in one case, by a female fed in captivity, and observations which were continued the following year led to the discovery that eggs are laid by some females for two successive years. The habit of the Heterocampa larvae of pupating on the ground beneath leaves and rubbish makes them particularly susceptible to the attack of the larvje of this beetle, which naturally feed in such situations. The larvae of Calosoma sycophanta have been found climbing trees, especially those that have rough bark, where they * Notes on certain Coleoptera liiiown to attaclv tlie gj'psy moth, 44th Annual Report Mass. State Board of Agriculture, 1896, p. 412-426. 222 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 feed on caterpillars and pupfe of various insects. Frigidum larvae were not observed on tree trunks in the areas examined in New^amp- shire but it was not necessary for them to climb as plenty of food was available on the ground. Miss Edith M. Patch has found these larvae, as well as the beetles, feeding on Heterocampa caterpillars, on tree trunks, which shows that it is possible for the larvae to climb to secure food in case it is neces- sary to do so. The abundance of Heterocampa next summer in the sections exam- ined will, of course, offer interesting data on the value of Calosoma frigidum in controlling this insect. This concludes the Proceedings. A. F. Burgess, Secretary. Panama Ticks. — We notice in Mr. Hooker's list of Dec, 1909, p. 415, of ticks from Panama no mention of two of our common species, Amhlyomma dissimile, the common iguana tick of ttiis region, and Amhlyomma varium, taken from Bufo marinus, our common toad; determinations made by Banks and Hunter. Tliis last tick has been of some interest to us for it is probably the inter- mediary host of Filaria sp., and also of a Hemogregariue. Sections of adult ticks showed undoubted development of filaria embryos. The blood of every one of eight specimens of this toad contained filaria embryos, and each one of the adults dissected had three or four adult filaria in the lymph sinuses. The blood of five of the toads contained the hemogragarine. All of the toads were infected by Amblyomma varium. Dr. Samuex T. Darling, Chief, Board of Health Laboratory. Aiicon Hospital, Isthmus of Panama. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of Horticultural Inspectors^ (Continued from the February issue) Evening Session, December 26, 1909, Continued. President Washburn presiding. The President presented Professor Surface, who read the following paper : RESULTS OF VARIOUS REMEDIES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE, IN PENNSYLVANIA ORCHARDS, AS SEEN BY THE INSPECTORS IN THE ORCHARDS By H. A. Surface, Harrisburg, Pa. [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere] WHAT SHOULD BE THE FORM OF OUR CERTIFICATES? By Fraxklix Shermax, Jr., Raleigh, N. C. For some years I have been considering whether we entomologists (especially those of us in the eastern states) can devise some method of bringing our certificates of nursery inspection more nearly in line with the facts as they really exist. I violate no confidence in saying that the certificates as now issued in all of our eastern states are 'A CORRECTIOX It appears that Professor Headlee was incorrectly reported on pages 80-81 of our February issue. The following is therefore inserted at his request and gives the tenor of his remarks. — Ed. The Farmer's Institute organization in Kansas has been able to engage a practical, up-to-date horticulturist. This man goes about the state con- ducting the fruit-production side of the regular institutes. He meets with fruit growers, finds out their problems, and gives them the benefit of his long and successful experience. On request he visits individual fruit planta- tions, looks carefully into local conditions, and suggests methods whereby the yield may be improved. In general, our people do not know how to grow high grade fruit, al- though our regular fruit growers produce fruit that will compare very favor- ably with the best grown in the country. The Farmer's Institute organiza- 224 JOURNAL OF ECOXOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 misleading to one not on the inside. We all know how binding are the conditions which have led us into this practice and I cannot say that I am yet quite ready to take a step wliich shall make North Carolina appear ditferent from all her neighboring states, for such a step could, and probably would, be seized upon by some nurseries in other states and used to our disadvantage, when those very nurseries would likely be no better, and perhaps worse, than our own home nurseries. Now the essential point of our present system which I object to is this: — We give certificates which are so worded as to plainly imply that the nurseries are "free, or apparently free," from the San Jose Scale, and we issue these certificates after scale has been found in the nursery, we issue them to nurseries where it has been found with more or less regularity for years past, where we know the scale is well established, and where we are reasonably sure that it will be found in the future. We fully recognize the fact, and freely admit it among ourselves, that it is not practicable, nor would it be just to bar a well-established nursery from trade, when it has won a large number of loyal customers many of whom would rather take the stock of that nursery even without certificate and taking the chance of scale, rather than to deal with someone else. Then again, there is the complication that much of the stock is really sold through agents or advance orders, long before the nursery is inspected. But perhaps the most irritating fact of all is that if one of us, in the zeal of clearing his conscience and of trying to make the deed square with the word, were to actually knock out every nursery in his state which was found to have San Jose Scale, — that state might at once become a most profitable field for exploitation by nurseries in other states who were in the possession of certificates that they were "apparently free" and which as a matter of fact might be, and very likely would be, in worse condition than the nurseries that were put tion is trying, through edueatiou, to bring about the production of better fruit. At present the horticulturist does not have many requests for con- sultation, but the number is increasing and no doubt in a short time he will have far more than he can attend to. Kansas is a large state and although the eastern and central portions will produce excellent fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, many parts of the west will grow orchards only under irrigation. In Kansas the fruit institute movement has just made a beginning. The Farmer's Institute, of which the fruit institute is just one phase, is organ- ized and looked after by a special agent known as the Superintendent of Farmer's Institutes. This oflBcial has his office at the agricultural college and his work has met with such keen appreciation that the last Legislature voted $50,000 to carry it forward. April, '10] GILLETTE : INSECTICIDES FOR APHIDS 209 Sulphate of Nicotine was used 54 times in strengths varying be- tween 1 in 50 and 1 in 500 and in no instance did an egg hatch. The species used were A. pomi, A. coniifolice, A. viburnicola, Ch. negiindi- nis, Mel. smithice, and BIy. elceagni. The last named species was not treated with dilutions below 1 to 150. Eight applications of 1 to 750 resulted in a few hatching in one instance only. In weaker dilutions the number hatching gradually increased. Nico-Fume was used in 55 applications in which the dilutions varied between 1 in 50 and 1 in 1,000 and in no case did a single Qg^ hatch. In 1 to 1,200 some hatched; in 1 to 1,500 more hatched, and in 1 to 1,800 stiU more. I hardly dare give out these results with the tobacco preparations; they are too good. I shall not fully believe them myself until I have tested them out another year with similar results. All the applications that I am reporting were made in an insectary and the eggs were treated by dipping the twigs bearing them 3 or 4 times in quick succession into the various insecticides and then setting the twigs in moist earth in the insectary to be under observation until the lice hatched or until all hope of hatching was past. Results With the Lice Time will not permit me to go into this part of the work except to state that, in a general way, the results with the nicotine preparations run parallel with those above given. Black Leaf killed most lice well, down to a 1 per cent dilution and Sulphate of Nicotine and Nico- Fume killed most lice, well down to 1 part in 1,000, Nico-Fume having somewhat the advantage over the Sulphate in results. In closing I would like to call attention to the fact that there is a great difference in different species of the Aphididas as to their power to resist the action of contact insecticides. The eggs of Chaitophorus negundinis were more easily killed than those of any other species that I have worked with while the eggs of Myzus elceagni were the most difficult to destroy. I have found a thorough application of either Sulphate of Nicotine or Nico-Fume in the proportion of 1-1,000 to either Aphis pomi or Schizoneiira lanigera will kill 100 per cent of those actually treated, while a similar treatment of the black chrysan- themum louse, Macrostphum sanborni, will not kill one. Even 1 part in 100 is hardly strong enough to kill the latter species well, and 1 part in 200 is very inefficient, if used in the usual manner. I find, however, by adding a small amount of soap, 1 pound to 50 gallons, the efficiency of these tobacco extracts is greatly increased. 210 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOI-OGY [Vol. 3 In case of M. sanhorni, for example, I found the addition of soap enabled either Sulphate of Nicotine or Nico-Fume to kill well down to 1 part in 800 or even 1,000 of water. The action of the soap seems to be merely to cause the fluids to wet and spread out upon the surface of the bodies of the lice instead of accumulating in drops and run- ning off. INSECT NOTES FROM NEW HAMPSHIRE FOR 1909 By E. DwiGHT Saxdeesox. Durham, N. H. Insect life was unusually abundant and injurious in New Hamp- shire in 1909. Aphids were unusually common during the late spring and early summer. Aphis pomi did much more injury than usual, especially to young apple trees and there were numerous complaints of its work. Aphis setarice was common on cherry and plum thruout the state, curl- ing the foliage very badly. The pear leaf blister mite {Eriophyes pyri) has been common on pear for many years but has never been reported as a pest of apple until the past season in which we have received several reports from different parts of the state. It is interesting that New York State • seems to set the style in insect pests as well as in other matters and •that the neighboring states soon have the same troubles. The only explanation of the appearance of this mite in its new role as an apple pest is that suggested by Professor Parrott to me which may be due to dry seasons, of which w^e have had three in New Hampshire. The apple leaf hopper {Empoasca mali LeB.) has been remarkably abundant and has caused a speckling of the apple foliage by a seeming destruction of the chlorophyl sap. I have not been able to observe any particular injury to old trees altho the numbers of insects have caused our fruit growers some alarm. The spittle insect on pine {Aphrophora parallela) w^as very abun- dant, as in 1908, but we have been unable to relate its work in any way to the so-called pine blight. Its work is of no economic signifi- cance so far as we have been able to observe. The Fall web-worm and other caterpillars affecting apples in late summer have continued to be abundant as during the last two seasons. The antlered maple worm {Heterocampa guttivitta) devastated the same territory as in 1908 and its injury was fully as severe. We had hardly expected to see severe injury by it this year but in view of the repetition of the outbreak this year we can see no reason why it may not be expected to be destructive in 1910. The trees in the worst April, '10] SANDERSON : NEW HAMPSHIRE INSECTS 211 infested area have now been stripped of their foliage two years. Last year most of them leaved out in the fall but this year I am informed that many of them have failed to leaf out again. Undoubt- edly many have already been killed and should they be stripped again immense areas of hard wood will undoubtedly be killed. Should this occur it would be the most serious injury to forest trees by a leaf eating caterpillar of which we know in this country. So far no para- sites have been observed which are doing very effective work against the pest but the ground beetles, particularly Calosoma frigida, were present in large numbers and undoubtedly did very effective work both as larvae and adults. The striped maple worm {Anisota ruhi- cunda) and the spiny oak caterpillar (Anisota stigma) were again abundant on maple and oak over the same territory affected by the antlered maple worm. For the last tw^o years the elm leaf beetle (GalernceUa luteola) has been becoming more abundant in the cities in the southeastern part of the state. The present year many of the trees in Newmarket, Exeter, Dover, Manchester and Nashua were entirely stripped of their foliage where they had not been sprayed. Another season effective work will undoubtedly be done against the pest by spraying. The unusual prevalence of this insect so far north can only be accounted for by our exceptionally dry summers and the rather open winters of the last two years. It is beyond its northern range as previously known to us and we shall expect to see it disappear and only break out under similar climatic conditions in the future. It may be possible, how- ever, as Dr. H. T. Fernald has suggested, that it, as well as some other insects, will adapt themselves to a more northern habitat. The brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhcea) is increasingly abun- dant in the more recently infested territory but altho we have made no careful survey of its spread, it seems to be spreading but very slowly toward the Connecticut Valley and to have reached its northern limit as we have previously predicted. Practically no serious injury is done by the insect in most of the territory north of Lake Winnipe- saukee. In the worst infested region, as for instance in Durham, over 95 per cent of the caterpillars were killed off by a fungous disease altho there was hardly a normal rainfall. "With normal rain- fall in the spring and late summer the pest will undoubtedly be greatly reduced in numbers in the future. Spraying with arsenate of lead to destroy the young caterpillars during the first two weeks in August has been found exceedingly effective and cheap for both apple and shade trees, both in our own work and in that of our fruit growers. The gipsy moth (Porthetna dispar) continues to spread and we 312 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 regret to state that except for the work being done by the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture that practically nothing is being done for its control either by the enforcement of the law or by the education of the people. The outlook for any possible control of the gipsy moth in southern New Hampshire is exceedingly dark and we are inclined to the belief that the only result possible is a very general and wide- spread destruction of the timber in southern New Hampshire, particu- larly the white pine, upon seeing which the people will probably awake to the necessity of handling such problems in a thoro going and scientific manner. The boll weevil has been a great blessing to Texas. We have already seen a considerable benefit from the brown-tail moth in New Hampshire in compelling the care of neglected orchards and the destruction of scattering trees. It is quite probable that the gipsy moth may be the means of arousing an appreciation of the value of our timber and shade trees and the rational growth and care of farm woodlots. INSECTS NOTABLY INJURIOUS IN LOUISIANA DURING 1908 AND 1909 By Arthur H. Rosexfeld. Baton Rouge, La. This article is prepared as a sort of continuation of the article by Mr. Wilmon Newell and the author, published in Volume 1 of the Journal of Economic Entomology.^ We realize that a paper of this nature is not of particular interest at a meeting of this kind, nor does it require a great amount of scientific acumen to prepare such an article ; however, we think that the value of such papers for reference use justifies their presentation here. Cotton Insects Practically the entire cotton area of Louisana, embracing some 34,000 square miles, is now infested with the boll-weevil, Anthono- mus grandis Boh. As a result, the cotton acreage of the state has been much reduced, and this season Louisiana has made the shortest crop in all of her history — about 273,000 bales, against 517,000 in 1908, 610,724 in 1907, and 769,222 in 1906. The boll-worm, Heliothis ohsoleta Fab., has been, as usual, pres- ent in all parts of the state, but has not been particularly severe during the past two years. * "A Brief Summary of the More Important Injurious Insects of Louisiana," Jour. E. E., Vol. I, page 150. April, '10] ROSEXFELD: LOUISIANA INSECTS 213 Neither the cotton caterpillar, Alabama argillacea Hiibn., nor the square-borer, TJranotes melinus Hiibn., have made their pres- ence particularly felt during the past two years, but the past spring the cotton aphis, Aphis gossypii Glov., was very abundant, and badly injured the stand of cotton in many cases. This was undoubt- edly due to the cold April. The cotton aphis is always a serious pest in cold, wet springs. The cowpea pod-weevil, Chalcodermus (eneus Boh., seems to be decidedly on the increase, judging from the large number of reports and specimens we have received during the past two springs. Early in the season, while the pod-weevils are waiting for cowpeas, they heavily infest the cotton, and often materially injure the stands by puncturing the leaf and terminal stems of the plants. The garden web-worm, Loxostege similalis Guen., the differential locust, Melanoplus clifferentialis Thos., and the leaf-footed plant bug, Leptoglossus phyllopus Linn., have caused little trouble. Sugar Cane Insects The two principal cane insects, the cane borer, Diafrcea saccharalis Fab., and the "pou-a-poussiere," Fseudococcus calceolarm Mask., have been about normally abundant, although we have found that the infested territory' is larger than we knew of in 1907, in the case of both insects. The Bureau of Entomology has taken up a study of sugar cane and rice insects, in cooperation with the Louisiana State Crop Pest Conmiission, also a study of the Argentine ant, which is supposed to be the principal means of transportation of the "pou- a-poussiere. ' ' Insects Injurious to Cereal and Forage Crops None of our principal corn insects, the boll-worm, the cane borer, or the Southern corn root-worm, Diabrotica duodecimpmictata Oliv., have been more than usually abundant on com. The rice maggot, Lissorhoptrus simplex, Say, did a great deal of damage the past spring. Thousands of specimens were sent into the Commission, which had flown to lights. The sugar-cane beetle, Ligyrus rugiceps Lee, was not reported as unduly numerous, but the author noticed vast numbers of them at Crowley, La., in the heart of the rice-belt, attracted to the lights of the city. Thousands of them were lying upon the walks under each electric light, and they were flying into houses and stores in great abundance. 214 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [YoL 3 The fall army worm. Laphygma fnigiperda Sm. & Abb., was seriously abundant in some sections, particular injury being done to young rice. The author saw one 10-acre corn field near Hammond, La., made as bare in a few days as if there had been no crop on the land whatsoever. The destructive pea aphis, Nectarophora pisi Kalt., and the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lind., did considerable damage in St. Bernard Parish, the extreme southeastern parish of the state, though the dam- age was not as serious by either species as in 1907. Truck Crop Insects A few specimens of the Colorado potato-beetle, Leptinotarsa decem- lineata Say, have been received at the office of the Commission, but this insect is usually conspicuous by its absence. The sweet potato borer, Cylas formicarius Fab., has been, as usual, quite common in South Louisiana, and the ever-present Harlequin cabbage-bug, Murgantia histrionica Hahn., has been heard from only occasionally. The imported cabbage worm, Pontia rapce Sell., has been more numerous the past fall than in many years. On account of decreased cotton acreage, considerable truck has been planted in some sections of Louisiana, and a large amount of fall cabbage was this year grown. Most of the cabbage growers are yet unfamiliar with the insects attacking this crop, and, as a result, the imported cabbage worm did an unusually large amount of damage. The past fall, also, was notable for its tremendous number of bean leaf -beetle, Ceratoma trifurcata Forst. Cowpeas and all sorts of beans were badly riddled, and applications of arsenate of lead seemed to have little effect. The striped cucumber beetle, Diabrotica vittata Fab., was another common insect which was unusually numerous the past season. The squash lady beetle, Epilachna borealis. Fab., is always found in small numbers, scattered over the state. Insects Injurious to Stored Products The insects in stored food-stuffs, etc., in Louisiana, are legion. Among the commonest are the drug-store beetle, Sitodrepa panicea Linn., the saw-toothed grain-beetle, Silvanus surinamensis Linn., the rust-red flour beetle, Triholium ferrugineum Fab., the cadelle, Tene- irioides mauritanica Linn., the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma testa- ceum Dufts, the rice weevil, Calandra orgzce L., the granary weevil. April, '10] ROSEXFELD : LOUISIANA INSECTS 215 Calandra granaria Linn., Alphitobius diaperinus Panz., Bhizopertha pusilla Fab. and others. Our three most common cockroaches are the American cockroach, Periplaneta amencana Linn., a closely related species, P. hriinnea Burm., and the cosmopolitan croton bug, Blatella germanica Linn. Insects Affecting Deciduous Fruits The same Coccids as were noted in the article by Newell and Rosen- feld, mentioned above, have been noticed during the past two years, and none have increased to an alarming extent. The San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst., has been held well in check in the nurseries in which it occurs, and we have not been able to locate any newly infested districts for the West Indian peach scale, Aulacaspis pentagona Targ. In September last, Mr. C. W. Flynn, while inspecting nurseries in New Orleans, sent in some Coccids on young fig trees from China, said by the nurserj^man to have been brought to him by a sea-captain. Doctor Howard identified these scale insects as Aster olecanuim pus- tulans Ckll. Mrs. Fernald, in her catalogue, gives as the habitat of this insect, Jamaica, Porto Rico, Antigua, Brazil, Br. Guiana, Gre- nada, Monserrat, Mexico and Florida. As this is a new insect to us in Louisiana, we had the nurseryman destroy the few fig trees infested. The peach-borer, Sanninoidea exitiosa Say, and the plum-curculio, Conotrachelns nenuphar Herbst, have been about normally abundant, but the shot-hole borer, Scolytus rugulosus Ratz., has done more than its usual damage, especially to peach, this being doubtless due to the fact that a late freeze last spring materially weakened a number of peach trees which were pretty well advanced. The woolly apple aphis. ScMzoneura lanigera Hausm., and the ap- ple-tree tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americana Fab., have been very little in evidence of late. This is also true of the American procris, Harrisina americana Guer. An insect which we did not before know to occur in the state is the strawberry root louse, Aphis forbesi Weed. In April, 1908, a few specimens were sent in, and an investigation by the writer re- vealed the fact that it was very common all over Tangipahoa Parish, our principal strawberry section. During the past spring this insect was also found by the writer at Baton Rouge. The destructive mealy-bug, Pseudococcus citri, Risso, is commonly abundant on figs, Japanese persimmons, and oranges. 216 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Citrus Fruit Insects On the orange insects there need be no especial comment except in the case of the white fly, Aleyrodes citri R. & H. This insect has again gained a foothold in Plaquemines Parish, the principal orange- growing section of the State, and this season has done considerable damage. Efforts are being made to hold this insect in check by means of the various fungus enemies which have given good results in Florida, and with fair results. The white fly was formerly very abundant in the orange groves of Plaquemines Parish, but was prac- tically eradicated there by the destructive freeze of February, 1899, which killed most of the orange trees in Louisiana and Florida. Insects Injurious to Pecans The walnut caterpillar, Datana integerrima G. & R., has done con- siderable damage to pecan foliage, while the fall webworm, Hyphan- tria cunea Dru., and the hickory twig-girdler, Oncideres cingulata Say, have been about normally abundant. More than the usual num- ber of complaints of attacks of the pecan huskworm, Enarmonia prunivora Fitch, have been received. In December, 1908, Mr. T. C. Barber collected a number of newly budded pecan branches (ring budded) which showed indications of the attack of boring larvae. On investigation a number of Sesiid larvae were found, in one case thirty being dug from a single limb. They seemed to enter through the wound caused by the budding and to work upwards from the bud. This caused a large swelling at the point of injury, which was covered with the borings of the larvae. Three infested limbs were placed in the insectary, and in March the adults began to emerge, something like fifty specimens emerging from these three small pieces of infested limbs between March 24 and April 28, 1909. Doctor Dyar kindly identified the moth as Sesia corusca Hy Edw. The obscure scale, Chrysomphalus ohscurus Comst., has been found abundant on pecan trees all over Louisiana. Cecidomyia caryw 0. S. is also abundant in all parts of the state, on wild pignut as well as on cultivated pecan. We have on record one case of severe injury to a pecan tree at Morgan City, La., by an ambrosia beetle, identified by Prof. F. H. Chittenden, of the Bureau of Entomology, as Platypus compositus Say. The two May beetles, LacJuiosterna prunina Lee, and L. fusca Froh., which were very destructive locally in some sections in north- April, '10] BURGESS: CALOSOMA 217 -west Louisiana in 1905. have not made their appearance in such de- structive numbers since that time. Insects Injurious to Shade and Ornamental Trees In this class we have found nothing of especial importance, the pests mentioned in the above-mentioned article being present in about normal quantity. The Gulf Fritillary. Dione vaniUce Linn., is almost always found upon the passion-vine. Passaflora incarnata, with which a number of the galleries in various parts of South Louisiana are covered, and the dropping of the spiny red and black "worms" has "almost caused" untold cases of feminine hysterics! The larv£e of Homaledra sahaJclIa Cham., (kindly identified by Mr. Busck), have caused considerable injuiy to palms in Calcasieu Parish^ in the southwestern part of the state, during the past summer. They fold the leaves and feed inside the inclosure thus made, skeletonizing the leaves. Insects Attacking Men and Live Stock Nothing of interest has transpired among these insects during the past two seasons. We have had no severe outbreaks of the buffalo gnat, Simidium pecuarum Kiley, reported to us. This insect at times appears in destructive numbers, and the loss of a large amount of stock always results. The horn-fly, Hcematobia serrata R.-D., has been very abundant in parts of the state, and has caused considerable annoyance to farmers in the infested districts. The various species of Tabanus and Chrysops have been noticed in about their usual numbers. The chicken mite, Dennanijsus gallinke Eedi, has been several times sent into the office with complaints of injuiy and annoyance. NOTES ON CALOSOMA FRIGIDUM KIRBY, A NATIVE BENEFICIAL INSECT^ By A. F. Burgess, Melrose HioMamU. Mass. During the past three seasons extensive investigations have been carried on at the Gypsy ]\Ioth Parasite Laboratory at Melrose High- lands. ]\rass., in order to secure more accurate knowledge of the biology of the European parasitic and predaceous insects that are being introduced for the purpose of securing the natural control of the Gypsy and Brown-Tail Cloths. Considerable data has also been obtained concerning native species which destroy some of our common ' Occasional contributions from the Gypsy Moth Parasite Laboratory, III. ^18 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 insect pests, an unusual opportunity was offered in 1909, on ac- count of the extreme abundance of the Saddled Prominent {Hetero- campa guttivitta) in Maine and New Hampshire. For two years previously large areas of deciduous forests in these states had been defoliated by this insect, and its unusual abundance and the noticeable character of the injury caused led many land- owners to fear that irreparable damage would result. During the summer of 1908 reports relative to this insect were issued by Miss Edith M. Patch,- Entomologist to the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Prof. E. F. Hitchings, State Entomologist of Maine, and ■C. F. Jackson^, Assistant Entomologist, New Hampshire Agricul- tural Experiment Station, and last summer the outbreaks of the previous year were followed up by the above officials and their assistants. In each of these reports mention was made of the fact that certain predaceous beetles, particularly Calosonm frigidum, were found in considerable numbers in the badly infested sections and as this genus •of beneficial insects is receiving special study in connection with the Gypsy moth work, it seemed desirable to secure as much data as possi- ble to determine whether the species was doing any considerable amount of good. Accordingly an arrangement was made with Prof. E. D. Sanderson and on July 31 Mr. W. F. Fiske and the writer accompanied Professor Sanderson on a tour of a part of the infested district in New Hamp- shire. A visit was made to several badly infested localities in the town of Tamworth, in the foothills of the White Mountains and a colony of larvjB of the European beetle, Calosoma sycophanta was lib- erated. These insects had been reared at the Parasite Laboratory in Massachusetts and previous to this time over 6,000 had been liberated in Gypsy moth infested colonies in that state. The caterpillar stage •of that insect having passed, it was thought desirable to liberate this colony in New Hampshire where the beetle larvae could obtain suf- ficient food to attain full development. Adults of Calosoma frigidum were common in this locality, where they were observed climbing the trees and feeding freely on the Heterocampa larvce. No beetle larvae were observed at this place. Another badly infested area was visited in the same town. A large acreage on the hillsides had been com- pletely defoliated and many Heterocampa larvfe were crawling about on the ground and the trunks of the trees in a vain search for food. This area had been defoliated the previous year. Many beetles were -Bulletin No. 161, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. = 19tli and 20th An. Repts. N. H. Agrir. Expt. Sta., 1908, p. 514-531. April, '10] BURGESS: CALOSOMA -219 found and several larvae were seen on the ground feeding on the cater- pillars. A square yard of ground was carefully examined by Mr. Fiske and the writer, and 12 frigidum larvie were found just beneath leaves and litter. They were busily engaged in feeding on the cater- pillars that had crawled under the forest cover for the purpose of pupation. On the following day a badly infested area was examined near White Horse Mountain, near North Conway, and although it was not possible, owing to lack of time, to make a thorough survey of the defoliated area, very little search was required to discover many of the beetles. This colony was located on the side of the mountain and the caterpillars were not as far advanced as those seen at Tamworth. At one place on the edge of the badly infested area upwards of 100 beetles were found busily engaged in climbing the trees and feeding on the caterpillars. Few Heterocampa larvae were found under the leaves and no beetle larvae were seen. Mr. CO. Bailey, Secretary to the Massachusetts State Forester, informed me that while driving at Effingham, New Hampshire, August 1, 1909, he observed large areas of woodland that had been stripped by Heterocampa. At one place the trees had been completely de- foliated and countless numbers of the caterpillars were seen crawling across the road. They were being attacked by Calosoma frigidum, .which species was present in large numbers. As few parasitic insects were observed it was thought desirable to make another trip later in the season in order to check up the data secured, and accordingly on August 21 Mr. Fiske and Mr. Harry S. Smith went to North Conway for that purpose. After finishing the investigations made in the localities visited on the previous trip Mr. Fiske returned, and Mr. Smith spent several days examining other defoliated areas on Mount Kearsarge and in the surrounding territory. A summarv' of the notes made by Mr. Smith, so far as they relate to Calosoma frigidum,, has been very kindly placed at my disposal, while those bearing on certain parasitic forms will be used by him after more information has been secured next season. At the time of this visit Heterocampa were nearly all in the pupal stage beneath the leaves and rubbish on the ground, and as frigidum larvae were present in considerable quantities, and actively engaged in feeding on the pupae counts were made to determine the relative percentage of pupae destroyed. About a square yard of ground was examined in each locality, 29 sets of data being secured. In five of these no frigidum larvae were found but the number of pupai that 220 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 had been destroyed ranged from 60 to 100 per cent, the average being 78 per cent by the beetle larvse and 4.5 per cent by all other enemies. In these areas the trees had been stripped early in the season and the beetle larva had become full grown and gone into the ground to pupate before the examination was made. In the remaining 24 areas examined frigidum larvse ranging from newly hatched to nearly full fed were found. In one case 21 larvae were discovered feeding on pupa. At this time the number of pupas that had been killed by the larva of frigidnm varied from 11.7 per cent to 80.2 per cent, the average being 54 per cent of the total number of pupa. Where the lower percentages were found a con- siderable number of small frigidum larva were present. The follow- ing table has been compiled from the data secured : TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF HETEROCAMPA WVM DESTROYED BY LARV^ OF CALOSOMA FRIGIDUM Stages of C. frigidum larvae found Pupae of Heterocampa First Second Third Adults Healthy Eaten Para- Dis- sltized eased ?t Des- troyed 2 3 2 • 8 4 4 2 1 2 2 7 2 1 17' 15 23 8 502 6 14 3 6 19 10 14 27 47 13 36 14 1 6 34 12 30 23 39 4 30 15 37 9 8 2 4 21 16 11 37 51 44 10 39 16 19 10 38 28 52 15 50 4 1 15.3 62.5 39.4 2 15 80.2 \ 2 14.7 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 57.1 1 11.7 57.1 3? 70.0 1 3 2 1 1 4 1 3 1 1 2 1 heat? 2 " 44.4 47.8 1 72.5 66.3 48.3 43.5 2 6 52.0 53.3 95.0 1 1 62.2 52.5 70.0 2 63.4 39.5 56.1 15 44 62 6 467 566 ' Also one larva of Heterocampa. 2 Also two larvae of Heterocampa. April, '10] • BURGESS: CALOSOMA 221 Several of the larvae included under the column "Diseased" prob- ably died from exposure to heat. No later examination of this territory could be made so it is impos- sible to state from actual counts the percentage of pupai that were destroyed before the beetle larvie became full fed. The data available showing the amount of food consumed by the larvas of frigidum in its different stages is far from complete but from such feeding records as have been obtained at the Gypsy Moth Parasite Laboratory, together with those secured by the writer several years ago when the life history of this species was investigated/ it appears that the following amount of food for each stage is a very conservative estimate ; first stage 2, second stage 5, and third stage 7 full grown gypsy moth larvae. If the beetle lan^ffi found continued to feed until full grown or until the food supply was exhausted, as would be the case in some of the areas examined, they would at the end of the season destroy, on the average for all the areas examined, 92 per cent of the pupse present. It is, of course, impossible to determine the number of Heterocanipa larvEe that were destroyed by the beetles and their larvae but from the above data it is easy to see that the increase of the species was greatly retarded during the past season, in the localities mentioned, by this beneficial insect. Calosoma frigidum is found throughout New England and is often present in large numbers during outbreaks of caterpillars. There are specimens in the United States National Museum at Washington, D. C, which were taken in Illinois, Maryland and Michigan, which indicates that this insect has a wide range. It is probable that the unusual increase of this species in the in- fested district in New Hampshire is due largely to the abundance of a satisfactory food supply. A study of the reproductive habits of a limited number of specimens, made by the writer in 1896, showed that 186 eggs were deposited, in one case, by a female fed in captivity, and observations which were continued the following year led to the discovery that eggs are laid by some females for two successive years. The habit of the Heterocanipa larvse of pupating on the ground beneath leaves and rubbish makes them particularly susceptible to the attack of the larvaj of this beetle, which naturally feed in such situations. The larvae of Calosoma sycophanta have been found climbing trees, especially those that have rough bark, where they * Notes on certain Coleoptera known to attack the gj'psy moth, 44th Annual Report Mass. State Board of Agriculture, 1896, p. 412-426. 222 JOURNAL OP ECOXOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol.3 feed on caterpillars and pupae of various insects. Frigidum larvee were not observed on tree trunks in the areas examined in New Hamp- shire but it was not necessary for them to climb as plenty of food was available on the ground. Miss Edith M. Patch has found these larva, as well as the beetles, feeding on Heter'ocampa caterpillars, on tree trunks, which shows that it is possible for the larvfe to climb to secure food in case it is neces- sary to do so. The abundance of Heterocampa next summer in the sections exam- ined will, of course, offer interesting data on the value of Calosoma frigidum in controlling this insect. This concludes the Proceedings. A. F. Burgess, Secretary. Panama Ticks.— We notice in Mr. Hooker's list of Dec, 1909, p. 415, of ticks from Panama no mention of two of our common species, Amhlyomm(i dlsshnile, the common iguana tick of this region, and Amblyonima varium, taken from Bufo marinus, our common toad; determinations made by Banks and Hunter. This last tick has been of some interest to us for it is probably the inter- mediary host of Filaria sp., and also of a Hemogregarine. Sections of adult ticks showed undoubted development of filaria embryos. The blood of every one of eight specimens of this toad contained filaria embryos, and each one of the adults dissected had three or four adult filaria in the lymph sinuses. The blood of five of the toads contained the hemogragarine. All of the toads were infected by Amhlyomnia varium. Dr. Samuel T. Daklixg, Chief, Board of Health Laboratory. Aiico)i Hospital, Isthmus of Panama. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of Horticultural Inspectors* (Continued from the February issue) Evening Session, December 26, 1909, Continued. President Washburn presiding. The President presented Professor Surface, who read the following paper : RESULTS OF VARIOUS REMEDIES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE, IN PENNSYLVANIA ORCHARDS, AS SEEN BY THE INSPECTORS IN THE ORCHARDS By H. A. SiKFACE, Harrisburg, Pa. [Withdrawn for publication elsewhere] WHAT SHOULD BE THE FORM OF OUR CERTIFICATES? By Franklix Sherman, Jr., Raleif/h, X. C. For some years I have been considering whether we entomologists (especially those of us in the eastern states) can devise some method of bringing our certificates of nursery inspection more nearly in line with the facts as they really exist. I violate no confidence in saying that the certificates as now issued in all of our eastern states are 'A CORRECTIOX It appears that Professor Headlee was incorrectly reported on pages 80-81 of our February issue. The following is therefore inserted at his request and gives the tenor of his remarks. — Ed. The Farmer's Institute organization in Kansas has been able to engage a practical, up-to-date horticulturist. This man goes about the state con- ducting the fruit-production side of the regular institutes. He meets with fruit growers, finds out their problems, and gives them the benefit of his long and successful experience. On request he visits individual fruit planta- tions, looks carefully into local conditions, and suggests methods whereby the yield may be improved. In general, our people do not know how to grow high grade fruit, al- though our regular fruit growers produce fruit that will compare very favor- ably with the best grown in the country. The Farmer's Institute organiza- 324 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 misleading to one not on the inside. We all know how binding are the conditions which have led us into this practice and I cannot say that I am yet quite ready to take a step which shall make North Carolina appear different from all her neighboring states, for such a step could, and probably would, be seized upon by some nurseries in other states and used to our disadvantage, when those very nurseries would likely be no better, and perhaps worse, than our own home nurseries. Now" the essential point of our present system which I object to is this: — - We give certificates which are so worded as to plainly imply that the nurseries are "free, or apparently free," from the San Jose Scale, and we issue these certificates after scale has been found in the nursery', we issue them to nurseries where it has been found with more or less regularity for years past, where we know the scale is well established, and where we are reasonably sure that it will be found in the future. We fully recognize the fact, and freely admit it among ourselves, that it is not practicable, nor would it be just to bar a well-established nursery from trade, when it has won a large number of loyal customers many of whom would rather take the stock of that nursery even without certificate and taking the chance of scale, rather than to deal with someone else. Then again, there is the complication that much of the stock is really sold through agents or advance orders, long before the nursery is inspected. But perhaps the most irritating fact of all is that if one of us, in the zeal of clearing his conscience and of trying to make the deed square with the word, were to actually knock out every nursery in his state which was found to have San Jose Scale, — that state might at once become a most profitable field for exploitation by nurseries in other states who were in the possession of certificates that they were "apparently free" and which as a matter of fact might be, and very likely would be, in worse condition than the nurseries that were put tion is trying, througli education, to bring about the production of better fruit. At present the horticulturist does not have many requests for con- sultation, but the number is increasing and no doubt in a short time he will have far more than he can attend to. Kansas is a large state and although the eastern and central portions will produce excellent fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, many parts of the west will grow orchards only under irrigation. In Kansas the fruit institute movement has just made a beginning. The Farmer's Institute, of which the fruit institute is just one phase, is organ- ized and looked after by a special agent known as the Superintendent of Farmer's Institutes. This official has his office at the agx'icultural college and his work has met with such keen appreciation that the last Legislature voted $50,000 to carry it forward. April, '10] SHERMAN: CERTIFICATES 225 out of business, — for the very entomologist who would be so strict and so conscientious as to take this step is the very one whose state nurseries would likely be in as good condition as any. Hence no one of us has felt that he could afford to take the step, and we have all preferred to compromise ourselves to this extent rather than expose our nurseries to unfair competition and to subject the fruit-growers and farmers of our states to exploitation in the way described. It seems to me that we have now reached the point where a change should be adopted, or at least tried experimentally. The San Jose Scale is now so wide-spread through all the eastern states that it is idle to talk of keeping our fruit-growing sections clear of it, — it is already present in almost everj- locality where there are extensive orchards, and in many such localities it is to be found in practically every orchard. Also it is no longer a pest which must be fought by preventive measures chiefl}-, for the remedies are so well known that there is no excuse for trees being killed by it after the owner once knows of its presence. Then again let us remember that under the head of ''serious insects and diseases ' ' which our certificates are intended to cover, are included such pests as woolly aphis, crown gall, oyster shell scale, brown-tail moth, etc. I cannot believe that all the nurseries which we certify can by any stretch of the imagination be considered as even "appar- ently free" of all these. I have therefore prepared for the consideration of this meeting a proposed form of certificate which I should like to have discussed. Here it is: — THIS IS TO CERTIFY: — That a duly authorized and competent inspector has made inspection of the salable nursery stock of at N. C, to ascertain condition as to insect pests and plant diseases, and said nursery is licensed until the expiration of this certificate. This certificate may be suspended or revoked for cause. This Certificate Expires September 30, 1910. Dated,— Raleigh, N. C, 1910. Entomologist. I do not see as such certificate would give an unscrupulous nursery- man any advantage which he does not already have, nor do I see that it would take from the entomologist any advantage that he now has. I do not believe that "the ultimate consumer" would care a snap about the changed wording just so his protection is not weakened. We could retain the same privilege which some of us now use, of 226 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 requirinp- other nurseries to get tags from us before shipping into our state. — we could still have the right to destroy infested shipments. Nor do I believe that it would be injurious to those nurseries which are really apparently free from San Jose Scale. However, I do a little bit fear that if we were to make such a change in our certificate, there would be some very enterprising nurserymen from some of the states which might not adopt the change, who would flood the other states with agents who would tell the people that our state nurseries were admittedly unsafe to buy stock from and then in support would show that we did not give a statement of free- dom from scale, while their state did! Altogether, I must confess that I am not immovably set in my conviction that this scheme would work entirely well, but I would be willing to go home, broach it to the nurserymen and fruit-growers of my state and adopt it for the coming year, if enough others would join with me to give it a really full and fair trial. Tuesday Evening, December 28, 1909 Discussion in regard to certificates, as proposed by Sherman : Mr. Phillips: In all cases the stock should be examined, and it should be understood that no certificate should go on any stock carry- ing the San Jose scale. My inspectors are instructed not to pass trees that are infested with San Jose scale. All plants so marked are condemned and destroyed. President Washburn : This is really very interesting. We would like to hear from other members. ]\Ir. Phillips : We have discussed this matter year after year ; in fact, we had an important meeting in Washington a few years ago, and discussed about the same idea, although we did not present it in the form of a certificate. At that time it was decided that the time had not come for making a change. I think Mr. Sherman's ideas are very good, and touch a point on which I would like to get an expression from the Associa- tion. There is always some nurseryman here and there who has lost a few dollars by not keeping his nursery stock clean, and has objections to raise to inspection, and in order to get an understanding as to how this Association feels in regard to this certificate, I would like to make a motion that if such a certificate as Professor Sherman indicates is issued, and has the endorsement of the Association, that it shall not April, '10] INSPECTORS' DISCUSSION 227 cover a single tree infested with San Jose Scale, any more than any certificate mentioned heretofore ; in other words, that the certificate be understood not to cover a single tree infested with San Jose Scale. Of course, every one loiows that you will find a tree now and then slightly affected. The idea I want to get at is that infested or affected trees should not be sent out from the nursery, and I make a motion to emphasize this point. President Washburn: I think perhaps Mr. Phillips' motion is a little premature. We can use it later on. Mr. S. J. Hunter : In Kansas when inspection is made and scale is found on a man 's premises, regardless of whether it is in his nursery stock or in his orchard no certificate of inspection is issued. The nursery stock receives a tree to tree inspection and all stock destroyed within dangerous proximity of any stock found infested. The stock which is left is subjected to the standard fumigation process under the immediate direction of an inspector. Each consignment of this stock is accompanied by a special tag stating that such has been fumigated and giving the exact invoice of the consignment. Mr. Burgess : Although I was not present when the paper was read, I would suggest that the certificates should show that the nursery had been examined and that the stock contained in each shipment was apparently free from injurious insects and plant diseases. I can see no deception in issuing such a certificate even if a slight infesta- tion was found in the nur.sery at the time of inspection, provided the inspector has taken every precaution to free the premises from in- festation and that he is satisfied that the stock shipped is free from pests as stated in his certificate. If the stock is fumigated before shipment I believe a certificate to that effect is an advantage. President Washburn: I think the statement which Mr. Burgess just made is right to the point. I believe this is a matter which can safely be left to the good sense of the inspectors. Our common sense will tell us when a nurseryman has good stock, and if he is entitled to his certificate. I do not believe any of us would give a man a certificate if he did not deserve it. 228 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 SOME OBSCURE DISEASES OF PEACH By J. B. S. Norton-. College Park, Md. Introduction Perhaps most of our cultivated, plants are troubled with many physiological diseases of more or less consequence, many of which, though they may cut off the crop seriously each year, do not receive notice, as their symptoms are not marked enough to attract attention as specific diseases; though some are well known because so serious that they could not escape notice by either cultivators or pathologists. It is comparatively easy to work with a disease when the cause can be easily seen with the naked eye, as with most of our insect troubles. And if by careful microscopic work a pathogenic fungus or bacterium can be discovered, it is again a more or less simple matter. So much so, that practically all of our training has been along the line of in- sect and fungous parasites ; a basis for pathological work which is not strictly logical, as these are only parts of the more fundamental science of pathology which deals with all abnormal variations in nutrition, respiration, stimulation, etc. But, we instinctively look for a parasite and are baffled when we come to a serious disease without any causa- tive organ other than the diseased plant itself. So far as I know the peach has more serious diseases, the cause of which has not been definitely determined, than any other crop we grow. It is only by extensive study of these under a great variety of conditions that we can obtain accurate information on such distur- bances in plant health, and for that reason, I wish to here give a brief account of such as have come to my notice from personal experience and a recent examination of the available literature. Not all the diseases, the causes of which are unknown may be non- parasitic ; some may be caused by yet unknown bacteria, fungi, insects or other animal parasites, and in that case or even if due to a con- tagious ferment, as may be the case in the yellows, may come under the domain of the horticultural inspector. Yellows I shall mention first what has been determined about peach yellows. (See Erwin Smith, also Clinton and other recent authors.) Briefly, this is a definite disease, characterized by premature ripening of the fruit, which is peculiarly red blotched, internally red streaked, and of poor quality, premature growth of leaf -buds, and even flower- April, '10] NORTON : PEACH DISEASES 229 buds, producing small, narrow and usually yellowisli foliage, and later clusters of weak shoots, followed in three to six years by death. It was first known near Philadelphia over one hundred years ago and is now found from Canada south to central Delaware and Maryland, from thence extending southward east of the mountains to Georgia. "Westward it is serious in Ohio, Michigan, etc., and occurs west of the Mississippi as far south as Arkansas. It has not spread southward very much in JMaryland and Delaware, in twenty years. In the region where it is found, it is constantly present, but has had several much more serious outbreaks; sometimes destroying ninety per cent of the orchards in one year. Yellows can be transmitted to a healthy tree by union with a living portion of a diseased tree, but in no other known manner, except to some extent by means of diseased pits, of which, however, only a small percentage usualh' germinate. (Warren [X. J. 1906] got twenty-seven per cent germination from 620 natural pits and only two per cent from 321 of four varieties of canning house pits; see also Phillips' work in Virginia.) It has been noticed that in orchards where dis- eased trees are kept cut out, fewer new cases appear, indicating some other kind of infection. The disease is present in the tree some months before it is apparent and may show first only in a part of the tree. It cannot be cut out in such cases, and though diseased wood is lacking in lime and has an excess of potash, it cannot be corrected by fertilizers. It also attacks apricots, almonds and Japan plums and similar diseases occur in several herbaceous plants and some other trees. It is not due to root aphis, lack of iron, or any kind of impoverished soil ; if anything, the trees making more vigorous growth being more subject to yellows. Overbearing, also, is against the disease rather than favoring it. Many fungicides, including Bordeaux mixture sprayings and many secret remedies have been tested without success. No case of recovery is well authenticated. Many theories as to cause have been tested and inoculations with many fungi and bacteria have been tried without success. The distribution indicates a relation to a certain climatic zone and many observations point to an increase of yellows after injurious weather conditions, such as drouth, following severe winter or late spring freezes. Individual trees show great resistance and some varieties seem more resistant in some cases than others. None are immune, not even naturals. Trees have lived in infected districts for fifteen to thirty years and then died of the disease. (Morse cites 230 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [VoL 3 the case of the White Magdalen variety that has grown 150 years in Massachusetts without contracting the disease.) Since in our work we have to do more work with this disease than the others I shall mention, I shall take a little more time with it and mention some of the points which are in much need of further study, as apparently no extensive scientific work has been done on this im- portant disease for nearly twenty years. First. Can the disease be communicated by the pruning knife, contact, etc., or by sap or other non-living matter from diseased trees? Second. Can the disease be produced in healthy trees far south of the yellows region by budding from diseased northern stock? Also would young diseased trees recover if transported to the south ? Appar- ently any quantity of trees have been sent south from infected dis- tricts without spread of the disease, though healthy trees from the south have not shown immunity. Third. The southern and western limit of the disease should be again accurately determined, and a careful survey of the infected region made to determine if there are within it isolated areas free from the disease. The border line should be completely explored for cases of recovery or recent extension of the disease limitation. Fourth. What is the relative resistance of different varieties? Old trees standing for years after the surrounding ones have gone out with yellows should be propagated from to secure possible resistant stock. Fifth. Tabulate from orchard inspection and weather records ac- curately kept for many years, the relation of warm, cold, wet and dry seasons and late spring frosts to increase or decrease of yellows in following years. Three or four seasons records in Maryland indicate that yellows outbreaks follow severe cold after buds open in spring. In this connection, the influence of different slopes or exposure and effect of late and early blooming might be considered. Sixth. Careful examination of records should be made to cer- tainly determine whether removal decreases infection or spread, bear- ing in mind the possibility that new cases may be due to climatic or soil conditions. Seventh. We need a thorough chemical study of the relative amount of organic compounds associated with nutrition such as, starch, sugar, acid, tannin, proteid, enzymes, etc. There are several diseases of other plants closely resembling yellows, such as the Serah disease of sugar cane, dwarf mulberry disease, mosaic disease of tobacco, etc., in which the disturbance has been more definitely worked out, and while it is said that yellows is such an enzyme disease, no chemical study of it April, '10] XOUTOX: TEACH DISEASES 231 has been published other than the fifteen to twenty years old ash analyses, though very complete analyses of healthy peach were pub- lished by the Bureau of chemistry in 1905. Rosette Another somewhat similar disease known as rosette, found first locally in Georgia some fifteen years ago, is distinguished by the absence of premature fruit (the fruit becoming gummy and falling before ripening), more tufted growth and death after a shorter time five months to two years). It has since been found in South Carolina, Alabama, Oklahoma, and in 1901 in Missouri. The past summer, I found that it had killed most of the peach orchards about Manhattan, Kansas, where, 15 years ago, it was confined to one or two orchards. I also found it along the Kansas valley as far east as Topeka and extending up the Blue river, possibly into Nebraska. I may say that some nurserymen are obtaining pits from this part of Kansas, in the belief that this is out of the limit of the infected district. Little Peach , Little peach is in some ways a similar disease characterized by the fruit ripening late and very small, the foliage being small, yellowish or red and inclined to roll, the tree dying in two to three years. When the wirv shoots which are sometimes produced as in yellows are pres- ent and the fruit absent, it cannot be distinguished from the latter disease. It was first reported from Michigan in 1896 and has since been found in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut ( ?), Delaware and possibly Maryland. No cause has been discovered but it seems to be contagious. The occurrence of this disease along the northern border of the yellows region and the rosette along the southern border would sug- gest that these three diseases which can with difficulty be distinguished at certain times, might be climatic forms of one disease, though one would hardly be rash enough to add such a theory to a question already overburdened with theory. A suspected case of little peach reported from New York was found to be due to imperfect fertilization, the pit being small and without kernel. Injuries by Low Temperature A number of peculiar peach troubles are to be attributed to winter injury and perhaps low temperature is associated with more than 232 .lOURXAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 have been assigned to such a cause as the peach is especially sensitive to cold. In cases of collar-girdling, root-rot, stag-head, poor growth and yellow foliage, one should look for the darkened wood due to severe cold which may kill it up to the cambium without destroying the latter. A great deal of trouble of various character at the base of the tree may be due to cold. In a large number of cases, which I saw several years ago in Maryland and similar instances mentioned by Clinton in Connecticut, the root, or the bark at the base of the stem seems to be injured while the top is left in fairly healthful con- dition. Whether we are right in attributing this to winter injury I am not certain. In some low land near sea level, I had thought that salt water overflow might have been the cause, but the Delaware Experiment Station reports benefit from such a case (1895) rather than injury. I have noticed in Maryland associated with these basal injuries, an abundant fungous growth resembling the Cytospora noted by Stewart as occurring with dead or dying peach in New^ York, and causing white flattened shot like bodies under pimples. Its parasitism has not been determined. Frost-crack, body-blight or sunscald seems to be due mostly to ex- tremes of temperature in late winter and spring. Trees making vigorous growth are said to be injured less than old or young trees, and freeze more easily than the middle aged. Failure of Young Trees Young trees when set often refuse to grow. Some of this may be due to methods of planting or soil conditions. But I attribute a great deal of it to drying or freezing of the root during the winter storage, in shipping or while planting. Warren has made some tests in New Jersey of the effect of exposure of different duration and found that roots exposed to evaporation for one hour were severely injured. In speaking of storage troubles, I may mention the fatal fungous trouble (species not identified) found in New York in 1900 where sand was thrown over the stock in the cellar. Dwarfing and poor grow^th or early failure may result from graft- ing upon plum or other stocks that are soon grown over by the more vigorous peach. A yet unexplained condition found to be causing much loss in several Maryland orchards the past year, in which the base of the stem is swollen, soft and cracked and the main lateral roots are cut off by a regular abscission layer, may be due to partial drying out of the root. April, '10] NORTON: TEACH DISEASES 233 Spray and Other Chemical Injuries There are still some unsolved problems connected with injni'ies from copper, arsenic and other spray materials, the peach being especially sensitive to such, though much has been cleared up by Bain and others. Some peculiar physiological disturbances come from the use of oils, and much injury resulted especially in the old days of kerosene and crude petroleum spraying for scale. I do not know of any one having yet worked out the physiological effect of oil upon trees or upon fungi. Whether the peculiar rough bark often seen on peaches sprayed with oil is due to the latter or to recovery from scale I cannot say. Some of our mysterious troubles may be due to dipping in oils or other materials. Close (Delaware) found severe injury to peach dipped in crude petroleum and more when dipped in kerosene. Symons (Maryland) found injury from oil dipping in some cases. He found more injury when roots were dipped. Silver Leaf A condition of peach foliage called silver leaf due to unknown causes has been known in England for years and is reported as serious and contagious. A silvery appearance is common on peach leaves in autumn in this country. I was told by Professor A. L. Quaintance in 1901 that this was due to the work of a mite, but I can find no publication on this trouble except the description of the silvering mite by Banks in 1905. Split Pit Split pit is a common and not definitely explained condition. In England it is attributed to excessive and unequal growth of inner and outer parts of the fruit dvie to rapid growth at fruiting time. Piper says that in the western United States twig borers are the cause of some of it. Another writer says these only enter the previously split pits. It was noted as serious in California in 1904. I shall now mention some conditions due to various causes, which we may best group under their most noticeable symptoms. Root Rot Frequently trees blossom out then stop growing or make an un- satisfactory growth and then die. In such cases the root is often full of fungous mycelium. Several fungi (for example, Clitocybe parasitica), (Missouri and Oklahoma) and other Basidiomycetes 234 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 (California), Rosellinia radiciperda (New Zealand), Ozonium, etc., have been assigned as the cause. Some of the observed fungi un- doubtedly follow previous injury by low temperature, wet soil, or other causes interfering with root respiration. Even the undoubted para- sites may be assisted in their attack by such conditions. Selby found 5t more frequent on clay soil in Ohio. It is a common trouble in Oklahoma and Texas. Gummosis The ordinary cells of the peach are easily transformed into the gum commonly found about injured peach tissues. Gummosis usually begins in some wound where gum forming enzymes develop and may bring about extensive degeneration. Bacteria (see work in U. S. Dept. Agriculture and Brzezinski in Compt. Rend. 1902) as well as several fungi have been found associated with gummosis and in some cases definitely causing it. It is usually to be looked upon as the indication of some other trouble and may be associated with brown rot, borers, bark beetle, scale, excess of nitrogen, and especially frost, which often leaves patches of bark separated from the wood where the gummosis enzyme starts to work. Cankers, Knots and Constrictions Cankers may be formed by various peach fungi keeping open w^ounds' which the tree is trying to heal. Constrictions indicated by the yellow, rolled foliage from uncut bud-wrappings, label wire, etc.. are often seen. I have seen a few cases like the above where the constriction was due to the killing of the bark which was dried to the wood and covered with small pycnidia filled with Pestalozzia like spores. Other causes are : overgrowing the stock as when grafted on sand cherry and American plum, attacks of Fhoma persicm, other fungi, etc. A knot of swelling of twigs is described by Selby in Ohio (1898), clubbed branches noted by Erwin Smith (1892), a tuberculosis at- tributed to a species of Clostridium occurs in Europe, MacOwen reports at the Cape of Good Hope (1899) knotlike growth followed by death of the twigs bearing them, and a case of swollen and blis- tered peach trees in England is reported in Gardeners Chronicle 1897. Shot Hole and Leaf Spot The cause of the Shot hole effect in leaves may be difficult to find as the affected portion is cut away by the peach itself. Spray injuries April, '10] X()i:t(,)X: i-eacii diseases 235 and various fungi, such as Cercospora circumcissa, C. persicce, Phyl- losticta persicce (in Maryland last summer), Macrosporium commune (Michigan), Bacterium pruni, etc., have been noted as causing these troubles. Chlorosis Aside from the yellowness of foliage mentioned already under yellows, etc., a yellow foliage condition is well known in Europe under the name of Chlorosis. Powell (Delaware 1897) reports a case of yellowish willow-like shoots, from newly budded stock, identified by experts as yellows, but which disappeared as the trees grew older. He attributes it to influence of the bud and weather conditions causing late growth. These yellows-like shoots are often seen in nurseries and when older trees have been severely pruned, or when growth has been checked by grafting, bending, or constricting a branch. Following the excessive wet spring of 1909 in Kansas, I noticed that the foliage at the ends of many peach branches as well as on other species was almost white. Selby attributes to wet soil, a varie- gated foliage with yellow along the veins, seen in Ohio; and Stewart and Blodgett report a condition with watery edge to the leaves, later becoming yellow and passing into tip burn ; cause unknown. Leaf Roll, Wilt, Leaf and Fruit Drop These conditions may be due to various troubles, girdling b}' borers, wire, winter injury, dry or stony soil (see Johnson's frenching disease, Maryland 1896) or even to wet soil, in addition to such diseases as yellows and little peach. Wilting due to unknown causes has been mentioned by several writers. A bud dropping disease (cause unknown) is reported from South Africa and similar troubles in English greenhouses are attributed to improper ventilation. The June drop has been rather a mysteiy but probably is as Waugli says due to combined action of nonpoUination, curculio and the strug- gle for existence. Prematuring of Fruit This may be caused by yellows (in which case it is distinguished by the peculiar red spots) by borers, or by girdling in other ways. 236 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Twig Spot The well known grayish, purple bordered twig-spots seem to be due to the fruit scab fungus. I found similar spores developing from them last spring (See Duggar, Fungous Diseases). Stone and Monahan mention a twig-spot due to a Monilia. Twig Blight, Staghead or Dieback The cause of death of branches is so varied as to be extremely con- fusing. I may mention among fungi: Phoma persicce, Sclerotinia fruc- tigena, Valsa lencostoma, Cortjxciini beyerinMi, Ncemospora crocea also old age, poor soil conditions, yellows, spraying mixtures, oils in. particular and probably some lime sulfur, cold weather, etc. Fungus and Insect Troubles Many diseases due to vegetable parasites have been pretty well cleared up : such as crown gall, brown rot, leaf curl, bacterial leaf spot, fruit scab, frosty mildew, California blight, powdery mildew, rust, and fruit rot due to Gloeospormm Iceticolor and Aspergillus glaucus. But among these and others many points in nomenclature,, pathology and treatment are yet unsettled. It is hardly worth while to mention the large list of other fungi given by Saccardo as occurring on peach but not mentioned in recent pathological literature. But many of these occurring even on dead tissues only may be stages of active parasites which are yet to be worked out. The many disturbances due to insects and other animals, I shall not mention, as they are out of my domain except to say that in addition to the simple injuries they cause, definite diseased conditions are due to nematodes, San Jose Scale, borers, curculio, root aphis, etc. LOCAL INSPECTION, PUBLIC SPRAYERS AND THE OSAGE ORANGE HEDGE By Thomas B. Symons, College Park. Md. Mr. President and fellow memhers: The title of these remarks would seem to indicate a rather elemen- tary discussion to present to this Association, yet it seems to me that we should not lose sight of these practical problems with which each-, of us come in contact in the performance of our several duties. There- April, '10] SYMOXS: IXSPECTIOX AND SPRAYIXG 237 is no doubt that much practical information has accumulated as the result of comparatively recent investigations throughout the country, that has not as yet reached the men or farmers in whose interest the work was undertaken. I, therefore, consider the proper dissemina- tion of facts already known to those who need the information as important a problem as the seeking of new facts looking towards the mitigation of many existing troubles. ^Moreover, as professional men, I consider that we should aim as far as possible to stimulate means whereby our theoretical instructions, so to speak, may be put into practice. The mere fact of advising a grower what he should do in order to relieve a certain condition or save a certain crop is not suf- *ficient. It is somewhat similar to a doctor prescribing a medicine that cannot be procured at the drug store within a reasonable time or without a great expense. The third subject of my title is one in which as inspectors, we should be especially interested and as men seeking to improve the economic status of our constituents, we should spend every effort in conducting an interstate campaign towards the elimination of this constant menace to our farmers and fruit growers. With this introduction, I shall discuss briefly these three subjects, giving our experience in ]\Iar\"land with the desire to stimulate further discussion by the Association. Local Inspection Upon the enactment of the Maryland Inspection law, the officers charged with its enforcement found difficulty in disseminating the desired information to the mass of growers as well as in getting amicable and practical compliance with the law by negligent orchard- ists. It was apparent that the orchards of the state should be inspected both for the benefit of the growers as well as to do justice to the nurserymen. It was difficult, however, to devise means for a proper inspection with the limited funds at our command. For a time the officers of the department endeavored to visit as many parts of the state as possible, but this procedure, while being of great assistance, did not promote the work as was desired. There was needed a farm- to-farm canvass to ascertain the real conditions. It was then decided to appoint a practical man in each county to conduct the local inspec- tion of the orchards. This system of orchard inspection has been in operation in ]\Iaryland for the past eight years. The local inspectors are given a short course free of charge at the college during the win- ter. The course covers the identification and means of control of the 238 JOrUXAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 common injurious insects and diseases and up-to-date methods of orchard management. The inspection is conducted during July, August and September. Each inspector is given an alloted territory by election districts. He is required to plat each orchard on a topo- graphical map of the state as shown by exhibit I. He is also required to make a report of the inspection of each place on the blanks, exhibit II., and directed to leave a card, exhibit III., at each place inspected, which serves to notify the owner or tenant of the inspection, if he should be away at that time. Each card is supposed to be filled out and sent to the office by the grower, who states what he has done or will do in the near future to comply with instructions. I may add that upon the receipt of the reports from the inspectors, we communicate Avith the growers in regard to the conditions of their orchards. This system has given much satisfaction in Maryland ; our only difficulty is that our funds only permit the inspection of about twenty- five per cent of the state during a season, and we are not able to reinspect this territory within a reasonable time to ascertain the existence of neglected cases and enforce the law, where necessary. The important aspect of this w^ork that I wish to point out is, that there is no doiibt that the personal contact method of dispensing in- formation is the best means of reaching all growers. The local inspec- tors are enabled to have personal interviews with the growers in their own orchards, where they can point out such insects or diseases as may be affecting their trees ; suggest proper culture methods and give in a practical manner such information as they need. Moreover, by this system, we are enabled to reach many farmers who may grow a few trees, and orchardists, who may never attend farmers' meetings where such subjects are discussed. Further, the local inspectors can explain the work of the department to the orchardists and show them that our efforts are directed toward helping them in the protection of their trees and in production of good crops, rather than in seeking enforcement of the law. In my opinion, the extension work of the departments of our colleges and stations, and State departments could well adopt such a plan for disseminating other agricultural information. A visit of a good prac- tical man to many of our farms, spending two or three hours or longer with the owner would be of much greater service to the farmer than many bulletins on the different subjects that may be thrown into the waste-paper basket. The farmer wants practical information and most of them are from "Missouri." The conditions at each place are different, and what would be a good suggestion in farm management for one, may be entirely useless or undesirable for another. April, '10] SYMONS: INSPECTION AND SPRAYING 239 Public Sprayers In the course of our work in Maryland for the control of the San Jose scale, we found great need of public spraying outfits in various parts of the state, especially in localities where fruit trees are grown by the farmers for home use only, and around our cities, towns and villages, where a few trees only are grown by suburbanites for the same purpose. Among tliis class of people there is not sufficient inter- est at stake, ordinarily, to justify their procuring spraying apparatus with which to properly treat a half dozen or so trees, but they are usually eager to have their trees healthful and willingly erhploy a public spraying outfit to treat such trees effectively. It is not an uncommon occurrence to observe every fruit tree grow- ing in some towns or villages badly infested with the scale. In order to aid this class of growers by furnishing means whereby they can have their trees treated and to demonstrate the field for a successful business to the end of inducing private parties to take up the work, our department has conducted public sprayers in different parts of Maryland for the past two years. The past season, twenty-five outfits were operated. A responsible man was secured to superintend each outfit. The spraying w^as conducted on a basis of cost of operation and not with any desire to make a profit for the department. The past season, the concentrated Lime Sulfur Solutions were used, which greatly facilitated the w'ork. The venture has been a great success in our state. In each locality Iwhere an oufit was operated, there has been more work than could be accomplished prior to the opening of the buds in the spring. This year, two of the outfits continued operations by spraying for the con- trol of the Codling Moth. Aside from offering immediate relief in saving fruit trees that would otherwise have been killed by the San Jose scale, the inaugura- tion of this work has accomplished in many instances the principal object for which the work was undertaken. It has shown that there is an opportunity for such a business which will give a reasonable profit where properly conducted. As a result there are many private parties who will conduct public sprayers in Maryland during this coming- season ; in fact there are some who have done considerable work this fall. I believe that we, as inspectors and professional men, should aim to develop means whereby our recommendations can be most effectively put into practice. There is no doubt that the operation of public sprayers and the conducting of public spraying demonstrations on the 240 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Alms Honse farms and in other selected orchards, showing the actual results that can be secured by spraying for the Codling Moth, has accomplished more in stimulating an interest in and popularizing the work of our department in Maryland than any other work that has been undertaken. The Osage Orange Hedge I am unable to give actual data as to the general distribution of this hedge plant, but it can be stated, that it is commonly employed as a make-shift fence in the Central, Middle Atlantic and Southern States of our union. Perhaps it is more abundant in Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kansas and adjoining states than in many others where it is occasionally seen. The plant is indigenous from eastern Kansas south through Arkansas and northeastern Texas, and throughout the prairie regions of the Mississippi basin. As to its occurrence in Maryland, I may state from actual observation that it may be seen in any part of the state but four counties particularly are badly afflicted with this nuisance. In these counties there are undoubtedly far more miles of hedge than county roads. It is rather peculiar that in those counties the fruit interests are far more pre- dominant than in other counties of the state. In many instances, this is practically the only fence on the farm. It thus serves as a division fence between farms, as well as a supposed barrier for farm animals between fields. The Osage Hedge furnishes an abundant food plant for the San Jose scale, and as this pest is generally disseminated over the central and eastern parts of the state, it follows that practically every hedge is infested to a greater or less extent ; in fact I have not observed an Osage Orange hedge that was not infested with scale. This condition is no doubt true in other states where the two nuisances occur. Un- fortunately, the plant is so vigorous that seldom will the scale kill it outright. As hedges offer especial opportunity to the agencies which aid in dissemination of the pest they will serve to infest fruit trees considerable distances from them. As inspectors, we should be particularly interested in treatment or destruction of the Osage hedge, only as it serves as an important and widespread food plant for the San Jose scale. However, the hedge may be condemned for other economic reasons, as follows : First. That seldom is there seen a hedge that will serve as a proper fence. If it serves as a barrier to horses and cattle, it will contain lioles, permitting hogs and sheep to pass through, and as a whole may be considered worthless in barring our domestic animals. April, '10] INSPECTORS' DISCUSSION 241 Second. While repairing is from time to time necessary, it is seldom practical. This expense added to that of trimming the hedge every year to keep it in a presentable condition, is more than enough to effect the cost of erection of a good wire fence. The hedge should be given one or even two or more trimmings each season. This is an •expensive and very disagreeable operation principally on account of the thorns. Third. The Osage Orange plant is a very vigorous grower, its roots permeate the ground on each side of the hedge for at least ten feet and in many cases greater distances. It thus robs the soil of fertility and moisture that should be accessible to crops planted in the field. There are, therefore, several vulnerable points of attack, in fact the majority of those who keep Osage hedges recognize it as a general nuisance, but aside from the natural reluctance to lose the first cost of the plants and perhaps many years of expense in maintenance, the expense of grubbing up the hedge and the setting of a new fence is in the majority of cases the only excuse for their existence on so many farms. In Maryland the department has adopted the policy of allowing the farmers three years in which to rid their property of this nuisance. Thus the hedge bordering on the fields to be cultivated each season can be destroyed. Tliis method will not work a hardship on the owner or tenant, and it is hoped that it will serve to gradually eliminate this important food plant of the San Jose scale, and otherwise expensive make-shift for a fence from Maryland farms. It seems to me that a widespread campaign may be waged by the inspectors of the several states in ridding our country of this most troublesome hedge plant. DISCUSSIONS OF QUESTIONS ON PROGRAM President: Question Two: "What means can be taken to require the railroad officials to be more strict in demanding certificates when accepting nursery stock for transportation ? " If there is nothing special to be said about this matter, we will pass •on, as the railroad officials are very willing to cooperate with the inspector, and I believe have always sent notices of stock received without certificates, or have held the stock, or refused to take it, be- cause it was not accompanied by a certificate. Mr. Surface: Notifications of the receipt of foreign stock, how- ever, sometimes do not reach us until the goods have passed through 9 242 .JOIRNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 their freight offices, and the shipments cannot therefore be followed np. These people hokl the papers in their office until they have sev- eral, instead of forwarding them at once to us. They do not seem to realize the importance of mailing these reports immediately, when shipments pass through their office. The Secretary of Agriculture of Pennsylvania took this matter up and went to the headquarters of the Pennsylvania Railway Company, and since then we have been notified more promptly. Mr. ArwooD : We have had something over two thousand reports from transportation companies, and we have had very little com- plaint to make in regard to delays in mailing the same. We have sixty odd transportation companies with whom we are in correspon- dence and we agree upon the necessity of prompt reporting, and have in various ways secured the promise of their cooperation, so that the thing is working out very smoothly, for all purposes. President Washburn.- Question Four: "Are scale marks to be considered prima ^acie evidence of infestation?" Mr. Gillette: Until this last year we received some little stock that showed signs of this scale ; now we are finding a considerable number of shipments containing scale marked trees. In Colorado it is a matter of keeping the insect out of the State. Mr. Atwood: We destroy all stock with live scale upon it, and nurserymen are very willing to destroy any trees with scale marks upon them, as their presence is a distinct injury to their business. We take that stand, because as a rule the nurseryman, as well as the buyer of the stock, will refuse to buy it, if scarred. We never take trees and fix them up for sale. I don't think that has ever been done in the State of New York, and the niirseryman will not handle trees marked with scale, and if received they are returned direct to the shipper. It is necessary for our inspectors sometimes to stand between the nurserymen and the fruit growers. We all know that trees wall show scales, whether they have been treated and fumigated, or not. The nurseryman does not want to arouse the suspicion of his customer, and therefore this is a proposi- tion with which we have nothing to do in our department. The de- partment takes the position that anything with live scales on it must be destroyed. We have requests received from inspectors in some of the other states, asking how long after a tree was fumigated, it would be in a condition to be sold. How long will a scale retain its freshness and color after its fumigation? April, '10] INSPECTORS' DISCUSSION 243 Mr. Hitchins : I have had letters asking the same question, from men, and have replied that we would not take such trees at all. Mr. Heusted : I have had an experience which I would like to relate to you. We have had an opportunity to experiment on a ship- ment coming from another state. The scales were of an olive color and w^ere dry, but we failed to find a single live insect. When one of these trees was examined the following July, however, we discovered a few young lice on it. President Washburn: Question Five: "Should not nurserymen be required to fumigate all buds and cions and by what formula?" Mr. Atwood: Some of our nurserymen are obliged to fumigate cions in New York. Cions are fumigated with full strength. I know of one nurseryman who has made a practice of fumigating all of his buds with the full strength formula, allowing fifteen to twenty min- utes exposure, and no damage whatever was done. Now, there is no objection to the nurseryman fumigating his buds, and there is everj^ reason why he should, because the scales are likely to be attached just under the buds. A man can go into an orchard and get his bud sticks that are in- fested, and thus introduce the scale into his nursery. I have seen many cases of this kind. My impression is that fumigation can be successfully used to kill the scale on the buds. Old trees might not be affected by fumigation, but there is some question as to whether a twenty minute exposure during the summer would not result in disaster to growing buds. President Washburn: Question Nine: "What shall be done for the owner after his orchard is inspected?" Mr. Surface: We give the orchardist a written report as to what the inspector finds, telling him what pests are found on the trees, a duplicate of which is sent to my office, and at the proper season for treating these pests, we write him again, lest he forget, and tell him that this is the time the pests are to be treated, and also what to do for them. AVe tell him, also, that if he has a spray-pump, we will send our inspector to his orchard, if he desires, to instruct him in regard to the use of the pump, the only charge made is for the local trans- portation to and from meals and lodging. President Washburn : Question Twelve : ' ' Shall there be legisla- tion against selling fruits infested with San Jose scale and the Codling Moth?" A Member : I might say that such a law might be the best thing for fruit growers, as it would keep infested fruit out of the market. 244 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 It would be the very best thing that could be done, — yet they would resent it. Mr. Hitchings: At the New England fruit show held in Boston a few weeks ago, some of the prize apples that were awarded the blue ribbons were badly infested with San Jose Scale, in spite of the fact that the judges were experts on fruit. I would like to know what to do with infested fruit. I had one person write me, asking if I thought it would hurt him if he ate a San Jose Scale. I told him I thought he would survive. Mr. Gillette : It seems to me that fruit marked with this scale should not be allowed on the market. President Washburn: Question Thirteen: "What are the argu- ments in favor of inspection and the control of peach yellows and little peach ? " Mr. Heusted: I suggested this question, as I would like to have some one else 's opinion on it. Mr. Tapt : Up to the last year or two, I had seen only one nursery tree which showed signs of disease, but I have seen trees this year which have come from nurseries and were put out in the spring, and showed symptoms before the season was over. Mr. Atwood : In our experiments in New York State, we are going to keep watch on this point, as we are all very much interested in it. Some six years ago we took about ten square miles and attempted to control the peach yellows, and by ordering the trees which were infested taken out annually, the number of diseased trees in that area has gradually grown less. ]\Ir. Williams: Regarding the question of securing the best pits for the various nurserymen : Our people secured most of their pits as I understand it, from growers in North Carolina. It is a question as to whether it is a disease in some particular climate or zone, or some particular section. Should a man cease from getting his pits from North Carolina? Mr. Gillette: In Colorado the peach yellows has never been known in our peach section, although watched very closely. Mr. Worsham : The yellows are liable to develop after the trees are a year old. Professor Phillips has been working with his nursery- men for the past two years, and insisting that they buy their pits from the southern growers, and we have made many inspections of orchards from which pits were taken to be supplied to Georgia growers. I know Georgia orchardists have supplied a great many pits at Professor Phillips' suggestion. On the other point, we are not in a position to say. April, '10] INSPECTORS' DISCUSSION 245 Professor Scot at one time was of the opinion that the yellows would not spread in the far South, and for a great many years some of the growers carried stock from the East down into Georgia, but we have never found a single case of yellows. Mr. Surface: I would like to call attention to an article by G. P. Clinton in the Connecticut Pomological Annual Report for last Feb- ruary, in which he discussed peach yellows, and brings out most im- portant facts. I would suggest that we cite these references, as oftentimes a man is too busy to read eveiy^ article m the magazines, and that would be the best way to keep in touch w^ith what is going on. Professor Taft : Our experience in Michigan does not give us rea- son to think that the disease is to any great extent influenced by cli- matic conditions except that the disease generally seems to be most virulent, or the trees are perhaps more subject to attack, when they have been weakened by a severe winter or other unfavorable cli- matic conditions. The disease itself is unquestionably of a con- tagious nature for although peaches are grown quite extensively in thirty or forty of the IMichigan counties, yellows was for the first ten years after its appearance in IMichigan confined to a single county al- though the conditions there w^ere not unlike many of the others. From this county of Berrien, which is in the southwest part of the state, the disease spread gradually to the north and east but in forty years has not advanced more than 100 miles. Had there been much danger of the spreading of the disease through nursery stock, it would have unquestionably broken out in every county in which peaches are grown but the fact is that it is un- known in fully one half the counties of the state and, at the end of twenty years after it was first noticed, it had not appeared in more than a half dozen counties. Mr. Hitchings: In Maine, we have had to do away with the climatic theory maintained in the Connecticut article. "We have had for the last few years a great increase of yellows, and the point of the argument is : "Is not this influenced by climatic conditions ? ' ' It has been the feeling among mam^ of our inspectors that the dis- cussion of this article has been inclined to prove that the yellows was due to climatic conditions. The results, however, do not agree with some of the pre^nous work done by Irwin F. Smith. A Member: Two years ago some fruit trees which were infected with this disease bore premature fruit and this year they bore perfect fruit. Professor Taft : I have seen premature fruit which was rather 246 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 red around the pit, wliicli was due to a very hot season or to borers, but that coloration is not characteristic of yellows. President Washburn : Question Fourteen : * ' Should the sale of premature peaches be prohibited?" Mr. Williams : This is a question of importance to many growers. Mr. Taft: Our law requires the destruction of premature fruit, and it has been carried out. It has the et^ect of securing the proper destruction of infested trees. Usually owners are not inclined to cut them out, but, with this law", ■we have been able to have the trees promptly destroyed. A Member : In some states the growers desire to harvest the crop before destroying the trees. Mr. Taft : We do not take that into account and so far as we know the disease does not spread during that period of the year, but if these growers were allowed to gather in the fruit and sell it, the trees would not be promptly destroyed. If the fruit cannot be sold, they will cut them out. President Washburn: Question Fifteen: "What is the present status of the Crown Gall on apple ? How is such considered in issu- ing certificates?" Mr. Williams : In Alabama there is a question whether there should be an allowance for oversight. A great many times the owners of nurseries are not able to determine personally whether all trees are free from Crown Gall. Now, there was one order delivered, where we found between 2 per cent and 3 per cent of the trees infested with Crown Gall, and accord- ing to the law, the nurserymen are required to destroy them. In some states they allow 2 or 3 per cent for oversight. Every man cannot personally look after his stock. A Member : If I have been wrong regarding this phase of inspec- tion, you will kindly let me know your opinion. One of the very largest nurseries noticed a large amount of Gall on raspberries, and I was very certain of the disease. I sent some of them to Washington to confirm my diagnosis, and it proved to be a very bad case of Crown Gall. I sent them the certificate with the words "Contagious Diseases" left off, so that they have a certificate allowing them to ship stock. It would have caused a row ; a very big row. These people are morally convinced that Crown Gall is not injurious. Mr. Engel: Destroying the infested trees is the only measure we have taken thus far, although we have to keep the trees from being shipped. Recently a consignment of apple and peach trees came to April, '10] INSPECTORS' DISCUSSION 247 Harrisburg- which I personally inspected. Fully 15 per cent were rejected outright, and fully 40 per cent of the balance showed marked symptoms of Crown Gall, and were only accepted on condition that the consignee would not sell them,, but use them experimentally for his own planting. The balance were accepted and while some of our scientists do not attach much importance to the disease others do, and I would prefer not to plant them myself. I would be glad to know the opinions of the members present as to what they would have done in this case. There is considerable trouble and we must in a measure depend upon the care and honesty of the nurserymen, as there is usually no indication of the disease apparent before digging. President Washburn : I would not, I think, under the circum- stances, refuse him a certificate ; yet, I would expect him not to send me any more trees of that kind, as all trees I would expect to be free from diseases of any kind, and I would also make him understand that I was giving him the certificate with the understanding that he would reject any trees found with Crown Gall. Mr. Worsham : There seems to be a good deal of division along that line, and this Association ought to go on record as to whether we should or should not give certificates in cases of this kind. Mr. Gillette: In Colorado the fruit growers despise Crown Gall as much as anything that comes into their orchards. If you come across a stunted tree, you will find if you investigate that it is in- fested with Crown Gall. Last year one of the leading nurseries in the state shipped more than one hundred thousand trees into another state, and a large percentage of them contained Crown Gall, but we have not received any with Crown Gall, to our knowledge, yet. A Member : Concerning the statement made by Mr. Engle : I be- lieve I should have allowed him to keep the trees, after destroying the 15 per cent, but I would also have made him promise to plant them himself, and not sell them to his customers. Mr. Summers : My own feeling for several years has been that the Crown Gall was really one of the most serious nursery problems with which the inspector has to deal. There are several distinct aspects of this problem which should be considered. One is the propriety of giving a certificate to a nurseryman on whose grounds Crown Gall is found. I know that our certificates do not always say exactly what they mean. I will say frankly that if I did not give certificates in Iowa to any nurserymen excepting those whose stock is entirely free from CrowTi Gall I would not issue any certificates. I am speaking here, of course, of general nurserymen who grow apple trees, not of those growing only ornamentals or berry plants. I cannot help 248 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 agreeing with what was said by the gentlemen from Colorado. . I have been studying- this problem for a good many years myself in Iowa. We have Crown Gall in a good many orchards. The Crown Gall trees do not average in bearing qualities anywhere near the average of the other trees. It is possible f®r those who are familiar with the effects of this disease to go through an orchard and pick out with a fair degree of certainty the Crown Gall trees. Now the important question is, what are w^e going to do in controlling this disease? It is quite one thing to say that I, in Iowa, for instance, will require nurserymen to agree to destroy all Crown Gall trees at digging time, and quite another thing to see that this rule is carried out. I have not been entirely consistent in my policy in regard to this. I cannot help regarding it as little more than a mere form to give a certificate and at the same time require an agreement from the nurseryman that he will destroy the Crow^n Gall trees. The honest nurseryman does not need to have that statement required of him, and the majority of them are honest. The dishonest ones will not respect it. Here is an example of the way this policy works out. One of the oldest and most reliable nurserymen in Iowa was taken ill just before the spring shipping season, with pneumonia. He had been warned that he had more Crown Gall than usual. His foreman had a slight in- terest in the business, and before we knew it he had sorted out a lot of Crown Gall trees and shipped them to a nurseryman, a dealer, who was going to resell them. I happened to be at that dealer's grounds by accident when the consignment of trees arrived, otherwise I think it probable that they w^ould all have been delivered to cus- tomers. This raises the question as to how many Crown Gall trees are being shipped in other places by the employees of nurserymen with- out the personal knowledge of those nurserymen. The grower above referred to was not personally responsible. He had given proper directions and he was too ill personally to superintend any business. In very many cases large nursery^men are obliged to depend on men who cannot be kept up to the standard the nurserymen would A\dsh. What are we going to do in such a case as this ? Now, I would add in closing, that I think this Crown Gall problem is one which we should do our best to take care of. A nurseryman asks us to inspect and issue a certificate on his stock. We may know that he is doing all that he can to keep this disease out of his nur- sery, nevertheless, a good deal of Crown Gall is found. He naturally calls upon us for directions as to how he can grow clean stock. If we are to refuse him a certificate because of the presence of any disease it seems to me that we should be able to give him more than a few April, '10] INSPECTORS' DISCUSSION 249 vague hypotheses as to the methods by which he can eradicate that disease. S. J. Hunter: It seems to me that we have arrived at a place where we may properly ask the question : What part can this Associa- tion take in dealing wdth such cases as the one under consideration? It would seem pertinent to ask, Can this Association standardize the work of the inspectors in the various states 1 It is generally conceded that the Crown GaU may be found wherever apple stock is grown. The gentleman from Iowa has given proper expression to this phase of the subject. There is some difference of opinion regarding the in- jurious effect of this crown gall, but the majority, I believe, look upon it as highly detrimental to the life of the host. Crown Gall in the more advanced stages is more readily recognized and therefore does not pass as readily as some of the subjects of quarantine. The issu- vance of a certificate, with the understanding that the recipient will cull -out all the Crown Gall, is a common practice, although by no means a satisfactory one. It seems to me that it is time for us to consider in- spection both at the nurserj^ grounds and at the point of destination. Mr. J. L. Phillips : We have done a great deal of work on Crown GaU for five or six years, and we have found, almost invariably, that trees affected by Crown Gall may grow fairly well in the orchard dur- ing the first year or two, but will die before many years. They simply rot off and die. The nurserymen have had a great deal of trouble of late years, as some trees in consignments are found to have Crown Gall, while the majority are all right, and we do not feel like discarding them, unless absolutely necessary. We realize, also, that this is one of the most serious troubles with which the nurseryman has to deal, and we have given a good deal of thought to it, and conducted many experiments. We noticed that scions from trees affected with Crown Gall would produce diseased trees. Forty to 60 per cent of our experimental trees were affected by this disease where scions were cut from diseased trees. If you get scions from healthy trees, you will have little or no trou- ble. We had an opportunity to make observation during the past two years in quite a large number of trees in a new nursery'. The scions came principally from old orchards. A large percentage of the trees are in the nursery at the present time, but of those taken out last fall only about from 6 to 9 per cent were affected with Crown Gall. Our present understanding of the matter is that scions cut from trees diseased with crown gall will transmit the infection into trees 250 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 grown from them and that scions cut from healthy trees will produce healthy trees. We had an opportunity to observe a very large number of trees during the last 5 or 6 years, and in this nursery, in particular, some 40,000 trees were under our observation. In practically every case where the scions were cut from the tops of diseased trees, they pro- duced Crown Gall. It looks to me as though, if 50 to 60 per cent of the trees in a nur- sery are affected with crown gall, the entire lot should be destroyed, but until nurserymen have had a little more time to get their nur- series in condition, this would be rather drastic. These questions, as well as transmission of peach yellows and measures of control in the nursery are discussed in my report now in press. This concludes the Proceedings of the meeting. J. B. Symons, Secretary Scientific Notes A Typical Name for the Friend Type of Nozzle. — At the meeting of Economic Entomologists in December, 1910, there was more or less confu- sion when speaking of a comparatively new type of nozzle. As no general name has been decided upon, the maker's name has usually been given this nozzle, such as the Friend, Myers' Power, Deming, etc. It is so distinctly different from the Bordeaux, Vermorel and other types that I would suggest the name Disc. The feature of the nozzle is the disc, which is found at the outlet and regulates the spray. This type is being used very extensively and is a great improvement over the old nozzles. The name disc describes very simply the main feature and can be generally used in such a way as not to show any partiality to an individual dealer or manufacturer. Should this suggestion meet with the approval of the Economic Entomol- ogists, might it not be well for all to adopt the same name? H. L. Frost JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS APRIL, 1910 The editors will thanljfully receive news items and other matter likely to be of in- terest to subscribers. Papers will be published, so far as possible, in the order of re- ception. All extended contributions, at least, should be in the hands of the editor the first of the month preceding publication. Reprints maj' be obtained at cost. Con- tributors are requested to supply electrotypes for the larger illustrations so far as pos- sible. The receipt of all papers will be acknowledged.— Eds. Recent years have witnessed a marvelous increase in our insecticide batteries. Some of the newer or quicker acting- materials or prepara- tions have already been sufficiently tested and have either been dis- carded as worthless or otherwise accorded a suitable place in our defensive campaigns. Last year we were confronted with statements of injuries to fruit trees in the west by arsenical poisons. Other in- vestigators have denied the sufficiency of the data to prove the thesis, and have attributed the trouble to other causes without, so far as can be seen by the uninitiated, adducing more convincing evidence in support of their position. It is to be regretted that the latter parties have not yet been able to make or at least to publish the results of careful studies from the chemical standpoint. The problem is too large to be disposed of quickly, and too .serious in its potentialities to be ignored. Every possible factor should be the subject of careful investigations, even though a final solution is not reached within a decade. There is a grave question as to whether we are yet in po- sition to discuss the ultimate effect of adding to orchard soils, an- nually, quantities of a partially soluble arsenical compound. It should be remembered, that spraying with poisons is comparative^ new. The effect upon the soil of repeated insecticide applications, should be well considered before the u.se of any material is advised as a part of the regular orchard management. It seems timely to at least raise a doubt as to advisability of using large amounts of poison simply to obtain results quicklj^, unless the latter are necessitated by peculiar local conditions. We would suggest for the present, placing more emphasis upon thoroughness in an endeavor to secure the maximum benefit with a minimum application. 252 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Reviews A Monographic Revision of the Twisted Winged Insects Com- prising the Order Strepsiptera Kirby, by W. Dwight Pierce, Smith's Inst. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 66, p. 1-232, 15 pis., 1909. In this importaut monograph Mr. Pierce has included practically all that is known concerning the peculiar parasitic insects of the order Strepsiptera. The work contains a detailed account of the systematic relationships of these insects, of their relations to their hymenopterous and homopterous hosts, their effects on these hosts, their taxonomy and geographical distribution, a list of all the known species and a very complete bibliography. He thus, presents us with an excellent foundation ou which all future students of the group will have to build. To conservative entomologists it will seem that Mr. Pierce has dealt with the taxonomy in a spirit of over- refinement, or preciosity. Accepting Kirby's view that the Strepsiptera constitute an inde- pendent order, he seems to feel that he must give this small compact group of highly specialized parasites the status and dignity of one of the larger orders. He therefore divides it into 4 superfamilies and 8 families. He cites 37 genera to include the 109 species; 25, or about two-thirds of the genera, and 40, or somewhat more than one-third of the species being described as new. The desire to fill out an order in this elaborately articulated manner necessarily leads, in the case under discussion, to the use of rather meager characters for superfamily, family, generic and specific distinction, and puts the Strepsiptera out of all proper perspective to the other Insect orders. Furthermore, the permanent value of these characters is rendered highly problematical owing to the small amount of material examined, for the Strep- siptera are by no means common in collections. Thus out of the 109 recorded species, only 18 are known from specimens of both sexes, and 10 of these belong to two allied genera. Of the 34 species enumerated in the largest genus, Stylops, for example, specimens of 10 have not been examined by the author, 15 are described from single specimens, 4 from two, 3 from three, 1 from four and 1 from five specimens. Some whole genera or even families are based on only one of the sexes. Certainly the meager specific characters utilized by Pierce can have taxonomic value only if it can be shown that they are subject to very little variation. This is impossible, however, with the very limited amount of material now on hand. Whether, under the circum- stances, it is better to multiply species and genei'a and run the risk of sac- rificing many of them to a future synonymy, or to proceed very slowly and conservatively, especially when dealing with such a specialized and parasitic group, is a matter on which there may be some difference of opinion. It is certain, however, that the latter method, though it may seem to be more timorous, may have the advantage of not burdening the nomenclature with superfluous names, nor necessitate extensive taxonomic tinkering and read- justment in the future. One of Pierce's reasons for multiplying species is to be found in his assumption that every species of Strepsipterou has its own particular host species. But in Acroschismus, of which he has seen more material than of any other genus, this rule breaks down, for Polistes rubigi- nosus is attacked by 4, and P. iexanus by two species of the parasites, and one of these species is common to hoth of the wasps. If we accept this postu- April, '10] REVIEWS 253 late of very exclusive adaptation of parasite to host, we must assume that the larvae, or triuugulins, which stand but little chance anyway, when they are on the flowers, of getting on to Hymenoptera, have their chances of survival still further diminished by being carried to the nests of the wrong species of wasps or bees. There are also a few minor points which strike the reader of Pierce's monograph as being inadequate or erroneous. Thus the measure- ments should have been given uniformly in micromillimeters (/*) , if they are really as important as he would have us believe. The view that the Strep- sipterou, is not entoparasitic. These, however, are slight errors, and Mr. mouth and alimentary tract, as Brues has shown, and there is therefore no reason for supposing that it feeds unlike other entoparasitic larval insects. It is not true that the Strepsipteran type of metamorphosis "is unique among insects," for the reason that "in no other case is there complete endopara- sitism," since the triuugulin, or first larval stage, even of the female Strep- sipteron, is not entoparasitic. These, however, are slight errors, and Mr. Pierce is deserving of great praise for the care and diligence with which he has brought together all the scattered and fragmentary descriptions of the Strepsiptera and for the copious and substantial additions he has made to our knowledge of this extraordinary group of insects. W. M. WlIEEXER Experiments with Powdered Arsenate of Lead as a Practical Boll Weevil Poison, by Wilmon Newell and G. D. Smith, Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, Circ. 33, p. 251-333, PI. 1, 1909. Two recent publications of the Lousiana Crop Pest Commission furnish the most important data thus far brought forward concerning the control of the boll weevil, at least as far as its control in the lower Mississippi Valley is concerned. We predict that the results published in these two bulletins "Will be worth many times the entire cost of the Commission to the citizens of Louisiana. In Circular 23 of the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, Professor Newell de- scribed preliminary experiments with powdered arsenate of lead as a remedy for the boll weevil, which indicated the practicability of its use. In the bul- letin just issued the outcome of practical field experiments is recounted and It is evident that Mr. Newell and his assistants have demonstrated for the first time the successful use of poisons for the boll weevil. There is a long and checkered history of the attempts to poison the boll weevil which need not be rehearsed, but from the account given it would seem that a method has finally been demonstrated which is both effective and practical under prevailing conditions. The principal field experiments in 1908 were destroyed bj- fioods, but nine acres located at Mansfield, La., showed an increase of 56. lbs. seed cotton per acre from a single application of one pound of powdered arsenate of lead per acre, this giving a net profit of two dollars per acre. This experiment is of interest because on the same ground experiments were made with Paris green in 1907 which showed a decrease of 97 pounds per acre against the 56 poimds increase when the arsenate of lead was used. Two experiments car- ried on with liquid arsenate of lead showed no benefit resulting. Several cages were used for making further tests of the effect of powdere^l arsenate of lead. These were about five feet high covering a single plant "which bore about 15 bolls and many squares; 100 weevils were confined in 254 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY " [Vol. 3 each eajre. The phints in two cages were poisoned while those in the other two were not. Four days after the introduction of the weevils on July 30, fully half of them were killed on the poisoned plants, the most of them dying during the first two day^. Altho the effect was not as pronounced as where the weevils were feeding upon squares only, it was so encouraging as to lead up to the extensive experiments of 1909. In 1909 experiments were carried on at four different points on a total of 95 acres with 12 different plots treated and corresponding check plots. The plots were arranged so as to determine the relative value of from 1 to 10 ap- plications and from 1 to 50 pounds per acre according to the number of times applied. The plots were well laid out to determine these points by compari- son with the checks and the number of infested squares on a considerable number of plants in each plot was counted nine times at weekly or ten day intervals. In determining the profit the cost of the poison and the labor was deducted from the benefit derived in each plot. The average production of all the cotton poisoned in 12 plots on 46 acres was 673.8 pounds per acre. The average production on 12 similar plots not treated, a total of 49 acres, was 392.0 pounds per acre; thus the average increase in production was. 281.2 pounds per acre or 71 per cent. The tables show the profits on each plot in detail and the profits are so uniform and the benefit on the whole area is so evident as to exclude any possibility of the results not being thoroly reliable. The greatest profit per acre was secured by dusting five times, which showed a profit of $23.54 per acre. Mr. Newell points out that the fall destruction of cotton stalks is neces- sary even with this treatment. If the poison kills 75 per cent, and the weevils be excessively abundant, the 25 per cent not killed would be more than enough to destroy all the squares. This is evidenced by an experiment at Woodside, La., where there was an unusually heavy infestation in 1908 and no cotton was grown in 1909 except on four acres specially planted for the experiment, upon which the weevils were concentrated, there being 5 to 8 weevils per plant at the first poisoning. Were it not for the poison the crop would have been totally destroyed. As it was the weevils kept coming in until about July 5 and not until three weeks later or after four applications of the poison, were any squares formed. The most successful experiments with the use of dry arsenate of lead were where the stalks had been destroyed the previous fall and the number of hibernating weevils had been so re- duced that but a small number escaped the poisoning. As might be expected the experiments indicated that early varieties show more benefit and it seems probable that the poisoning will be more profitable on the limbless type of cotton than on the spreading sorts, due to the smaller area necessary to dust. Fertilizers also aid in producing earliness with a corresponding greater benefit from the dusting. The applications in the ex- periments wei'e made at weekly intervals, but the experiments do not show just how often the dusting can be made to best advantage. This needs fur- ther work and other points in the practical use of the poison will need to be determined by experiment as the method of application will probably vary with the season and various conditions. Mr. Ed Neuwirth at West Monroe, La., secured the best results of several planters who made a practical test of the dry arsenate of lead, securing 1461 pounds of seed cotton per acre where it was dusted and 827 pounds per acre on that not dusted, giving an increase of 634 pounds per acre or 76 per cent. He used 6 lbs. of poison per acre, giving four applications. The authors April, '10] CURRENT NOTES 255 recommend that the poison be applied first when the first squares appear and that five applications be given at weekly intervals. In order to kill the great- est possible number of weevils when the later applications are made, while the cotton is budding, the poison must be blown into the squares. The first application requires 2yo pounds per acre and the fifth 5 to 7 pounds per acre. The margin of profit in poisoning is determined by the market price of cotton and also by the cost of arsenate of lead and of labor. With cot- ton at less than 8 cents, there would be practically no profit with the pres- ent cost of labor and materials. The authors are to be commended in very clearly pointing out that the treatment will he ineffective unless carefully done and their directions are explicitly followed. The cautions given the planter are precise and every effort is made to point out the possibilities of failure. Such an attitude on the part of those bringing out a new remedy of such great economic impor- tance to the whole cotton belt is most commendable and is worthy of emula- tion. As the origin of arsenate of lead as an insecticide was incidental to the campaign of Massachusetts against the gypsy moth, so the dry form has been evolved as a boll weevil remedy, and will quite probably come into wide use against other insects as it possesses many points of superiority to other dry arsenicals. E. D. Sanderson Current Notes Conducted by the Associate Editor Dr. C. J. S. Bethune has recently resigned as Editor of Canadian Entomo- logist, and has been made Editor Emeritus of that Journal. Dr. Bethune edited the first five volumes when he was succeeded by Dr. Wm. Saundei-s who edited the magazine for thirteen years. Dr. Bethune then again took up the work and has continued it until the beginning of the present year, thus editing twenty-eight of the forty-one volumes already issued. Dr. Bethune is succeeded as editor by Dr. E. M. Walker of the University of Toronto. William Morton Wheeler, Ph. D., Professor of Economic Entomology in Harvard University, delivered eight illustrated lectures during January at the University of Peimsylvauia on "The Development and Significance of Animal Societies." Mr. Alfred F. Satterthwait of Middletown, Pa., has withdrawn from the position of Assistant Economic Zoologist of Pennsylvania. Mr. Satterthwait expects to continue in entomological work and is open for an engagement. The proposed memorial to the late Dr. James Fletcher will take the form of a drinking fountain, consisting of a granite shaft with bronze medallion in- scription. It will be erected at the Centi-al Experimental Farm at Ottawa, Canada. The Connecticut legislature at its last session, appropriated $30,000 for a fire-proof addition to the chemical laboratory of the Agricultural Experiment Station at New Haven. The building is now being constructed and will be ready for occupancy during April. Though a small portion of the new stinic- .25(5 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 ture will be devoted to chemistry, the entomological department of the sta- tion will have convenient qnarters on the second floor, consisting of office, collection room and laboratory with dark room and small insectary con- nected, giving altogether about 1,400 square feet of floor space. As the corre- sponding space on the lower floor is to be occupied by the botanical depart- ment, all the collections of the station will hereafter be housed in a fire- proof building. In the basement an exhibition room about 20 x 26 feet will be used to display pumps, insecticides and fungicides. From the March Entomological News we learn of the death of Mr. Henry Ulke of Washington, D. C, on February 18th. Mr. Ulke was 89 years of age and was a well known Coleopterist and portrait-painter. Professor Charles H. Fernakl of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass., who has been quite ill since December, is now able to be out again. Entomological News for March, records the death at San Francisco in February of Mr. George Willis Kirkaldy of Honolulu, H. I. Mr. Kirkaldy was a well known Hemipterist, and the first volume of his catalogue of the Hemiptera of the world has already been published. Mr. Kirkaldy was 35 years of age. He was one of the active members of our association. Mr. F. A. Johnston, a graduate student at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, has accepted a position with the Bureau of Entomology at Wash- ington, D. C. Work is progressing rapidly on the new Entomological building of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. This building is now roofed in and is expected to be finished some time next summer. It is large, commodious and fire-proof. We hope to publish a detailed description of the building in a future number of the Journal. Mr. H. O. Marsh of the branch of Truck-Crop and Stored-Product Insect- Investigations of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Argicul- ture, has resumed work at Rocky Ford, Colorado, where he had headquarters last year. Mr. A. B. Massey, B. S., a graduate of the North Carolina A. & M. Col- lege, has been appointed laboratory assistant in Entomology at the Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida, and entered upon his new duties the last week in January. Prof. E. P. Taylor has resigned his position as Entomologist of the Moun- tain Grove Experiment Station in Missouri, to take up the horticultural in- spection work in Mesa County, Colorado; his post office address is Grand Junction. The county is paying $2,000 a year for this work. Mr. George P. Weldon, formerly an assistant in the Maryland Agricultural College, and a graduate of the Colorado Agricultural College, is also located in Grand Junction and is acting as field Entomologist for the Agricultural Experiment Station at Fort Collins. Mr. Donald J. Caffrey, graduate of the Massachusetts Agricultural College and a graduate student of its Entomological department, has accepted a posi- tion as assistant to the State Entomologist of Connecticut. Mr. Caffrey en- tered upon his duties January 17th and will have charge locally of the Gypsy Moth Suppression work at Wallingford. Mailed April 15, 1910. EXCHANGES. Ezcbangea or Wants of not orer three lines will be inserted for 26 cents each to run as long as the space of this page will permit; the neweronea being added and the oldest being dropped as necessary. Send afi notices and cash to E. D. Sanderson, Durham, N, H., by the tSth of the month preceding publication. WANTED— Will pay cash for Fitch^s 13th, 13th, and 14th Reports; 2d and .6th Reports of the 111. State Entomologist, LeBaron; Lintner'e third report; Bulletins 2, 5, old series, Division of Entomology; Bulletin 4 Technical Series Division of Entomology; Entomological News, Vols. I, II, III. E. Dvfight Sanderson, Durham, N. H. HORSEFLIES of the Fanuly Tabanidae desired from all parts of North America. Material determined in exchange for duplicates. Jae. S. Hiue, O, S. U. , Columbus, O. WANTED— Riley's fourth, seventh, eighth, and ninth Missouri Reports. Have first and third to oflfer in exchange or wUl pay cjish. W. D, Hunter, Box 208, Dallas, Texas. WANTED — To correspond with those desiring to exchange life-history se- ries of important insects for economic collections. W. E. Hinds, Auburn, Ala. WANTED— Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois, Nos. 2, 6, 7-11, 20. IhaveforexohaugoNos. 18and 19. O. R. Crosby, 43 East Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. FOR SALE— lintner^B Reports, 1st to 13th. Insect Life, v. 1, 2, 4, €, 10; 11; v.n, complete; V. Ill, 1 to 10; v. IV, complete; v. V, 1, 5; v. VI, 1, 3, V. Vn, complete. Make cash offers. V. L. Kellogg, Stanford University, OaUfornia. WILL PAY GASH or exchange for parts 9 and 10, Vol. IV, Insect Life. H. P. Wilson, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. O. WANTED. Bulletins Bureau of Entomolog3', new series, Nos. 2, 15, 21, and Technical series, Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 7. Will pay easli. James F. Zimmer, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D, O, FOR SALE — Lintner's Reports, 1st to 13th, inclusive, ^6.50 in cash, trans- portation prepaid. V. L. Kellogg, Stanford University, California. BACK NUMBERS WANTED We will pay 60 cents each for Vol. I, No. 2, and 3o cents each for Vc 1. B and 4, to complete sets. Address, Journal of Economic Entomology, Durham, N. H. Please mention fhe Joi'mf! ■"' Kr.,,,ri,,,!r [.y.fnmnl.iinj trhen imtlng to (tdvertist:ri<. JOURNAL O F ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS Editorial Staff Editor, E. PoJMER Felt, State Enlooiologist, ISew York. Associate Editor, W. E. Britton, State Eatomologist, ('onnectieut. Business Manager, E. Dwkjht Sanderson, Entomologist, New Hamp- sliire Agricultural Experira:ent Station. Advisory Board W}LWON Nkwell, State Entomologist, Texas. C, P. GiLi.KTTE, State Eatomologist, Colorado. H. T. Feknalo. Profes.sor of Entomology, ]\ras3acliusett!s Agrii.m'i ni il College, TIeubekt Osborn, Professor of Zoology and Entomology, Ohio State University-. ]j 0, ITowAKT), Chief. Bureau of Ento7uology, United Slates Depart- ment of Agriculture. S. A. Fo!:.i;i ;;, State Entomologist, Illinois. A bi-monthly journal, published February to December, on the 15th of the month, devoted to the interests of Economic Entomology and publishing the official notJcfts and jiroceedings of the American Association of Economic Entomologists. Address business communicatious to the Journal of Econo:\!tc EifTOitOLOGY Publishing Oo., Railroad Square, Concord, \N; H. TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION. In the United States, Cuba, Mexico and Canada, two dollars annually in advance. To foreign coxintries, two dollars and fifty cents ($'^,50) annually in adyanc©. Single copiefs, fifty cents. To mem- bers of tlie American As.sociation of Economic Entomologists, one dollar aiinually in advance. 50 cents extra postage to foreign countries. MANUSCRIPT for publication sliould be nent to tlic Editor, E. Pouter Felt, Geological Hall, Albany, N. Y. CURRENT NOTES ANP NEWS sl>ould be sent to the Associate Editor, TV. E. Britton, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ne\v Haven, Conn. SUBSCRIPTIONS AND ADVERTISEMENTS may be sent to the Busi^esg Manager, E, Dwight Sanderson. Durham, N. H. VOU3 JUNE. 1910 No. 3 JOURNAL OF EGONQMIG ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS Editor Ev PORTEB FbiLT Associate Editor W. E. Brixton Business Manager E.' DwiGHT Sandkrsok Advisory Board WiLMON Newklj. C. p. Gillbtte H. T. Febnali) Hebbert Osbqrn L. O. So\\rABD ^v A. FOBBKS JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY PUBLISHING CO. Concord, N. H. Entered ai iecond-d«j» matler Mar. 3, 1908, af the port-office at Concoid. N. H.. under Act of Congreu of Mar. 3, 1879. iiti">..i.'>i>i« CONTENTS by the ovipositor Locust Destruction in South Africa Nursery Inspection in Massachusntts The Insecticide Act of 1910 pAnr Eioidea, of feeding at puncture holes made X. 0. Howard '^f'T C. TV. Howard. 260 ,//. 7'. Frmntd 273 'Notes on the Piipatiou and Hibernation of Tachinid Parasites W. R. Thompson 283 Food of the Bobwhite A Unique Insect Oatcliing Machine Notes on Rhynchites hicolor Fabr. F. C. Bishopp oil E. L. Did^non 316 The Effects of Fumigation with Hydrocyanic Gas on the Human System W. W Yothm ;-!17 Scientific Notes Cl'.' Editorial i-" Reviews ;>'<-' 1 Current Notes 5527 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS Vol. 3 JUXE, 1910 No. 3 ON THE HABIT WITH CERTAIN CHALCIDOIDEA OF FEEDING AT PUNCTURE HOLES MADE BY THE OVIPOSITOR By L. 0. Howard In his article on the importation of Tetrastichus xanthomelcence- in the Journal of Economic Entomology, Volume I, No. 5, 1908, pages 281-289, the writer described the observations of Paul Marchal on this European Tetrastichus in which he showed that in many cases the ovipositor is used as a pin to pierce the shell of the egg in order that the adult may suck its contents. He showed that many punctures were made in this way without oviposition and apparently for the purpose of feeding. Similar observations were made by Mr. W. F. Fiske when this same parasite was imported into this country. Again in the Journal of Economic Entomology, Volume II, No. 4, August, 1909, page 278, Dr. H. T. Femald mentions an undeter- mined parasite of the eggs of the asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi) and in a circular of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi- ment Station (No. 23, published July, 1909) Doctor Fernald states that one of the observers of this insect at Concord, Mass., reports seeing the parasite occasionally attack the eggs with its mouth parts, consuming the contents of the eggs. He stated that he had not ob- served this himself and was of the opinion that the observation needed verifying. Mr. C. W. Prescott, of Concord, Mass., on May 23rd no- ticed that a number of the eggs of the asparagus beetle were empty and dead. He told Mr. J. B. S. Norton, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who was there, about it, and together Mr. Prescott and ]Mr. Norton examined the eggs carefully. They saw the parasite thrust 258 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 its ovipositor into the eggs, and afterwards noticed it mouthing the aperture and apparently absorbing the contents of the eggs. This observation was reported to the Bureau of Entomology, and Mr. A. F. Burgess of the Bureau visited Mr. Prescott's place and verified the observations. In several instances he noticed that the parasites licked the wounds made by the ovipositor after it was withdrawn from the egg, but in other instances direct feeding upon the eggs ap- peared to be evident by their gradual collapse. The parasite in ques- tion was described by Mr. J. C. Crawford in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, Volume XI, No. 3, October, 1909, as Tetrasticliiis asparagi, from specimens received from Doctor Fernald. In the Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des Seances de 1 'Academic des Sciences de Paris, vol. CXLVIII, no 18, p. 1223-25, May 3, 1909, Dr. Paul Marchal gives some interesting observ'ations on the ovi- position of Aphelinus, under the following title: "La ponte des Aphelinus et I'interet individuel dans les actes lies a la conservation de Tespece." His observations were made upon Aphelinus mytilaspidis in relation to Aspidiotus ostreceformis. The observations in brief are as follows: "Before egg-laying the Hymenopterous insect places itself about the center of the scale which covers and completely hides each of the Coccidre. Then it advances slowly towards the periphery of the scale with a light, balancing, sidewise movement of the body and palpitat- ing with its antenna.\ Arriving at the edge it turns brusquely towards the center, and on different occasions it begins again in other radial directions the same manoeuvres without leaving the Coccid. The object of these singular preliminaries seems to be to explore the Aspidiotus in order to find out whether the conditions requisite for the laying exist, and perhaps also to choose in this Aspidiotus an ap- propriate spot for the egg which it is to insert. In July it happened that many of the scales covered only dry Aspidiotus M^iich had been killed by the parasites of the preceding generation, and the Aphelinus were obliged to visit many before finding one which was in good con- dition for laj'ing. In general they did not remain long upon the dried Aspidiotus, and after having explored them by some movements from the center to the periphery they abandoned them. "When on the contrary the Aphelinus found living Aspidiotus, it explored for a rather long time, according to the method just indi- cated, and then inserted its ovipositor so as to completely pierce the scale. The ovipositor, at first only partly inserted, finally penetrated completely, so that the belly of the parasite came in contact with the June, '10] HOWARD : CHALCID FEEDING HABITS 259 scale of the Coccid and the ovipositor remained thus inserted for some minutes. The Hymenopter then withdrew the ovipositor and applied its head to the puncture and licked the imperceptible moisture. It then again inserted its ovipositor, and again the puncture was licked. ' ' I have thus seen one of them pierce the same Aspidiotus eight times and each time bend its head to the wound to lick the liquid which issued. Without interruption, it pierced and licked alternately for about forty-five minutes up to the time when I stopped it. The num- ber of punctures given by the Aphelinus to the same Aspidiotus is very variable. Frequently it does not exceed two or three, but it can also be much greater. "It is very certain that each thrust of the ovipositor does not correspond to the deposition of an egg, for I have only once found two eggs' of the Aphelinus in one Aspidiotus upon which one of these Hymenopters had worked in its accustomed manner for an hour. In other cases it has been impossible not to discover the egg of the para- site, which is rather large and could not escape my attention. It is then very probable that the Aphelinus pierces certain Aspidiotus only for nourishment. In any case many of the stings with the ovipositor are given exclusively for this reason." Just as Marchal's observations upon the curious feeding habit of the Tetrastichus on the elm leaf-beetle eggs were soon followed in America by observations upon a congeneric insect attacking the as- paragus beetle eggs, so in the case of the Aphelinus and its Diaspine host Marchal's observations have been verified in America. At this date of writing the writer has before him a note made November 7, 1908, by Mr. J. G. Sanders, then of this Bureau. Mr. Sanders's note reads as follows: "The oviposition of Aphelinus fuscipenwis on Aspidiotus rapax. "On opening a package of Aspidiotus rapax from Catalina Island, California, several parasites, Aphelinus fuscipennis, were noticed upon the twigs. One female was observed upon the summit of a female scale of Aspidiotus rapax critically examining the surface of the scale with innumerable sweeps of the antennae from the margin to the apex of the scale. After a moment's observation the ovipositor was thrust into the scale near the apex, and constant working of the abdo- men was continued for eight minutes, when the ovipositor was with- drawn and the Aphelinus turned about and apparently sealed the wound in the scale with her mandibles." An attempt has been made to watch the oviposition of other scale insect parasites in the Department greenhouses since the arrival of 360 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Doctor Marchal's last paper, but nothing comparable to his observa- tions has been noticed as yet. We have, however, now four independ- ent observations upon four different species of parasites and hosts, and it seems more than probable, now that attention has been called to this matter, that this interesting and apparently (to the species concerned) important habit will be found to be quite widespread. I close this note with a transcription of Marchal's closing para- graph in his last paper : "Ces exemples, que les observations ulterieures ne pourront man- quer de multiplier, montrent que I'interet individuel pent se mani- f ester assez frequemment par des habitudes normales dans I'accom- plissement des actes qui accompagnent la ponte et qui ont pour but d 'assurer la conservation de Tespece chez les Insectes. II y a la un facteur jusqu'ici neglige et dont il convient de tenir compte dans I'etude de revolution et de la specialisation souvent si etroite des instincts lies a la reproduction qui s'observent chez les Insectes et, en partieulier, chez les Hymenopteres. " LOCUST DESTRUCTION IN SOUTH AFRICA By C. W. Howard, Chief of Entomological Section, Department of Agriculture, MogamMque Probably nowhere in the world have locusts been so destructive and exercised such a baneful influence on agricultural pursuits as in South Africa, and nowhere else has so unique a method for combating them or so perfect an organization for local extermination been de- veloped. Although reports of the work have been frequently noticed in American Entomological publications, I know from personal cor- respondence that very few of the American workers are thoroughly familar with this South African work. For this reason a brief re- sume may be of interest. It will deal mostly with conditions in the Transvaal as it was in that Colony that the author had the privilege of conducting two large locust campaigns. Locusts have been known in South Africa since the earliest records. Immense swarms in the earliest days of settlement are said to have swept down into Cape Colony from the North and North West, de- stroying everything before them. I myself have seen swarms with a frontage of 15 or 20 miles and at least 60 or 70 miles long, taking several days to pass a given point and filling the air so thick that the glint of the sun on their wings made one easily fancy he was in a snowstorm. Traveling through such a swarm is not pleasant and many horses will not face it. ]\Iore- June, '10] HOWARD : AFRICAN LOCUST PROBLEM 361 over trains were often delayed by the greasy crushed forms on the tracks. A swarm such as this will do a vast amount of damage. Scarcely a green thing is left behind, even the washing hung to dry on the line may be partly devoured and the ground is covered with a thick carpet of the fseces. Large trees are completely broken down by the weight of the sleeping locusts at night; the veldt is stripped bare of the green grass in the dry season and every winter crop of grain, etc., is cut down. When there are dozens of such swarms in a country the size of the Transvaal it can easily be imagined what the results are to the farming population. During the invasion of the winter of 1906 we endeavoured to secure statistics of the loss occa- sioned, and we found that at least £1,000,000 of crops, including damage to the veldt, had disappeared into the stomachs of these lo- custs. The flying locusts come in the dry season when few crops are grow- ing and those usually small in plots which can be irrigated and which can be protected, at least partially, from the ravages of the flying locusts. But with the first rains come the hoppers, the progeny of invading swarms of flyers. The hoppers have been aptly termed voetgangers, by the Dutch population, voetganger being the term for infantry. "When a district is full of hoppers, not in swarms of feet or yards in extent but often actually miles in extent, marching like an army so thick as to turn the veldt brown, the farmers may well give up in despair. Nothing will turn them from their course and every gTeen thing disappears before them. During the season of 1906- '07, referred to above, when locusts oviposited in enormous numbers over the whole Transvaal, the statis- tics, also referred to above, showed that at least £10,000,000 worth of crops were preserved through the actions of the Government, which would have otherwise been destroyed and the population both black and white reduced nearly to starvation. This work of destruction was done by the Government at a cost of about £12,000, an in- finitesimal sum compared with the value of the crops saved. So thor- oughly was the work done that scarcely a swarm of voetgangers was able to escape destruction and reach maturity. To correctly understand the locust problem of South Africa, how- ever, it must be remembered that we have two species of locusts, dis- tinct in their habits and distribution. This is a fact ignored by many European writers on the subject and has caused much confusion. Be- cause locusts also occur in Egypt, Algeria and Central and East Africa many have tried to prove that the Sahara desert was the cen- ter from which locusts spread out North, East and South over the 262 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 June, '10] HOWARD: AFRICAN LOCUST PROBLEM 263 whole continent ; whatever may be the facts concerning North and East African locusts those of South Africa, so far as we have been able to ascertain have no connection therewith. I shall avoid the points still open to discussion and state briefly the main facts about the migrations and life history of these two locusts. The most destructive and the most difficult to combat is the Brown Locust (Pachytyhis sulcicollis). It is a small locust of quite a uni- form brown or dark straw color. Its permanent summer quarter (January to March or until July) seems to be somewhere in the Kalahari desert and German South West Africa. From here they begin to spread out in March, but sometimes not until July, the winged swarms eventually covering an area w^hich may include, Cen- tral and Eastern Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Basutoland and most of Southern Ehodesia. Apparently they seldom cross to the North of the Zambesi River, and only at the height of the cycle will they cover the entire area mentioned above. So far as we can ascer- tain their flight is affected very little by winds, although certain sea- sons, for some reason, the bulk of the swarms turn to the south east from the Kalahari and during other seasons to the north east. By about the first of July these winged swarms begin to oviposit. Each female deposits two or three pods of eggs of about 40 eggs each, and then perishes. Males may survive one or two months longer. The eggs lie in the ground until the first rains, which usually begin about the first of October. In two weeks after the rains the first hop- pers appear, providing the atmosphere has been warm enough. Many variations as to time of hatching occur, owing to variations in the time of the beginning of rains and owing to the intensity of the first rains or the lack of proper temperature. I have seen eggs hatching only in the following February and March and eggs deposited in the areas of Cape Colony where rain only occurs once in 6 or 7 years, will remain dormant several years and still hatch. I have kept eggs my- self two years; they hatching at the end of that period when they w'ere subjected to proper conditions, and I believe that the Cape Entomologist has secured hatchings after a lapse of five years. From 6 to 8 weeks are necessary for the growth of the nymphs, at the end of which time they obtain their wings and immediately fly toward the Kalahari. From the Transvaal they follow almost a bee- line to the south west and this is true of Rhodesia, while from the Orange Free State they go westward. The voetgangers of the Brown Locust remain from the very first in very compact swarms, sleeping in masses in grass and scrub during the night and moving in massed columns during the dav. Swarms 264 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 June, '10] HOWARD : AFRICAN LOCUST PROBLEM 265 hatched in close proximity gradually come together until miles of veldt will be covered with a mass of hoppers feeding and moving along as if under the connnand of a captain. Such swarms quite easily cross a river as large as the Vaal, by swimming and by forming a bridge of their massed bodies. This habit of massing together makes their destruction more easy. The second locust, which has been given various names, such as Red- winged locust and Red locust (CyrtocantJiacris septenifasciata, long known as Acridium piirpuriferuni), is not so destructive as the Brown Locust. It does not cover so wide an area nor does it occur in such large swarms. The fact, however, that it occurs, not on the high in- terior plateau, but along the coast in very unhealthy and uninhabited parts and also the fact that the hoppers do not form such compact swarms as do those of the Brown locust, all tend to make the carrying out of measures directed against it more difficult. The red locust is much larger than the brown and at the breeding season assumes a bright wine color on the hind wings, giving it its name. At the time of first reaching maturity the whole body also takes on a dark reddish brown tinge. Two areas seem to be the centres of distribution for this locust. Small swarms may sometimes winter in almost any sheltered valley in the low veldt of South Rhodesia, Eastern Transvaal, or Mocambique. To the south, Natal and Zululand seem to be the favored area. To the northward the area about the Zambesi river especially south of that river and in the extreme Eastern part of South Rhodesia are always winter quarters for red locusts. From winter quarters in Natal and Zululand beginning in October, they spread out over Natal, Zululand, Swaziland, eastern Transvaal, and southern Mocambique, while South- ward they may infest the coastal area of eastern Cape Colony. In the North they spread out from the Zambesi River over the Zarabesia district to the northward of Quelimane ; over the southern extremity of Nyassaland and over most of South Rhodesia. Red locusts are present in the northern parts of the Province of Mocambique, but as there are no white inhabitants there and the natives are not yet in subjection, very little information can be secured. The relation be- tween these northern and southern centres of emigration is not yet known. Probably in a year when the locust cycle is at its height, swarms would migrate from Zululand all along the coast toward the Zambesi ; and reports seem to indicate that swarms have passed over the Eastern Transvaal into Rhodesia. As I state above the Red locust is a coastal locust and is confined usually to the wet, humid and hot coastal areas and low veldt, but in vears of unusual abundance swarms 266 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 may oviposit on the high and middle veldt of the Transvaal and south- ern Rhodesia covering the eastern two thirds of these colonies, so that we may then have a double infestation of locusts making the problem a more serious one. By the first of December the Red Locusts begin to oviposit, each egg, pod containing about 95 eggs. The females die and the males live on for some time more. They usually select very choice spots for oviposition, such as newly planted sugar plantations. On the Zambesi we have seen at least twenty tons of eggs dug from an area of not more than 100 acres. The eggs of this locust are not so dependent on rains as are those of the brown locust. Indeed they are usually de- posited long after the rains have begun, unless it be a year of unusual drought, so that in two to three weeks after oviposition the young hoppers begin to hatch out. That is in the South the hoppers begin to appear about January first, while in the North they may be found 'by the middle of December. In about two months the hoppers have reached maturity, and come together into more compact swarms than before. When they have assumed their wings they make for winter quarters, although, as we have pointed out, summer and winter areas and migrations are not so well marked out as is the case with the brown locust. In the Transvaal and South Rhodesia it usually happened during bad seasons that as soon as the campaign against brown locusts had ceased another had to be begun against the red locust, so that the whole year, from the end of the dry season until the end of the wet season, was spent upon this one problem. Before going farther it may be well to describe the method employed in South Africa in destroying locusts, as it is one peculiar to South Africa and so far as I know has not yet been employed elsewhere. Indeed some Entomologists in other continents, refuse to acknowledge its efficacy in spite of the lengthy reports annually issued by the vari- ous Agricultural Departments of South Africa. It was early recognized that it was useless to attempt to destroy winged locusts at the migrating season, although everj" method which could be devised for their destruction was encouraged ; even to urging the natives to use them more commonly as an article of food. The most that could be done was to call out all natives and white people on the approach of a swarm of locusts and by the use of smoke or beating of tins drive them off of a crop and compel them to settle elsewhere. This, however, is not an easy matter. A locust which has flown a number of miles is usually hungry and a little smoke or a little noise in a nice green field of maize or forage will not prevent his June, '10] HOWARD : AFRICAN LOCUST PROBLEM 267 breaking his fast. Consequently all the efforts at actual destruction were centered on the voetgangers. At first the various methods sug- gested in the locust reports of the United States of America, Egypt, Cyprus, and Argentine, were tried, from the digging of eggs to the use of rollers, trenches or screens and pits, to that of the famous locust fungus. All were found ineffective, owing to conditions existing in South Africa. The population is very sparse, labor is scarce and ex- pensive and transportation and materials are very costly. Moreover these methods were not thorough and could not be carried out over wide areas except at great expense to the Government and the people were not yet broad minded enough to take up the work on their own initiative. The old Boer was indolent enough to accept a locust plague as a punishment for his sins and resorted to prayers and days of fasting, like our half-civilized ancestors of the middle ages, in the hopes of seeing a miracle wipe them out. It remained for Natal to devise a method of voetganger destruction which is remarkable for its simplicity, cheapness and ease of applica- tion. The history of this discovery is interesting. The sugar planters in Natal found the locusts very troublesome about 1894. They tried every method of destruction and amongst others the pit and screen system. The hoppers were driven into the trenches which were about two feet deep and in the bottom of which was placed four to six inches of treacle, a waste product from the sugar mills. The treacle held and smothered the hoppers. But it was soon noticed that when the trenches were filled with earth some treacle oozed out and the survivors hung about and ate the treacle and that fresh swarms seemed to be attracted to the treacle and ate it. They then tried poisoning the treacle and found arsenic the best poison. The next step was the use of a bait made of boiled sweet po- tatoes, molasses and arsenic, but this soon gave place to poisoned molasses sprinkled about on the grass. The credit for the discovery so far belongs to Mr. Gilbert Wilkinson a sugar planter of Natal. This method was followed for some time with considerable success. Later, I believe, at the suggestion of Mr. Lounsbury, the treacle and poison were made into a thin solution and sprayed on the grass and vegetation. This sweetened arsenical-spray is what has revolutionized the whole work of locust destruction in South Africa, because of its simplicity in mixing and applying and its complete effectiveness. The formula for its use vary with the size of the hoppers to be killed and the urgency of killing them. The usual strength employed is 1 lb. of arsenite of soda and 2 lbs. of crude sugar or molasses to 16 gal- lons of water but in special cases it may be made as strong as 1 lb. 268 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 of arseiiite of soda in 8 gallons of water. Its effectiveness lies in the sugar or molasses of which locusts are very fond, and to which they are attracted long distances by the odor. It is therefore best to use as crude and strong smelling a substance for sweetening as can be pro- cured. At first white arsenic was employed, as a poison, which had to first be boiled with caustic soda to produce a soluble compound. The late Mr. Simpson improved this by introducing the use of arsenite of soda which is soluble in cold water. The latest improvement is the production of a concentrated stock solution of arsenic and sugar. Such a compound has been made, at the writer's suggestion, by the Atlas Preservative Co., of England and is known as Atlas Locusticide. It is put up in 1 gallon and 5 gallon tins and only needs to be mixed with the proper quantity of w^ater before using. Locusticide has helped very much to push the work in the coastal regions such as Mocambique where transport is difficult and costly and where incom- petent persons often have to prepare and handle the spray. In Cape Colony they prefer to prepare their own concentrated solution from arsenite of soda and molasses ; but in other parts the cost of tins and the skilled labor necessary make such a method impossible. The method of applying the spray is to locate a swarm of hoppers and note the direction in which they are moving. Then late in the afternoon or early in the morning spray a strip of grass varying in width from 20 feet to wider, depending on the size of the swarm, clear across the front. If it is a small swarm spray a ring completely around them. During the night the hoppers bunch up together on the grass or bush to sleep, and in the morning as soon as the sun has dried off the dew they begin to eat and move outward. Consequently if a choice bit of grass has been sprayed, this is what they will attack first. They will die in from one or two to 24 hours, depending on the strength of the solution used. So fond are they of the sugar that if not enough sprayed grass is left for all the hoppers the last comers will devour the first which have died or are dying and so one dose of poison may often kill 3 or 4 hoppers. The writer once visited a small town in the north Transvaal which was being overwhelmed with locusts. The locust officer had just sprayed a strip of grass about 10 or 15 yards wide clear across one side of the town lands or commonage to cut off an approaching swarm of hoppers. This sw^arm was at least 5 miles across the front. On they came till they struck the sprayed grass where they staid awhile and fed. The spray had purposely been made weak to avoid the danger of poisoning cattle and the hoppers had taken some time to die. But when we arrived every fence corner and every corner of a house ■k:""^ -V^Jv^..^^ ^,"' ^^ «^*,»H f June, '10] HOWARD : AFRICAN LOCUST PROBLEM 269 and even the streets themselves were covered with dead hoppers and so overpowering was the stench that wagons had to be put on and load after load of dead hoppers was taken away to be buried. When the late Mr. Simpson came to the Transvaal as Entomologist, it was not long before he saw that it was impossible for farming to advance until the locust problem was solved. He, therefore, began a study of the question at once. His first move was to study carefully the migrations of the swarms of flying locusts. To do this post cards were prepared. On one side was the address and franking stamp, on the other properly ruled spaces for the required information. These cards were distributed to every farmer, police, post master, railway station master, agricultural society and in fact every per- son who would accept them. As soon as they saw locusts they marked on the card whether they were flyers or hoppers, direction of flight or movement, egg laying, ^ etc. As each card came in the information was recorded with pins and flags on a large map of the Transvaal and at the end of each month copied in colors on a small map. If the cards reported swarms of flying locusts which we thought would pass into other inhabited areas, telegrams of warning were at once sent out, so that farmers could be prepared to drive them from their crops. After a few months of such records had been examined, it could be easily forecasted in what parts of the Transvaal the locusts would oviposit and consequently where work of destruction would have to be carried on. This system was taken from a suggestion of Knuckel d 'Hercules in his work on locusts in Algeria, and was of very great value. After two or three years of studying the migrations of locusts in this way, their movements could almost be forecasted before they approached. The next step was to get the hoppers destroyed as soon as they ap- peared. At first the Transvaal farraers were afraid of the arsenic, so the Cyprus locust screens were used. After one season, however, they were abandoned as too clumsy and ineffective. In the meantime ex- periments and demonstrations had been carried on with the Natal spray and this method was adopted entirely. The arsenite of soda and sugar were given free to the farmers while the spray pumps (Myer's Success Bucket Pumps) were loaned free of charge. Where it was impossible to persuade a farmer to use the poison he was al- lowed to use a strong solution of soap and water to spray upon the hoppers. This was not very effective and took too much time to pre- pare, so as a rule he soon came around to the poison method. The phenomenal success which followed the work depended, how- ever, on the organization. The year's campaign was always preceded 270 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 by the Entomologist making a tour through the infested country', dur- ing which illustrated lectures were given, to interest the farmers in the work. Some time before the hoppers were due to hatch out, the poison and pumps had been distributed to centres convenient for dis- tribution to farmers. Then locust officers were appointed. The Transvaal is divided into several districts over each one of which, in the affected area was placed a locust officer, directly responsible to the Entomologist as Chief Locust officer. Large districts were sub- divided and officers placed over each division directly responsible to the district officers. Then under these sub-district officers were men whose duty it was to go to native locations and government lands to see that all hoppers were destroyed on them, and others to go among the farmers, giving demonstrations and persuading each man to kill the locusts on his own farm. Only men who thoroughly understood the farmers and could use tact and discretion in dealing with them were chosen as locust officers. The locust staff often included as many as 160 men. This thorough system of organization meant that every man was at his post doing his duty carefully and promptly. The Entomologist was always at headquarters and by telegraph and tele- phone directed the whole campaign. The work was executed quickly and with no waste of money. It, of course, took several seasons before all the farmers fell into line, but now there is scarcely a farmer in the Transvaal wtio will not swear hy the locust killers. From a study of the Transvaal locust reports Mr. Simpson soon saw that the Transvaal alone could not solve the locust problem. In spite of her good work, each year new swarms invaded the colony from outside and necessitated its repetition. He accordingly placed the matter before the High Commissioner of South Africa, who called a conference in Pretoria in August, 1906, to discuss the question. This conference resulted in the establishment at Pretoria of the Central South African Locust Bureau. This was largely Mr. Simpson's idea, but almost before its organization was begun Mr. Simpson died and its management was left to his successor. The Bureau was under the direction of the Transvaal Entomologist but was supported by funds from all the Colonies and territories in South Africa including the Province of Mocambique and German South West Africa. Its work was the collection and tabulation of information regarding locusts from the whole of South Africa. The Cape Colony had already in- troduced a system somewhat similar to that of the Transvaal for col- lecting locust reports and the other colonies and territories fell into line. These reports all went to Pretoria and were there tabulated June, '10] HOWARD : AFRICAN LOCUST PROBLEM 271 and a monthly record map based on these reports sent to each sub- scribing colony. Colonies were also warned by wire of approaching swarms of flying locusts and urgency reports isvsued on request. Although the work of the Bureau was supposed to be only the col- lection of data, it was really much broader. In May, 1907, a con- ference of all the Ministers of Agriculture of the various colonies was called at Pretoria by the Transvaal IMinister of Agriculture in con- junction with the annual meeting of the committee of control of the Bureau. At this meeting the Bureau was able to put forward facts of such importance that each colony pledged itself to initiate locust de- struction work.' That was the beginning and subsequently the work has gone on well, even the native territories undertaking locust destruction. Since then the Bureau has kept up popular interest by its annual reports dealing with the work of each colony by suggest- ing where improvements could be made and by the issuing of in- formation for newspapers, etc. In dealing with the locust question we should not forget the help received from natural allies. Locust fungus was found absolutely useless, and the work of ]\Ir. Pole-Evans, Transvaal Plant Pathologist on the fungus, has, I think, settled the question of its use in South Africa for ever. Early in the work, many birds and small manmials were found to destroy great numbers of flyei's and hoppers, and a law was passed protecting several of the more important birds. These allies could, however, only be of small assistance in combating such a scourge and although they were protected very little reliance was placed on their work. Thus during the last three years there has been active cooperation in locust destniction throughout the whole of South Africa. The results of this cooperation soon showed themselves. After the first year Brown locusts in the Orange Free State, Transvaal and Rhodesia were very materially lessened, and the next year were almost lacking in those colonies, while the past season there were none. This past year brown locusts flew down from the Kalahari and German South West Africa into Central Cape Colony and oviposited there, but that is the only part of South Africa which has been infested. The Red locusts are also disappearing. Their numbers in Xatal are lessening each, year, while this season there are practically none in the Eastern Transvaal and Southern ]\Iocambique. In southern Rhodesia and northern ]\Iocambique they are still quite numerous, but the work there is being extended each year farther into the areas of egg laying with the result that they are slowly decreasing in numbers. In the district about the lower Zambesi river two vears ago immense losses 272 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 were suffered from the destruction of sugar cane and cocoanut by locusts. Last year work was begun in that area which resulted in the saving of about £250,000 worth of crops and as a further result this year locusts have invaded only a very small portion of the area. Taking the locust problem as a whole there is, therefore, only one territory remaining over which there is not absolute control, i. e. ; Parts of German South West Africa. The German Government is doing its utmost to control the pest within its boundaries but when we remember the character of the country, with its vast extent of almost desert land, with no white population and no water, we can under- stand the impossibility of the task. We will probably have swarms of brown locusts invading the other parts of South Africa from that region from time to time. Beyond this, however, there is no reason why South Africa should have a recurrence of such a scourge as in the past, provided she is watchful and meets each small invasion with prompt action. Now that there is to be one government over all of British South Africa, the administration of such matters as locust destruction can be from a central office where the work can be more successfully directed than heretofore. The locust work in South Africa has had a more far reaching effect, in the Transvaal at least, than the mere saving of the crops in immi- nent danger. It has succeeded more thoroughly and more quickly than years of teaching and publishing of reports could have done, in converting a conservative backward people to the value of new scientific methods in combating pests of all sorts. The farmer who was formerly inclined to laugh at the Entomologist as a " bug catcher ' ' now listens to him and accepts his advice. NURSERY INSPECTION IN MASSACHUSETTS By H. T. Febnald, Amherst, Mass. In some respects the work of the nursery inspector in Massachu- setts would seem to differ from that in most states. Of the one hundred and thirty odd nurseries requiring inspection, only two are at present growing any fruit stock, nearly all devoting themselves entirely to ornamentals. Large sales of fruit trees are made, of course, but the only evidence of this which the inspectors find during their fall inspections are small blocks of "left overs" from the spring purchases. Here, however, the San Jose Scale is frequently very abundant, sustaining the now well recognized fact that the inspectors in other states as well as in Massachusetts are not alwaj^s infallible. Most of the nurseries in the state are small, the average size perhaps June, '10] FERXALD : NURSERY INSPECTION 273 being ten or fifteen acres, while the largest ones are of less than two hundred acres. It is probable that almost all of the interstate shipping is done by twenty-five places, and it is remarkable how much of the stock sent out is purchased, often from the very states to which it goes. Every nursery is actively at work shipping, by the first of October each year, and in order to complete the inspections in time to prevent holding up business, these must be begun by the tenth of July. The first places visited each year are those selling strawberries and hardy roses only, as here sales are practically continuous throughout the summer, and as by law all certificates expire July 1, these require the first attention. By the time these have been examined, work must be at once begun on the larger nurseries, which are actively shipping* evergreens by the end of this month. As to methods of inspection, there is little to be said. Fruit stock, Cornus, Viburnum, ornamental Prunus and Pyrus and other plants liable to infestation are examined individually under a lens, and with Cornus in particular, this means many wearj^ hours during which the lowest parts of the body are the head, knees and tips of the toes. All such plants are examined separately and this is also the case with all kinds, at first. If after a prolonged search, however, no scale is found on them, the inspector considers himself at liberty to skip plants, examining every third or fourth, and finally if no evidence of trouble is found he may cross the rows in a block, examin- ing each row as he crosses backward and forward until the block has been crossed several times at different points. From this sort of inspection nothing is considered exempt, though perhaps Berberis, Hydrangia and conifers are least thoroughly examined. While such methods as these hold good in general, when the Gypsy moth is near the nursery, nothing can claim exemption and every plant in dangerous or even doubtful blocks is thoroughly examined. If the Gypsy moth is found, further inspection ceases until the fifteenth of September, as until that time a nursery might become infested from outside. After this date, inspection is resumed for such places and when nothing more can be found, a certificate is given, and as this expires before the next migration period for this insect, the result should mean as great freedom from it as inspection can make possible. In some cases where shipments before this date are im- perative, an inspector personally goes over each plant dug, while it is at the packing shed, and if satisfactory, issues a certificate covering that shipment. During most of the inspection period the Brown-tail moth is not 3 274 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [YoL 3 easily discovered, being- either in the egg stage or in the form of very small larva3. As it would be impossible to inspect the nurseries after the winter tents have been formed without practically prevent- ing a large part of the business, it was decided in 1905 that inspec- tions could not cover the Brown-tail moth, and notice to that effect was issued, while the nurserymen themselves were warned to watch for and remove any tents present on stock, unless they were prepared to lose their interstate trade. The work as regards the Gypsy and Brown-tail moths then, is one in which this state differs from others. Other insects are watched for, of course, and occasionally found, but have thus far been of little importance as compared with those already considered. Fungus and other diseases occasionally appear, but as a rule the Gypsy moth. Brown-tail moth and San Jose Scale are the insects making most of the trouble. Under the law of 1909 all nursery stock brought into Massachusetts must bear on each package, box, bundle, bale, car or other parcel, a tag issued by the Massachusetts Nursery Inspector. This has for the first time made it possible to gain some idea of the business done by other states in Massachusetts, and the result has been something of a surprise. A tag may mean a shipment of from one plant to an entire carload, but it is not likely that there are many single plants sent in this way, and as for the shipments of the fall of 1909 and spring of 1910, over thirteen thousand tags were issued, some concep- tion of the value of Massachusetts business can be obtained. Until the winter of 1908-09 it was impossible to get any definite information as to the amount of stock imported from abroad. During that winter, through the kind offices of Dr. L. 0. Howard, some in- formation was obtained from the Custom Houses, and during the past year it has been possible to gather data on this subject which appear to be practically complete. Thus far during the shipping season of 1909-10, three hundred and one consignments from foreign countries for points in Massachusetts have been received, most of this coming from Holland, followed by Germany, France, Belgium, England, Japan and Scotland, named in about the order of the amount of ship- ments. As much of this stock as possible has been inspected at its destination, but nothing has been found thus far on the European stock, except that on one lot of Pyrus fforabunda from Holland, con- sisting of fifty plants, forty-five were badly injured by Crown Gall, including the worst examples ever seen by the writer. With the Japanese stock, however, it was different. A number of egg cases of the Chinese ^lantis, Tenodera sinensis and also of another species June, '10] SANDERSON: INSECTICIDE ACT 275 were present, and if these insects could survive, would be a welcome addition to the fauna of this state. Besides these, the bag of a small bag' worm was found on the Umbrella Pine ; a cocoon of what appears to be a Lasiocampid ; an abundance of Aulacaspis pentagona on flow- ering cherry, and large numbers of Pulvinaria camelicola on Euoiiy- mus alata were found, and these on comparatively small shipments. From this, it would seem important to closely examine all stock reaching this country from the Orient. Europe has already con- tributed a sufficient number of insect pests, but the possibilities of the East in this regard have as yet been given little consideration, and they may prove to be serious. THE INSECTICIDE ACT OF 1910 At the Chicago meeting of the Association of Economic Entomolo- gists, December 27, 1907,^ the Standing Committee on Insecticides reported as follows : "The committee believes that it should ascertain whether it is pos- sible to secure an interpretation of the national pure food and drug law so that it will include insecticides and fungicides, and if this is found impossible that the committee draw up and report to the next meeting of this Association a suggested law which will aid in securing uniformity of legislation in the various states as regards the com- pulsory analysis and labeling of insecticides and fungicides. "Voted that the report be adopted and the committee continued." The committee corresponded with the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture and found that it was impossible to so construe the Pure Food and Drug Act. The present bill was there- fore drawn along the same lines as the Pure Food and Drug Act and was introduced in the Sixtieth Congress by Hon. Frank O. Lowden as H. R. 21318 and in the Senate by Senator Nelson for Senator Kittredge as H. 6515. The bill was referred to the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce in the House, but it was not possible for that committee to consider it during the short session. In the Senate the bill was referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry and was reported on February 1, 1909, by Mr. Burnham for the Committee. (Senate Report 895.) It was found impossible to bring the measure to a vote in the Senate, though no opposition was encountered. The bill was again introduced in the original form in the present (Sixty-first) Congress ^ See Journal of Economic Entomology, 1: 10. 276 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 by Hon. Frank 0. Lowden of Illinois (H. R. 3658, 20989) and re- ferred to the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. The bill was introduced in the Senate by Senator Burton of Ohio (S. 6131). On March 8 a public hearing was given by the Commit- tee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Represen- tatives to members of the Executive Committee named below assisted by Dr. J. B. Smith of New Jersey, Prof. E. L. Worsham of Georgia, Prof. T. B. Symons of Maryland, J. H. Hale of Glastonbury, Conn., vand Mr. E. W. Catchpole of North Rose, N. Y., and a hearing was also given by the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. The bill was reported in the Senate on March 23 and passed the Sen- ate April 4. The Senate bill was modified slightly to correspond with the House bill which was reported by the House Committee on April 12, passed the House in the amended form on April 18, which amend- ments were at once concurred in by the Senate, and the bill was ap- proved by the President April 26. The committee highly appreciates the personal interest which both Mr. Lowden and Senator Burton evinced in securing the passage of the act and is under obligations to Chairman Mann and Senator Dolliver for the courtesy of hearings before their respective committees. Upon the introduction of the bill in 1908, the Committee on Insecti- cides of the Association of Economic Entomologists consulted several of the leading manufacturers and found them favorable to such national legislation, but that they felt the entomologists, agricultural chemists and manufacturers should get together and confer over several minor changes in the bill which they desired. The com- mittee therefore called a conference of all the manufacturers and leading entomologists and agricultural chemists, which was held at the American Institute, New York City, June 18, 1908. The meet- ing was a representative one of the three interests named. The bill in its original form was then taken up and carefully discussed, sec- tion by section, and amendments w^ere made placing it in the form in which the bill was reported by the Senate Committee of the Sixtieth Congress, and the bill was finally adopted in that form. The bringing of these amendments before the proper authorities, and the proper presentation of the entire bill to those interested was left to a committee consisting of Prof. E. D. Sanderson, Entomologist N. H. Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham, N. H. ; Prof. H. E. Summers, Iowa State Entomologist, Ames, Iowa; Dr. J. P. Street, Chemist Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. ; R. G. Harris, Sales Manager of the Vreeland Chemical Co., New York; and H. F. Baker, President of the Thomsen Chemical Co., June, '10] SANDERSON : INSECTICIDE ACT 277 Baltimore, Md., with the understanding that if any material amend- ments were to be made that the conference be again called together for their discussion. This committee met and organized as an "Executive Committee" and proceeded to arouse public interest in the measure and to do what was possible toward the passage of the bill before Congress. An Advisory Board, consisting of one member from each state, was appointed to aid in securing support for the measure in each state and to these gentlemen the committee is greatly indebted for the public-spirited interest. Certain changes in the standard of lead arsenate having been desired by certain manufacturers, a meeting of the manufacturers of arsenate of lead was called at the Belmont Hotel, New York City, December 8, 1908, and after full discussion the committee was in- structed to secure an amendment to that portion of Section 7 referring to the standard for arsenate of lead so that it should read as in the bill now law. The bill having been reintroduced in the Sixty-first Congress another conference of the manufacturers was called by the Executive Committee to ascertain if any further amendments were desired, which met at the Hotel Woodstock, New York City, November 18, 1909. At this meeting there were thirteen firms represented, which firms produce fully 80 per cent, of the insecticides of this country and the larger part of the manufactured fungicides. It was voted to recommend that the bill be amended so that the penalties prescribed in Section 2 be the same in Section 1, with this amendment the manufacturers present heartily endorsed the bill as amended and pledged their support and cooperation toward its enactment into law. For the past two years the executive committee named above have held frequent meetings at various places and visited Washington several times in the interests of the measure and have sent copies of the bill to interested parties thruout the country thus gi\ang the measure publicity and calling the attention of Congress to the interests of their constituents in the measure. The agricultural press has taken a lively interest in the law and has given it considerable space. The passage of the law would have been much more difficult had it not been for the liberal financial support of the leading manufacturers who contributed liberally to the expenses of the committee, the total contributions amounting to $750.00 of which $206.67 still remains in the treasurj'-. Altho during the Sixtieth Congress there was some slight opposi- tion by a certain element among the insecticide manufacturers, this 278 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 disappeared during the present session and no opposition whatever developed against the bill before Congress. It is believed that this measure will aid very greatly in the stand- ardization of the leading insecticides and fungicides and in deter- ring many parties from marketing worthless or fraudulent insec- ticides. It is to be earnestly hoped that any states which may pass legisla- tion along this line will frame their laws as closely as possible in the language and with the standards of the national law as this will tend to uniformity and will greatly aid the manufacturers in labelling their goods. It would seem that with this national law there would be but little call for additional legislation in most states, but where state laws are deemed necessary there is every reason for uniformity. E. D. Sanderson. Chairman. [At the request of the chairman, the law is reproduced below. — Ed.] SIXTY-FIRST CONGRESS [Public— No. 152.] [S. 6131.] An Act For preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded Paris greens, lead arsenates, and other insecticides, and also fungicides, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes. Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture within any Territory or the District of Columbia any insecticide, Paris green, lead arsenate, or fungicide which is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act; and any person who shall violate any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not to exceed two hundred dollars for the first offense, and upon conviction for each subsequent offense be fined not to exceed three hundred dollars, or sentenced to imprisonment for not to exceed one year, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. Sec. 2. That the introduction into any State or Territory or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or from any foreign country, or shipment to any foreign country, of any insecticide, or Paris green, or lead arsenate, or fungicide which is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act is hereby prohibited; and any person who shall ship or deliver for shipment from any State or Ter- ritory or the District of Columbia to any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or to a foreign country, or who shall receive in any State or Territory or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or foreign country, and having so received, shall deliver, in original unbroken packages, for pay or otherwise, or offer to deliver, to any other person, any such article so adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or any person who shall sell or offer for sale in the District of Columbia or any Territory of the United States any such adulterated or misbranded insecticide, or Paris green, or lead June, '10] INSECTICIDE ACT OF 1910 279 arsenate, or fungicide, or export or offer to export the same to any foreign country, sliall be guiltj* of a misdemeanor, and for such offense be fined not exceeding two hundred dollars for the first offense, and upon conviction for each subsequent offense not exceeding three hundred dollars, or be imprisoned not exceeding one year, or both, in the discretion of the court: Provided, That no article shall be deemed misbranded or adulterated within the provisions of this Act when intended for export to any foreign country and prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser; but if said articles shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the opera- tion of any of the other provisions of this Act. Sec. 3. That the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor shall make uniform rules and regu- lations for carrying out the provisions of this Act, including the collection and examination of specimens of insecticides, Paris greens, lead arsenates, and fungicides manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or in any Territory of the United States, or which shall be offered for sale in un- broken packages in any State other than that in which they shall have been respectively manufactured or produced, or which shall be received from any foreign country or intended for shipment to any foreign country, or which may be submitted for examination by the director of the experiment station of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia (acting under the direc- tion of the Secretary of Agriculture), or at any domestic or foreign port through which such product is offered for interstate commerce, or for export or import between the United States and any foreign port or country. Sec. 4. That the examination of specimens of insecticides, Paris greens, lead arsenates, and fungicides shall be made in the Department of Agriculture, by such existing bureau or bureaus as may be directed by the Secretary, for the purpose of determining from such examination whether such articles are' adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act; and if it shall appear from any such examination that any of such specimens are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause notice thereof to be given to the party from whom such sample was obtained. Any party so notified shall be given an opportunity to be heard, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed as aforesaid, and if it appears that any of the provisions of this Act have been violated by such party, then the Secretary of Agriculture shall at once certify the facts to the proper United States district attorney, with a copy of the results of the analysis or the examination of such article duly authenticated by the analyst or officer making such examination, under the oath of such officer. After judgment of the court, notice shall be given by publication in such manner as may be prescribed by the rules and regulations aforesaid. Sec. 5. That it shall be the duty of each district attorney to whom the Secretary of Agriculture shall report any violation of this Act, or to whom any director of experiment station or agent of any State, Territory, or the Dis- trict of Columbia, under authority of the Secretary of Agriculture, shall pre- sent satisfactory evidences of any such violation, to cause appropriate pro- ceedings to be commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the United States, without delay, for the enforcement of the penalties as in such case herein provided. Sec. 6. That the term "insecticide" as used in this Act shall include any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for preventing, de- 280 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 stroying, repelling, or mitigatiug any insects which may infest vegetation, man or other animals, or households, or be present in any environment whatsoever. The term "Paris green" as used in this Act shall include the product sold in commerce as Paris green and chemically known as the aeeto- arsenite of copper. The term "lead arsenate" as used in this Act shall include the product or products sold in commerce as lead arsenate and consisting chemically of products derived from arsenic acid (H3ASO4) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by lead. That the term "fungicide" as used in this Act shall include any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any and all fungi that may infest vegetation or be present in any environment whatsoever. Sec. 7. That for the purpose of this Act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated — In the case of Paris green: First, if it does not contain at least fifty per centum of arsenious oxide; second, if it contains arsenic in watex'-soluble forms equivalent to more than three and one-half per centum of arsenious oxide; third, if any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength. In the case of lead arsenate: First, if it contains more than hfty per centum of water; second, if it contains total arsenic equivalent to less than twelve and one-half per centum of arsenic oxid (AS2O5) ; third, if it contains arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than seventy-five one- hundredths per centum of arsenic oxid (AS2O5) ; fourth, if any substances have been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce, lower, or injuriously affect its quality or strength: Provided, however. That extra water may be added to lead arsenate (as described in this paragraph) if the resulting mixture is labeled lead arsenate and water, the percentage of extra water being plainly and correctly stated on the label. In the case of insecticides or fungicides, other than Paris green and lead arsenate: First, if its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which it is sold; second, if any substance has been substi- tuted wholly or in part for the article; third, if any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted; fourth, if it is intended for use on vegetation and shall contain any substance or substances which, although preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating insects, shall be injurious to such vegetation when used. Sec. 8. That the term "misbranded" as used herein shall apply to all insecticides, Paris greens, lead arsenates, or fungicides, or articles which enter into the composition of insecticides or fungicides, the package or label of which shall bear any statement, design, or device regarding such article or the ingredients or substances contained therein which shall be false or misleading in any particular, and to all insecticides, Paris greens, lead arse- nates, or fungicides which are falsely branded as to the State, Territory, or country in which they are manufactured or produced. That for the purpose of this Act an article shall be deemed to be mis- branded — In the case of insecticides, Paris greens, lead arsenates, and fungicides: First, if it be an imitation or offered for sale under the name of another article; second, if it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser, or if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been I'emoved in whole or in part and other contents shall have been placed in June, '10] INSECTICIDE ACT OF 1910 381 such package; third, if in package form, and the contents are stated in terms of weight or measure, they are not phiinly and correctly stated on the outside of the package. In the case of insecticides (other than Paris greens and lead arsenates) and fungicides: First, if it contains arsenic in any of its combinations or in the elemental form and the total amount of arsenic present (expressed as per centum of metallic arsenic) is not stated on the label; second, if it con- tains arsenic in any of its combinations or in the elemental form and the amount of arsenic in water-soluble forms (expressed as per centum of metallic arsenic) is not stated on the label; third, if it consists partially or completely of an inert substance or substances which do not prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate insects or fungi and does not have the names and percentage amounts of each and every one of such inert ingredients plainly and correctly stated on the label: Provided, however. That in lieu of naming and stating the per- centage amount of each and every inert ingredient the producer may at his discretion state plainly upon the label the correct names and percentage amounts of each and every ingredient of the insecticide or fungicide having Insecticidal or fungicidal properties, and make no mention of the inert ingre- dients, except in so far as to state the total percentage of inert ingredients present. Sec. 9. That no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this Act when he can establish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler, jobber, manu- facturer, or other party residing in the United States, from whom he pur- chased such articles, to the effect that the same is not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, designating it. Said guaranty, to afford protection, shall contain the name and address of the party or pai'ties making the sale of such articles to such dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions, fines, and other penalties which would attach in due course to the dealer under the provisions of this Act. Sec. 10. That any insecticide, Pax'is green, lead arsenate, or fungicide that is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act and is being transported from one State, Territory, or District, to another for sale, or, hav- ing been transported, remains unloaded, unsold, or in original unbroken packages, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or any Territory of the United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale, shall be liable to be proceeded against in any disti*ict court of the United States within the district wherein the same is found and seized for confisca- tion by a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is condemned as being adulterated or misbranded, within the meaning of this Act, the same shall be disposed of by destruction or sale as the said court may direct, and the proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States, but such goods shall not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this Act or the laws of that jurisdiction: Provided, however, That upon the payment of the costs of such libel proceedings and the execution and delivery of a good and suflBcient bond to the effect that such articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the provisions of this Act or the laws of any State, Territory, or District, the court may by order direct that such articles be delivered to the owner thereof. The proceedings of such libel cases shall conform, as near as may be, to the proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in any 282 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 such case, and all .such proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the United States. Sec. 11. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall deliver to the Secretary of Agriculture, upon his request, from time to time, samples of insecticides, Paris greens, lead arsenates, and fungicides which are being imported into the United States or offered for import, giving notice thereof to the owner or con-„ signee, who may appear before the Secretary of Agriculture and have the right to introduce testimony; and if it appear from the examination of such samples that any insecticide, or Paris green, or lead arsenate, or fungicide offered to be imported into the United States is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or is otherwise dangerous to the health of the people of the United States, or is of a kind forbidden entry into or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the counti'y in which it is made or from which it is exported, or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect, the said article shall be refused admission, and the Secretary of the Treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the destruction or any goods refused delivery which shall not be exported by the consignee within three mouths from the date of notice of such refusal under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe: Provided, That the Secretary of the Treasury may deliver to the consignee such goods pending examination and decision in the matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of the full invoice value of such goods, together with the duty thereon, and on refusal to return such goods for any cause to the custody of the Secretary of the Treasury, when demanded, for the purpose of excluding them from the country, or for any other purpose, said consignee shall forfeit the full amount of the bond: And provided further. That all charges for storage, cartage, and labor on goods which are refused admission or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee, and in default of such payment shall constitute a lien against any future importation made by such owner or consignee. Sec. 12. That the term "Territory," as used in this Act, shall include the District of Alaska and the insular possessions of the United States. The word "person," as used in this Act, shall be construed to import both the plural and the singular, as the case demands, and shall include corporations, com- panies, societies, and associations. When construing and enforcing the pro- visions of this Act, the act, omhssiou, or failure of any officei", agent, or other person acting for or employed by any corporation, company, society, or asso- ciation, within the scope of his employment or office, shall in every case be also deemed to be the act, omission, or failure of such corporation, company, society, or association, as well as that of the other person. Sec. 13. That this Act shall be known and referred to as "The insecticide Act of 1910." Sec. 14. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of January, nineteen hundred and eleven. Approved, April 26, 1910. June, "10] THOMPSON : TACHIXID I'UPATION 283 NOTES ON THE PUPATION AND HIBERNATION OF TACHINID PARASITES^ By W. R. Thojipsox The question of the pupation of Taehinid parasites is one which has been found to present itself very frequently to those engaged in the researches in progress at the Gipsy ]\Ioth Parasite Laboratorj', both on account of its biological interest and its practical importance. Very closely connected with the subject of pupation and in some cases bound up with it is that of hibernation. A short resume of our knowledge in regard to these phases of the biology of Tachinids will, it is hoped, be of interest and possibly of some service to those who have encountered the discouraging results which have been often met with here in attempts to breed various species of these parasites through to maturity. I am indebted. to Mr. W. F. Fiske for suggesting the preparation of this paper, and for permission to use the data accumulated at the laboratory, for much of which data he is personally responsible. Pupation. The general process of pupation among the Tachinidifi is, of course, well known. With very many species it occurs as fol- lows: When the maggot has finished feeding upon the body of its host, and has established itself in surroundings of a suitable nature, it contracts, assuming a regularly ovoid form, the larval skin becomes smooth, gradually infiltrated with a dark pigment and of a hard and resistant character. Histolysis of the larval tissues then sets in and the development of the fully formed adult parasite is accomplished with more or less rapidity. The minute details of the developmental process cannot be considered here but on the other hand there are a number of variations in the process of pupation of a more general and not less interesting character which may be discussed in some detail. The most important of these variations are those which arise from a difference in the reaction of the parasite to the inimical influences to which it is subject in the pupal stage. There are two classes of destructive agencies to which Taehinid parasites are subject in the pupal period. These are as follows: (1) Secondary parasitism; (2) Meteorological influences. It is, of course, apparent that most, if not all, Tachinids will be subject in exactly the same degree to secondary parasitism if equally exposed to it. On the contrary, this is not by any means true of their reaction to meteorological influences so that the forms which we have studied are ^ Occasional contributions from the Gipsy Moth Parasite Laboratory, IV. 384 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 found to group themselves into two classes according to the effect which exposure to the last-named conditions has upon them. These classes may be described as follows: (1). Those which habitually and of necessity enter the earth to pupate. (These being the forms upon which meteorological condi- tions exert a great influence.) (2). Those which do not habitually and of necessity enter the earth to pupate, or do not do so in order to avoid the influences which affect the parasites of the first class. It must be admitted that by characterizing the two divisions in this manner the difference between them does not appear to be very strongly marked. This is due in part to a very considerable varia- tion in the habits of the parasites of the second class and some ex- planation is needed to make clear the compact nature of each group. Whether or no the pupation of the Tachinid larva in the soil is of vital importance to it seems to be determined largely by, first, the duration of the pupal period and, second, the condition of the hiber- nating nymph within the puparium. In respect to the first men- tioned factor it may be stated that while with all of the parasites of the first class the pupal period is of long duration this is sometimes also the case with those of the second class. The second factor is the important one as we shall now try to make clear. Pupation of Tachinids of the first class. The pupation of these forms is characterized by the rapidity of the development of the pupa up to a certain point. Histolysis of the larval tissues and the develop- ment of the nymph to the stage where the external structures, such as the eyes, antenna?, macrochffitffi, legs, wings and other appendages are as perfectly developed as they are in the i\y on the point of issuing from the puparium, is accomplished frequently within thirty days after the formation of the puparium, and always long before the winter sets in. Among the forms which develop in the manner described may be mentioned BlepJiaripa scutellata Rdi. (R. D.), Crossocosmia sericarice Rdi., and Parasetigena segregata Rdi., all important parasites of the gipsy moth. In the condition described the Tachinids are peculiarly susceptible to meteorological influences, especially in so far as these induce the drying up of the nymph within the puparium. From a large number of the puparia of Blepharipa ■scutellata and Crossocosmia sericaricB received at the laboratory in 1908 which were forced to pupate out of earth on account of the con- ditions under which the parasitized pupee of the gipsy moth were shipped from Europe and Japan, and which were kept during the winter in cold but dry conditions, an issuance of less than one per June, '10] THOMPSON : TACHIXID PUPATION 285 cent was secured the following spring. That this drying out of the nymph within the puparium, resulting in its death, is in some way correlated with its rapid development to an advanced stage long be- fore it is ready to emerge, there can be but little doubt. Xo reasons for this rapid development can, of course, be given, nor can we definitely state the physiological reasons for the susceptibility of the parasite in this stage to dryness although it seems probable that the greater activity of the organs of the nymph means the requirement and giving off of a great deal of moisture from its body. At all events, an examination of puparia formed under natural conditions in wood- land soil, and dug up in early spring, has disclosed the fact that the nymphs are normally subject to almost semi-aquatic conditions. The spaces between the pupal exuvium and the pupa, and between the pupal exuvium and the wall of the puparium were alike filled with a clear watery liquid. The Tachinid larvae seem to be instinctively aware of the danger of pupation under aerial conditions. In spite of the care now taken to send parasitized material from abroad in cold storage, it not infre- quently happens that numbers of the maggots of BlepJmrijM scutel- lata and the two other species mentioned above, emerge from the pup^e of the gipsy moth in the shipping boxes en route. The puparia which these maggots form have been observed to be very often im- perfect, larviform or nearly so, and usually not giving the fly. To determine the cause of the formation of such imperfect puparia and the conditions under which the lan^fe could best pupate, an experi- ment with fresh maggots was undertaken in 1909. A number of these which had just emerged from gipsy moth pupfe were placed upon the surface of the soil in a shaded w^oodland, w^hile others were allowed to pupate under various artificial conditions. The larvas placed upon the soil descended into it very rapidly and formed per- fect puparia in a short time. Little of interest could be deduced from the observations as to the pupation of the maggots under the various artificial conditions until the results thus obtained were compared with those secured by permitting the maggots to pupate in the soil when it at once became clear that in general, pupation is much re- tarded, a great irregularity in the leng-th of the prepupal period is caused and that the maggots sometimes die without pupating, when prevented from entering the earth. So well developed is the instinct of the Tachinid maggots of the first class to seek the earth and bury themselves in it, that if a number of the pupw of the gipsy moth which contain the larvge of Blepharipa be confined in cardboard boxes, the maggots upon emerging from the pup^e will at once burrow down to 286 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 the bottom of the box and crawling about until they strike a corner, by means of vigorous efforts with the mouth hook and muscular con- tractions of the powerful body, they will often manage to make a small hole through cardboard of considerable thickness and escape. Under such circumstances, a maggot is able to force itself through an opening so small that if an effort be made to remove it forcibly when it is part way out, the death of the parasite will generally result, although left to itself it can work through successfully. This propensity of the maggot to burrow downward and seek the earth has been utilized in a device, the invention of Mr. "W. F. Fiske, for handling pupa? of the gipsy moth which contain the maggots of Blepharipa or Crossocosmia. These are placed upon a piece of mosquito netting stretched over a cylinder of earth into which it is desired that the maggots shall pupate, and through which they descend upon emerging from the host pupai, falling upon the earth and at once entering it to pupate. A small cylindrical wire screen cage tightly fitting within the top of the cylinder containing the earth catches the moths and any summer-issuing parasites as they emerge. When it is certain that no more parasites will emerge the cylinder is covered up and buried in some moist cool spot after which it needs no further attention until spring. In the experiment with the larvae of Blepharipa cited above, it was noted that the larv^ffi which were placed upon earth, after descending for a few inches, turned about and proceeded to pupate with the anterior end directed upward. This position of the puparium has been observed at the laboratory in connection with other Tachinids, and also with ]\Iuscids and Sarcophagids and is very probably the usual mode of pupation among those species of Calyptrate Muscids which form their puparia in the soil. It is, of course, designed to facilitate the emergence of the fly from the earth in the spring, as the latter reaches the surface by the alternate expansion and contraction of the ptilinum, that organ being provided with many back^^'ardly directed spines which serve to draw the fly upward through the earth. Pupation of Tachinids of the second class. The Tachinid para- sites of the second class have presented themselves much more fre- quently in our work than those of the first class, and they are un- doubtedly of more general occurrence. They may be sub-di\aded as follows: (1) Those with a long pupal period; (2) Those with a short pupal period. The first group includes those forms which having but a single generation annually, hibernate in the pupal stage, but there must also be included in it those species of the second sub-division June, '10] THOMPSOX : TACHINID PUPATION 287 which although they have several generations annually, hibernate in the pupal stage, which is in consequence much longer than in the summer broods. All of these Tachinids, although they resemble those of the first class in the long duration of the pupal period, differ from them in that they can pupate out of earth and withstand ex- fposure to aerial conditions throughout the long period of hibernation, without the drying up and death of the nymph. This ability to withstand adverse meteorological conditions is accompanied by and undoubtedly correlated with a condition of the hibernating monph verv' different from what we have described in regard to the species of the first class. In these species the initial development of the nymph proceeds very slowly, and by the time when low temperatures arrest the vital processes it has onl}- developed far enough so that the general form of the pupa is apparent, none of the appendages being structurally developed. The nymphs of this sort can always be recognized by their creamy white color and differ markedly from those of the first class. Although the wall of the puparium formed by the species of this group is often much thinner than that of the puparium of Blepharipa for example, the nymph, as has been already remarked, can withstand exposure to aerial conditions and success- fully complete its development. How well the nymph is protected against drying influences may be illustrated by the following exam- ple: a puparium of Parexorista chelonice Rdi., one of the Taehinids included in the first sub-division of the second class, which had pupated at the bottom of a box containing masses of bro-mi-tail moth cocoons from a field colony, was kept in a glass vial in the laboratoiy during the winter. In early spring, as some of the other puparia kept under such conditions had already produced flies, while this had failed to do so, the anterior end of the puparium was re- moved, without breaking the pupal exuvium, to examine the condi- tion of the nymph within. As it appeared to be in fairly good condi- tion, it was left in the vial, and at the time when this article was written, about two months later, development had progressed to the point Avhere the pilosity of the eyes, the antennae and macrochastte of the front and face were perfectly developed. There is in fact little doubt that the fly will shortly emerge in spite of the unusually adverse circumstances with which it has had to contend. The practi- cal value of this point became apparent in the work with this species. As it is probably the most important European Tachinid parasite of the brown-tail moth, its puparia are received here in large numbers in the imported masses of brown-tail moth cocoons. The fact that the Tachinid can pupate and hibernate successfully under aerial 288 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 conditions makes it possible to avoid the tedious and expensive methods necessary with Blepharipa and Crossocosmia, to which would be added the painful and disagreeable task of a close examination of the masses of brown-tail moth cocoons in order to secure all of the puparia of this species so that they might be buried in earth ancl kept moist during the winter. As to the physiological reasons for the ability of this species and those of the same habit to withstand exposure, no more can be said than that if the advanced stage of development of the hibernating nymphs of the parasites of the first class renders them susceptible to drying influences, than contrariwise, on account of the undeveloped state and slight activity of the internal organs of these forms, they do not require so much moisture nor do they give up their moisture content so readily. Although they can thus pupate and hibernate out of the soil, some of them, as we have observed in the case of Varichceta alclrichii Towns., habitually descend into the earth to pupate if they can easily do so. It is, of course, impossible to deny that long exposure to very dry conditions may have a detrimental effect upon certain individuals, but it seems more likely that they pupate in the soil in order to avoid the parasitic and predatory enemies to which they would be exposed for so long a time, did they remain unprotected upon the surface of the earth. The parasites of the second sub-division pupate in various ways which seem to be determined more by the condition of the host' and the individuality of the parasite than by the factors which influence the pupation of the parasites of the first class. Some of them, among which may be mentioned Eudoromyia magnicornis Zett., and Zygo- bothria nicUcola Towns., pupate within the empty skin of the host which tightly encases the puparium. In this situation they are no doubt to a certain extent protected from secondary parasites. The wall of the puparia of these species is, so far as we have observed, quite thin and delicate, the skin of the host serving the same purpose as does the thicker wall of the puparia of the species which pupate freely. There are also other species, such as Tricholyga grandis Zett., Tachina tnella W., and Euphorocera claripennis Macq., which pupate loosely within either the empty host skin or the pupa. These fre- quently occur to the number of three or four within a single host whereas niagnicornis and nidicolu are nearly always solitary. More- over they do not always pupate in the manner above described but sometimes emerge from the body of the prepupal caterpillars or from the pupa, pupating either within the cocoon of the host if there is such, or leaving it and dropping to the ground. The wall of the June, '10] THOMrSON: TACHINID PUPATION 289 puparia is ranch thicker than in niagnicornis and nidicola. If these forms pupate loosely within the skin of the caterpillar, within the empty pupa of the latter or within its cocoon, they are very liable to the attacks of secondary parasites, as the studies of the parasites of the tussock moth have demonstrated. It is almost certain to avoid these secondary parasites and such predators as ants, which often work great havoc among unprotected puparia, that they sometimes descend into the earth to pupate, as we have observed that Tricholyga grandis occasionally does. On the other hand we have noticed that fresh mag- gots of Pales pavida Rdi., when placed upon earth often manifest no desire to descend into it but pupate upon the surface. The short duration of the pupal period among some of these forms probably makes pupation in the soil of rather minor importance since they are only for a short time exposed to drying influences and to secondary parasitism. Still other species such as Front ina frenchii Will., as a parasite of cecropia pupate well protected within the thick cocoon of the host from which they make no effort to emerge. The parasite mentioned is frequently found in the spring in very large numbers within the cocoon of cecropia, the puparia sometimes occurring to the number of forty or more. These puparia are in some cases very thin-walled and light in color. This phenomenon we have observed to varv' directly as the niunber of puparia present, and there can be little doubt but that it is due rather to the inadequacy of the food supply, than to such an adaptation of the species to the environment as is found in the case of magnicornis. This is rendered the more probable since in a study of the reproductive habits of this species we have noticed that these thin-walled and light-colored puparia produce flies which are short-lived and which do not generally develop to maturity. Hibernation, The factors which restrict hibernation among Tachi- nid parasites to a definite stage in the life historj^ or permit of a variation in this particular appear to be the habit of the host, and individuality of the parasite. As a general rule parasites with but a single generation annually hibernate in a certain stage and in a definite manner; on the other hand, those which have several gen- erations in a season may pass the winter in various ways. Among the single-brooded species there are some with which the specific habit of the parasite is the controlling factor rather than the habit of the host. Such forms usually hibernate in the nymphal stage within the pupa- rium. The condition of the hibernating nymph may be either unde- veloped, as in Varichceta aldrichii and Parexorista chelonice, or ad- vanced, as in Bleplianpa scutellata and Crossocosmia sericarice. This 3 290 .JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 phase of the question has been discussed already under "Pupation." Another group of Tachinid parasites, which probably have but one generation annually, are those which pass the winter within the body of the living host. Of these we have observed but a few examples, but they are of exceptional interest. One of these forms is Zygobothria nidicola Towns., which as a parasite of the brown-tail moth, passes the winter as a first stage maggot in the hibernating larva of its host. It is evident that in this case the factor controlling the stage in which the Tachinid shall hibernate is the very small size of the over-winter- ing larva of the brown-tail. Were the parasite to feed only until it had reached the second stage, the death of the host would almost cer- tainly result immediately, or it would be so weakened that it would perish during the winter, in which cases the Tachinid would also succumb. The larva therefore remains quiescent within the body of the host until the latter has fed for some time in the spring. Another instance of hibernation within the living host has been found to occur in the case of an undetermined Tachinid parasite of Euchaetias egle. The development of this parasite, w^hich we have found in very small caterpillars, is very slow, and the maggot passes the winter in the second stage within the hibernating pupa of the host, its larval life cycle occupying over eight months. In the spring it completes its larval development and emerges to pupate. It seems evident that this adjustment of the life cycle of the parasite to cor- respond with that of the host must be of advantage to it, otherwise it would complete its development within the host in the autumn and pass the winter in the pupal stage. As has been indicated above, it seems probable that both of these species are single-brooded as the larval stage is of such long duration, but it is impossible to say so definitely. In the present state of our knowledge in regard to these subjects it is dangerous to draw many deductions. It will, in fact, be rather surprising if subsequent dis- coveries do not upset some of the generalizations which we have ventured to make. One of the most interesting modes of hibernation which we have yet discovered has been found with some forms which pass the winter as third stage larvse within the dry and otherwise empty skin of the host, emerging therefrom and pupating in the spring. This method of hibernation we have so far observed only with two undetermined species, one a parasite of Datana sp., the other infesting a European caterpillar, which is possibly Cnethocampa processionea. The condi- tion of the hibernating larva3 is characteristic and worthy of remark. They are of a golden yellow color, this color being very probably due June, '10] THOMPSON : TACHIXID PUPATION 391 to the fatty reserve material which they contain and the skin is of a hard firm texture. The larv^fe in this respect resemble those of certain Sarcophagids which as we have observed, are able to remain alive in drj- receptacles without food for several months, owing to the im- permeable nature of their integamient and the great amount of adi- pose tissue which they contain. The hibernating habits of the Tachinids which we know to be several-brooded seem to be more variable in character within the species than is the case with the single-brooded forms. With these species there are at the beginning of the period of pupation indi- viduals of the same species in different stages, this being a phenome- non of common occurrence among several-brooded insects in general, of which it is not necessary to explain the causes. Moreover, among a number of individuals of the same species some complete their devel- opment and emerge during the summer, while others undergo a sus- pension of the vital activities in the lar^^al or pupal stage. These forms have as a rule many hosts. Among them may be mentioned Tachina mella, Frontina aletice Riley, and Compsilura concinnata Meig. The first two of the Tachinids mentioned have received consid- erable study as parasites of the tussock moth, and it was noted by Doctor Howard^ that from a number of puparia of the second species mentioned, which were secured during the summer of 1895, the ma- jority of the flies issued from September 19 to October 15 of the same year, but a single specimen issued April 16, 1896. Doctor Howard remarks that, "The usual method of hibernation here must be also in the imago stage although in the case of the fly which issued April 16 the puparium must have over- wintered. With these conclusions we fully agree, having observed the same phenomenon to occur in the case of Tachina mella and Exorista amplexa Coq., as parasites of the tussock moths. In Mr. Coquillet's "Revision of the Tachinidge" a number of records are given of the issuance of EupJiorocera clari- pennis from larv^fe collected the preceding season, although it is not clear from the data presented whether the Tachinids passed the winter as puparia or in some of the larval stages. Similar records are given for Winthemia quadripustulata, Sturmid inquinita v. d. W., Frontina frenchii, and several other species. In the cases of this sort which have come under our notice we have found that the para- sites hibernate as undeveloped nymphs within the puparia in the same manner as does Parexorista chelonice. The advantage of this mode of hibernation to the parasite is quite apparent. A number of the ' 1897. L. 0. Howard. A Study iu Insect Parasitism. Bull. No. 5, Tech. Series, Bur. of Ent. p. 43. 292 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 parasites of the tussock moth always elect to pupate within the co- coons of the host and among these there are some which do not emerge until the following year. Exposed as they are to meteoro- logical conditions, if their nymphal development continued to the stage which it attains in Blephanpa scutellata before hibernation commenced, they would stand small chance of passing the winter successfully. The most remarkable example of the entrance of certain individuals into hibernation, while others complete their development much more rapidly, has been found in the case of Compsilura concinnata, which is a several-brooded European parasite of the gipsy moth and other hosts. In experiments which we have conducted with this species and Hyphantria textor we have found that although some of the parasites finished their larval development and emerged from the host caterpillar within a short time, others attempted to hibernate as first stage larvae within the pupa of the webworm. Less frequently, we have found concinnata hibernating in the same stage in the over-win- tering brown-tail moth caterpillars in somewhat the same manner as does Zygohothria nidicola. Pantel, in his fine work, "Recherches sur les Dipteres a larves entomobies, " has noted what is probably the same thing with concinnata as a parasite of Pieris. He says: "In a lot of chrysalids of Pieris collected in autumn, of which some were unparasitized and others infested by Compsilura, there was a division ; some butterflies emerged before the winter, their development follow- ing the aestival type, but the eclosion of others w^as retarded until spring. Now, the parasite behaves in exactly the same manner; some individuals finish their larval development in some days and emerge to pupate, while others will only emerge at the end of the winter or in spring." Although the author does not indicate precisely that the larva of concinnata hibernates in the first stage, there can be little doubt, from remarks which he has made previously in the same paper, that this is what occurs. Pantel attributes the singular behavior of the parasite to seasonal influences, especially those of temperature. It seems that this will scarcely explain the matter satisfactorily. To begin with, it is difficult to imagine that conditions of temperature should affect so markedly the length of the life cycle in certain in- dividuals, without influencing that of others which are in precisely the same conditions. The question also presents itself: what would happen to the parasite should it elect to hibernate in the first larval stage in a caterpillar which invariably developed to the adult stage before the advent of winter? To avoid admitting the possibility of such an occurrence one would be forced to the conclusion that certain, June, 10] THOMPSON : TACHIXID PUPATION 293 but not all of the larva? of this species were affected in a definite manner by hosts which pass the winter in the larval or pupal stage. Such a reaction between host and parasite, if it exists, must be of a most subtle and complex character, and it would be quite useless at the present time to speculate upon its nature. It would be interesting to know whether any of the individuals which, as Pantel states, "finish their larval development in some days and emerge to pupate," pass the winter in the nymphal stage within the puparium, which he does not clearly explain, although he remarks that the pupal period varies from 13-16 days in summer, to 30-60 in winter, which makes it seem probable that some of the parasites might in some cases hibernate as nymphs. We have never observed such an occurrence here although we have handled large numbers of the puparia, which were, however, an earlier brood than the one of which Pantel speaks. The hibernation of Frontina frenchii as a parasite of cecropia has been already discussed in an earlier paper on the parasites of the Saturniidse. It seems verj^ likely that this parasite often hibernates in both the puparium or adult stages. As a parasite of cecropia, on the other hand, it hibernates within the living pupa of the host in large numbers, reaching the third larval stage and emerging to pupate within the cocoon of the moth in early spring. Wliile this resembles the mode of hibernation of the Tachinid parasite of Euchsetias in general it is worthy of separate mention as it offers an example of the change in the habits of a many-brooded species, whose life cycle is ordinarily quite short, whereby it adapts itself to the conditions found in a host hibernating in the pupal stage, and thus secures a more advantageous method of hibernation. It seems likely that many species of Tachinids hibernate in the adult stage. The abundance of many formes late in the autumn, many of them females almost fully mature sexually, seems to indicate it. We have, moreover, observed such mature females of one of the European parasites studied which attempted to hibernate and this when they might have deposited their eggs had they so desired. If such a habit is at all common, it is more than likely that the fertilized females alone survive the winter. In our researches we have always found that the life of the male is shorter than that of the female and that its ability to withstand adverse conditions is not so great. Although it is impossible to explain the variations in the hibernat- ing habit which we have indicated, the general reason for their exist- ence is very clear. They are evidently natural safeguards to prevent the extinction of the species in that they give it more opportunities 294 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 for passing successfully through, the most critical period in its life history, the period of hibernation. That such variation has not yet been found within the species which have but one generation annually is not especially strange. With such forms the host relations and the character of the life processes are fairly definite and restricted, and all of the individuals of the species usually develop to about the same stage by the beginning of winter, whereas in the many-brooded, polyphagous species, there are often at the beginning of the season of hibernation specimens in several stages which must get through the winter as best they can. This we imagine to be the cause of the curious and varied methods of hibernation which have developed in these forms. Conclusion. It is quite certain that only a small beginning has been made in the study of the interesting phases of the biology of Tachinid parasites which have been discussed in this short paper. It is hoped that the few data which we have thus far accumulated will be of some interest in themselves; They have in addition a certain practical value, for in the stu^y of any injurious insect a knowledge of its parasitic enemies is desirable. In the case of Tachinids this is sometimes difficult to obtain because failure to rear the parasite to maturity renders its specific determination impossible. This difficulty has been encountered here, more especially on account of a lack of knowledge of the habits of the Tachinids which hibernate in an ad- vanced nymphal stage, which must be provided with conditions as closely approximating the natural as can be devised. Since it is impossible to predict what the habits of a given species may be, all the forms which are met with must be allowed to pupate under the best possible conditions. The method which up to the present has given the most satisfactory results is as follows : Wire screen cylinders are constructed of brass or copper screen, having preferably not less than twenty meshes to the inch. These cylinders may be of varying sizes but it is well to make them not less than six inches in length. They are filled with soil obtained in shaded woodland, a core of earth of the same size as the cylinder being cut out and transferred with as little disarrangement as possible. We have found that with such soil better results are obtained than with loose loam because the innumer- able fine rootlets in the woodland soil prevent the maggot from descending very far before pupation. In loose loam, on the other hand, it may burrow down for a considerable distance before pupa- tion, and the settling of the soil above the puparium during the win- ter may make it difficult or impossible for the fly upon emerging to reach the surface. On this account, too, it is a good plan to pack Juue, '10] THOMPSON : TACHINID PUPATION 295 quite fii:mly the earth in the cylinders. They may then be fumigated Avith carbon bisulphide to kill any creatures which might attack the puparia of the Tachinids, and when they have been afterward thor- oughly aired, the Tachinid larvfe as they emerge from their hosts, may be placed in them and allowed to pupate as they wish. This may be facilitated by placing material suspected to contain Tachinids upon a piece of mosquito netting stretched above the earth in a cylinder in the manner already described earlier in this paper. The cylinder may then be sunk in the ground in .some cool, moist place, examined from time to time in the summer to secure the summer-issuing species and again the next spring for the hibernating forms. The essential thing is that the earth in which the maggots have pupated be kept moist during the winter in order to successfully rear the hibernating species. With' the forms w^hich hibernate within the body of the over- wintering host, the methods- which suffice to carry the latter to maturity will suffice for the parasites. It is only necessary to recog- nize that such hibernating hosts may contain Tachinid parasites whose habits and identitv it is well to determine. FOOD OF THE BOBWHITE By Margaret Morse Nice, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. INTRODUCTORY To become effective, conservation of our valuable bird life must be based on definite knowledge of the facts. To gather the facts re- quires patient study, and the present paper gives the results of more than two years research and presents the most complete and convin- cing statement that we have of the food of any bird. As these results become generally known, by sheer weight of values involved, they will put the bobwhite, properly appreciated and protected, in every farm and garden in the land. This paper forms a part of a more complete monograph on the Biology of the Bobwhite, which aims to discuss the species in all its complex relations to the life of the continent. Two general points, however, may be anticipated. First, former researches have demonstrated that the bobwhite feeds almost entirely on weed seeds and insects, and that it does no appre- ciable damage to agriculture. Some may ask for a more detailed analysis of the insect food and may question whether the bird may not take valuable insects to such an extent as to decrease somewhat 296 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 the account in its favor. To do our work we are at liberty to choose among the many forces of living nature those most effective, most easily controlled and most agreeable. On all these counts, for de- struction of weed seeds and insects, the bobwhite leaves nothing to be desired. A bird that takes so many injurious insects is welcome to the beneficial ones as well. Apparently, if we could have enough bobwhites, they would leave nothing for the beneficial insects to do. Second, the tendency at present, over a large portion of its nat- ural range is strongly toward extinction of the bobwhite. To reverse this tendency will require careful study of the problems involved and vigorous and concerted effort. It is generally recognized that ex- termination of natural enemies is the beginning of game protec- tion. For the bobwhite, cats go farther toward accounting for scar- city and extinction of the birds than sportsmen and all other nat- ural enemies combined. Crows, rats, skunks, weasels, minks and sev- eral of the hawks and owls, especially the three first, are enemies which must be controlled, if the species is to increase anywhere, or if the birds are even to hold their own; and no one should attempt to in- troduce stock for the purpose of colonization until the ground has been thoroughly gone over and all vermin exterminated. Although protected by cages, cats have repeatedly broken up nests by fright- ening off the brooding birds at night, and in one instance a cat dis- turbed a pair with a brood of fifteen chicks and all but three were dead next morning, chilled in the wet grass. One such occurrence shows that the damage a cat may do is only limited by the number of birds she is able to find. She might as easily have scared up a dozen broods in a night as one, and still, with cats ranging at will everywhere, we pretend to wonder why the bobwhite is so scarce. The paper is, further, an illustration of the possibilites of investigat- ing the food of a species by the feeding test method. The striking feature is the quantitative results, the day's works, but qualitatively also the fact that so many species could be added to the dietary of a bird already so carefully studied by the method of crop examina- tion suggests that the feeding test method may with profit be applied to many species of birds. The method is sure to yield in the near future much more complete results on the side of insects destroyed. In fact, many species of insects were eaten, as they were swept up in the nets, that were not definitely identified. The present paper is printed in the hope of educating the public and of furnishing support for the strong movement already afoot for the more adequate protection of the bobwhite. It would seem that all who read it must agree with the author 's conclusion : June, '10] >;it'E : FOOD OF BOBWHITE 397 "If we were wise enough as a people to protect and increase our weed-destroying and insectivorous birds, they should largely control these enemies of our crops. Bobwhites, if we only had enough of them, ought to save us more than half of our $17,000,000 weed damage and of our billion dollar insect tax." C. F. Hodge. The experiments have been carried on since September, 1907, in "Worcester, Mass., with birds that had been under domestication three and four generations. The original stock came from Kansas, Alabama and South Carolina. Eighteen birds of the third genera- tion were used, chiefly for weed tests ; some were hatched under hens, some in an incubator; all were raised in brooders. A special study was made in 1908 of one bob white of the next generation. Weed Seeds Dr. Sylvester Judd of the Bureau of Biological Survey has made a careful study of the food of the Bobwhite by analysis of stomach con- tents. In his bulletin "The Bobwhite and Other Quails of the United States in their Economic Relations" he says: "The bobwhite is preeminently a seed eater, 52.83 per cent of its food for the year consisting of seeds. The bulk of these are the seeds of plants belonging to the general category of weeds. The food of no other bird with which the writer is acquainted is so varied." (6) "The laboratory work to determine the different kinds of food and ' their proportions has included examination of crops and gizzards from 918 birds. This material was collected from 21 States, Canada, the District of Columbia, and Mexico, but chiefly from New York, Maryland, Virginia, Florida, Illinois, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- sas, and Texas. Stomachs were obtained each month of the year, but unfortunately few were collected in the breeding season. Laboratory' work included also feeding experiments with three pairs of captive bobwhites obtained from Kansas." (7) In my experiments the weeds or merely the seeds were put into the cages, to see whether the birds would eat them. By this means 61 weeds were added, making 129. Dr. Judd's contributions to the fol- lowing list are starred. WEED SEEDS EATEN BY BOBWHITE *Barbed panicum Panicum harhatum. ♦Barnyard grass, barn grass, cocks- foot, water grass Panicum crusgaUL ♦Bastard pennyroyal TricJiostema dichotomum. 298 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 *Beggarticks, bur marigold, pitch- forks, stick seed Bidens sp. *Bindweed, bear bind, English bind- weed, morning glory Convolvulus arveusls. *Black bindweed Polygonum convolvulus. Black mustard, brown mustard, groc- er's mustard .Brassica nigra. Blue vervain, simpler's joy Verbena hastata. Blue weed .Echium vulgare. Boneset, ague weed, fever weed, thor- oughwort Eupatorium perfoHatum. Bouncing Bet, hedge pink, soapwort. . . .Saponaria offlcinalis. Bracted plaiutain, western plamtam. . .Plant ago aristata. Bull thistle, bird thistle, boar thistle, pasture thistle Carduus lanceolatus. Burdock, beggar's buttons, gobo, great dock Artuun lappa. Butter and eggs, toadflax, devil's flax, snapdragon Linaria linaria. *Button weed, compass weed, poor weed • .Diodia teres. Canada thistle, creeping -thistle, cursed thistle Carduus arvensis. *Carpet weed, Indian chickweed Mollugo verticiUata. *Charlock, wild mustard, yellow mus- tard Raphanus raphanistrum. *Chickweed, common chickweed Alsine media. Chicory, savory Chicorium intybus. *Climbing false buckwheat, bindweed. . . .Polygonum scandens. Cinquefoil Potentilla canadensis. Common darnel LoUum temulentum. *Corn cockle, bastard nigella, cockle, rose campion Agrostemma githago. *Corn gromwell, field gromwell, red root, wheat thief Lithospermum arvense. *Crab grass, finger grass, Polish millet . .Panicum sanguinale. *Creeping bush clover Lespedeza repens. *Croton Croton sp. *Crownbeard Verbesina sp. *Curled dock, sour dock, yellow dock. . . .Rumex a'ispus. Dandelion Taraxicum taraxicum. Darnel Festuca elatior pratensis. Dodder Cuscuta gronovii. Evening primrose dJnothera biennis. ♦Everlasting Antennaria sp. False flax, gold of pleasure, Siberian oilseed, wild flax Camelina sativa. False nettle Bochmeria cylindrica. Fireweed Erechtites MeracifoUa. *Flowering spurge, showy spurge Euphorbia corollata. Fringed black bindweed Polygonum cilinode. June, '10] >;iCE : FOOD OF BOBWHITB 299 *Giant ragweed, hogweed, horseweed, tall ragweed Ambrosia irifida. *Greeu foxtail, green pigeon grass, bottle grass Chcctochlia viridis. *Gromwell Lithospermum offlcinale. *Hairy bush, clover Lespedeza hirta. Hedge mustard Sisymbrium officinale. *Hoary puccoon Lithospermum canescens. *Hoary vervain Yerheua stricfa. Horse nettle, bull nettle, radicle, sand briar Solanum caroUnense. Horseweed, butterweed, colt's tail, fleabane Erigeron canadense. Ironweed Vernonia noveboracensis. * Japan Clover Lespedeza striata. * Jewel weed, touch-me-not Impatiens sp. Joe-Pye weed, trumpet weed Eupatoriuni purpureum. *Knotweed, doorweed, goose grass Polygonum amculare. *Lamb's-quarters, goosefoot, pigweed . .C7(e/?opociri«H. album. *Lupine Lupinus sp. *Marsh elder, false ragweed, false sun- flower, high-water shrub Iva xanthifolia. Mayweed, dog fennel, stinking chamo- mile AntJiemis cotula. Meadowsweet Spinea salcifolia. *Milk purslane, spotted spurge Euphorbia maculata. Milkweed, silkweed, wild cotton Asclepias sijriaca. ♦Morning glory Ipomcea sp. Motherwort Leonurus cardiaca. Mouse-ear chickweed Cerastium vulgatum. Mullein, Aaron's rod, flannel plant, velvet dock Verbascum thapsus. ■^Nightshade, deadly or black-berried nightshade Solanum nigrum. Nonesuch, black medick, medicago Medicago lupuliua. *Nut grass, coco, coco sedge, nutsedge. ..Cyperus rotundus. *01d witch grass Panicum capillare. *Orange hawkw^eed, devil's paint brush, golden hawkweed Hieracium aurantiacum. Ox-eye daisy, bull's-eye, white daisy, white weed Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. *Partridge pea Chwmocrista fascicularis. ♦Pennsylvania persicaria Persicaria pennsylvanica. Pepper grass Lcpidium virginicum. ♦Persicaria, pale Persicaria lopathifolia. ♦Pigeon grass, pussy grass, summer or yellow foxtail Ch(rtochloa glauca. ♦Pigweed, redroot, rough amaranth Amaranthus rctroflexus. Plantain, white man's foot Plantago major. ♦Poison ivy, poison vine Rhus radicals. Pokeweed, garget, pigeon berry, s\io]ie .. Phytolacca decandra. 300 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Prickly lettuce, strong-scented lettuce . .Lac/ucw virosa. Purslane, garden purslane, pursley, • pusley Portulaca oleracea. Rabbit's-foot clover, stone clover TrifoUum arvense. *Ragweed, bitterweed, hogweed, Roman wormwood, richweed Ambrosia arteviiskefolki. *Ribgrass, black plantain, buck horn, deer tongue Plantago lanceolata. Rough avens Geum virginianum. Round-headed bush clover Lespedeza capitata. Round-leafed mallow, cheeses, mal- lard Malva rotund if olia. Russian pigweed Axyris amar ant aides. *Sedge Carex sp. ^Sensitive pea ChcBmocrista nictitans. *Sheathed rush grass Sporobolus vaginwflorus. Shepherd's purse, mother's heart, pickpurse, tooth wort Bursa bursa-pastoris. *Sida 8ida spinosa. *Skunk cabbage. .■ Spathyema foetida. 'Skunk tail grass Hordeum jubatum. *Slender finger grass Syntherisma filiformis. *Slender paspalum Paspalum, setaceum. *Slender spike grass Uniola laxa. *Smartweed Polygonum hydropiper. *Sorrel: field, horse, red or sheep sor- rel; sour weed Rumex acetosella. ♦Spreading panicum Panicum proliferum. Spurry Spergola arvensis. Steeplebush Spircea tomentosa. Sticktight, beggar's lice Lappula virginiana. Stinkweed, penny-cress, French weed . . Thlaspi arvense. St. John's wort Hyperium pei-foratum. *Sunflower Helianthus annuus. Sweet grass Hierochloe borealis. *Switch grass, tall smooth panicum Panicum virgatum. Tearthumb Polygonum sagittatum. *Texas croton Croton texensis. *Three-seeded mercury, copper-leaf Acalypha glacilens. *Tick-trefoil Meibomia grmidiflora. *Tick-trefoil Meibomia nudiflora. *Tref oil Lotus sp. *Tussock sedge Carex stricta. *"Vetch Ticia sp. Water hoarhound Lycopus americaiius. Water smartweed Polygonum acre. White vervain, nettle-leaved vervain. ..Verbena stricta. Wild carrot, bird's nest, lace weed. Queen Anne's lace Daucus carota. Wild oats Avena fatua. Wild rice Zizania aquatica. June, '10] ^'It'E : FOOD OF BOBWHITE 301 Witch grass Agropyron vepens. Yarrow, milfoil Achillea millefolium. Yellow daisy, brown-eyed Susan, cone flower Rudbeckia hirta. *Yellow sorrel Oxalis stricta. Feeding Habits Another experiment was an attempt to bring up a bob white in an entirely natural way so far as weeds were concerned. When he was a month old, he was taken into the garden or fields every few days, and watched to see what he would eat. He was given no weed seeds until after he had found and eaten them out-of-doors. He would experiment on many things that were not eatable, and if he had been out for half a day instead of less than an hour at a time, and if he had been taken to more places to find weeds, undoubtedly he would have eaten a greater variety. The following seeds were his special favorites : Barnyard grass. Chickweed. Pigeon grass. Ragweed. Yellow sorrel. He was also fond of Cinquefoil. Lamb's quarters. Peppergrass. Pigweed. Plantain. Rabbit's foot clover. Red sorrel. In regard to the number of seeds of certain weeds that a bobwhite will eat at a meal, Dr. Judd has several records of the amounts found in single crops. In a few cases I watched a bird eat all that he wanted counting while he ate. Chickweed 2,025 2,250 Russian pigv/eed 350 *Crab grass 1,000 *Smartweed 300 *Lamb's quarters 10,000 * Sorrel 550 *Pigeon grass 5,000 Stinkweed 105 *Pigweed 400 Sweet grass 200 *Ragweed 1,000 In order to find out how many seeds of one kind a bobwhite would eat in a day the following tests were made. A weighed amount of 302 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 clean weed seeds was put into a box, which was set inside a larger box, so that any seed scratched out would be caught and all that the birds did not eat, weighed. One gram of each kind of seed was counted. Two birds were used in each feeding test ; they had nothing but green food to eat besides the weed seeds. NUMBER OF SEEDS EATEX BY A BOBWHITE IX A DAY Barnyard grass 2,500 Milkweed 770 Beggar ticks 1,400 Peppergrass 2,400 Black mustard 2,500 Pigweed 12,000 Burdock 600 Plantain 12,500 Crab grass 2,000 Rabbit's foot clover 30,000 Curled dock 4,175 Round headed bush clover 1,800 Dodder 1,560 Smartweed 2,250 Evening primrose 10,000 White vervain 18,750 Lamb's quarters 15,000 Water smartweed 2,000 To quote again from Dr. Judd: **A careful computation of the total amount of weed seed the bob- white is capable of destroying is surprising in the magnitude of its result. In the State of Virginia it is safe to assume that from Sep- tember 1 to April 30, the season when the largest proportion of weed seed is consumed by birds, there are four bobwhites to the square mile, or 169,800 in the entire State. The crop of each of these birds will hold half an ounce of seed, and as at each of the two daily meals weed seed constitutes at least half the contents of the crop, or a quar- ter of an ounce, a half ounce daily is certainly consumed by each bird. On this very conservative basis the total consumption of weed seed by bobwhites from September 1 to April 30 in Virginia amounts to 573 tons." (8) The following tests were made in order to ascertain how much bobwhites eat each day. Four birds ate 60 grams of weed seeds in one day. Indoors, in November. Two birds ate 30 " " " " " " " " " " One bird ate 16.5 gi'ams of weed seeds and grain. Indoors, in December. One bird ate 17 " " " October. One bird ate 14 " One bird ate 20 " One bird ate 15 " " ' One bird ate 14 " " ' One bii'd ate 21 " " ' One bird ate 17 " One bird ate 14 " " ' One bird ate 12 " " ' One bird ate 17 " " June, '10] ' ^'ICE : FOOD OF BOBWHITE 303 One bird ate 17 grams of weed seeds and grain. Indoors, in October. One bird ate 12 One bird ate 13 " " " " " " " " " Twelve birds ate ISO grams of grain in one day. Outdoors, in February. Twelve birds ate ISO grams of weed seeds in one day. Outdoors, in February. Twelve birds ate ISO grams of grain in one day. Outdoors, in February. The average of these tests is 15 grams, a little more than half an ounce. Insects "The bob white eats insects in every month of the year. Moreover the large proportion of injurious insects habitually eaten renders the services of this bird more valuable than those of many birds whose percentage of insect food, though greater, includes a smaller pro- portion of injurious species. Conspicuous among the pests destroyed are the Colorado potato beetle, twelve-spotted cucumber beetle, bean leaf-beetle, squash ladybird, wireworms and their beetles, and May beetles. Its food also includes such weevils as com billbugs, imbri- cated snout beetle, clover leaf weevil, cotton boll weevil: also the striped garden caterpillar, army worm, cotton bollworm, and various species of cutworms; also the corn-louse ants, red-legged gTasshopper, Rocky Mountain locust, and chinch bug." (9) The most important insects added by my experiments are the squash bug, plant lice, the cabbage butterfly, cankerworms, codling moth, the Hessian fly, the mosquito, stable fly, and the typhoid fly. LIST OF INSECTS EATEX BY THE BOBWHITE. Thysauura Silver fish Lepisma sacchariua. Ephemerida *May flies Orthoptera *Cricket GrylUis sp. *Meadow grasshoppers Xiphidium, *Meadow grasshoppers Orchelimum. *Meadow grasshoppers Scudderia. *Katydid Microcentrum sp. *Walkiug sticks Phasmidw. *Grouse locust Tcttix sp. *Rocky Mountain locust Melanoplns spretus. *Red-legged grasshopper Melanopliis fewur-rubnim. *Grasshopper Mclanoplus bivittatus. *Grasshopper Melanoplus scudderi. ♦Grasshopper Melanoplus atlanis. *Bird grasshopper Scliistocerca americana. Hemiptera Heteroptera *Chinch bug Blissus leucoptencs. *False chinch bug Nysim angmtatus. 304 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 *Three-spott8tl soldier bu.ir Euschistus tristigmus. *Stink bug Euschistiis vuriolarius. *Stink bug Euschistus sp. *Bug PocUsus sp. *Bug Brochymena sp. *Bug Nezara hilaris. *Bug Mormidea lugens. *Bug Hymenarcis nervosa. *Bug Hymenarcifs (cgiialis. *Bug Thyunia custator. *Bug CEbalus pugmix. *Bug Tricliopepla semivittata. *Bug Cwnus del ins. *Bug Peribalits limbolariiis. *Taruisbed plant bug Lygiis pratcnsis. *Bug CorimelcBna sp. *Bug Apioixerus crassipes. *Bug Alydus euruius. *Bug Corizus sp. *Bug Euthocta aaleator. *ShieId-liacke(l bugs Scutelleridce. Squasb bug Aimsa tristis. Homoptera *Leaf hopper Oncometopia lateralis. *Leaf hopper Oncometopia sp. *Leaf hopper Deltocephalus sp. *Leaf hopper Diedrocephala sp. Plant lice ApMdidce. Tree hoppers Memhracidie. Lepidoptera *Army worm Heliophila uiiipuiicta. *Cutworm Agrotis sp. *Cutworm . . Feltia annexa. *Noctuid moth Noctuidw. *Cotton worm Alabama argillacea. *Cotton bollworm HcliotMs obsoleta. *Striped garden caterpillar Mamestra legitima. *Yellow bear caterpillar Diacrisia virginica. *Pyi'alid Tholeria reversalis. *Purslane sphinx DeilepMla gallii. *Southern tobacco worm Phlegethontius sexta. *Caterpillar Juiwnia cwnia. *Pupa Vanessa sp. Cabbage butterfly Pier is rapw. Canker worms Anisopteryx. Tent caterpillar Clisiocampa americana. Bee moth • • • Galleria melonella. Codling moth Carpocapsa pomonella. Clothes moth Tinea pellionella. Diptera *Crane fly Tipulidce. June, '10] ^■ICE : FOOD OF BOBWHITE 305 *Green fly Lucilia cwsar. ♦Robber fly Asilidw. Mosquito Culex. Mosquito A)iopheles. Hessian fly Mayetiola destructor. Typhoid fly Musca domestlca. Stable fly Stomoxys calcitrant. Coleoptera Carabidae *Ground beetle Scarites suhterraiieus. *Ground beetle Amara sp. *Ground beetle Casnoiiia peiinsylvauica. *Ground beetle Platynu.s extensicollis. *Ground beetle Agonoderus paUipes. *Ground beetle Harpalus pennsylvamcus. *Ground beetle Harpalus calif/nosus. *Ground beetle Anisodactylus rusticus. *Ground beetle Anisodactyliis haltimorensis. Chrysomelidse *Leaf beetle Cryptocephalus venustus. *Leaf beetle Colapsis brimnea. ♦■Leaf beetle Kodonota tristis. *Leaf beetle Chrysomela pulchra. ♦Leaf beetle Chri/somehi suturalis. ♦Leaf beetle (Edionychis fimhriata. ♦Leaf beetle Disonyclia o-vittata. ♦Leaf beetle Disonycha xanthomehena. ♦Leaf beetle Disonycha crenicollis. *Leaf beetle Psylliodes pimctiilata. ♦Leaf beetle Microrhopala vittata. ♦Three-lined potato beetle Lema trilineata. ♦Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa deccmlineata. ♦Bean leaf beetle Cerotoina. trifurcata. ♦Striped cucumber beetle Diabrotica v-ittata. ♦Twelve-spotted cucumber beetle. . . .Diabrotica 12-punctata. ♦Locust leaf-mining beetle Odontota dorsalis. ♦Golden tortoise beetle Copiocycla bicolor. Elm-leaf beetle Galerucella luteola. Scarabseidas ♦May beetle Lachnostema tristis. ♦Dung beetle Onthophagiis pennsylvanicus. ♦Dung beetle Aphodius inquinatus. ♦Leaf-chafer Diplotaxis sp. ♦May beetles Serica sp. ♦May beetles Anomala sp. ♦May beetles Aphonus sp. Rhynchophora ♦Imbricated snout beetle Epicwrus imhricatus. ♦Fuller's rose beetle Aramigus fulleri. ♦Clover weevil Sitones hispidulus. ♦Clover-leaf weevil Phytonomus punctatus. ♦Mexican cotton boll weevil Anfhonomus grandis. 4 306 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY - [Vol. 3 *Billbug Sjjlienophorus parvulus. *Coru billbug ^phenophonis zece. *Weevil Thecesternus Immeralis. *Weevil Tanymecus confertus. *Weevil Chalcodermiis coJIaris. *WeeviI Centrinus. sp. Elaterid* *Click beetle Drasteriiis elegans. *Click beetle Agriotes sp. *Cliek beetle .Melanotus communis. *Click beetle CorymMtes sp. Coccinellidae *Liady beetle Hlppodamia parenthesis. *Squash ladybird Epilachna borealis. *Lady beetle Coccinella sanguinea. *Liady beetle Adalia Mpimctata. Histeridse *Histei'id beetles TenebrionldEe *Darkliug beetle Blaptinus. Mealworms Tenebrio sp. Staphylinidse *Rove beetles Lampyridae * Soldier beetle Chauliognathus pennsylvanicns. Cerambycidae *Lougicoru beetle Tetraopes tetraophthalmns. DermestldEe Carpet beetle Anthrenus scroph ularice. Hymenoptera * Ants Lasius sp. *Ants Tetramorium cwspitum. *Ants Camponotus pennsylvanicns. *Gall flies Cynipidce. *Parasitic wasps Tiphia inornata. *Parasitic wasp Proctotrypes rufipes. Rose slug Monostegia rosw. Currant worm Pteronus ribesii. Other animal food *Spiders *Harvest spiders .Phalangidw. *Thousand leg Jiilus sp. Sow bug OniscidcB. *Snail Pupa annifera. *Poud snail Succinea avara. *Crayfish Camlmrus. *Toad The following are a few records of the numbers of insects eaten by bobwhites at single meals. *Grasshoppers : from 20 to 39. June, '10] MCE : FOOD OF BOBWHITE g07 *Chinch bugs: 100, in another case two tablespoonfuls in a cup. Squash bugs : 6, 11, 12. Aphids : 2,326 eaten by a week old chick : this was more than one meal, but was not all his insect food for that day. *Arniy worm: 12. *Cutworm : 12. Hessian fly flaxseeds : 20. Mosquitoes : 144 — a week old bird ; 568 — a nearly grown bird in three hours. In both these cases the supply gave out, while the birds were still eager for more. *Potato beetles : 75, 101. May beetle grubs : 7, 8. *Cotton boll weevil: 47. Sow bugs : 6. Miscellaneous insects : 1,400 in half a day — a laying hen the 23rd of June. Tests to ascertain how many insects of one kind a bobwhite might eat in an entire day gave the following results. The birds had plenty of weed seeds, grain and green food, except in two cases in which the fact is indicated. 5.000 aphids — chrysanthemum black fly. Adult bird in December. This is the only case in which the insects were not individually counted; one thousand were counted and the rest estimated. 1,350 flies. A laying hen in July. About one fifth were maggots, the. rest adults. 59 adult potato beetles. A laying hen ; test by Mazie Hodge. 1,286 rose slugs. A laying hen ; test by Mazie Hodge. 37 grasshoppers and 2,400 seeds of pigeon grass eaten apiece by two -six weeks old birds in October. 43 grasshoppers and 2,100 seeds of pigeon grass eaten apiece by two six weeks old birds in October. 20 grasshoppers and 3,000 seeds of pigeon grass eaten apiece by two six weeks old birds in October. 65 large crickets eaten apiece by two seven weeks old birds in Oc- tober. They had no weed seeds or gTain. 84 large and middle-sized grasshoppers eaten apiece by two seven weeks old birds in October. They had no weed seeds or grain. 700 insects — 300 of them grasshoppers. A laying hen in July. Their weight was 24 grams. 1,532 insects — 1,000 of them grasshoppers. A laying hen in July. Their weight was 24.6 grams. 308 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 Eight tests were made with an adult cock in October and Novem ber. 28 grasshoppers = llg. 14g. of grain. Total — 25g. 33 grasshoppers = 15g. 13g. of grain. Total — 28g. 48 grasshoppers = 19g. lOg. of grain. Total — 29g. 22 grasshoppers = 12g. 16g. of grain. Total — 28g. 25 grasshoppers = 12g. llg. of grain. Total — 23g. 23 grasshoppers = 12g. 8g. of grain. Total — 20g. 20 grasshoppers = 9g. 12g. of grain. Total — 21g. 25 gi-asshoppers = llg. lOg. of grain. Total — 21g. The average is: 28 grasshoppers — 12. 5g. 12g. of grain. Total — 24.5g. STUDY OF THE GROWTH AND FEEDING OF ONE BOBWHITE At hatching weighed 6 g. 5 days 8 7 Ate 2326 aphid s and 20 mealworms. 8 10.5 Ate 7 grams of nsects 9 12.5 g. Increase 2.5 10 13. .5 11 13.3 .3 Ate 330 insects. 12 14. .7 13 15. 1. Ate 514 insects 14 15.5 .5 225 insects = 8g. Ate h\i of his weight. *15 15. —.5 236 7 47!t •16 14.8 —.2 400 8 5458 *17 15.8 I. 200 8 505t 18 16.5 .7 351 8 485f 19 17.5 1. 411 6.6 385« 20 20. 2.5 354 10.1 50* 21 21.2 1.2 732 10 47* 22 22.5 1.3 287 10.4 46* 23 25.3 2.8 296 11 43* 24 26.2 .9 185 8 30* ■ 25 28.5 2.3 250 12 42* 26 30.5 2. 393 9.3 30* 27 32.6 2.1 529 10.2 31* 28 34.2 1.6 710 13.5 42* 35 43.5 36 46.5 3. 37 49.5 3. 102 11. + 15 g. of grain = 26 = hii 38 51. 1.5 112 11. + 12 g. of grain = 23 = 45* 39 53. 2. 134 12.5 + 12 g. of grain = 21.5 = 45!^ 44 67. 49 77. 54 91. 55 92. At 10 weeks 123. 11 139. 16. 12 153. 14. 13 156. 3. 14 164. 8. 15 166. 2. * The loss in weight is due to his having lice for three days. At hatching he weighed 6 g. ; in 9 days he had doubled in weight. In the next 2 weeks he had doubled again, and again at the end of an- other fortnight. It took him 3 more weeks then to weigh 96 g. ; in the June, '10] NICE : POOD OF BOBWHITE 309 last 8 weeks of his growth he gained 75 g. For the first 12 weeks his average gain per day was 1.75 g. The average daily gain each week was as follows: .5 g., .7 g., .8 g., 2.1 g., 1.6 g., 2.35 g., 2.4 g., 2.1 g., 2.1 g., 2.3 g., 2.3 g., 2 g. The next four weeks his growth was slow ; the average daily gain each week was: .43 g., 1.1 g., .3 g., .7 g. At 4 months he weighed 170 g. which is an average adult weight for him, although sometimes he has weighed from 12 to 19 grams more. In every case he was weighed before he had had anything to eat. He always had all he would eat in the tests, but doubtless would have eaten somewhat more in a wild state, for he would have exercised more than he did when kept in confinement. I regret that I did not make feeding tests in the first two weeks of his life, but I do not think he ever ate more than two-thirds of his weight at the most. For the first two or three days the chicks eat little, as the unabsorbed yolk nourishes them. Charles W. Nash in "The Birds of Toronto" says: "For the first two or three months of their lives young quail feed almost exclusively on insects, and each one will, while he is growing, consume nearly its own weight of them every day." (11) Edward Harris states in ' ' The Quail the Best Insect and Weed Ex- terminator Must be Better Protected" that: ' ' A young quail will consume its own weight in insects every day. ' ' (4) " My results do not agree with this. A bobwhite does not have to eat so much nor grow so fast as those birds that are helpless until they nearly reach adult size. As a result of these tests I have made an estimate of the amount eaten by a bobwhite in a year. First 2 weeks, 72 g.=10,245 insects. The 8th day he ate 7 g. Count- ing nothing for two days, we might assume he ate as follows : 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7. 7, 7, 7, 7,=72. In four of these days he ate 3,415 insects. At the same rate in twelve he would have eaten 10,245. 3rd and 4th weeks, 132 g.=5,334 insects. Actual tests. 5th week, 88g.=3,520 insects. His average weight for this week was 38.8. A third of that multiplied by 7 should give an estimate of the amount eaten. With 40 insects to the gram, as was the case in the two weeks before, the result is 3,520. 6th week, 81 g.=812 insects+91 g. grain. In 3 days he ate 34.5 g. =348 insects and 39 g. of grain. The week is calculated at the same rate. Totals: 373 g.=10,911 insects+91 g. grain. In December, January, February, March, April and half of Novem- ber the estimate is that found by 56 tests — 15 g. of weed seeds a day. 810 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY ESTIMATE OF THE AMOUNT EATEN IN A YEAR [Vol. 3 By an adult ben Insects Weeds By an adult cock Weeds. January — February.- • March April May June July ........ August September. October November.. December.. 90 g. 372 600 620 620 450 372 186 3310 g. 465 g. 420 465 450 372 300 310 310 300 372 411 465 90 g. 372 372 372 372 372 372 186 4640 g. 2508 g. 465 g. 420 465 450 372 372 372 372 372 372 411 465 4908 g. For the cock in May, June, July, August, September, October and half of November, and for the hen in May, October and half of No- vember the estimate is that found by 8 tests in October and November — 12 g. of each. In June, July and August when the hen is laying, 20 g. of insects seems a safe average. In 2 tests in July a hen ate 24 g. and 24.6 g. respectively. For a young bird, if we substitute the figures for his first six weeks for six weeks of July and August in the adult cock's estimate, the result, is 2,377 g. of insects and 4,495 g. of weed seeds. ','"An averag.e of 45 tests gave 22.5 insects to a gram. The highest is 60 in July, the lowest 2 in November. This average is too low for the smallest insects that the birds eat, such as plant lice, were not weighed ; besides for the tests large insects were often caught in pref- erence to smaller ones for convenience sake. One gram of 23 different kinds of seeds were counted ; the average was 1,096. Barnyafd grass, 1,250 Evening's primrose. 2,000 Beggar's ticks, 200 Lamb's quarters, 1,000 Black bindweed, 300 Milkweed, 110 Black mustard. 500 Pepper grass, 3,000 Burdock, 100 Pigeon grass. 500 Crab grass. 500 Pigweed, 3,000 Curled dock,. 835 Plantain, 2,500 Fringed black bindweed 250 Rabbit's foot clover. 2,000 Dodder, 780 Ragweed, 500 3, '10] NICE : FOOD OF BOBWHITE 311 Round headed bush clover, 300 White vervain. 2,500 Smartweed, 900 Water smartweed. 200 Sorrel, 2,000 Thus a bobwhite cock might eat on an average in one year 56,430 insects and 5,379,168 weed seeds; a hen 74,475 insects and 5,063,520 weed seeds and a young bird 65,001 insects and 4,926,520 weed seeds. Estimates of the Annual Loss Due to Weeds and Insects. It is impossible to make calculations as to how much a bobwhite 's eating of these thousands of insects and millions of weed seeds is worth to us in dollars and cents. I quote, however, a few estimates of the annual losses due to weeds and insects, so that we may get more of an idea of the importance of the problem. ' ' Since the total value of our principal field crops for the year 1893 was $1,760,489,273, an increase of only 1%, which might easily have been brought about through the destruction of weeds, would have meant a saving to the farmers of the nation of about $17,000,000 during that year alone." (1) "The simple cost of weed removal along the railways of the State of Ohio is placed by Stair at over half a million dollars per annum." (13) "The weeds found in cornfields annually cost the farmer of Iowa many thousands of dollars." (12) "Minnesota pro- duces annually about 200,000,000 bushels of small grain. A dockage of one pound per bushel (due to weeds) means a loss of 200,000,000 pounds. Had the land been free of weeds the same amount of plant food, moisture and labor would have produced over 3,000,000 bushels of wheat or the equivalent in other grains. This makes an annual loss due to weeds of about $2,500,000 or an annual rental of about 30 cents an acre on every acre on wliich small grain is grown. Added to this great loss we must include cost of fighting weeds, loss of fertility and moisture, strain on machinery, extra cost of twine to tie up the weeds, freight charges for shipping weeds, etc." (14) In Ontario the "Bureau of Industries for the Province in 1898 sent out a few questions about weeds to its regular correspondents, and others, chiefly those who had done satisfactory experimental work in con- nection with the Experimental Union. "A large number of answers were received. ... A number estimate their loss at 25c per acre, and quite a few place it as high as $5 per acre; so consider- ing the whole list and counting labor, with the loss of soil moisture, fertility, etc., we think that $1 per acre is a conservative estimate of the annual loss throughout the Province." (5) C L. Marlatt in "The Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive In- sects in the United States" estimates the yearly tax chargeable to in- 312 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 sects in this country as $795,100,000. (10) "The common schools of the country- cost in 1902 the sum of $235,000,000, and all higher in- stitutions of learning cost less than $50,000,000, making the total cost of education in the United States considerably less than the farmers lost from insect ravages. . . . Furthermore, the yearly losses from insect ravages aggregate nearly twice as much as it costs to maintain our army and navy ; more than twice the loss by fire ; twice the capital invested in manufacturing agricultural implements; and nearly three times the estimated value of the products of all the fruit orchards, vineyards, and the small fruit farms in the country." (3) Prof. H. T. Fernald, Massachusetts State Entomologist, says: "Esti- mates of the annual loss by insects calculated at 18% are now con- sidered as about correct, and this loss on the basis of the United States government crop estimates for 1906 would be considerably over a billion dollars each year." (2) If we were wise enough as a people to protect and increase our weed destroying insectivorous birds, thej^ should largely control these enemies of our crops. Bobwhites, if we only had enough of them, ought to save us more than half of our $17,000,000 weed damage, and of our billion dollar insect tax. Summary The bobwhite is known to eat 129 different kinds of weed seeds. A single bird was found to eat as many as 12,000, 18,000 and 30,000 seeds of one kind of weed in a day. They eat 15 grams, or half an ounce, of weed seed daily through- out the winter. The known list of insects eaten — 135 — includes many of the most injurious species. A single bird ate at one meal 568 mosquitoes; another during a day ate 1,350 flies; a third ate 5,000 plant lice, while still another record is 1,532 insects, 1,000 of which were grasshoppers. Bobwhites eat from 12 to 24 grams of insects daily in the summer. In a study of the growth and feeding of one bobwhite, it was found that in his third week he ate half of his weight of insects, in his fourth week one third. In the sixth the addition of grain brought it up to one half again. When adult they eat from one twelfth to one sixth of their weight. An estimate of the average amount eaten by a bobwhite in a year is 2,732 grams, or about 5 pounds, of insects, and 4,681 grams, or about 934 pounds, of weed seeds, which are equivalent to 65,302 insects and 5,123,076 weed seeds. June, '10] NICE : FOOD OF BOBWHITE 313 I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. C. F. Hodge of Clark University, under whose direction this work was done, for help and suggestions; to Mr. Arthur Merrill of the Massachusetts State Hatcher^' at Sutton, for assistance in rearing the birds; to Dr. F. M. Webster of the United States Bureau of Entomology, for supplying me with various insects; and to Mr. A. D. Selby of the Ohio Agricul- tural Experiment Station, and Mr. Geo. H. Clark, Seed Commis- sioner of the Department of Agriculture, Canada, for sending me weed seeds. Bibliography The numbers iu the text refer to the numbered references below. 1. Coville, Frederick V. Letter of transmittal, Bui. No. 17. Legislation against weeds. Div. of Botany. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1896. p. 3. 60 p. 2. Fernald, H. T. Future of Economic Entomology. Popular Science Monthly. Feb. 1908. 3. Folsom, Justus W. Entomology with special reference to its Biological and Economic Aspects. Quoted from Slingerland. 1906. Philadelphia, p. Blakiston's Son & Co. p. 394. 485 p. 4. Harris, Edward. The Quail. The Best Insect and Weed Exterminator Must be Better Protected. Wm. Briggs, Publisher. Toronto, Ontario. 1905. p. 4. 11 p. 5. Harrison, E. C. The Weeds of Ontario. Ontario Agricultural College. Dept. of Agriculture, Toronto. 1909. pp. 8-9. 80 p. 6. Judd, Sylvester D. The Bobwhite and other Quails of the United States in their Economic Relations. Bui. No. 21. Bureau of Biological Sur- vey, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1905. p. 31. 66 p. 7. The same as 6. p. 27. 8. Judd, Sylvester D. The Economic Value of the Bobwhite. Reprint from the Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1903. pp. 195-196. 11 p. 9. The same as 6. pp. 37-38. 10. Marlatt, C. L. Annual Loss Occasioned by Destructive Insects in the United States. Bureau of Entomology. Reprint from Yearbook of Dept. of Agr. for 1904. p. 464. 13 p. 11. Nash, Charles W. The Birds of Ontario in their relation to Agricul- ture. Bui. 173. Ontario Dept. of Agr. Toronto. 1909. 4th ed. p. 91. 95 p. 12. Pammel, L. H. Some Weeds of Iowa. Bui. 70. Exp. Sta. Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 1903. p. 300. 233 p. 13. Selby, A. D. A Second Ohio Weed Manual. Bui. 175. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Wooster, Ohio. 1906. p. 293. 384 p. 14. Wilson, A. D. Some Common Weeds and their Eradication. Bui. 95. Univ. of Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta., St. Anthony Park, Minn. 1907. p. 195. 43 p. 314 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY • [Vol. 3 A UNIQUE INSECT CATCHING MACHINE By F. C. BisHOPP, U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, Dallas, Texas^ The following article is published not because the observations are thought to have any particular value or that the machine described can be utilized practically in the control of the bollworm, but to call attention to a rather unusual digression in mechanical insect destroy- ing devices and with the hope that the idea involved may be sugges- tive to workers in other entomological fields. The machine illustrated herewith is the result of the ingenuity of a progressive Ellis County (Texas) farmer in his efforts to discover a method of controlling the bollworm {Heliothis obsoleta Fabr.) on cotton. Unlike most of the machines devised for use against the boll- worm this one is designed to capture the adult moths instead of the larvffi. While lights are employed to concentrate and destroy the moths, the success of the apparatus is not dependent upon the normal attraction of the moths to light. The machine was evolved by Mr. T. A. Sissom, who is the inventor, from an observation made by him upon the habits of flight of the moths when disturbed at night. The writer has also observed that the majority of the moths when startled at night fly directly upward for several feet, apparently in an effort to avoid striking the cotton plants or other objects. The machine consists of a framework mounted on four wheels. The frame is 36 feet wide in front, 18 feet wide at the back and 28 feet from the front to the back. This frame, except at the back, is covered with domestic, which can easily be put on or removed. The back is screened in. The machine is pulled by a pair of horses or mules which are hitched between the fore and hind wheels under the canvas, the driver and operator sitting immediately behind the team. The guid- ing is done by simply rotating a wheel which controls the angle of the front axle. The front part of the canvas extends down quite close to the cotton but not low enough to strike the plants and thus disturb the moths. Agitators in the form of sacks containing some heavy object, are attached to the frame a few feet back from the front edge of the canvas. These disturb the moths which fly up, strike the canvas and gradually drift toward the three lights at the back of the machine, as the apparatus moves forward. The back part of the machine has a floor high enough to pass over the cotton. This prevents the down- ^ Published by permission of the chief of the Bureau of Entomology. Plate 20 , ...r; ^-t^j , S. . ,-v>.-^-.^-. -<.■■:. y*'> ^■'^ •3--;^y^ '■^^'' ■' '■ '^'■■■-■m^li 4» r^i r ''^^ -'^-Wi %Pf ^ Insect Catching Machine : a. Front view of machine with cloth covering removed ; h. Rear view of machine ready for operation ; the seat on top may be occupied by a pilot if so desired. June, '10] BISHOPP: INSECT CATCHING MACHINE 315 ward escape of the moths when they reach the back of the machine. The upper one of the three lights, each of which has a reflector to throw the light ahead, is situated at the extreme back end of a tapering inverted trough made of screen. Just in front of this light is a large torch the flame of which scorches the insects as they pass backward over it to the stronger light behind. The bottom of the torch container is removed occasionally and the moths emptied into a bag and treated with kerosene to kill those not already dead. On account of the free flight of the bollworm moths it is difficult to arrange a satisfactory practical test of such a machine on a lim- ited area. During three successive nights in July a 40-acre field of cotton was gone over and 1,440, 2,000 and 860 moths were captured on the respective nights. An examination of the catch made in 31/2 hours during the night of July 27th showed the following insects to have been captured: Heliothis obsoleta Fabr. 688 (409 females and 279 males), Loxostege siniilalis Guen. 157, Calycopis cecrops Fabr. 1, miscellaneous Lepidoptera 72 (including several injurious forms), Chrysopa sp. 1,906, Myrmeleonids 11, Tachinids 16, Syrphids 6, Tab- anids 12, Sarcophagids 150, miscellaneous Diptera (small) several hundred, Calacorus rapidus Say 762, Tettigonids and Jassids .(mostly Diedrocephala coccinea Forst.) 68, Podisus 'maculivent7-is Say 2, Diahrotica 12-punctata Fabr. 14, Elaterid 1, Bruchids 2. It was found that many of the bollworm moths captured were newly emerged or gravid females, while with an ordinary trap light only males and exhausted females are usually caught. It will be noted that a good many beneficial insects were captured notably 1,906 adult Chrysopas. I believe that the majority of these as well as other beneficial forms could be allowed to escape by putting in larger meshed wire at the back end of the machine. This would of course allow the escape of the smaller injurious insects as well. Despite the large size of the apparatus it is manipulated with great ease except when the wind is blowing. A strong wind renders opera- tion impossible. From 60 to 70 acres may be gone over in one night. Mr. Sissom informed me that the cost of constructing one of these machines is about $80. As has been suggested it has not been demonstrated that this ma- chine can be utilized practically in the control of the bollworm, but there is little doubt that some injure' may be prevented where it is conscientiously used. 816 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 NOTES ON RHYNCHITES BICOLOR, FABR. By Edgau L. Dickeusox, Xeir BniiisiricJc. X. ./. In this Journal for December, 1909, page 467, Dr. B. N. Gates gives some notes on the abundance of Rliynchites hicolor in Massachusetts during the past season. The insect is recorded as common in New Jersey, throughout the state, but in our experience it is somewhat local in its distribution, being very abundant at some points and quite scarce at others. In some of the nurseries where we have had an opportunity of observing roses, in the course of inspection work, we have found little evidence of the insect. At New Brunswick, however, it occurs each year so abundantly on the Eosa nigosa hedge on the College Campus that there is scarcely a seed capsule which does not show one or more of its punctures. No effort has been made to breed the insect but certain observations have been recorded which it seems advisable to publish at this time. As noted in other localities, the insect makes its appearance in May and continues through June and July and is observed first feeding in the buds or opened blossoms. In feeding in the buds the insect inserts its beak through the still closed petals, causing the punctures which becomes so conspicuous when the blossoms open. Rarely, feeding occurs in the tender tips of the shoots where as many as a dozen closely placed punctures have been observed in a single tip. Verj- few of these tips were found although their wilted appearance made them rather conspicuous. That they were caused by feeding seems quite evident from the fact that no eggs were found in the punctures although a careful search was made for them. While I have no record of the beginning of oviposition, it continued for some time and in late June the beetles were noted both feeding in the open flowers and in copulation, and oviposition was in progress. The latter operation was observed on more than one occasion and noted to proceed in the following manner: The work of making the puncture was continued until the full length of the beak — as far as the eyes — was inserted and the final part appeared to be the smoothing down of the sides of the puncture and enlarging the bottom ; the whole operation taking somewhat over a quarter of an hour. In working the beetle spread its legs as if to brace itself and the antenna? were extended backward close together against the upper surface of the head. Having completed the punc- ture, the insect turned about, rested its anal extremity in the cavity, and remained there for about half a minute while it oviposited. Then turning about again it spent slightly more than half a minute in June, '10] DICKERSOX : RHYXCHITES BICOLOR, FABR. 317 apparently pushing- the egg down into the bottom of the cavity and covering the opening. In this operation the value of the ball and socket like connection of the head with the thorax was evidenced, for without changing its position the insect was able to move its head around from side to side. Whether the covering of the puncture is a secretion of the plant caused by the injury or in part is some secre- tion of the weevil is not quite evident. At any rate it forms a dis- tinct covering, light in color at first and gradually darkening. An examination of the seed capsule shows that the punctures extend through the outer covering and sometimes into the bases of the seeds, resting within it and measure 2 mm. in depth. The egg is oval in outline, measuring .9 mm. in length by .65-.70 mm. in width, and is light in color with a yellowish tinge given it by the contents. It rests in the bottom of the puncture with the longest diameter parallel with the direction of the cavity. Punctures were found in the seed capsules of the blossoms as well as those from which the petals had fallen and as many as 8 were noted in a single one. On several instances two punctures were observed so close together that they extended into each other at their bases and in all such cases only a single egg was found, so that it appeared as if the first egg had been destroyed by the weevil, in the operation of making the second puncture. Hatching of the eggs began the first of July and by the middle of the month most of them had hatched. No unhatched eggs were found on July 22 when a number of punctured seed capsules were examined, although a verj^ few young larvae were found as late as early Septem- ber. The larvffi became weU developed by August and soon after the middle of that month many full grown ones were found. By early September most of the larvie had left the seed capsules, which in many cases had become hard and diT- THE EFFECTS OF FUMIGATION WITH HYDROCYANIC GAS ON THE HUMAN SYSTEM By W. W. YoTHERs, Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Department of Ac;riculture Owing to the extremely poisonous nature of hydrocyanic gas, the literature on this subject contains many cautions in regard to its use. While I believe these are on the whole justifiable, they make the uninitiated unduly afraid of the dangers. I doubt if there has ever been a single death from fumigating — at least from fumigating orange trees. The experience of the workers on the White Fly Investigations of the Bureau of Entomology in Florida shows that only rarely 318 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 does the gas cause sickness. In the entire three seasons' work this occurred only five or six times. In the winter of 1907-1908 in fumigating over three thousand trees eight hundred of which were large seedlings, two men quit work be- cause the gas made them sick. These men operated the pulley ropes which lifted the edge of the tent from the ground and raised it to the top of the derrick. Just as soon as the edge of the tent is raised the gas comes out and the men who operate the pullej' ropes being nearest the opening get more of the gas than the other men. The trees were very large, requiring from four to six pounds of cyanide. No note was made as to whether or not the night was calm or on the con- dition of the tents as to dampness which largely determines the leakage of gas during exposure. Only one instance happened in the season of 1908-1909 in fumigat- ing about a thousand trees. The night of January 11, 1909, was so far as one could determine absolutely calm. The trees were fairly large, requiring from two to four pounds of cyanide. We changed the tents every 40 minutes. The tents being somewhat damp were very tight so that little gas leaked out during the period of exposure. Five men became sick on this night. One of these emptied the residue from the crocks and held his head over the residue as it was being poured out so that he breathed the escaping gas. This, of course, was entirely unnecessary. The other four operated the pulley ropes as did the men who became sick in the tests of 1907-1908. Two be- came sick and were relieved by two others who also soon were affected. On this night I relieved one of the men operating the pulley ropes. In a short time my heart beat much faster than the work seemed to justify, then dizziness overcame me and I stretched out under an orange tree. In about 5 minutes it became necessary to go to stool. After this a nauseating feeling remained for some time followed by chills and trembling of the muscles and almost total loss of muscular strength. A vicious headache terminated these symptoms. These symptoms were in the main common to all the affected persons. In one or two instances vomiting occurred. In October, 1909, we, were fumigating some trees about ten feet in height, using a 25 per cent increase over the dosage given in Bulletin 76 of the Bureau of Entomology and moving the tents every 25 min- utes. The shortness of the exposure gave little time for the gas to leak out and also the tents were much tighter than those used on former occasions. There was no breeze. During the first night no one became sick although the gas was very strong. However, dur- ing the second night all of us got sick. One man fell over and the June, '10] YOTIIERS : HYDROCYANIC GAS EFFECTS 319 rest of us were compelled to postpone the work for a few minutes. Our hearts thumped against our breast bones and one fellow vomited. All of us were well on the following morning and felt as if nothing had happened. On this night we did not realize the importance of hurrying away from the tent as soon as it was raised with the poles. It was unnecessary this time and could have been easily avoided. The only object of writing these experiences is to enable one to tell when they are getting too much gas. If the heart beats very rapidly it is time to get away for a while. A small amount of gas is not un- comfortable to a fumigator and is seldom noticed at all. Sometimes a prolonged exposure to a small amount of gas- causes coughing which is nothing serious. If tents are left on the trees the proper length of time and those men nearest the tent when first raised take proper precautions, there is little or no danger and the poisonous fumes do not interfere with the process at all. Scientific Notes Simulium and Pellagra. — We learn from the Loudon Times through a recent issue of Science, that Dr. Sambon has proved that maize is not the cause of Pellagra, the blood thirsty Simulium reptaus being responsible for the dissemination of this infection. It is hardly necessary to remind our readers that only a few years ago the important part played by Diptera in the dissemination of human diseases was practically unknown. The order must now be considered as one of the most important from an economic standpoint, especially because of the part flies play in the spread of disease. Oyster Shell Scale {Lepidosaplies ulml Linn.). — The paper on this insect by Mr. Cooley, was very interesting. We have entirely cleaned badly infested trees by spraying with a lime-sulfur wash and then failed on adjacent trees, no matter how carefully the application was made, though we usually suc- ceeded in reducing the numbers of the pest. The experience of the last six years convinces us that the late spring application is by far the more effective. One season we treated about half an acre of large, imported lilacs which were nearly dead because of injury by the oyster shell scale. A very thorough application was given when the lilacs were in bloom, and an examination in the fall showed that 90% of the shrubs were free, the remainder having a few scales on one or two shoots only. An application of kerosene emulsion to 67 infested poplar trees resulted in practically cleaning the trees, as shown by an examination the following winter. c. R. Neillie, Cleveland, Ohio. Larch Sawfly, a Correction. — I find that in the short paragraph of my paper on the Larch Sawfly (page 149) that the stenographic report is not quite what I said and is likely to mislead. I did not say that no males were present, but that larvse were reared from females, no males being present ; and that, in a total of several thousand specimens .3 per cent, were males and the rest females. C. Gordon Hewitt. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY OFFICIAL ORGAN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS JUNE, 1910 The editors will thankfully receive news items and other matter likely to be of in- terest to subscribers. Papers will be published, so far as possible, in the order of re- ception. All extended contributions, at least, should be in the hands of the editor the first of the month preceding publication. Reprints may be obtained at cost. Con- tributors are requested to supply electrotypes for the larger illustrations so far as pos- sible. The receipt of all papers will be acknowledged.— Eds. We include in this issue, a paper extending somewhat beyond the scope of the Journal, yet nevertheless of great interest to economic entomologists, since it gives in compact form, many very serviceable facts about an extremely valuable bird. The data upon its vegetarian food is so closely interrelated with its animal diet that it seemed inadvisable to attempt to separate the two. We are confident that many entomologists will find it very convenient to have this data accessible. The passage of the Insecticide Act of 1910 marks an important and most timely advance in the right direction. Heretofore almost any compound containing arsenate of lead might be sold under that name. After January 1st next, all preparations of this recently developed and extremely valuable insecticide falling below a specified standard, are debarred from interstate commerce. The recent great advance in work with insecticides, accompanied by enormous increases in the demand for materials, has resulted in a number of manufacturers entering this field. AVe are convinced that the majority are content to place upon the market excellent preparations at moderate prices. Occasionally there is a rogue who preys more or less directly upon the reputation of others. For example, one brand of arsenate of lead sold in the local market under a trade name for twenty-five cents a pound contains only four to five per cent, of arsenic oxide, while another brand containing fourteen to fifteen per cent, arsenic oxide, sells for fifteen cents a pound. Many a man fails to discriminate between the two and accepts the dealers "just as good" at face value, apparently forgetting that there may be a large profit in pushing the lower grade goods. This substandard material, with the above mentioned national law in force, will soon be driven from the market or confined to a very limited field. Aside from the possibilities of fraud mentioned above, there is a great gain in establishing standards for recognized compounds. It prevents confusion and lessens the danger of unsatisfactory' results following spraying operations. Juue, '10] REVIEWS 321 Reviews The Hibernation of the Boll Weevil in Central Louisiana, by WiLMON Newell and M. S. Dougherty, Louisiana Crop Pest Com- mission, Circ. 31, p. 163-219, 1909. In 1905 and '06 the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission carried on extensive experiments on the hlht'rnation of the boll weevil at Keachie, La., in coopera- tion with the Burean of Entomology, which have been partially reported by Hinds and Yothers (Bull. 77 Bur. Entomology). Further experiments were felt to be necessary and these were arranged at Mansura, near the center of Louisiana in the fall of 1908. The authors are entirely warranted in their statements that "The results of these experiments from the standpoint of the Louisiana planter at least, are of far more practical importance than those of any like experiment previously made." The object was to determine what percentage of weevils survive the winter, and at what rate they left their winter quarters in the spring. A series of large wire screen cages 8 x 8 X 6 ft. high were constructed in which were placed materials in which the weevils commonly hibernate. From 1000 to 1200 weevils were placed in each cage. A series of cages was installeil to determine the effect of starva- tion in the fall by enforced hibernation. The weevils were placed in the first cage September 28 and a similar cage was started each week until December 21. A comparison was also made of a cage under normal conditions and one located in a swamp in a light growth of timl)er. In another cage a large tree-limb bearing Spanish moss was placed to determine its value as a hiber- nating quarter. It has been previously stated that the weevils seek hibernating quarters when a mean daily temperature falls to 60° F., but the authors' observations show that the weevils were not inclined to enter hibernation till December 8, altho the mean temperature for ten days preceding was 43°. The writers believe that some of the weevils seen on the sides of the cages remained there thruout the entire winter. In the five cages first started the greatest death rate occurred during the warm weather prior to the date of hibernation. Commencing on February 15, daily observations were made to determine the number of weevils leaving hibernation and these were tabulated in detail. In general, it may be said that the tabulation of the data and results of these in- vestigations is most admirable and leaves nothing to be desired on the part of the student who wishes to give them detailed study. In the 16 cages there were 10,281 weevils, 3,300 of which or 20.63 per cent survived the winter. As a result of a comparison of the percentage sur- viving in the cages in which the weevils were confined at different dates in the fall, it is shown that where cotton plants were destroyed before October 15, only 3 per cent survived; where it was destroyed between October 15 and 27, 15 per cent survived; from November 1 to 25, 22 per cent survived; from November 30 to December 7, 28 per cent survived, and if the destruction of the plants were postponed till after the middle of December, over 43 per cent survived. It was found that in the average winter quarters 20 per cent of the weevils survive, but where Spanish moss was furnished, 27.96 per cent emerged from hibernation. A comparison of the cages placed in a swamp 5 322 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 and ill normal conditions showed jinu-tically no difference in the mortality resulting. The earliest weevil emerged on February 21; the last one on June 29, the period of emergence covering 129 days. The earlier the weevils were confined in the fall, the earlier the majority of them emerged in the spring. This shows very clearly the value of early destruction of the stalks in the fall in connection with poisoning with dry arsenate of lead as they are poisoned much more easily in the spring. It is shown that weevils hibernating in moss emerge much later than under natural conditions, 50 per cent emerg- ing over a month later. The same is true of weevils hibernating in swamps and it is shown that "the weevils hibernate in cool and shaded locations do not leave hibernation till the summer heat has risen sufficiently for these places to be warm to the temperature reached in the fields one to three weeks earlier." The average time the weevils lived in hibernation without food was 150.7 days. The weevil which lived the longest without food was placed in a cage September 28 and emerged June 9, 255 days later. A detailed study of the relation of the time of emergence from hibernation to the time when the weevils were deprived of food in the fall, shows that when all cotton plants are destroyed by October 1st the average weevil must live 183 days without food before emerging from hibernation, but when the plants are left until De- cember 21 the average weevil has but 94 days to remain without food before leaving winter quarters. The average length of life of the weevils after leav- ing hibernation was 10.7 days, the longest lived individual living 144 days. The life of the weevils becomes shorter after leaving hibernation as the weather becomes hotter. The weather conditions during the winter in which these investigations were made are considered in detail and the authors conclude that "We might therefore be justified in supposing that the normal .winter would be survived by a slightly smaller percentage of the weevils, though an average difference of 3.1° in temperature could hardly be expected to materially In- crease the winter mortality among the insects," and "In the average season the weevils would emerge from hibernation somewhat more quickly during May than they did in this experiment. The winter was an exceptionally dry one tho not far from normal so far as the temperature was concerned." They conclude that the number of weevils living thru the winter of the ex- periment was above the average, but that the rate of emergence from hiberna- tion was normal. E. D. Sanderson. Lead Arsenate, by J. K. Haywood and C. C. McDonnell, U. S. Dep't. Agric, Bur. of Chem., Bill. 131, p. 1-50, 1910. This interesting bulletin is in three parts. The first is on the results of a chemical examination of the composition of lead arsenates found on the market. Analyses of fifty different samples produced by fourteen different firms are given. That the names of these firms are not given is to be regretted, though the reasons for this are obvious, for anyone planning to buy arsenate of lead would probably avoid purchasing of manufacturer J. of the list, for example, if he could learn for whom J. stands. On the whole, the analyses show a considerable variation in the amount of arsenic present and too much of it is in a soluble form, in many cases. June, '10] REVIEWS 323 As a consequence, spraying with some brands might prove inefficient, simply because of the small amount of poison present, or might cause injury to the foliage because of an excessive amount of soluble arsenic. It is notice- able that there is a great difference in the amounts of arsenic and lead j>resent in the different samples analyzed. This should make a great differ- eiu-e in the preparation of the material for application to the trees. In one case noteil, the material which is evidently in the form of a dry powder, contains more than twice as much arsenic as in another sample which is in the form of a paste and contains over sixty per cent, of water. To prepare, such widely differing samples by the same fornnila for spraying would he liable to lead to most divergent results. The second section of the bulletin treats of "home-made" lead arsenate and the chemicals entering into its manufacture. Analyses of samples of lead acetate, lead nitrate and sodium arsenate gave, for the most part, quite satisfactory results, the latter showing the greatest variations in composition. Attention is called to the point that when sodium arsenate having an unusually high per cent of arsenic is used, it is possible that ordinary formulas would fiiil to provide lead enough to combine with all of this, thus leaving a soluble salt of arsenic in excess in the spray to endanger the foliage. Comparison of numerous published fornuilas shows considerable variation in the amounts of the different substances to be taken, leading in some cases at least, to the addition of materials which will be in excess of the amounts needed. To avoid this, directions for preparing lead arsenate both with lead acetate and with lead nitrate are given, for the different usual grades of sodium arsenate. It is not probable, however, that the average sprayer will take the trouble to test the material to determine when the lead comes to be present in excess, much as this is to be desired. I'ntil the present time, the general {ireference seems to have been in favor of using lead acetate instead of lead nitrate as a material. Comparative experiments here given, seem to favor the latter as being slightly cheaper, slightly more poisonous and the lead arsenate produced by its use settling nmch more slowly than that made from the acetate. This would seem to differ from the results obtained by Colby, who found (if the recollection of the reviewer be correct) that the arsenate of lead made from lead nitrate settled much more quickly than that made from the acetate, and it would now seem desirable to repeat these tests. An added point not mentioned in this bulletin is that after standing a while, the acetate becomes delequesceut, thus changing its value. The third, and in some regards the most interesting' section of the bulletin is devoted to the action of lead arsenate on foliage, the results of investiga- tions in which Mr. A. L. Quaintaince of the Bureau of Entomology, co- operated with the authors. Starting from quoted statements of the safety of the material at almost any strength, the fact that injury results in some cases despite tliese views, led to inquiries as to the cause, atmospheric conditions as the explanation seeming to be the most probable. These were studied for six months in 1907 and 1908 in connec^tion with the spraying. The conclusions reached are, of course, tentative, but so far as they go, indicate that more or less decomposition of the lead arsenate was causetl by the presence of various salts in the water, particularly sodium chlorid and perhaps sodium carbonate. Weather conditions also appeared to have some effect, injury results to the foliage (and fruit) following an application 324 JOURNAL OP ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [A'Ol. 3 followed by dear hot days and no rain, while spraying followed by cool days and rains resulted in no injury. The suggested explanation is tluxt in the former ease the dews at night would be suttioient to moisten the material and the hot sun the next day would produce conditions needed to dissolve the greatest amounts of arsenic, while if rain were to follow, the sodium chlorid and carbonate would be washed out, leaving nothing to cause the breaking up of the lead arsenate. The bulletin is a valuable one and very suggestive for those accustomed to looking at such subjects from their chemical aspects. It is somewhat questionable, however, if the average fruit grower might not desire a more dii'ect series of statements as to the conclusions reached, which would guide him better in his subsequent spraying. jj. T. F. Ants, their structure, development and behavior, by Willlvm Morton Wheeler, Ph.D., Professor of Economic Entomology, Har- vard University; Honorary Curator of Social Insects, American Museum of Natural History. New York, Columbia University Press, 1910, p. I to XXV; 1-663; 286 figures. This is a comprehensive work written by an acknowledged master in the group and dealing with the structure and biology of these extremely inter- esting forms. The reader needs only to refer to the 70 closely printed pages of the bibliography to gain some idea of tlie vast amount of labor in digest- ing these almost innumerable and widely scattered records and co-ordinating them with observations extending, over a decade. The author considers that the social relations, attaining their "richest and boldest expression in the ants," arouses interc-st, owing to there being an undeniable resemblance to human conditions. The character of this volume is well indicated by chapters devoted to ants as donunant insects, the external and internal structure of ants, development, polymorphism, history of myrmecology and classification of ants, their distribution, fossil ants, habits in general, ant nests, driver and legionary ants, harvesting ants, relation of ants to vascular plants, fungus growing ants, honey ants, guests, ecto and entoparasites, slave makers, the instinctive and plastic l>e- havior of ants. Economic entomologists will be particularly interested in the chapter treating of the relation of ants to plantlice, scale insects, tree hoppers and caterpillars. The discussion, while conq)rehensive, is not unduly extended. Here, among other interesting notes, we find a very lucid account of the aphid cornicles and their functions. The extermination of noxious species is concisely discussed in an appendix. The value of this inqiortant work is greatly increased by a key to the subfauiily, genera and subgenera of the North American Formicidae, together with a list of the describetl vspecies. The author is to be congratulated upon having produced an authentic, scholarly discussion of a highly interesting group. Corn Weevils and Other Grain Insects, by R. I. Smith, N. C. Agric. Exp't. Sta. Bui. 203, p. 1-27, 1908. This popular bulletin discusses in a summarized manner the more im- portant grain insects. The author wisely emphasizes the value of preventive June, '10] REVIEWS 325 measures, advising early threshing and tight sacking of small grains. Burn- ing sulfur, 2ii> pounds to 1,000 cubic feet, is especially advised in cleaning granaries, though it can hardly be recommended for those containing grain, since this fumigation will prevent germination. The standard fumigant, car- bon bisulfid, the author finds, must be used much stronger than usually recommended. Shade Trees, by E. A. Start, G. E. Stone and H. T. Fernald, Mass. Agric. Exp't. Sta. Bui. 125, p. 1-64, 1908. This excellent general bulletin gives much practical information to the tree lover. The entomologist will be interested in the discussion of the care and protection of trees, especially that part relating to tree surgery and the effects of gas and electricity on trees. Summary accounts are given of a number of the more important insect enemies of shade trees. A Chemical Study of the Lime-Sulfur Wash, by L. L. Van- Slyke, C. C. Hedges and A. W. Bosworth, N. Y. Agric. Exp't Sta. Bull. 319 : 383-418, 1909. The general bulletin on the chemistry of the lime-sulfur wash is some- thing entomologists have been desiring for several years. Dr. VanSlyke and his associates present in this publication, data of great value to those recom- mending this valuable insecticide and fungicide, since be gives in concise form the different effects from prolonged boiling and those ol>tained by em- ploying different proportions ot the essential constituents. The data relating to the effect of Magnesium shows the deleterious effects following its emploj- ment. This bulletin gives a series of facts which may well be employed in determining the value of the various brands of commercial lime-sulfur washes. Concentrated Lime-Sulfur Mixtures, by P. J. Parrott, N. Y. Agric. Exp't Sta. Bull. 320: 419-38, 1909. This is a discussion of the concentrated lime-sulfur mixtures, from the entomologist's standpoint, being based upon the results given in the preceding bulletin and largely supplemental thereto. The author finds little of insecti- cide value in the sediment of certain concentrated washes and advises the use of the Beaume scale for testing the strength of the preparation. The table of dilutions will prove most helpful to fruit growers. A Handbook of the Destructive Insects of Victoria, by C. French, Prt. 4, p. 1-195, with 33 colored plates; Osboldstone & Co., Melbourne, 1909. The fourth part of th-is interesting and well known series contains notices of a number of injurious species, and departs somewhat from the preceding volumes in discussing some of the forest tree pests. Our nursery inspectors will be particularly interested in the regulations governing the shipment and sale of fruit and vegetables, given at the beginning of the volume, while the some- what extended accounts of the two fruit flies noticed, will appeal to en- tomologists having to deal with their allies in this country. The notices of 326 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 the various species are invarialily illustrated l).v rather well executed colored plates showing the varit)us stages of the insects and their work, and in some instances illustrating parasites. It is interesting to note that the horse hot fly, Ga'Strophilus eqiii Fabr. is becoming abundant in that section of the world. The concluding pages are occupied by a series of brief accounts, likewise illus- trated with colored plates, of a number of Victorian birds, the author empha- sizing their economic value, particularly as destroyers of insect life. The final pages are devoted to a brief discussion of insecticides. The lime-sulfur wash and miscible oils api^ear to be unknown in Victoria. Insect Depredations in North American Forests, and Practical Methods of Prevention and Control, by A. D. Hopkins, U. S. Dep't Agric, Btir. Ent. Bull. 58; Prt. 5, p. 57-101, 1909. This is a smnmarized discussion of insect injury to forests, with brief notices of some of the more destructive syecies affecting the important trees or their products. There is also an interesting dissertation on the interrela- tions exii^ting between insects and forest tires. The author estimates the total loss on forest products in the United States at $100,000,000. Some pages are devoted to the principles to be observed in controlling forest pests, with several accounts of instances where they have been successfully applied. The author advocates the utilization of the natural enemies so far as possible. He rightfully emphasizes the importance of more systematic biologic work to give a scientific basis which may be used in devising practical methods of control, insisting that the former is a necessary preliminary. This bulletin gives in small compass, a large amount of very suggestive information. The appended list of publications relating to forest insects, will prove of material service to students of the subject. The Pear Thrips and Its Control, by Dudley IMoulton, U. S. Dep't Agric, Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Prt. 4, p. 51-66, 1909. This most excellent, detailed account with a number of original illustra- tions, gives an extended discussion of a new fruit pest, Btt//(r/p,s pyri Dan. This insect is believed to have originated either in Europe or China. The remedial measures advised are plowing and timely spraying with a contact insecticide. The tabulations and text are both admirable and the publication might well be adopted as a model in many respects. The Raspberry Byturus, by W. H. Goodwin, Ohio Agric. Exp't Sta. Bull. 202 : 174-86, 1909. The commendable, detailed account with a number of original illustra- tions, and especially strong on the biology, is based on careful field investiga- tion as well as a study of the literature. Heavy applications of arsenate of lead are advised. A bibliography is appended. June, 'lOJ CURRENT NOTES 327 Current Notes Conducted by the Associate Editor Dr. Raymoud C. Osborne has been juade Assistant Professor of Zoology iu Barnard College. Mr. Charles R. Jones, formerly of the Bureau of Entomology, and located at Dallas, Texas, has accepted the position of Entomologist of the Philippine Islands, with headtjuarters at Manila, P. I. Mr. Alfred B. Champlain, formerly assistant in the Division of Economic Zoology at Harrisburg, Pa., began his work April 1st in his new position as assistant in eutomologj- at the Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. ^Ir. Merrill A. Yothers has recently been ap]iointed assistant entomologist at the Agricultural PLxperiment Station at Pullman. Washington. Mr. Yothers formerly held a similar position at the Michigan station. Rev. J. S. Zabriskie, well known as au entomologist and microscopist, and a member of the Brooklyn Entomological Club, died at his home in Brooklyn April 2d, at the age of seveuty-flve years. At the Bussey Institution of Harvard University. Forest Hills. Mass., a course of illustrattxl lectures in economic entomology and genetics has been arrangetl for Sunday afternoons at four o'clock, beginning April 19th and closing May 29th. The entomological lectures are as follows : April 10th, "Insects as Carriers of Disease. I. The House Fly and its Allies," by Professor W. M. Wheeler. April 17th, "Insects as Carriers of Disease. II. Mosquitoes and their Allies," by Professor W. M. Wheeler. May 8th, "The Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths," by Mr. C. T. Brues. May 15th, "Insects Injurious to Elm Trees," by Mr. C. T. Brues. The staff of the Texas Experiment Station, lo<*ated at College Station, Tex., has recently occupied the new Administration Building, lately erected at a cost of about $47,000. The building is of modern fire-proof construction, of two stories and equipped with all modern devices. The upper floor is occupied by the chemical department, where special apparatus is installed to prevent the ^spread of fire. All floors in the laboratory are of concrete and all rooms are connected by fire-proof doors. On the lower floor are the offices of the Director, Agriculturist, Feed Control Bureau, Plant Patholo- gist and Entomologist. The Entomologist of the Station, who is also State Entomologist occupies a commodious office and labor.-itory. The basement of the building contains storerooms for all Departments. The installation of the records of the research work conducted in the Station, iv a building thoroughly protected from fire, is a step well worth emulation by other institutions of a similar kind. Mr. Harper Dean, formerly connected with the Bureau of Entomology, Cereal Crop Insect Investigations, resigned on March 1st to accept the position of Agricultural Editor of the Scmi-Wecklu Express published at 328 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY [Vol. 3 San Antonio. In his new field Mr. Dean has opportunity for serving a large part of the agricultural population of Texas. Mr. Dean's new work is already making a creditable showing. Considerable space in the Semi- Weekly is regularly devoted to timely articles on Economic Entomology. The Minnesota State Entomologist, by means of an appropriation given him by the last Legislature, has had prepared and distributed to all the schools of Minnesota, colored charts showing some of the more common injurious insects of the state, some beneficial insects, and some useful birds. The chart is 36 inches by 46 inches, made to hang on the wall of the school room. Under each colored figure is descriptive text, giving briefly the economic relation of the insect or the bird in question to the farmer or orchardist. Over seven thousand of these charts have already been dis- tributed to Minnesota schools. The Entomological Division of the Minnesota Experiment Station is now publishing a montlily leaflet, or journal, containing timely items of interest, advice and suggestions to farmers, housekeepers and gardeners, mailed free to any citizens of Minnesota who request it. This is not a bulletin, but more like a circular. Its aim is to get timely advice and news of insect conditions to the Minnesota agriculturists during the growing season, and is to I>e published and issued the first day of May, June, July, August and Semptember. The increased interest in Entomology is shown by the following statistics from Prof. H. F. Wickham of the University of Iowa. Last year he had an increase in his classes of about 50 per cent over the best previous record and this year shows a furtlier advance of 40 per cent over last. He now has close to 100 students taking work in entomology, though the courses are en- tirely elective. CORRECTION FOR LEXiEND ON PAGE 115 Fig. 6. Germination of seeds at different temperatures by DeCandolle, as given by Abbe, original. . . Lepidnm satiium; x hSinapsis alba; ■ Zea nnn/s; Liiiam nsitatisshruon; TrifoUum repeits; Melon, cantaloupe. Mailed, June 15, 1910. EXCHANGES. Exchanges or Wants of D|C>t over three lines Mil be Inserted for 25 cents each to run as long as the space of this page will permit ; the newer