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JOURNAL

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VOLUME VI— PART I.

JANUARY— JUNE.

1889.

PERMANENT SECRETARY:

F. P. VENABLE, . CHAPEL HILL, N C.

E. M. UZZELL, STEAM PRINTER AND BINDER.
RALEIGH, N. C,

1889.

OFFICERS.

1889— 1890.

president:

H. T. Bahnson, M. D., Salem, N. C.

vice-president:

H. B. Battle, Ph. D., Raleigh, N. C.

resident vice-president:

J. A. Holmes, B. Agr., Chapel Hill, N. C.

permanent skcretary and treasurer:
K. p. Vknakle, Ph. I)., F. C. S., .... Ciiapel Hill, N. C.

recording secretary and librarian:

J. W'.i'.oHK, (\ K ; Chapel Hill, N. C.

library AN1> place of MEETING:

CHAPKL HILL, N. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

List of Officers 2

Historical Notes Concerning the Nortii Carolina Geolo^^ncal Survey. Prof.

J. A. Holmes ,5

Turpentine and Rosin. Dr, W.B.Phillips 19

The Crensoting of Wood with Wood Creosote Oil. I. H. Manning 27

Botany as a Disciplinary Study. Gerald McCarthy 33

Records of Meetings 38

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elislia Mitchell Scientific Society.

HISTORICAL NOTES CONCERNING THE NORTH
CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS.*

J. A. HOLMES.

There are three North Carolina State surveys that have been
called geological snrvey.s: (l)the '^ Geological and Mineralogical
Survey,'' conducted by Professors Denison Olmsted and Elisha
Mitchell (1824-28), here termed the Olmsted-Mitchell survey;
(2) the "Geological, Mineralogical, Botanical and Agricultural
Survey," prosecuted under Professor Ebenezer Emmons (1852-'61
or '64), here called the Emmons survey; and (3) the "Geologi-
cal, Mineralogical, Botanical and Agricultural Survey," prose-
cuted under Professor W. C. Kerr (1866-'85), here termed the
Kerr survey. The last mentioned of these may be considered
as in part a continuation of the second.

Olmsted-Mitchell Survey, 1824—1828.*

This "Geological and Mineralogical Survey" was proposed
by Professor Olmsted in a letter laid before the State Board of
Internal Improvements of North Carolina, December 1st, 1821.
(Preserved in the Executive office, Raleigh). The Bi)ard
approved, and presented the matter to the Legislature. The

*Abstracted from a more elaborate sketch prepared by the writer for the U. S.
Geological Survey, and published by permission of the Director,

6 JOURNAL OF THE

Leii-islatiire took no action in the matter, however, until two
years hiter, wlien the proposition was renewed. Tlie survey was
authorized by act of the General iVssembly, ratified December 31st,
1823. This act made it the duty of the "Board of Agriculture
of North Carolina to employ some person of (K)mpetent skill
and science to commence and carry on a geological and miner-
aloiiical survey of the various re^^ions of this State.'^

Denison Olmsted (at that time Professor of Cheniistry, Geol-
ogy and Mineralogy in the University of N. C.) was appointed
by the Board of Agriculture to make the survey, and prosecuted
the work during the University vacations* of the years 1824
and 1825. In the latter part of 1825, Olmsted resiguf^d (to
accept a professorship at Yale College), and was succeeded by
Elisha Mitchell, both in the professorship in the University and
as geologist of the survey. The work of the survey was prose-
cuted by Professor Mitchell during the University vacations,
beginning late in 1825 and continuing through 1828. The only
assistant employed in the work of the surve\' was Charles E.
Rothe, a "miner and mineralogist from Saxony,'^ engaged for a
short time by Professor Olmsted in 1825 to make an examina-
tion of portions of the "great slaty formation '' (Huronian of
Kerr) which crosses the State.

The general purposes of the survey appear to have been, on
the part of Professor Olmsted (who proposed it) and Professor
Mitchell, the opportunity to become acquainted with the geology
and mineralogy of the State, and to procure specimens of rocks
and minerals illustrative of the same, and, on the part of the
State, the discovery of mineral de[)osits of value within the State,
and the publication of reports, in which these deposits should be
desci-ibed and the value and uses of the minerals made known to
the people.

The survey was sustained by an annual appropriation of two
hundred and fifty dollars ($250), contiiuied for five years. This
amount was each year paid over to the geologist, and out of it

*AmountiDj^ to six weeks during the summer and four weeks during the winter.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 7

he bore all expenses of the survey, exclusive of publication.
The oncologist's regular salary as professor in the University
($1,240) was continued (luring his connection with the survey.

Small collections of rocks and minerals were made by both
Olmsted and Mitchell and deposited at the State University; but
these have disappeared.

As to results: The survey is now of interest mainly from an
historic stand-point as being the earliest of the American State
surveys. It must be considered as little more than a rough geo-
logical reconnoisance of the State, during which spe(;ial attention
was given to minerals of economic; importance. And when one
considers the condition of geological science at the time the sur-
vey was made, the lack of experience in making geological sur-
veys, the limited time and fund at the disposal of the geologists,
but little more can be expected. Both Olmsted and Mitchell
did work of permanent value in locating and describing briefly
the ireoloirical formations of the middle and eastern sections of
the State.

The publications of the survey consisted of four small annual
reports, each published as a part of a small volume of reports,
essays, etc., and distributed free, under the direction of the State
Board of Agriculture. The number of copies of each annual
report published was fifteen hundred.

Bibliography :

Report on the Geology of North Carolina, Part I; by Deni-
soD Olmsted. Raleigh, 1824, 12 mo., 41 pp.

Report on the Geology of North Carolina, Part II; by Deni-
son Olmsted. Raleigh, 1825, 12 mo., 58 pp.

Report on the Geology of North Cavoliua, Part III; by
Elisha Mitchell. To which is added a paper on Gold Mines of
North Carolina, by C. E. Rothe, reprinted from Silliman's Jour-
nal for 1825. Raleigh, 1827, 12 mo., 43 pp.

Geological Report of Professor Mitchell. 1829, 12 mo., 8 pp.

After the discontinuance of the Olmsted-Mitchell survey
(1828) Professor Mitchell for several years continued to make

8 JOURNAL OF THE

geological explorations through different portions of the State,
at his own expense. The general results of these explorations
he j)ublishe(l, in 1842, in a small text-book (Elements of Geol-
ogy, with an outline of the Geology of North Carolina; for the
use of the students of the University. 1842, 12 mo., 141 pp.,
with a geological map of North Carolina).

No further organized State work in geology was undertakei^
until 1852.

Emmons Survey, 1852—1864.

The act authorizing this survey was passed by the General
Assembly at its session of 1850-'51, and ratified January 24th,
1851. This act, under which the survey was organized and con-
ducted, specified that the Governor should a[)point some suitable
person to make a "Geological, Mineralogical, Botanical and
Agricultural survey of the State,^^ and to prepar; for publication
reports embodying the results of his investigations, and, when
practicable, to deliver lectures on these subjects in. the villages of
the State. The geologist was to appoint, subject to the approval
of the Governor, such assistants as were necessary.

The survey was sustained by an annual appropriation of five
thousand dollars ($5,000), authorized by the act establishing the
survey, to be paid upon the warrant of the Governor, out of the
State Treasury. This was expended under the direction of the
geologist, mainly, in payment of salaries. The geologist and
assistants bore the ordinary expenses of the survey. Publication
was paid for out of the State Treasury.

Professor Emmons was appointed geologist by Governor Reid,
October 8th, 1851. The work of the survey was begun in Jan-
uary, 1852, and continuetl until the breaking out of the Civil
War, in 1861. Nominally the sin'vey was continued until
April, 1864; but during the war the geologist and assistant were
engaged in procuring and manufacturing munitions of war and
economic mineral ])roducts needed by the people of the State.
Professor Emmons died October 1st, 1863, and the assistant
geologist, Ebenezer Emmons, Jr., resigned April, 1864, which
latter date marks the conclusion of the Emmons survey.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 9

The general j)urpo8e of the survey was the investigation of
the geologv, natural history and natural resources of the State.
But among these, the ol)ject which stood out more prominently
and was more influential in leading to the establishment and
maintenance of the survey, was the development of the mineral,
minino; and agricultural interests of the State.

As to the methods of operation adopted by the survey, only
general statements can be made. The larger part of the work
of the survey, in the field, office and chemical laboratory, was
done by Professor Emmons and E. Emmons, Jr. Professor
Emmons was the geologist, chemist, mineralogist, paleontologist
and agriculturist of the survey. The assistants employed, except
in the case of Dr. Curtis, were general assistants rather than
specialists.

The work of the survey was mainly in connection with the
general geology, mining, agriculture and paleontology. In the
field work these were given prominence according to their rela-
tive importance in the regions being examined. In topography,
practically nothing was attempted. In botany and zoology. Dr.
Curtis' work appears to have consisted mainly of the writing up
for publication the results of his observations previously made.

In general geology, the formations east of the Blue Ridge
appear to h;jve been examined with considerable care, as to out-
lines, lithological and stratigraphical characteristics, and fossil
remains (where these occur). Many results of these examina-
tions were published in the reports for 1856 and 1858, but many
of them were lost in the form of MSS. or field notes. In the
region west of the Blue Ridge only a partial reconnoisance
appears to have been made, the results of which were nearly all
lost in the form of MSS. or field notes. In paleontology, a num-
ber of both vertehrate and invertebrate fossil remains were dis-
covered and described from the eocene, miocene and cretaceous
marl pits and river bluffs of the eastern region ; as were also the
remains of several interesting species of vertebrates, and a rich
fossil flora from the Deep and Dan River coal fields of the older
mesozoic. (See Emmons' N. C. Reports for 1856 and 1858,

10 JOURXAL OF THE

American Geology, etc.). In mining, the principal then known,
mineral ])ropertie.s of the State, were examined, drawings made
of the veins and works, and, in many cases, analyses made of
the ores. Of the results of these examinations, only a part was
published; others were lost during the war. In agriculture,
observations were made concerning the soils, their composition,
products, and, through the reports of the survey, information
was given as to methods of improving soils, etc.

The chemical work included analyses of soils, farm products,
ores, minerals, rocks, mineral waters, etc. A room in Professor
Emmons' private house, fitted up for the purpose, cousiituted
the laboratorv.

Among the additions to science made by the survey may be
mentioned: (1) the rich flora of the Deep River coal fields
(mesozoic), where were found about forty species, nine of which
appear to be peculiar to North Carolina; (2) four new species of
fossil fish and batrachians, eight species of rej^iles and four of
mammals, including the interesting insectiverous mammal, Dro-
motherium sylvestre, in the older mesozoic of Chatham county,
and a few species of molluscs.

The cabinet of the surv^ey, located in the capitol building at
Raleigh, contained a considerable number of specimens of rocks,
minerals, ores, fossil plant and animal remains, soils, marls, etc.,
and was said to be one of considerable value. At the close of
the Civil War (1865) it was nearly destroyed by soldiers passing
through the city. The remnant was transferred to the State
University, where it is at present.

Personnel of the Survey;

Professor Ebenezer Emmons, M. D., Geologist, in charge of
the Survey, 1851-63, appointed by Governor Reid, October 8th,
1851, began work January, 1852, and continued in cliarge of
the survey uj) to the date of his death, October 1st, 1863.

Ebenezer Emmons, Jr., assistant geologist, 1852-^64, was gen-
eral assistant in the field, laboratory and office w^ork.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 11

Spence McClenahan, assistant geologist, 1852-'54, was engaged
mainly in making a geological and topographical snrvey of the
Deep River coal field and adjacent sandstone region.

Matthew B. Conklin, assistant geologist, April 1st, 1858 —
March 31st, 1860, was engaged mainly in collecting fossils and
other specimens.

C. I). Smith, assistant geologist, 1859, engaged daring a few
months in makino- a 2:eoloo:ical reconnoissance of the extreme
western region of the State.

Moses A. Curtis, D. D., botanist and zoologist, 1860-'62, was
employed to prepare for publication by the survey reports on the
botany and zoology of the State.

Bibliography :

Report of Professor Emmons on his Geological Survey of
North Carolina. Raleigh, 1852, 12 mo., 181 pp. Five thou-
sand copies published.

Report on the Progress and Present State of the Geological
and Agricultural Survey of North Carolina; by Ebenezer Em-
mons. Raleigh, 1855, 12 mo., 20 pp.

Geological Report of the Midland Counties of North Caro-
lina; by Ebenezer Emmons. New York and Raleigh, 1856,
8 mo., XX, and 351 pp., 9 plates, 7 maps and sections. One
thousand copies published.

National Foundry — Deep River, North Carolina. Special
Report of Dr. E. Emmons, Geologist to the State of North
Carolina, concerning the Advantages of the Valley of the'Deep
River as a Site for the Establishment of a National Foundry.
Raleigh, 1857, 8 vo., 14 pp.

Report of the North Carolina Geological Survey. Agricult-
ure of the Eastern Counties, together with Descriptions of the
Fossils of the Marl Beds; by Ebenezer Emmons. Raleigh,
1858, 8 vo., XVI, and 314 pp. Two thousand copies published.

Agriculture of North Carolina, Part II; containing statement
of the principles of the science upon which the practices of agri-
culture as an art are founded ; by Ebenezer Emmons, State Geol-
ogist. Raleigh, 1860, 8 vo., 112 pp.

12 JOURNAL OF THE

North CaroliDa Geological Survey, Part II; Agriculture.
Containing descriptions, with many analyses, of the Soils of the
Swamp Lands; by Ebenezer Emmons, State Geologist. Raleigh,
1860, 8 vo., 95 pp.

Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina,
Part III; Botany. Containing descriptions and history of the
Trees, Shrubs and Woody Yines; l»y Rev. M. A. Curtis, D. D.
Raleigh, 1860, 8 vo., 123 pp.

Legislative Doc. No. 25. Appendix B. Gen. Assem., Sess.
1860-61. A Report on the Natural Resources of that Part of
North Carolina west of the Blue Ridge; by Ebenezer Emmons.
Raleigh, 12 mo., 3 pp.

Document No. 26. Gen. Assem., Sess. 1860-'61. Geological
and Agricultural Survey. A Report of Progress; by Ebenezer
Emmons. Raleigh, 12 mo., 6 pp.

Agricultural, Geological and Descriptive Sketches of Lower
North Carolina and the Similar Adjacent Lands; by Edmund
Ruffin, of Virginia. Raleigh, 1861, 8 vo., 294 pp.

Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina,
Part III. Botany; containing a catalogue of the Indigenous
and Naturalized Plants of the State; by Rev. M. A. Curtis, D.
D., F. A. A. A. S., etc., etc. Raleigh, 1867, 8 vo., 158 pp.

Unpublished Reports: — It appears that at the beginning of
the Civil War there was on hand by Professor Emmons MSS.
material for ])ublication sufficient for one or more large octavo
volumes relating especially to the agriculture, mining and min-
eral resources of the middle and western regions of the State;
also in preparation a geological map of the State and a geological
map of the Deep River coal fields, ready for publication; all of
which appear to have been lost or destroyed during the war.
There was also nearly or quite ready for publication reports by
Dr. Curtis on the (Quadrupeds and Reptiles and the Birds of
North Carolina, neither of which has been published, nor can
be found at })resent.

elisha mitchell scientific society. 13

Kerr Survey.

The Kerr Survey was organized under the same law and with
the same general functions as the Emmons Survey, of which it
may be considered, in some respects, a continuation.

Professor Kerr was appointed State Geologist in 1864, and
held the position nominally during the last year of the war, hut
1)0 appropriation was made for the survey and no geological
work was undertaken.

During the following year, 1865-'66, the survey does not
appear to have had even a nominal existence. Professor Kerr
was re-appointed April, 1866, the survey was reorganized, and
its work resumed. In 1877, by legislative enactment, the geo-
logical survey, which formerly had existed as an independent
organization, was made a co-operative department with the De-
partment of Agriculture, and the State Chemist was made chemist
ex officio to the survey; and in 1879 changes made in the law
governing the survey brought the work of the latter still more
under the control of the Depanment of Agriculture. The field
work of the survey was practically discontinued in 1882, when
Professor Kerr resigned to accept the position of Geologist on
the United States Geological Survey, but was continued at inter-
vals until his <leath in 1385.

The survey was sustained by an annual appropriation of
$5,000, which covered all expenditures, including salaries, except
that of publication.

The general plan of operations was an outgrowth of the great
variety and extent of the work to be done, and the smallness of
the appropriation, and as many of the results obtained by the
Emmons survey having been lost during the war, others were
out of date, and it was necessary that the work of the Kerr sur-
vey be extended over the entire State and investigations pursued
with more modern methods. The general work of the survey
was undertaken by Professor Kerr in person. In the several
divisions of the work specialists and general assistants were
engaged when needed. A list of these is given below under
•personnel.

14 JOURNAL OP^ THE

In topography a considerable amount of work has been done
by the survey, especially in the western portion of the State,
since no topogra[)hical survey of that region had been made, and
a more accurate map was needed as a base for the geological
map. The necessary preliminary work was undertaken by the
Geological Survey, and was carried on by Professor Kerr and
his assistants at intervals, along with the field work in geology.
Much of the topographical work was done somewhat hurriedly,
but with as much detail and care as circumstances would permit,
with the use of the pocket compass, pocket level, aneroid or
mercurial barometers, pocket or marine sextant and chronometer
(for obtaining latitude and longitude where necessary). A map
of the State, embodying the results of many of these observa-
tions, together with data compiled from various other surveys,
was published in 1882.

In general geology the work has been done by Professor Kerr
in person. All the geological formations within the State have
been examined, their outlines and general characters as to lithol-
ogy, soils, topography, etc., noted. In this department, how-
ever, much detail work still remains to be done in all parts of
the State.

In lithology the collections of crystalline and metamorphic
rocks were submitted to Professor A. A. Julien (who has several
times visited the region in person) for microscopic examination.
His report is now in preparation.

In mineralogy the collections were in most of the cases sub-
mitted to Dr. F. A. Genth, whose reports are to be found in
Kerr's Geology of North Carolina, Vol. I, 1875, Appendix
C, and Vol. II, Chaf). I, 1881.

In vertel)rate and invertebrate })ale()ntology the collections of
the survey were submitted to Professors E. D. Coi)e and T. A.
Conrad, respectively, both of wljom, without remuneration, twice
visited the State for the purj)ose of examining specimens and
making collections. Their reports are to be found in Kerr's
Geology of North Carolina, 1875, Appendix A.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15

In meteorology about thirty volunteer stations were established
by the survey in different regions of the State, where observa-
tions have been taken with more or less regularity, as to the
temperature, rain-fall, clouds, winds, and, in a few cases, atmos-
plieric pressure and dew-points.

In chemistry the work included the analyses of soils, marls,
minerals, the assay of ores, etc. From 1866 to 1877 the survey
did not have adequate laboratory facilities, and specimens for
analysis were mainly sent to the laboratory of specialists not
connected with the survey. Subsequent to 1877 this work was
done by the State Chemist, who was, by legislative enactment,
ex officio chemist to the survey.

In agriculture the work done by the survey consisted in the
analysis of soils, marls, fertih'zers (prior to 1877), and the
instruction of the people of the State, through the press and lect-
ures by the geologist, as to the methods of improving soils.

In connection with the mining interests, the principal mining
properties were examined by the geologist in person, and analy-
ses or assays made of the ores were in many cases made under
his direction.

The Museum of the survey, located in Raleigh, contains the
following collections: Of minerals and ores, about six thousand
specimens; rocks (hand specimens), about three thousand; build-
ing stones (a foot cube and less), about one hundred; soils and
marls, nearly two hundred; fossil vertebrate remains, a small
collection; fossil shells, several thousand specimens, including a
large number of species from the cretaceous and tertiary deposits
of the State; shells of living forms, land, fresh-water and
marine, a small collection of each ; native woods, upwards of
two hundred specimens; small collections of Indian antiquities
and agricultural products; and a few miscellaneous specimens,
among whicli may be mentioned the skeleton of a whale (Bal?ena
mysticetus) 65 feet in length.

The Library of the survey contains three hundred volumes,
including treatises on geology, mineralogy, metallurgy, agricult-
ure and general natural history, partial sets of the American

16 JOURNAL OF THE

journals devoted to these subjects and reports of other State sur-
veys. This library is supplemented by the much larger State
Library in the adjacent capitol building.

Personnel of the Survey :*

Professor W. C. Kerr, Director and Geologist, 18G6— 1882.
His connection with the survey continued, irregularly, until his
death, 1885.

Charles J. Curtis, assistant in topography, field work, during
the summers of 1866 and 1868.

Professor N. A. Pratt, of Cliarleston (now of Atlanta), chem-
ist, 1866 — 1867. Made a few chemical analyses of supposed
phosphatic marl.

Captain William E. Cain, assistant in topography, at irregular
intervals, from 1867 to 1882, in both field and office work.

Professor E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, volunteer assistant in
vertebrate paleontology, 1868-'69.

George B. Hanna, assistant in chemistry and assaying, at
irregular intervals, 1869-'77, and mining in 1883.

Professor T. A. Conrad, of Philadelphia, volunteer assistant
in invertebrate paleontology, 1870 and 1871.

George C. Jordan, special assistant, labeling and arranging
cabinet collections, six months of 1870.

E. H. Bogardus, of the New Jersey Survey, special assistant
in chemistry, making analyses of soils and marls, at intervals,
1870—1874.

Professor C. H. Chandler, of New York, made a few chemical
analyses in 1871.

Dr. F. A. Genth, of Philadelphia, assistant in mineralogy,
1871 and 1880.

Mrs. C. P. Spencer, engaged mainly in coloring a geological
map of the State during a short time of the winter of 1871-'72.

W. D. Cooke, special assistant, on geological map, tabulating
data and other office work, at intervals, 1872-'76.

■^Persons residents of North Carolina when it is not otherwise stated.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 17

C. D. Smith, special assistant in geology and mineralogy for
the region west of. the Blue Ridge Mountains during portions of
1872, 1873 and 1874.

Professor Alexis A. Julien, of New York, lithologist, at inter-
vals, 1875 to present date.

Dr. A. R. Ledoux, chemist ex ojicioy while State Chemist,
1877-'80.

T. C. Harris, curator of the museum and assistant in engrav-
ing and general office work, 1878 to present date.

A. G. Williamson, of Virginia, assistant in topography during
a few autumn and winter months of 1879-'80.

R. G. Thomas, office assistant, tabulating meteorological data,
December, 1880, to February, 1881.

C. W. Dabney, chemist ex officio^ while State Chemist, 1880,
to present date.

VV. B. Phillips, assistant in geology, parts of 1881 and 1882,
and acting State Geologist August, 1882, to February, 1883.

W. H. Kerr, field assistant in collection of building stones
during a few months of 1882.

The names of meteorological observers connected with the
survey are omitted for want of space.

Bibliography :

Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of North Caro-
lina, 1 866 ; by W. C. Kerr, Raleigh, 1867, 8 vo., 56 pp. Num-
ber of copies published, 3,640.

Exec. Doc. No. 27, Sess. 1868-'69, Gen. Assem. of N. C.

Report of Progress of the Geological Survey ; by W. C. Kerr.
1869, 57 pp.

Appendix to the Report of the Geological Survey of North
Carolina, 1873, being a brief abstract of that report and a gen-
eral description of the State, geographical, geological, climatic
and agricultural ; by W. C. Kerr. Raleigh, 1873, 8 vo., 24 pp.
and map. Number of copies published 5,000.

Pub. Doc. No. 16, Sess. 1872-73, Gen. Assem. of N. C.
Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of North Carolina;
by W. C. Kerr. 8 vo.. 4 pp.

18 JOURNAL OF THE

Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, Vol. I;
Physical Geography, Resume, Economic Geology; by W. C.
Kerr. Raleigh, 1875, 8 vo., XYIII, 325 and 120 pp., 9 plates
and a geological map. Number of copies published, 1,000.

Pub. Doc. No. 21, Sess. 1876-77, Gen. Assem. of N. C.
Report of the State Geologist on the Expenditures of the Geo-
logical Survey; by W. C. Kerr. 8 vo., 17 pp.

Pub. Doc. No. 32, Sess. 1876-'77, Gen. Assem. of N. C.
Report of State Geologist concerning the Establishment of a
Department of Agriculture, etc.; W. C. Kerr. 8 vo., 12 pp.

Physiographical Description of North Carolina; by W. C.
Kerr. Raleigh, 1879 and 1882, 8 vo., 32 pp.

Minerals and Mineral Localities of North Carolina, being
Chapter I of the Second Volume of the Geology of North Caro-
lina; by F. A. Genth and W. C. Kerr. Raleigh, 1881, 8 vo.,
122 pp. Five thousand copies published.

Map of North Carolina; by W. C. Kerr, State Geologist,
assisted by Captain William Cain, C. E. New York, 1882.
Scale, 10 miles to the inch.

Ores of Nortli Carolina. Being Chapter II of the Second
Volume of the Geology of North Carolina; W. C. Kerr and
George B. Hanna. Raleigh, 1888, 8 vo., 237 pp. (123—359),
and a mining and geological map of North Carolina. Three
thousand copies published.

The following unfinished reports are in preparation:

Geology of North Carolina, Vol. II of Kerr's Reports,
embodying the results of the survey from 1875 to 1885, in
preparation under the direction of Professor J. A. Holmes; and
a report on the Lithology of North Carolina, ii> preparation by
Professor A. A. Julien.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19

Products of the Pine.*
No. I.

TURPENTINE AND ROSIN.

W. B. PHILLIPS, Ph. D.

Gentlemen of the Society: — It is designed in this paper to call
the attention of the Society very briefly to some of the more
salient features of the industry which, in the minds of most
people, is associated with the name of North Carolina. In
almost every text-book on the Geography and Resources of the
United States the chief products of North Carolina are said to
be Tar, Pitch and Turpentine, and, of late, Rosin, in spite of our
40,000,000 pounds of tobacco and 250,000 bales of cotton.

North Carolina is known as the great naval store State. Has
not our chief city been built up mainly through its trade in the
products of the pine tree? Is not the Cape Fear the most tur-
pentiny stream that flows? Are we not ourselves true Tar
Heels? But if we were called upon to give a definition of Tar,
or Pitch, or Turpentine, or Rosin, I fear that many of us would
return rather misty replies. It is very generally true that our
knowledge of some of the most common articles of every-day
life is extremely superficial. This arises not so much from
objective as from subjective difficulties. The obstacles are eso-
teric. Familiarity, if it does not breed the usual contempt, does
breed what is worse, a profound indifference

It is with the hope that this indifference may be somewhat
disturbed, if not entirely removed for the time being, that I
desire to speak to you this evening on Turpentine and Rosin,
twin products of the Long-leaf Pine.

On the Atlantic coast, throughout a tract of land 600 miles
long by 100 miles wide, beginning at Norfolk, Va., and ending

*A series of articles will follow on this subject.

20 JOURNAL OF THE

in the southern part of Georgia, there grows a pine tree, known
to botanists as the Pinus Austrah's, to ordinary people as the
Lon2:-leaf Pine. Its heis^ht is from 60 — 80 feet, its diameter
2 feet above the ground from 1 to 2 J feet. It has a thin bark,
a cone from 6 — 8 inches long and from 4 — 6 inches across at the
base, a wood with very little sap, and a leaf 10 — 18 inches long
arranged in triplets in the sheath. A tree 60 — 70 feet in height
has grenerally a diameter of 15 — 18 inches for 40 feet. This
' tree has also other names besides the two just quoted, as, for
instance, with us it is sometimes called yellow pine, pitch pine
and brown pine. Exported to the Northern States it is known
as Southern pine and red pine; while in England and the AY est
Indies it is termed Georgia pitch pine. For three-quarters of a
century it has been the chief source whence the supplies of Tur-
pentine and Rosin were drawn, and it will continue to be so for
many years to come, as we have in this State alone more than
five billion feet of merchantable Long-leaf pine standing. And
as a dead tree can hardly be considered merchantable, we may
feel satisfied that the supply will last fi)r many years yet.

Our word turpentine is from the Latin terebinthus, meaning
the terebinth, or turpentine tree. Mention is made of this
tur|)entine tree in very early days, 2,000 years B. C, when
Abraham first went into Canaan, v/cZ. Gen., xii, 6: ^' Plain of
Moreh" should be "grove of turpentine trees at Moreh.'""

While Rosin (more correctly Resin, which is the older word),
at one time derived from t!ie Greek word meaning to flow, is now
com])ared with the Sanskrit rala (the resinous exudation from
the Shorea Robusta, or the "Sal'^ tree of Northwestern India).
The resinous exudation from this tree is much like copaiva bal-
sam, and a most costly camphor, Malay or Sumatra cam[)hor, is
obtained from it.

But what is Turpentine?

If I were to say that Turpentine is not Turj)entine, perhaps I
would be regarded as making a very foolish assertion. And yet
it is even so. What we call Turpentine in common life is a very
different thing from the Turpentine of commerce. In trade the

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 21

crude gum which exudes from the i)ine is called Turpentine, in
common life one of the volatile products of the distillation of
this gum is called Turpentine. In other words, in trade the
distlllant is Turpentine, in common life the distillate is Turpen-
tine. WImt we call Turpentine is in the trade called '^spirits,"
or spirits of Turpentine. In most text-books on chemistry
mention is made of "oil of turpentine," a term not used in com-
merce, meaning spirits of Turpentine.

What is Rosin? Rosin is the residue left in the still after the
extraction of the "spirits." It is strained, cooled by exposure
to the air, and allowed to crystallize.

You will, therefore, please consider the term Turpentine as
meaning the crude gum (before distillation); the term "spirits,"
or Spirits of Turpentine, as meaning the most important sub-
stance distilled off from this gum, and Rosin the residue left in
the still, drawn off while hot, strained and crystallized.

There are three kinds of Turpentine, viz. : virgin, yellow-dip
and scrape.

There are four kinds of spirits, viz.: white spirits and 1st, 2d
and 3d ''shade:'

Of Rosin, excluding "opaque Rosins," there are fourteen dif-
ff^rent kinds, viz.: A., B., C, D., E., F., G., H., L, K., M., K,
W. G. and W. W. Of these the highest grade is W. W. (water-
white), l)eauti fully clear and transparent, and almost colorless.
Then W. G. (window-glass), also clear and transparent, but a
shade darker in color than the W. W. Then N. Rosin, also
clear and transparent, but a shade darker tlian W. G. And so
on down to A., omitting L. and J., each letter signifying a Rosin
of darker color, until when A. is reached the Rosin is black and
allows no ray of light to pass through. And I may say just
here that there are two main causes of the difference in color
between Rosins: 1st. The quality of the Turpentine. 2d. The
care bestowed upon the process of distillation. W. W. Rosin is
almost colorless, A. ftosin is black, and between the two lie
various shades of very light amber, a dark wine-color, and black.

22 JOURNAL OF THE

There are two kinds of opaque Rosin, viz. : water-opaque, in
which the opacity is due to admixed water, and spirit-opaque, or
*'Coachey" Rosin, in which the opacity is due to admixed "spir-
its." Both are whitish and non-transparent.

Let us now consider more in detail the Turpentine, or crude
gum. Supp«>se we have a small forest of 10,000 trees, which
have never been worked for Turpentine. The first thing to be
done is to "box'' them. The "box" is made on the sid^, preferably
on the south side, of the tree from 4 — 6 inches above the ground,
bv cutting into the tree from above, sloping the cut across the
grain of the wood, and then meeting this cut with another at an
angle of 5° — 10°. The chip taken oif leaves a cut on the side
of the tree, holding about two pints, and known as the "box."
If the winter is mild and open this operation is begun during
the month of December, and carried on through January, Feb-
ruary, and into March. Ten thousand (10,000) trees constitute
a "crop," and one man cuts the boxes. At the first approach of
warm weather the Turpentine begins to exude from between the
bark of the tree and the wood, runs down the incline and into
the box, from which it is taken with wooden or iron scoops and
put into barrels, preparatory to being carried to the still.

If the weather be favorable the trees will yield Turpentine
for seven months the first year, beginning with April and ending
with October. During that time about 18 inches ol' the bark of
the tree are removed, so that at the end of the first year we have
cut the box and removed 18 inches of bark. From 7 to 9 col-
lections are made from each tree during the season, and as each
box holds 2 pints, we get from 7 to 9 quarts per tree in a season.
We have 10,000 trees, so that we should have at the end of the
first year from 17,500 to 22,500 gallons of Turpentine, all of it
" virgin," i. e., of the very best quality. It is common to estimate
the yield of 10,000 trees for rhe first year at 250 — 300 barrels of
" virgin." The standard weight of a barrel of Turpentine is 280
pounds, which includes the weight of the barrel, but, in reality,
these barrels seldom weigh so little as 280 pounds, ranging from
280 — 325 pounds. If we have selected the bushy top, thin

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23

bark trees, growing in a sandy, dry soil ; if we have cut our
*^ boxes" properly, and attended them carefully, and had good
weather, we should get 280 barrels of 300 pounds each of
*' virgin (lip.

What shall we do with it? How can we obtain spirits of
Turpentine and Rosin from it? By distilling it in a coj)per still.
Formerly iron stills were used, but they imparted a reddish tinge
to the spirits, so uow copper stills are used, holding froai 6 — 50
l^arrels of Turpentine, the ordinary size holding 15 barrels.

Turpentine may be regarded as a mixture of spirits of Tur-
pentine, water and Rosin. The water, of course, boils at 100°
C, the Rosin melts at 100°, and above 150° C. is gradually
decomposed. The "spirits" l)oils at 158° C. Up to 100° C,
then, very little will come over except water. Mixed with the
water is a certain amount of pyroligneous acid, methyl alcohol,
ether, and, j)erhap^, formic acid, which mixture is termed ^'low
wine," and is frequently used by the laborers for kidney troubles.
As the heat rises above 100° C. the "spirits" begins to come
over, being yielded most abundantly, of course, at its boiling
point, 158° C. The "spirits" accumulates on top of the low
wine in the tub, and runs into a separate tub through a cock near
the top of the first one. Of course in such a viscid mass as " vir-
gin dip" it is only by long continued boiling, even at teuaperatures
above 100° C, that the water is expelled, so that a good deal of
water comes over with the "spirit^," and the boiling is kept up
until tht! proportion of spirits and water in an ordinary turabler-
full is 1 of spirits to 8 or 9 of water, i. e., from IJ — 2J hours^
But where does all this water come from? It cannot all exist
in the Turpentine, and, so far as known, it is not a decomposi-
tion product. It is added to (he Turpentine in the still either
at the beginning of the distillation or after it has been in prog-
ress for an hour. Its office appears to be to assist in the expul-
sion of the "spirits," by causing a more violent bubbling and
boiling, with consequent vesiculation of the mass in the still.
Operating with " virgin dip," L e., the yield of the first year, the
distillation is stopped before all the "spirits" is driven off, so

24 JOURNAL OF THE

that the Rosiu may contain about 15 per eeiit. of the original eon-
tent of spirits. At the proper time the cap of the still is removed,
the liquid mass inside skimmed of trash, run out through a bot-
tom cock, strained through wire and cotton hatting and allowed
to cool in the bins. The temperature of the Rosin as it comes
from the still is 160° C. It cools very slowly, so that at the
end of 4 hours, with an external temperature of 60°, it lost in
one experiment only 60° F., and that after it had been ladled
into barrels.

From fifteen 280-pound barrels of '' virgin dip'^ there should l)e
obtained not less than 105 gallons of ''spirits" and 2,100 pounds
of Rosin. A good working rule is to allow two-thirds of the
weight of the Turpentine for Rosiu and one-third for '' spirits''
and water. Ten thousand trees should yield the first year 280
barrels of ^' virgin,'' the second year 240 barrels of ''yellow dip"
and scrape, the third year 200 barrels of "yellow dip" and
scrape. Or, in other words, for the yield of each year after the
first year subtract one dipping of 40 barrels per year.

All that is collected from the trees the first vear is called " vir-
gin," and yields the best spirits and the finest Rosin. After the
first year the turpentine is called yellow dip, and scrape, and
yields inferior Rosin, and generally not so good spirits.

While, indeed, it is for the most part true that " virgin dip"
yields the finest Rosin, yet it may yield the darker Rosins by too
high a heat in the still. This has been denied, but the weight
of evidence is clearly in its favor. In the endeavor to extract
as much "spirits" as possil)le from the "virgin dip" and still
leave the Rosin pale, it sometimes happens that the temperature of
decomposition is reached and passed, and instead of a pale Rosin
a darker one may come from the still. "Yellow dip" and scrape
never yield pale Rosins. Whether this is due to chemical changes
in the Turpentine befi)re distillation, or to the action of foreign
organic matter on the Turpentine during the distillation, or to
the complete expulsion of the spirits, no definite answer can be
made. It has been stated that about 15 per cent, of the original
content of "spirits" is left in the Rosin from " virgin dip." This

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 25

is supposed to give to the pale Rosins their transparency and lack
of color. But in distilling ''yellow dip" and "scrape" no "spir-
its" is left in the Rosin. The effort to expel the spirits com-
pletely may cause too high a heat in the still, with consequent
darkening of the Rosin.

Again, as "yellow dip" and scrape are exposed to the air
longer than virgin dip, having to traverse oftentimes several feet
of " face," oxidation products may arise, and influence the final
color of the Rosin.

Again, there is always much more foreign matter mixed with
yellow dip and scrape than with virgin, and the heat of 160° C.
for an hour or two, in the presence of water, would doubtless
extract from these pine leaves, bark and chips more or less of
their coloring matter, which might well aifect the color of the
Rosin. The New York Standard Rosins are divided into 12
grades, viz., from the highest to the lowest:

W— G— Low No. 1 .

N— Extra pale. F— Good No. 2.

M— Pale. E—No. 2.

K — Low pale. D — Good strained.

I — Good No. 1. C — Strained.

H — No. 1. B — Common strained.

These grades are used at Wilmington, Charleston and Savan-
nah. But at Wilmington the arrangen^ent, while essentially the
same, has some minor points of difference.

Considerable experience is required before one can grade
Rosin, and very few can do it without having the standards at
hand, so as to compare constantly. After some time these
"standards" acquire a lighter color, due to exposure to light,
and this fact complicates the matter still farther. The higher
grades of Rosin are worth from two to three times as much as
the lower grades, and of course much interest has for years been
manifested in the question of the possibility of bleaching the
lower Rosins. Exposure to strong sunlight does raise the grade
a degree or so in the course of several months, but this is not
continuous. The main difficidty, I apprehend, is in our igno-

26 JOURNAL OF THE

ranee of what really constitutes the difference between the pale
Rosin and the lower grades. I mean the chemical difference.
Chemically, Turpentine is an oleo-resinous juice, consisting of
resin and essential oil. The oil, or spirits, varying in amount
from 15 — 30 per cent., consists, according to Fliickiger and
Hanbury (Pharmacographia, 1879, p. 006), "for the greater
part of various hydrocarbons, corresponding to the formula
C^oH^g," while Rosin, or colophony, as they term it, may be
regarded as composed largely of the anhydride of abietic acid,
and has the formula C44Hg204 {id. p. 607). They do not
state what Rosin it is that may be so regarded, but w^e will sup-
pose that it is the best, or the clear, transparent, nearly colorless
Rosin, say the W. W. As you will observe from these speci-
mens of the various grades, there is a most marked difference
between the W. W. and '' E." or " D." Rosin. The fact I wish to
impress upon you is, that we do not know what causes this great
difference in color, whether it is due to oxidation, hydration,
incipient decomposition, either or collectively. The authors
above quoted (p. 607) go on to say that the living tree contains
only the abietic acid anhydride; that on exposure to the air
the Turpentine loses oil (or "spirits''), takes up water and
solidifies as the crystalline acid of formula C44Hg405. The
presence of the oil (or spirits) in the turpentine determines the
assumption of this molecule of water which changes the amor-
])hous abietic acid anhydride into the crystalline abietic acid.
As before reaiarked. Turpentine is a mixture of "spirits'' and
Resin. But the "spirits" itself can and does undergo resinifi-
cation, which is, |)erhaps, an oxidation, as formic acid is pro-
duced. But the resinification of "spirits" does not produce
resin, which, as yet, has been shown to be identical with any
natural resin. Therefore, we cannot say that resins are oxidized
"spirits." A vast amount of chemical work must be done before
one can say what is the chemical diU'erence between the grades
of Rosin. And yet, if the question of the conversion of the
lower into the higher grades is ever settled on a firm basis, it
will be settled by the practical chemist. Quo dljjiciUus, hoc
prcedare !

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 27

Products of the Pine.
No. 11.

THE PRESERVATION OF WOOD WITH WOOD-
CREOSOTE OIL.

J. H. MANNING.

In 1872, Mr. James D. Stanley, of Baltimore, Md., invented
and patented certain retorts and arrangements for the production
of ''spirits of turpentine, oil, varnish and inflammable gas'' by
the distillation of pine wood. Wilmington offering the advant-
ages of one of the largest naval store ports in the world, Messrs.
Hansen & Smith of that city purchased in 1882 the patents
and plant of Stanley for the purpose of more cheaply manu-
facturing these products and establishing a market for them.
With certain improvements in the arrangement of retorts, they
succeeded in manufacturing, but failed in securing a market for
the oils. From this misfortune proceeded experiments with oil
and the subsequent discovery of a process for using it in the pres-
ervation of wood. The antiseptic and preservative eiFects of
creosote have long been known, and the effects of coal creosote
in preserving timbers amply proved. By allowing lumber to
soak in creosote oil and exposing the same, sufficient proof of its
value was given, though the test in itself is insufficient, and bet-
ter ways for impregnating the wood with oil were at once experi-
mented upon. -

Messrs. Hansen & Smith succeeded in perfecting machinery
to this end, and until 1885 the process was carried out secretly
on a small scale. This work was advertised and severest tests
applied to their products. Not until 1885, when a stock com-
pany was formed, were patents issued for the process. This
stock company, under the style of the Carolina Oil and Creosote
Co., doing business in the city of Wilmington, has a capital stock

28 JOURNAL OF THE

of $500,000. There is a factory working under the same patents
in Fernandina, Florida, and one about to be erected in Seattle
W. T.

The site of the factory at Wilniingtt)n is about IJ miles from
Market street, on the south-western suburb, desirably located on
the river. This plant has gradually increased from a valuation
of §30,000, with a capacity of 3,000 feet of lumber per day, to
the present valuation of §425,000, with a capacity of 40,000
feet per day. It consists of two parallel sheds f tr the protection
of distilling retorts and a one-story building for reservoirs,
pumps, boilers, creosoting cylinders, etc.

The most important prelin)inary step is the economic produc-
tion of wood-creosote oil. For this purpose there are sixteen
(16) retorts, arranged in batteries of two each for economy and
convenience in firing, with a capacity of about 19,000 gallons
creosote oil and the same amount of pyroligneous a(;id waste per
month. These retorts are all similarly constructed, and hence a
description of one will suffice for all.

A furnace substantially built of masonry, 26 feet long, 13 feet
igh and 10 feet wide, supports in its beds two retorts. It is
divided in the centre by a thin, fire-clay partition, so there are
actually four different and complete furnaces. Each fire-place has
its roof, in the inner ends of which are flues for the escape of
the heat into the retort space. The retort rests horizontally in its
bed and fits snugly into masonry, resting on loosely-fitting iron
bands, allowing an air space entirely around the retort to the
partition in the centre of the furnace, only interrupted by verti-
cal semi-circular divisions, alternating from top to bottom, for the
purpose of securing a uniform distribution of heat, and serving
also in ra})idly cooling the retort. This retort is a cast-iron, or,
preferably, steel cylinder, 26 feet long by 6 feet in diameter,
having a capacity of 4J cords. Its ends are oi)en, and may be
closed by a perfectly-fitting cap with clamps, and by using
asbestos or clay packing can be rendered air-tight. At the end
of the retort a pipe 6 inches in diaujeter enters, and, gradually
narrowing, conveys the gases to a copper worm through the con-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 29

denser. Tliis condenser alongside the fnrna(;e is a wooden vat
12 feet high and 10 feet in diameter, connected with the water-
works, so as to secnre a continuous flow of water, and contains
a copper worm about 40 feet long, narrowing gradually to IJ-
inch tube. On issuing from condenser this worm enlarges into
a goose neck, or trap, in which the uncondensed gases and the
liquid are separated. The gases are conveyed to another con-
denser and to the reservoir and are used for heating purposes.
.The liquid falls into a wooden vat of convenient shape and hold-
ing about 900 gallons, and connected by siphon and pump with
reservoirs in the creosoting house. Each retort is a complete still,
and a battery occupies a ground space of 26 feet by 26 feet.
A retort, with ordinarv care, should last 15 vears. The workinir
is simple. Good, resinous, fatty pine wood as having the high-
est content in oil is selected, and 4^ cords carefully laid in the
retort, the ends sealed, and firing begun. The heat is gradually
raised, driving off water, light gases and oils, until between 400°
F. and 760° F. the heavy and most valuable oils distill. These
are carefully condensed, not allowing the water in the vat to get
more than lukewarm. The heating is kept up continuously for 26
hours, consuming about one cord of wood per battery, after which
time the fires are removed and the retorts cooled as rapidly as
possible. The charcoal, amounting to about 33 per cent, of
charge, is raked out and meets with ready sale. The entire opera-
tion requires between 30 and 36 hours, with a yield of about 70
gallons creosote oil and 85 to 90 gallons pyroligneous acid waste
per cord. The uncondensed gases l)eing separated from liquid
in the goose neck, are conveyed through another small condenser
(recently added), wherein small quantities of oils are further
(condensed, passing over lime (unslacked), according to Stanley,
and into reservoir, from which it is drawn and used for heating the
retort. The distillate, upon standing (usually until the retort is
charged again), separates into two liquids known as pyroligneous
acid waste, consisting of water, pyroligneous acid, acetone, a
small proportion of lightest oils and about 1 per cent, wood
alcohol, and "creosote oils,'' consisting of 5 per cent, tar acids,

30 JOURNAL OF THE

15 per cent, light oils and aUout 80 per cent, heavy oils. They
may be completely separated with siphons and are pnmped into
their respective reservoirs. After longer standing, small quan-
tities of oil separate from pyroligneous waste and are transferred
to the oil tanks. The acid waste is sold to the Southern Chemical
Co., and wood alcohol, crude pyroligneous acid and a black dye
manufactured from it. It is also offered for sale as a cheap and
reliable disinfectant.

The wood creosote oil is a very heavy black liquid, resistiniJ^
the action of salt or fresh water, and is used principally in the
preservation of wood, but patents have been issued for a mixture
containing it for use as a ''sheep di}),'' and it is recommended as
an insecticide.

The creosotiug plant consists in steel reservoirs, creosoting
cylinders, pumps, etc. The steel reservoirs are constructed as the
creosoting cylinders and are used for heating the oil preparatory
to use. They are connected with the oil tank and creosoting cylin-
ders, and contain a coil of steam piping connected with the boilers.
The creosoting cylinders are made of steel guaranteed to
stand 150 — 200 pounds pressure, and lie on a bed of masonry
on a vel with ground. They are of varying length (from (30
to 100 feet long by 6 feet in diameter), having open ends with
perfectly fitting caps. These caps can be rendered air-tight with
asbestos packing. Into this cylinder runs a tramway with a
movable section at the doorwav. Under this track there is a coil
of piping, usually about six times as long as the cylinder, connect-
ing with the boilers. In the top, at intervals, are screws attached
to semi-circular iron bands, used for holding the charge in posi-
tion, and adjustal)le from the outside. At the end are the various
pipes connecting witii suction j^umps, force pumps and oil tanks.

This company has in operation four of these cylinders, one
65x6, 90x6, 75x6, 100x6, with a capacity of 40,000 feet per
day, costing from $800 to $1,200. No estimate can be had
of their durability. Those now operated have been in use for
several years and are apparently as good as new.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 31

The process of creosoting is carried out according to this gen-
eral plan. Good, '^saj)" or porous pine Ininher, with or with-
out previous charring, is run into the cylinder on a truck and made
fast in position by the screws outside. Th<- ends are then sealed
perfectly and the temperature raised gradually by su[>erheated
steam to al)out 550° F., the suction pumj) is applied and as near a
c()m[dete vacuum as possible produced and sustained for about 14
hours. This treatment serves to (]vy the wood thoroughly and
expands its pores to the fullest extent, leaving them em})tv for
the entrance of the fluid. The suction pump is disconnected then
and sufficient oil to fill the cylinders run in. The force pump is
next applied, with a pressure as high as 120 pounds per cubic
foot, which is sustained until the desired anjount of oil has beeii
injected. This is very easily calculated by knowing the capacity
of the cylinder less the charge of lumber and the cubic measure of
lumber, and as much more oil over the amount necessary to fill
<;ylinder as lias been consumed represents the amount injected
into wood. The oil stands at about 400° F., and the tempera-
ture of the cylinder is reduced to that degree. The oil being
injected, the surplus is withdrawn to tanks, the lumber run out
and is ready for shipment, the entire process usually requiring
about 24 hours.

Many circumstances modify this general plan. It is by the
condition of timber that the time of drying is determined —
whether it is very green or seasoned; small planks or large tim-
bers; and as to duration of creosotijig, whether small planks or
large timbers, very porous or compact, and to the amount of oil
<lesired injected. Upon the careful manipulation of this process
<lepends the success of its product, and every precaution is taken
to insure it. The timbers may or may not be previously charred.
Any quantity of oil from 3 to 20 pounds per cubic foot may be
injected, and any size timbers handled from 1 to 20 inches in
diameter and up to 100 feet long.

Previous charring is recommended as increasing the absorbing
power by at least 50 per cent. Twelve pounds of oil per cubic
foot is considered sufficient in all ordinary circumstances — more

32 JOURNAL OF THE

or less being used accordiDg to the purposes for which lumber is
to be used. Twelve pounds of oil per cubic foot increases the cost
over crude timber about 100 per cent., with an additional 5 per
cent, for each additional pound of oil per cubic foot. The advan-
tages over other processes is in the economy and a more thorough
impregnation of wood with creosote.

The superiority of woo<l preserved by wood creosote oil has
been conceded bv Enp^lish and American contractors. Besides
being an excellent mechanical packing, it is a reliable germicide
and preservative, and its odor is exceedingly offensive to all
insects, especially the teredo. It is supposed that sufficient quan-
tities of tarry acids are present to coagulate the albumen of the
wood, thus rendering fermentation less liable to occur. The
heavy oils resist the action of water and cannot be washed from
the pores of the wood. Creosoted wood can be used in any and
all circumstances, and without material injury to carpenter's
tools. It is several degrees harder thJin ordinary timber, and
hardens as it gets older. It is recommended particularly for use
as sills, cross-ties, piles, wharfs, spars, decks and in every place
where the conditions are most favorable to the decay of crude
timbers — where, in tide-water countries, the piles are subjected
to alternate drying and wetting, in tropical countries, and
wherever the ravages of insects are greatest. Lai'ge quantities
of it were sold to the Panama Canal Co. It has been sold as
high north as Novia Scotia, and south as far as Rio, and the
severest tests applied, in none of which has it failed.

By the rapidly increasing demand for it among all classes of
builders and contractors, we are assured that it is to be one of
our largest and most ijuportant industries, and our Southern
pines will have been increased greatly in value.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 33

BOTANY AS A DISCIPLINARY STUDY.

GERALD McCarthy, B. Sc.

Of all branches of natural science the study of plants, viewed
merely as an instrument of mental discipline, offers the greatest
inducements for the majority of pupils. During three-fourths
of the year trees, shrubs and flowers are the most abundant
objects in nature. They greet the eye on every side, and by their
graceful forms, beautiful foliage and pleasant odors invite our
attention. Since the maintenance of animal and human life
depends upon the pre-existence of the vegetable world, plants
appeal to the sympathies of even the most hardened admirer of
pavements and gas-light.

Appealing in so many ways to human sympathies the study
of plant-life is admirably fitted for awakening and stimulating
the embryonic or dormant faculties of the mind. The facts with
which this study stores the mind are interesting, useful and
easily comprehended by even the very young, while riper and
more disciplined minds will find therein unsolved problems
worthy of the most extended reflection.

A few of the benefits conferred by a systematic study of plant-
life may be here enumerated :

1. Plants are peculiarly adapted for cultivating in the student
a love for form, symmetry and color — for stimulating the aesthetic
faculties, faculties almost wholly and lamentably neglected in
our common schools.

2. The study of plants trains the mind to habits of close
observation and discriminating judgment, orderly arrangement
and the 'Mogic of systematization." All of these habits are of
the very greatest utility to every human being.

3. The study of plant-life introduces the student to the study
of the phenomena of life in its least complicated manifestations.
The fundamental laws of organic life are the same in plants and

34 JOURNAL OF THE

iu animals, but in the case of animals and human beings the
phenomena are so complex as to be quite beyond the poNver of*
comprehension of the beginner. The person who has studied
the laws of nutrition, growth, reproduction, degeneration and
extinction as exhibited in the vegetable kingdom will be well
prepared to profit at a later period when he takes up the subject of
animal and human physiology.

4. Plants can be studied far more thorouohly than is practi-
cable with minerals and animals — in the case, at least, of young
persons and those who have not at hand complex and costly
apparatus and chemical re-agents often dangerous to handle. The
lack of thoroughness in everything is the bane and scandal of our
American schools, and the direct cause of the superficial charac-
ter of so much of our literature, morality and laws. Concern-
ing thoroughness in mental acquirements, Professor DeMorgan,
of London University, gave the following advice to his
students: "Whatever else you may do, some one subject you
should thoroughly master for the purpose of giving the proper
tone to the mind upon its regard to the use, province and limits
of knowledge in general."

5. The study of plants furnishes an unequal h'd recreation and
tonic for the mind subject to the strain of exacting business or
professional life. Some of the most enthusiastic and accom-
plished botanists that this country has produced were practical
and successful physicians, bankers, merchants and housewives.
This study is especially valuable for invalids and persons of
delicate physical organization and those of sedentary employ-
ment. When conducted in a rational manner the study is car-
ried on principally iu the health-giving atmosphere of the grove
and meadow.

6. The study of i)lant-life, by exhibiting a j)ractically inex-
haustible field for research, acts as a preventive of the surfeit and
disgust with the world which too often overwhelms highly but
nnsvmmetricallv developed minds. The wholesome restraint
which the habitual exercise of the observing faculty — a faculty
powerfully stimulated by this study — places upon the imagina-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 35

tion serves to check its vagrant wanderings. There are no
^'cranks" in the ranks of botany! It guards also against mis-
use of the too often "fatal gift of expression," which so fre-
quently makes its possessor mistake words for things and asser-
tions for facts. An instructive example of what an exclusively
literary and metaphysical training may do for a highly gifted
man is seen in the career of the late Thomas Carlyle. Some
time before his death Mr. Carlyle, in reviewing his life-work,
made the following melancholy confession: "For many years it
has been one of my most constant regrets that no school-master
of mine had a knowledge of natural science so far, at least, as to
have taught me the names of the flowers and grasses that grow
by the wayside, and of the winged and wingless neighbors, who
in my walks are constantly greeting me with salutations which,
as things are, I cannot return."

It would be an easy matter to extend this enumeration as far
as the orthodox thirteen, but these will suffice.

Perhaps some one will exclaim, "Yes, it is no doubt a pleasant
thing to know by its proper name each wayside flower and tree,
but who can remember the barbarous and uncouth names of
botany?" Well, if one cannot at first remember the Latin
names applied to plants by scientific botanists and unscientific
pedants one can let scientific botany alone until one has devel-
oped some skill in observing plants and discriminating one spe-
cies from another. The need of a terminology more exact than
the common vernacular will become apparent and by that time
the student will have developed enthusiasm sufficient to enable
him to mem(n*ize the botanical vocabulary. At the beginning it
will serve just as well to use the common vernacular name or
even invent names for one's self. The name is the least impor-
tant thing one can learn about a plant, and it is not wise for the
beginner to exhaust his time and patience in trying to choose the
most proper of several possible and equally unintelligible names.
Rather he should study the structure and details of different
plants and seek to group them around common types, thus learn-
ing for himself the philosophy of the natural system. The

36 JOURNAL OF THE

scientific name must be eventually learned, but the unavoidable
difficulty involved in learning and memorizing the name will be
less discouraging when the need of knowing the name is urgently
felt. Our barbarous Latin nomenclature, which well might make
Virgil or Tully turn in their graves, is the least admirable })art
of the science and ought not to be obtrusively thrust before
beginners! The average beginner is dismayed when, upon open-
ing for the first time his botanical text- book, he finds the initial
chapters headed by such unpromising words as Phylotoxis, Esti-
vation, Morphology, etc., etc. This verbal quagmire placed by
pedantry before the entrance to the ^'fairy-land of science'' has
swallowed up more budding scientific; enthusiasm than has of
war-like zeal

" ■«■ * * that Serbonian bog

'Tvvixt Damiata and Mount Cassiiis old,

Where armies whole have sunk."

Where the services of a competent teacher can be had the best
way to begin the study of plants is to go into the field and study
them upon their native soil. Where no such a teacher can be
found — such teachers are scarce — recourse to books for guidance
is inevital)le. For young pupils, and older ones who are unfa-
miliar with Latin, the best book to begin with is Miss Youman's
First Book in Botany. This will lead up to Gray's School and
Field Book, but persons not likely to be discouraged by Latin
words may begin with the latter book.

Much more useful than any book is the student's field outfit.
This should include a good pocket magnifier having two lenses,
a pocket-knife with a thin and sharp blade for slicing soft stems
and ovaries, a couple of steel crochet needles for picking out
small seeds, a garden trowel or a stout knife ibr digging u}>
roots, and an air-tight tin box for preserving su(;h specimens as
may be wanted for further study at home.

It is not best to bother with drying })lants for the formation
of a herbarium until after the student has become well acquainted
with all the sj)ecies common to his locality. When that time
comes he will want to procure new species for study, and these

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 37

can be best secured by exchanging with students in different
parts of the country or of other countries. The names of per-
sons willing to exchange specimens can be found in the Natural-
ist's Directory, published by Casino, Boston, or by inquir-
ing of the botanist attached to any college or Experiment
Station. The making of good specimens is an art that takes a
deal of practice and care to learn, but the following directions
will aid the beginner:

In collecting herbs not over three feet take the whole plant,
root and branch. When taller than three feet cut off that much
measuring from the top, and in addition dig up the root with
such leaves as may be attached. Of shrubs and trees a twig
with leaves and flowers will suffice, but a piece of the bark is
often necessary to enable one to make out the species. For
dryers use common straw wrapping paper in sheets 12x18
inches. Place wad, about one inch thick, between the layers of
plants. Carefully spread out the leaves and see that the flowers
are not covered by them before putting on the dryers. The
dryers must be changed every twenty-four hours for the first
three days, afterwards every two days until perfectly dry. For
a press use lattice-work frames, which any one can make out of
a few laths or narrow strips of board. Apply pressure by
means of a stout cord or a trunk strap and keep the package in
the sunshine or near a stove. The plants will dry out in about
a week.

For more detailed instruction the student is referred to a little
work, "The Plant Collector's Hand-book," by Professor W. W.
Bailey, published by Cassiuo, price $1. A pamphlet equally
as good is Professor L. F. Ward's "Suggestions to Beginners
in Botany," which may be had gratis by applying to the Secre-
tary of the Suiithsonian Institution at Washington, D. C.

The following works for reference and general reading can be
recommended, and they should be taken up in the order here
given, viz. :

Gray's Manual of Botany of the Northern States.

Cliapraan's Southern Flora.

Local Catalogues of Plants. 5

38 JOURNAL OF THE

Grant Allen's Colin Clouts Calendar.

Grant Allen's Pedigrees of Flowers.

Underwood's Ferns.

DeCandolle's Origins of Cultivated Plants.

Mehan's Wayside Flowers.

Goodale's Physiological Botany.

Sach's Lectures on Plant Physiology.

Darwin's Botanical Works.

LeMaout & DeCaisne's General Botany, English Edition.

The Botanical Gazette, a monthly magazine published at
Crawfordsville, Indiana, will be found very interesting reading
after the student has mastered the rudiments of the science.

RECOEDS OF MEETINGS.

REPORT OF RECORDING SECRETARY

FORTY-FIRST MEETING.

Stated Meeting. Person Hall, January 8, 1889.

Vice-President Graves presided. The following papers were read :

1. Report on Progress in Geology. Prof. Holmes gave an account of the
efforts made at a unification of Symbols and Nomenclature.

2. Report on Progress in Physics and Engineering. In tin's Report Prof.
Gore described the recent applications of Electricity to Street Railways.

3. An Historical Sketch of Mathematical Training in the University of
North Carolina. This paper, by Prof. Love, besides containing a list of the
instructors in mathematics and the text-books used during the century of the
University's history just closing, outlined so far as possible the requirements
for entrance and for graduation,

4. History of Mathematics in the Middle Ages. Prof. Graves continued,
in this, his Early Mathematical History.

5. Early Legislation against Food Adulteration. Prof Venable gave an
account of some of the adulterations of food [)racticed in early times, the
methods of testing for the same, and extracts from the old laws prohibiting
and punishing such adulterations.

The Secretary exhibited the watch of Rev. Dr. Mitchell, which was worn
by him when he met his death, and whose stopping was supposed to point to
the exact hour of his Aite. This watch has been presented to the Society by
Rev. Mr. Summerell, the grandson of Dr. Mitchell.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 39

The Secretary reported three additional exchanges and eighty-seven books
and pamphlets received.

Messrs. A. H. Patterson and W. S. Roberson were received as associate
members.

FORTY-SECOND MEETING.

Stated Meeting. Person Hall, February 12, 1889.

As the Vice-President was absent, Prof. Gore presided. The papers pre-
sented were as follows:

6. Preservation of Wood with Creosote Oil. This paper, by Mr. I. H.
Manning, appears in full in this issue of the Journal.

7. Natural History of the Cereals. Gerald McCarthy, Esq., gave in this
paper a short account of each of the principal Cereals, giving not only the
natural history but the story of their introduction, in a brief form.

8. Some Sources for Sugar Proposed at the Close of Last Century. Mr. H.
L. Harris showed in this paper that many vegetables and trees had been
closely examined with a view to their sugar-producing power, thus anticipat-
ing much of the similar work done of late years.

9. An Account of an Interesting Fossil found in the Neighborhood of Chapel
Hill. Prof. Holmes exhibited fragments of this fossil recently dug up in
this vicinity and gave an account of its discovery. He hopes soon to present
a more complete paper upon the subject.

10. Note on the Decomposition of Nickel and Cobalt.

Dr. Venable read to the Society an abstract of the important paper by
Kruss & Schmidt on this subject.

The Secretary reported two new members :

Prof. W. H. Pegram, Trinity College, N. C.

J. R. Harris, Esq., Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C.

Several additional exchanges were reported. Eighty-five books and pam-
phlets were received during the month.

forty-third meeting.

Stated Meeting. Person Hall, March 12, 1889.

Prof Gore presided in the absence of Vice-President Graves.
The following papers were presented:

11. The Three Formations of the Atlantic Slope, with exhibition of photo-
graphs and specimens, by Professor Holmes.

12. A Note on the Use of Pulverized Coal as Fuel. By Prof. J. W. Gore.

13. A Photographic Camera made from a Cigar- Box, with an exhibition of
views taken with it, by Mr. H. L. Harris.

14. Some Notes on Recent Progress in Chemistry. Dr. Venable described
work done on preparing Artificial Quinine and Cocaine and gave some of the
new applications of Cotton Seed Oil.

The Secretary reported as a new associate member Mr. C. W. Toms.
Twelve additional exchanges were announced and eighty-seven books and
pamphlets received during the month.

40 JOURNAL OF ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

FORTY-FOURTH MEETING.

Stated Meeting. Person Hall, April 2, 1889.

Prof. Holmes presided in the absence of Prof Graves, the Resident Vice-
President. The papers presented were as follows:

15. A Primitive Reaping Machine. Prof Alexander gave an acconnt of
this machine described by Palladiiis, a Roman writer on Agriculture, as in
use among the ancient Gauls.

16. The Consumption and Waste of the World's Resources. Dr. Venable
called attention in this paper to the rapid consumption of the world's availa-
ble supply of coal and petroleum, and of the great waste of many valuable
metals.

17. Prof Holmes gave a paper on the use of the microscope in Geology
and Mineralogy, in which, were described several forms of microscopes, and
particularly the one recently manufactured for the University by the Bausch
& Lomb Optical Company, of Rochester, X. Y.

The Secretary reported three additional exchanges and seventy-five books
and pamphlets received.

FORTY-FIFTH MEETING.

Annual Meeting. May 4, 1889.

In the absence of the Secretary and Treasurer, and because of the illness
of tlie Vice-President, no reports were received from these officers.
The following officers were elected for the ensuing year:

President H. T. Bahnson, M. D Salem.

Vice-President H. B. Battle, Ph. D Raleigh.

Resident Vice-President J. A. Holmes, B. Sc Chapel Hill.

Corresponding Sec. and Treas F. P. Venable, Ph. D Chapel Hill.

Recording Sec. and Librarian J. W. Gore, C. and M. E Chapel Hill.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

VOLUME VI— PART SECOND.

JULY— DECKMBKR.

1889.

PERMAltENT SECRETARY:

F. P. VENABLE, . CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

E. M. UZZELL, STEAM PRINTER AND BINDER.
' RALEIGH, N. C.

1890.

OFFICERS.

1889— 1890.

PRESIDENT :

H. T. Bahxson, M. D Salem, N. C.

VICE-PRESIDENT :

H. B. BATTI.E, Ph. D., Raleigh, N. C.

RESIDENT VICE-PRESIDENT :

J. A. H01.MES, B. Agr Chapel Hill, N. C.

PERMANENT SECRETARY AND TREASURER :

F. P. VENABI.E, Ph. D., F. C. S Chapel Hill. N. C.

RECORDING SECRETARY AND UBRARIAN :

J. W. Gore, C. E., Chapel Hill, N. C.

LIBRARY AND PIv.\CE OF MEETING:

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

. PAGE.

List of Officers 42

Addendum to the Minerals and Mineral Localities of North Carolina.

William Earl Hidden 45

Nematode Root-galls. Geo. F. Atkinson 81

A Tube-building Spider. Notes on the Architectural and Feeding

Habits of Atypus Niger Hentz {?). W. L. Poteat 134

Records of Meetings 147

Report of Secretary for 1889 - 150

Report of Treasurer for 1889 150

Necrology ._ 151

List of Members 152

List of Exchanges 155

Eight plates and thirty-eight figures in the text.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elislia iMitcliell Scientific Society,

TO THE

Minerals and Mineral Localities of North Carolina,

BY WILLIAM EARL HIDDEN

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

At the suggestion of the aeting State Geologist, herewith are
appended some of the results coming out of my search for Plati-
num in this State in 1879. The trip was made in the inter-
est of Thomas A. Edison, the famous electrician and inventor.
My trip extended over five montiis, and the principal gold
placers of North Carolina were visited. At the many places
where I operated I did not find any traces of its existence. The
five reported localities in North Carolina \vere carefully pros-
pected without success. While examining these gold gravels fi)r
Platinum crystals of minerals having rare scientific interest would
occasionally be noticed in my [)aiinings.

The Briudletown district of Burke county proved to. offer
the greatest attraction in this connection. From a doubtful
dozen, known to exist there before my visit, the list of occurring
mineral species soon reached the goodly number of fi)rty-five.
Some of this list were new to the State, viz. : Octahedrite, Fer-
gusonite, Malacon, Xenotime and Native-telluriun Of greater
interest was the observation of immense quantities of mona-

46 JOURNAL OF THE

zite (now promising to become an ore of commerce for the
thoria and cerium eaitlis it contains) discovered to be stored away
in the ravines and "placers^' of this region.

My shipment to Mr. Edison, in 1879, of fifty pounds of a
sixty per cent, monazite-sand was the starting of an industry
whicli, in 1888, witnessed some twelve thousand pounds of a
similar monazite-sand being sent out of the same region, and
this business is as yet only in its beginning.

From my several notices of North Cai'olina minerals, pub-
lished in scientific magazines and elsewhere, I condense into the
following pages such matter as seems to be of interest for this
report, additional to "The Minerals and Mineral Localities of
North Carolina" (Chapter 1, volume 2, of the Geology of
North Carolina, 1881, by Genth and Kerr).

Diamond. — A crystal,* weighing 4 J carats, that would afix)rd
a gem worth intrinsi(;ally not over SI 50, was found on the
Bright farm, near Dysartsville, McDowell county, in the summer
of 1886. It measured 10 X 7 millimeters and was a distorted
octahedron. It wms nearly perfect and of a grayish-green tint.
It bears the distinction of being tiie largest and most valuable
diamond yet found in the State.

Another diamond (not before publicly announced) was found
in 1877, by a small boy, in the same region as the one above
mentioned. It weighed 2f c"arats, was shaped very much like
a smooth flat field-bean and was very well polished naturally.
It w^as white, but somewhat flawed. The crystal planes were
very obscure. The finder disposed of it in Marion for a mere
nominal sum. Mr. B. B. Price, of Marion, put it into the
hands of Mr. James M. Gere, of Spi'uce Pine, U) dispose of to
best advantage. Mr. Gere, who is an extensive buyer and miner
of North Carolina mica, took it with i)im to Syracuse, N. Y,,
and sold it there to Messrs. C. M, Ball & Co., the leading
jewelers, for the sum of $18. It was finally sent to New York,
where it was cut into a small gem and its identity lost.

*Am. Jour. Sci., Dec, 1887, p. 400, Kiinz.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47

Emerald (chrome-green beryl). — In the hist edition (chap-
ter 1, of the 2d volume, Geology of North Carolina) the dis-
covery of emeralds in this State was only conjectured. Up to
1881 there had been found at the now famous locality only a
few crystals, which "had not sufficient depth of color or trans-
parency to be termed gems."* But as forerunners of what fol-
lowed in the succeeding years these crystals had tlieir peculiar
value as pioneer specimens presaging the existence of true enier-
alds. On page 41, chapter 1, Geology of North Carolina, 1881,
the remark is made that '^deep green cry.->tals (of beryl) resem-
bling emendds and beautiful varieties, simihir to occurrences in
Siberia), are found on J. W. Warren's farm, near Salem Church,
Alexander county."

The discovery of the emerald mine was made in 1880 and w'as
in the nature of a scientific deduction from events occurring to
me while carrying forward a systematic search for Platinum in
North Carolina. While visiting Alexander county and vicinity,
in 1879, a few pieces of "beryl" were noticed in the collection of
a local miueralist (Mr. J. A. D. Stephenson) which in their edges
exhibited a tinge of color verging distinctly on that of the
emerald. On that observation I at once concluded that, a re-
gion which could produce beryls, having a slight tint of the
true emerald color, might, or ought to furnish the true emer-
ald if proper search was made. Accordingly, at my first leis-
ure the locality was re-visited (the Warren farm above cited)
and a systematic search commenced for the source of the crvs-
tals of beryl, which up to that time had only been found
loose in the surface soil and of trifling value. After five weeks
of fruitless effort a vein was found at a depth of eight feet below
the surface, in which not only true emeralds were found, but also,
along with thenj, maiiy slender crystals having emerald color,
perfect transparency, but otherwise very different from emeralds
proper.f It is unnecessary to recount here all the emerald dis-
coveries made in Sharpe's Township, Alexander county, during

*Letter from Dr. Genth, 1880, to Mr. J. A. D. Stephenson.

f These crystals were subsequently given the name of hiddenite.

48 JOURNAL OF THE

the past six years, and it must suffice to mentioi) only tlie more
important ''finds/'

In October, 1882, twentv-two ounces of emei-ald were found

7 7^

in one " pocket," one crystal of which was sold in its natural
condition for $800. (It weit]^hed nine ounces and was eight and
a half inches long and only partially suitable for jewelry).*
» Many "pockets" were found in the succeeding four years yield-
ing crystals which sold for from §25 to §200 each.

On the ninth of August, 1886, a "pocket'' was unexpectedly
discovered which yielded another uine-ounce emerald ; this crvs-
tal was one and one-quarter inches thick and three inches long,
and is the lart^est of the three emeralds fio^ured in Plate 1.

Nine crystals were taken out of this })ocket at a depth of not
over twenty feet. Three of them brought Si ,000 and are yet
retained in their natural condition as when found.

In July (1886), at a depth of forty-three feet, in the hard
rock, a small "pocket" was found and an emerald was taken
therefrom which, upon being cut by a lapidary, yielded a
beautiful gem of 4f carats weight and was worth §200. It has
the distinction of being the finest gem emerald yet discovered in
the United States. This niine is owned by several Northern
gentlemen and is incorporated under the title of "The Enierald
and Hiddenite Mining Company," with a nominal ca})ital of
$200,000. The locality is situated sixteen miles north-west of
Statesville and directly on the line of the Taylorsville extension
of the Western North Carolina Railroad. A station near the
mine has been formally named " Hiddenite," and a new j)ost-
office has been established there, bearing the same narne.

The photo-engraved Plate No. 1 exhibits well the natural form
of three of the l)est crystals of the "find " of Auojust, 1886. and
also the shape of the cut emerald, all of natural size The two
crystals in the middle foreground are hiddenites, and will be
noted under that head.

One-third of a mile due west a new discovery was tiiade, in

"See Harper's Monthly Magaxine, December, 1887, for colored illnstratiou.

1

SJ

00

oc

30
I—'

<

I— I

Pi

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEiNTIFIC SOCIETY.

49

1885, of emerald tinted beryls,* and the locality promises gem
resnlts in the near fnture. It is known as the Morton mine

(}

I

I

/^^:£=^.

IN

A

-^^^

n

z-2

z-2

J-

J-

.

I

i in 4
PLATE 2-BERYLS AND EMERALDS, FROM ALEXANDER COUNTY.

(formerly the Pendergrass-Lyon land). Good indications also
exist, some three miles easterly, on the old Miller farm.

*It is stated on good authority that a Mr. Meisermohr found "a very green beryl" on
this tract over twenty years ago.

50 JOURNAL OF THE

In the writer's opinion emeralds will he found on the same
geological horizon as the Alexander county localities over a very
extensive area north-east and south-west. Outside of this emerald
locality there is no other emerald mine known to exi>t in the
United States.

Beryl (aquamarine and those varieties other than emerald). —
Some notable transparent beryls were mined in Alexander,
Macon and Yancey counties during the past five years, some of
which were cut into brilliant gems of marketable sizes. As high
as five dollars per carat has been obtained for large lots of North
Carolina aquamarines of pale green, blue and yellow shades.

Those found outside of Alexander county were from the mica
mines, while the former were exclusively from the gem mine in
Alexander county, with one very remarkable exception of a huge
gem beryl, from a new locality north-west from Taylorsville,
wlu're it was found loose in the sufface soil.

Some of them are exceediniily beautiful in their natural con-
dition as f unid, tlie polish on the natural crystal planes being
equal to that made by a la|)idary. See Plate 2, page 49.

Some few of the Alexander county crystals have from forty to
ninety tei'minal faces'^ and would take rank, in a scientific sense,
above those of any other American locality. Tlius far eio:hteen
different forms (three of them 7iew) have been identified on the
beryls ibund at the Emerald and Hiddenite mine, while com-
monly only two or three forms occur.

0])aque beryls, blue and green, weighing more than fifty
pounds each, have been found in Yancey and Mitchell counties,
and should glucina ever be desired in quantity, for commercial
j)urp()ses. North Carolina could supply this ore of it, by the ton.

lIiDDExMTEf (emerald-green spodumene).-— The manner in
which this beautiful mineral was so unex[)ectedly discoceredl has

='=Anrkor. Joiir. Sci., Nov., 1882, p.:\12; lb.,.Itino, 1887, pp. 50">— 5(tG. Sitznnj2;sberiehte dei-
Niederrheinisclieii Ge.ssell.'^chiit't fnr Nritnr — iind Heilkunde in Bonn, July 7, 1886, pp.
90— !);5.

fAmer. Jour. Sr:i., I-'eh., IsSi, pp. 128—13(1, J. Lawrence Smith.

X.\ lew pule, yellowi.sli-j^reen cry.'^tals of what, in 187H, was considered to be Diopside
liad been found on this same property \>y some of .Mr. Warren's chiUlren, and tiiey
found tlieir way into the hjcal cojk'etion of .Mr. .1. .\. f). .Siephenson, in whose eabiuft I
noticed fheni (in IsT'.t). Neither lie nor 1 looUeil forward to finding this mineral of .such
a beautiful ituii ukf.kn roi.ou as was so unexpectedly done in the vein already mentioned,
or of even fimiinjj; it ajrain. We did not, in fa<n, give it much attention. E.meralds
were tlie only goal ahead.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

51

already been detailed in Hie preceding pages, under the liead of
Elnierald. As early as November, 18(S0, I had shown this new
emerald-green variety to possess the characteristics that are con-
sidered necessary in a gem stone, i e., beauty, hardness, trans-

CRYSTALS OF HIDDENITE, FIGURED BY E. S. DANA.

parency and rarity. It did not take long, therefore, for this new
gem to be appreciated on its own merits and find sale as a
precious stone. Almost at once sales were made at the high rate
of $100 per carat, and within a year from its discovery it had
been successfully introduced, both at home and abroad, as a gem
of the highest rank. Hidden ite is to the species spodumene

/f1

t

»
fe

A'-

4
4

4

CRYSTALS OF HIDDENITE SHOWING TWINNING, AND ROUNDED TERMINA-
TIONS DUE TO NATURAL ETCHING. (DRAWN FROM NATURE).

exactly what emerald is to the species beryl, i. e., a chrome green
variety. Its hardness nearly equals the emerald. Its density
varies from 3.15 to 3.19. Its form is monoclinic, and the crys-

o2

JOURNAL OF THE

tals of this variety of spodumene have added nineteen new
j)lanes* to the species. Its eleavaj^^e angle = SQ° 46' 37V'.

Careful analyses by Smith and Genth yielded the following
results :

Smith.

Silica,

64.35

Aliiraiaa,

28.10

Chromic oxide,

0.00

Ferric oxide,

.25

Ferrous oxide.

Litbia, .

7.05

Potash,

Soda,

.50

Loss, by heating.

.15

Genth.

63.95

26.58

0.18

l.ll

6.82

o.or

1.54

100.40

100.25

To-day fine examples of this gem are quite the rarest among
])recious stones, and the demand was never supplied for the bet-
ter sizes. "Owing to the dichroism there is a peculiar fire. to
them which is wanting in the true emerald." — Dr. E. S. Dana,
Am. Jour. Sci., Se})t., 1881, p. 182. "It is a variety (of spodu-
mene) rivaling the emerald as a gem," states Prof. J. D. Dana
in his Manual of ^lineralogy (1887), ]). 2G9.

Plate 1 includes two crystals (jf Hiddenite [the two in the
front middle foreground with their points extended towards the
reader.] The larger crystal is the finest one yet discovered. It
was 68 millimeters long and 7X14 thick. It would furnish two
gems weighing over five carats each, one of which would be of
superb dark-green color. Up to the discovery of this crystal
(which is now in the Bement collection) the largest cut gem
weighed but 2f carats, and it had been sold to a wholesale gem
broker in 1880 at the rate of f$100 per carat.

The work of development at the mine has reached a depth
of fifty-eight feet, thirty-two feet of which is in the solid rock.
The formation continues unchanged, and the last work done
yielded a handsome })ercentage of i)rofit.

Spodumene (other than the emerald-green variety). — The
ordinary common variety of opaque gray spodumene has not as

♦Described by Dr. E. S. Dana and the late Prof. G. Vom Rath.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 53

yet been foiuul in Nortli Carolina. Perfectly clear crystals of
faint yellow tints and different shades of yellowish-green have
been found at the emerald locality, and fine gems have been cut
of these pale colors which were very brilliant. Often a crystal
of spodumene will be almost colorless or faintly yellowish for
three-fourths its length and then terminate with a (;rovvn of pute
emerald color. This phenonienon is peculiar, but not confined to
spodumene; for some tourmalines, sapphires, sphenes, etc., show
a similar diverse arrangement of coloring matter in the same
crystal,

Pseudom()rj)hs of pinite, muscovite and '^ gillingite" after
spodumene crystals occur at the Alexander county locality much
the same, though in miniature, as those at Branchville, Conn.,
and elsewhere. The Alexander county spodumene, thus far in
my experience, is an implanted mineral on the walls of open
pockets and is not an imbedded mineral as is the fact elsewhere
in the United States. This may explain its gem character in
North Carolina,

Garnet (pyrope and almandine varieties). — Some very cred-
itable gems of brownish-red, cherry-red and purplish-red hues
have been found in Alexander county, though no regular deposits
have been located as yet. A few of the cut stones sold for from
$3 to |10 each. One four carat gem brought $20.

The locality eight miles south-east of Morganton has produced
several tons of a very compact and perfect garnet, which have
been crushed into different grades of fineness for use as a "sand-
paper" and shipped in that form to Northern parties.

[The locality stated as ''Marshall's farm, where garnets are
found two feet in diameter," seems to be erroneous. People in
Alexander county cannot locate it, and the size stated seems too
great.]

Zircon (silicate of zirconia). — The locality on Green River,
Henderson county, at the old Freeman place, has been re-opened,
and the yield to date has been upwards of twenty tons (40,000
pounds). This and the adjoining Jones mine have produced
about thirty tons altogether, most of which has passed through
2

44 JOURNAL OF THE

the writer^s handrs to its ultimate market. Uiuler enconragemeiit
from General T. L. Clinj^inan, iliese same mines had })ro-
dueed, up to 1879, not far from a ton of pure zir(H)ns.
This industry is an entirely new one. North Carolina has
natural advantages in her zircon mines in the method of their
(Kjcurrenee, which permits her to successfully compete with the
wdiole world in their production. Zirconia is the most infusible
substance known (with the possible exception of thoria), and
these North Carolina crystals contain 65.3 j)er cent. (Chandler)
of zirconium-oxide. The use to which this unprecedented
quantity of zircons is being put, is as one of the constituents
in the make-up of the lately patented Welsbach Incandescent
Gas-light. The inventor is Dr. Carl Auer von Welsbach, of
Germ:my, who is now making practical use of the incandescence
of zirconia and other rare earths (cei'ia, lanthana, thoria, etc.)
while under high temperatures. The best results are obtained
when water or natural gas is used, since the heat obtained is much
greater than from ordinary gas. Already strong companies are
being formed the world ovi-r to introduce and maintain this new
gas-light, and it promises to become a very popular means of
illumination.

Allanite. — Several liew localities of this rare mineral have
been discovered. The one near Democrat Post-office, in Madisoi*
county, is veiy j)romisiiig. The locality near Bethany Chui'ch,
Iredell county, has been examined lately, and it is safe to assert
that tons could be mined there. A varietv in crystals from the
Wiseman mica mine, Mitchell countv, has been analyzed by jNIal-
lett and found to contain 8.20 per cent, of yttria and only 1.53
per cent, of ccj'ia. This mineral has also been identifi^'d by the
writer among specimens from Brindletown, I^urke county; at
the Henderson county zircon mines and at the irem mine in
Alexander coumv.

Pyrooiii.ore. — I have f mud small crystals of this rare min-
eral (they may prove to be microlite) at Ray's mica mine, Yan-
cey county, and better crystals, of the variety known as Hatch-
ettolite, at Wiseman's mica mine, Mitchell county. The latter
contains about 15 per cent, of uranium oxide.

ELISHA MITCHP:LT. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 55

CoLUMBiTE. — A single large crystal of this ore of colinnhic
acid was found near Liberty Church, Alexander county. Its
density was 6.28. It therefore consisted more largely of tan-
talic acid than is commonly found in columhite. The mineral
thonglit to be ^I^schyuite, now credited to this State, has been
shown to belong here.

Samarskite. — "^'everal hundred pounds have been mined and
sold during the past five years from the old original locality at
Wiseman's, in Mitchell county. Several new eaitln have been
discovered in it, i. e., Decipia, Phillipia, Samaria, etc.

EuxENiTE. — This species has not as yet been found in this
State. The brown mineral fi-om Wiseman's mine lacks the
titanic acid essential and is only altered samarskite.

^I^SCHYNITE AND Yttro-tantalite. — These s[)pcies have not
as yet been identified from this State and sliould not be included
in the list of North Carolina minerals.

Polycrase, or an allied species, has lately l)een found on
the Davis land, in Henderson county, near Green River. It is
a cohnubo-titanate of yttrium and uranium, and a qualitative
analysis has shown all of these elements to be present. The
proportion of the yttrium earths and of uranium seems to be
higher than found in the Norwegian polycrase, and the colum-
bic and titanic acids seem to be present as a complex inorganic
acid and not as a mere mixture. It may be a new species.

Rutherfordite. — A doubtful species long credited to this
State. It is most probably identical with the fergusonite of the
same region first recognized by me in 1879, and analyzed by
Smith and Mallett.

Fergusonite (columl)ate of yttria, erbia, etc.). — I hiive found
very fine crystals at the Wiseman mine, in Mitchell county, but
with nothing new as to form. Some were more than one inch
long. The locality about the Pilot Mountain, in Burke county
(Mill's mine), has produced many crystals of this rare mineral.

Xenotime (yttrium-phosphate). — Some few extraordinary
crystals were found in Alexander county at a place about three
miles east from the Emerald mine. At first they were not unnatu-

5G

JOURNAL OF THE

rally mistaken for zircons, suctli was their almost perfect resem-
l)lancein color and form. The l>est sing-le crystal was only one-
fourth inch wide and one-half inch long, though a polysynthetic
grouping of several crystals was double that size. The particular
feature was the long prismatic development (zircon-like) and the
transparency of the crystals. Careful measurements showed the
inclination of the unit pyramid on the prisn) to l)e 131^ 12^ to
131° 14'. Density 4.52. They added one new plane to the
species, the pyramid 3 (331). A notable crystal was .121 and
.113 inch in its two diameters and .522 inch long. It was per-
fectly transparent and of a hair-brown color. A small mineral-
ogical gem could have l>een cut from it.

Lately I have re-examined the monazite-sand obtained in
August, 1880, near Miliiolland's Mill (now Warren's), on Third
Creek, Alexander county, and have identified this rare mineral
in it. The crystals are very n;kinute, but are perfectly clear,
have a delicate brown tint and have long prismatic develop-
ment. They also present one neio })lane, i. e., pyramid 2 of the
second series. I have descrii)ed (.Tvstals from Burke countv*'
(Mills') and from Fienderson county (I)avis' on Green River)
that were symmetrically compounded with zircon, like those
from Norway first noticed by Zschau. (Amer. Jour. Sci., II,
XX, 273).

PRISiMATIC XENOTIME AND XENOTIME-CYRTOLITE (SYMMETRICALLY COM-
BINED) FROM ALEXANDER AND HENDERSON COUNTIES.

MoNAZiTE (cerium, lanthanum and didymiun) phosphate
with some thorium). — The crystals of this species which I was

*Lately found to coutain over 4 per cent, of tliori:^.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

57

privileged to discover in 1880, in Alexander connty, at the then
Milholland's iMill locality* proved to be the most perfectly devel-
oped crystals found up to that time, and in the hands of Dr.
Edward S. Danaf have given the first wholly reliable results ob-
tained for the species as to its angles. He found their axial
ratio to be c (vert.) : b : a = 0.95484 : 1.03163 : 1 ; with a (100)
over c(001)=-76° 20^

S a

MONAZITE, PRISMATIC AND TWINNED, FROM ALEXANDER COUNTY.

They were highly modified, very brilliant in lustre, of a light
t()[)az-yellow color and of perfect transparency. Many hundred
were found, but mostly of minute sizes; those of one-eighth
inc^h diameter were very rare. Nine different forms were iden-
tified and twelve in all were observed. The prismatic angle, I
over I (110 X HO), was determined very exactly, i. e., 93° 25f^
For the first time the true form of this species was removed
from all doubt.

The monazite of the Pilot Mountain gold region (Burke county)
has l)een carefully analyzed by S. A. Penfield,J of Yale College.
He states that ^'almost half of the bulk of this sand (after care-
ful concentration) is composed of resinous-looking grains of
monazite, from ^^gth to \\\\ inch in diameter, some showing
crystalline planes." By careful selection a sufficient quantity of
the pure monazite, of an even shade of color, for a complete
analysis in triplicate was finally separated. The specific gravity

*Am. Jour. Sci., July, 1881, p. 21.

fib., October, 1882, p. 247; lb., pp. 250—252.

lib., October, 1882, pp. 247—254, E. S. Dana and S. L. Penfield. "Zeitsehrift fur Krys-
tallographie, etc.," 7, 363—365, Dana.

58 JOURNAL OF THE

was found to be 5.10; the color usually varies from wax-
yellow to cinnamon-brown.
The result was as follows:

I.

11.

in.

Phosphoric acid,

29.45

29.20

29.20

Cerium oxide,

31.38

31.94

30.77

Lanthanum oxide, )
Didymium oxide, )

30.67

.30.80

31.17

Thorium oxide.

6.68

6.24

6..56

Silica,

1.40

Water, or loss by ignition

, 0.20

.20

99.78

It is thus seen that this ])articu]ar mouazite is a normal phos-
phate of the cerium metals, with a mechanical (?) mixture of a
thorium silicate, very similar, chemically, to the symmetrical
inclusion of zirconium-silicate (zircon) in the ytirium-phosphate
(xenotime) found in this same region.

A monazite from Virginia yielded fourteen per cent., and a
mass from Connecticut gave eight per cent., of thoria to this
same analyst.

In the lii>;ht of some recent inventions monazite-sand may
become of considerable commercial value on account of its very
apparent applicability. The complete separation of the grains
of momizite from the other minerals composing the sand is the
one "desidei'atum^' necessary to insure its })ractiial use on a
large scale.

Mineralogists and crystal lographers have been especially
pleased with the "find" of monazite crystals at a locality in
Alexander county situated about three miles east of the Emer-
ald and Iliddenite mine. They were found among large smoky
quartz cryf>tals, considerable rutile in the form of fine yellow
needles matted to";ether and some remarkable xenotimes. Only
about twenty good crystals were found. For the most part
they were ti'ansparent, of a beautiful essonite-red color and
highly polished. Tiiey varied in width frotn one-fourtii to
one-half inch, and from one-third to three- fourths inch long.
They were long-})rismati(^ in the direction of the clino-axis and

P:LISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59

were twinned parallel to the orthopinacoid. Cruciform twins
like the fio:ure were observed.

In the respects of size, color, being twinned and in the occur-
rence of several planes, they differed from those found at Mil-
holland's Mill, in the same county, but they were not quite as
smnotldy and perfectly developed. An analysis, by Penfield,
showed only a normal monnzite with 1.48 per cent, of thoria as
impurity (?). Specific gravity, 5.203. Nothing finer, in this
species, has as yet been discov^ered over the entire world.

Apatite (phosphate of lime). — This species is rare in this
State, as a crystallized mineral. Excepting at the Ray mica
mine, in Yancey county, where crystals were found one-half
to two inches thick, having a gray color, I do not remember to
have noticed any evidences of its occurrence outside of Alexan-
der county. The discovery of fine crystals in this State is nota-
ble only from its scientific value, since the crystals were small
and quite rare.

In many of the gem bearing '^pockets" opened-out in Sharpens
Township, Alexander county, small apatite crystals have been
found, i)ut not until July, 1886, were any found that were
worthy of particular notice. In a ''pocket'' 10 X 2 X 6 feet
(which was found forty feet below the surface) among splendid
crystallizations of quartz, muscovite, siderite, dolomite, rutile and
emerald, several patches of apatite crystals were noticed. It
was plainly evident from tlieir loose attachment and perfection
that they were the last crysiallization of the " [)ocket.'' For the
most part they were rather long, slender, six-sided prisms of a
pale bluish-green color and transparent. Few were more than
one inch long. They were undistinguishable from beryls in
their appearance, though beryls rarely occur so brilliant and per-
fect in outward form. In one corner of the pocket a small
group of muscovite crystals were fountl on which were implanted
a few very brilliant wine-yellow transparent crystals of apatite.
They were of an entirely tlifferent habit from the other apatites

60

JOURNAL OF THE

found. Instead of being long prismatic tliey presented mostly
terminal planes in great number^ as the two figures here show.

rre

/^^^

in.

HIGHLY MODIFIED APATITE CRYSTAL, FROM ALEXANDER COUNTY;

FIGURED BY H. S. WASHINGTON.

Fourteen different forms were identified, twelve of which
appear in the above figure. A normal development would pre-
sent one hundred and thirty-four
planes on each crystal, while only
twenty planes are found ordinarily
on apatite.

Tiie angle of tiie base c (0001) on
the unit pyramid x (101 1) was found
to be 139° 44J' and the axial ratio
as 1 : 0.734335.*

A twin crystal of apatite, the first
to be describedf and credited to the
species, is here figured. It was found with the slender crystals
above noted. The twinning plane was discovered to be s (1121,
2-2).

Excepting the green and purple ai)atite from Mt. Auburn,
Maine, none has been found in the United States more highly
interesting: or more beautiful.

RUTILE (pure titanic acid, Ti O.^). — This mineral is not used
to any great extent commercially, and no very large deposits
have been found in this State, but it has been proved to have a
very ireneral distribution throuirhout the Piedmont belt and to

^^^

Twin of Apatite,
Alexander Co.

*Am. Jour. Sci., June, 1887, p. 504, Hidden and Wasliington. fllji^-

ELLS HA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

61

occur frequently in magnificent crystallizations. Crystals of
considerable magnitude have been found in Clay county, Yancey
county (near Hurricane Mt.), in Michell county (near Bakers-
ville) and in many localities in Burke, Iredell and Alexander
counties. Notable quantities have come from Clay and Chero-
kee counties, and from Lincoln county, near Lincolnton. To
Alexander county, however, the credit must be given of having
produced the most beautiful rutile crystals known to science.
Rutile is found there in a similar situation to the gems and
quartz crystals, /. e., in open pockets; in fact, it is found inti-
mately associated with and implanted upon the gems and often
preponderates over all the other crystal contents. The particu-
lar points of difference over the same product from other regions
are their mode of occurrence, beautiful natural polish and crys-
tallographic features. Their color ranges from jet black to clear
ruby-red and pale-yellow. They range from those of minute
sizes to rare examples three inches long and half inch diameter.
Their lustre in some cases ap|)roaches that of polished steel.
Gems have been cut from the most solid crystals and the result
compares favorably with the rare black diamonds from Brazil.
Only experts could tell them apart.

The axial ratio was determined
anew on these crystals, and meas-
urements of the angles gave results
remarkable for their close agree-
ment to the calculated angles.* Five
new planes were also added to the
species, four of which were discov-
ered on two crystals found by the
author in Sharpens Township, Alex-
ander county, at the Emerald mine.

Curiously jointed, mitred and reticulated crystals and also
masses of crystals thus united have been commonly met with;
all of which are found to follow certain arbitrary twinning laws

Highly-modified Rutile.
(Basal View).

*C over s (0001, O over 111, 1) = 137° 39' 52". a : c = 1 : 0.644252, Washington.

62 JOURNAL OF THE

and are not accidentally bronglit together into snch strange shapes
as a cursory examination mig-ht seem to indicate.

Tourmaline. — Some fine black crystals have been found in
Alexander county, at the gem mine, and as their forms have
been closely inspected, and their composition ascertained, they
are worthy of notice here.

The largest crystals of this "find" were uot quite three
inches long, but unlike the commonly occurring tourmalines
thev were never imbedded in a matrix. Thin sections and
splinters show a deep brown color. The faces were highly
polished, especially the terminal planes, and twelve different
forms were identified. One new plane was found, /. e., f R.
The angle of J R over J R (1012 over 1 102) was ascertained to
be 132° 58i'.* (Des Cloizeaux obtained 133° 08' on foreign
crystals). The basal plane was frequently observed.

A careful analysis by R. B. Riggs,t U. S. Geological Survey,
gave the following results:

Sp. Gravity = 3.13.

Silica, ...... 35.56

Alumina, ...... 33.38

Ferrous oxide, ' . . . . 8.49

Titanic acid, ..... 0.55

Mangauous oxide, .... 0.04

Lime, . . . . ... 0.53

Mao;nesia, ...... 5.44

Soda, . . . . . .2.16

Potash, ...... 0.24

Water, ...... 3.63

Boracic acid, ..... 10.40

100.43

A few green tourmalines associated with lepidolite (or a piid<
mica) have been found near Burnsville, Yancey county, which
possibly indicates that the gem variety may be found there ulti-
mately.

Malacon. — In the Brindletown gold sands T have found
several good crystals of this rare variety of zircon. The color

*Measured by H. S. Washington.
fAmer. Jour. Sci., Jan., 1888, p. 45, Riggs.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCTENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63

is jet black with occasionally a grayish crust. The form differs
from the zircous directly associated with them, and they are also
very much larger. Their black glassy fracture distinguishes
them from the fergusonite and samarskite of the same sands.
Their density equals 4.087.

Cyrtolite (Hych^ous zirconium, etc., silicate). — Masses and
distinct crystals having curved faces and gray-brown color have
been met with at the Wiseman mica mine, in Mitchell countv,
associated with autunite, fergusonite and samarskite. Also at
Mill's mine, near Brindletown, and at the xenotime and poly-
crase (?) locality on the Davis land, near Green River, in Hen-
derson county.

Thorite (Hydrous thorium-silicate). — The discovery of tho-
ria in the Burke county monazite* has led Penfieldf to regard
its presence as due to a mechanical mixture of thorite with
monazite. Dunnington suggested substantially the same after
an analysis of Virginia momizite.J Peufield states that "oxide
of thorium is widely different, in its chemical relations, to the
oxides of the cerium metals, and hence should not be present
as a replacement of them ; and moreover, as it is present in
very different amounts, it seems natural to assume that the tho-
ria exists in the form of an impurity." Penfield has shown by
a microscopic examination that thorite is present in monazite
beyond question. He prepared a thin section which showed
small grains of a darker resinous substance scattered through it.
It was moistened with hydrochloric acid, gently warmed, then
carefully washed with water and examined \vith the microscope.
Wl)ite blotches had taken the place of many of the resinous
spots, while the monazite appeared to be wholly unattacked.
This observation proved beyond doubt the (sometimes) inclusion
of thorite in monazite and substantiated the chemical evidence
(see analysis of monazite before noted).

Now that thorite is known to exist in this State microscopi-

*Edison found thoria in this mineral in 1879 in specimens collected by the writer.
TAm. Jour. Sci., October, 1882, p. 253. JAmer. Chem. Jour., IV, 138, 1882.

64 JOURNAL OF THE

cally we may hope to find large masses of it, as is the case in
Norway and Sweden.

I have had a considerable quantity of thoria and thorium
salts pre[)ared from the monazite-sand found in Burke county,
near Biindletown, and I believe that the quantity there available
would aggregate many thousand pounds, should a demand arise
for its production.

AuERLiTE.* — While about to complete a contract, furnishing
twenty-six tons of zircons, this mineral was found in small
quantity. I returned to the locality for more material and
was obliged to mine four hundred pounds of zircons, addi-
tional, in order to get enough of this new mineral fur analysis
and description. Thus far I have only had three ounces of it,
but believe that in the neighborhood of its discovery some nota-
ble deposits of this rich ore of thoria and of thorite or orangite
will be discovered. It has only been found at the well-known
Freeman zircon mine, in Henderson county (on Green River) and
on the Price land, three miles south-west. At both places it
occurs in disintegrated granitic and gneissic rocks, and has been
found after the manner of gold-washing.

Its specific gravity varies from 4.4 to 4.766, the darker
colored mineral being the densest. Its hardness = 2.5 to 3. It
is very brittle and is easily crumbled. Color, from pale lemon-
yellow to orange and brown-red. Forms are like the zircons of
the region, oidy they have a tendency to a longer prismatic
development. The crystals are often found attached to unaltered
zircons in parallel position. One twin crystal was found having
twiiming plane parallel to 1-i, like zircon twins.

Analyses (by Mackintosh) show it to be either a hyd rated
thorium-phosphate mixed with a hydrated thorium-silicate, or a
partial replacement of silica, in thorite, by phosphoric acid. Its
composition has a direct bearing u[)on the presence of thoria in
monazite (q. v.) and seems to prove that thoria can be considered
as partially present in monazite as a phosphate. The analyses
gave the following results:

*Am. Jour. Sci., Dec, 1888, pp. 4C1 — 463, Hidden arid Mackintosh.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65

I. II. III.

Water,
Carbonic oxide,

9.88 I
1.00 f

11.21

Silica,

7.64

8.25

Phosphoric acid.

7.46

7.59

Thorium oxide.

70.13

• • • •

Ferric oxide, .

1.38

• • • •

Lime,

0.49

• • • •

Magnesia,

0.29

• . • •

Alumina, etc.,

1.10

• . • .

99.70

It is readily soluble in HCl. It turns dull-brown on ignition,
but becomes orange again on cooling.

This occurrence of thoria, in combination with phosphoric acid,
is the first instance of such a compound existing in nature. The

analysis leads to the formula — Th Og-j i jy A ^ SHgO. This

mineral has been named auerlite, after Dr. Carl Auer von Wels-
bach, the inventor of the Welsbach Incandescent Gas Burner,
for the reason that, it was found while mining the very large
quantity of zircons ordered to supply a demand directly caused
by his invention and but for which this mineral might not now
be known.

Tungsten. — A mineral, having a density of 7.2, has been
found in Granville county, near Henderson. I have not as yet
had enough of it to determine whether it is wolframite, hiib-
nerite or megabasite. It was associated with magnetite and
quartz and had been considered "a very rich iron ore" locally.

Cassiterite (tin-stone, oxide of tin). — The full history of
the finding of tin-ore in this State has never, to my knowledge,
been given to the public.

It seems that a student* of the military school at King's Mount-
ain Station found a few pieces of an unusually heavy mineral
somewhere in the village and took them to his home in Morgan-
ton. Til is happened sometime in 1882. In 1883, when speci-
mens were eagerly sought for everywhere in the State for the
American Exhibit-on held in Boston in October and November
of that year, a little lot of minerals were gathered together in

*Robert T. Clay well, of Morganton.

66 JOURNAL OF THE

Moi'gantou by Colonel S. McD. Tate, and sent by him direct to
Boston. Among this lot was included the specimens first men-
tioned.

The unpacking of this particular box came into my hands,
and the contents were duly exposed in the cases of the Xorth
Carolina exhibit. The pieces of cassiterite were found wrapped
in a paper and were without any label or mark to distinguish its
identity or locality. At once I knew it t<> be cassiterite and so
labeled it. (The '' Commercial Bulletin/' Boston, Mass., of Oc-
tober 13th, 1883, contains the following paragraph in a lengthy
notice of the North Carolina mineral exhibit: "Cassiterite. —
Pure tin-oxide. Found massive, and serai-crystallized, in the
western part of North Carolina. Sp. Grav. 6.8; hardness 7;
70 per cent. tin''). I acquainted all the gentlemen of the North
Carolina section with my identification of tin-ore among speci-
mens sent from Burke county, and impressed upon them the
possibilities which a proper location of the original source might
bring about. For the time being I dismissed the matter from
my mind, thinking that when opportunity offei'ed I should
investigate it myself. To our then State Chemist"^ and to the
then Commissioner of Agriculturef I imparted my discovery,
and they both expressed great surprise and pleasure that the rare
mineral, cassiterite, was at last added to the State's resources.
This was in October of 1883.

In February of the next year public announcement of the
discovery of tin at King's Mountain, N. C, was made by Dr.
Dabney, who gave the credit to the young student who had
merely picked up the ore, and a tin excitement was the result.
In all these notices no credit was given to the one who had first
identified the mineral as tin ore and to whom the honor of the
discovery was properly due under the rule of priority.

As the sequel proved the discovery prompted a considerable
amount of work being done at the locality, with but meagre
results in finding paying veins or workable masses of ore.

*Chas. \V. Dtibnej'. fMontford M. McGehee.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 67

In point of fact (I state this froQi a later personal experience at
the locality, in the interest of a New York gentleman, whereby
$500 was spent in fruitlessly prospecting for a tin mine) the tin-
ore has only been found as yet in small pieces (fourteen ounces the
largest), and no regular connected veins have been located. The
ore seems to be nodular and sparsely disseminated over a very
considerable area in and about King's Mountain village, and
paying mines of tin ore in that region have yet to be discovered.

The ore is very pure, assaying often 68 per cent, of metallic
tin, but it is very difficult (or has been) to get any very considera-
ble quantity of the pure cassiterite together at one time from
any one place. Altogether the total output of the locality might
not aggregate over 500 pounds of pure cassiterite. For the
present we must be content with the simple knowledge of its
existence in our State, and the belief that paying tin mines will
yet be discovered somewhere within her borders. I have thus
shown how tin was first made known in North Carolina, how
mines of it were eagerly looked for and how it all resulted — as
I believe — unprojitahly to all parties concerned. Let us hope
that the next tin excitement will rest on a larger and more deep-
seated foundation and not pounds, but tons, will express the daily
output.

Muscovite (mica). — Marketable mica has been found in small
quantities in Alexander county, but the special discovery to be
noted is of crystals of mica of rare perfection of form and of
their occurrence in the open " pockets" at the gem mine in Alex-
ander county. Hundreds of pounds are thrown away because
of its small size, though surfaces four inches diameter and larger
have been often found. The form is thin hexagonal, with many
planes showing on the prismatic edges, but too obscure for
identification or careful measurement. The color varies from
brown to bright-green. It is with pleasure that I add an analy-
sis, by F. W. Clarke* (U. S. Geo). Survey), of this interesting
mica :

^Am. Jour. Sci., August, 1887, p. 131.

68 JOURNAL OF THE

Water, loss on ignition, 5.46

Silica, 45.40

Titanic acid, . • 1.10

Alumina, 33.66

Ferric oxide, 2.36

Magnesia, 1.86

Lithia (trace),

Soda 1.41

Potash, 8.33

Fluorine, .69

100.27
Less oxygen, .29

99.98

Associated with and upon it, were found thin scales of a min-
eral related to hisingerite; it may be "giliingite.'^

Dolomite. — Beautiful crystallizations, of this carbonate of
magnesia and lime, occur with siderite (carbonate of iron) and
calcite (carbonate of lime) in the gem-bearing pockets of the
deeper w^orkings in the Emerald and Hidden ite mine, in Alex-
ander county. The crystals are remarkable for not presenting
any curved faces and for their simplicity of form. Tlie unit or
cleavage rhonbcjhedron is the common form, though four other
planes have been observed. Twin crystals are common. Color,
from clear glassy colorless to pale brown and purplish. White
opaque crystals are also found. No finer crystals of dolomite
have been discovered in the United States, and few, indeetl, from
European localities can compare with them.

Smooth polished crystals three inclies in diameter were not
uncommon. Outside of this Alexander county region no crys-
tallized dolomite had been found before in this State, and only
near the valley river in Cherokee county, as a marble-like
variety, is its existence otherwise known in the State.

Gahnite (zinc-si)inel). — Dr. Genth has analyzed the fine green
massive variety from the Grassy Creek mica mine, in Mitciiell
county, and found it to contain thirty-eight per cent, of the
oxide of zinc, which is uncommonly high for the mineral. Con-
sidering its rarity and mode of occurrence the liigh per cent, of
zinc found in it seems to have been discovered in a verv odd and
out-of-the-way place. No other zinc mineral is known to exist
in the neighborhood or for many miles around.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

69

Meteoric Iron. — A new mass of aieteoric iron has been
announced as found on the Linville Mountain.* It is small,
weij;hs about one pound and is very much rusted. It has been
analyzed by Whitfield with the following results:

Iron,

Nickel,

Cobalt,

Sulphur,

Carbon,

84.56

14.95

0.33

0.12

trace.

99.96

A twenty-six pound mass of meteoric-iron has just been
placed in the State Museum from Rockingham county, and it is
considered to be a portion of the same meteorite of which, in
1866, Professor Kerr secured an eleven-pound mass in the same
region.

Meteoric Stone. — The largest stone of the Nash county
"fall'' of May 14th, 1874, came into the writer's possession in
1886. It weighs about twelve pounds. Dr. Sill (on whose
land it was seen to fall) had carefully preserved it, and for
twelve years he had refused to part with its possession to any
one. It is the next largest meteoric stone known to have fallen
in the State, that of Cabarrus county being somewhat heavier.

XANTHiTANEf (a mineral resulting from the alteration of
titanite). — It is found abounding in a disintegrated pegmatite near
Green River Station, in Henderson countv. Its color is yellow,
of different shades. The form is that of titanite, though well
preserved crystals are rare. Density 2.48 — 2.94.

An analysis by Mr. L. G. Eakinsf (U. S. Geol. Survey) lately
completed is here appended. It was made on air-dried material :

Water, lost at 100 decrees,

6.02

Uualtei

ed titanite.

" " red beat

9 92

Silica, ....

1.64

. 30.61

Titanic acid,

57.46

. 40.82

Alumina,

16.41

Ferric oxide, .

4.16

Lime, ....

.84

. 28.57

Maji^nesia (trace).

Phosphoric acid,

3.89

.

100.34

100.00

*Am. Jour, Sei., XXXVI, Oct., 1888, Kiinz.

tAm. Jour. Soi., XXII, 96, 1850.

JL. c, March 3, 1888, from F. W. Clarke.

70 JOURNAL OF THE

As Clarke remarks, ''The analysis shows a complete removal
of lime aud silica from the original sphene (titanite) and a tak-
ing up of alumina and water. The result is a clay containing
titanium in place of silicon/'

I believe this mineral could be mined profitably as an ore of
titanic acid.

Quartz. — Within the past twelve months masses of clear
rock crystal, of sizes unprecedented in the United States, have
been found near Jefferson, in Ashe county. Two of these
(which were seen by the writer) would have furnished perfectly
clear and flawless spheres of five inches in diameter, or pellucid
s^abs eight by six inches square. One large crystal weighed
nearly two hundred ])ounds and had highly polished natural
faces. Under the names of '' Pebble" and " Rock-crystal " this
kind of quartz finds ready sale, by the ton, for the purposes of
furnishing material for spectacle lenses and for ornament.
Mitchell and Alexander counties have also produced large masses.

Important discoveries of new and rare crystal forms, in this
very common species, have been made on crystals from Alex-
ander and Burke counties."^ The late Professor Gerhard Vom
Rath, of Bonn, Germany, has made our quartz crystals famous
by his very patient labors in the identifi(*ation of their forms.
He has fio-ured and minutely described the more interestino; of
these crystals, and the student who is technically inclined is
respectfully referred to his memoirs here cited. f A full trans-
lation of his studies and the reproduction of his drawings should
be included in some future edition of this report. I have thought
it be^t to introduce in this paper a reproduction of at least ten
of the many drawings made by the lamented Vom Rath that
th.e student-reader may fully a[)preciate why so much interest
has been attached to these crystals. See Plate 3.

♦Mr. J. A. I). Stepherifion and the late John T. Humphreys were the first to call atten-
tion to these moditicd quartzes, and th<'ir collcMtions have been rich with them. Their
pioneer work in collecting North Carolina minerals i.s deserving of a more lengthy-
notice.

tSee Zeitschr. fur. Ki-ystalloi;rapliie, X, ir.C: Ih., X, 47-5; XFI, 453-45!». Sitznngsber. d.
niederrh. Ges. fur Natiir — und HfilUunde, (;,. July, 1885, 4.')-5r). Verhandlungon des Naturh.
Vereins d. preuss Rlieinl. u. Westf., 1884,291) — 324, American Jour. Science, Vol. XXXII,
Sep., 188(5, p. 208; lb., June, 1887, p. 507.

Cirxm Juitk ili'l

PLATE 3— MODIFIED QUARTZ CRYSTALS, FROM ALEXANDER AND IREDELL

COUNTIES; AFTER G. VOM RATH.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 71

III Plate 3 the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are of crystals
<lisc()vered, by the writer, during the progress of the work at
the emerald and hiddenite mine, and now constitute a part of
the unique ''suite" of North Carolina minerals owned by Mr.
C. S. Beinent, of Philadelphia.

ProfessiU" Vom Rath states that "Dearly all the known forms
of quartz seem to have been discovered in a small area of Alex-
ander county, and much to his surprise he observed several
planes {ticehe in all) new to science." Certainly these quartz
crystals far surpass, in their various points of scientific interest,
all the discoveries in this species made elsewhere in this country
within the past ten years.

Since 1879 the writer has been much interested in the so-
called "basal-planes" on quartz crystals from North Carolina.
My experience goes to prove that genuine basal planes are of
very rare occurrence in this species. In the great majority (jf
cases the planes observed have been produced by compression or
juxtaposition. From among many crystals, appearing, when
superficially examined, to possess this rare plane, I have selected
only two which have a natural and normal development of the
basal pinacoid. Upon being carefully measured with a reflective
goniometer (by Alfred Des Cloizeaux, at Paris, May 8th, 1886)
the angle -{- R over O = 128°, whereas the calculated angle is
128° 13^ Therefore the occurrence of this face is removed from
all manner of doubt, as Des Cloizeaux has already stated. This
plane seems often attempted to be formed, but the result is hum-
mocky and uneven. A rough unpolished basal truncation is
common on the Alexander and Burke county quartz crystals,
but a smooth basal plane is a rarity.

Figure 7, Plate 3, exhibits a basal plane crystal (otherwise
rarely modified) discovered by Mr. J. A. D. Stephenson in Ire-
dell county, and is part of a remarkable "suite" collected and
owned by him.

The quartz crystals from some of the localities in Western
North Carolina have attained a wide celebrity from other reasons
than their interesting outward form or their clearness; the inclu-

72 JOURNAL OF THE

sions of fluids and gases have often been observed nud of
remarkable quantity. Crystals containing inclusions of fluids and
gases are not uncommon, but crystals having such inclusions
plainly visible to the naked eye are rarely found.

A brief description of a very remarkable '' pocket" of these
fluid-bearing crystals opened out some seven years ago at the
now well-known gem locality in Sharpens Township, Alexander
county, would perhaps be of interest to record here.*

It was while prospecting for new veins bearing emeralds that
this pocket was unexpectedly discovered. A narrow drift of
quartz fragments, with small flakes of mica, was the only sur-
face sign noticeable. At the head of this drift a shaft was sunk
to a depth of nineteen feet, with the following interesting
results :

The drift, within a foot of the surface, took shape as a solid
vein of quartz, which rapidly widened until, at six feet depth,
it had attained a width of fully three feet. Within the next
two feet the pocket nature of the vein had become apparent by
the presence of hard lumps of red clay, within which small crys-
tals of quartz were found.

The vein for the next foot was almost entirely composed of
this hard red clay. Then, to our great astonishment, one of the
miners, striking his pick very forcibly, saw it disappear wholly
from his sight. Naturally he was alarmed. We all thought for
a time the safest place was at the top of the shaft. Feeling from
past experiences at the locality tliat a cavity of not very
unusual dimensions was about to be opened to our view, we
descended and resumed the work.

Procuring a long stick, I probed this cavity, so as to ascertain
its size, this being a necessary precaution to work it out properly
and safely.

It was thus shown that the pocket was about three feet wide,
seven feet long, and at that time about three feet deep, though
I could push the stick quite deeply into the clay at the bottom.

*Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sei., March, 1882.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 73

Exposing at full length the upper part of the cavity, it showed
all along its sides and at the bottom stalactitic and stalagmitic
forms of red mud.

The quartz, which at one time had completely lined the
pocket, had, by process of disintegration, dropped into the open
space below. It was in the mud and clay in the bottom of the
pocket that all the crystals subsequently found were discovered.
Only at the very bottom were the walls found in situ. This
pocket differed in no respect from those commonly occurring in
this region. They aue all shrinkage fissures, situated in a contra
direction to the strata, of very limited extent, and nearly per-
pendicular in position. The country rock is gneiss, with a dip
nearly vertical. A thick layer of soil everywhere mantles and
conceals it from view. Three days of careful, work were spent
in exhausting this pocket.

Over four hundred pounds of perfect quartz crystals were
obtained from this one pocket, besides nine emeralds (already
noted). Of good, bad and indifferent there was found in all
nearly half a ton of crystals.

It was noticed that the crystals that had been directly attached
to the walls were semi-transparent and without any great de-
velopment of the prismatic faces, while implanted upon them
as a secondary growth were crystals of great beauty and trans-
parency, varying from citrine-yellow to dark chocolate-brown
in color, and for the most part perfect in form. Two-thirds of
them were perfectly terminated at both extremities and with con-
siderable prismatic development. It was these latter that con-
tained the fluid inclusions.

Large plates of rosetted mica were quite common, and on
them were implanted small crystals of rutile and of quartz in
rare perfection. When the smoky crystals were first found they
were noticed to contain many cavities seemingly filled with a
very clear and lustrous fluid. Though no bubbles of air (or
gas) were observed to move in these cavities at that time, yet I
knew these crystals to be the so-called "water crystals ^^ of
mineralogists.

74

JOURNAL OF THE

I take pleasure in recording the reriiarkable size and quantity
of the cavities enclosed in these crystals. The longest cavity
noticed was nearly two and one-half inches long and one quarter
of an inch wide. Cavities of one inch were not uncommon,
while those of one quarter inch and less were, in truth, without
number.

NATURAL SIZE OF SOME REMARKABLE FLUID INCLUSIONS OBSERVED IN
QUARTZ CRYSTALS, FROM NORTH CAROLINA.

Many of the crystals seemed to be made up almost wljolly of
cavities, whose walls were barely thick enough to keep them
separated. Many hundred, plainly visible to the unaided eye,
could have been counted in a single crystal.

For some time after these crystals were removed from the
pocket no bubbles were noticed in any of the cavities. Some
peculiar condition of tlie crystal, or of the atmosphere, then
existing, probably prevented their formation. Later the bub-
bles appeared in great numbers. A few of the crystals were, as
water-bearing crystals, very remarkable in size. One weighed
nearly twenty-five pounds, had both ends terminated, was of a
dark-brown color, and as beautiful as anv we have seen from

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 75

other localities. All the water-bearing crystals were large, none
less than two inches in diameter, and many of over three pounds
in weight. The cavities were arranged [)arallel to each other
and to either a rhombohedral or a prismatic face.

An interesting phenomenon observed in these crystals did not
occur until some time after their discovery. The best crystals
of the "find'' were carefully selected and placed where they
weie considered to be safe — safe at least from molestation. That
the weather would interfere, or in any way affect them, did not
enter my mind.

One evening in November I left these crystals nicely arranged
at the mine, except a few of the smaller ones, which I carried to
my log-cabin, thinking the while of what a treat I had in store
for mineral collectors and for science.

During the night following the mercury unexpectedly de-
scended below the freezing point. About midnight I was awak-
ened by several sharp reports, like the explosion of gun caps.
Over a dozen of these explosions occurred.

Upon the table, where the crystals had been placed the even-
ing before, there remained the next morning only some few
sharp fragments of quartz. Pieces of the crystals, large and
small, were found even fifteen feet away. In fact, they were
completely ruined. The cold had caused the water in the cavi-
ties to freeze and consequently to expand and then burst the
crystals.

I hastened to the mine with the gravest fears for the safety of
the finer ciystals left there. Judge of my dismay to find not one
of them, even the smallest, left intact.

Crystals that only a few hours before were rare examples of
the workings of Nature's laws were now, by these same myste-
rious laws, left only as an evidence of her power to do and to
undo her o-randest achievements. Onlv crumbled masses of frao^-
ments remained to tell the story.

Those with few cavities had burst, scattering large fragments
widely separated, while those containing minute cavities lay as
a heap of small fragments frozen together in a coherent mass.

76 JOURNAL OF THE

This last feature, while being a sad reminder in one respect, is
of value to science, since it shows conclusively the abundance of
the fluid included, and also, what is of more importance, that this
cementing ice was formed either directly from the fluids in the crys-
tals or by influences which they exerted. I do not believe this
cementing ice was wholly formed by the freezing of the water
contained in the cavities, but was gathered there by the attract-
ive influence of the liquid carbon dioxide upon being so sud-
denly set free; that this liquid carbon dioxide did, by its
natural affinity for moisture, create around it an atmosphere so
cold that even the little dampness then existing in the air was
congealed upon the crystal fragments.

As the room was a dark one I had all these masses and larger
fragments carried out and placed in the sunlight, for no other
reason than to examine them more carefully. I did not antici-
pate from this any further developments of scientific interest.
Again, believe my astonishment, as soon as the rays of the sun
touched them, to notice an ebullition commence at once, which,
strangely, could be heard a few feet away. This ebullition was
continued for over an hour, growing less as thawing pro-
gressed.

While holdiup; a mass of frozen frai^ments mv hand would
become quite wet with the melting ice. I am not in error in stating
that a cub. cm. of this fluid could have been easily saved had
the proper means been at had. It is much to be regretted that
none was preserved.

I noticed some curious phenomena in a single fragment, which
had by some means escaped destruction by freezing.

This specimen had several small cavities, arranged nearly
parallel to each other. At temperatures below 70° a small bub-
ble could be plainly seen to move in each cavity, as the position
of the specimen was changed. It was further noticed that the
cavities contained two liquids, in one of which the bubble was
wholly confined in its movements. This was seen to be the cen-
tral and more transparent fluid.

ELISIIA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 77

If this specimen was slightly heated (the mere heat of the
hand was found sufficient) the bubbles would grow gradually
less until they disa[)peared entirely, and the fluids would unite.

On cooling, a critical temperature would be reached, when all
the cavities woidd be filled with uumbei'less minute bubbles,
which, rushiug together, would in a few seconds form to its full
size the bubble originally noticed. I found that this experiment
could be repeated indefinitely, without any diminution of its
interesting phenomena or risk of damage to the specimen.

To Alexander county, North Carolina, and to many of the
surrounding couutie>, we can hereafter look to produce fluid-
bearing quartz crystals second in interest to those of no other
reunion in the world.

False Pseudomorphs of Quartz. — In the older works
on mineralogy mention is made of '^pseudomorphs of quartz
after barite," " pseudomorphs of quartz after calcite," and
of pseudomorphoiis quartz," as occurring in Rutherford county,
N. C. In all the mineral collections where the writer has seen
specimens from this locality, they have been found labeled as
above noted.

Opinions seem to have been divided between the identity of
these forms with barite and calcite, though I have often heard
them stated as representing the form of "an unknown species."

The specimens are conspicuous for their ever varying and
unsymmetrical forms, their inconstant angles, and for being
almost invaribly hollow, like geodes. The best speciruens from
Rutherford county, N. C, were found by Col. Twitty previous
to 1870, and as early as 1850 the locality was well known. It
had a local fame based upon the not unfrequent discovery of
'Svater- bearing crystals" among the irregular quartz masses,
which had a ready sale and were the cause of whatever develop-
ment the locality ever received.

A second locality is situated in Iredell county, near Statesville,

on the land of a Mr. Crawford. It is noted for the abundance of

the material there occurring, the large size of the separable

masses, the almost solid character of the forms and the uon-

5

78 JOURNAL OF THE

occurrence (as yet) of fluid- bearing masses. Otherwise the local-
ity is similar to that of Rutherford ton.

From a careful study of the rock in situ and of luauy speci-
mens from tlie localities, I am forced to conclude that these forms
of quartz are pseudomo)-plis of the interstices between crystals of
some mineral that crystallized in thin flat tabular forms.

Sections of these water-bcMring forms present an interior of
bright transparent crystals, or of mammillary chalcedony; while
the structure of the walls is semi-radiated from the exterior.
Careful examination of the surfaces show a series of triangular
markings (angles 60°) on all sides. Now these mai'kings are
exactly what w-e would expect by the slow deposition of quartz on
the basal pinacoid of a uniaxal crystal (rhombohedral), or of the
deposition of quartz from solution in a vein filled up with
meshed and netted crystals which being thin, presented only
basal planes for contact surfaces. What the original mineral
was is not shown by the specimens. Tlie casts of crystal cavi-
ties in the larger masses show an unmistakable hexagonal prism
with a large development of the basal pinacoid (these two planes
identified by striations on the quartz), and this characteristic is
persistent.

A careful test by Mr. J. B. Mackintosh of the fluid contents
of a small four-sided crystal (?) proved it to be only neutral
water, and the bubble to be only air (not carbonic acid gas as
was expected).

It is to be hoped that at do distant day deep work at one of
these localities will discover specimens of the tliin hexagonal
plates, which have left only the interstices between them in the form
of a mould of quartz.

For the use of the figures of crystals, included in the forego-
ing pages, I extend to the editors of the American Journal of
Science mv sincere thanks.

\

INDEX

Introductory note, page 45.

PAGES

Aeschynite 55

Allanite.... 54

Apatite 59-60

Anerlite 64-65

Beryl 50

Cassiterite 65-67

Colninbite 55

Cyrtolite 6.'-)

Diamond 46

Dolomite 68

Emeralds 47-50

Euxenite 55

Fergiisonite 55

Gahnite 68

Garnet 53

Hiddenite 50-52

Malacon 62-63

Meteorites 69

Monazite 56-59

PAGES.

Muscovite 67-68

Polycnase (?) 55

Pyrochlore (?) 54

Quartz, crystals 70-72

Quartz, rock crystal ' 70

Quartz, water-bearing 72-77

Quartz, pseudomorplis 77-78

Rutherfordite 55

Rutile 60-62

vSamarskite 55

Spodumene.. 52-53

Tiiorite 63-64

Tin 65-67

Tourmaline 62

Tungsten 65

Xanthitane 69-70

Xenotinae 55-56

Yttro tantalite 55

Zircon 53-54

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 81

NEMATODE ROOT-GALLS.

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE LIFE HISTORY AND METAMORPHOSES OF A
ROOT-GALL NEMATODE, HETERODERA RADICICOLA (gREEFF) MULL., AND
THE INJURIES PRODUCED BY IT UPON THE ROOTS OF VARIOUS PLANTS.*

BY GEO. F. ATKINSON.

I.

INTKODUCTORY.

The purpose of the present paper is to put in the form of a
preliminary report the result of some investigations made this
autumn, in the neighborhood of the Experiment Station, upon
the nature and cause of the abnormal growths found upon the
roots of various plants. These deformities are popularly termed
'^ root- knot." Soon after entering upon my new field of labor
here my attention was called to the sul)ject by the Director,
Prof. J. S. Newman, who showed me tomato plants the roots of
which were exceptionally ''knotty."

The investigations were begun the first of October, 1889, and
continued for about six weeks, when the subject-matter of this
preliminary report was sent to the press.

At the time the work was undertaken I was unaware that a
Bulletin was being published by the Division of Entomology,
U. S. Agricultural Department, under the direction of Dr. C. V.
Riley, embodying the results of investigations made by Dr. J.
C. Neal, of the Florida Experiment Station. The first notice I
had of this work was from Insect Life.'f

That workj has since been distributed, and has reached me
just about the time of going to press. Unfortunately there are
many errors in the part dealing with the structure and life his-

Scienee Contributions, Ala. Polytechnic Inst., Vol. I, No. 1, Auburn, Ala., Dec, 1889.

tVol. II, No. 3, Washington, 1889.

JBulletin No. 20, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agr. The Root-knot Disease
of the Peach, Orange and other Plants in Florida, Washington, 1889.

82 JOURNAL OF THE

tory of the nematode, though some of the economic suggestions
possess value. It is but just to Dr. Riley to say that he is not
personally responsible for the en-ors contained in the Bulletin,
since he states in an introductory paragraph {loc. cit.) that the
nematodes "do not, in a zoological sense, strictly belong to the
Division work. * ^ * 'pj^e Bulletin niakes no pretense to
be a scientific treatise on the life history of these worms, but is
in the main an effort to ascertain a suitable remedy. The gen-
eral literature on the subject has not been at Dr. Ncal's (.'om-
mand, and my time is so fully occupied otherwise that I can do
little or nothing at present in the way of identification of species
or of comparing Dr. XeaPs results with those of European
investigators, which, as a n)atter of fact, are of little practical
importance.^'

The conditions this autumn at Auburn have been quite favor-
able for determining a number of interesting facts relating to
the development and transformations of this nematode, as well
as the duration of a life cycle showing the number of successive
generations in a vear.

IL

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF THE DISEASE.

By a reference to Plates I, II and III the external characters
of the disease can be seen. These plates represent respectively
'^knotted" specimens of the roots of the Irish potato, tomato
and parsnip and salsify. Plates I and III are natural size;
Plate II is reduced to two-thirds natural size. All are from
average specimens. The abnormal growths on the tomato root
appear as irregularly fusiform, knotty or nodulate enlargements,
two to ten times the natural diameter of the roots. The surface
of the gall is at first smooth, more or less undulate or papillate,
but becomes later roughened, scurfy or cracked, and finally decay
of the tissues sets in. The tap root and the earlier lateral roots
were attacked early in the season, and when the photograph was
taken they were partially decayed and falling to pieces. When
the roots begin to die they send out new roots in the efforts of

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 83

the plant to recover from the effects of the disease. Tliese roots,
in turn, are attacked and deformed as represented in the figure.
Other plants were found with the tap root still alive, very much
enlarged and cracked, and the disease in an active state. The
enlargements of the I'oots of the Irish potato are similar in form
to those of the tomato, though on specimens I have examined
they are not so large or numerous. The surface of affected
tubers first presents minute elevations usually at the point on
the surface corresponding to a lenticel. The minute elevation
soon grows to be quite a large convex elevation and finally
cracks. In the seed potato in tl'e figure, Plate I, the cracks can
be seen, while on the young potato represented in the upper left
hand corner the projections aie still quite smooth. These char-
acters of the disease in the tubers will be referred to again.

There is great variation in the form of the galls even on the
roots of a single species. Plate V, Figures 31 and 32, represent
respectively the galls on the roots of the cotton plant and peach.
The fibrous roots of the peach possess short ovoid, usually lateral
galls; sometimes they are symmetrical. As the root becomes
older and the disease spreads the external appearance is more as
represented by the larger root in the figure, the surface irregu-
larly enlarged, roughened and cracked.

This description of the external characters of the disease will
serve to introduce the subject. A more detailed comparison of
the variations in different plants will be given below.

III.

MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS.

Upon examination the enlargements proved to be the galls
produced by the presenee of a nematode worm, Heterodera radi-
cicola, Miill.* (Angulllula radiclcola, Greeff,'f AnguiUula arena-
ria N.X ex-parie). If we cut directly across one of these tomato

*Mittheilungen uber unseren Kulturpflanzen schadliehe, das Geschlecht Heterodera
bildenden Warmer, Landwirtlischaftliehe Jahrbucher. Band XIII, Heft I, S. 1-42, Ber-
lin, 1884.

fSitzungsberioht. der Marburg Gesell. z. Beford. d. Naturwiss, 1872, S. 169.

^Bulletin No. 20, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Washing-
ton, 1889.

84 • JOURNAL OF THE

root-galls, make a very thin shaving from the cut end and pre-
pare it for examination with the microscopp, the micro-charac-
ters of the disease will be revealed. Fig. 36, Plate YI, represents
such a preparation magnified; a and b represent two female
cysts; a is mature, b is in an earlier stage of development. If
the female cyst is very old the cavity in the tissues of the root
will be seen to be occupied by young thread-like worms — the
larvae, and eggs in different stages of development, floating in
a semi-fluid, granular, gelatinous substance, the amorphic; re-
mains of the parent worm. See Fig. 37, Plate YL If the
knife in making the section should pass through a young female
cyst, the cavity would seem to be occupied by granular proto-
plasm and numerous small fat globules, or, as in many instances
is the case, the long tubes of the uterus and ovaries with young
ova in different stages of development may be seen. If the
knife should pass by the side of the animal without injuring it
the cavity would then contain a perfect animal variable in form
according to age or the character of the surrounding tissues of
the root. See Fig. 29, a and 6, Plate Y ; Figs. 36, a and b ; 40,
a, and 41, r/, Plate YI.

In order to understand the real nature of the cysts, and the
effect produced upon the growth and structure of the deformed
root, it will be well to note the form and general characters of
the mature female cyst, and then follow with a detailed account
of the development, transformations and habits of the sexes,
which forms one of the most wonderful and interesting subjects
it has ever been my lot to investigate.

lY.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE MATURE FEMALE CYST.

I have selected the mature female cvst as a preliminarv studv
because of its comparatively large size as compared with the
males or young, because it is so much more easily found than
the males, and almost any one who has a low power microscope
at hand can demonstrate with ease the general characteristics
here given.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 85

When the galls on the roots of some plant, which has tender
tissues like the roots of the tomato, are bacllv cracked and in the
incipient stages of decay, if one is broken there will usually he
seen whitish or dull yellowish irregularly oval bodies, from one-
fourth to one-half of a millimeter (one-hundredth to one-fiftieth
of an inch) in diameter, that are easily differentiated with the
unaided eye from the discolored and broken surrounding tissue.
Usually the unaided eye can detect also the head end projecting
as a minute point on one side, giving to the object tlie appearance
of a minute "gourd," or "crooked- neck squash,^' or a minute
inflated bladder. With the ai<l of a small hand-glass at least
this peculiarity of form can be seen. These are the gravid female
cvsts.

Placing some of these cysts so that they can be seen under
the microscope and magnifying them about one hundred times
they will appear something like Figs. 34 and 35, Plate VI; or
27, Plate IV. The resendjlance now to a small "ofourd" is
easily seen. The head is at the small end. In the mouth-hole
can be seen a short slender cylindrical spear, broadened at the
base, which ends in three short lobes. This spear is hollow, the
anterior end lies in the mouth opening at the middle point of
the head end of the animal. It is capable of extension at the
will of the animal and is mov^ed by pairs of muscles directly
attached to it; Fig. 34, a, Plate VI. The spear of the male
nearly agrees in form. This is represented more highly magni-
fied in Plate IV, Fig. 21;^, c, and Fig. 25, a. In this latter figure
only two of the lobes at the base of the spear are represented.
The mouth opening is cylindrical and behind broadens into the
mouth- hole.

In the males the anterior end of the exsertile spear is sup-
ported by six lamellae, the ends of which form the anterior end
of the head and fit around the spear. A front view of the
arrangement of the lamella presents a radial, stellate figure,
which is shown in Fig. 24, Plate IV, drawn also from the male.
The oesophagus begins at the base of the exsertile spear. The
anterior part is a long, slender, tortuous channel which looks like
6

86 JOURNAL OF THE

a dark line reaching to near tlie swelled portion of the cyst
where is the middle part of the oesophagus. The middle part
of the oesophagus is an ovoid or ellipsoidal transparent muscular
bulb, which has a fibrillate structure, the fibrill?e radiating from
the centre. Seen in side view this bulb looks very much like a
small wheel. In Plate VI, Fig. 34, 6, is the bulb or middle part
of the cesophagus. The slender, tortuous channel, forming the
anterior part, is represented connecting this with the base of the
spear a. The posterior part of the oesophagus connects with
the alimentary canal, neither of which are represented in the
figure, as the mass of fat globules usually renders the body too
opaque at this age.

Were it not for a slight movement of the ap})aratus just
described, or a trifle ''nodding'^ of the head, there would be
nothing to suggest what we ordinarily consider a sign of life.
Occasionally, even while the cyst is under microscopic examina-
tion, the exsertile spear is thrust slowdy out at the mouth and
then drawn back ; at the same time the anterior part of the oesoph-
agus, being connected with it, is also moved. Sometimes the
apparatus slides far enougii so that the tortuous anterior part of
the <jesoj)hagus is straightened and the bulb is moved a little for-
ward and backward. Sometimes there appears also a slight side-
wise movement of the anterior part of the head, a sudden
''jerky" motion. This sidewise movement of the head is
probably from force of the habit of the worm in its larval stage
when movement from place to place is accomplished by a con-
stantly changing tortuous motion of the body. Miiller* speaks
of an ex[)ansion and contraction of the middle part of the oesoph-
agus which he has observed. By this means nutriment from
the plant is sucked in through the lumen of the spear into the
oesophagus and thence into the alimentary canal. Now turning
the eye upon the large part of the body the first thing to attract
attention is the presence of two long (cylindrical objects coiled
within. Usually at this age of the cyst the develo})ment of

*Mittheilungen uber unseren Kulturpflanzen seliadliche, das Geschlecht Heterodera
bildenden Wurmer, 1884.

ELLSHA JNIITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 87

numerous fat globules on the interior of the body renders it so
opaque that the terminations of these tubes and their connection
with the body wall cannot be seen. Figs. 34 and 35, Plate VI,
represent such opaque cysts. In some parts of the tube, how-
ever, can be seen polygonal cells, the faces where they meet
making a zigzag line along the tube. Towards the posterior
end of the cyst there can usually be seen oblong bodies lying
within the tube or free in the body cavity. If these bodies are
lying on their side they resemble a bean in shape. They are the
eggSj and the long objects coiled within the body are the genital
tubes.

Bv examininp; a 'number of mature female cvsts from the or-alls
of plants with soft tissues there will be found occasionally one
which is not very opaque, as the fat globules are less numerous.
Having found such a cyst we can see that the two tubes unite
near the j)osterior part of the body and form a common passage,
of a great diameter, but quite short, which extends to an open-
ing, the vulva. Then by f)llowing with the eye the sinuous
course of the tul)es in the other direcjtion the anterior ends will
be found lying free within the body near the anterior })ortion.
From the part where the tubes fork f >r nearly half their length
is the uterus. The anterior free ends are the ovaries; the middle
part functions as the oviduct and 7'eceptnculum semiyiis. Fig. 27,
Plate IV, represents a cyst not very opaque; d is the vulva, e the
uterus, and the free ends in the anterior portion the ovaries. The
anal opening in the mature female cyst becomes displaced; it is
represented in Fig. 27 at /. Fig. 28, Plate IV, represents the
uterus and ovaries very highly magnified.

V.

DEVELOPMENT AND INIETAMORPHOSES.

{See Plate IV).

Eggs. — The young ova are developed in great numbers in the
ovaries. Fig. 28 represents them when some are full grown and
the genital tubes are crowded for nearly their entire length.
They are very tender and plastic, and when free are spherical.

88 JOURNAL OF THE

But packed and coufiued as they are in several rows inside the
wall of the ovaries they are held in a polygonal form. Each one
contains a large nucleus and a distinct nucleolus. When quite
young they are nearly hyaline, and transparent. Near the ante-
rior ends of the ovaries they are several layers deep across its
diameter. As they grow in size the increased pressure forces
the elono^ated mass of vouniz; ova slowlv toward the uterus, since
they cannot escape at the anterior ends of the ovaries. Then
because the diameter of the posterior ends of the ovaries and the
uterus is but little greater than the anterior ends of the ovaries
the ova must be arranged in a decreasing number of rows, until
a single ovum is equal in diameter to the insi'de diameter of the
uterus. If we count the number of ova which stand in a super-
ficial transverse row across a well developed ovary, near the ante-
rior end there will be four or five; now looking along the ovary
toward the uterus, we will count three, two and finally one.
With the increase in size of the ovum there is an accompanying
development of yolk globules. The first change is the appear-
ance of very fine granules. Then yolk globules are developed,
a few at first, but become very numerous as the growing ovum
passes into the uterus, when it is quite opaque. The globules
seem to be more numerous in a peripheral plane. The ova are
held in })olygonal form until one only occupies the diameter of the
uterus, when they are at first rectanglar in outline. From this
form, as they grow in size, they simply elongate until their length
is Jibout two or three times their diameter. The ends of the i^^^
are gradually rounded off, and it becomes slightly curved so that
it is shaped very much like a bean. At first the ovum possesses
a very delicate wall. The covering of the ^'g''^ becomes stronger
as it passes down the uterus. The fully developed egg possesses
a double wall, a delicate inner membrane and an outer tou^h
membrane.

Just the precise stage when the ovum is fertilized I have not
detern)ined, but I have found spermatozoa in the posterior part
of the ovaries. The nucleus in the fully developed egg is quite
distinct, though not so prominent as in tl>e young ovum. It is

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 89

largely hidden by the mass of yolk globules. It is of a pale
violet color. An examination of Fig. 28, Phite IV, will show
many of these changes. A few of the eggs in one uterus have
undergone various stages of segmentation preparatory to the
development of the embryo. In dissecting living specimens
very frequently tiie ovary or uterus becomes ruptured, in which
case the ova in various stages of development escape from the
great pressure exerted upon them by confinement, and not being
eniirely free from each other are held in beautiful grape-like
clusters. Some of these are represented in Fig. 28.

The mature egg is from .08 mm. to .10 mm. long (three to four
thousandths of an inch); exceptionally I have found them .12 mm.
long. Thus far its development has been an increase in size, a
profuse development of yolk globules, and a change in form.
Its development from this point is the multiplication of cells by
division, beginning with the single cell enclosed within the egg
membrane. (See Fig. 1, Plate IV). Complete but somewhat
irregular segmentation takes })lace. The nucleus first divides in
two parts, forming two nuclei. Each nucleus moves a short
distance towards its end of the egg. A transverse constriction
now appears about the middle of the cell which progresses until
the cell is divided into two cells (Fig. 2). The process is now
repeate<l in each of these new cells resulting in four cells (Fig. 4).
Sometimes one of these cells is completely divided before the
other begins so that there may be three cells (Fig. 3). Occasion-
ally the first line of fission is oblique, so that tlie two resulting
cells are shaped as in Fig. 2l. The egg now divides into six,
eight, ten cells and so on. Usually the first division is such
that one cell is larger than the other, but sometimes they seem
to be about equal in size. Occasionally the first division results
in two cells, one nf which is only about one-third or one- fourth
so large as the other. I have watched the cell division up to
the stage represente.l in Fig. 7. Up to this point there is great
variation in the disposition of cells at the different stages result-
ing from variations in tlie somewhat unequal segmentation.
From this point up to that represented in Figs. 8 and 9 I have

90 JOURNAL OF THE

not, owing to the limited time over which my observations have
as yet extended, earefnlly determined the progress of develop-
ment. Figs. 8 and 9 [)rohably represent the stage where the
larger endoderra (internal) cells are completely surnninded by
the smaller ectoderm (external) cells, just prior to the invagina-
tion (sinking in) of the head end to form the mouth and (eso])h-
agns.

AccordiDs: to Strubell,* in Helerodera Schachtii, the first two unequal cells into
which the egg divides represent primary' cells of two diiterent groups of cells
which result from farther division. The larger prioaary cell divides more rapidly
and forms small cells, which grow around the more slowly formed lar^rer cells
Avhich result from the division of the other smaller primary cell. The growing
over proceeds first down the convex side of the egg and the ectoderm cells fold
over the opposite end of the embryo, the mass of endoderm cells. Thus the
" prostom " (the open space between the converging edges of Ihe enveloping
ectoderm cells) is on the concave side of the e^g, and bv^^cause 'he ectoderm cells
on the concave side of the head end have grown but little it (the prostom) occu-
pies the entire concave (ventral) side of the young embryo. At this stage if we
turn the e^s, so that we are looking directly at the concave side the ectoderm
cells will be in a boat-shaped mass, and in this boat-shaped mass of ectoderm
cells will be the larger endoderm cells. The " prostom " (open part of the boat-
shaped mass of ectoderm cells) now begins to close by the growth and increase
of the cells at the margin. This closure takes place more rapidly at the posterior
end and advances toward the head end, so that after awhile there is only a small
opening through the ectoderm cells near the head end of the concave side. This
is finally closed so that the endoderm cells are completely enveloped by the
smaller ectoderm cells.

This is probably the staoi:e which I have fiii^ured in Fig's. 8 and
9, Plate IV. The larger, endoderm, cells can be seen in the
centre; the smaller, ectoderm, cells on the outside. Invagina-
tion of the ectoderm cells now takes phu-e at the head end, that
is, the cells sink inward as if pushed in by some outside force.
This is represented in Figs. %x and 10. By this process the
mouth and cesophagus are developed. I have only studied the
external changes in the embryonic development. From this
point up to the fully developed larva the changes are represented
in Figs. 11 to 15. Beginning yith Figs. 10 and 11 the head id\\(\
appears hyaline and tinely granular, and is larger in diameter
than the rest of the young embryo, which at this stage is of

*Untersucliungen uber den Ban und die Entwickeliuig des Rubennematoden, Hete-
rodera Schachtii Schmidt. Hibliotheca zoologioa, Hel't 2, 1888.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 91

equal length and diameter with the inside of the egg membrane.
It next begins to elongate and become more slender. This forces
it to double up inside the egg membrane. It does so by turning
its tail end by degrees around to its ventral side (Figs. 11, 12).
In some cases the tail end for a time does not move. This causes
the embryo to double up midway, and sometimes to be coiled in
a spiral manner for awhile. It now continues to elongate until
it is coiled twice (Fig. 13), then three times (Fig. 14), and finally
four times (Fig. 15), within the egg membrane.

I have watched the egg and embryo, under the microscope, pass
through all these changes. Sometimes the embryo would double
its length in eight or ten hours. When it has reached this stage
it remains a day or so still within the egg membrane while the
cuticle, the tough transparent body wall, is being perfected, and
the slender pointed end of the tail is formed. Now by its
writhing and twisting it ruptures the tough egg membrane and
is set at liberty. At this stage the larva passes through its first
moult, either just as it is coming from the egg membrane or
very soon afterward. Fig. 16, Plate IV, represents the larva
in the act of coming from the egg membrane. It is moulting
at the same time. The thin larval skin can be seen slipping off
its head and tail.

As the female remains in a cystic state and the cyst is sur-
rounded by the tissues of the plant the eggs when crowded in
the uterus rupture it and finally the numbers of them completely
fill the body cavity of the cyst. In a few cases, after freeing a
cyst, I have observed eggs pass out at the vulva.

Segmentation of the egg begins before it leaves the uterus, and
we find, in the body cavity of live female cysts, eggs in all stages
of development, and free larvse, so that the female may be said
to be ovivi parous.

Larval Stage. — The larval stage begins with the hatching
from the egg. The moult which takes place at the same time is
the first moult of the larva. The young thread-like worm is
from .3 mm. to .4 mm. (twelve to sixteen thousandths of an inch)
long; it tapers gently to the blunt head end, and gradually into

92 JOURNAL OF THE

a slender pointed tail (Fig. 17). In this form it resembles what
are called ^'vinegar eels." In the head end we notice the exser-
tile spear, with its tri-lobed base, the long, slender, tortuons
channel of the anterior })art of the oesophagus, and the ellip-
soidal muscular bulb, the middle part. The lumen of the
alimentary canal can also be seen, and it opens at the beginning
of the hyaline space near the tail end. (See Fig. 17, Plate IV).
The embryo, and for a time the young larva, possesses a celhilar
matrix inside the body wall, except at the head and tail ends.
This soon develops numerous fat globules whicli are clustered
around the alimentary canal.

The young worms, when ushered into life, find themselves
imprisoned by walls of plant tissue which formed at once the
prison-house and tomb of their parent. (See Fig. 37, Plate
VI). How to escape these bars is their first concern. Per-
chance fortune may favor them if the cyst is near the surface of
the gall so that a crack or partial decay of the tissues may liber-
ate them. When not thus favored there are sometimes two
courses open to them, more often only one. If the cyst opens
into any of the large channels of the vascular tissue of the root,
which is frequently the case, the larvae may make their exit
through these to other parts of the same root. In a majority of
instances the worm must face the only alternative of starvation,
and actually batter a hole in the wall through which it may
escape. Taking position, with the head end against a cell wall,
it thrusts forward the exsertile spear, which strikes the cellulose
wall forcibly, when it is drawn back and thrust out again. This
process is repeated until a hole is made through the wall large
enough to admit the body of the worm, into which it passes,
and by successively battering down the cell walls of the sur-
rounding tissues it makes its way to freedom on the outside of
the gall or to a fresh portion of the same root.

Having escaped from its confinement, by one of these three
courses, it immediately selects an(>ther part of the root or a fresh
young rootlet for attack and places itself in i)osition foi' the
siege. Bringing into play its exsertile ram, it forcibly gains

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 93

entrance to the healthy tissues of the root. The plant, not able
to expel the invader, bends its energies in a vain endeaver to
repair the injury to the roots. Increased development of cells
takes place, and normal ones are turned from their proper posi-
tion and function and also very much enlarged. The result is
the formatiiin of a gall, an increase of tissue in the root, which
supplies food and protection for hundreds of the worms, all
which lessens the energies of the plant nor.ually directed to the
production of leaf and fruit.

The larvae wander for a time through the tissues and finally
come to rest. Plate VI, Fig. 39, represents a larva as it is
wandering through the tissues of a potato tuber. It now moults
the second time and passes into a truly parasitic condition.

Cystic State. — The larvae locate at various depths in the
tissues. The body now begins to enlarge, except at the two ends.
Speaking vulgarly, it would be said to "swell up." Alaiost
before any increase in size of this part of the body is noticed
the worm becomes rio-id and could not move if it would. Its
body may be turned or twisted in very curious shapes when this
rigidity or fixedness comes upon it. (See Plate IV, Fig. 17a.*).
The enlargement begins close behind the muscular bulb oi' the
oesophagus, and for a little time this part of the body is larger
than the posterior part. Very soon the enlarging takes place
all along the body to the hyaline space near the tail end, and
this portion of the cyst becomes generally of a greater diameter
than the anterior part. The cyst is at first rudely spindle-
shaped, then c'avate (or club-shaped), with a very small sharply
pointed process, the tail, at the larger end. Fig. 18 represents
the spindle form, 19 the clavate form. Up to this point it is
difficult to distinguish the sexes, but from this point they sharply
diverge. The iemale cyst continues to enlarge, while the male
undertroes a wonderful transformation and returns to the thread-
like or anguillula form.

Transformation of the Male. — The bodv of the male at
this point is the same size as the interior of the cyst, very stout
in proportion to its length. The first sign of a transformation
7

94 JOURNAL OF THE

is the slipping of the head from the wall of the head end of the
cvst. At the saQie tiaie the thick body of the male begins to
elongate and double up inside the cyst, while the tail end, stout
and blunt, begins to curve around. This makes the third moult.
(See Fig, 21, Plate IV). While the male is elongating and coil-
ing up in the cyst it begins to moult again, making four moults.
The very thin skin can be seen partly slipped off the worm
while yet within the cyst (Fig. 21). The male continues to elon-
gate and l)ecome more slender until it is coiled three, four, or
more times, dependeut on the length of the cyst, within the walls
of the cyst, which still retain perfectly the shape of the cyst
when the transformation began. Even the exsertile spear moults,
for its '^ mould" is left in the head end of the cyst, while the
skin of the larval tail still projects as a slender process. The
niale coiled within this perfect wall of the cyst is a very beauti-
ful object. Figs. 21 x and 22 represent these. During this
transformation the sexual orgaus of the male have become
matured. It no^v breaks through the wall of the cyst and the
surroujiding tissue and travels blindly through the maze of cells
until it comes to its mate, when it pairs aud then dies. Fig. 23
represents a male coming from its cyst. Fig. '2'iz a male of
Heterodera radicicola removed from a cyst.

Structure of the Male. — It may be well now to note some
thinirs about the structure of the male which were not described
in the section upon the '' General Characters of the Female
Cyst." It is from 1 mm. to 1.5 mm. (one twenty-fifth to one
seventeenth of an inch) long and about .043 mm. (seventeen one-
thousandths of an inch) broad near the middle. Its body a
little less in diameter at the posterior end; the anterior half of
the body gradually tapers to the head end, which is about half
the diameter of the middle. The body wall is beautifully marked
by prominent transverse strife broader and much more distinct
than in the larval stage. The head, exsertile spear and oesopha-
gus have been described. The excretory canal on the ventral
side opens a little posteriorly to the muscular bulb. The caudal
end (tail end) is slightly curved, and very near the end are the
two curved spicules.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, 95

The generative organ is paired, the long slender tester lying on
either side of the alimentary canal reach by their free anterior
ends to about the middle of the body. See Fig. 21^;, Plate IV.
Some little distance from the caudal end of the body they unite
into a common canal, which itself near the spicules unites with
the alimentary canal, forming the cloaca. The spermatozoa are
spherical. The cellular structure of the testes resembles that of
the ovaries to some extent. The cells are polyhedral, and in
side view the lines separating them are zigzag. See Fig. 21:3;,
Plate IV. 1\\ live males the spherical spermatozoa are easily
seen at and near the common passage, but they are developed in
the anterior ends of the testes. By boiling infested potatoes to
soften them so that I could remove the cysts and mature males
without cutting or mashing them, I found that it toughened the
tissues of the animals, and made the cellular structure very dis-
tinct. I possess several microscopic mounts of the males and
one with the male in the act of coming from its cyst.

Development of the Female. — About the time the cysts
have reached the stage when the male begins its transformations
it is quite easy to distinguish the female cyst. The alimentary
canal is very large and up to this time in both sexes has occupied
nearly the entire cavity of the cyst. Now it begins to deterio-
rate and the ovaries l)egin to come to maturity while the cyst con-
tinues to enlarge. While the female cyst still possesses the
slender tail process*, tiie irregular, slender hyaline cornua of the
generative organs may been seen one on either side of the large
intestine, which is covered with fat globules and is quite opaque,
or more so than the genital tubes. See Figs. 19 and 192;^ Plate
IV. The vulva, the opening for the uterus, is at the point in
these figures where the tail process joins the cyst. The cyst con-
tinues to enlarge, or "swell," until the tail part is cast and thrust
aside. The vulva is now at the posterior end, and in some cases
the body is so much enlarged that a depression is formed at this
point (see Fig. 27, Plate IV). The ovaries continue to elongate;
and fertilization takes place long before the cyst has ceased enlarg-

*Probably the remains of the second moult.

96 JOURNAL OF THE

ing. The ova begin to develop while the cyst is comparatively
small. Before the ovaries are fully developed they are capable
of a slight independent motion. Frequently in examining those
dissected from living cysts I have noticed a marked twisting and
tortuous motion, probably due to a contraction of muscles in the
walls. The body wall of the female is marked by irregular
transverse striae, but not so prominent as in the male.

Length of Life Cycle. — This completes a life cycle of our
Heterodera i-adieiGola. It passes through all these changes, from
the devolepment of eggs, successively through the larval and
cystic state until eggs are again developed, in about one month.
This I was able to determine by watching the development of
the worms in the roots of "volunteer'^ potatoes which sprouted
about the first of October and were infected from the soil and
the "seed" potatoes. Thus in favorable seasons there would be
at this latitude seven or eight successive generations in a year.
Farther South, where the season is longer, probably the numl>er
of generations is increased. When we consider the number of
eggs one female is capable of producing, from one hundred to
two hundred or more, it will be seen that the worms multiply
with startling rapidity. The periods of transformation of dif-
ferent individuals do not altogether coincide, so that at almost
any season we may find worms in every stage of development.

Brief Recapitulation of the Life History. — J£V/^ —
The oblong, bean-shaped egg, .08 mm. to .10 mm. long, devel-
oped in the anterior patt of the ovaries, after fertilization, enclosed
in a donble-wallod membrane, undergoes partial or complete seg-
mentation while yet within the uterus. From the l>eginuing of
segmentation to the fully developed larva five to seven days are
required. The thread-like larva is coiled three or four times
within the egg membrane. Larva — At the time of hatching or
soon thereafter it moults for the first time. It is "thread-like,"
blunt at the head end and narrowly pointed at the tail end, .3
mm. to .4 mm. long. In the head end can be easily noted the
exsertile spear and the long, tortuous channel of the anterior part
of the oesophagus extending to a prominent ovoid or ellipsoid

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 97

muscular bulb, the middle part of the oesophagus. From this
point the lumen of the aliiuentary canal can be seen extending
down through the middle of the body, in which is a matrix that
develops many fat globules; the anus is situated at the beginning
of the hyaline portion of the tail end. The larva now leaves
the cyst cavity and enters a fresh root or different place in the
same root. It wanders for a time when it comes to rest, moults
a second time and then being fixed enlarges, or " swells up,"
into a cyst with a flask-like body, the head projecting at one
end and the slender pointed tail at the other. At this time
prominent sexual transformations take place. Male — The male
moults again (third time), leaving the outer wall of the cyst
intact, while the body of the male elongates, narrows and becomes
coiled three or four times within the cyst. While this change is
going on the male moults again (fourth time). It is now from
1 mm. to 1.5 mm. long, anguillula-like, blunt at each end,
slightly curved at the caudal end, where are two curved spicules.
In the middle line of the body runs the alimentary canal, in the
posterior half of the body are the paired testes, which are united
into a common duct near the caudal end, and at the cloaca this
unites with the intestine. On each side within the body is a
muscular cord extending the entire length of the worm. Fe-
male— The female does not moult again, but continues to enlarge
enormously until it is gourd-shaped, and the paired generative
organs, opening by a common passage at the vulva in the pos-
terior part of the body, form long tubes which lie coiled in the
body of the cyst, free at their anterior end. As the embryos are
developing the body of the cyst breaks up into an amorphic
gelatinous mass in which the young larvae and eggs are found
floating within the eyst cavity. Length of life cycle, one month.
Metamorphism of Heterodera. — One of the features of
the greatest morphological interest in Heterodera is its singular
metamorphic character. This metamorphism finds its completest
analogy in some forms of the Coocidce^ where the larvae, after

*StrabeIl, Ad. Uatersachuogeii uber dea Bau und die Entwickelung des Rubennema-
toden, Heterodera Schaehtii Schmidt. (Bibliotheca Zooiogica. Originalabhaudlungen

98 JOURNAL OF THE

pursuing for a time a wandering life undergo a metaniorphosisf
accompanied by what a[)pears to be a retrogression, so that the
creatures lack the power of h)comotion. At the third moult of
the male it is transformed again into a more highly organized
being, possessing wings and capable of seeking its mate. On
the other hand, the female remains fixed and incapable of loco-
motion, and after impregnation by the male becomes enormously
distended with eggs. It mu.^t be borne in mind, however, that
this anah)gy is only superficial. Heterodera does n or lose its
power of locomotion through any retrogression of form like the
loss of organs which occurs in the Cjcc/yfc, though, according to
Strubelljsome parts of the ht^al un lergo retrogression. It is
because of the rigidity and distension of the bidy of b.)tli male
and female so that it cannot perform the undulatory movements
of the body by which locoujotion in the larval state and in the
adult male is acconiplished. The fact that the cyst is surrounded
by the tissues of the plant does not interfere with its independ-
ent l»)Comotion.

The cystj; differs mor[)hologically from that o^ Xematodes like
Trichina, where the larva becomes encysted in the muscles of its
host and does not underjxo anv remarkable change of form in the
formation of the cyst, the walls of which are formed from extra-
neous and excreted matter. It son)ewhat resembles in its origin
and earlier sta;i:es the earlier staj^es of certain of the Cestodes like
Tcenia,^ where the embryo after it is located in the tissues of its
host develops by distension into a vesicular body. Here, how-
ever, the resemblance ceases, and the walls of the T(rnia cyst by
invagination or evagination produce the head of thi' worm, or

ftiis dem Gesammt^^ebiete der Zoologie, hrsg., von R. Leiickfirt «. C. Clnm. Heft 2) 4° 50
pg. 2 Taf. Cassel (Th. Fischer) 1888.

<'entralblatt fur Bakteriologie und Parasiteiikunde. Bd. VI, No. 15, pp. 421-420, Jena,
188!».

Muller, Mittheilnngen nber unseren Knlturpflanzen snhadliclip, das (re-'^chlecht Hete-
rodera hildcnden Wiiimer. I.andwirtliseliaftliflie Jahrbiiolier, Bd. XIII, Heft 1,1884.

Soraner, PHanzPiikranklieiten, Zweito .Aiitlatre, Kr.^^ter Banil, pp. 852-85», 1880.

Stiubell, Ad. I'^eber den Ban nnd (iie Entwickelung von Heterodera Sehachtii Selimidt-
Zoolog. Anzeiger, No. 242, 17, Jannar, 1887., pp. 42-4(;, nnd No. 24:5, .11, Jannar, 1887, pp-
(i2-<;(;.

Centralblatt fnr BakteriiJogie nnd Parasitenknndo. Band I, pp. G0.3-C04, Jena, 1887.

tConi.^tock — \i\ Introduction to Entomology, Itliaca, N. Y., 1888.
Ann, Kept. U. S. Dept. Agr., 1880.

JMy use of the term cyst is mainly for convenience.

^Text-book of Zoology, Clau.s and Sedgwick.

ELTSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 99

scolex, or in some case^ the brood capsules, from which several
heads are produced. In Heterodera tlie vesicular distension of
the larva begins after a period of wandering through the tissues
of its host. Instead of invagination the wall of the male vesicle
is cast, and retains the cystic form while the worm eL)ngates and
coils within it. In its ''pupa" condition the male more nearly
resembles Eclduorhynchus, where the embryo after a wandering
state comes to rest in the tissue of its host, develops a small elon-
gated larva, which is surrounded by its firm external skin as a
cyst.* The female vesicle continues to distend until in age its
body is filled with eggs and young larvse. This condition of
the female has been termed by somef a " brood capsule," but it
of course bears no morphological semblance to the brood capsules
of certain Cestoda. I regret that I find it necessary here to call
attention to some serious errors on the part of some of our
American investigators.

One of these errors is that into which Dr. NealJ has fallen in
his treatment of the life history of this parasite. He speaks of
the eirgs as "cvst^." This mav have been due to the fact that
he regarded the numerous yolk globules in the ovaries as cells,
for he speaks of the cysts [loc. cit.) which were at first without
any "epidermis," being formed by "an agglomeration of cells.^^
What he represents in Plates IX and X, as segmentation of the
"cysts," is only a representation of the first stages of segmenta-
tion of the egg.

It appears that Professor Scribner made a similar mistake in
speaking of the "cysts" and "eggs" of the nematode which
causes the new disease of the Irish§ potato described by him.
What he speaks of as the "cysts" are the egg membranes still
containing the young larv?e. What he figures as the mature
worm is a young one, and the round granules which he speaks

*Text-book of Zoology, Clans and Sedgwick, Vol. I, p. 382.

fStrubell, Ad. Untersnchungen uber den Ban nnd die Entwickelung des Rubennema-

toden, Heterodera Schachtii Schmidt. Bibliotheca Zoologiea, Heft 2, 1888.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie und Parasitenknnde. Band VJ, No. 15, pp. 423-429, Jena,
1889.

IBulletin 20, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Division of Entomology, Washington, 1889.

gBulletin of the Agr. Exp. Station, Tenn, Vol. II, No. 2, 1889.

100 JOURNAL OF THE

of as eggs are probably fat globules. I have found potatoes
here affected with a similar disease while also attacked by
Heterodera radiclcola. I hav^e found the worms representing all
stages of development. It appears that they do not form cysts
in the proper sense of the word. Fig. 46, Plate VI, represents
a mature female of this worm. At a is a fully developed egg
yet within the uterus, while b represents young ova not fully
developed. In the body of the worm, as well as in the eggs,
can be seen the round globules. Figs. 42 and 43 represent eggs;
43, an egg having undergone fission. Other eggs were observed
in different stages of development up to the fully formed larva
represented still within the tgg membrane at Fig. 44. Fig. 45
represents young worms of this species.

Fig. 47 represents a different species occasionally found accom-
panying these worms, but whether they are parasitic or not I
have not yet had the time to determine.

Several of the worms which Dr. Neal has fio-ured do not
belong to Heterodera. Especially in decaying tissues one is apt
to find species which are not parasitic. However, wherever they
were found it is very clear that some belong to other genera than
the worm in question. For example, his Fig. 2, Plate XIII
(loG. cit), is a mature female of another genus. An egg is rep-
resented in the uterus near the letter B, and the numerous yolk
globules he speaks of as a peculiar arrangement of cells.

Comparison with Heterodera Schaohtii, Schmidt. —

There are many points of very close resemblance between
Heterodera radicicola and Heterodera Schachtii. Both of these
are European species, and each is known to attack widely differ-
ent plants, so that the selection of a particular plant or family
of plants as a specific peculiarity is not their habit. Notwith-
standiiig the points of resemblance there are a number of differ-
entiating characters heretofi)re used, the value of which can only
be determined after careful study and experimentation, and even
now some of these are known to be variants possessed by both
species. The female of Heterodera Schachtii is said to be ecto-
parasitic, the posterior part of its body being nearly or quite

ELTSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 101

exposed. This results from the larva locating very near the
surface so that its distended vesicular body breaks the surface
and becomes exposed. This does not seem to be a character of
very much value since many of the female cysts of Hetcrodera
radicicola are exposed.

The chief morphological differentiating characters which have
been em[)loyed are as follows: The })osterior part of the body
of the female is rounded in Heterodera radicicola. In Hetero-
dera ScJiachtii'^ the posterior part of the body of the female
projects into a short, stout process in which is the vulva.
According to Strubell (loc. cit.) the exsertile spear is somewhat
differently constructed in the females of the two species. I
have only found one female which possessed the stout process
at the posterior part of the body. One of the most prominent
differentiating characters used in the case of the males is the
presence of the slender tail f)rocess in the cyst in Heterodera,
radicicola and its absence in Heterodera Schachtii. Dr. E. L.
Mark, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, who, before my copy of Strubell arrived, kindly
compared for me some copies of my drawings with those of
Heterodera Schachtii by Strubell, and aided me in the interpre-
tation of some of the phases of egg segmentation, has made the
suggestion that possibly the slender tail })rocess in Heterodera
radicicola may be the result of the retention of the first larval
skiu which is lost in Heterodera Schachtii. After this sugges-
tion it has occurred to me that the first larval skiu (at second
moult) in those I have observed is cast at the time the larva
comes to rest preparatory to passing into the cystic stage. In
such moults I have only observed the skin as it was loosened
from the anterior part of the body. Strubell says, in the case
of Heterodera Schachtii (loc. cit., p. 44), that frequently the old
larval skin remains attached to the hinder part of the larval
envelope (''cyst") so that it has the appearance of being pointed.

*Strabell, Untersuehungen uber den Bau und die Entvviekelung des Rubennemato-
den, Heterodera Schachtii, Schmidt. Bibliotheca Zoologica, Heft II, 1888.

Muller, C. Mittheihmgen uber unseren Kultiirptianzen .'schadliche, das Geschleeht
Heterodera biidenden Warmer. Landwirthschaftiiche Jahrbucher. Ed. XIII, Heft I,
1884.

8

102 JOURNAL OF THE

He is also inclined to think that the gronnds for considering the
two species distinct are questionable. In a foot-note, p. 11,
he states that he is strengthened in his belief by the recent
researches of Ritzema Bos in Wageningen (Biolog. Central l)latt,
Bd. VII), who finds that such species as Tylenchus devastatrixy
allii, Havensteimi et Askenasyi must be united into a single spe-
cies.

That these two species of Heterodera are identical has been
suggested by others.*

Durino^ mv study of Heterodera radicicola I have been stron^rlv
inclined to consider it identical with Heterodera Schachtii since
many of the variations of the two species tend to reconcile the
above-mentioned differences. However, since my copy of Stru-
belPs work has arrived and I have had an opportunity to com-
pare it carefully with my own researches I find there exists a
difference in the structure of the males of very great morpho-
logical importance. Strubell states that the genital apparatus of
the male is an un[)aired tube,t the single tube occupies the ven-
tral side of the body cavity for half its length, the posterior end
unites with a short efferent duct which itself unites with the
intestine to form the cloaca. As I have stated in a former para-
graph the genital apparatus in the males I have studied is paired,
the two tubes unite near the posterior end of the body to form
the efferent duct. It is difficult to see how Strubell could have
overlooked a second tube, if it existed, since his work was done
under the cTgis of Leuckart. This character possessed by com-
paratively a few neniatodes seems of too great importance for
specific variation. To re-assure myself I referred again to my
microscopic mounts of the male. Midler's [loc. cit.) imperfect
study of the male leaves us no clue as to the structure of the
genital apparatus in Heterodera radicicola. Until the European
species is studied it will be impossible to say whether mine is a
distinct species.

*Sorauer, Pflanzcnkrankheiten, Zweite Aiiflage, Erster Band. Foot-note, pp. 854,855,

t"Bei unseren Heterodera prasentiert sich derselbe als ein einfaclier Schlanch," etc.,
p. 22. See also his Fig. 1, Taf. I.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 103

My Figs. 21, 23, 25 and 26, Plate IV, represent a male which
differed from Heterodera radiclcola mainly in the presence of a
short curved caudal })rocess represented at a, Fig. 26. At first
I thought this might possibly he a different species from Hetero-
dera radiclcola, but as I only found one specimen 1 have con-
cluded it may possibly be an accidental vai'iation.

All of the males which I have studied were found in potatoes.
My impressions are that the species in all the different galls
found here are identical. More than this at the present time
could not be said. As this report is only preliminary, and it has
been impossible for me during the very short period of my obser-
vations to find and carefully study the males, where we must
probably look for the most satisfactory specific characters, in the
different galls, I hope to continue these investigations during the
coming year. This will also afford me an opportunity to study
more fully some structural features necessarily passed over in the
present work.

Distribution of Heterodera, — The genus Heterodera is
world-wide in its distribution. It has been long known in cen-
tral Europe, where Heterodera Schachtii was discovered by
Schacht* in 1859 and named by Schmidtf in 1871. Heterodera
radiclcola was first recorded in i S7 2 and nmned as Anguillula
radiclcola by Greef,J and transferred to this genus by Muller§ in
1884. It has been found in Java in the roots of sugar-cane by
Treub,|| who named the species Heterodera Javanlca, the char-
acters being based on some differences in size of the females from
Heterodera radicicola. Beijerinck^ doubts if it is distinct from
Heterodera radicicola.

*Ueber einige Feinde der Rubenfeldei. Zeitschrft, d. Ver. d. Rubenzuckerindus-
trie. Bd. IX, S. 175—179, 1859.

fUeber den Rnben-Nematoden (Heterodera Schachtii A. S.) Zeitschr. d. Ver, f. d.
Rubenzackerindnstrie im ZoUverein. Bd. XXI, S. 1-19, 1871. (Both cited by Mulier,
Mittheilungen uber unsei'en Kulturpflanzen schadliche Wnrmer).

tSitzungsberieht. d. Marburger Gesellsehaft z. Beford. d. Naturwiss. S. 1G9, 1872. (Cited
by Mulier, Mittheilungen, etc.).

gMittheilungen uber unseren Kulturpflansen .schadliche, das Geschlecht Heterodera
biidenden Warmer. Landwirthschaltliehe Jahrbucher, Bd. XIII, Heft I, 1884.

IIQuelques mots sur les etfets du para.^sitisme de 1' Heterodera Javanica dans les racines
de la eanne a sucre. Ann. d. Jardin bot. de. Buitenzorg, Vol. VI, Part I, pp. 93-9fi,
Leide, 188G. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXVIII, p. 269, 188G.

fThe Gardenir-root disease. Gard's. Chron. ser. Ill, Vol. I, pp. 488, 489, 1887. Abstract
in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXXV, p. 92, 1888.

104 JOURNAL OF THE

It was known in Brazil in the year 1878* in the roots of the
coffee tree, and has since been stndied and published under the
generic name Meloidogyne by Golbi.f Leuckart is of the opin-
ion that this is a speceies of Hetcrodeva (see foot-note in Central-
blatt fiir Bakteriologie und Parasitenkunde, Bd. Y, p. 840,
1889). It is also known in Scotland, according to W. G.
Smith. ;|;

Dr. Neal§ states that it cannot survive the cold of severe win-
ters in America north of about the January isotherm of 50° as
shown in the No. 2 Isothermal Lines of the U. S. Signal Service,
1881 . I do not know that any experiments have been conducted
to demonstrate this. If it can survive the winters in Scotland it
can endure the winters of all our Gulf and South Atlantic States.
The January isotherm of 50° strikes the Atlantic coast just below
Savannah, includes the south-eastern corner of Georgia, the very
southern limits of Alabama, and a corner of Louisiana. The
isotherm of the same month and year which passes near this place
is 45°. It starts above Charleston, cuts Georgia through the
centre and passes a little south of Montgomery. The isotherm
of 40° starts Dear the boundary corner of Virginia and North
Carolina, passes north of Atlanta, and includes the major part
of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. The average
temperature of Edinburgh, Scotland, during the month of Janu-
ary is about 39°, so that we might fully expect the root-gall
nematode, if once introduced, to tiirive as far north as the Jan-
uary isotherm of 35°, or eviu farther. This isothermal line
starts in at the coast north of Norft)Ik and runs through middle
Tennessee. Indeed, I ani inclined to think if a favorable oppor-

*Siii- line maladia rln Cafeier Observee au Bresil. Compt. rend. hebd. aoad. sc. Paris,
1878, T, LXXXVII, No. 2i, S. 941-943. Ab.straet in Bot. Jalire.sberioht (rust), p. 173, 1878.

IHolatorio sohre a molestia do cafeeiro do Rio de Janeiro. Bd. VIII, Archives do
Mnsoo naeional do Rio de Janeiro.

Biologisehe Misoellen aus Brasilien, VII. Der Kaffeenematode Brasiliens, Meloidogyne
exigna (t. Zoolog. Jahrbneher, abtli. f. System., Geogr. u. Biol. d. Thiere, Bd. IV, Hit. I,
pp. 2()2-2fJ7, Jena, 1889.

Abstract in Centralblatt fur Baliteriologie und Parasitenkunde, Bd. V, pp. 839-840,
1889.

JDiseasc of Oats — Hcterodera radicicola, Miiller, Gardeners' Chronicle, New Ser., Vol.
XXI, p. 172, 1880. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXXI, p. 247, 1878.

^The Root-knot Disease of the Peach, Orange, and other Plants in Florida, duo to the
work of Anguillula, Bulletin No. 20, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., Wasliing-
ton, 1889.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 105

tunity should occur for its introductiou into our States even so
far north as New York and Ohio tliat from its habit it might
easily pass the winter in sufficient numbers to become a terrible
pest. On long rooted plants like the parsnip I have found them
in great numbers fifteen inches below the surface of the ground.
On tomato roots, which were placed in the soil very deep to get
them if possible out of the way of the attacks of the worms, I
have found them so low as eighteen inches below the surface.
This depth would protect them from the frost in the very severe
winters of some of our Northern States.

There is to some extent a natural barrier to the spread of the
root-gall nematode from the Southern to the Northern States,
which is explained by the fact that very few, if any, perennials
grown in the South are transported North for cultivation. How-
ever, the subject is of sufficient importance to the Northern
States to justify an inquiry into the possibility of its being suc-
cessfnlly carried through the winter under the conditions I have
stated.

VI.

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DISEASED ROOTS.

Nomenclature. — The abnormal growths on the roots caused
by Hcterodera radicwola have long been termed popularly, in
this country, " root- knot." In Scotland they are known as
*" root-ill," "thick-root," "tulip-root," "segging"; while in
Germany they have long been known under the name " Wur-
zelgallen." The tubercular swellings on the roots of leguminous
plants (see comparison of root-galls with the tubercles of the
Leguminosece at close of this section) have long been known and
published in Germany as " Wurzelknollchen " (root-knot). In
order to avoid a confusion of the tubercle with the abnormal
growths dealt with here I shall use the term nematode root-gall,
or root-gall. There is a tendency with some writers to use the
term "gall" only for those abnormal growths which have their

*Smith, W. G. Disease of Oafs — Heterodera radicicola, Muller, Gardeners' Chron.,
New Ser., Vol. XXVI, p. 172, 1886. Abstract in Bot. Ceutralblatt, Bd. XXXI, p. 247, 1887.

106 JOURNAL OF THE

origin through the irritating presence of animals.* These nem-
atode root-o-alls would belono; to the same class of abnormal
growtiis sometimes denominated HehninthoceckUen. The writer
does not mean by the use of the term root-gall that it has })rior-
ity to the use of the term root-knot, but in view of the appro-
priateness of the word, teratologioally, and for the reason stated
above, he would recommend its adoption.

External Characters. — For the purpose of preparing the
reader for a study of the life history and transformations of the
parasite, section II was introduced, in which attentinn was called
to the general external morphological characters of the galls in a
few plants. It is now in order to discuss more at length the
variations in form of the galls, and then to point out the special
histological changes induced.

The external form of the gall is to a great extent dependent
upon the number of worms and their distribution in the tissues
of the roots, as w^ell as upon some specific peculiarities in the
p:rowth of the roots or habit of branchino:. If the worms are
numerous and the attack is made pretty regularly in a peripheral
plane at a particular point in the root the gall will be symmet-
rical, and either short and ovoid or eh^ngate and fusiform,
accordino: to the extent of their distribution alono- the axis of
the root at that point. If fewer worms attack at a given point
the gall is more likely to be lateral, owing to the less certainty
of an even peripheral infection. Often, however, lateral galls
may be so near as to unite into one, when the appearance is that
of a very irregular and knotty gall, the enlargements passing by
abrubt changes on different sides of the root.

For the forms of the galls in the roots of the tomato, potato
and peach tlie reader is referred to Section II.

The galls found in the "poke- weed '^ (Phytolacca dccandra)
were very large, lateral and ovoid. In a species of the })lant
called coffee weed [Cassia obtusifolla) lateral galls were found on
the tap r(K)t near the surface of the ground. On the grape the

*Soraner, Pflanzenkrankheiten, Zweite Aiittage, Heft, I.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 107

fibrous roots usually possessed small ovoid lateral galls, while
the galls on the larger roots were irregularly fusiforru and not
very prominent. The galls on the cow pea [Dolichos catiang)
are quite peculiar. They are usually irregularly pyriform and
mostly lateral, with the larger end of the gall below. When a
root is attacked it appears in many cases to die just below the
point of attack so that the gall is abrupt at this end while there
is an opportunity for the worms to distribute themselves in a
diminishing ratio a short distance above the gall, which makes
the sloping narrowed portion of the pyriform body. The size
and irregularity of the larger end of the gall is increased by
one or more lateral roots, which develop very near the lower end
of the gall, and continue the direction of growth of the main
root which died. This in turn may be attacked, develop a gall,
die below the gall and produce a branch, and so on, successively,
until several pyriform galls are formed on successive branches,
appearing like a string of pyriform beads, the string of which
runs obliquely through them. In badly infected specimens this
is more marked and presents a very singular appearance. The
galls on bird's foot clover [Lotus corniculatus) are short and
ovoid, or more usually, by the very close proximity of several,
elongated and very irregular in outline. This irregularity is
increased bv the numerous small rootlets put out bv the diseased
root, into the bases of which worms distribute themselves and
form small convex elevations on the larger gall.

In the roots of Amarcmtus retroflexus the worms were quite
abundant, but the galls were not prominent. On the larger
roots they were irregularly fusiform, slightly twisted, and while
in some cases one-half inch, one inch or more in length, the
diameter of the root was not greatly increased. In places the
surface ])ossessed small brownish, or dirty white pustules, in
which were cysts located very near or quite in the surface of the
gall, while in the same gall other cysts were imbedded in the
central cylinder.

It is unnecessary to detail further in this preliminary report
the forms of the galls on the other diseased plants. Enough

108 JOURNAL OF THE

has been said to show that great variation prevails and to give
the typical forms about which all may be easily grouped. A
list of the diseased plants whicli have thus far been found in
this section will be given in Section VIII, while a comparison
of the disease with some other characters and diseases of plants,
wnth which it might be confounded upon external examination,
will be made after the discussion of the microscopic details of
the diseased tissues.

Histological Characters {See also references heloxo^). —
The w^orms locate preparatory to passing into the cystic state at
various depths in the tissues of the root. They are not confined
to any particular tissue element or system, but locate in the vas-
cular tissue of tlie central cylinder, the cambium, parenchyma,
or even in the bark, so that the body of the mature female cyst
is frequently only protected by a thin layer of the dead peripheral
tissue or sometimes is even exposed. They seem to flourish bet-
ter, however, in or near the softer tissues of the root. It is a
very common thing to find dead undeveloped female cysts, the
majority of which I have always found in the woody tissue of
the central cylinder. Possibly surrounded as they are by the
harder, more compact tissue there is less certainty of the male
reaching them for fertilization. This, however, is only a sug-
gestion. I have not demonstrated it. All of the tissue elements
in the diseased roots undergo hypertrophy, while some of them
are subject to special changes in form as well as direction of
growth.

The parenchyma cells which normally have their tangential
diameter greater than the radial are so changed that the radial
diameter is the greater. This change in form of the parenchyma
cells seems to obtain in nearly all of the paienchyma in the gall

*G()0<lixIe, r^hysiologifal Botany, Vol. 11, Gray's Hotanioal Text-books.

Van Ticgliem, Traite de Hotaniiiue, Deiixienr)e Ivlition, Fascicule 5.

Muller, Mittlieilungen iiber die unseren Kulturptlanzen scliadlieiie, das Gesehlecht
Heterodera bii<lenden VViumer, Landwirthscliattliehe Jahrbuclier, Bd XIII, Heft, I,
1884.

.lahresbeiicht fur Wiss. Bot. (Just), 1876, p. 1'235.

Idem, 1877, pp. .')l()-.517.

Idem, 1878, p. 174.

Idem, 1878, p. 109.

%Soianer, Pt1an/,enl<rankhoiten, Zweite .\nt1age, Vol. I.

Frank, Kianklieiten der Ptianzen, and others.

ELTSHA MITCHEl.L SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 109

whether very near a cvst or distant from it. The increase in
number of the wood and vascular cells of the central cylinder
takes place though the cyst may not be located in or very near
it. In such cases the fibres and ducts have their normal loniri-
tudinal direction. But if a cyst is located in or very near the
central cylinder the ducts are turned in their direction of growth
perpendicular to the axis of the root, bent around the cyst and
then converge on the peripheral side, when, left without any
controlling influence over their direction of growth, they often
perform very curious evolutions through the parenchymatous
tissue in all directions.

A glance at Figs. 29 and 30, Plate V, will show at once a
great difference in the arrangement of the tissue elements and the
form of the cells of diseased roots compared with the same in a
healthy root. These figures represent sections of roots of the
cotton plant. Fig. 29 is fi-om a section through a gall on a
small lateral root, while Fig. 30 is from a healthy lateral root of
the same size as the non-infected portions of the root from which
Fig. 29 was taken. Both are drawn to the same scale and the
natural size of the lateral root from which Fig. 29 was made is
represented in Fig. 31. In the healthy lateral root (Fig. 30) it
will be noticed that the differentiation of the woody tissue, which
contains the large tracheal vessels, with the parenchyma is not
so marked as in most roots so that the stellate appearance is not
well represented. One of the most marked of the deformities
is the displacement of the liber fascicles. In Fig. 30 they are
shown in normal position at e. In Fig. 29 only one group is in
what would be the normal position if the root were not diseased
and of its normal size; this group is shown at e, Fig. 29; e^, e',
e\ e^, represent displaced groups; that is, in the rapid and abnor-
mal increase of wood cells from the central cylinder they have
been pushed far out of their normal position, while cells of the
parenchyma on the one side and wood cells on the other have
grown around the group e; e/ ' represents one group not displaced
but turned to grow in a tangential and radial direction, while
e' ' ' represents one group not only displaced, but turned also in a
9

110 JOURNAL OF THE

tangential direction; c represents cells of vascnlar tissne which
are turned in a tano^ential direction around the cavitv of a cvst
which is just below and was removed in making the section; d
also represents cells of vascular tissue turned out of their normal
course bv the near presence of a cyst. At a is a cyst located in
the edge of the vascular tissue of the central cylinder bordering
on parenchymatous tissue; behind the cvst the cells of the vas-
cular tissue are turned tangentially, and this part of the bundle
reaches over outside of the parenchymatous tissue bordering the
liber fascicle e. The parenchyma cells between the cyst and the
liber fascicle e are elongated radially instead of having their tan-
gential diameter the longer.

In Plate VI, Figs. 36 and 37 represent the structural charac-
ter of the galls on tomato roots. The cysts a and b are seated
in the parenchyma, the cells of which have long radial diame-
ters and converge around the cyst. The parenchyma cells in
this section, in a peripheral plane, are longer radially than tan-
gentially. At c is represented a dead cyst, probably not impreg-
nated, which lies in the woody tissue of the central cylinder.
The pitted ducts can be seen to lie radially or perpendicular
to the axis, turned from their normal longitudinal direction.
Behind the cyst by turning in a tangential direction they con-
verge from either side and meet.

Fig. 37 represents a section through a mature cyst lying in the
vascular tissue : the cavity of the cyst at a is filled with eggs and
young larvie. At b are represented the vascular cells, which lie in
a normal direction, cut transversely. On either radial side the
ducts curve around, closely following the contour of the sides of
the cavity. At c, the outer tangential side of the cyst cavity, the
ducts from both sides and from below converge and meet.

Fig. 36 represents a section from a moderately sized young
gall. In older ones, where the cysts are numerous, there is often
presented an intricate maze of these pitted ducts coursing in all
directions.

In potato tubers the parenchyma cells are elongated so that
their longer diameter is perpendicular to the surface at that point

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Ill

(see Fig. 38, Plate VI) When tlie potatoes reniain in tlie ground
for some time, or have been infested for some time dnrinor their
growing condition, large warty growths are sometimes formed,
as represented in the upper right-hand figure in Plate I. Again
the tubers which have lain in the ground after maturity and
sprouted ("volunteers") being badly infested, the young sprouts
are attacked and large galls produced on them close to the sur-
face of the tuber. In tijese cases [)itted ducts are developed to
a very great extent and a large majority of the mature female
cysts are surrounded by an intricate net-work of these ducts. Id
making sections of such galls many of these cysts are cut through,
and by removing the remains of the cyst there is the appearance
of a beautiful microscopic basket woven from the ducts and
imbedded in the looser parenchymatous tissue near by. In the
galls of the peach root, beside the special structural derangements
which could be classed under the head of the foregoing charac-
ters, there appears in many of the nearly mature or old female
cysts a secondary growth of pseudoparenchymatous tissue fi'om
the inner periphery of the cavity, which in some cases nearly
fills the cavity with tender, loosely compacted cells, so that the
cyst is often deformed by the pressure of these ingrowing cells,
and in very old ones the larvne lie in different places in the tissue.
It requires in some cases very careful seirch to find a female cyst
which can be removed and recognized as the female of Heterodera.
Comparison of the External Appearance of the
Root-gall Disease of the Potato with " Potato Scab.'' —
In some of the peculiarities of the disease in the potato tubers
caused by Heterodera radiGWola there is a striking resemblance,
especially in the earlier stages, to the effects of the disease called
''potato scab" and attributed by Brunchorst* to the action of a
parasitic organism of very simple structure which he calls Spon-
gospora Solani, and considers to be closely allied to the organism
called by Woroninf Plasmodiophora Brassicce, which causes the

*Ueber eine sehr verbreitete Krankheit der Kartoffelknollen. In Bergens Museums
Aarsberetning for 188G, p. 219.
See also "Potato scab," J. E. Humphrey, Mass. State Exp. Station, Gth Annual Report,

1888.

fPringsheim's Jahrbucher fur wisseuchaftliche Botanik, Vol. XI, p. 548.

112 JOURNAL OF THE

disease of cabbages and turnips vulgarly known as "club-foot/'
The surface of a healthy potato is quite smooth with here and
there minute rounded elevations which are usually of a little
lighter color than the ground color of the surface and sliglitly
roughened or granular. These are known as the " lenticels/'
the cork cells of which being loose and rounded have many inter-
cellular spaces and permit an easy interchange of gases between
the cells of the potato and the outside. It is supposed that the
potato scab disease begins in the vicinity of these lenticels. An
increase in the tissue of the potato takes place here, so that a
low convex elevation is formed, the surface of which becomes
"scurfy" by the pealing off of the outer coats. From this the
tissues break down and decay sets in, and unless the disease is
arrested the whole surface of the potato is affected. It appears
that the larvae of Heterodera radicicola mainly attack a potato in
the vicinity of these lenticels, for the first external sign of the
presence of the parasite is the enlargement of tliese lenticels
until elevations of considerable size are formed, which are scurfy
on the surface. Finally the elevation cracks, decay sets in and
in many cases the external appearance strongly resembles a
" scabby '^ potato. Usually, however, when the disease is arrested
the tissues being softened gradually shrivel and the potato has a
wrinkled and shriveled appearance which I never saw in a potato
affected bv what is called the "scab.'' Usually also the roots
will present the irregularly fusiform or ovoid galls. For the
purpose of comparing "scabby" potatoes with those infested by
the Heterodet'a requests were made of several gentlemen in Ala-
bama and in some of the Northern States for " scabby" potatoes
from their respective sections. Specimens were received from
Peter Collier,* Director of the New York Agr. Exp. Station at
Geneva, N. Y. ; from Prof. E. S. (joff, Horticulturist of the
Wisconsin Agr. Ex. Station at Madison, Wis.; from Mr. Clar-
ence M. Weed, Entomologist of the Ohio Agr. Exp. Station at
Columbus, Ohio; frojn Mr. Wilson Newman, Assistant Director

*Tlie author wishes to express his obligation to these gentlemen for their kindness.

ELISHA MITCHP:LL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 113

of the Canebrake Station, Uniontown, Ala., and from Prof. T.
M. WatHngton, Abbeville, Ala.

From the last named place the specimens received were very
badly infested with the Heterodera radiciGolaj and with a few of
the nematodes which cause the disease described by Prof. Scrib-
ner.* I did not find the Heterodera present in the potatoes from
any of the other localities. When the potatoes remain in the
ground for a long time the fissures in the elevations become so
deep and in some places the corky growths are so large and
prominent as to be easily distinguished from the appearance of
''scab" in any of the potatoes the writer has seen. In Plate I
the upper left-hand figure re})resents the very early stages of the
disease caused by Heterodera radicicola, while the upper right-
hand figure represents one which has long been infected.

Comparison of Root- galls with ''Club-foot" of Cab-
bage.— It will be of great interest to compare the diseased con-
dition of the cabbage roots caused by Heterodera radicicola with
the disease of the roots vulgarly known as ^' club -foot ^^ of cab-
bage, since in many respects the external characters are very
similar, while the two diseases are caused by very widely differ-
ent organisms. The nne which causes root-gall, Heterodera radi-
cicola, is, when compared with organisms of a lower grade, an
animal of quite a complex and high organization. The one which
causes "club-foot" is one of the slime moulds, a plant of the
very lowest organization, called by Woronin,f who first discov-
ered it to be the cause, Plasmodiophora Brassicce. This para-
site, when in its mature state, consists of numerous very minute
rounded bits of protoplasm, each independent and protected by
a thin covering or wall. These remain in a resting condition
through the winter in the diseased roots or in the soil. In the
spring by decay of the roots these spores are freed. Under
proper conditions of temperature and moisture they absorb water
until the wall cracks and the bit of protoplasm is set free as a
swarm cell; that is, a microscopic bit of plastic protoplasm with

*Bulletin Agr. Exp. Station, Tenn., Vol. II, No. 2, 188G.

fPringsheim's Jahrbucher fur wissenschaftliche Botanik, Vol. XI, p. 548.

114 JOURNAL OF THE

a very slender cilium or hair-like process. After a time it loses
this cilium and then the plastic bit of protoplasm moves slowly
about in the damp soil by a streaming movement in various direc-
tions. It is capable of streaming out in such very fine threads
as to enter the roots of the cabbage along with watery solutions
of nutriment. Once within the root it locates in a cell and com-
mences to appropriate the living matter of the root to itself. In
this way it grows in size, still remaining a very plastic body of
simple protoplasm. Thousands of these enter the roots of a
single cabbage. Not only do they appropriate to themselves the
living matter of the root, but they cause the root of the cabbage
to produce an increased number of cells, so that oval or fusiform
enlargements are formed. The cells of the rijot iu which these
parasitic masses of protoplasm are se.ited increase greatly in size
compared with those which do not contain the parasite. The
Plasmodium, for so this mass of protoplasm is called, is yellow-
ish in color. Late in the season it divides up into countless
minute bits of protoplasm, each of which secretes a protective
wall about itself, and its life cycle is completed. The diseased
cabbages become sickly, turn yellowish and either die or do not
head.

Now in external appearance these enlargements of the roots,
which are called "club-foot,'' very much resemble the enlarge-
ments called root-galls, which are })roduccd by the nematode.
Unless one was pretty certain of the locality from which the dis-
eased S{)ecimens came and knew the history of the disease in that
locality it would be venturesome to undertake to say whether it
was root-gall or ''club-foot" until after a microscopic exami-
nation of the parasite or of the structural characteristics of the
diseased root.

I have some very fine specimens of ^'club-foot" before me
which I obtained from Eastern North Carolina nearly a year
ago. Having been placed in strong alcohol the enlargements
are a little wrinkled and shriveled. But so closely do they
resemble, especially in a fresh condition, the root-galls that when
I collected specimens of cabbages here this autinnn with enlarge-

ELISHA MITCHP:LL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 115

ments on tlie roots I expected to find Plasmodiophora Bassicce,
until after I had made the microscopic examination and found
the cause to be a worm. Perhaps the enlargements of "club-
foot," before they begin to crack, are a little more even in con-
tour than those of root-galls, and in the specimens I have seen
those of '^club-foot" are larger, especially on the tap root, where
very large lateral growths are formed. But if we take a thin
transverse section of an enlarged root of each and compare them
all resemblance vanishes. In a cross section of '^club-foot" the
first thing to attract attention is the great number of yellowish
Plasmodia, or else the spore masses within large cells, distributed
all through the tissues. If the section is from an enlargement
of a lateral root, unless very large, there will be little else to
attract the attention when compared with a healthy root, unless
it be a slight enlargement of some of the other cells. The gen-
eral character of the root structure is but little changed The
tracheal tissue of the axis cylinder, but little attacked, is arranged
in the same stellate form which we find it in a healthy root.
The ducts, even when immediatelv in contact with cells contain-
ing Plasmodia, are not turned from their longitudinal direction,
or if sn, only slightly. The cells are not elongated and curved
around the enlarged cells containing the plasmodium, but resem-
ble the normal arrangement of small cells around a large one.
Nor is the radial diameter of the parenchymatous cells propor-
tionately increased, but if the cells are enlarged it is usually a
proportionate or nearly symmetrical enlargement. In this sec-
tion from the root-gall here and there is a cyst, or the amorphic
remains of one containing eggs and larvse. The color is not so
yellowish as that of the plasmodia nor are the cysts so numerous.
Indeed the most striking feature in the appearance of the cross
section is the twisted, curved and distorted condition of the cells,
especially of the tracheal vessels. In some places these are beau-
tifully wreathed about a cyst, and by their side run very much
elongated j)arenchyma cells, while in another place a labyrinth
of vessels is woven with the parenchymatous tissue, giving to the
section as a whole, viewed with the compound microscope, the

116 JOURNAL OF THE

appearance in miniature of a heavy field of grain after a driving
storm, when the stalks of grain are twirled in all directions and
matted in inconceivable ways.

When very large lateral "clubs" are formed, as on the tap root,
the tracheal tissue is turned in an outward direction and curved
in various ways. But even then it is confined to more or less
recognizable bundles, is rarely sharply curved, and never is
wreathed around the plasmodia as around the cyst in the root-
gall.

COMPAllISON OF THE RoOT-GALLS WITH THE "TuBERCLES"

or" " Wurzelknollchen" of Leguminous Plants. — To
remove all possibility of a confusion of the root-^j^alls with the
tubercles (or Wurzelknollchen) of the Leguminoaeoe, which has
probably sometimes occurred, this comparison is introduced.

These tubercles, which recent experiments* seem to show play
an important role in the acquisition of atmospheric nitrogen by
leguminous plants, are irregularly oval enlargements of the
roots, from the size of a pin-head to a large pea, or sometimes
elongate or clavate and very much branched and convoluted. The
root-galls will usually not be mistaken for the tubercles by one
familiar with these bodies. The tubercles are forn^ed only on
the verv vouno^est roots, so that thev are connected with the root
from which the diseased one branch by a very slender attach-
ment. Sometimes, however, the attachment is very stout. Usu-
ally the surface of the tubercle, though it may be greatly con-
voluted or lobulated, is smoother and does not present the scurfy
or cracked appearance so common, especially in age, on the surface
of the root-galls. The root-galls may occur on proportionately
large roots, and in a majority of cases the attack is niade some
distance from the end of the root, so that the root continues to
grow beyond the gall and several galls may be found on the same

*Atwater, W. O. Attnospherie Nitrogen as Plant Food, Hulletin No. 5, Storrs' School
Agr. Exp. Station Conn., Oct., 1889.

Bertholet, INI. E.\perience.s Nouvelles sur la fixation de Pazote par certaine.s Terres
Vegeiale.s et par certaine.>< plantes. Ann. de chim. et de Phv.s. Cme serie, T. XVI, Avril,
1889.

Hellriegel und Wilfarth, Unter.sehungen uber die Stickstoffnalirung der Gramineen
und Leguminosen. Beilagehaft z. d. Zeitsch. d. Ver. f. d. Kubenzucker-Iud d. 1.). R. Ber-
lin, 1888.

Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXX IX, pp. 138—143, 1889.

ELISHA MITCH F:LL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 117

root in succession. Tiie root also continues to enlarge so that few
of the galls are attached by such slender pedicles as the attachments
are in the case of tubercles I hav^e seen. Since the tubercles
vary greatly on the roots of different species* there are probably
cases in which it would be difficult, from an extei'nal examina-
tion, to say wliether the enlargements were root galls or '^tuber-
cles.'^ The struct ural characters arc, liowever, so very different
that it will not be out of place here to note briefly the chief
structural characters of the tubercles and give a short resume of
the leading opinions regarding their function.

Very different views have been entertained from time to time
as to the nature and siocnificance of these tubercular swellincrs.
The interior of these tubercles is composed of a loose parenchym-
atous tissue. In the younger parts of this tissue all observers
agree as to the presence of strands or threads of a very plastic
nature, with no cross partitions, which course between and through
the cells, often sending siiort flask-like branches into the cells.
These possessing a resemblance to the strands of plaHmodki or
threads of certain fungi, were so regarded by Ericksson,f Kny,j
Frank, § Lundstrom.|| In the older parenchymatous tissue all
agree in observing in the plasmic contents of the cells l)acteria-like
bodies of variously branched forms, forked, or Y and X f )rms.
These were regarded by Woronin*! and others as bacteria. Brun-
chorst** believed the tubercles (Knollchen) were normal struct-
ures, and that the bodies which Woronin and others assumed
to be bacteria were formed by a differentiation of the plasmic,
protein contents of the cells into these forms, since they were
found to be very rich in protein matter, and not accepting them

k

*Sorauer. Pflanzenkrankheiten. Zweite Auflage. Erster Band, p. 743.

tStndien ofver Leguminosernas rotknolar, Lund, 1874; Bot. Zeitiing, S. .381, 1874, cited
hy Sorauer, Pflanzenkrankheiten, Zweite Auflage, Erster Band, p. 744, and by Frank,
Krankheiten der Pflanzen, Zweite Halfte, p. G50, 1881.

ISitzungsber. d. bot. Ver. d. Prov. Brandenburg, 28 April, 1878; cited by Sorauer (I. c).

^Krankheiten der Pflanzen (1. c).

IJUeber Mykodomatien in den Wurzel der Papilionaceen. Bot. Centralblatt, Bd.
XXXIII, pp. 159, 160 and 185—188, 1888.

^Mem. Acad. imp. de Scienc. d. St. Petersbourg, X, 186G. Cited in Sorauer, Pflanzen-
krankheiten (1. c).

**Ueber die Knollchen an den Leguminosenwurzeln. Bericht. d. Deutsclien bot.
Gesellsehaft, Bd. Ill, pp. 241—257, 1885. Abstract in Bot. CeiUralblatt, Bd. XXIV, pp.
333, 334, 1885.

10

118 JOURNAL OF THE

as bacteria he called them ^' bakterolds.^^ He retrarcled the *' bak-
teroids'' as reserve material which at fruiting time was absorbed
by the plant. Su})|)orters of this view were found in Schindler,'*'
Tschircht and others. Many observers have noticed in these
phismic "strands'^ or fungal hyph?e (hyphenpilzen) minute rod-
like bodies very closely resembling bacteria. These were first
called bacteria by Beijerink^;|l who regarded ihe plasmic strands
in which they were found as the remains of nuclear division in
the cells of the tul>ercle. Ward§ regarded these *' strands'' or
^' hyphse" with their contained rod-like bodies as fungi in some
respects resembling the smuts, or Ustilaginece. Vuillemin|| also
believed the tubercles to be caused by a fungus, but classed it
with the Chytridiacecv, with affinities for the genus Cladochy-
trium, and he named it CI. tuber culo&imi. He claims to have
studied the sporangia and zoospores. Prazmowski^ first con-
sidered the tubercles to be caused by a parasitic fungus in some
stages resembling Plasmodiophora Brassicce, Wor., but after later
researchesllll he comes to the conclusion that the organisms in
question are bacteria.

One of the most interesting of recent views, and that held by
Prazmowski, AVard, Vuillemin (/. c.) and others, supported also
by the best experimental evidence, is that certain microorgan-
isms, either fungi of a very simple organization or bacteria, by
an endoparasitism produced the abnormal growths, and for a
time live at the exj)ense of the host plant, but being locked

*Ue.Jier die biologische Bedeutiiiig der WurzelUnolIchen bei den Papilionaceen. Jour,
f. Landwirth. Henneberg, XXXI 1 1, pp. 825— 33C).

Ab-straet in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXVII, pp. 108,109,1880.

fBeitrage zur Kenntniss der Wnrzelknollehen der Papilionaceen. Bericht. d. Deut-
sohen bot. Ge.<«elischaft, Bd. V, 1887. Cited by Sorauer, Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXXI, p.
308.

JDie Papilionaceeniinollchen, Bot. Zeit., p. 726, 1888. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd.

XXXVIII, No. I, pp. 458, 45!J, 1889.

§0n the tubercular swellings on the roots of Vicia Faba. Philosophical transactions,
Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 178, B, pp. 5.39-5G2, 1887. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd.
XXXIV, p. 305, 188S.

||Les tubercles radicaux des Legumineuses. Ann. des. Sc. agron. franc, et etrang. 8°,
p. 96, 1888. Ab.stract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XL, pp. 123—125, 1889.

^Ueher die Wurzelknollchen der Leguminosen, But. Centralblatt, Bd. XXXVI, pp.
215—219, 248—255, 280—285, 1888.

lilJO istocie i znaczeuiu biologicnem brodawek Korzoniowych grochu. Bericht aus den
Sitzungen der k. k. Akademie der Wissen-chaften in Krakaii, Juni, 1880. Das Wesen
und bidlogisclie Bedeutung der Wurzelknollchea der Erbse, Bot. Centralblatt, Bd.

XXXIX, pp. 350—362, 1889.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 119

within the j)eculiar structure of the tubercle dissolution of* their
bodies takes place, followed by an absorption of their protein
contents by the plant, so that not only nearly all of the substance
which the plant yielded to the parasitic organism is thus finally
restored, but in addition a tiiore costly element, atmospheric
nitrogen, which the organisms have assimilated and prepared
for their host.

The chemical and physiological researches of Hellriegel and
Wilfarth,* Bertholletf and AtwaterJ show that the plants with
tubercles on their roots grown in a soil with very little nitrog-
enous substance gain more nitrogen than the soil contains, but
when grown in a sterilized soil no such gain is made. The experi-
mental researches of Prazmowski (loc. cit.) were directed to the
biological nature of the parasitic organism as well as to proving
that they were the specific cause of the tubercles. The plants
experimented with were peas, but he draws the inference that
the rest of the "Papilionaceen" are not essentially different in
the character of their tubercles.

In brief, the results of his later researches§ are as follows :
The root-knots (Wurzelknollchen) of peas are not normal struct-
ures, for in sterilized media, protected from accidental infection,
they are never formed, but they always result from infection.

The infecting knot-organisms are bacteria identical with them
in form and characters. The bacteria were taken from young
knots and increased throu2:h nianv i»:enerations by culture in
nutrient media. The causal connection between the bacteria thus
isolated and the root-knots was proven by a long series of careful
experiments wherein infection was produced through the inocu-
lation of cultivated plants with bacteria, originally taken directly
from the knots, and cultivated through many generations. The

*Unter8uehungeti uber die Stickstoffnahrung der Gramineen nnd Leguminosen.
Beilagehaft z. d. Zeitsch. d. Ver. f. d. Rubenzaekei-Ind. d. D. R, Berlin, 1888. Abstract
in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXXIX, pp. 138— 14^, 1889.

tExperiences Nouvelles sur la fixation de I'azote par eertaines Terres vegetale et par
eertaines planter. Ann. de Chim. et de phys. G me. serie, T. XVI, Avril, 1889.

JAtmospheric Nitrogen as Plant Food. Bull. No. 5, Storrs' School Exp. Sta. Conn.,
Oct., 1889,

gBerichte aus den Sitzungen der Iv. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Krakau,
Juni, 1889.

Bot. Centralblatt, Bd. XXXIX, pp.356— 362, 1889.

120 JOURNAL OF THE

formation of the knots occurs only on the youngest roots and
their branches.

The knot-bacteria make their way through young c^U-mem-
branes into the root-hairs and epiderujal cells of the root and
multiply there at the expense of the plasmic contents of the cells.
After the bacteria have increased to considerable extent in the
root-hair they unite near the point into grape-like clusters of
colonies which lie very close together, become enveloped in a
tough, glistening membrane by means of which they are united
with the cell membrane of the root-hair. There arises now near
the point of the root-hair, on the inside of its wall, a glistening
knob-like projection. Around this bacteria knob curls the end
of the root-hair in the form of a shepherd's crook, or of a screw.
Out of this enveloping screw at the base of the root-hair grows the
bacteria-knob as a hypha-like or thead-like tube, which is sur-
rounded by a glistening membrane and filled with bacteria. From
this time on until the formation of the knot and the differentia-
tion of its tissue the bacteria-tube resembles a real non-septate
fungus filament: it grows at the apex and produces branches.

After growing out of the enveloping root-hair the bacteria-
tube enters the epidermis of the root, pierces the rind and grows
sometimes so deep as the endodermis of the central cylinder. Id
its growth and branching it passes between the cells, splitting the
membrane between two cells and crowding the two lamelhe apart,
forming more or less prominent distended places in the tube, the
outside of which is bounded by the two lamelhe and the inside
filled with bacteria. The bacteria-tubes also send short branches
through the cell membranes into the cells which grow towards
the nucleus were formerly considered to be haustoria, and in
unstained preparations are very difficult to distinguish from the
cell contents. These Beijerinck* took to be the remains of
nuclear division. In the early stages of the development of the
knot no bacteria are found free in the contents of the cells; thev
are all enclosed in the bacteria-tube.

*Die PapilionaceenknoIIchen, Bot. Zeit., p. 72G, 1888. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Bd.
XX XVI 1 1, pp. 458, 459, 1889.

ELLSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 121

111 consequence of the presence of the bacteria-tube in the deep
layers of the rind the cells lying near begin to increase in num-
ber by division, slowly at first, but soon in rapid succession. At
the si me time the bacteria-tube grows into this newly formed
tissue and branches profusely. Following this division of cells
there arises at this point a meristeraatic or growing tissue which
through rapid increase becomes of considerable size, in which now
the characteristic tissue of the knot is differentiated. In the midst
of this meristematic tissue there arises a parenchymatous tissue,
of large cells, into which the bacteria-tube grows and branches
profusely in all directions. Later, through the dissolution of the
tube the bacteria are set free in the parenchymatous tissue, which
now becomes the so-called " bacteroid tissue.'' The outside of the
knot is differentiated into the rind, a few layers of cells wdth
little plasmic contents disposed radially, the outside layer of which
becomes corky. Between the bacteroid tissue and the rind is a
zone of small-celled tissue capable of division and growth and
free from bacteria, the meristem or growing point of the knot.
On the inner periphery of the meristem a zone of fibrovascular
bundles is formed, which originates as branches from the central
cylinder of the root. Between the fibrovascular zone and the
bacteroid tissue a layer of starch containing cells exists. As the
knot or tubercle enlarojes the meristematic zone bv p'rowth
advances in a peripheral plane. The peripheral part of the
parenchymatous or bacteroid tissue also continues to advance by
growth, and the peripheral part being younger contains the bac-
teria-tubes with their rod-like bacteria contents, and these bacte-
ria-tubes continue to grow and follow up the advancing periphe-
ral portion of newly formed parenchymatous tissue, while behind
follows up the process of dissolution of the membrane of the
tube and the liberation of the bacteria into the plasmic contents
of the cells making the bacteroid tissue.

From several series of experiments conducted with every pre-
cautionary measure he reaches the conclusive proof that by means
of infection with knot-bacteria the plants (peas) even when
grown in a soil deprived of all nutriment and providing for the

122 JOURNAL OF THE

exclusion of all other organisms, could provide the necessary
nutriment from the store of nitrogen in the atmosphere. But
whether from nitrogen in combination, or, as Hellriegel (/. c.)
claims, from the elementary nitrogen of the atmosphere, the
researches have not yet been carried far enough to say.

If bacteria taken out of the knots in peas are cultivated in
suitable nutrient media they increase for an unlimited time by
fission, retaining a rod-like form. In the knots under the influ-
ence of the plant they increase in the same way and possess the
same form until the time when dissolution of the membrane of
the bacteria-tube takes place and they are set free in the bacteroid
tissue. In the plasmic contents of the cells of the bat^teroid tis-
sue they increase for a time, but change their form and branch in
a forked manner forming X and Y forms. At last tlieir bodies
become hyaline and dissolution takes place. The plant begins
to empty the older cells of the bacteroid tissue by appropriation
of their contents for its own use. The time when this absorp-
tion of the contents of the bacteroid tissue begins and the energy
with which it proceeds bears a distinct relation to the amount of
nitrogenous matter in the soil at the command of the plant.
When the soil is well supplied with it the knots grow to consid-
erable size, the bacteroid tissue is filled with bacteria and bacte-
ria-tubes and presents a flesh-red color, and remains in this con-
dition until the maturity of the plant. The dissolution of the
bacteroids and the emptying of the bacteroid tissue proceeds very
slowly and irregularly. On the other hand, when there is a
scarcity of nitrogenous matter in the soil at the command of the
plant the dissolution of the bacteroids and the emptying of the
bacteroid tissue begins early and proceeds rapidly while the bacte-
roid tissue has a greenish color.

In both cases the emptying begins in the oldest part of the
bacteroid tissue and advances towards the meristematic zone.
Even in the oldest part of the bacteroid tissue remain numerous
living bacteria and tubes containing bacteria, which, with those
in the peiipheral zone of tiie parenchymatous tissue escape into
the ground upon the decay of the knot and tiiere increase and
perpetuate the infectious character of the soil.

I

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 123

111 knots partly eaten by insects, which is quite common, the
masses of bacteroids become surrounded anew by a membrane
and the bacteria-tube thus formed by sprouting divides into
successively smaller colonies surrounded by membranes, which
Prazmowski first took to be a kind of spore formation when the
real nature of the organisms were unknown to him.

The structure of the knot is adapted to favor the symbiotic
relation which exists between the host plant and its parasite.
The corky layer of the rind prevents not only the ingress of
foreign organisms, but prevents the escape of the bacteroids,
while the fibrovascular tissue which surrounds the bacteroid tis-
sue provides the channel of communication between the plant
and the contents of the knot. The plant being the master
imprisons the bacteroids within the tissues of the knot, for a
time nourishes them with the material which is the product of
carbon assimilation in the leaf and the willing bacteroid slave
assimilates atmospheric nitrogen producing protein matter, when
finally the plant completely overpowers them, dissolves their
bodies and carries off their protein contents for its own use.

yii.

TREATMENT.

The following discussion of the treatment of the root-gall
nematode is mainly suggestive, and anything farther must be
preceded by careful experimentation.

Difficulty of Remedial Applications to Plants
Already Diseased. — It is evident from the endoparasitic
habit of the worms that direct applications of vermicides to
the roots will not destroy them without fatally injuring the
plants themselves. When the worms first enter the tissues
of the roots they are so minute that no channel is left large
enough for the entrance of any poisonous fumes which
might be applied in the soil. Also the hypertrojihy of the
tissue of the roots incident upon the presence of the parasites
would effectually close up any aperture made. Dr. Neal,*

*Bulletin 20, U. S. Dept. Agr. Division of Entomology.

124 JOURNAL OF THE

in some experimeDts conducted by him under the direction
of Dr. Riley, has shown that the application of bisulphide of
carbon, kerosene emulsion and various arsenical solutions, in
Cjuantities sufficient for the destruction of the worms, was gener-
ally fatal to the plants themselves, while the use of alkaline
fertilizers, like hard-wood ashes, muriate and sulphate of potash,
kainite, etc., produced a hard growth less susceptible to attack.

Sterilization of the Soil by Starvation. — The cheap-
est and probably at the same time the most effectual mode of
sterilizing the soil will be to starve out the worms by a rotating
system applied to the selection of fields or plats of ground u])on
which are grown only such plants as are positively known to be
insusceptible to attack. A real difficulty arises even here, for
so many plants in widely different families are known to be sus-
ceptible to the disease, and plants that are absolutely insuscepti-
ble can in some cases only be determined after a series of trials.
Dr. Neal reports {loc. cit.) that according to his experience Ama-
rantus spinosus is the "most dreaded and destructive agent in
the spread of the root-knot." In this section, even in the imme-
diate neighborhood of other plants badly diseased, I have found
this species free, so far as examined, while Amayxintus retroffexus
growing side by side with it is diseased. Similar cases in the
habit of a related species of Hetcrodera {H. Schachtii Schmidt)
are reported from Europe. This species is very destructive to
sugar-beets and many other plants. Among a number of plants
which were supposed to be insusceptible was barley.* Upon a
piece of land very badly infected by the '^Riibennematode" bar-
ley was sown for three years successively. The first two years
no injury was noticed, but in the third year the crop was destroyed
a short time before harvest by severe attacks of the worms. Dr.
Neal {loc. cit.) also speaks of the Japan Clover [Lespedeza striata)
as a substitute for the cow-pea [Dolichos catiang) as a forage
plant and fertilizer. In tiiis vicinity Lespcdeza striata ranks as
one of the species slightly affected, while "bird\s-foot clover'^
[Lotus corniculatus) is very badly affected. It is evident that

*Quoted from Sorauer, Pflanzenkrankheiten, Zvveite Auflage, Vol. II, p. 853.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 125

thorough investigations must be made to determine the useful
plants which are very nearly or quite insusceptible to the attacks
of the worms. By growing such crops upon selected ground
for a ])eri()d of a few years, exercising at the same time great
caution in not allowing any weeds or grasses, which may be sus-
ceptible, to grow, the area selected could be sterilized. Now by
taking up successively different areas and treating them in the
same manner a persevering farmer could practically rid his land
of the worms. So far as observed here buckwheat and alfalfa
are among the insusceptible plants which could be experimented
with.

Rotation of Crops. — Here w^e find occasion again to empha-
size the oft- repeated necessity of a judicious rotation of crops,
but with special reference to a wise alternation of insusceptible
with susceptible plants. It is evident that if we start with a
sterilized soil and grow for one year an annual which is liable to
the disease there is little danger of infection of the ground. If
the following year this is followed up by the cultivation of
another nearly or quite free from attack the soil will with greater
safety bear another crop of the plant grown the previous year.

Clean Cultivation. — The absence of clean cultivation is
one of the most fruitful sources of the thorough impregnation of
the soil w^ith the worms. It was, of course, impossible to make
an application of this principle to the enemy in question before
that enemy was known, and especially before the time required
for its complete development from the egg had been determined.
Now that these facts are known, and since we know many of the
plants subject to the disease, it is to be Imped this method will
be employed by those desirous of subduing the worms. Not
only should an effort be made to prevent the growth on arable
land of all plants growing wild which are liable to serious infec-
tion, but so soon as a crop has been gatiiered, or it is found that
the crop will not be worth gathering, from any cultivated plant
liable to serious infection the farther growth of the plants should
be stopped, or, what is better, the roots of the plants should be
gathered and burned when possible. In gardens this would not

11

126 JOURNAL OF THE

be a serious task <.'onipared with the benefit to be derived. I
have noticed cabbage-, tomatoes and potatoes, all which are seri-
ously susceptible to the disease, growing in an abandoned condi-
tion for two months in the latter part of the season, all the while
providing for the rapid development and multiplication of the
parasites. During this time two successive generations of the
worms are developed. Each female egg would, on the average,
making no allowance for fatalities, produce in the first generation
200 young. Allowing 50 per cent, of these for males there would
be 100 to start the second generation for every one at the begin-
ning of the first. These w^ould, then, on the basis of a similar
computation produce 20,000 young, or 10,000 females to be the
producers of the third generation. Then during the time of the
abandoned growth of these diseased plants every productive para-
site has produced 10,000 productive parasites.

Treatment of PERENNiALS.^The greatest care should be
exercised in the cultivation of perennials like the grape, peach,
fig, etc. The young plants should be obtained from sources
where it is known they have been grown in non-infected soil.
The orchard or grapery should be selected and by a system of
cultivation of insusceptible plants be rendered sterile by starving
out the worms. Then the practice of cultivating either for forage
or as a fertilizer plants liable to the disease in the orchard should
be discontinued. Where orchards or graperies are so seriously
injured as to interfere with the productiveness of the trees or
vines they might be preserved for a few years while the orchard
is renewed in soil freed from the worms, when they should be
destroyed.

The peach-trees and grape-vines which I have examined in
the vicinity of Auburn, while slightly affected do not appear yet
to suffer any serious consequences. Young tree and seedlings
are more seriously affected. The most badly diseased grape cut-
tings I have seen were those grown very near diseased cabbages
and tomatoes. Care should also be used in the cultivation of
seed potatoes which are not infected.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIP^IC SOCIETY. 127

Tkapping the Worms. — In Germanv cultivators of the
sugMr-l)eet have resorted, witi) a degree of success, to trapping
the worms of a related species (H. ScJiachtii)'^ from badly infected
soils by the cultivation of plants very susceptible to the disease,
and then gathering the roots before the worms are fully developed
and destroying them. Such plants they call ''catch plants"
(" Fangpflauzen ").

Composts. — If roots are ever used in the making of composts
great caution should l)e used, since there is danger of infecting
soil hitherto free from the worms by fertilizing such land with
compost material containing diseased roots. Kiihnf has shown
that such infection does take place in the case of a related species,
Heterodera Schachtii Schmidt, and also states that the material
may be rendered innocuous by placing unslacked lime in layers
with the infected refuse of plants which may be used in compost.
For distributions, see close of Section V.

YIII.

Plants Affected.

The following list of plants aifected with the nematode root-
galls is by no means complete. It comprises only such as with
limited time I have been able to determine thus far in the vicin-
ity of Auburn. From the foregoing study and comparison of
the root-galls with externally similar teratological root growths
it will be seen that two essential characters must he determined
before in all cases we can say the abnorinal growth is a nema-
tode root-gall : a microscopic examination to detect the presence
of the worm and the histological changes accompanying its par-
asitism. Bi)th of these tests have been applied in making up
this partial list. Those marked with a * are badly affected :

*Sorauer, Pflanzenkrankheiten, Vol. II, p. 854.

fDie Ruben Nematode. Zeitschrift des landwirtlischaftlichea Central- Vereins der
Provinz Sachsen, No. 12, pp. 332—335, 1870.

128 JOURNAL OF THE

1. Amyj^dalus Persica (peach).

2. Ficus Carica (fi,^).

3. Vitis vinifera (grape, several varieties).

4. *Solanuni tuberosum (potato).

5. Solanum esculentura (eifg plant).

6. *Lycopersicum esculentura (tomato).

7. Physalis sp.

8. *AbutiIon sp.

9. Gossypium herbaceum (cotton).

10. Hibiscus esculentus (okra).

11. Sida spinosa.

12. Modiola raultifida.

13. Cassia obtusifolia (coffee weed).

14. *Dolichos catiang (cow pea).

15. Pbaseolus.

16. Lespedeza striata (Japan clover).

17. *Lotus corniculatust (bird's-foot cloverj.

18. Melilotus alba.

19. Ipomoea tamnifolia.

20. Ipomoea lacunosa.

21. Clematis sp.

22. Phytolacca decandra.

23. *Helianthus annuus (sunflower).

24. ■'^■Citrullus vulgaris (water-melon).

25. ^Cucumis mdo (" nutmeg melon," ''citron ").

26. Beta vulgaris (beet).

27. Amarantus retroflexus (spineless careless weed).

28. Chenopodium Anthelminticum (worm seed).

29. Zea mays (corn).

30. *Brassica oleracea (cabbage).

31. Brassica Rapa (turnip).

32. *Brassica campesfris rutabaga (rutabaga).

33. Marrubium vulgare (horehound).

34. *Pastinaca sativa (parsnip).
85. Lactuca sativa (lettuce).

3i5. *Tragopogon porrifolius (salsify).

tDetermined by Dr. G. W. Vasey.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 129

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

[All the Plates are original, and except the first two, which are from photo-
graphs, were drawu by the author from nature. In Plates IV, V and VI all the
figures are magnified except 31 and 32. J

PLATE I. Irish Potatoes {Solarium tuberosum). — The cracks in the large
potato (seed potato) result from the increased growth of cells at the points where
the Heterodera exists. The upper left-hand figure is a small 5'oung potato taken
from this same plant, the elevations and projections caused by presence of the
Heterodera. The enlargements on the roots of the potato are the galls. (Natural
size, from photograph).

PLATE II. Tomato root showing root-galls two-thirds (natural size, from pho-
tograph).

PLATE III. Parsnip and Salsify, showing root-galls, natural size.

PLATE IV. Development and transformation of Heterodera radicicola (Greef).
Miill.

Figs. 1 — 9, different stages in segmentation of mature eggs ; 10, invagination
at anterior pole; 11, young embryo of the length of the egg, beginning to elon-
gate and coil inside of the egg membrane, the caudal end, which is below in the
figure turning toward the ventral side, the cephalic end, above, granular and
nearly hyaline ; 12, 13, 14, farther elongation of embryo ; 15, mature larva coiled
five times within the egg membrane.

Fig. 16. Larva coming from egg membrane and moulting at same time, the
partially cast skin can be seen slipped from the head and tail. At the boundary
between the hyaline and strongly granular portion near the tail end can be seen
the anal opening.

Fig. 17. Sexually immature worm, larva: 17x, same, not so greatly magnified
in one of the various forms sometimes found prior to the cystic state ; 18, 19, 19^,
various degrees of distention of the larva ; 20, young female cyst, showing
ovaries ; 21, male undergoing metamorphosis ; 21a; and 22, same with metamor-
phosis complete, in pupa state ; 23, emergence of sexually mature male from
cyst ; 24, front view of head of male showing the position of the lamellne around
the spear ; 25, anterior end of female, a exsertile spear, h anterior part of the
oesophagus ; 26, posterior end of a male (see page 103), a caudal appendage
(probably an accidental variation), h spicules; 21^ sexually mature male very
greatly magnified, showing the paired testes.

Fig. 27. Mature female cyst, a middle part of oesophagus (suctorial bulb), h
anterior part of oesophagus, c exsertile spear, d vulva, e genital tubes, the anterior
ends of which form the ovaries.

Fig. 2vS. Genital tubes of female cyst with mature eggs still farther enlarged ;
a vagina ; the uterus extends from the vagina a little more than one-third the
length of the tube, near the middle is the recepiaculwn seminis, the oviducts and
ovaries occupj' a little more than one-half of the free ends. The small ova are
very tender and flexible, but by pressure of the mass are held in a polygonal form
within the ovaries. If the ovary is broken at a point as at b or c the young ova
escape and assume a spherical form, and not yet being free cells are held together
in a beautiful cluster as represented in the figures. As the young ova increase
in size by growth the pressure causes them to move toward the oviducts, they

130 JOURNAL ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

gradually develop nuaierous yolk globules which darken their appearance, pass-
ing through the receptaculum tieminis are fertilized, and entering the uterus seg-
mentation begins, finally the mass of developing eggs in the genital tubes rup-
tures them and the eggs and embryos are set free within the body of the cyst.

PLATE V. Structural effects of the disease in roots of cotton and peach.

Fig. 29. Cross section of gall on lateral root of cotton plant; a, female cyst
showing ovaries, etc. ; b, old female cyst showing eggs and young larva? in the
amorphic remains of the parent ; c, deformed vascular tissue by the side of a
cyst; cl, deformed vascular tissue, the tubes turned iu a radial and tangential
direction to the axis of the root ; e, liber fascicle in normal position of healthy
root: e', liber fascicle displaced, and, by increased growth of parenchyma and
vascular tissue, carried far out from normal position ; e", liber fascicle deformed
and growing in a radial direction ; e'", liber fascicle displaced and growing iu a
tangential direction.

Fig. 30. Cross section of healthy lateral root of cotton plant magnitied, but iu
proportion with Fig. 29,

Fig. 31. Galls on lateral root of cotton plant (natural size).

Fig. 32. Root-gall of peach, natural size, but small specimens.

Fig. 33. Section through female cyst in root of peach, showing the ultimate
growth of soft, pseudo-parenchymatous tissue which sometimes entirely fills the
cavit}' before the larvae have all escaped ; a, amorphic remains of female cyst,
showing eggs and part of genital tubes ; b, original outline of cyat ; c, hypertro-
phied tissue from surface of cavity of cyst.

PLATE VI. Female cysts and structural effects of the disease in roots of the
tomato, and the tubers of the potato (excepting Figs. 42 — 47). All magnified.

Fig. 34. Mature female cyst ; a, exsertile spear ; b, middle part of oesophagus ;
c, ovary ; d, eggs escaped from the uterus.

Fig. 35. Mature female cyst of a different form.

Fig. 36. Cross section of diseased root of tomato ; a and b, female cysts ; c,
dead cysts which probably failed to be fertilized.

Fig. 37. Section still more magnified ; a, cyst cavit}' of female showing eggs
and larviB iu amorphic remains of the parent ; b, normal vascular tissue iu cross
section ; c, deformed vascular tissue turned in a radial and tangential direction
around the cyst.

Fig. 38, Section of outer portion of potato tuber showing a, female cyst exter-
nal with head end only in the tissues ; b, radial elongation of cells.

Fig. 39. Sexually immature larvae making its way through cells of the potato
tuber.

Fig. 40. Section of outer portion of potato ; a, young cyst m situ ; b, cork cells
of lenticel (the section was through the side of a lenticel).

Fig. 41. Section of outer portion of potato tuber where decay of the tissues
has begun ; a, female cyts in situ; 6, cyst cavity containing amorphic remains of
parent, and young larv;e and eggs.

Fig. 42. Es:g of 46; 43, cell division of same in process of development; 44,
young larva in egg membrane ; 45, young larva after hatching ; 46, mature gravid
female ; a, mature egg ; b, young ovum (Figs. 42 — 46 illustrate the egg, larva and
mature female of the nemitoie, wliieh produces the disease of the Irlsb potato
characterized by Prof. Scribner).

Fig. 47. Mature femxle of a different genus found so:netimes associated with
the former.

n

I

t.(PM^t.^.'U/.

SKETCHES OF ATYPUS TUBES. (Oue-half uatural size).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. I. — Aerial portion of a tube of Atypus niger Hentz (?), attached b}' its
upper extremity to bark of pine tree — side view; a, remains of devoured insects
adhering to the outside of the tube.

Fig. II. — Front view of the same tube, showing mode of attachment by brushes
of silk, bb,- a, insect remains.

Fig. III. — Subterranean portion of tube, showing that its walls are not adherent
as a "lining" to the walls of the excavation; a, root of the supporting tree.
Diagrammatic.

Fig. IV. — Aerial portion of a tube supported by a small persimmon shrub ; a,
insect remains; bb, attaching brushes of silk; c, silk threads enveloping the
twig.

Fig. V. — Diagrammatic representation of the spider's fangs thrust through the
tube wall and grasping a fascicle of pine leaves.

134 JOURNAL OF THE

A TUBE-BUILDING SPIDER.

NOTES ON THE ARCHITECTURAL AND FEEDING HABITS OF ATYPUS

NIGER HENTZ (?).

W. L. POTEAT.

Quite nnaccountably American naturalists have taken com-
paratively little interest in spiders. Of all this neglected group
the Atypinie appear to have been most slighted. In our limited
arachnological literature, so far as it has met my eye, when they
are mentioned at all, it is with conspicuous brevity an(] often
with a confession of doubt, if not of ignorance. Hentz himself,
in his "Spiders of the United States,"* says: "The manner in
which the spiders belonging to Mygale and Oletera [Syn. Aty-
pus] live, bidden under ground, and probably issuing out only
at night, prevents our becoming acquainted with their habits.''
Of Atypus in particular he says: " The habits of the animals of
this subgenus are but little known." He seems to have erected
the species which bears his name from observation of a single
male individual. He probably never saw the tube of the female.
Professor Emerton, in a private letter, says that they are rare, if
they occur at all, north of Virginia. In his admirable little
treatise on spidersf he says that a part of the tube of Atypus
forms the lining of a hole in the ground, and part lies above the
surface among stones and plants, and that the mouth of the tube
is almost always closed, at least when the spider is full grown.
Professor Corastock, of Cornell, quoting Mr. N. Banks, one of
his assistants, writes me: "Their food is believed to be earth-
worms. The tubes appear to be closed at botli ends." And
Professor Geo. F. Atkinson, of Alabama, who has probably given
more attention to the Territelaria^ than any other student in this
country, saysX that he has never seen Atypus or its nest, but

*0ccas. Papers Bost. Soe. Nat. Hist., Vol. 4, pp. 18, 1<J.
tSpiders, Their Structure and Habits, p. 44.
JEntom. Amer., Vol. 2, p. IIG, note.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 135

expresses himself inclined to believe that ^' the presence of a
door or covering- for the entrance to its nest, instead of being
wantino:, has bten ov^erlooked " and that in form of nest and in
food habit it is very similar to his new genns Nidivalvata, which
opens its folding trap-doors at night to watch for its prey and
closes them in the morning.

European arachnologists are somewhat fuller and more definite
in their statements. Ausserer reckons in the family Atypiuse
Thorell three genera,— Pelecodon Dol., Calommata Lucas, and
Atypus Latr., and of Atypus six species. Touching the l)uild-
ing iiabit of the family, he remarks* that they live in tubular
webs under stones, in crevices in walls, or below the earth, the
males wandering about. The nest of the genus Atypus he de-
scribes (p. 128) as destitute of a lid and simply tubular, and con-
tinues: "The part of the silk tube projecting out of the earth
extends in protected places, under stones, etc., horizontally on the
ground just a little way; its opening is not enlarged." Of A.
piceus Sulz. (found in central Germany, Glaus) Leunisf says
that the females dig in the earth, mostly on sunny hill-sides,
tubes which they line with silk and in which the lenticular
eggsacks are fastened. Of the same species (A. Sulzeri Latr.
and A. piceus Sulz. are synonyms) LatreilleJ says: "This spe-
cies excavates a cylindrical gallery in sloping grounds cov-
ered with grass; in this gallery, seven or eight inches in length,
horizontal at first and then inclined, it weaves a tube of silk
of the same form and dimensions. The cocoon is fastened
with silk by both ends to the bottom of the gallery." The
late Rev. J. G. Wo()d§ makes about the same statement respect-
ing the gallery, and adds: "The upper part of the tube is rather
larger than the lower, and projects from the earth, falling for-
ward so as to form a flap, which protects the mouth of the bur-
row." I infer that Rev. O. P. Cambridge alludes to Atypus
when he says^l that "at other times" the tubes of the Territe-

*Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Territelariee, p. 13.
fSynopsis der Zoologie, Vol. 2, p. 586 (Hanover, 1886).
JCuvier's An. King., Vol. 8, p. 178 (N. Y., 1831).
§Homes Without Hands, p. 131.
^Encyel. Brit., Vol. 2, p. 295 (9th Ed.).

136 JOURNAL OF THE

lariiie are '' closed by the falling over of a portion of the tube
which protudes from the surface of the ground."

My own introduction to Atypus was largely accidental. On
the 19th of July^ 1886, in a small body of pine wood within
the corporation limits of the village of Wake Forest, N. C, my
attention was caught by a silk tube at the foot of a small pine
tree. Being well covered with minute bits of bark, leaves, etc.
it had nearly the appearance of the bark of the tree to which its
upper end was attached, and, consequently, it was quite incon-
spicuous. Its greatest diameter — at the ground — was about 2
cm., and it showed above ground some 15 cm. The next day it
was observed that the upper extremity had become detached from
the tree and the whole aerial portion lay prostrate on the ground.
The subterranean portion was 2 or 3 cm. long. At the lower
end were the exuviae of the spider. The day following I pressed
the spider out of the tube as it lay on the table.* For some
time she walked about rather aimlessly, but finally coming upon
the tube apparently by accident, she extended and raised her
powerful fangs and with one stroke ripped a longitudinal slit
and worked herself into it. The tube with the spider inside
was put into a glass jar containing a little earth and dead pine
leaves. The surface of the latter was not high enough to sup-
port the tube in a vertical position throughout its entire length,
so that nearly half of it lay collapsed and wrinkled on the top
of the leaves. The next morning the spider had lengthened the
tube about 3 cm. upward from the point where it was bent from
the vertical, and the addition had been made in such a way that
it was smoothly continuous with the oki portion below through
a rent. Its upper end was attached to the glass. The old por-
tion that lay horizontal on the leaves no longer communicated
with the remodelled tube, though it remained attached to the
outside of it. Two days later the tube had grown 6 cm. longer,
tapering toward the upper end, very thin, and closed.

*Mr. N. Banks, assistant of Prof. Comstock, has determined the species as Atypus
niger Hentz, but I am at present unable to feel quite satisfied that the determination is
cori-ect, seeing how meagre is tlie description wliieh Hentz gives. The settlement of the

Question must be deferred until I have opportunity to compare the spider with other
escriptions.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 137

A house-fly witli one wiug removed was put into tlie jar.
Soon after it touched the tube the spider appeared above the
opaque portion of it, and, moving up only as the fly moved, she
was soon separated from it by only the delicate wall of silk.
Before I was aware she had made a hole in the wall and was
drawing the fly in. She sank out of sight with her prey. Fif-
teen minutes later the rent through which the fly had been
drawn w^as repaired.

After an absence of three weeks I found that my prisoner,
left in the care of my wife, had further lengthened her tube and
fastened its upper end to the small porcelain dish used to cover
the jar. What is perhaps more interesting, she had attached to
the outer wall of the new portion particles of trash, which made
it less conspicuous. The refuse parts of flies fed to her in the
meantime were found on the outside of the tube near its upper
end. She was herself outside the tube on the leaves early in
the day. When disturbed she raised her fangs with a show of
fight. She seemed, however, to have become dissatisfied with
her nest (because its situation supplied no moisture?*) and she
did not care to retreat into it, but crawled up the side of the jar
with its aid. With her fangs she struck a large fly placed near
her, but did not care to eat it. After some hours she was in the
tube again, but five days later she was found among the pine
leaves dead.f My notes on my first Atypus close with this
melancholy entry: "Alcoholic specimen, No. 17.^'

I have given the history of this specimen in captivity with so
much of detail because every part of it, except the last, agrees
with habits which I have since observed in natural conditions.
That was the only specimen which I have seen outside of her
tube of her own accord.

A number of other tubes were discovered in the same locality
soon after the first. In the three years now passed I have seen
in a very restricted area as many as thirty tubes varying from
the size of a goose-quill to 3 cm. in diameter, four-fifths of them

*Cf. Encycl. Brit., Vol. 2, p. 298 (9th Ed.).

tCf. similar case of Cteniza californica leaving nest before death, E. Blanehard, Pop.
Sci. Mon., Vol. 33, p. 807.

138 JOURNAL OF THE

being in a space not more than thirty yards square. The soil is
a gray loam with red clay subsoil, and has not been cultivated,
I suppose, in forty years. For a number of years past this bit
of pine forest has formed part of a pasture for cows. The
occurrence of the tubes elsewhere has been reported to me. Mr.
Carey J. Hunter, an intelligent citizen of Raleigh, tells me that
few objects on his father's farm near Apex, Wake county, N. C,
were more familiar to him than these silk tubes. He remem-
bers them most distinctly as supported by decaying oak stumps
in cultivated fields. Many persons of whom I have made
inquiries say that they have not seen them, — a fact which may
probably be accounted for by the effective mimicry which the
shrewd builder studies.*

As to choice of a support for the tube — in the case of this
species in this locality always present and presumably indispen-
sable— she i>^ probably limited by what the locality supplies.
That delightful '^rambling natur'alist," Dr. Abbott, says that on
one occasion a certain spider vselected the end of his nose for the
attachment of its thread, so long had he remained motionless in
an intent observation. But Atypus is more reserved and cau-
tious. With two exceptions, all the tubes I have seen were
attached by their upper ends to pine trees varying from 3 to 35
cm. in diameter. Of the two exceptions, one, supported by a
very small persimmon shrub, is figured in the Plate (Fig. IV);
the other is supported by a wild rose.

The process of tube-building I have not observed in the
natural situation, but it can hardly be widely divergent from
that which I have observed in captive specimens. It may, there-
fore, be serviceable to record here the history of a tube made de
novo in captivity and under conditions more nearly resembling
the natural than in the case described above.

At 10 a. m., Noveml)er 23d, I put a fine specimen, which had
been taken from the pities the evening l)efore, into a glass jar
28 cm. high, 5 cm. in diameter, and containing 14 cm. of damp

*Excepting tlie upper end, the wliite silk of the tijl)es is for the most part concealed
beneath a loose exterior coating of bits of barU and leaves and small gravels and par-
ticles of earth. That these are collected outside of the tube is evidenced by the exam-
ple of a large tube which is sparsely clothed with single leaves and tufts of leaves of a
moss (Atri(dium) near a bed of which it stands. Another tube is in its lower portion
qnite green with bits of a lichen (Cladonia) furnished by a neigliboring cushion.

ELISHA MITCHELI. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

139

- c

earth. The next mornini^ she had doue nothing toward the con-
strnction of a new home, but on the 25th she had made a brave
beginning. From the surface of the earth there stretched up
along the glass wall a delicate tube 7 cm. long and 1.8 cm. in
diameter. At 10 a. m. she was oflFered a fly. She struck it
through the tube wall with her fangs and seemed to kill it almost
instantly, but for some reason she withdrew her fangs, letting
the fly fall to the earth at the side of the tube. In a few min-
utes she was passing her long posterior pair of spinnerets here
and there over the inner wall of the tube, but discontinued it
after a minute or two. At 9 p. m. a shallow hole had been dug
in the earth at the bottom of the tube directly beneath its cavity,
and the excavated dirt had been put out through a rent near the
upper end of the tube. The fly was nowhere to be seen. The
next morning (November 26th) at 8 o'clock the excavation had
been deepened some 3 cm. and turned obliquely to the left.
More earth had been put out through the
same rent. The spider, head up, was
resting at the lower extremity of the tube.
This stage in the construction of the tube
is represented in the accompanying illus-
tration (Fig. 1).

And so the next three nights the tube
lengthened as the excavation deepened, the
little dump heap growing pro{)ortionately.
It was now 13 cm. long. For some 3
cm. below the middle it had left the glass
wall, so that in that part of it a film of
earth separated them; but in the upper
and lower portions the wall of the jar, fig. i.- Beginning ot tube

.,,1 T, . iP'ii *iid excavation of Atypus

With hardly one continuous coat OI silk, nigerHentz(?) in glass jar. a,

p ,1 p .1 11 „ the tube adhering by a por-

lormed about one-iourth or the wall ot tion of its waii throughout its

length to the jar; b, earth

the tube. The tube, however, was not a p^i^'y fi"ins jar; c, threads

■^ of silk attaching tube to jar;

linincr for the excavation. Evidently the ^' ^}^ ^S kT^ T*"^"^ '"*° !*"?

c5 - earth ;y^ hillock of excavated

excavation was made to receive the tube. X\n5'"dtmped^ura';t
See the diagram, Fig. Ill of the Plate. ty^'irJl^rir^^^^^^^^^^^ '''^"'''
In one stretch of 4 cm. the wall of the tube was as much as 5
mm. from the wall of the excavation.

d . .

a

...i

140 JOURNAL OF THE

It was the 3cl of December before any further change was
observed. At the lower .end the tube was then seen to be more
nearly completed on the front side next the glass, and so much
of the remaining wall as was visible was closely coated with
earth. On the 6th the tube had been lengthened at the upper
end, its growth up to this time having been at the lower end
only. The addition was about 3 cm. in length and was sup-
ported by threads attached to the jar and the piece of weed
(Fig. 1). That night at 8 o'clock I went cautiously into the
room. Moonlight through a window fell on the jar, and one or
two legs of the spider were seen above the opaque part of the
tube. On my getting close for better observation, she disap-
peared below and refused to show herself again during the half
hour that' I waited. She was probably disturbed at her spin-
ning, for the tube was open above and, though there was little
or no addition to it since I last noticed it, the disposition of the
uppermost threads was different. A lighted match held to the
side of the jar enabled me on looking down the tube to see the
spider below. The walls, slightly sinuous, were quite smooth
on the inside. My conclusion that it was open preparatory to
further extension was in a measure supported by the fact that on
the following morning there was an upward extension of the
tube of 5 mm., the end being loosely closed. A little water was
poured into the jar to moisten the earth. This kindness seems
to have been \vell received, for on the morning of the 9th I
found that the tube had lengthened considerably at both ends.
The upward extension was 5 cm., turning to the left ; the down-
ward, turning gently to the right, was about 5 cm. to the bottom
of the jar and thence it followed the wall of the jar along the
bottom a centimeter or two, the excavation without silk con-
tinuing 3 cm. further. The earth removed had been discharged
through a rent near the uj)per end rather on the right side and
fell down the slope of the previous dumpings to the left. There
was little more excavation after this. Fig. 2 is a sketch of the
tube at this stage.

ELTSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

141

-.---^

On the night of the 11th at ten o'clock I found tliat the
spider was not alarmed by the lamp held close to the jar. For
two nights the jar had been in my study
where a lamp had been burning until late.
About eleven o'clock she several times
pushed up a sort of flap at the point
marked e (Fig. 2) and gathered earth from
a tunnel pointing toward the end of the
main excavation. She loosened and raked
together the earth with her fangs. Hug-
mng: the little mass asrainst rhe maxillae
with the same useful members, she ascended
the tube to the level of a rent near its
upper end, and with her breast against
the tube wall, raked her load throuo;h the
opening by outward movements of the
fangs. She sometimes came up back-
wards, but reversed her position before
discharging her burden.

At 12 : 30 a. m. she came up to one of
the two rents wliich she had been using in
this way, ascertained its limits, crawled on
beyond so as to bring the spinnerets^ just
over it, and then closed it. This was fol-
lowed by considerable " plastering" up and
down the tube, accompanied by stretching
movements interpreted as intended to in-
crease its calibre. I have observed that
rents such as those spoken of above stand
wide open, their edsjes sliowin^; no ten- I'nvei'end round the fc

^ ^ ^ ot jar; bb, original le

dency to meet attain after the separatinii: '^^'i''; ^^' surtuee made by

'' ^ r » excavated earth discharged

force has been withdrawn. It is not

Fig. 2. — The 8ame tube and
excavation as in Fig. 1 after
15 days, a, tube coiling at

bottom
vel of

til rough
threails

rents above;
attacliing tube

to

unlikely that these stretching movements DravvifbyUie'iSe^^^^^^^^^ '''''^"
served to separate the silk threads composing the wall, stop-
ping short, however, of rendisig it. New silk added would
strengthen the points thus weakened, and the tube would re-

142 JOURNAL OF THE

tain its increased diameter. May it not be that the tnbe Nvhich
accommodates the young spider is in this way enlarged to
meet the demands of its subsequent growth?* A little later
this noiseless, industrious worker came up to repair the other
rent, which she did inditferentlv. She was evident! v finish-
ing up her "job,'^ and so she proceeded to take down her
"scaifoldiug.'^ Here and there the fangs were thrust through the
wall of the tube and it was pulled inward and loosened from the
wall of the excavation and from the glass, so that, excepting a
limited area left adhering to the glass, the tube hung in the exca-
vation. Inasmuch as the tube was not straight and was for the
most part of nearly equal size with the excavation, it did not
dangle, but was in light contact with it at numerous points.

I do not doubt that the history now given of this tube made
in captivity is, with trivial variations, the history of tlie tube in
its natural environment. The chief features of this history may
be summarized :

1. The lower part of the aerial portion of the tube attached
to the tree for support is the first to be made.

2. The excavation in the ground keeps but little in advance
of the tube manufacture.

3. The earth from the excavation is brought up through the
tube and dumped out through a rent near the upper end.f

4. The tube is usually placed in a nearly vertical position,
any considerable departure from the vertical being made to avoid
an obstacle.^

*The conclusion that the spider spends lier life in the same tube is not without war-
rant. One tube I [lad under observation for two years. In that period it was twice
repaired. Having been by some means broken loose from its supporting tree, the fallen
tube was not lifted to its place again, but was torn open at the bend on the surface of the
ground and a new portion above ground, continuous with the old below, was built upward
and fastened to the tree. (Cf. p. 13t;.) That this had been done twice was clear from the
occurrence of two old prostrate portions attached to the tube as it stood. I cannot say
certainly that it had increased in diameter. It may be mentioned, further, that while
digging out a certain tube I discovered at different deptlis near the lower end two very
short branches— cut-offs. The upper seemed worn and older than the iowei-. In each
were found exuviic of the spider, legs and cheiicerfe. The fangs in the upper cut-off
were ;i mm., in the lower 4 mm. So that this spider had dwelt in the same tube during
the period between two successive moults, to which time should be added an indefinite
period before the first moult and another after the second. (Cf. Blanchard, Pop. Sci.
Mon., Vol. 3:i, p. 8(t«.)

fin the natural situation it i.s usual to see at the side of the tube on the ground a pile
of earth evidently from below. In one such pile I found a gravel whose greatest length
was 9 mm., and whose greatest width was (i mm.

JThe subteiranean jtortion of one tube was loosely spiral owing to the presence of two
roots in its path, one above the other. I have seen but one tube whose aerial portion
attached to the tree was not nearly vertical, and no satisfactory explanation of its excep-
tional position has occurred to me.

I

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 143

5. The tube is so constructed as to serve as a snare, and not
merely as the silken linin<>; of a "burrow." Being mainly sup-
ported by its upper extremity, its walls, 'for the most part free,
readily transmit any mechanical disturbance up or down. See
Plate, Figs. laud III.

6. The tube is closed above by the convergence of its walls in
part, and in part by the simple approximation and adhesion of
its outer wall to the supporting object.

7. The threads composing the walls are seen under the micro-
scope to have a general longitudinal direction, — a fact which
explains the ease with which longitudinal rents may be made.

8. Usually the greater part of the tube is above ground.*

9. The work appears to be done only at night.

The feeding habits of our spider may now be noticed. Rev.
O. P. Cambridgef refers to E. Simon as authority for the state-
ment that spiders sometimes prey upon earth-worms. I have
not access to the journals in which the observations were
reported, nor can I say that the reference is to the particular
spider that concerns us here. Whether Mr. Banks' remark,
quoted early in these notes, rests upon the same authority, or
upon what authority it rests, I am not aware. But my own
observations of Atypus niger Hentz (?) lead me to doubt that its
"food is earth-worms." It is not improbable that so succulent a
morsel would be appropriated in case it should come in the way;
but it is improbable that the spider goes about to capture earth-
worms, or that they are its chief reliance for subsistence. No-
where in the nest have I noticed any feature of adaptation to
this end. On the contrary, it is evidently constructed for the
capture of insect food. The evidence is not merely inferential;
it is positive as well, for I have looked on at the spider's feast
and have seen the fragments that remained.

The behavior of my first captive specimen when a fly was
crawling on her tube suggested to me that the disturbance made

*Measurements of a certain tube: Total length, 38 cm. Length of aerial portion, 21
cm. Length of subterranean portion, 17 cm. Diameter at surface, 2 cm.

fEncycl. Brit., Vol. 2, p. 298 (9th Ed.).

144 JOURNAL OF THE

by an insect might be simulated by gently rubbing the tube with
a tender twig. My first experiment in the pines received a
speedy response. The spider came up by starts, her position in
the opaque tube being shown by the slight bulging of its walls
beneath her feet. This became my habitual method of ascer-
taining whether "my lady" was in. She seems unable to distin-
guish such disturbance from that caused by an insect. On one
occasion I rubbed a tube with a fascicle of dead pine leaves.
The spider came up and, the fascicle being kept at the same
point, she thrust her fangs through the wall to grasp it, but
failed. It was not long before she made another effort, that time
seizing it firmly with both fangs and sustaining its entire weight
(the three leaves were 15 cm. long) until I blew upon the tube,
when she instantly let go and hurried below. She held the
fascicle in the position indicated in the Plate, Fig. V. Her
eyes can furnish little aid for the reason that the tube is not
transparent, and the experiment just described suggests that the
sense of smell is of no service. I conclude her habit is to try
to catch whatever disturbs her snare in the hope that it will
prove to be acceptable food, having ascertained its position by
the sense of touch in her [)alpi and feet.

On the morning of August 21st I put a cockroach on a tube.
The spider was soon up to the same level and, thrusting her
fangs through the wall, caught one of the insect's legs. She
seemed afterwards to hold it with her feet, for the fangs were
seen striking through here and there in the neighborhood of the
insect. They finally got a good grip on it. On my return after
a few minutes I found that the spider had made a longitudinal
slit 13 mm. long and was drawing the transversely placed cock-
roach into the tube. She had some difficulty in getting it in.
Still holding it with her fangs, she pressed the lips of the rent
out and over it with her feet. She dragged the insect below,
and for fifteen minutes I saw nothing of her. I went away and
returned after another fifteen minutes to find the rent repaired so
perfectly that it could not have been detected by one who did not
know its position. The same day a cockroach was similarly

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 145

taken by a spider in another tnbe. The fangs missed grasping
it at the first *' pass," and sounded against the polished segments of
the abdomen as the finger-nail against silk.

Another example may be mentioned. On the 17th of the
following October, after finding out that the tube was inhabited
by gently stroking it with a pine leaf, I put on it a small field-
cricket with one jumping leg removed. The spider came up
and after some manoeuvring inside the tube struck at the cricket,
but it escaped. Another cricket was held on the tube by one of
its legs. The spider seized it firmly with the fangs. The cricket
seemed to be instantly paralyzed, for it made no struggle what-
ever. The hole in the tube was torn, I judge, by the feet, inas-
much as the fangs retained their grasp on the cricket. This
longitudinal rent, 13 mm. long, was not repaired after fifteen
minutes, but was repaired perfectly when I next saw the tube
several days later.

I have already described the seizure of a house-fly by my first
captive specimen. Another captive took a fly into her tube and
closed the rent before going below with her prize. The spider
whose tube is sketched in Fig. 2 caught a large blue-bottle Decem-
ber 16th, presumably in the same way. The fly was put into the
jar and the jar closed. About three hours after, the fly had dis-
appeared, and the next morning what remained of it after the
spider had chewed it to her satisfaction was seen in a little ball
on the outside of the tube near its upper end.

In further proof of the character of the food of Atypus, a
word or two mav be added about the leavinijjs of her feasts. It
is well-nigh invariable to find loosely adherent to the outer wall
of the tube a little below its upper extremity (see Plate, Figs. I,
II, IV, a) the remains of insects. These do not seem to be pur-
posely attached to the tube, but to be put outside much as exca-
vated earth is, and accordingly they are often seen on the ground
at the foot of the tube. Those that adhere to the tube are prob-
ably caught by the silk fibres on the margin of the rent as they
pass out. The leavings of a single feast are frequently seen to
be bound together with silk. One tube, taken November 22d,

146 JOURNAL OF THE

may be regarded as typical. On it I recognized the remains of
some neuropter and of two different woolly-bear caterpillars,
such as hair, bits of chitinous integument, a niandible, joints
of leg, etc. Elytra of beetles are common.

Does Atypus leave her tube at night to stalk her prey in the
open? I am inclined to think not, though the evidence which
determines this inclination is for the most part negative and may
be set aside by further observation. In the first place, she seems
to be independent of that somewhat unsafe means of a livelihood,
seeing that her tube is so well contrived and so effective a snare.
The snare weavers are not usually hunters. Secondly, there is
no special provision for egress, the tube being closed as described
above. Such provision is usual with the other burrowing spiders
that hunt on the outside of their burrows. Again, it will be
remembered that the feeding experitnents reported above were
made in the day, and we may reasonably infer that under natu-
ral conditions the spider is not strictly nocturnal in her feeding
habits. Moreover, my captive specimens have not been seen
out of their tubes at night.* I have observed them in the fore
part of the night, also in the early morning while it was yet
dark. The one I now have rests habitually at night about the
level of the earth in her jar, sometimes considerably above. On
the other hand, the occurrence on a certain tube of the remains
of a slender *' thousand-legged worm'' (Julus), devoured near
the first of December, suggests, though it does not prove, that
the spider left her tube to get it.

It will be observed that the description of the tube of Atypus
given in these notes differs from that of Emerton, Wood, Aus-
serer, and Cambridge, cited above. They represent its aerial por-
tion as prostrate on the ground, serving only as a means of closing
the subterranean burrow. I have, indeed, seen tubes in exactly the

*It ought to Vje said that Atypus is scrupulously neat, and accordingly tlie droppings
of my captive are deposited outside the tube on the glass, and generally at such a dis-
tance as necessitates her leaving the tube. Additional ones have been observed only in
the morning. It must be admitted, therefore, that she quits her tube at night at least
for this purpose. (Cf. note on p. 138.)

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 147

position which Professor Emerton figures, but they had suffered
violent severance from their proper supports. It is admitted
that there is considerable variation in the architectural habit of
tube-builders. The disagreement of the descriptions may, per-
haps, be explained, therefore, as due either to specific or to local
variations in the tubes described.

Wake Forest Collegse, N. C,

December 27, 1889.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS.

forty-sixth meeting.

September 17, 1889.

Prof. J. A. Holmes presided. The following papers were presented:

18. On Arkose. Prof. Holmes presented a short paper on the origin of
Arkose deposits, and their distribution in the Triassic, Potomac and Appo-
mattox formations in North Carolina and Virginia, and in other geological
formations in different countries.

19. The Toronto Meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. Professor Gore gave an outline of the business transacted
at this meeting.

20. A Sketch of the Life and Work of Paracelsus. In this paper Dr. Ven-
able discussed the main events in the career of Paracelsus, defending him from
much of the abuse of his enemies and the accusations of later days. The
sketch is to be concluded at the next meeting.

The Secretary reported many additional exchanges and large accessions to

the library.

forty-seventh meeting.

October 8, 1889.

The Society was called to order by Professor Holmes.

21. The first paper presented was a continuation of ihe Sketch of the Life
and Work of Paracelsus, by Dr. Venable.

22. On Pasteur's Work in Connection with Hydrophobia. Mr. V. S. Bryant
read extracts from letters by P'rofessors Huxley and others, published in
Science, concerning the great work done by Pasteur in the way of prevention
and treatment of hydrophobia.

23. Corrosion and Fouling of Iron Ships. Mr. Gaston Battle gave in this
paper an abstract of the address of Prof. V. B. Lewes before the Institution
of Naval Architects. The causes of corrosion and fouling were discussed, and
the present condition of the question of preventive compositions given.

148 JOURNAL OF THE

24. Professor Holmes exhibited a number of early maps of the Carolinas,
with explanations and remarks.

The Vice-President announced that the Society had lost by death during
the past year the following members:

Prof. R. H. Graves, Chapel Hill.

Eugene Morehead, Esq., Durham. ,

Rev. Dr. Charles Phillips, Chapel Hill.

Benoni Thorp, Raleigh.

He further stated that arrangements had been made for a biographical
sketch of Professor Graves by Professor Geo. T. Winston, and also one of Dr.
Phillips by Col. W.J. Martin.

In Mr. Morehead the Society had lost a valued and helpful friend, but as
his life had not been given to scientific pursuits, no sketch would be given in
the Journal.

Mr. St. Clair Hester then read a biography of Mr. Thorp, which will be
printed in the Journal.

The Society rose in token of respect for the members thus lost by death.

The Secretary reported one new exchange and seventy-one additional
pamphlets and books received.

forty-eighth meeting.

November 12, 1889.

The Resident Vice-President, Prof J. A. Holmes, presided and presented
the first paper of the evening on

25. The Conglomerate and Pebble Beds of the Triassic and Potomac For-
mation in North Carolina. This paper was accompanied by an exhibition of
numerous specimens from each. The conglomerates near Morrisville and on
the Neuse River, in Granville county, were described, and it was shown that
the character and distribution of the materials, the present topographic feat-
ures of the region and the Raleigh anticline all go to prove that the conglom-
erates were deposited by rapidly moving currentSj of water fiowino in a
westerly direction at the time when the region to the east (about Raleigh) was
much more elevated than now. It was further shown that the Potomac peb-
ble beds were deposited on the Roanoke River, a few miles above Gaston, at
a time when tide-water extended up to and covered this region.

26. The Metal of the Future — ^Alumininm, was the subject of the next
paper, presented by Mr. H. L. Miller. In it an account was given of the
recent improvements in methods of production, the comparative reduction of
cost, the valuable properties and the possible uses of this metal. It was a
valuable compilation of facts from the very latest sources.

27. The Allotro[)ic Forms of Silver. In this paper Mr. J. S. Callison
recounted some of the experiments and discoveries of Mr. Lea in this interest-
ing line of research.

28. Saccharin. Dr. Venable gave a history of the discovery and of the
manufacture of this body. Its chemical nature and physiological action were

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 149

discussed and the present position of the vai-ious governments of the world
towards it was mentioned in detail.

The Secretary reported two new members:

Prof. W. A. Withers, Raleigh, N. C.

Prof. C. E. Brewer, Wake Forest, N. C.

During the past nionth one liundred and ten books and pamphlets were

received.

forty-ninth meeting.

December 3, 1889.

The Society was called to order by Prof. Holmes. He announced that Prof.
Cain would read the first paper of the evening on

29. Preliminary' Location of Railways as Affected by Topography.

Certain topographical features were first discussed — also crests of water-
sheds or ridges, gaps and saddles in ridges, streams and branches with their
rates of fall in flat, hilly, and mountainous countries respectively, which gen-
erally determine the maximum gradients lO use. Low points of ridges as
"points in the line" were considered, such gaps generally being'indicated by
streams having their heads very near together and flowing in opposite direc-
tions, or by streams running near each other. Railway locations were then
divided into ridge lines, generally the cheapest and easiest to maintain, lines
running along the streams, giving often easy gradients, but with many culverts
and bridges, lines crossing the general direction of the streams at right angles,
and lines running oliquely across the streams and corresponding ridges, often
giving the most expensive lines. Illustrations from the author's experience
were given of eacli character of line and the principles of location. The
subject of locating railways in the mountains was next given, the subject of
"making distance" to overcome the great elevations being illustrated by
locations in Western North Carolina, across the Blue Ridge, in the Rocky
Mountains, and across the Alps.

30. The Velocipede Railway was next described by Prof. Gore.

Some details as to construction and the results of experiments with this new
style of railway were given and its advantages and disadvantages were com-
pared with the present double-track road.

The following papers were read by title:

31. Addendum to the Minerals and Mineral Localities of North Carolina.
By W. E. Hidden. (This paper appears in full in this Journal). if

32. Nematode Root-Galls. By Prof. George F. Atkinson. (This paper is
published in this Journal).

33. A Tube-building Spider, By Prof. W. L. Poteat. (This paper is pub-
lished in this Journal).

The Secretary and Treasurer then presented their reports of those ofEces
for the year. These reports are appended.

150 JOURNAL OF THE

REPORT OF SECRETARY FOR 1889.

Nine meetings have been held during the year. The number of papers
read at these meetings is thirty-three. The present number of members is
ninety-two. The number of honorary members is ten.

The Society's exchange library shows most gratifying growth during the
past year. A large number of regular exchanges have been added to the list,
so that the total number now is 271. These come from eighteen difierent
countries outside of the United States. They are as follows : From the' United
States, 1-50 exchanges; from Canada, 10; from Great Britain and Ireland, 18;
from Germany, 34; from Austria, 7; from Belgium, 3; from Brazil, 1; from
Chili, 1; from Mexico, 3; from the Netherlands, 6; from Italy, 7; from
France, 8; from Russia, 6; fron) Switzerland, 10; from Sweden, 3; from
Luxembourg, 1 ; from Japan, 1 ; from Portugal, 1 ; and from Argentine
Republic, 1.

The total number of hoolis and pamphlets at present in the Society's library
is 3,521, and the monthly increase averages one hundred.

REPORT OF TREASURER FOR 1889.

Balance on hand January, 1889 8 26 15

Fees of members for 1889 90 00

Fees of members for 1890 6 00

Fees of members for 1891 1 00

Fees of associate members for 1889 — 5 50

Fees of associate members for 1890 5 00

Sales of Journals 2 00

Contributions 100 00

Printing Journal $145 GO

Postage 19 68

Freight 1 60

Balance on hand December 3d, 1889 69 37

§235 65 $235 65

F. P. VENABLE,

Treaswer.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 151

NECROLOGY.

RALPH HENRY GRAVES, C. AND M. E.

Prof, R. H. (iraves was born at Hillsboro, April 1, 185L He received his
collegiate training? at the University of Nortii Carolina and the University of
Virginia. lie was elected to a professorship in the former institution in 1875
at the age of twenty-four and was connected with it down to the date of his
early death. His specialty was mathematics, and he contributed many [lapers
on this subject to the mathematical journals. He was one of the founders of
the Mitchell Society, and, as its records show, was an active supporter and
friend, holding several of the more prominent offices in the Society's gift. He
died in Raleigh, N. C, at the early age of thirty-eight, July 10th, 1889.

EUGENE L. MOREHEAD.

Eugene L. Morehead, Esq., was born in 1845. He graduated at the Uni-
versity of North Carolina in 1868. He was a Confederate soldier. Settling
in Durham he successfully followed the business of a banker and was very
helpful in the building up of that town. He died in the early spring of 1889.

CHARLES PHILLIPS, D. D., LL. D.

Dr. Charles Phillips was born at Chapel Hill in 1822. He graduated at
the University of North Carolina in 1841 and was tutor there from 1844 to
1854. In 1854 he was elected to the Professorship of Engineering, and in
1861 to that of Mathematics. He was a professor in Davidson College from
1869 to 1875, when he returned to the University. He was Professor Emeri-
tus of Mathematics at the time of his death. The study of his life was
mathematics, and he was widely known as a mathematician and a preacher of
the Gospel of Christ. The Journal of the Society shows many articles from
his pen, and he was one of its most loved and respected members. He died
May 10th, 1889, at the age of sixty-seven.

BENONI THORP.

Benoni Thorp was born June 9th, 1868, in Granville county, N. C. He
graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1888. Immediately after
his graduation he was elected Assistant Chemist in the State Experiment Sta-
tion. He contributed several papers to the Journal of the Society. He died
of typhoid fever in Raleigh, July 23d, 1889, when only twenty-one years
old.

152 JOURNAL OF THE

LIST OF MEMBERS.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

1887. Spencer F. Baird, Ph. D., LL. D.,t

Smithsonian Institution, Washinsfton, D. C.

1885. H. Carrington Bolton, Ph, I).,

University Chib, New York City.

1886. W. K. Brooks, Ph. D.,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

1885. A. W. Chapman, A. M., LL. D.,

Apalachicola, Fla.

1886. W. M. Fontaine, M. A.,

University of Virginia, Virginia.

1884. Joseph Le Conte, M. D., LL. D.,

Berkeley, California.

1885. J. W. Mallet, M. D., LL. D., F. R. S.,

University of Virginia, Virginia.

1887. J. W. Powell, Ph. D., LL. D.,

U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

1886. H. W. Ravenel, LL. D.f

Aiken, S. C.

1887. C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D.,

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
1884. Charles U. Shepard,

Charleston, vS. C.
1884. James C. Southall, F. G. S.,

Richmond, Va.

corresponding members.

1884. W. G. Brown, B. S., Ph. D.,

W. & L. University, Lexington, Va.
1887. David S. Day,

U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
1886. A. M. Elliott,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

1886. Daniel L. Gilman, LL. D.,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
1884. James Lewis Howe, Ph. D., M. D.,

Polytechnic Society, Louisville, Ky.

1887. J. M. McBryde, LL. D.,

University of South Carolina, Columbia, S. C.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 153

1887. W. J. McGee,

U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

1884. G. E. Manigault, M. D.,

College of Charleston, Charleston, S. C.

1885. J. M. PiCKEL, Ph. D.,

State Agricultural College, Lake City, Fla.
1884. H. E. Shepherd, A. M.,

College of Charleston, Charleston, S. C.
1887. Eugene A. Smith, Ph. D.,

University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala.

REGULAR MEMBERS.

Prof. Eben Alexander Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson, B. Ph. .. Columbia, S. C.

H. T. Bahnson, M. D Salem, N. C.

President K. P. Battle, LL. D Chapel Hill, N. C.

K. P. Battle, Jr., M. D Raleigh, N. C.

H. B. Battle, Ph. D Raleigh, N. C.

R. H. Battle Raleigh, N. C.

T. H. Battle Rocky Mount, N. C.

Paul B. Barringer, M. D University of Virginia.

Gen. Rufus Barringer Charlotte, N. C,

Prof. J. R. Blake Greenwood, S. C.

Prof. C. E. Brewer Wake Forest, N. C.

Col. W. H. S. Burgwyn Henderson, N. C.

Capt. William Cain, C. E Chapel Hill, N. C.

Hon. p. C. Cameron Hillsboro, N. C.

Julian S. Carr Durham, N. C.

J. C. Chase Wilmington, N. C.

Hon. Kerr Craige Salisbury, N. C.

F. B. Dancy, B. a Raleigh, N. C.

Prof. J. R. Duggan, Ph. D.f Wake Forest, N. C.

H. E. Fries Salem, N. C.

J. W. Fries Salem, N. C.

Prof. J. W. Gore, C. E Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prof. B. F. Grady, Jr Albertson's, N. C.

Prof. R. H. Graves, C. and M. E.f Chapel Hill, N. C.

R. G. Grissom, B. S Raleigh, N. C.

George B. Hanna Charlotte, N. C.

William H. Hardin! ..Raleigh, N. C.

J. R. Harris Raleigh, N. C.

Dr. S. J. Hinsdale Fayetteville, N. C.

Prof. J. A. Holmes, B. Agr Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prof. J. H. Horner Oxford, N. C.

154 JOURNAL OF THE

Prof. J. DeB. HooperI Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prof. F. M. Hubbard, D. D.f Raleigh, N. 0.

Prof. Thomas Hume, Jr., D. D Chapel Hill, N. C.

W. R. Kenan Wilmington, N. C.

James P. Kerr.. Haw River, N. C.

W. C. Kerr, Ph. D.f Raleigh, N. C.

A. R. Ledoux, Ph. D New York City.

R. H. Lewis, M. D Ralei-h, N. C.

Prof. J. L. Love, B. A Chapel Hill, N. C.

Donald MacHae Wilmington, N. C.

Hugh MacRae Wilmington, N. C.

Hon. John Manning, LL. D Chapel Hill, N. C.

I. H. Manning Wilmington, N. C.

Prof. W. J. Martin, A. M Davidson College, N. C.

Gerald McCarthy Raleigh, N. C.

Prof. W. H. Michael.... Wake Forest, N. C.

Eugene MoreheadI Durham, N. C.

Prof. W. H. Pegram Trinity College, N. C.

Prof. Charles Phillips, D. D.f Chapel Hill, N. C.

Hon. S. F. Phillips Washington, D. C.

Prof. W. B. Phillips, Ph. D Birmingham, Ala.

Prof. W. L. Poteat Wake Forest, N. C.

Prof. A. L. Purinton.. Wake Forest, N. C.

Prof. E. A. v. Schweinitz, Ph. D Washington, D. C.

Prof. A. M. Shipp D. D.f Nashville, Tenn.

Prof. H. L. Smith Davidson College, N. C.

J. M. Spainhour Lenoir, N, C.

LiEUT.-Gov. C. M. Stedman Wilmington, N. C.

George G. Thomas, M. D Wilmington, N. C.

Benoni TnoRpf Raleigh, N. C.

Prof. W. D. Toy, A. M Chapel Hill, N. C.

Hon. Z. B. Vance, LL. D Charlotte, N. C.

Prof. F. P. Venable, Ph. D Chapel Hill, N. C.

Col. J. B. Wheeler! West Point, N. Y.

J. F. Wilkes Charlotte, N. C.

Maj. James W. Wilson Knoxville, Tenn.

Prof. George T. Winston Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prof. W\ A. Withers Raleigh, N. C.

Thomas F. Wood, M. D Wilmington, N. C.

David G. Worth Wilmington, N. C.

associate members.

Andrews, Wm. J Chapel Hill, N. C.

Battle, Gaston Chapel Hill, N. C.

Battle, Wm. J Chapel Hill, N. C.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 155

Bryant, V. S : Chapel Hill, N. C.

Callison, J. S Chapel Hill, N. C.

Harris, Hunter L Raleigh, N. C.

Hester, St. Clair Chapel Hill, N. C.

Lee, r. M Chapel Hill, N. C.

Lewis, J. S Chapel Hill, N. C.

Lewis, J. V Chapel Hill, N. C.

Miller, H. L Chapel Hill, N. C.

Morehead, J. M *.. ..Chapel Hill, N. C.

Rankin, Charles A Chapel Hill, N. C,

RoBERSON, W. S Chapel Hill, N. C.

Shaffner, W. F Chapel Hill, N. C.

Spoon, W. L Chapel Hill, N. C.

Toms, C. W Chapel Hill, N. C.

Wills, George S Chapel Hill, N. C.

WooDARD, p. L Chapel Hill, N. C.

list of donors to the library.

James C. Chase, Esq Wilmington, N. C.

Marcus Benjamin, Esq New York City.

Prof. J. A. Holmes Chapel Hill, N. C.

Dr. H. Carrington Bolton New York City.

Prof. George Dimmock , Boston, Mass.

George F. Kunz, Esq New York City.

Prof. W. J. McGee Washington, D. C.

Dr. F. p. Venable Chapel Hill, N. C.

LIST OF EXCHANGES.

UNITED STATES.

Albany — New York Museum of Natural History.
Boston — American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Boston Scientific Society.

Society of Natural History.
Brookville — Society of Natural History.
Cambridge — Entomological Club.
Charleston— Elliott Society of Science and Arts.
Cincinnati — Society of Natural History.
Davenport — Academy of Natural Sciences.
Denver — Colorado Scientific Society.

156 JOURNAL OF THE

Granville — Denison Scientific Association.

Madison — Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences and Letters.

Manhattan — Kansas Academy of Natnral Sciences.

Meriden — Scientific Association.

Milwaukee — Wisconsin Natural History Society.

Minneapolis — Academy of Natural Sciences.

New Brighton — Natural Science Association of Staten Island.

New Haven — Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

New Orleans — Academy of Sciences.

Newport — Natural History Society.

New York — Academy of Sciences.

American Museum of Natural History.
Linnean Society.
Microscopical Society.
Torrey Botanical Club.
Peoria — Science Association.
Philadelphia — Academy of Natural Sciences.

American Philosophical Society.
Franklin Institute.
Wagner Free Institute of Science.
Providence — Frankin Geological Society.
Saco — York Institute.

Salem — American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Essex Institute.
Peabody Academy of Science.
San Diego — Society of Natural History.
San Francisco — California Academy of Sciences.
St. Louis — Academy of Science.
Trenton — Natural History Society.
Urbana — Central Ohio Scientific Association.
Washington — Chemical Society.

National Academy of Sciences.
Philosopliical Society.

educational institutions.

Johns Hopkins University — Circulars.

Studies from Biological Laboratory.
Harvard University — Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Cornell University — Bulletins.
Columbia School of Mines — Chemical Society.
Washburn College — Laboratory of Natural History.
Denison University — Scientific Laboratories.
University of Michigan — Reports, etc.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 157

OBSERVATORIES.

Harvard University Observatory — Cambridge.

Leander McCormick Observatory — University of Virginia.

Lick Observatory — Mount Hamilton.

Meteorological Observatory — Blue Hill.

Naval Observatory — Washington.

Warner Observatory — Rochester.

Yale Observatory — New Haven.

independent periodicals.

Botanical Gazette — Crawfordsville.

Modern Language Notes — Baltimore.

The Microscope — Trenton.

Popular Science News — Boston.

North Carolina Medical Journal — Wilmington.

BOARDS OF health, ETC.

Massachusetts — Boston.

Michigan — Lansing.

National — Washington.

New York — Albany,

North Carolina — Wilmington.

Pennsylvania — Philadelphia.

South Carolina — Cohimbia.

Tennessee — Nashville.

Wisconsin — Appleton.

North Carolina Medical Society — Wilmington.

North Carolina Pharmaceutical Society — Goldsboro.

agricultural experiment stations, etc,

Alabama — Auburn.
Arkansas — Fayetteville.
California — Berkeley.
Colorado — Fort Collins.
Connecticut — New Haven.
Cornell University — Ithaca.
Dakota — Brookings.
Delaware — Newark.
Georgia — Athens.
Illinois — Champaign.
Iowa — Ames.
Kansas — Manhattan.

158 JOURNAL OF THE

Kentucky — Lexington.

Louisiana — Baton Rouge.

Maryland — Agricultural College.

Massachusetts — Amherst.

Michigan — Agricultural College.

Minnesota — St. Anthony Park.

Mississippi — Agricultural College.

Missouri— Columbia,

Nebraska — Lincoln.

Nevada — Reno.

New Hampshire — Hanover.

New Jersey — New Brunswick.

New York — Geneva.

North Carolina — Raleigh.

Ohio — Columbus.

Oregon — Corvallis.

Pennsylvania — State College.

South Carolina — Columbia.

Storrs School — Mansfield.

Tennessee — Knoxville.

Texas — College Station.

Vermont — Burlington.

Virginia — Blacksburg.

West Virginia — Morganton.

Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History — Champaign.

Massachusetts Horticultural Society— Boston.

Michigan Horticultural Society — Grand Rapids.

Minnesota Horticultural Society — Minneapolis.

North Carolina Horticultural Society — Raleigh.

Virginia Department of Agriculture — Richmond.

Department of Agriculture — Washington.

geological surveys.

Alabama — Tuscaloosa.

Arkansas — Little Rock.

California — State Mining Bureau, S;in Francisco.

Illinois — Springfield.

Indiana — Indianapolis.

Minnesota — Minneapolis.

New Jersey — New Brunswick.

New York — Albany.

North Carolina— Raleigh.

Ohio — Columbus.

Wyoming — Cheyenne.

U. S. Geological Survey — Washington.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 159

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

Fish Commission — Washington.
National Museum — Washington.
Signal Service Bureau — Washington.
Smithsonian Institution — Washington.
Coast and Geodetic Survey — Washington.
Surgeon General's Office — Washington.
Department of State — Washington.

CANADA.

Grimsby — Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario.
Halifax — Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Sciences.
Montreal — Natural History Society.
Ottawa — Field Naturalists' Club.

Royal Society of Canada.

Geological Survey of Canada.

Entomological Society of Ontario.
Port Hope — Canadian Entomologist.
Toronto — Canadian Institute.
Winnipeg — Historical and Scientific Society.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast — Naturalists' Field Club.

Bristol — Naturalists' Society.

Dublin — Ro3'al Dublin Society.

Dumfries — Natural History and Antiquarian Society.

Edinburgh — Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Glasgow — Geological Society.

Natural History Society.
Halifax — Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.
Leeds — Philosophical and Literary Society.
Liverpool — Geological Association.
London — Royal Society of England.
Manchester— Geological Society.

Literary and Philosophical Society.
Newcastle — North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field Club.
Penzance — Natural History and Antiquarian Society.

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
RoTHAMSTED — Agricultural Experiment Station.
Truro — Royal Institution of Cornwall.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Buenos Ayres — La Sociedad Cientifica Argentina.

160 JOURNAL OF THE

AUSTRIA.

Brunn — Dei' Xatiirforscliende Verein.
Graz — Der Naturwissenschaftliche Verein fiir Steiermark.
Prag — Die k. k. Gesellschaft der Wissenscliaften.
Trieste — La Societa Adriatica di Scienze Natural!.
WiEN — Der Naturwissenschaftliche Club.

Die Zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft.

BELGIUM.

Bruxelles — La Societe Royale Malacologique de Belgique.
La Academie Royale de Medecine de Belgique.
La Societe Royale Linneenne.

BRAZIL.

Rio DE Janeiro — Museu Nacional.

CHILI.

Santiago — Der Deutsche Wissenschaftliche Verein.

FRANCE.

Amiens — La Societe Linneenne de Normandie.

Angers— La Societe d'Etudes Scientifiques.

AuxERRE — La Societe des Sciences Hist, et Nat. de I'Yonne.

Caen — La Societe Linneenne du Nord de la France.

NiMES — La Society d'Etude des Sciences Naturelles.

Paris — Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique.

Le Laboratoire Munici})al de Chemie.
Rouen — La Societe des Amis des Sciences Naturelles.

ITALY.

Catania —Accadetnia Gioenia di Scienze Natuali.

Napoli — Societa Africana D'ltalia.

Padova — Societa Veneto-Trentina di Scienze Naturali.

Perugia — Universita libera di Perugia.

Pisa — La Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali.

RouRA — R. Accadernia dei Lincei.

Torino — Musee di Zoologia ed Anatomia Cotuparate.

JAPAN.

Tokyo — Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Volkerkunde Ostasiens.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. IGl

LUXEMBOURG.

Luxembourg — Snciete Botaniqne.

MEXICO.

Mexico — Observatorio Meteorologico-Magnetico Central.
Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural.
Sociedad Cientifica " Antonio Alzate."

NETHERLANDS.

Amsterdam — K. Nederlandische Akademie d. Wissenschaften.
Harlem — Musee Teyler.

Middelburg — La Societe HoUandaise des Sciences.
NuMEGEN — Nederlandische Botanische Vereenignng.
Utrecht — La Societe Provinciale des Arts et des Sciences.

PORTUGAL.

Lisbon — La Academic Royale des Sciences.

RUSSIA.

DoRPAT — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Helsingprs — Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica.

Khabkow — La Section Medicale de la Societe des Sciences Experirnentales-

Kieff — La Societe des Naturalistes.

Moscow — La Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes.

Odessa — La Societe des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle-Russie.

SWEDEN.

Lund — Universitatis Carolina Lnndensis Acta.
Stockholm — La Societe Entomologique.

Sveriges Offentliga Bibliothek.

SWITZERLAND.

Basel — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Bern — Die Natiirforschende Gesellschaft.

Chur — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft Graubiinden.

Frauenfeld — Die Thurgauische Neturforschende Gesellschaft,

Fribourg — La Societe Fribourgeoise des Sciences Naturelles.

Geneva — L'Entomologiste Genevoise.

Lausanne — La Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.

St. Gall — Die St. Gallische Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.

Zurich — Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

International Entomologischer Verein.

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Plate I. — Nkmatodk Root-Galls.

IRISH POTATO.

Plate 11. — Nkma'I'odk Root-Galls.

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