i HAR if ASONTA FHS \ fh Journal of th ish Columbia it of Br Volume 105 -0733 ISSN #0071 Issued December 2008 Entomological Society of British co i) i) N © Columbia COVER: Boreus reductus Carpenter (Mecoptera: Boreidae) Boreids (order Mecoptera) are interesting for two traits, they are often found wandering the surface of snow from late November until May, and they can jump. A feat they achieve using metatibial extension and resilin to store energy in the thorax before a leap. Their common name of "snow fleas" is both apt and prescient, given that recent molecular stud- ies have placed them as close relatives of the true fleas. Their biology is poorly known and most texts state that both adults and larvae "live in moss". This example is a female of the species Boreus reductus (Carpenter 1933). The image was taken a few hundred metres from the junction of the Coquihalla Highway and Highway | at the west end of Kamloops in March 2007. An Olympus E-1 DSLR with a Zuiko ZD 50mm macro lens coupled to two 25mm_ extension tubes was used. The magnification on the sensor (18mmx1l4mm) was X1 .5 . This image is a crop of the original image, the length of the insect from frons to tip of ovipositor is approximately 4 mm. Lighting was with a 1980's vintage Vivitar 283 flash with a homemade 10cm by 15cm cloth diffuser. The most important part of the field equipment was a set of chest waders. The Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia is published annually in December by the Society Copyright© 2008 by the Entomological Society of British Columbia Designed and typeset by Hugh Barclay and Jen Perry. Printed by Vernon Graphics, Vernon, B.C. Printed on Recycled Paper. Pug J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 1 Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia Volume 105 Issued December 2008 ISSN #0071-0733 Directors of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, 2008-2009 .0.0.... ec ceessseeeeeeeees 2 G.G.E. Scudder. New provincial and state records for Heteroptera (Hemiptera) in Canada and the NO IGC CES TALC cate ale ass tame neater Reta cas ana aa punsu een oaNerocaanataas aah ubnkeneedeas meedemeanenetce: 3 Jeremy R. Dewaard, B. Christian Schmidt, Gary G. Anweiler and Leland M. Humble. First Ca- nadian records of Lampropteryx suffumata ([Denis & Schiffermitller], 1775) (Geometridae: PEATE TCIM LAG) Seasee otess esieecares tee oh exe tna se gure tans om eat re tron aac eetee cau eam oneoteeueeneeee eee 19 D. Thomas Lowery, Michael G. Bernardy, Robyn M. Deyoung and Chris J. French. Identifi- cation of new aphid vector species of Blueberry SCOrCHh Virus .......ccccccseeccneeecnneceeneseens 27 John K. Mackenzie, Peter J. Landolt and Richard S. Zack. Sex attraction in Polistes dominulus (Christ) demonstrated using olfactometers and morphological source extracts .............:006 2) Gary J.R. Judd and Mark G.T. Gardiner. Efficacy of Isomate-CM/LR for management of leafrol- lers by mating disruption in organic apple orchards of western Canada .............cccsssceceeeees 45 D.A. Raworth. Climate change and potential selection for non-diapausing two-spotted spider mites on strawberry in southwestern British Columbia ..............ccccccccccccceeeeesssseceeeeeeeeeeesenes 61 Michael D. Doerr, Jay F. Brunner and Timothy J. Smith. Biology and management of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Washington cherry orchards .............ccccssseeeees 69 Kevin Durden, John J. Brown and Maciej A. Pszczolkowski. Extracts of Ginkgo biloba or Ar- temisia species reduce feeding by neonates of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on apple in a laboratory bi0assay ............cccccssccessccesseeeeseecesseecsseeecssecesseeeesaees 83 S.D. Cockfield and E.H. Beers. Management of dandelion to supplement control of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in apple orchards ..................cccseeecceceeeeseeseeeeees 89 Luis Martinez-Rocha, Elizabeth H. Beers and John E. Dunley. Effect of pesticides on inte- grated mite management in Washington State ............ccccccccceeeccccuesccseuscceunseseueeseees oF SCIENTIFIC NOTES R.D. Kenner and K.M. Needham. Additional records for semiaquatic Hemiptera musOutha western British: Colt Bialik cae css ssetacen saat stu deti sit Rvahanttectits ttortenc a ettesece Oe 109 Virgiliu M. Aurelian, Mario Lanthier and Gary J.R. Judd. Podosesia syringae (Lepidoptera: Se- siidae): a new clearwing moth record for British Columbia ..........ccccccccccsesesssesseeeesseseees i! Willem G. Van Herk, J. Todd Kabaluk, Viola W.M. Lam and Robert S. Vernon. Survival of male click beetles, Agriotes obscurus L., (Coleoptera: Elateridae) during and after storage at differ- CTE TE IMP CLAUS Seeks. t aaasseenle ne aocomseewestanecen ecotecelst nae aaSaieats weoaacna rman ner ntesnsinesanitenteeetaaeineret 113 W.G. Van Herk and R.S. Vernon. Effect of handling and morbidity induction on weight, recovery, and survival of the Pacific Coast wireworm, Limonius canus (Coleoptera: Elateri- LAS es cae eee rere et en Sac tare te aen ae Pee AME REN We RP ca. ca.s eede cena eee 115 ABSTRACTS Symposium Abstracts: Biodiversity in Stanley Park. Entomological Society of British Columbia Annual General Meeting, West End Community Centre Auditorium, Vancouver, BC, October RU ZOO SOR eee ee CRON denon sitet ost cioaacsaseeaat it sven sie mh atmasvwiieoeaee eaatzattae mtn aR 117 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS .0.0.....cccccccccccccsccssescseeseceesscseesesscessessesnens Inside Back Cover J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 2008-9 President: Sheila Fitzpatrick Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada President-Elect: Tom Lowery Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Past-President: John McLean University of British Columbia Secretary/Treasurer: Lorraine Maclauchlan B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range Directors, first term: Dezene Huber, Alida Janmaat, Leo Rankin Director, second term: Jim Corrigan, Rob McGregor, Melanie Hart Regional Director of National Society: Bill Riel Canadian Forest Service, Victoria Editor, Boreus: Jennifer Heron Jennifer. Heron@gov.bce.ca Editorial Committee, Journal: Editor-in-Chief: Subject Editors: Hugh Barclay Sheila Fitzpatrick (Agriculture) Pacific Forestry Centre Lorraine MacLauchlan (Forestry) HBarclay@pfc.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca Geoff Scudder (Systematics/Morphology) Technical Editor: Jen Perry Editor Emeritus: Peter Belton Editor of Web Site: Bill Riel briel@pfc.forestry.ca Honorary Auditor: John McLean University of British Columbia Web Page: http://www.sfu.ca/biology/esbe/ J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 New provincial and state records for Heteroptera (Hemiptera) in Canada and the United States G.G.E. SCUDDER! ABSTRACT New provincial records are provided for 52 species of Heteroptera in Canada. Dichaeto- coris piceicola (Knight) is also reported from Alaska, and Pagasa nigripes Harris from Washington State. INTRODUCTION Since the publication of the checklist of the Hemiptera of Canada and Alaska (Maw et al. 2000), new Heteroptera from Canada, and new provincial records have been pub- lished by Barnes et al. (2000), Henry et al. (2008), Jansson (2002), Kenner and Needham (2004), Paiero et al. (2003), Roch (2007), Schuh (2000a, 2000b, 2001, 2004a, 2004b), Schuh and Schwartz (2004, 2005), Schwartz and Scudder (2001, 2003), Schwartz and Stonedahl (2004), Scudder (2000, 2004, 2007), Scudder and Foottit (2006), Scudder and Schwartz (2001), Wheeler and Hoebeke (2004), and Wheeler et al. (2006). Wright (1989) and Kerzhner (1993) also published records not included in Maw et al. (2000). Recent research has revealed additional new provincial records for 52 species. Di- chaetocoris piceicola (Knight) has been found in Alaska, and Pagasa nigripes Har- ris in Washington State. These are reported below, with Museum abbreviations as follows: AAFCL: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB (J.R. Byers). CNC: Canadian National Collection of Insects, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON (R.G. Foottit). LM: Lyman Entomological Museum, Macdonald College, McGill University, Ste.-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC (T. Wheeler). MU: Memorial University. St. John’s , NF (D. Larson). NSM: Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History, Halifax, NS (A. Hebda and C. Ma- jka). RBCM: Royal British Columbia Mu- seum, Victoria, BC (R.A. Cannings). SM: Saskatchewan Provincial Museum, Saskatoon, SK (R. Hooper). UBC: Spencer Entomological Museum, Department of Zoology, University of Brit- ish Columbia, Vancouver, BC (K.M. Needham). UG: Department of Environmental Biol- ogy, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON (S.A. Marshall). UM: J.B. Wallis Collection, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB (R.E. Rough- ley). UPEI: Department of Biology, Univer- sity of Prince Edward Island, Charlotte- town, PE (K.A. Campbell and D. Giber- son). NEW PROVINCIAL RECORDS The systematic order of families and higher taxa listed below, follows Maw et al. (2000). Infraorder NEPOMORPHA Family CORIXIDAE ' Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC VOT 1Z4. (604) 822-3682. scudder@zoology.ubc.ca 4 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Arctocorisa chanceae Hungerford A subarctic species known from Alaska and across northern Canada from Yukon to Newfoundland and Labrador (Scudder 1997; Maw et al. 2000). The species can be keyed using Hungerford (1948) and Brooks and Kelton (1967). New record. BC: 14, Atlin, 10 mi S, 18.viil.1980 (R.J. Cannings) [UBC]. Sigara compressoidea (Hungerford) An eastern Nearctic species, in Canada reported from Ontario east to Newfound- land (Maw et al. 2000), but not previously reported from Prince Edward Island. Sigara compressoidea 1s keyed in Hungerford (1948) and Tinerella and Gundersen (2005), and a dorsal colour photograph is given in the latter reference, showing the typically effaced membrane patterning. New record. PE: 14 19, Deroche Natu- ral Protected Area, 46.42114°N 62.94082° W, kicknet, small wetland, 27.1x.2007 (K. Alexander Campbell) [UPEI]. Family NOTONECTIDAE Notonecta spinosa Hungerford A Cordilleran species, so far in Canada, recorded only from British Columbia (Scudder 1977; Maw et al. 2000). The spe- cies can be keyed using Hungerford (1933). New records: AB: 1 specimen, Waterton Lakes Nat. Park, grassland pond with mud- stone, substrate, near Buffalo Paddock, 49° 07'44"N_ 113°S1'11"W, 9.vii.2005 (R.E. Roughley & R.D. Kenner) [UBC]; 1 speci- men, Waterton Lakes Nat. Park, spring-fed Carex marsh, near West Entrance on Hwy. 5, 49°07'12"N 113°50'S3"W, 9.v11.2005 (R.E. Roughley & R.D. Kenner) [UBC]. Family PLEIDAE Neoplea striola (Fieber) This pygmy backswimmer, so far in Canada is recorded only from Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec (Maw ef al. 2000). The species is keyed in Brooks and Kelton (1967). New record. BC: 1 specimen, Edge- wood, F11, edge forest by beaver pond, 25.vill.-5.1x.1988 (H. Knight) [CNC]. Infraorder GERROMORPHA Family VELIIDAE Microvelia pulchella Westwood This cosmopolitan species is recorded from Alaska, and in Canada from most provinces from British Columbia to New- foundland (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed in Brooks and Kelton (1967). New record. SK: 1¢ 29, Cowan Dam at Hwy. 55, 54°11'49"N_ 107°27'0"W, Typha pond, 22.v11.2003 (R.E. Roughley) [CNC]. Family GERRIDAE Gerris incognitus Drake & Hottes A species reported across Canada from British Columbia to Labrador (Maw et al. 2000), but not previously recorded from Prince Edward Island. The species is keyed by Drake and Harris (1934). New record. PE: 1¢ 19, Millburn, 8.v1.1970 (Ray Wenn) [UPE]]. G. pingreensis Drake & Hottes This species is known from Alaska and across Canada from Yukon to Labrador (Maw et al. 2000), but to date there are no published records for New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The species is keyed by Drake and Harris (1934) and Brooks and Kelton (1967). New record. NF: 2¢ 19, Plum Point, ponds, 11.1x.1999 (T. Huxley) [CNC]. Limnoporus notabilis (Drake & Hottes) This western water strider in Canada 1s known from British Columbia and Alberta (Maw et al. 2000; Andersen and Spence 1992). The species is keyed by Andersen and Spence (1992). New record. SK: 14, Cypress Hills, 15.vu1.1977 (R. Hopper) [SM]. Family SALDIDAE Micracanthia humilis (Say) A Nearctic-Neotropical species, widely distributed in North America, and in Can- ada reported from British Columbia and Northwest Territories east to Newfound- land, but not previously recorded from Nova Scotia (Maw et al. 2000). The species J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 is keyed by Schuh (1967) and Polhemus and Chapman (1979). New records. NS: 29, Halifax Co., Lawrencetown Beach, viii.1979 (B. Wright) [NSM]; 19 Halifax Co., Petpeswick Har- bour, wet sandy upper shore, 29.vu.1971 (Barry Wright) [NSM]. Salda lugubris (Say) A widely distributed Nearctic species that also occurs in Mexico, and in Canada is reported from Yukon to Newfoundland, but not previously from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed by Brooks and Kelton (1967) and Schuh (1967). New records. NB: 13, French Lake, 2.vii.1928 (W.S. Brown) [CNC]. NS: 19, CBI, Chiticamp, vi.-vii.1917 (F. Johansen) [CNC]; 29°, Halifax Co., Port Wallis, 17.vi1.1952 (D.C. Ferguson) [NSM]. Saldula ablusa Drake & Hottes This is an eastern Nearctic species, keyed and reported from Ontario by Schuh (1967). Polhemus (1988) noted that refer- ences to Saldula xanthochila (Fieber) from the northeastern United States almost cer- tainly refer to S. ablusa or S. pallipes (Fabricius). Wright (1989) reported S. xan- thochila from Sable Is., Nova Scotia, and examination of 24 12 specimens in the Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History, labeled “NS. Sable Is., brackish ponds east of station, 26.v1i.1976 (Barry Wright)” shows these to be S. ablusa. As pointed out by Polhemus (1985), S. ablusa lacks a dis- tinct dark distal streak on the ventral side of the hind femora, and as noted by Schuh (1967) typically has pale lateral margins to the pronotum, whereas these are never pre- sent in the Saldula “pallipes — palustris” group. New record. PE: 73 19, Can. Nat. Park, Dalvay House, 19.vii.1940 (GS. Walley) [CNC]. S. bouchervillei (Provancher) This species was previously reported from Nova Scotia as Salda bouchervillei (Provancher) by Wright (1989). Material examined: NS: 29, Sable Is- land, brackish ponds east of station, 26.vii.1976 (Barry Wright) [NSM]. S. laticollis (Reuter) Lindskog (1981) clarified the identity of this species, distinguishing it from the closely related S. pallipes (Fabricius) and S. palustris (Douglas) by the presence of long, curved, semi-recumbent or suberect setae on the head dorsally, and noted that S. fer- naldi Drake is a synonym. In Old World populations of both S. pallipes and S. palus- tris, the pubescence on the head and dor- sum generally is uniformly short and re- cumbent. However, as observed by Schuh (1967), the Saldula “pallipes — palustris” species complex has confused systematic heteropterists for some time, because of the extreme variability of the “species”. Never- theless, coastal populations from western North America and Newfoundland, previ- ously identified as S. palustris have been shown to be S. Jaticollis (Lindskog 1981; Polhemus 1988), the intertidal biology of which has been described by Stock and Lattin (1976) under S. palustris. Wright (1989) reported S. palustris from Sable Is., Nova Scotia, but examination of specimens in the Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History shows these to be S. laticol- lis. This species is also now known from New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. New records. NB: 14 19, Kouchi- bouguac Nat. Park, 14.vi.1977 (S.J. Miller) [CNC]. NS: 2¢ 39, Digby Co., Sandy Cove, 4.vii.1971 (Barry Wright) [NSM]; 22, Guysborough Co., Liscombe, marshy area above beach, 13.vi.1971 (Barry Wright) [CNC]; 23 19, Sable Island, West Light, 23.vii.1976 (Barry Wright) [NSM]; 1¢ 19, Sable Island, freshwater pond at West Light, 13.vi.1977 (Barry Wright) [NSM]. PE: 16, Brackley Beach, 5.vii.1966 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 34, Green Gables, Cavendish Beach, 22.vi1.1967 (J.E.H. Martin) [CNC]. Infraorder CIMICOMORPHA Family ANTHOCORIDAE 6 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Anthocoris tomentosus Péricart This western Nearctic, and Beringian species occurs in the western United States south to Arizona (Lewis et al. 2005), and Alaska to Manitoba, but has not previously been reported from Saskatchewan (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed in Kelton (1978) under the name A. melanocerus Reuter, and characteristically has the he- melytra entirely shiny, and the pronotum and antennae completely black. Lewis et al. (2005) reported A. tomentosus being regu- larly collected from Alnus, Populus, Pyrus and Salix growing in and near fruit-growing regions in Washington State, as well as on Rumex and psyllid-infested Sheperdia ar- gentea (Pursh) Nutt. New record. SK: 192, Fort Qu’Appelle, 17.vi.1967 (R. Hooper) [SM]; 19, Regina, on elm, 6.x.1986 (K. Roney) [SM]. Dufouriellus ater (Dufour) This species was described from Europe, and was first reported from Amer- ica north of Mexico by Van Duzee (1916). It is now known to be widely distributed in North America, with published records in the USA for New York (Van Duzee 1917), North Carolina (Blatchley 1926), California and Kentucky (Blatchley 1928), Idaho (Harris and Shull 1944), Oregon (Lattin 2004) and Hawaii (Lattin 2005, 2007a), whereas in Canada it has previously been reported from British Columbia (Anderson 1962) and Ontario (Kelton 1978). Dufouriellus ater is usually collected under the bark of trees, but also is often associated with stored products (Awadallah et al. 1984; Arbogast 1984; Lattin 1999). As a result, it is a useful predator of some economic importance (Lattin 2000). The species is keyed by Kelton (1978), who noted that in Canada it is rare in col- lections, and probably introduced into Brit- ish Columbia and Ontario. Although D. ater was not included as an alien in Canada by Scudder and Foottit (2006), Lattin (2004, 2007b) considered the species to be non-indigenous to America north of Mex- ico. New record. NS: 14, Halifax, Grain Elevators, from dust and debris samples, 17.vu1.1991 (J. Hulton) [NSM]. Family NABIDAE Nabis inscriptus (Kirby) This Holarctic species, with somewhat abbreviated wings is difficult to distinguish from shorter winged specimens of N. americoferus Carayon. Reliable separation is based on the shape of the male parameres and structure of the copulatory pouch of the female, as illustrated in Vinokurov (1988) and discussed by Kerzhner (1963). Nabis inscriptus 1s recorded from Alaska and across northern Canada (Maw ef al. 2000), but as noted by Henry and Lattin (1988), reported distribution records need to be verified. New records. NS: 19, Antigonish Co., Pomquet Beach, 31.v.1978 (B. Wright) [NSM]; 16), Halifax, found on corpse, Path. Lab., 1.xi.1979 (B. Wright) [NSM]. N. roseipennis Reuter This species is recorded from British Columbia to Nova Scotia in Canada (Maw et al. 2000), but has not previously been reported from Prince Edward Island. The species is keyed in Blatchley (1926) and Harris (1928) and characteristically has black spots on the hind tibiae. New record: PE: 63 89, Charlottetown, UPEI, nr. East edge, 46°15'25"N 63° O8'08"W, sweeping, 20.1x.2004 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC, UPEI]. Pagasa nigripes Harris Kerzhner (1993) raised Pagasa fusca var. nigripes Harris to specific rank, and recorded the species in Canada from Al- berta, Quebec and Saskatchewan. He also reported P. nigripes from Alaska, Colorado, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Mex- ico, New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont and Wyoming. He distinguished it from Pagasa fusca (Stein) by differences in the male and female genitalia, and noted that the legs tend to be brown or brownish yellow in P. nigripes, whereas they are yellow in P. fusca, with the femora often orange or red- dish. However, the legs in P. fusca can J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 sometimes be partly brownish or entirely black. Hence, the genitalic characters are the most reliable. The parameres in P. fusca are relatively large with the outer margin rounded, whereas in P. nigripes they are slightly smaller than in P. fusca and dis- tinctly angulate on the outer margin. Pagasa nigripes is here recorded for the first time from British Columbia, Northwest Territory and Yukon, where the species was previously reported as P. fusca in Maw et al. (2000): P. fusca does not occur in Alaska, Northwest Territory and Yukon. However, in British Columbia, P. fusca co- occurs with P. nigripes, the species having been collected together at Merritt (23 km E, Hamilton Commonage), Osoyoos (Mt. Ko- bau in Montane Spruce habitat), Vaseux Creek (Kennedy bench), and the Winder- mere Valley. New records. BC: 14 , Canal Flats, 10.8 km S., 31.viii.1998 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 13, Fairview, White L., BGxhl, SWm, pan trap WL/P-1, 4.vit.-11.vii.1995 (J. Jarrett) [UBC]; 32, Merritt, 23 km E, Hamilton Commonage, Upper Fescue grassland, early seral, 1250 m, 16.ix.2000 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC, UBC]; 19, Mer- ritt, 35 km S, 14.viii.1988 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 164, Nicola, 24.vii.1932 (GJ. Spencer) [UBC]; 14', Osoyoos, East Bench, Artemisia/Purshia assoc., pitfall trap, 1S.vii. 17.vili. 1990 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 14, Osoyoos IRI, Inkaneep, BGxhl, AN, pitfall trap T1-1, 6.vii.- 9.viii.1995 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 16, id., 9.viit.-9.ix.1995 [CNC]; 19, id., 9.ix.- 6.x.1995 [CNC]; 12 id, T2-1, 9.viii.- 9K 199s NENG lia 9d.. 12-5. 4 viz 7.1x.1994 [CNC]; 14, id., T4-1, 9.viii.- 9.1x.1995 [CNC]; 19, id., T4-3, 6.vii.- 9.vii.1995 [CNC]; 19, id., T4-5, 4.viii.- 7.1x.1994 [CNC]; 19, id. T5-2, 9.viii.- 9.1x.1995 [CNC]; 14, Osoyoos, Mt. Kobau, MSxh, VK, Pitfall trap K4A-5, 10.viii.- 8.1x.1995 (J. Jarrett) [UBC]; 19, id., K4A- 3, 18.viii.-28.1x.1997 [UBC]; 14, Osoyoos, Mt. Kobau Rd., IDFdk1, pitfall trap K3B-5, 18.viii.-28.ix.1996 (J. Tome) (UBC); 16; id., IDFxhl, pitfall trap K2B-4, 18.viii- 28.ix.1996 [UBC]; 13, id., PPxhl, pitfall trap K1A-2, 28.vii.-18.viii.1997 [UBC]; 12 12, Tatlayoka L., 16.vii.1978 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; io Vaseux Cr., CWS bench, BGxhl, AN, pitfall trap Y1-4, 6.ix.- 4.x.1995 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 19, id., Y2-5 [CNC]; 16, id. Y1-4, 8.vii- 3.viii.1994 [CNC]; 19, ee Y2-5, 12.viii.- 64x. 1995 [ONC]: (12, ids. > Y¥2-5,) -61x.- 4.x.1995 [CNC]; 19, id. Y3-3, 5.vii.- 12.viii.1995 [CNC]; 23, id., Y3-3, 6.ix.- 4.x.1995 [CNC]; 16, id., Y3-5, 5.vii.- 12.viii.1995 [CNC]; 14, id, Y4-l, 12.viii.6.ix.1995 [CNC]; 13, id, Y4-5, 3.viii.-6.1x.1994 [CNC]; 164, id., Y4-5, 5.vii.-12.viii.1995 [CNC]; 14, Vaseux Cr., ‘Kennedy bench’, 49°16'N 119°30'W, BGxhl, AN, pitfall trap Z2-4, 3.vi- 8.vii.1994 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 19, id., Z2-5, 12.viii.-6.ix.1995 [CNC]; 10, Vaseux Cr., ‘Kennedy flats’, 49°15'N 119° 31'W, BGxhl, AN, pitfall trap X2-1, 6.ix.- 4.x.1995 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 19, id., X3-4 [CNC]; 14, X3-5, 12.vii.-6.ix.1995 [CNC]; 19, id., X4-1 [CNC]; 14. Vaseux L., Wildlife Res., BGxhl, AN:F, pitfall trap VLI-2, 27.vi.-17.vi.1997 (J. Jarrett) [UBC]; 14, Westwick L., Cariboo, 28.vi.1961 (J. Scudder) [UBC]; 19, id 17.viii.1962 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 33 49, id., 18.viii.1962 [CNC, RBCM, UBC]; 12, White L., BGxhl, SWm, pitfall trap WL2-3, 17.viii.-28.ix.1996 (J. Jarrett) [UBC]; 145 29, Windermere Valley, pitfall trap No. 5, 26.vii.-17.1x.2000 (R. Sargent) [CNC, UBC]. NT: 19, Fort Smith, 27.v.1950 (W.G. Helps) [CNC]; 19, Fort Smith, 6.viii.1950 (J.B. Wallis) [CNC]. YT: 2°, Alaska Hwy. km 1768, Duke R., 9.vii.1983 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 16, Alaska Hwy. mi 1054, Kluane L., 16.vii.1962 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC];1¢, id., 7.vii.1983 [CNC]; 24, Canyon, Aishi- hik R., 9.vu.1983 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; Bet 39, Carcross, 8.vii.1983 (G.G.E. Scud- der) [CNC, UBC]; 14, Lapie R., 1 km E on Campbell Hwy., 28.vii.1981 (C.S. Guppy) [UBC]; 192, Pelly Crossing, 17.vii.1983 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 19, Tatchun Cr., 62°17'N 136°17'W, 17.vu.1983 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC]; 19, Whitehorse, 17.vii.1959 (R. Madge) [CNC]; 19, White- 8 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 horse, 31.vii.1981 (C.S. Guppy) [UBC]. I have also collected P. nigripes in Washington State, USA, as follows: WA: 19, Oroville, E. Osoyoos L., 48°53'N 119° 25'W, Purshia assoc., AN BGxhl, pitfall trap O2-1, 10.1x.-4.x.1995 (G.G.E. Scud- der) [CNC]. Family MIRIDAE Ceratocapsus modestus (Uhler) A widely distributed eastern Nearctic species, previously reported from Sas- katchewan east to Quebec in Canada (Maw et al. 2000). Recorded hosts in West Vir- ginia are Quercus alba L. and Vitis sp. (Wheeler et a/. 1983). The species is keyed by Knight (1941), Henry (1979), Kelton (1980) and Larochelle (1984). New records. NS: 19, Grand Pre, on Picea, 10.vii.1966 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 19, Grand Pre, Pinus _ sylvestris, 10. vil. 1966 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]. Conostethus americanus Knight To date this species in Canada has been reported only from Alberta, Northwest Ter- ritories and Saskatchewan (Maw ef al. 2000). On the prairies C. americanus oc- curs on grasses (Kelton 1980). It is keyed and illustrated in Kelton (1980). New record. YT: 43° 79, Whitehorse, Dillabough’s graze lease, 8V 6754911 490889, 12.vii.2005 (G.E. Hutchings) [RBCM]. Cyrtorhinus caricis (Fallén) A Holarctic species, reported to occur on sedge (Carex spp.) across Canada (Kelton 1980), and also recorded from Alaska and Minnesota, with an apparent relict population occurring in Colorado (Wheeler and Henry 1992). The species is keyed and illustrated by Kelton (1980). New record. NS: 14, Lake Egmont, 18.vii.1991 (B. Wright) [NSM]. Deraeocoris quercicola Knight An eastern Nearctic species, widely distributed and in Canada reported to date from Saskatchewan east to Quebec (Maw ef al. 2000). Recorded hosts include Carya sp., Quercus alba, Q. ilicifolia Wangenh and Tilia americana L. (Wheeler et al. 1983), as well as Quercus macrocarpa Michx. where it preys on aphids (Kelton 1980). The species is keyed by Knight (1921), Kelton (1980) and _ Larochelle (1984). New record. NB: 19, St. Johns, Rock- wood Pk., 5.viii.1954 (J.F. Brimley) [CNC]. D. triannulipes Knight This Nearctic species in Canada has previously been reported from British Co- lumbia east to Quebec (Maw ef al. 2000). Deraeocoris triannulipes 1s reported to feed on aphids on Populus tremuloides Michx. and A/nus spp. (Kelton 1980). It is keyed by Knight (1921), Kelton (1980) and La- rochelle (1984). New records. NS: 14, Exfern, on apple, 4.vii.1950 (F.T. Low) [CNC]; 19, Halifax, Pyrus, 22.vii.1976 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 2°, Kentville, on apple, 10-14.vii.1976 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 14, Kentville, Tilia cordata, 15-17.vii.1976 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]. Dichaetocoris piceicola (Knight) A western Nearctic species, known from Colorado in the USA, and in Canada re- corded from Alberta, British Columbia and Yukon (Maw ef al. 2000). The genus is keyed by Knight (1968). The species D. piceicola is distinguished from the only other northern species (D._ gillespiei Schwartz and Scudder) by Schwartz and Scudder (2003). It 1s recorded from Picea engelmanni Parry (Polhemus 1994), and in British Columbia has been collected on Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt., Picea sp., Pinus contorta Dougl. and Tsuga hetero- phylla (Raf.) Sarg. (Scudder, unpublished). New record. AK: 12, Mosquito L., 59° 27'N 136°02'W, 6.vii.1983 (G.G.E. Scud- der) [CNC]. Labops verae Knight A western Nearctic and Beringian spe- cies distributed from Alaska to Manitoba and south to Washington State (Henry and J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Wheeler 1988; Maw ef al. 2000), but not previously reported from Saskatchewan. The species is keyed in Slater (1954) and Kelton (1980). The host plants are unknown (Kelton 1980). New record. SK: 1, Stony Rapids, 30.vi.1975 (R. Hooper) [SK]. Lygidea salicis Knight This Nearctic species in Canada is pre- viously reported from Alberta east to New- foundland (Maw ef al. 2000), and in the United States from New York to Minne- sota, Colorado, and California (Henry and Wheeler 1988). It has not previously been recorded from British Columbia. Lygidea salicis Knight is a small species with the average length in the male of 5.8 mm, and in the female 6.2 mm. The species is keyed by Kelton (1980), who notes that the pilos- ity on the second antennal segment is shorter than the thickness of this segment. Lygidea salicis is usually collected on Salix spp. (Kelton 1980; Wheeler et a/. 1983). New records. BC: 24 39, Fernie, gold- enrod, 23.vui.1959 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 2¢ 29, Mt. Revelstoke Nat. Pk., Salix, 17.vii.1970 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]. Megalopsallus femoralis Kelton This species so far has been reported from Alberta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Colorado, South Dakota and Wyoming (Schuh 2000b). Megalopsallus femoralis has been collected on Salicornia rubra Nels. (Kelton 1980). It is keyed by Kelton (1980) and Schuh (2000b), and is illustrated in colour in the latter reference. New record. BC: 3¢ 29, Kamloops, Ironmask L., 10U 6804 56152, saline flats, Salicornia/Plantago, 730 m., 14.vi.1995 (S.G. Cannings) [RBCM]. Orthotylus alni Knight This Nearctic species is distributed from Yukon to Newfoundland, and south to New York and Minnesota in the eastern United States (Henry and Wheeler 1988; Maw ef al. 2000). However, it has not previously been recorded from Nova Scotia. Orthoty- lus alni is keyed by Kelton (1980), and has been collected on Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Spreng. (Kelton 1980), as well as A. tenui- folia Nutt., Betula glandulosa Michx., Lu- pinus sp. and Salix sp. (Scudder 1997). New records. NS: 14, Chester, 10.vii.1969 (B. Wright) [NSM]; 19, Ches- ter, 16.vii.1969 (B. Wright) [NSM]. O. nyctalis Knight Described originally from Minnesota (Knight 1927), this species has been re- ported in the USA also from Iowa, Illinois, New York and Wisconsin (Henry and Wheeler 1988). It has not previously been recorded from Canada under this name. According to Knight (1927), O. nyctalis can be recognized chiefly on the structure of the male genital claspers. The left clasper is slender with two short dorsal prongs, and the right clasper decurved on the apex and devoid of spines, but the dorsal margin has a prominent spine at the basal third, and two other spines just before the decurved apex. The record of O. candidatus Van Duzee from Saskatchewan (Kelton 1980; Maw ef al. 2000; Roch 2007) is evidently referable to O. nyctalis, as is the record of O. candi- datus from Ontario (Maw et al. 2000; Roch 2007). The recorded occurrence of O. can- didatus in Quebec (Henry and Wheeler 1988; Roch 2007) may also refer to O. nyctalis. Some specimens from Dawson and Moose Creek in the Yukon, listed as Orthotylus sp. in Scudder (1997) are actu- ally O. nyctalis (see below), but it may be noted that O. candidatus also occurs at both these localities. Orthotylus nyctalis evi- dently occurs on Populus tremuloides (Kelton 1980). New records. AB: 16, Stettler, 3.vili.1957 (A. & J. Brooks) [CNC]: 19, Vermilion Provincial Park, Beaverdam Loop Trail, Populus tremuloides Michx., 22.viil.1993 (M.D. Schwartz) [CNC]. MB: 14, Falcon L., S.viii.-10.viii.1978 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 19, id., 6.vii.1978 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 19, Rennie, 16.viii.1961 (F.I.S.) [CNC]. ON: 13, One Sided Lake, Salix sp., 1.viii.1960 (Kelton and Whitney) [CNC]; 19, Tillsonburg, 18.vii.1962 10 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 (Kelton and Thorpe) [CNC]. SK: 19, Cy- press Hills Prov. Park., Sheperdia canaden- sis, 19.1x.1951 (L.A. Konotopetz) [CNC]. YT: 14, Dawson, 14 mi E, Populus sp., 29.vii.1962 (R.E. Leech) [CNC]; 19, Daw- son, Salix sp., 23.vi1.1983 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]; 12, Moose Creek, Salix sp., 28.vil.1983 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]. Phytocoris buenoi Knight An eastern Nearctic species, in Canada previously reported from Ontario and Que- bec (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed by Blatchley (1926). Knight (1920) re- ported it to occur on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in the eastern United States, and Wheeler et al. (1983) added Picea glauca (Moench) Voss and P. rubens Sarg. New records. NS: 16, Chester, 29.vill.1968 (B. Wright) [NSM]; 19, Sandy Cove, 4.viii.1971 (B. Wright) [NSM]; 18, Baddeck, 28.vili.1972 (B. Wright) [NSM]; 14, Kemptville, 24.viii.1982 (Agriculture Canada) [NSM]. P. procteri Knight This species, which is a member of the P. junceus Knight group, was described from Maine (Knight 1974), and is reported from Quebec (Roch 2007). The frons has definite transverse red lines, the pronotum is pallid with a basal submarginal strong black band, and the propleura are brownish black. The clavus is more or less fuscous external to the claval vein, with insect length of 8.0 mm. The first antennal seg- ment is pallid, but clothed with black, re- cumbent setae, and without distinct dark spots. The first antennal segment is longer than the width of the vertex, but does not exceed the width of the pronotum. The sec- ond antennal segment is without annuli or coloured bands. There are no records of a host for this species. New records. NS: 1 specimen (abdomen missing), Lake Kejimkujik, 13.vu.1961 (D.C. Ferguson) [NSM]; 1, Chester, 24.v11.1968 (B. Wright) [NSM]. Pilophorus neoclavatus Schuh & Schwartz This eastern Nearctic species to date in Canada has been reported from Alberta east to Quebec (Maw et al. 2000), and is keyed by Schuh and Schwartz (1988). Hosts in- clude Alnus rugosa, Quercus ilicifolia, Q. palustris, Q. stellata Wangenh and Salix longifolia Muhl. (Schuh and Schwartz 1988). New record. NS: 19, Kentville, 8.viii.1952 (C.R. McL.) [LM]. Rhinocapsus rubricans (Provancher) An eastern Nearctic species, in Canada to date reported from Saskatchewan east to Quebec (Maw eft al. 2000). The species is keyed and illustrated in Kelton (1980), who reports it collected on Kalmia polifolia Wang. New record. NS: 164, Chester, 4.vii.1969 (B. Wright) [NSM]. Sixeonotus deflatus Knight An eastern Nearctic species, in Canada previously only reported from Quebec (Larochelle 1984; Maw et al. 2000). The species 1s keyed by Larochelle (1984) as S. insignis Reuter, who records the host as Symplocarpus foetidus (L.). New records. NB: 14, St. John, 9.viii.1954 (J. Brimley) [CNC]. ON: 83 59, St. Catherines, 22.vi.1961 (Kelton and Brampton) [CNC]. Family TINGIDAE Acalypta lillianis Torre-Bueno This Nearctic tingid is widely distrib- uted in North America and Beringia (Drake and Lattin 1963; Scudder 1997). It occurs in Alaska, and from Yukon to Newfound- land, but has not previously been reported from Manitoba (Maw et al. 2000). It is keyed by Drake and Lattin (1963), who note that host records are mosses. New record. MB: 16, Bird Cove, 4 km NE, Churchill North Studies Centre, 58° 46'14"N 93°50'33"W, pit trap in tundra zone, 18.viil.2006 (Boreal & Arctic Ento- mol.) [UM]. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Family ARADIDAE Aradus uniannulatus Parshley A Nearctic and Beringian species, dis- tributed from Yukon to Quebec, and in the United States, south to New York and Colorado (Scudder 1997). The species is keyed by Matsuda (1977) who notes that it is reported to be associated with Pinus con- torta murrayana (Balf.) Critchfield else- where. New records. BC: 19, Fernie, 22.viii.1934 (Hugh Leech) [CNC]; 19, Lorna, Picea engelmanni, 17203 Lot 1, 29.vi.1929 (R. Hopping) [CNC]; 13, id., 17203 Lot 2, 10.vii.1924 [CNC]; 19, id., Pinus contorta, 17203 Lot 8, 12.vu1.1924 [CNC]; 13, id., Picea engelmanni, 17203 Lot 14, 12.vii.1924 [CNC]; 3, id., 17203 Lot 25, 25.vii.1924 [CNC]; 16, id., 17203 Lot 26, 27.vii.1924 [CNC] 19, Midday Valley, Merritt, Pinus ponderosa, Exp. 17501 Lot 1035, 30.v.1923 (R. Hopping) [CNC]; 19, Pine Pass, Picea, 11.vii.1972 (D.E. Bright) [CNC]. Infraorder PENTATOMOMORPHA Family COREIDAE Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann This leaf-footed bug, commonly called the western conifer seed bug, feeds on nu- merous conifer species (Koeber 1963; Krugman 1969; Hedlin et al. 1981; Schae- fer and Mitchell 1983; Gall 1992; Mitchell 2000) although the apparently strong reli- ance on Pinaceae as a food source is not absolute (Mitchell 2000). However, it is of considerable economic importance because it can cause significant losses in conifer seed orchards (Koeber 1963; Schowalter and Sexton 1990; Blatt and Borden 1996; Mitchell 2000; Strong et a/. 2001; Bates et al. 2002; Strong 2006). The species is keyed in Allen (1969) and McPherson et al. (1990), and illustrated by Koeber (1963) and Ruth et al. (1982). Originally considered a western Nearc- tic species, L. occidentalis has naturally expanded its range eastwards in the past few decades (Schaffner 1967; McPherson ef al. 1990; Marshall 1991; Gall 1992; Ridge- O’Connor 2001), and has invaded Europe (Taylor et al. 2001; Gogala 2003; Tescari 2004; Hilpold 2005; Rabitsch and Heiss 2005; Ribes and Oleguer 2005; Foldessy 2006; Moulet 2006). It is now known to occur in Nova Scotia. New records. NS: 19, Kings Co., Mid- dleton, in house, 20.ix.2006 (J. Parks) [NSM]; 19°, Halifax Co., Halifax, on house, 3.x.2006 (B. Fay) [NSM]; 29, Kings Co., Lakeville, 1 of 4, 12.111.2007 (J. Morton) [NSM 36185]; 1°, Halifax Co., Halifax, in dwelling, 15.x.2007 (John Sherwood) [NSM Cat. 36219]. Family RHOPALIDAE Liorhyssus hyalinus (Fabricius) This cosmopolitan species is widely distributed in North America, and in Can- ada has so far been reported from British Columbia, Manitoba and Ontario (Maw ef al. 2000). It is keyed by Blatchley (1926), Slater and Baranowski (1978), and Hoe- beke and Wheeler (1982), and illustrated in Slater and Baranowski (1978). Schaefer and Chopra (1982) report Abutilon, Euphorbia, Lactuca and Sonchus as host plant genera. New record. QC: 19, Terrebonne Co., Lac Carre, Lot 31, Range 8, 19-23.viii.1968 (W. Boyle and R. La Conde) [LM]. Family LYGAEIDAE Kleidocerys ovalis Barber This widely distributed Nearctic species has so far in Canada only been recorded from British Columbia and Ontario (Maw et al. 2000), as well as Quebec (Roch 2007). It is keyed in Barber (1953) and Scudder (1962). In British Columbia, K. ovalis has been collected on Abies lasio- carpa, Alnus sp., Betula occidentalis Hook., B. papyrifera Marsh., Malus sp., and Pinus ponderosa Dougl. (Scudder, unpublished). New records. AB: 50 29, Drumheller, 18.vi.1957 (Brooks, MacNay) [CNC]; 72 69, id., 11.vili.1957 (A.R. & J.E. Brooks) [CNC]; 23 39, Empress, 7.vi.1957 (Brooks, MacNay) [CNC]; 19, Lethbridge, 3.vii.1929 (J.H. Pepper) [CNC]; 13, Lund- breck, 7.vii1.1930 (J.H. Pepper) [CNC]. MB: 19°, Aweme, 5.v1i.1920 (H.A. Robert- son) [CNC]; 19, id., 8.vii.1920 (P.N. 12 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Vroom) [CNC]; 39, id., Betula, 30.vi.1922 (N. Criddle) [CNC]; 19, id., 3.v.1923 (N. Criddle) [CNC]; 14 19. Carberry, 9.v.1953 (Brooks, Kelton) [CNC]; 14 39, Ninette, Betula glandulosa, 21.vi.1958 (J.F. McAI- pine) [CNC]; 13, id., 14.vii.1958 (R.B. Madge) [CNC]; 16, id., 15.vii.1958 (R.L. Hurley) [CNC]; 1¢, Onah, 10.v.1923 (R.M. White) [CNC]; 84 19, id., Betula papyrif- era, 10.ix.1930 (R.M. White) [CNC]; 19, Turtle Mtn., 22.vii.1953 (Brooks, Kelton) [CNC]. SK: 19, Punnichy, 21.v.1965 (R. Hooper) [SM]. K. resedae (Panzer) This Holarctic species is widely distrib- uted in North America, and occurs in Alaska and from Yukon to Newfoundland and Labrador, but has not previously been recorded from Prince Edward Island. It is keyed in Barber (1953) and Scudder (1962). Kleidocerys resedae usually occurs on A/- nus spp. and Betula spp. (Scudder 1997). New records. PE: 33 19, Blooming Point, 46°24'33"N 62°58'07"W, sweeping, 20.x.2004 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC, UPE]]; 2¢ 49, Charlottetown, UPEI, nr. NE point, 46°15'39"N 63°08'19"W, sweeping, 20.x.2004 (G.G.E. Scudder) [CNC, UPEI]. Melacoryphus lateralis (Dallas) A widely distributed Nearctic species, so far only recorded from British Columbia and Saskatchewan in Canada (Maw eft al. 2000). The species is keyed by Slater (1988). Specimens of M. lateralis collected at light in Wyoming contained cardenolides in the body (Scudder and Duffey 1972), and thus showed evidence of feeding on Ascle- piadaceous host plants. New record. ON: 16, Guelph, 3.vill.1977 (W.A. Attwater) [UG]. Family RHYPAROCHROMIDAE Antillocoris minutus (Bergroth) An eastern Nearctic species, in Canada previously recorded from Ontario east to Newfoundland (Maw et al. 2000). The ge- nus is keyed in Blatchley (1926), Slater and Baranowski (1978), and Larochelle (1984), with key to species given by Barber (1952) and Larochelle (1984). The biology of A. minutus 1n New England has been de- scribed by Sweet (1964), who notes the species typically occurs on the ground and usually is found in forest litter, most fre- quently found beneath gray birch (Betula populifera Marsh) and white birch (B. pa- pyrifera), but also occurs under hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.), and in sphagnum bogs. New record. MB: 19, Winnipeg, St. Charles Rifle Rge., Block B Refuge, Pitfall trap, 6-13.x.1999 (D.A. Pollock, J.K. Diehls and R.E. Roughley) [UM]. Drymus unus (Say) An eastern Nearctic species, in Canada so far recorded from Saskatchewan east to Nova Scotia (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed by Blatchley (1926) and La- rochelle (1984), and illustrated by Slater and Baranowski (1978). Sweet (1964) de- scribed the biology D. unus in New Eng- land, and noted that this is a ground- dwelling species, most abundant in subcli- max forests, particularly where black birch (Betula lenta L.) and red maple (Acer ru- brum L.) are associated with oak (Quercus spp.) and hickory (Carya spp.). New record. NF: 1, St. John’s, Long Pond, ix.-x.2001 (Biology 4150) [MU]. Perigenes constrictus (Say) This eastern Nearctic species is distrib- uted throughout the northern and central United States, and in Canada so far reported from Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed by Blatchley (1926) and Larochelle (1984), and illustrated by Blatchley (1926) and Sla- ter and Baranowski (1978). Sweet (1964) described the biology of P. constrictus in New England and noted that it typically occurs in temporary habitats, such as vacant lots, roadsides and newly fallow fields. New record. SK: 14, Big Beaver, 9.vil.1974 (R. Hooper) [SM]. Plinthisus americanus Van Duzee In Canada previously reported from Alberta east to New Brunswick (Maw et al. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 2000). Plinthisus americanus is distin- guished by the hemelytra of the female be- ing densely pilose as noted by Sweet (1964), whereas in the closely related P. compactus (Uhler) the hemelytra of the female are glabrous. Sweet (1964) noted that P. americanus is a forest species in New England, most abundant in Tsuga lit- ter. New record. BC: 192, Attachie, 32 km W of Charlie L., 5.vili.1982 (R.A. Can- nings) [RBCM]. Trapezonotus arenarius (Linnaeus) A Holarctic species with a wide distri- bution in both the Nearctic and Palearctic, in Canada recorded from British Columbia and Yukon east to Quebec (Maw ef al. 2000), and in the United States evidently restricted to the highlands of New England and northern New York (Sweet 1964). The species is keyed by Blatchley (1926) and Larochelle (1984), and illustrated by Slater and Baranowski (1978). Sweet (1964) re- ported that in New England T. arenarius is a species of open upland habitats, particu- larly well-drained and rather dry sites. New record. NS: 1, Lunenberg, 7.vili.1991 (B. Wright) [NSM]. Family CYDNIDAE Amnestus pusillus Uhler A widely distributed species in North America, with recorded occurrence also in Mexico and Guatemala (Froeschner 1960). In Canada, so far reported only from On- tario and Quebec (Maw et al. 2000). The species is keyed in Froeschner (1960), McPherson (1982), and Larochelle (1984). McPherson (1982) reported that elsewhere A. pusillus has been collected from vegeta- tion along streams and margins of roadsides and cultivated fields, as well as beneath rubbish in sandy places. New record. NB: 192, Woodstock, 22.v.1966 (L.A. Kelton) [CNC]. Family PENTATOMIDAE Acrosternum hilare (Say) A widely distributed Nearctic species, in Canada so far recorded only from British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec (Maw et al. 2000). This species has been collected from numerous plants (McPherson 1982) and can damage some crops (Panizzi et al. 2000). The species is keyed in Blatchley (1926), McPherson (1982), Rolston (1983), and Larochelle (1984). New record. NS: 19, Debert, 1.ix.1952 (R.L. Horsburgh) [LM]. Cosmopepla intergressus (Uhler) A widely western Nearctic species, in Canada so far recorded only from British Columbia (Maw ef al. 2000). Cosmopepla intergressus 1s keyed by McDonald (1986), who reported records of the species on “currants”, Rubus parviflorus Nutt. and Ribes sp. New record. AB: 3¢ 39, Lethbridge, black current, 21.1x.2005 (J.R. Byers) [AAFCL]. Euschistus euschistoides (Vollenhoven) A Nearctic species widely distributed in North America, and in Canada recorded from British Columbia to Nova Scotia, but not previously reported from New Bruns- wick (Maw ef al. 2000). It has been re- corded from numerous host plants (McPherson 1982), and the species has caused yield and quality losses to several crops (Panizzi et al. 2000). The species is keyed in McPherson (1982) and Larochelle (1984). New records. NB: 19, Jonah Mt., 3.vi.1976 (P. Kevan) [LM]; 192, Whittier Ridge, 30.v.1976 (P. Kevan) [LM]. sServus Menecles insertus (Say) Widely distributed in North America, and in Canada previously recorded from Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec. Mene- cles insertus is nocturnal, arboreal, and phytophagous, and has been collected on deciduous trees (McPherson 1982). The species is keyed in Blatchley (1926), Rol- ston (1973), McPherson (1982) and La- rochelle (1984). New record. SK: 19, Buffalo Pound Park, 5.v.1975 [SM]. 14 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Zicrona caerulea (Linnaeus) This Holarctic species is widely distrib- uted in North America, Europe and Asia, and occurs in the Oriental region (De Clercq 2000). In Canada it is reported from British Columbia east to New Brunswick (Maw eft al. 2000). This predaceous species attacks only small prey (De Clercq 2000), and is keyed by McPherson (1982), La- rochelle (1984), and Thomas (1992). New record. NF: 1, Red Indian L., Winddrift Lot 5, 25.vi.1980 (Brennan and Larson) [MU]. Family THYREOCORIDAE Corimelaena pulicaria (Germar) A widely distributed species in North America, also reported from Mexico and Guatemala. In Canada recorded from Brit- ish Columbia to Nova Scotia, but not pre- viously reported from New Brunswick (Maw et al. 2000). The species has been collected on many plants (McPherson 1982), and is keyed in Blatchley (1926), McPherson (1982), and Larochelle (1984). New record. NB: 19, Fredericton, French Lake, 10.vi.1931 (C.W. Maxwell) [LM]. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research for this paper was sup- ported by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Can- ada. I thank the curators of the various collections for permission to examine the material in their care and/or loan of speci- mens. Dr. M.D. Schwartz helped me in my study of the Canadian National Collection of Arthropods in Agriculture and Agri- Foods Canada in Ottawa, kindly identified or confirmed the identity of most of the Miridae listed, and allowed me to include the records of Orthotylus nyctalis. Dr. T.J. Henry (United States Department of Agri- culture, Washington, DC) provided useful comments on the manuscript. I thank Launi Lucas for the final preparation of the paper. REFERENCES Allen, R.C. 1969. 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Denisia 19 (2006):997-1014. Wheeler, Jr., A.G., T.J. Henry and T.L. Mason, Jr. 1983. An annotated list of the Miridae of West Virginia (Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Transactions of the American Entomological Society 109:127-159. Wheeler, Jr., A.G. and E.R. Hoebeke. 2004. New records of Palearctic Hemiptera (Sternorrhyncha, Cicado- morpha, Heteroptera) in the Canadian maritime provinces. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 106:298-304. Wright, B. 1989. The fauna of Sable Island. Nova Scotia Museum Curatorial Report 68: 93 pp. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 First Canadian records of Lampropteryx suffumata ({[Denis & Schiffermiiller], 1775) (Geometridae: Larentiinae) JEREMY R. DEWAARD””, B. CHRISTIAN SCHMIDT?, GARY G. ANWEILER* and LELAND M. HUMBLE'” ABSTRACT The first Canadian records of the Holarctic species Lampropteryx suffumata ({Denis & Schiffermiiller], 1775) are documented, based on collections from Alberta and British Columbia. Widespread and common throughout much of Eurasia, the larvae feed on Galium species (Rubiaceae). Diagnostic descriptions and images are provided to aid in future recognition of this species. The specimens were originally detected while con- structing a DNA barcoding library for western North American Geometridae, and pro- vide a good example of how genetic methods can enhance the construction of regional inventories and aid in surveillance for invasive species. Key Words: Lampropteryx suffumata, black-banded carpet, DNA barcoding, invasive species INTRODUCTION The genus Lampropteryx Stephens in- cludes ten species, most of which are re- stricted to Asia, with two species also oc- curring in Europe (Scoble 1999). The black-banded carpet Lampropteryx suffu- mata ({Denis & Schiffermiiller], 1775), described from Vienna, Austria, occurs from western Europe and the northern Mediterranean region to northern Scandina- via, east through the Tien Shan and Altai mountain ranges of south-central Asia to the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia and Hok- kaido, Japan (Skou 1986; Beljaev and Vasi- lenko 2002). Previously known in North America only from Alaska (Choi 2000), we report here historical and contemporary records in British Columbia and Alberta, flagged by DNA barcoding. MATERIALS AND METHODS During the course of documenting the molecular diversity of western Canadian geometrid moths from museum and field collections using standard DNA barcoding methods (Hajibabaei et al. 2005; deWaard et al. 2008), it became evident that a num- ber of specimens variously identified as Antepirrhoe Warren or Xanthorhoe Hibner were highly divergent compared to other congeners. Using the identification engine of the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) (Ratnasingham and Hebert 2007), their cy- tochrome oxidase I (COI) sequences were a nearly identical match to those of Lamprop- teryx suffumata ({[Denis & Schiffermiiller], 1775) specimens from Bavaria, Germany University of British Columbia, Department of Forest Sciences, Forestry Sciences Centre, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4 ? Royal British Columbia Museum, Entomology, 675 Belleville Street, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 9W2 > Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes, KW. Neatby Bldg., 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0C6 : E.H. Strickland Entomological Museum, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E9 Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8Z 1M5 20 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 (Figure 1). Although many larentiines are very similar in habitus and are difficult to identify when the wing pattern 1s worn, subsequent genitalic examination of the suspect Antepirrhoe and Xanthorhoe speci- mens showed unequivocally that they are in fact L. suffumata. To determine the Canadian distribution, and whether or not the species is likely na- tive, we examined historical and contempo- rary Antepirrhoe and Xanthorhoe speci- mens from various Canadian collections. We identified specimens in the Royal Brit- ish Columbia Museum, Victoria, BC (RBCM), the E.H. Strickland Entomolog- cal Museum, University of Alberta, Edmon- ton, AB (UASM) the Canadian National Collection of Insects, Agriculture and Agri- Food Canada, Ottawa, ON (CNC), and the Biodiversity Institute of Ontario, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON (BIOUG) as L. suf- fumata. The collections of the Pacific For- estry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Vic- toria, BC (PFCA), the Spencer Entomologi- cal Museum, University of British Colum- bia, Vancouver, BC (UBCZ), and the Northern Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Edmonton, AB (NFRC) do not contain any specimens of L. suffumata. RESULTS Specimens examined (all specimens are single, pinned adults; the BOLD accession number (italicized) is provided for speci- mens that have been barcoded). AB: Hillcrest, 49.568N 114.377W, 20- vi-1919 (K. Bowman) [UASM, UASM10792]; West Castle River, W Cas- tle R. Rd., 15 km SW, 49.294N 114.273W, 23-v-1999 (B.C. Schmidt) [CNC, CNCLEP00033310, GWNC311-07]; BC: Elkford, 35 km north, 50.266N 114.921W, 12-Jun-1988 (C.S. Guppy) [RBCM, ENT991-006550, GWNR470-07]; Glacier National Park, Abandoned Rails Trail west of Rogers Pass Centre, 51.2902N 117.516W, 04-Jul-2005 (K. Pickthorn) [BIOUG, HLC-20568, LBCA568-05]; Gla- cier National Park, Glacier National Park Compound at Rogers Pass, 51.3032N 117.519W, 28-Jun-2005 (K. Pickthorn) [BIOUG, HLC-20320, LBCA320-05]; Gla- cier National Park, Illecillewaet Camp- grounds west of Rogers Pass, 51.2648N 117.494W, 24-Jun-2005 (K. Pickthorn) [BIOUG, HLC-20175, LBCA175-05]; Gla- cier National Park, Glacier National Park Compound at Rogers Pass, 51.3032N 117.519W, 16-Jun-2005 (K. Pickthorn) [BIOUG, HLC-20022, LBCA022-05]; Trin- ity Valley Field Station, 50.400N 118.917W, 18-May-1961 (W.C. McGuffin) [CNC, CNCLEP00054030]. Identification. A medium-sized, broad- winged moth with a wingspan of 2.5—3.2 cm (Figure 2a.). The forewing basal and median bands are dark, varying from red- brown to black, being dark brown in most specimens. The median band has a jagged proximal and distal margin, with the distal margin extending towards the base just be- low the median area, such that the median band is narrower along the anal third than on the upper half. The apex is also dark- ened, divided by a white apical dash. There is a subterminal line of white spots or wedges, and the fringe is checkered. It is very similar to Antepirrhoe semiatrata (Hulst), but can be readily separated by the following characters: forewing pale antemedian band faintly bordered with two whitish lines both proximally and distally (only one pale border line in A. semiatrata); forewing subapical dark patch bordered towards costal margin by contrasting pale line (indistinctly so in A. semiatrata). The dorsal markings on the abdomen are the most reliable external features for diagnos- ing L. suffumata, which has a row of black triangles along the midline (Fig. 2a), whereas Antepirrhoe species have two black dots broken at the midline by a pale line/spot. Some specimens may be melanic and lack the contrasting white forewing bands present in most specimens. Xan- thorhoe species are superficially similar, but lack the combination of broad, dark J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 2% pas CNCLEP00033427 - Antepirrhoe atrifasciata (Canada: BC) CNCLEP00033426 - A. fasciata (United States: Washington) CNCLEP00033425 - A. semiatrata (Canada: NB) © HLC-20568 (Canada: BC) O HLC-20320 (Canada: BC) O HLC-20022 (Canada: BC) © ENT991-006550 (Canada: BC) Lampropteryx suffumata O CNCLEP00033310 (Canada: AB) O HLC-20175 (Canada: BC) © BC ZSM Lep 01670 (Germany: Bavaria) © BC ZSM Lep 01313 (Germany: Bavaria) AYK-06-7334 - L. minna (Japan: Chubu) BC ZSM Lep 13521 - L. jameza (China: Hebei) Figure 1. Neighbour-joining tree of Lampropteryx suffumata and related species. Tree was reconstructed with the barcode fragment of the COI gene. Sequences shaded in grey are de- rived from specimens previously misidentified as Antepirrhoe or Xanthorhoe spp. The 13 se- quences are publicly available in the Barcode of Life Database and GenBank (accession nos. FJ37663 1-FJ3 76643). basal and median bands with a contrast- ingly bordered subapical dark patch that extends to the distal wing margin. Genitalic examination of L. suffumata will easily segregate this species: the male valve is simple and lobe-shaped, costa lacking api- cal process; socii prominent, about half as long as valve, with bundle of apical setae as long as socius; aedeagus uncurved, vesica with two cornuti (Figure 2b,c.). Identifica- tion through genitalic examination of males can usually be made by brushing away the terminal abdominal scales to reveal the api- cal portion of the valve which lacks the pointed, dorsally projecting costal process of A. semiatrata, in addition to the long tubular socii (stout and triangular without apical hair pencils in A. semiatrata). Male genitalic structure of Xanthorhoe species is very different, with a comparatively mas- Sive costal process that extends beyond the valve apex and is variously enlarged, broad- ened and/or armed with spines. Distribution and Habitat: Great Brit- ain and northern Europe east to southern Siberia, Kamchatka and Japan (Skou 1986; Beljaev and Vasilenko 2002); in North America, known from two areas: Alaska (Choi 2000) and southwestern British Co- lumbia and adjacent Alberta (Figure 3). It is likely that this species occurs in intervening regions of northern British Columbia and the Yukon, but these areas have not been adequately surveyed. The single historical collection from Hillcrest, Alberta, coupled with the fact that L. suffumata occurs in relatively remote, mountainous habitats but has not been recorded near the international shipping ports of the coastal Pacific North- west, suggests that L. suffumata is native to Canada. Furthermore, it likely expanded over Beringia during the Pleistocene, a common pattern in the western Canadian arthropod fauna, as evident by present ranges and fossil evidence of past ranges (Danks et al. 1997). Its habitat appears to be open wooded areas, edges and meadows. Life History and Notes: There is a sin- 22 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 0.5mm Figure 2. Adult male of Lampropteryx suffumata: a) dorsal view b) genital capsule c) aedeagus. gle annual brood, with adults in late May to early July. Adults are nocturnal and come to light. The only reported larval hosts are bedstraw species (Galium sp.), particularly G. aparine Linnaeus (Skou 1986). The pupa overwinters underground (Skou 1986). Based on the scarcity of specimens in Canadian collections, we conclude the species is rarely collected and likely rare. The COI barcode sequences are publicly available in the Barcode of Life Database and GenBank (accession nos. FJ376631— FJ376643). DISCUSSION The late discovery of a relatively large and conspicuous native macromoth in Western North America is surprising, but we believe it can be explained simply by the paucity of taxonomic expertise and lit- erature on the group. The Canadian larenti- ines are notoriously hard to discriminate, due in part to the lack of a treatment of this J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 23 ao ATER i ae aI a iB ehPPEIL L ADI PEE BE OAS BE Rae PA RETR ETE i] a Banff National Park | fe ; ' Yoho yn ; Glacier ‘National Lake Louise AK National) Park i" i Fath ee NE Banff i, Golden i - Mt, Revelstoke: viek 'y National Le «ll rie ols Keatcney \ | . es Park ‘National po, are va Park ; bo i Revelstoke | “eR Invermere’: i) Elkford* " Nakusp Oo eLumby 4 Coleman cs Kimberley ° ‘ ‘Fernie \ Cranbrook a . Waketor Lakes Natromg! Park hyte ee ne ae Figure 3. Distribution of Lampropteryx suffumata in North America. Black squares are loca- tions of records. subfamily in McGuffin’s ‘Guide to the Ge- ometridae of Canada’ series (1967, 1972, 1977, 1981, 1987, 1988). While a few lar- entiine genera have been revised (Hydriomena Hibner: McDunnough 1954; Eupithecia Curtis: Bolte 1990; Entephria Htibner: Troubridge 1997), most are in dire need of revision, and the Xanthorhoini in particular contain a number of genera that need attention, with cryptic and previously unrecognized species awaiting description (e.g., Psychophora Kirby, Xanthorhoe and Zenophleps Hulst: B.C.S. unpublished data; Antepirrhoe: J.R.D. et al. unpublished data). It is reasonable to assume that the few specimens of this rarely collected (and presumably rare) species could go unno- ticed due to the lack of reliable guides and keys for the group. Although L. suffumata is in all likeli- hood native, its discovery clearly illustrates how DNA barcoding can assist in the detec- tion and surveillance of nonindigenous or- ganisms (Armstrong and Ball 2005; Chown et al. 2008). A monitoring program that incorporates DNA barcoding can flag po- tential introduced species in one of two ways. First, as in this study, a barcode match is made with one or more specimens collected from the native range. The poten- tial nonindigenous specimens can then be verified by morphological examination or further genetic analysis. At that point, na- tional and regional collections can be exam- ined for historical and contemporary speci- mens in the new range to determine if the Species is native or introduced. Secondly, with a barcode library for a regional fauna complete (e.g., Geometridae of British Co- lumbia — J.R.D. et al. unpublished data), any barcoded specimens that do not match the database are flagged as potentially non- indigenous and again warrant further ex- amination. Using genetic methods for this initial screening has numerous advantages, most notably the ability to differentiate spe- cies objectively across all life stages as well as using damaged specimens. It is also ap- 24 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 parent that with the current costs of genetic analysis steadily dropping and new tech- nologies emerging (Hajibabaei et al. 2007), genetic screening may soon be more cost- and time-efficient than current morphologi- cal methods of biodiversity monitoring. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was facilitated by the funding provided by the RBCM as part of the NSERC-RBCM — Systematics Research Graduate Supplement program; for that, we are grateful to Rob Cannings, Kelly Sendall and Grant Hughes. Additional funding was provided by a Forest Investment Account - Forest Science Program Student Grant and NSERC Graduate Scholarship (to JRD). Molecular analyses were supported by the Canadian Barcode of Life Network from Genome Canada through the Ontario Ge- nomics Institute, NSERC (to LMH), and other sponsors listed at www.BOLNET.ca. We wish to thank Axel Hausmann (Zoological State Collection Munich) and Kim Mitter (University of Maryland) for allowing us access to the Eurasian se- quences, Allison Shaver (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) for slide preparation and photography, Gurp Thandi (Natural Resources Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre) for preparing the distribution map, the staff at the Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding for their assistance with genetic analysis, and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on the manuscript. We are also grateful to Claudia Copley (RBCM), Karen Needham (UBCZ), Felix Sperling (UASM), Don Lafontaine (CNC), Jean-Francois Landry (CNC), Alex Borisenko (BIOUG), and Greg Pohl (NFRC) for access to the respective collections in their care. REFERENCES Armstrong, K.F., and S.L. Ball. 2005. DNA barcodes for biosecurity: invasive species identification. Phi- losophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 360: 1813-1823. Beljaev, E.A. and S.V. 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Ivanova, M. Hajibabaei, and P.D.N. Hebert. 2008. Assembling DNA Barcodes: Ana- lytical Protocols. In Methods in Molecular Biology: Environmental Genetics (Ed: C. Martin; Humana Press Inc., Totowa, USA). Pp. 275-293. Hajibabaei, M., J.R. deWaard, N.V. Ivanova, S. Ratnasingham, R. Dooh, S.L. Kirk, P.M. Mackie, and P.D.N. Hebert. 2005. Critical factors for the high volume assembly of DNA barcodes. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 360: 1959-1967. Hajibabaei M., G.A. Singer, E.L. Clare, and P.D.N. Hebert. 2007. Design and applicability of DNA arrays and DNA barcodes in biodiversity monitoring. BMC Biology 5: 24. McDunnough, J. 1954. The species of the genus Hydriomena occurring in America north of Mexico (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) American Museum Novitates. No. 1592. 17 pp. McGuffin, W.C. 1967. Guide to the Geometridae of Canada (Lepidoptera). I. Subfamily Sterrhinae. Mem- oirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 50: 1—67. McGuffin, W.C. 1972. Guide to the Geometridae of Canada (Lepidoptera). II. Subfamily Ennominae. 1. Memotrs of the Entomological Society of Canada 86: 1-159. McGuffin, W.C. 1977. Guide to the Geometridae of Canada (Lepidoptera). III. Subfamily Ennominae. 2. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 101: 1-191. J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 25 McGuffin, W.C. 1981. Guide to the Geometridae of Canada (Lepidoptera). IV. Subfamily Ennominae. 3. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 117: 1-153. McGuffin, W.C. 1987. Guide to the Geometridae of Canada (Lepidoptera). V. Subfamily Ennominae. 4. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 138: 1-182. McGuffin, W.C. 1988. Guide to the Geometridae of Canada (Lepidoptera). II, [V, and V. Subfamilies Ar- chiearinae, Oenochrominae, and Geometrinae. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 145: 1— 56. Ratnasingham, S. and P.D.N. Hebert. 2007. BOLD: The Barcode of Life Data System (http:// www .barcodinglife.org). Molecular Ecology Notes 7: 355-364. Sato, R. and M. Kameda. 1997. Discovery of Lampropteryx suffumata (Denis & Schiffermiiller) (Geometridae: Larentiinae) from Hokkaido, Japan. Yugato 148: 33-37. Scoble, M.J. (ed.). 1999. A taxonomic catalogue to the Geometridae of the world (Insecta: Lepidoptera). 2 vols. CSIRO Publications. 1016 pp. Skou, P. 1986. The Geometroid Moths of North Europe (Lepidoptera: Drepanidae and Geometridae). Scan- dinavian Science Press. 348 pp. Troubridge, J.T. 1997. Revision of the Nearctic species of the genus Entephria Hiibner (Lepidoptera: Ge- ometridae, Larentiinae). Entomologica Scandinavica 28: 121-139. 26 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Identification of new aphid vector species of Blueberry scorch virus D. THOMAS LOWERY '!, MICHAEL G. BERNARDY|, ROBYN M. DEYOUNG! and CHRIS J. FRENCH! ABSTRACT Transmission of Blueberry scorch virus (BIScV) by the aphid species Ericaphis fimbri- ata (Richards), Aphis spiraecola (Patch), Aphis pomi DeGeer, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), Myzus ornatus Laing, Aphis helianthi Monell, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), and Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), was studied in the laboratory using timed aphid acquisition feeding periods and known numbers of aphid vectors. Successful infection of Nicotiana occidentalis Wheeler (Solanaceae), a newly identified herbaceous host, and highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum L. (Ericaceae), following brief virus-acquisition feeds lasting less than 5 min, demonstrated that BIScV was transmitted in a non- persistent, non-circulative manner. Based on transfer of 10 aphids per plant, the most efficient vector of BIScV from infected to healthy N. occidentalis was M. ornatus. Com- pared with this herbaceous host, infection rates for blueberry were much lower even though higher numbers of aphids (25/plant) were used. The highest rate of infection for blueberry (20%) was achieved when the green colour form of E. fimbriata was used to transmit the virus. The relatively low rate of transmission from infected to healthy blue- berry suggests that BIScV would spread slowly in the field. Planting of certified virus- free nursery material and aggressive removal of infected plants should help control this Dae | economically important disease of highbush blueberries. Key Words: Blueberry scorch virus, aphid vectors, virus transmission INTRODUCTION Blueberry scorch virus (BlScV) was first reported in New Jersey in the late 1970's as Sheep Pen Hill disease of highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbo- sum (L.) (Ericaceae) (Podleckis and Davis 1989). Several distinct strains infect highbush blueberry in the northeastern and northwestern United States and southwest- erm British Columbia (Cavileer et al. 1994, Catlin and Schloemann 2004, Bernardy et al. 2005, Wegener et al. 2006). BIScV has also been recently reported from Europe (Ciuffo et al. 2005). Depending on the virus strain and blueberry cultivar, infection can result in a wide range of symptoms. While some varieties are tolerant to certain strains and display no visible symptoms, infection with other strains can result in severe necro- sis of new leaves, twigs and flower clusters and almost complete loss of yield over time (Martin and Bristow 1988, Catlin and Schloemann 2004, Wegener ef al. 2006). The latent period between infection and development of symptoms for established plants is thought to be one to two years (Caruso and Ramsdell 1995). There are relatively few previous studies on BlScV; these mostly relate to detection, symptomology and strain differentiation. Although little is currently known about the insect vectors of BIScV, carlaviruses as a group are transmitted primarily by aphids in a non-persistent, non-circulative manner (Ng and Perry 2004). Non-persistent virus transmission is characterized by short ac- quisition and inoculation feeding times, ' Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, 4200 Hwy 97, Box 5000, Sum- merland, British Columbia, Canada VOH 1Z0 28 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 lasting from several seconds to a few min- utes in duration (Raccah 1986). In uncon- trolled cage studies, Hillman et al. (1995) were the first to demonstrate aphid trans- mission of BIScV. An unidentified aphid collected from blueberry and placed on infected Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (Chenopodiaceae), an alternate herbaceous host for the New Jersey strain of BIScV, was shown to transmit the virus to unin- fected C. quinoa. In a similar manner, Bris- tow et al. (2000) were able to demonstrate infection of containerized highbush blue- berry plants in cages supplied with diseased blueberry leaves infested with Ericaphis fimbriata (Richards). In the same study, transfer of individual aphids from infected blueberry leaves to containerized potted test plants resulted in a very low rate of infec- tion, less than one percent. These previous studies were not designed to determine if BlScV was transmitted by aphids in a semi- persistent or non-persistent manner. Two carlaviruses vectored by aphids are thought to be transmitted in a semi-persistent man- ner (Bristow et al. 2000). A better understanding of BIScV epide- miology will aid in the development of ef- fective control measures. To this end, the purpose of our study was to determine the mode of transmission of BIScV and com- pare aphid transmission efficiencies of E. fimbriata, a species that colonizes blue- berry, with transmission by several non- colonizing aphid species. Identification of effective aphid vectors will also assist in future laboratory investigations to deter- mine biological differences between the various strains of BIScV. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant and aphid culture. Large highbush blueberry plants from two com- mercial fields near Abbotsford, British Co- lumbia (BC), that had previously tested positive for BIScV by ELISA using poly- clonal antibodies (Agdia, Elkhart, Indiana) were potted into large (~ 60 cm x 43 cm deep) plastic pots and moved to a green- house at the Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, BC. These plants also formed the basis for the isolation and mo- lecular characterization of two major strains of BIScV (Bernardy et al. 2005). Nicotiana occidentalis Wheeler, re- cently identified as a herbaceous host for BIScV (Lowery et al. 2005), was grown in the greenhouse in 20-cm plastic containers in a 1:1:5 mixture of steam-sterilized field soil, perlite, and commercial potting soil (Pro-Mix BX, Premier Horticulture Ltd., Dorval, Quebec). Temperatures were vari- able and ranged from daytime highs of 25 ° C to nighttime lows of 15 °C, with supple- mental lighting supplied by sodium vapour lamps to provide a 16-h photophase. Plants were used at the four- or five-true-leaf stage. Small BIScV-free blueberry plants cv ‘Berkeley’ were acquired from a commer- cial supplier (Fall Creek Nurseries, Lowell, Oregon) and grown in the greenhouse in 3.8-litre plastic pots under the same condi- tions. Aphids were maintained in _ vented, Plexiglas ® cages (50 cm x 50 cm x 33 cm wide) in a growth room (18 °C, 16-h photo- phase) on suitable host plants as follows: red and green forms of EF. fimbriata on strawberry, Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne (Rosaceae); spirea aphid, Aphis spiraecola (Patch) and apple aphid, A. pomi DeGeer, on apple, Malus domestica L. (Rosaceae); pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), on garden pea, Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae); violet aphid, Myzus ornatus Laing, and Aphis helianthi Monell on sun- flower, Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae); green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), on bok-choi, Brassica rapa _ UL. (Brassicaceae); and the bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), on barley, Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae). Host plants were reared in the greenhouse under condi- tions outlined above. Except for E. fimbriata that were origi- nally collected from commercial fields of highbush blueberry in the Fraser Valley and provided by Dr. D.A. Raworth (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Research Centre, Agassiz, BC), all of the aphid species used in these studies, other than A. pisum, were collected in Summer- land, BC, from the hosts on which they were reared. Acyrthosiphon pisum was col- lected from garden peas in Armstrong, BC. Aphids were identified by Dr. R.G. Foottit (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, East- ern Cereals and Oilseeds Research Centre, Ottawa, Ontario). Aphid transmission studies. Fourth instar and adult apterous aphids from the laboratory colonies were placed in small self-sealing petri dishes containing mois- tened filter paper for a 2- to 3-h pre- acquisition starvation period. Aphids were allowed to feed for 5 min on BIScV- infected leaf pieces in groups of 10 aphids/ petri dish, and then transferred, 25 aphids/ plant for blueberry and 10 aphids/plant for N. occidentalis, to BIScV-free test plants, which were then sealed in plastic bags to prevent the aphids from escaping. Fine, moistened natural fibre brushes were used to transfer aphids. At least 1 h after the final transfer, plants were sprayed with the aphi- cide pirimicarb (Pirimor 50WP, Chipman Chemicals Ltd., Stoney Creek, Ontario) to kill any remaining aphids. Plants were held in the bags for a further 24 h to ensure that all aphids were dead. Nicotiana occiden- talis were then moved to a growth chamber at 20 °C under fluorescent and incandes- cent lights (approx. 185 wmol m” s’ PAR) and a 16-h photophase. After 6 to 8 wk, plants were tested for BIScV infection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using polyclonal antibodies (Agdia, Elkhart, Indiana). Blueberry plants were held in the greenhouse under the con- ditions outlined above and tested for infec- tion approximately 3 mo later. Plants were then moved to cold storage at 4 °C for 3 mo and then re-tested 2 to 3 mo after being returned to the greenhouse. Virus transmis- sion studies for all species of aphids and both species of host plant were conducted concurrently. ELISA analysis. The double-antibody sandwich (DAS) ELISA method used was a modification of the protocol described by 29 Clark and Adams (1977). All reagents were added at 100 wl per well in microtitre plates. Microtitre plates (EIA Microplate, ICN Biomedicals, Irvine, California) were coated with purified immunoglobulin (IgG) (Agdia, Elkhart, Indiana) diluted (5 yl mI) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 4 h at 37 °C. Plates were washed three times with PBS. Plant samples (0.25 g) were thor- oughly ground in Bioreba bags (Bioreba AG, Reinach, Switzerland) with 1.5 ml borate buffer (0.1 M boric acid, 0.01 M sodium borate, 2% polyvinylpyrolidine (PVP 44,000), 0.2% non-fat milk powder, 0.05% Tween-20, 0.5% nicotine), and the bags briefly centrifuged at 2000 rpm to aid pipetting. The liquid extract (25 wl) and borate buffer (75 41) were added to the mi- crotitre plates, which were covered in cello- phane and placed overnight on an orbital shaker at 600 rpm. After washing the plates with PBS-Tween and adding a dilute (5 ul ml') IgG-enzyme conjugate in PBS- Tween-BSA-polyvinylpyrolidine, plates were incubated at 37 °C for 2 h. After plates were washed with buffer, a dilute (0.5 mg mI’) solution of p-nitrophenyl phosphate buffer was added. Plates were incubated at room temperature on an orbital shaker (600 rpm) for about 1 hr and absorb- ance was read at 405 nm. A subset of healthy blueberry nursery plants was tested by ELISA to verify that they were free of BIScV. In order to verify BlScV infections, a subset of blueberry and N. occidentalis plants that had tested positive by ELISA were also tested by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) as described in Bernardy et al. (2005). Statistical analysis. Differences in rates of transmission of BIScV by the various aphid species were determined by contin- gency table analysis and multiple compari- sons for proportions, analogous to a Tukey’s test (Zar, 1984). Data were ana- lyzed separately for each combination of infected source and healthy test plants. In- fection rates were not included in the analy- sis if fewer than ten test plants had been inoculated. 30 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 RESULTS By using WN. occidentalis for both BlScV-infected and healthy test plants, we were able to compare transmission rates for several species of aphids not previously known to vector this disease (Table 1). Sev- eral species, including A. pomi, M. persi- cae, and R. padi, were inefficient vectors that were able to infect N. occidentalis only at low transmission rates ranging from 2% to 4%. The highest rate of transmission from infected to healthy N. occidentalis occurred when M. ornatus (average trans- mission rate 69%) or A. helianthi (data not shown) were used as vectors. Unfortu- nately, the latter species was not included in the statistical analysis due to the death of the colony from a fungal infection before the tests could be completed. Both the green and red forms of E. fimbriata trans- mitted BIScV between N. occidentalis at intermediate rates of 10% and 8%, respec- tively. Acyrthosiphon pisum and A. spirae- cola did not transmit BIScV from infected to healthy N. occidentalis. The highest rate of infection of highbush blueberry (20%) was recorded for the green form of E. fimbriata, whereas infection rates for M. ornatus and A. spiraecola were both 7% (Table 1). Aphis helianthi was not included in the data analysis, as we were only able to inoculate six blueberry plants with BlScV using this species before the colony collapsed due to a fungal infection. However, the infection rate for this species, which does not colonize blueberry, ap- peared to nearly equal that for the coloniz- ing species E. fimbriata. Virus transmission tests from infected blueberry to N. occidentalis were conducted to evaluate the acceptability of N. occiden- talis as a trap plant in field studies of BIScV epidemiology. No plants became infected when M. persicae was used to vector the virus from infected blueberry to N. occiden- talis (Table 1), but use of the green form of E. fimbriata resulted in an infection rate of 21%: The utility of NV. occidentalis, a recently identified herbaceous host of BIScV (Lowery et al. 2005), for laboratory studies of aphid transmission efficiencies was dem- onstrated in this study. Even though fewer aphids (10/plant) were used to inoculate N. occidentalis than blueberry (25/plant), over- all infection rates were similar. Blueberry plants had to be held for many months to demonstrate virus transmission, and ap- proximately half the plants tested positive only after an intervening 3-month cold pe- riod. This was expected since virus titres are generally low in blueberry compared with herbaceous hosts, the virus is often distributed unevenly within blueberry plants, and detection may vary seasonally (Martin and Bristow 1988, Wegener ef al. 2006). In comparison, unequivocal ELISA results could be obtained for infected N. occidentalis within 6 to 8 wk after infection and plants then retained a high virus titre over a period of several months. DISCUSSION Carlaviruses were, until recently, one of the largest and least studied of the plant virus groups (Foster 1992). Diseases caused by these viruses often result in latent infec- tions or they cause indistinct, mild symp- toms, which resulted in carlaviruses being largely ignored by pathologists. BIScV is an exception to this general condition, with infections resulting in significant loss of yield and eventual death of certain cultivars of highbush blueberry. For this reason, a number of recent studies have investigated the molecular characteristics, epidemiology, and aphid transmission of BIScV. Carlaviruses are transmitted largely by aphids in a non-circulative, non-persistent manner (Foster 1992). Certain of them are thought to be transmitted in a _ semi- persistent manner, however, and at least one member of the group, Cowpea mild mottle virus, is transmitted by whiteflies (Harris 1983, Ng and Perry 2004). In the J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 31 Table 1. Aphid transmission of Blueberry scorch virus from infected Nicotiana occidentalis or highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, to healthy test plants. Aphid Species Infected Source Test Species Infected/ % Infection Total Acyrthosiphon pisum Nicotiana Nicotiana 0/41 Od occidentalis occidentalis Aphis pomi N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 1/48 2c Aphis spiraecola N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 0/33 Od Ericaphis fimbriata, N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 4/40 10b green form Ericaphis fimbriata, N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 3/40 8bc red form Myzus ornatus N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 11/16 69a Myzus persicae N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 2/48 Abc Rhopalosiphum padi N. occidentalis N. occidentalis 1/40 3be Acyrthosiphon pisum blueberry blueberry 0/18 Ob Aphis pomi blueberry blueberry 0/15 Ob Aphis spiraecola blueberry blueberry 1/14 Ta Ericaphis fimbriata, blueberry blueberry 5/2) 20a green form Ericaphis fimbriata, blueberry blueberry 0/7 - red form Myzus ornatus blueberry blueberry 1/14 Ta Myzus persicae blueberry blueberry 0/24 Ob Rhopalosiphum padi blueberry blueberry 0/23 Ob Ericaphis fimbriata, blueberry N. occidentalis 4/15 Zia green form Myzus persicae blueberry N. occidentalis 0/30 Ob ' For each combination of infected source and healthy plant species, infection rates followed by the same letter are not significantly different based on contingency table analysis and multiple comparisons for proportions (Zar 1984). present study, the results of earlier uncon- trolled cage studies that demonstrated trans- mission of BIScV by E. fimbriata (Bristow et al. 2000) were confirmed. Utilizing timed acquisition feeding periods, we found that BIScV is indeed transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent manner, as might be expected for a member of the carlavirus group. Aphids were able to acquire the vi- rus during brief acquisition-feeding periods lasting less than 5 minutes. Additionally, aphids that do not colonize blueberry, such as M. ornatus, were equally efficient virus vectors compared to the colonizing species E. fimbriata. A pre-acquisition fasting pe- riod and short virus-acquisition probes in- crease transmission of non-persistent vi- ruses, while prolonged feeding leads to greatly reduced transmission rates (Maramorosch 1963). For this reason, under field conditions, non-colonizing aphids are often more important vectors of viruses such as BIScV. Due to low virus titres, however, a slightly longer acquisition feed- ing period might improve transmission effi- ciencies when BlIScV is acquired from highbush blueberry. Although EF. fimbriata was not the most efficient vector of BIScV from N. occidentalis to N. occidentalis, it was the best vector when the virus was ac- 32 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 quired from highbush blueberry, possibly because this species was observed to settle and feed more readily on this host plant. Thus, E. fimbriata might contribute signifi- cantly to the spread of this virus within in- fected fields, particularly in years with large numbers of these colonizing aphids. Infection of N. occidentalis by virulifer- ous aphids in this study occurred at a level comparable with that for infections of her- baceous plants with non-persistently trans- mitted potyviruses. In similar controlled studies, transmission of Potato virus Y from infected to healthy sweet pepper by M. per- sicae resulted in an 89% infection rate (Lowery et al. 1997), whereas in another study involving several species of aphids the maximum rate of infection of rutabaga with Turnip mosaic virus was 55% (Lowery 1997). The highest rate of infection of N. occidentalis with BIScV falls within these range of values (Table 1). Successful trans- mission of BlScV from blueberry to N. occidentalis by E. fimbriata has also been used successfully to help purify and am- plify virus in strain determination studies (Bernardy et al. 2005). Compared with highbush blueberry, this herbaceous host should prove useful as a trap or sentinel plant in studies of BIScV epidemiology. It will be necessary, however, to first show that NV. occidentalis is uniformly susceptible to all strains of BIScV. During a two year study, Raworth et al. (2006) captured alate aphids of 87 species in water pan traps placed in commercial blueberry fields in the Fraser Valley, BC. Our results suggest that many of these spe- cies are likely vectors of BIScV. Future virus transmission studies involving aphid species that were captured in large numbers from the middle of June to the middle of July when most trap plants became infected (Raworth et a/. 2008), which would include several species such as Euceraphis betulae (Koch) that develop on trees (Raworth et al. 2006), might help identify some of the other major vectors contributing to the spread of BIScV and suggest possible man- agement strategies. Based on our laboratory results, BIScV is transmitted between highbush blueberry at a rate similar to that for other non- persistent, aphid-borne viruses of woody perennial plants. In comparable transmis- sion tests using 50 M. persicae per plant a ‘D’ strain of Plum pox virus, a member of the Potyviridae, was transmitted from in- fected peach, Prunus persicae L., to healthy peach seedlings at an average infection rate of 22% (D.T.L. unpublished data). In the present study with blueberry, but using only 25 aphids per plant, a maximum infection rate of 20% was recorded for E. fimbriata (Table 1). The relatively low rate of trans- mission from blueberry to blueberry as compared with infection of herbaceous hosts suggests that a number of years would be required for BIScV to spread throughout a blueberry field from an initial infection locus. Accordingly, mapping of disease incidence in three commercial blueberry fields in the Fraser Valley, BC, showed that BlScV spread only slowly (Wegener ef al. 2006). Similarly, spread of BIScV through- out two commercial fields of blueberry in the northwestern United States required between 5 to 8 years (Bristow ef al., 2000), and Raworth ef al. (2008) recorded a low rate of BIScV infection for highbush blue- berry and N. occidentalis bait plants placed weekly throughout the summer in highly infected commercial blueberry fields, indi- cating a low rate of natural spread. Given the relatively slow spread of the virus under field conditions, these findings suggest that planting only certified virus-free nursery material and aggressive removal of diseased plants might provide an effective means of control of BIScV under field conditions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was funded by the BC Blue- berry Council and Agriculture and Agri- Food Canada (AAFC) through the Match- ing Investment Initiative. We wish to thank Lisa Wegener and Mark Sweeney, BC Min- istry of Agriculture and Lands, for supply- J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 33 ing the original infected blueberry plants, _ for identifying the aphid species. Additional and Dr. R.G. Foottit, AAFC Eastern Cere- technical assistance was provided by Mi- als and Oilseeds Research Centre, Ottawa, — chael Bouthillier and Sonya Goulet. REFERENCES Bernardy, M.G., C.R. Dubeau, A. Braun, C.E. Harlton, A. Bunckle, L.A. Wegener, D.T. Lowery and C.J. French. 2005. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of two distinct strains of blueberry scorch virus from western Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 27: 581-591. Bristow, P.R., R.R. Martin and G.E. Windom. 2000. Transmission, field spread, cultivar response, and impact on yield in highbush blueberry infected with blueberry scorch virus. Phytopathology 90: 474-479. Caruso, F.L. and D.C. Ramsdell. 1995. Compendium of Blueberry and Cranberry Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. Catlin, N.J. and S.G. Schloemann. 2004. Blueberry Scorch Virus (BIScV). UMass Amherst Extension Fact- sheet, F-129-2004, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. Cavileer, T.D., B.T. Halpern, D.M. Lawrence, E.V. Podleckis, R.R. Martin and B.I. Hillman. 1994. Nucleo- tide sequence of the carlavirus associated with blueberry scorch and similar diseases. Journal of General Virology 75: 711-729: Ciuffo, M., D. Pettiti, S. Gallo, V. Masenga and M. Turina. 2005. First report of blueberry scorch virus in Europe. Plant Pathology 54: 565. Clark, M.F. and A.N. Adams. 1977. Characteristics of the microplate method of enzyme-linked immunosor- bent assay for the detection of plant viruses. Journal of General Virology 34: 475-483. Foster, G.D. 1992. The structure and expression of the genome of carlaviruses. Research Virology 143: 103-112. Harris, K.F. 1983. Sternorrhynchous vectors of plant viruses: virus-vector interactions and transmission mechanisms. Advances in Virus Research 28: 113-140. Hillman, B.I., D.M. Lawrence and B.T. Halpern. 1995. 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Infection of highbush blueberries with a putative carlavirus. Acta Horticulturae 241: 338-343. Raccah, B. 1986. Nonpersistent viruses: epidemiology and control. Advances in Virus Research. 31: 387- 429. Raworth, D.A., C.J. French, D.T. Lowery, M.G. Bernardy, M. Bouthillier, S. Mathur, C.-K. Chan, R.G. Foottit, E. Maw, L.A. Wegener and M. Sweeney. 2008. Temporal trends in the transmission of Blueberry scorch virus in British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 30: 345-350. Raworth, D.A., C.-K. Chan, R.G. Foottit and E. Maw. 2006. Spatial and temporal distribution of winged aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) frequenting blueberry fields in southwestern British Columbia and impli- cations for the spread of Blueberry scorch virus. The Canadian Entomologist 138: 104-113. Wegener, L.A., R.R. Martin, M.G. Bernardy, L. MacDonald and Z.K. Punja. 2006. Epidemiology and iden- tification of strains of blueberry scorch virus on highbush blueberry in British Columbia, Canada. Cana- dian Journal of Plant Pathology 28: 250-262. Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 34 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 35 Sex attraction in Polistes dominulus (Christ) demonstrated using olfactometers and morphological source extracts JOHN K. MACKENZIE’, PETER J. LANDOLT™ and RICHARD S. ZACK° ABSTRACT Y-tube and parallel tube olfactometers were used to test for attraction between and within genders of the European paper wasp, Polistes dominulus (Christ). In the Y-tube olfactometer, unmated females were attracted to male odour, while males were repelled by unmated female odour. Males and females were not attracted to the odour of the same sex in this experiment. In the parallel tube olfactometer, females were attracted to male odour, while males were not attracted to female odour. Morphological sources of potential sex attractants were tested using an arena bioassay design. Males rubbed their mandibles and gaster on the substrate when exposed to extracts of unmated female or male tagmata, female or male legs, or the male seventh gastral sternite. We did not see overt behavioural responses by females to male or female extracts. Key Words: attractant, pheromone, Polistes dominulus, paper wasp INTRODUCTION Sex pheromones are chemicals that elicit behaviour related to mate-finding, mate-selection, and copulation in insects, including vespid wasps (Wilson 1971; Shorey 1977; Landolt et al. 1998). Close- range attractants and copulatory incitants or aphrodisiacs have been demonstrated be- tween males and females of the social wasps Polistes exclamans Viereck (Post and Jeanne 1984; Reed and Landolt 1990a), Polistes fuscatus (F.) (Post and Jeanne 1983a, 1984), Belonogaster petiolata De- geer (Keeping et al. 1986), Vespula squamosa Drury (Reed and Landolt 1990b), and Vespa spp. (Batra 1980; Ono and Sa- saki 1987). Despite such demonstrations, no vespid sex pheromone chemical structure has been identified. Sexual behaviour of Polistes dominulus (Christ) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) has not been described or quanti- fied in controlled experiments. Knowledge of behavioural responses to putative phero- mones is necessary for accurate pheromone characterization. Behavioural evidence in Polistes paper wasps suggests that sex pheromones from exocrine glands in the mandibles, legs, and gastral sterna may be involved in mate at- traction (Landolt and Akre 1979; Jeanne ef al. 1983; Beani and Turillazzi 1988; Beani and Calloni 1991a,b; Beani et a/. 1992). In several of these species, mating often oc- curs away from the nest (Noonan 1978) on perching substrates that are at prominent locations such as on hilltops (Bean and Turillazzi 1988; Mathes-Sears and Alcock 1986). Males, in some species of Polistes, scent-mark by dragging their posterior gas- tral sternites (Post and Jeanne 1983b; Reed and Landolt 1991) and by rubbing their mandibles (Wenzel 1987; Reed and Landolt 1991) on the perching substrate. Four spe- ' 4316 Pioneer Court, Abbotsville, BC, Canada V2S 7Z1 : USDA-ARS, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato WA 98951, USA * Department of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman WA 99164, USA i Correspondence: USDA, ARS, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato, WA 98951 USA, Tel. 509 454 6570, fax 509 454 5646, e-mail peter.landolt@ars.usda.gov 36 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 cies, including P. dominulus, are shown to drag their hind legs on the substrate (Beani and Calloni 1991a). Polistes dominulus males have ducted class III gland cells that open onto the cuticle in their legs, as well as onto the seventh abdominal sternite (Downing et al. 1985; Beani and Calloni 1991a). Although females of Polistes spp. are not known to show overt scent-marking behaviour, P. exclamans females possess a pheromone in the venom that elicits sexual behaviour in both conspecific and_het- erospecific males (Post and Jeanne 1984). Additionally, a surface pheromone on the thoracic and gastral cuticle in P. fuscatus 1s important for male recognition of conspeci- fic females (Post and Jeanne 1984). The objective of this study was to inves- tigate orientation and behavioural responses of P. dominulus to potential sex odours from a variety of morphological sources. Klinotaxic (turning orientation) and ortho- taxic (forward orientation) (Fraenkel and Gunn 1940; Wyatt 2003) responses to male odour and unmated female odour were tested using Y-tube and parallel tube olfac- tometers, respectively. An arena-type bioas- say was used to test for behavioural re- sponses to extracts of male and unmated female tagmata and glands. These studies are foundational in aiding the overarching objectives of determining sex pheromone signaling systems in this species, and deter- mining sources of those sex pheromones. MATERIALS AND METHODS Colony Collection and Maintenance. Polistes dominulus nests with pupae were collected in the field, and placed in plastic screened cages (30.5 x 30.5 x 30.5 cm) dur- ing late August and early September in 2003 and 2004. Nests were collected at this time because males were abundant, indicat- ing that reproductive females would be emerging from nests, and not worker fe- males. Collected nests were monitored daily to remove and segregate male and female adults that emerged, in order to minimize encounters between the sexes and exposure to sex pheromones. Male and fe- male wasps obtained in this manner were assumed to be sexually inexperienced since mating is reported to occur away from the nest (Noonan 1978). These wasps were used for the preparation of extracts and for behavioral assays conducted in Pullman and Yakima, Washington. In Pullman (Whitman County), Wash- ington, USA, the newly emerged wasps were kept in a laboratory at 24°C, 40% RH, under a natural light regime (14 hours of light and 10 hours of dark), until testing in the Y-tube olfactometer and in the parallel tube olfactometer. All Y-tube olfactometer tests were conducted in Pullman, while one half of bioassay replicates for each experi- ment conducted with parallel tube olfacto- meters were conducted in Pullman and the other half at the USDA, ARS Yakima Agri- cultural Research Laboratory near Yakima (Yakima County), Washington, USA. Wasps used in olfactometer tests and the arena bioassays conducted in Yakima were kept in a glass greenhouse under natural lighting at 30 + 3 °C and 35% RH. At both sites, wasps in cages were provided water and a 1:10 molasses:water solution on cot- ton balls for nutrition. Water and the solu- tion of molasses were refreshed or replaced daily. Wasps used in all assays were be- tween 2 and 14 days old; they were ran- domly selected for each trial and were not reused in other trials for at least 48 hours. Y-tube Olfactometer Bioassay. Un- mated male and female wasps were tested for klinotaxic responses to unmated female odour and male odour in the Y-tube olfacto- meter. The inside diameter of the glass Y- tube was 2.5 cm and the length of the tube, from stem base to Y-juncture, was 18 cm. Airflow of 100 ml/min was measured with a flowmeter (Aalborg Instruments, Monsey, NY) before and after passing through the 480 ml jars housing the treatments. Air passed through the treatment jar containing 3 “bait wasps” of the sex being assayed, then through one arm of the Y-tube, and out the stem of the Y-tube. Simultaneously, air J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 passed through the empty control jar, through the other arm of the Y-tube, and out the stem of the Y-tube. A paper wasp was placed in the stem of the Y-tube and observed for a maximum of five minutes. If the wasp moved upwind to the Y-juncture and then moved completely beyond the juncture into either of the arms (with treatment airflow or with control air- flow), that assay was ended and the re- sponse was recorded. Ten wasps were tested individually and in succession using the same “bait wasps” in the treatment jar. To eliminate a potential left or right turning bias, the positioning of the treatment and control was switched after the first 5 wasps had been tested. A clean olfactometer sys- tem was then set up and a fresh set of bait wasps was placed in the treatment jar. This experimental protocol was conducted four times to provide a total of 40 wasps (5 wasps in series x 2 treatment positions x 4 = 40) tested for responses. Wasps entering the treatment arm, the control arm, or nei- ther arm of the Y-tube were recorded. For each experiment, the numbers of wasps that entered the treatment arm or the control arm were compared using the Chi-square good- ness-of-fit test with Yates correction for continuity at P < 0.05 (Zar, 1974). The olfactometer system was placed horizontally 50 cm beneath two 1.2 m long, 34W fluorescent bulbs (Osram Sylvania Corp., Danvers, MA) and one 160W mer- cury vapour bulb (Osram Sylvania Corp., Danvers, MA). Temperature at the olfacto- meter surface was 31°C. Air moving through the Y-tube olfactometer was sup- plied by an aquarium air pump, purified through a hydrocarbon trap (Alltech Asso- ciates Inc., Deerfield, IL), and humidified with a gas diffusion bottle. All glassware (Ace Glass, Inc. Vineland, NJ) and steel tubing were washed in hot water with Mi- cro-90 cleaning solution (International Products Corp., Burlington, NJ), and then rinsed serially with deionized water, ace- tone, and then hexane. Glassware was sub- sequently placed in a drying oven at 180°C overnight before used again in assays. Parallel Tube Olfactometer Bioassay. 37 Unmated females were tested for orthotaxic responses to male odour and males were tested for orthotaxic responses to unmated female odour in a parallel or “straight tube” olfactometer design. This design is based on that of Tobin et a/ (1981) and was re- ported by Landolt et al. (1988). The olfac- tometer set up was the same as the Y-tube set up, except for the replacement of the Y- tube with two straight glass tubes. Each straight tube was supplied 100 ml/min of metered, purified humidified airflow that was passed through a glass jar housing an odour source, separate from the other tube and odour source. This setup was placed on a laboratory table with fluorescent lighting above and natural lighting from windows. A wasp was placed in a straight glass tube, 2.5 cm diameter and 18 cm long, downwind from the treatment airflow (3 bait wasps) and another wasp was placed in an identical tube downwind from the control airflow (empty). For each wasp, the time it took to cover the full 18 cm distance of the tube was recorded, if indeed it completed the full distance upwind. This assay was conducted with 10 pairs of wasps (treatment and con- trols paired), and the glassware for treat- ment and control were switched after 5 pairs of wasps were tested. This experiment was then replicated eight times, (N = 80) and treatment mean times were separated from control mean times using a paired (- test at P < 0.05. Also, the mean percents of those that travelled the entire lengths of the treatment and control tubes, within the five minute time limit, were separated using a paired f-test at P< 0.05. One half of the parallel tube olfactome- ter replicates were conducted under the same conditions as the Y-tube olfactometer bioassays, in Pullman. The other replicates, in Yakima, were conducted as they were in Pullman, with these slight modifications: (1) the bioassays were conducted in a con- trolled environment room at 24 °C and 65% RH; (2) airflow was from a compressed air source; (3) light was supplied by two, 1.2 m long, 34 W fluorescent light bulbs (Osram Sylvania Corp., Danvers, MA) 50 cm above the olfactometer. A J16 Digital Photometer 38 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 (Tektronix Inc., Beaverton, OR) measured at 27,663 lux (lumens/m’) at the olfactome- ter surface; (4) after cleaning, the olfacto- meter glassware and tubing were placed in a drying oven for 24 h. Data from the paral- lel tube olfactometer bioassays in Pullman and Yakima were pooled and analyzed to- gether. We did not expect the minor differ- ences in assay conditions to alter the behav- iour of the wasps and a preliminary analysis of the results indicated similar responses in the assays. Tagmata and Extract Preparations. Dissecting and grinding tools and equip- ment were washed in hot water with Micro- 90 cleaning solution, and then rinsed with deionized water, acetone, and methylene chloride. Samples of 40 female heads, 40 male heads, 40 female thoraces, 40 male thoraces, 40 female gasters, and 40 male gasters, all from freshly freeze-killed wasps, were each ground with a mortar and pestle in methylene chloride. Additionally, 40 female venom sacs with acid sting glands, 40 female alkaline glands, legs of 40 females, 40 male mandibles with ectal glands, 40 male seventh gastral sternites with glands, and legs of 40 males were dis- sected or removed and then extracted with methylene chloride. All tagmata and gland extracts were reduced to 4 ml under a N> stream and kept in a freezer at -15 °C, pro- viding concentrations of one wasp- equivalent per 100 uL of extract. Tagmata and Gland Bioassay. Arena bioassays were conducted in the same greenhouse environment in which the wasps were housed. The assays occurred over the course of 3 weeks in September between 10:00 and 16:00 hr. Light intensity at the table was 16,758 + 795 (mean + S.E.) lux, measured at 20 different times through- out the bioassays. On a table covered with white paper, a wasp was placed under the bottom half of an upside down, plastic, 8.5 cm diam. Petri dish for one minute before experiencing extract odour. Petri dishes and paper were discarded after each bioassay. Immediately prior to conducting the assay, 100 ul of the treatment extract or 100 ul of the methylene chloride control were applied to 4 wedges of 5.5 cm diameter, #3 Whatman Filter Pa- per (Whatman International Ltd., Maid- stone, England). The methylene chloride was evaporated before the filter paper was placed under the Petri dish with the wasp. Wasps were observed for two minutes while in the presence of the extract or sol- vent blank, after which they were placed into holding cages to ensure they were not used again in the assay. At the end of the assay period on any given day, all wasps were returned to cages that constituted the general pools of male and female wasps from which random selections were made for subsequent experiments. Male and female wasps were tested for responses to extracts of tagmata and glands from both sexes. Each of the tests was repli- cated 20 times. In bioassays of male and female tagmata, the sequence was: blank, head, thorax, and gaster. In bioassays of female gland bioassay the sequence was: blank, venom, legs, and alkaline gland. In bioassays of male glands the sequence was: blank, mandibles, legs, and seventh sternal gland. For each assay, a record was kept of continuous movement, no movement, and the number of times a wasp showed stop & go movement, antennal contact with the filter paper, grooming fore legs through mandibles and then rubbing antennae, grooming fore legs through mandibles then rubbing thorax, grooming gaster with hind legs, rubbing hind legs together, rubbing mandibles on substrate, and rubbing gaster on substrate. For each behaviour and each sex, a 2x2 contingency table was con- structed to make comparisons of the num- ber of times a behaviour was observed for the control versus each of the tagmata and gland extracts. For each behavior, contin- gency tables were analyzed using the Chi- square statistic with Yates correction for continuity at P< 0.05 (Zar, 1974). J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 39 RESULTS Y-tube Olfactometer Bioassays (Table 1). Females significantly more often turned toward male odour and away from the con- trol (P < 0.001). Males significantly more often turned away from female odour and toward the control (P < 0.05). Neither males nor unmated females turned toward odour from males (P > 0.10) and females (P > 0.5), respectively, compared to the control. Parallel Tube Olfactometer Bioassays. The mean time (4+ S.E.) of female move- ment toward male odour (33.7 + 4.4 sec, df = 79, P = 0.002) was significantly lower than toward the control (49.1 + 4.1 sec). There was no significant difference in the mean percent (+ S.E.) of females that trav- eled the length of the treatment (89.0 + 4.3%, df = 7, P = 0.087) and control (81.0 + 4.3%) tubes within five minutes. The mean time (+ S.E.) for male movement toward female odour (88.2 + 14.3 sec, df = 79, P= 0.141) was not statistically different com- pared to the control (68.1 + 12.0 sec). This was also true for the mean percent (+ S.E.) of males that travelled the length of the treatment (70.0 + 7.3%, df = 7, P = 0.361) and control (78.8 + 6.9%) tubes within five minutes. Tagmata Experiments. Females did not behave differently in the presence of extracts of female or male tagmata com- pared to the blank. Males rubbed their man- dibles on the substrate more often when treated with extract of 2 thorax (P < 0.05) compared to the blank (Table 2). They also rubbed their gaster on the substrate more often when treated with extracts of 9 tho- rax (P < 0.005) or 2 gaster (P < 0.05) com- pared to the blank (Table 2). When pre- sented with extracts of 4 thorax and ¢ gaster, males rubbed their mandibles on the substrate more often (P < 0.05) compared to the blank (Table 2). Gland Experiments. Unmated females did not show any significant behavioural differences in the presence of extracts of female or male glands compared to the blank. Males rubbed their mandibles (P < 0.05) and gaster (P < 0.005) on the sub- strate more often when exposed to 9 leg extract (Table 3). When treated with 3 leg extract, males continuously moved (P < 0.001) and rubbed their mandibles on the substrate (P < 0.05). They also rubbed their mandibles (P < 0.005) and gaster (P < 0.005) on the substrate when exposed to ¢ seventh sternite with gland extract (Table 3). Lastly, males rubbed their gaster on the substrate (P < 0.005) more often when ex- posed to @ mandibles with ectal mandibular gland extract (Table 3). DISCUSSION Polistes males are known to use mating strategies such as marking behaviour by rubbing their mandibles, gaster, and legs on perch sites (Beani and Calloni 1991a; Polak 1993). It is hypothesized that such scent- marked perch sites attract females (Landolt and Akre 1979; Post and Jeanne 1983b,c; Wenzel 1987; Reed and Landolt 1990a). Our orientation bioassay results using olfac- tometers support the hypothesis that fe- males are attracted to a pheromone of males since male odour elicited positive turning and increased speed of forward movement from females. Female attraction to males in olfactometers has also been shown for the paper wasp species P. fuscatus (Post and Jeanne 1983a) and P. exclamans (Reed and Landolt 1990a). The observed repellency of females to males in the Y-tube, but not the parallel- tube olfactometer, assays is puzzling and calls for possible explanation. It is assumed that females would control release of any sex attractant or courtship pheromone and we have no means of knowing if and when females were “calling” when they were tested in olfactometers. Thus, females may be attractive to males under circumstances not met by our assay conditions. Also, fe- male venom may possess alarm pheromone (Bruschini et al. 2006), which could com- plicate assay results when females have 40 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Table 1. Numbers of European paper wasps, Polistes dominulus, turning towards airflow from over conspecific wasps compared to control airflow, in a Y-tube olfactometer'. Bioassay Ntreatment Neontrol X experimental P-value ? to Y ay 18 0.225 P>0.5 Oto d 31 9 11.025 P<0.001 3 to 2 13 27 4.225 P<0.05 3 to d 16 24 e225 P>0.10 ' Analyzed using Chi-square goodness-of-fit test with Yates correction for continuity where 1 theoretical(1, 0.05) = 3.841. Table 2. Numbers of unmated male European paper wasps, Polistes dominulus, responding to unmated male and female tagmata in an arena type assay’. Behaviour. Blank Head Thorax QGaster GHead CGThorax GGaster A 12 14 ile) IZ 1] 11 14 B 3 4 0 2 4 2 2 Cc a 2 5 l 5 7 4 D 5 8 10 10 4 4 10 E 12 8 13 8 7 10 7 F 5 0 i, 3 a 6 8 G 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 H 4 0 ) | 0 4 I 2 7 Q* 7 4 Q* on J 0 2 9 6* 2 5 4 ' Within a row, treatments compared only to blank in a 2x2 contingency table analyzed using the Chi-square statistic with Yates correction for continuity are significant at P < 0.05. Num- bers with an asterisk are significantly different from the blank. ? A — continuous movement, B — no movement, C — stop & go, D — antennate paper, E— groom fore legs in mandibles; rub antenna, F — groom fore legs in mandibles; rub thorax, G — groom gaster with hind legs, H — rub hind legs together, I — rub mandibles on substrate, J — rub gaster on substrate. been handled and disturbed. Caution must then be exercised in interpreting negative or apparently conflicting results. Female P. dominulus in this study showed neither a positive nor negative ori- entation response toward female odour. Overwintering females in search of hiberna- tion sites might be expected to respond to aggregations of females (Reed and Landolt 1991). Heterospecific aggregations of paper wasp gynes in hibernacula have been re- ported (Rau 1930, 1938; Bohart 1942; Hermann et al. 1974; Gibo 1980; Reed and Landolt 1991) as well as purely conspecific aggregations (Rau 1938; Strassmann 1979). Polistes dominulus queens appear to over- winter in multi-colony groups (Starks 2003). However, there may be multiple factors (such as temperature and day length) that stimulate females to seek out hibernacula and other overwintering fe- males. The wasps used in these bioassays were housed under summer-like tempera- tures and day length. Hence, we can make no conclusions regarding the presence or absence of a female aggregation phero- mone. Venom is thought to include a sex pheromone that elicits copulatory behaviour in males of P. fuscatus and P. exclamans J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 41 Table 3. Numbers of unmated male European paper wasps, Polistes dominulus, responding to unmated male and female glands in an arena assay . Behaviour’ Blank QVenom QLegs SMandibles GLegs CGSternite Blank § Alkaline A 8 13 14 15 B 3 Z C 9 6 + + D 6 1] Ld 13 E 9 8 15 14 F 0 3 2, G 6 2 10 7 H 4 2 7 6 I 2 6 o* 6 J | 4 10* o* Loe IS 1] 12 0 2 2 5 3 7 3 12 13 S 7 2) 9 1] 2 2 4 Z 6 6 7 5 4 5 4 6 yd ie 4 2 5 10* 3 5 ' Within a row, treatments compared only to blank in a 2x2 contingency table analyzed using the Chi-square statistic with Yates correction for continuity (significant at P < 0.05, df = 1). Numbers of responses with an asterisk are significantly different from the blank. ? A — continuous movement, B — no movement, C — stop & go, D — antennate paper, E — groom fore legs in mandibles; rub antenna, — groom fore legs in mandibles; rub thorax, G — groom gaster with hind legs, H — rub hind legs together, I — rub mandibles on substrate, J — rub gaster on substrate (Post and Jeanne 1983a; 1984). Odorants on the female cuticle are thought also to be a conspecific sex pheromone in these species (Post and Jeanne 1983a, 1984). Our olfacto- meter bioassays did not evaluate copulatory behaviour, but rather orientation behaviour. Males of P. dominulus did not orient by turning or increasing their speed of move- ment toward female odour in either the Y- tube or parallel tube bioassays, respectively. We did observe behavioural responses such as increased movement and possible scent marking by males to extracts of female gasters and venom glands in an arena assay, but again we did not study copulatory re- sponses. Although venom seems to play a role in mediating courtship or copulation in some paper wasps, it is not known to serve as a sex attractant. In our experiments, we cannot rule out possible female release of alarm chemicals due to handling stress, complicating the interpretation of behav- ioural assay results, although Freisling (1943) was unable to demonstrate an alarm pheromone in P. dominulus. Polistes dominulus females have ducted type III gland cells in their legs (Beani and Calloni 1991a). Polistes fuscatus males responded to female tagmata extracts in a wind tunnel, but the greatest response was to female thorax extract (Reed and Landolt 1990a). During our behaviour bioassays, males responded to extract of 2 legs in the same manner as to extract of the entire tho- rax, by rubbing their mandibles and gaster on the substrate. Additionally, males rubbed their gaster on the substrate when exposed to 2 gaster extract. These behavioural re- sponses have been observed in males of other Polistes species and described as scent-marking (Post and Jeanne 1983b; Wenzel 1987). Female odour may not elicit orientation responses, but female extracts of thoraces and legs do appear to elicit scent- marking in males. Scent-marking behaviour in males is believed to attract females for mating pur- poses, and to signal territorial ownership to other males (Post and Jeanne 1983b; Beani and Calloni 1991a). Male odour may deter other males of the same species since terri- torial males will actively chase intruders away and, afterwards, increase grooming and scent-marking behaviour (Post and 42 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Jeanne 1983b; Beani and Calloni 1991a). Males of other Polistes species are known to patrol and defend territorial perches near hibernacula and nest sites by gaster drag- ging and mandible rubbing on the substrate (Post and Jeanne 1983b; Wenzel 1987; Reed and Landolt 1991). The dragging of the male gaster has also been in observed in Mischocyttarus spp. (Litte 1979, 1981). Nineteen of 20 males that were presented with 3 leg extract continuously moved for the two-minute assay; they also rubbed their mandibles on the substrate more often than when presented with the blank. Males rubbed their mandibles on the substrate when presented with CG gaster extract. When the seventh sternal gland was dis- sected and presented to males, they per- formed gaster dragging in addition to rub- bing their mandibles on the substrate. Al- though males did not respond to 3 head extract, they did drag their gaster on the substrate when presented with 4 mandible extract. Therefore, we quantified and report behaviours that are consistent with previous behavioural studies of different Polistes species. The orientation and behavioural evi- dence reported herein supports the previ- ously stated hypothesis that males use scent-marking for mating and territorial defense purposes by depositing pheromone from well-developed exocrine glands in the gaster, mandibles, and legs onto the perch substrate (Landolt and Akre 1979; Jeanne et al. 1983; Beani and Calloni 1991b). The quantification of orientation and behav- 1oural responses to potential sex attractant odours between and within genders is foun- dational to the larger work of isolating, identifying, and testing sex pheromones in Vespidae. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Daryl Green (USDA-ARS) provided technical assistance. The Washington State Commission on Pesticide Registration and Sterling International Inc. provided funding for this work. REFERENCES Batra, S. W. 1980. Sexual behaviour and pheromones of the European hornet, Vespa crabro germana (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 53:461-469. Beani, L., and C. 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COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Efficacy of Isomate-CM/LR for management of leafrollers by mating disruption in organic apple orchards of western Canada GARY J.R. JUDD!” and MARK G.T. GARDINER! ABSTRACT Results of a three-year study demonstrated that Isomate-CM/LR, a polyethylene, single tube-type pheromone dispenser releasing an incomplete mixture of several species’ multi-component pheromones is an effective management tool that provides multiple- species mating disruption for Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) and Pandemis limitata (Robinson). When applied at a rate of 500 dispensers / ha within the orchard and the equivalent of 2000 dispensers / ha to trees on the orchard perimeter, levels of control were adequate for production of organic apples in British Columbia, Canada. Trap catches with synthetic pheromone lures were reduced by 79 -99% and mating of females on mating tables was reduced by 87 - 98% in these species. At harvest, damage from leafrollers in pheromone-treated organic orchards was below organically-acceptable economic levels (5%) and similar to damage levels observed in insecticide-treated con- ventional orchards (2%). Over three years, total trap catches of these two leafrollers and their damage decreased in four of five orchards treated with pheromone, but catches and damage from leafrollers increased in one orchard. These indices remained relatively unchanged in paired insecticide-treated conventional orchards over the same three-year period. In pheromone-treated orchards, levels of damage from leafrollers at harvest were positively correlated with total leafroller catches in pheromone monitoring traps. Use of Isomate-CM/LR as a supplemental pest management tactic in organic orchards will help to reduce damage and economic losses from leafrollers that have been increasing under the area-wide codling moth sterile insect programme ongoing in this semi-desert, mon- tane apple production region. Key Words: leafrollers, multiple-species mating disruption, organic apples INTRODUCTION 45 Over the last decade a new paradigm for integrated pest management in pome fruits has emerged in western North America. This transformation was driven by imple- mentation of area-wide programmes to con- trol codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), using sterile insect technique (SIT) in Can- ada (Dyck and Gardiner 1992) and phero- mone-based mating disruption in the United States (Calkins 1998). Application of these species-specific controls for codling moth has resulted in increasing damage from secondary pests (Brunner et al. 1994, Knight 1995, Gut and Brunner 1998). Con- sistent with earlier prediction (Madsen and Morgan 1970), several species of leaf- rolling caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Tortrici- dae) have become an increasing problem when broad-spectrum insecticides that tar- get codling moth, but which provide partial control of leafrollers, are removed from the production system (Madsen and Proctor 1985). Although the species complex varies across production regions, increasing dam- age from leafrollers in orchards using mat- ing disruption for codling moth is a recur- ' Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Pacific Agri-food Research Centre, Box 5000, 4200 Hwy 97, Summer- land, British Columbia, Canada VOH 1Z0 ? Author to whom correspondence should be sent. Tel.: +1 250 494 7711; fax.: +1 250 494 0755; E-mail: Gary.Judd@agr.gc.ca 46 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 ring problem seen around the world (Charmillot 1990, Wearing et al. 1995, Walker and Welter 2001). The British Columbia (BC) organic ap- ple industry is concentrated in the Simil- kameen Valley (Judd et al. 1997, Mullinix 2005). Although orchards in this region have been receiving sterile codling moth since 1994 as part of an area-wide SIT con- trol programme (Dyck and Gardiner 1992), producers of organic fruit found it neces- sary to supplement this programme with codling moth mating-disruption technology in spring (Judd and Gardiner 2005). Be- cause codling moth is presently under con- trol but profit margins are shrinking under increased foreign competition, organic ap- ple producers in BC are seeking alternative controls for leafrollers to improve quality of graded export fruit. Before 2005, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) was the only organic material available for controlling leafrollers in Canada. Although Bt 1s effec- tive, its use is often limited by inclement spring weather in montane areas of BC, and while fairly benign to beneficial species, it can have a significant effect on parasites of leafrollers if applied at the wrong time (Cossentine et al. 2003). Organic pome-fruit producers in BC have been interested in pheromonal control of leafrollers ever since pheromones were first applied to control codling moth (Judd et al. 1997). The idea of using one mating- disruption system to simultaneously control codling moth and leafrollers has been around for some time (van Deventer ef al. 1992) but few commercial products exist. Isomate-CM/LR, a multiple-species mat- ing-disruption product designed to control codling moth and leafroller species impor- tant in western North America, was regis- tered in the United States in 1997 and in Canada in 2004 (Don Thomson, personal communication). When Isomate-CM/LR was used in conjunction with insecticides (Knight et al. 1997, Knight et al. 2001), apple orchards had 41% less leafroller dam- age and received one less spray per season. These same orchards consistently had less codling moth damage than orchards receiv- ing Isomate-C* and supplemental insecti- cides. Whether leafrollers can be controlled effectively, or sufficiently, with Isomate- CM/LR when no supplemental insecticides are used remains untested. Judd and Gardiner (2005) reported on the use of mating disruption as a supple- mentary tactic for spring control of codling moth in organic orchards that were part of the area-wide SIT programme. Herein we report results using Isomate-CM/LR to con- trol damage from leafrollers while at the same time supplementing codling moth control in those same organic apple or- chards. The primary objective of this study was to conduct season-long assessments on disruption of pheromonal communication and mating in the leafrollers, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) and Pandemis limitata (Robinson) in commercial, organic apple orchards where Isomate-CM/LR was used, and to report on levels of leafroller damage in the absence of insecticide inputs. Second, we wanted to collect data on the relation- ship between different measures of disrup- tion and relative density of adult leafrollers as measured by pheromone traps, because questions about the efficacy of mating dis- ruption and population density are rarely addressed experimentally. Third, we wanted to determine if pheromone trapping of C. rosaceana and P. limitata has the po- tential to be a predictive tool of potential damage in orchards under pheromone- based mating disruption (Walker and Wel- ter 2001). MATERIALS AND METHODS Test orchards. All apple orchards used in this study are located at Cawston, BC, in the Similkameen Valley (latitude 49° 10.8’ N, longitude 119° 46.2” W, elevation 401 m). The five organic orchards treated with Isomate-CM/LR and five paired conven- tional orchards treated with insecticides (Table 1) were described in detail by Judd J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 47 Table 1. Management, monitoring and fruit sampling details for the leafrollers Choristoneura rosaceana and Pandemis limitata in each organic (O1 - O5) and paired conventional (C1 - C5) apple orchard studied in Cawston, BC, Canada, 1997 - 1999, No. of pheromone’ Yearly insecti- Yearlynumberof Number of fruit dispensers / ha cide treatments traps foreach sampled for damage 2 applied each year for leafrollers? _leafroller species’ at harvest each year Orchard! 1997 1998 1999 1997 1998 1999 1997 1998 1999 1997 1998 1999 Ol 500 500 500 0 0 0 4 + + 3368 2145 2000 O2 500 500 500 0 0 0 6 6 6 5006 1756 2000 O3 500 500 500 0 0 0 4 4 4 4298 2100 2000 O04 500 500 500 0 0 0 Z Z 2 4300 2223 2000 O5 500 500 500 0 0 0 + 4 4 3031 1939 2000 Cl 0 0 0 0 1 _ 2 2 2270 1698 2000 C2 0 0 0 3 3 + _ Z Z 2000 2000 2000 C3 0 0 0 Z 2 3 _ Z Z 2000 2000 2000 C4 0 0 0 l 0 ~ Z Z 2100 2000 2000 C5 0 0 0 Z 3 4 ~ 2 2 2000 1883 2000 ‘Orchards O1 to OS were cited by Judd and Gardiner (2005) as orchards Al - A4 and BI, re- spectively, and orchards C1 - C5 remain the same across studies. Six untreated, organic, com- parison orchards not listed were monitored but not sampled for damage (Cossentine e¢ al. 2004). ” All trees on the perimeter of each orchard received the equivalent of 2000 dispensers / ha. *Leafroller sprays consisted of spring (April) sprays of methidathion in dormant oil and sum- mer (July - August) sprays of Confirm ® (tebufenozide). * No leafroller monitoring was done in conventional comparison orchards in 1997 but they were sampled for damage at harvest. Six untreated, organic, comparison orchards (Cossentine et al. 2004) were each monitored with two traps in 1998 and 1999. Each species was monitored with a septal lure loaded with 3 mg of a multi-component blend described by Deland ef al. (1994). and Gardiner (2005). Six organic apple pyramid shape training system. orchards that received no treatments for No synthetic insecticides were applied control of leafrollers were described in de- to any of the organic orchards examined in tail by Cossentine et al. (2004) as part of a _ this study (Table 1), but one orchard (O3) study on parasitism of leafrollers in 1998 received Bt sprays (Dipel 2X DF) in 1998 and 1999. The latter untreated orchards and this is noted in the Discussion. All but were used to compare relative trap catches one conventional orchard also received at of leafrollers only, as no damage data were least one application of Guthion® collected in the original study. Briefly, all (azinphosmethy! at 0.84 kg a.i./ha) for cod- orchards ranged in size from 0.5 - 2 ha and ling moth control in 1997, but in later years were composed of mixed apple varieties growers used Confirm” (tebufenozide) dur- planted at densities of 267 - 938 trees/ha ing both spring and summer usually timed with tree x row spacing of 2.4 - 6.1 x 3.0- for control of leafroller larvae. One caveat 6.1 m, respectively. Trees ranged in height is that conventional orchards did not neces- from 2.5 - 3.5 m and were pruned using a _ sarily receive similar or optimal insecticide 48 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 spray programmes because these orchards were chosen by Judd and Gardiner (2005) as local comparisons not controlled treat- ments. Pheromone’ disruption treatment. Isomate-CM/LR is a brownish red, single- tube, polyethylene dispenser, manufactured by the Shin-etsu Chemical Company Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan) and marketed by Pacific Biocontrol Corporation (Vancouver, Wash- ington). Each Isomate-CM/LR dispenser contains a 285 mg blend of 36.9% (E£,E)- 8,10-dodecadien-l-ol (codlemone), 1.8% isomers of codlemone, 6.0% dodecanol and 1.2% tetradecanol for disruption of codling moth, and 43.5% (Z)-11-tetradecenyl ace- tate (Z11-14:Ac) and 2.4% (E£)-11- tetradecenyl acetate (£11-14:Ac) for dis- ruption of leafrollers, plus 8.2% inert ingre- dients and pheromone stabilizers (Don Thomson, personal communication). Isomate-CM/LR dispensers were deployed in five organic apple orchards at a rate of 500/ha, however each perimeter tree re- ceived the equivalent of 2000 dispensers/ha (Table 1). Dispensers were attached to branches in the upper third of tree canopies ca. 1 m below the top of the central leader, or on the first lateral branch beneath the central leader. All pheromone dispensers were deployed a few days before codling moths were expected to emerge and no later than 8 May each year (Judd and Gardiner 2005). Monitoring seasonal flight activity of moths. In all orchards, seasonal flight ac- tivity and capture of adult leafrollers were assessed using traps baited with synthetic pheromones. Disruption of pheromone communication in leafrollers was calculated by expressing catches of moths in phero- mone-treated organic orchards as a percent- age of catch in either insecticide-treated conventional orchards or untreated organic orchards in 1998 and 1999. No comparisons were made in 1997 as the latter sets of or- chards were not monitored that season. Depending on orchard size and shape, 2 - 6 Pherocon 1-C style open (5-cm side Spacers) wing traps (Pherotech Interna- tional, Delta, BC) baited with each species’ multi-component pheromone blend (Deland et al. 1994; described below) were de- ployed evenly throughout each orchard (Table 1). One trap for each species was hung ca. 1.5 - 2.0 m above ground on dif- ferent sides of the same tree in 2 - 6 sepa- rate trees. Positions for all traps remained fixed within and across years. In 1997 only the five Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic orchards were monitored with pheromone traps. On 30 May 1997, wing traps were deployed in each of these organic orchards and checked weekly from 6 June until 18 September. In 1998, wing traps were de- ployed in these same five Isomate-CM/LR- treated organic orchards, five paired insecti- cide-treated conventional orchards and six untreated organic orchards on 8 May, and checked weekly from 15 May until 25 Sep- tember. In 1999, wing traps were deployed in all orchards on 27 May and checked weekly from 3 June until 30 September. Moths were counted and removed weekly with trap bottoms replaced as needed and pheromone lures changed every three weeks. Synthetic multi-component pheromone lures for each leafroller species were pre- pared with chemical components (Aldrich Chemical Company Inc., Milwaukee, Wis- consin) of known purity, as confirmed by gas chromatographic analysis (Z11-14:Ac, 98% with 2% £E11-14:Ac; (Z)-11- tetradecenal 96%; (Z)-11-tetradecanol; 97%, (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate, 96%) us- ing published ratios (Roelofs et al. 1976, Vakenti et al. 1988). In making pheromone lures for each species, 200 ul of each multi- component pheromone blend was dissolved in dichloromethane and 3 mg of the phero- mone blend was loaded into each red rubber septum (Aldrich Chemical Company Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin). After loading, septa were air-dried for ca. 18 h at 23 °C in a fume hood and stored at 0 °C until pinned to the inner side of trap lids in the field. Assessment of mating in leafrollers. Mating was assessed using laboratory- reared, virgin, female moths placed in Tef- lon®-lined mating tables described by McBrien and Judd (1996). Both C. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 rosaceana and P. limitata were reared on a modified pinto bean-based diet (Shorey and Hale 1965) at 24 °C and 16:8 h L:D photo- regime. Female pupae of each species were placed individually in 150-ml plastic cups provided with moist cotton wicks until eclosion. Female moths aged 24 - 72 h were immobilized at 0.5 °C and one forewing and a tarsal tip were removed with fine for- ceps to prevent escape from mating tables. Females were kept chilled and transported to field sites in small ice chests. In 1998, mating activity of both leafrol- ler species was assessed weekly from 2 June until 3 September in each pheromone- and insecticide-treated orchard. During each weekly assessment, one female of each species was placed in 5 or 10 separate trees in each, insecticide- or pheromone- treated orchard, respectively, on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays (n = 15 or 30 females/species/orchard/week). Two mating tables, each containing an individual female of each species, were placed in opposite sectors of the same tree, in the upper third of the canopy, several rows and trees dis- tant from any pheromone traps. Females were placed in the field during the after- noon and removed the following morning to minimize predation and escape. Females recovered from the field <24 h after deploy- ment were returned to the laboratory and each was dissected and examined for the presence of a spermatophore in the bursa copulatrix which indicates females have mated. Any females that were dead when collected from the field were omitted from the data. In 1999, we conducted an experiment during flight of the first summer generation to determine if the probability of mating increased with the length of time (24 - 96 h) females were exposed in the field in either pheromone- or insecticide-treated orchards. Starting on Monday, 21 June, 100 female P. limitata were deployed in one pheromone- treated orchard and another 100 females were placed in an insecticide-treated or- chard. At 24-h intervals for four consecu- tive days, 25 females were recovered from each orchard and returned to the laboratory 49 where their mating status was assessed as before. This procedure was repeated for several consecutive weeks. Fruit damage sampling. Depending on year and orchard, we examined fruit from 18 to 48 trees in the paired, pheromone- and insecticide-treated orchards (Table 1) using a stratified, cluster sampling procedure, where the outer row of trees and all interior trees represent two strata, and each tree represents a cluster of fruit, respectively (Judd et al. 1997). Sample trees were cho- sen systematically by crossing each orchard from corner to corner and edge to edge, ensuring that each variety and stratum was sampled. It was necessary to sample irregu- lar numbers of trees and fruit from year to year because biennial bearing in organic orchards resulted in large annual differ- ences in fruit set. All orchards were sam- pled during normal periods of harvest for each variety as fruit maturity and growers dictated. In most cases, a minimum of 100 fruit were removed from each sample tree by picking 50 low and 50 high fruit from south side branches. If there were fewer than 100 fruit on a tree, all fruit were re- moved from the sample tree. Early- or late- season leafroller damage, caused by either overwintering or summer larvae, respec- tively, can be distinguished by the degree of surface tunneling and scarring of fruit. Only late-season damage caused by summer- feeding larvae is scored in this study. All leafroller damage observed in this study was caused by either C. rosaceana or P. limitata, as no other species were previ- ously found in this region (Madsen and Madsen 1980, Judd and Gardiner 2004). Our damage comparisons were limited to pheromone vs. insecticide-treated orchards because no damage samples were taken in the untreated organic orchards examined by Cossentine et al. (2004). Statistical analyses. For each species, moth captures from all traps in the same orchard were pooled and transformed (logio [x +1]) to normalize the data. Annual mean total number of moths caught per trap in untreated, Isomate-CM/LR-treated, and insecticide-treated orchards were compared 50 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a Student Neuman Keuls’ mul- tiple comparisons test (Zar 1984), where orchards are treated as replicates (n = 5 or 6). Mean weekly and seasonal total percent mating of each species in pheromone- and insecticide-treated orchards in 1998 were compared using two-sample f-tests (n = 5). Linear regression analysis was used to re- late mean weekly percent mating and mean weekly trap catches in 1998. The frequency of mating among females placed in the field for varying lengths of time in either a pheromone-treated or insecticide-treated orchard was compared weekly and season- ally using contingency tables and y’ tests or a binomial Z-test (Zar 1984). Mean percent leafroller damage at harvest for pheromone- and insecticide-treated orchards was com- pared annually using a two sample f-test following an arcsine Vp transformation of raw data. Linear regression analysis was used to relate mean percent damage at har- vest in pheromone-treated orchards with mean seasonal cumulative moth catches using all three years of data (n = 15 data pairs) and to examine changes in moth catches and damage over time in organic orchards. All statistical tests were per- formed using SigmaStat® (Version 3.0.1, SPSS Software Inc., San Jose, California) and an experimental error rate of a = 0.05. RESULTS Seasonal flight activity of leafrollers. Mean weekly catches of C. rosaceana and P. limitata in orchards under different treat- ment regimes in 1999 are shown in Fig. 1. Similar weekly catches were seen in 1997 and 1998 but for brevity data are not shown. Catches of both species reflect two adult flight periods representing the first and second generations in this region, re- spectively. Weekly catches of C. rosaceana under all treatment regimes tended to be smaller during second generation than those during first generation, but this trend was often reversed in P. limitata (Fig. 1). P. limitata appeared to be the most abundant leafroller species in conventional orchards, but the relative species makeup reversed itself annually in untreated and pheromone- treated organic orchards (Table 2). Disruption of leafroller pheromone trap catches. Weekly catches of C. rosaceana were reduced 70 - 100% in the Isomate—CM/LR treatment relative to both untreated and insecticide-treated orchards in 1999 (Fig. 1), and relative reductions averaged 90.4 and 92.1%, respectively, across years in 1998 and 1999 (Table 2). Weekly catches of P. limitata were reduced 67 - 100 % by treatment with Isomate-CM/ LR compared to untreated and insecticide- treated orchards (Fig. 1), and relative reduc- tions averaged 92.5 and 87.2 %, respec- tively, across years (Table 2). Catches of P. limitata were always higher in insecticide- treated conventional orchards compared with untreated organic orchards (Table 2). Mating in leafrollers. During the entire 1998 season, 35.1% of female C. rosaceana (n = 757 females recovered) and 57.4% of female P. limitata (n = 702) mated on mat- ing tables hung in the insecticide-treated orchards (Fig. 2). If 1 August is used as an approximate starting point for second- generation flight activity in both species (Fig. 2), then mating of both species tended to increase during the second-generation flight period. In the insecticide-treated or- chards mating of C. rosaceana during the first (26.8%) and second generation (54.3%) was significantly different (y? = 23.01, df = 1, P< 0.001). However, mating of P. limitata during first (53.6 %) and sec- ond generation (65.3%) was not signifi- cantly different (y° = 2.05, df = 1, P = 0.152). During the entire 1998 season only 1.6% of female C. rosaceana (n = 1610) and 7.4% of female P. limitata (n = 1522) mated on mating tables hung in the Isomate-CM/LR-treated orchards (Fig. 2). As seen in the absence of pheromone dis- ruption (Fig. 2), significantly more C. rosaceana mated during second generation (3.5%) than during first generation (0.75%) J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 EEL L! AEBAGLERILD? AALS SIEGES SATE LAIT June 19 orchards Pandemis fimitata Mean number of moths caught / trap / week July 17 Isomate-cM/LR L777] July 17 Week 51 Choristoneura rosaceana De ADE iy SB Wi aS I sa DLE LEO ELE LOCC SETTLE SS a a RS A SS SS A OT ” ELLY, {LTD OER ITE TELS, TELA, [LEAL AIS, [ELE DDI ODED ’ SOLEIL SLIT ILD f Aug 14 Sept 11 ee) Insecticide orchards Untreated orchards Aug 14 Sept 11 Figure 1. Mean weekly catches of two leafroller species in their species-specific synthetic pheromone-baited traps hung in untreated organic apple orchards (n = 6), Isomate-CM/LR- treated organic apple orchards (n = 5) and insecticide-treated conventional apple orchards (” = 5) in 1999, (y° = 14.74, df = 1, P < 0.001) and mating of P. limitata was also significantly greater in the second generation (15.4%) than in the first generation (2.9%) in pheromone- treated orchards (7 = 65.14, df = 1, P < 0.001). Regression analyses (Fig. 3) indicate that weekly differences in mating of C. rosaceana and P. limitata in the insecticide- treated orchards were partially correlated with the differences in weekly catches of males in pheromone-baited traps, respec- tively. In the Isomate-CM/LR-treated or- chards, weekly differences in mating of female P. limitata were explained (see r° values) by differences in weekly catches of males (Fig. 3), but both mating and catches of C. rosaceana were too low in phero- mone-treated orchards to ascribe any sig- nificant relationship to these variables (P = 0.06). Estimates of mating in P. limitata did not appear to increase with increasing time deployed in the orchard (Table 3). Compar- ing results in Table 3 (1999) and Fig. 2 (1998), it appears that percent mating of a2 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Table 2. Seasonal total number of male leafroller moths, Choristoneura rosaceana and Pandemis limi- tata, caught in synthetic pheromone-baited traps placed in untreated organic orchards (n = 6), insecticide-treated conventional orchards (n = 5) and Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic orchards (n = 5) and relative percent disruption of trap catches. Mean = SE total number of Relative % trap moths / trap / year / treatment! catch reduction’ Year Species Untreated Insecticide Isomate- Untreated Insecticide CM/LR 1997 C. rosaceana — — 124.2 + 187.6 - - P. limitata _ — 84.7 + 103.7 — - 1998 C.rosaceana 137.0+45.la 56.3 £21.6b 3.84 2,1¢ 93.3 O72 P. limitata 282.6+ 33.5b 460.3 +173.7a 66.2 +35.3c 85.6 76.6 1999 C.rosaceana 211.74+37.la 150.1473.la 27.8 +411.3b 87.5 86.9 P. limitata 101.7428.5b 386.8 +155.2a 2.3 +0.8c 99.4 OTe Mean C. rosaceana 174.4+437.4a 103.2+46.9a 51.9 +36.8b 90.4446 92.14+5.1 oe P. limitata 192.2+90.5b 423.6436.7a 51.1 +24.9c 92.544.8 87.2 + 10.6 'Means within a row a followed by different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05) by Student Neuman Keuls’ multiple comparisons test following significant (P < 0.05) ANOVA. ? Percent trap catch reduction in Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic orchards relative to catches in untreated organic orchards or insecticide-treated conventional orchards. female P. /imitata in the insecticide-treated age in pheromone-treated organic orchards orchards was higher during the first genera- ranged from 1.7 - 24.8% in 1997, 0.4 - tion in 1999 (82.9%) compared with 1998 4.2% in 1998, and 0.4 - 13.7% in 1999 (Fig. (53.6%), while percent mating (2.9%) dur- 4A). From 1997 - 1999 leafroller damage ing the first generation in the Isomate-CM/ declined in 4 of the 5 organic orchards and LR-treated orchards was identical in 1998 in 12 out of 15 orchard-years damage was (Fig. 2) and 1999 (Table 3). less than 5% at harvest under Isomate-CM/ Disruption of mating in leafrollers. LR treatment. Downward trends in leafrol- When the entire 1998 season is considered __ler damage over three years appeared corre- (Fig. 2), Isomate-CM/LR significantly re- lated with downward trends in total catches duced mating of C. rosaceana by 95.4% (y? of leafrollers in each orchard, respectively = 378.47, df = 1, P< 0.001) and mating of (Fig. 4B). There was a significant correla- P. limitata by 87.1% (7 = 376.78, df=1,P tion (r = 0.65, P < 0.009) between total < 0.001) relative to their mating in insecti- _leafroller trap catches and damage at har- cide-treated orchards, respectively. Disrup- vest, but catches of leafrollers only ex- tion of mating in both species tended to be _ plained 42.3% of the variation in harvest lower during the second-generation flight damage (Fig. 4C). Comparison of leafroller period, dropping to 93.5% in C. rosaceana damage in five organic orchards under and 76.4% in P. limitata, respectively. Even management with Isomate-CM/LR, and though percent mating of P. Jimitata in the _ five conventional orchards under various insecticide-treated orchards was lower dur- _ insecticide programmes is shown in Fig. 5. ing the first generation of 1998 (Fig. 2) than Damage levels were not significantly differ- 1999 (Table 3), disruption of mating by — ent between the two groups of pheromone- treatment with Isomate-CM/LR was similar and insecticide-treated orchards in 1998 and in 1998 (95.7%) and 1999 (96.4%). 1999 (Fig. 5). Fruit damage. Summer leafroller dam- J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 > Choristoneura rosaceana 100 Insecticide-treated orchards Seasonal mean mating = 38.8 + 5.7% 80 60 40 20 May 22 June 19 July 17 Aug. 14 Sept. 11 [ender] Mating 100 Insecticide-treated orchards Seasonal mean mating = 51.6 + 5.6% 8&0 60 Mean number of moths caught / trap / week 40 May 22 June 19 July 17 Week Figure 2. Observed mean weekly percent mating of two leafroller species on mating tables Aug. 14 = Sept. 11 hung in Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic apple orchards (n Pandemis limitata 75 Isomate-CM/LR-treated orchards Seasonal mean mating = 1.7 + 0.6% 6.0 45 3.0 May 22 June 19 July17 Aug. 14 Sept. 11 Catches 75 Isomate-CM/LR-treated orchards Seasonal mean mating = 6.8 + 2.2% Mean % mating / week 60 45 30 June 19 Aug. 14 Sept. 11 May 22 July 17 Week 5) and insecticide-treated conventional apple orchards (7 = 5) and mean weekly catches of moths in synthetic phero- mone traps in the same orchards in 1998. DISCUSSION Previously we showed that Isomate-CM/ LR was a useful spring-time supplement for the codling moth SIT programme in BC (Judd and Gardiner 2005), but its additional benefits as a supplement for control of lea- frollers in organic orchards was not de- scribed. This study has demonstrated that pheromone communication and mating in sympatric leafroller moths commonly found infesting organic apples in the Similkameen Valley of BC can be effectively and simul- taneously disrupted by releasing a mixture 54 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Choristoneura rosaceana Insecticide-treated orchards Mean % mating / week % Mating = 5.56 + (7.06xcatch) e = F- = 0.36, P= 0.009 e 0.0 2.0 5.0 9 Isomate-CM/LR-treated orchards % Mating = -0.02 + (5.21xcatch) r=0.31,P=0.06 0 v 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 Pandemis limitata Insecticide-treated orchards Mean % mating / week % Mating = 12.53 + (1.06xcatch) r=0.64, P=0.001 0 29 50 30 Isomate-CM/LR-treated orchards 20 10 % Mating = 0.076 + (1.56xcatch) r= 0.85, P= 0.001 0 5 10 15 Mean number of moths caught / trap / week Figure 3. Regression analyses showing relationships between relative moth density (trap catches) and mating in two leafroller species in Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic apple orchards (n = 5) and insecticide-treated conventional apple orchards (” = 5) in 1998. of their major pheromone components from Isomate-CM/LR. Season-long reductions of pheromone trap catches of both C. rosaceana and P. limitata with Isomate- CM/LR were comparable to levels seen in several studies examining each species indi- vidually (Deland ef al. 1994, Agnello et al. 1996, Knight et al. 1998, Knight and Turner 1999, Trimble and Appleby 2004) and greater than levels observed in other studies (Lawson ef al. 1996). There is no generally accepted level for the reductions in pheromone trap catches often observed using mating disruption that correlate with crop protection, but the observation has been made that this reduction is usually 97 - 100% in species where disruption appears to be an effective crop-protection tool J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 55 Table 3. Percentage of female Pandemis limitata mating in mating tables when placed in insecticide- treated conventional and Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic apple orchards for increasing lengths of time during first-generation flight in 1999. Insecticide-treated orchard Hours fenales —rroeeeoe were infield —» females’ % mated’ 24 274 86.5a 48 274 75.9a 2 242 80.6a 96 220 79.5a Total 1010 82.9 (24 - 96h) somate-CM/LR-treated orchard % mat- f les! 9% Pe ing re- n temales o mate ducton 246 2.03a 97.6* 252 4.36a 94.3* 224 311228 96.1* 220 221A 97.1* 942 2.97 96.4* “n = total number of live females recovered from field in test period. * Percentages within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05) based on a x’ test of the null hypothesis of equal mating frequencies across time catego- ries. > Asterisk indicates a significant (P < 0.001) reduction in mating based on a comparison of paired proportions of mating within a row using a binomial Z-test (Zar 1984). (Trimble and Appleby 2004). In many mat- ing-disruption studies on C. rosaceana (Reissig et al. 1978, Deland et al. 1994, Agnello et al. 1996, Lawson et al. 1996, Knight et al. 1998, Trimble and Appleby 2004), pheromone treatments have resulted in less than 97% reduction in pheromone trap catches relative to catches with the same traps in insecticide-treated orchards. In our study, a reduction of this magnitude was achieved in 1998 when fewer than 4 moths were caught / trap / year (Table 2) and a similar reduction was observed for P. limitata in 1999 when catches of this moth averaged fewer than 3 moths / trap / year. Knight and Turner (1999) found a signifi- cant negative relationship between mean catches of Pandemis spp. / trap and percent reduction of catches in synthetic pheromone traps. A similar relationship has not been reported for C. rosaceana, but our data (Table 2) reflect this type of trend for both species. Presumably, reductions in pheromone trap catches are correlated with reductions in mating, but this is almost never con- firmed in mating-disruption studies because measures of mating are often missing. Ac- tual reductions in female mating should be more directly correlated with reductions in damage from larvae than reductions in males caught in pheromone traps. We found relatively large correlations between trap catches, a relative measure of population density, and mating of P. /imitata on mating tables (Fig. 3), but only a weak correlation was found for C. rosaceana in the insecti- cide-treated orchards, and no correlation was found for this species in the phero- mone-treated orchards (Fig. 3). Given that catches of P. limitata represented about 50% of the total leafroller catch in organic orchards during 1997 - 1999, and total catches of leafrollers declined in Isomate- CM/LR-treated orchards each year (Table 2), a significant, albeit weak, relationship between total leafroller catches and damage may be expected (Fig. 4C). A better rela- tionship might be observed in orchards hav- ing populations of P. limitata only. Never- theless, the relationship shown in Fig. 4C is consistent with the view that the reduction in trap catches needs to be close to 99% (ca. 6 moths / trap / season) to ensure damage from leafrollers is 1% or less, an acceptable level for organic apple producers in BC. We acknowledge that the relationship we have shown between trap catches in pheromone-treated organic orchards and damage from summer-feeding leafrollers may not hold true for conventional orchards in this region, because there are significant 56 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Total % leafroller damage Total leafrollers / trap / year Total % leafroller damage aye % Damage = -0.5 + (0.6catch) r? = 0.423 , P = 0.009 100 400 Total number of leafroller moths caught / trap / year Figure 4. Percentage of damage at harvest caused by summer-feeding leafroller larvae in each Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic apple orchard by year (A), total number of leafroller moths (Choristoneura rosaceana and Pandemis limitata) caught in synthetic pheromone traps in each Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic apple orchard by year (B), and linear regression of the ob- served relationship between damage and total leafroller catches (log scales) in 1997 - 1999 (C). differences in the levels of biological con- trol in these different production systems. In a_ study running parallel to ours, Cossentine et al. (2004) found that summer larval populations of both C. rosaceana and P. limitata in untreated organic apple or- chards in the Similkameen Valley experi- enced parasitism rates as high as 68% dur- ing 1998 and 1999, and higher levels of parasitism were observed as_leafroller populations declined. Given these observa- tions, if mating disruption was causing lea- froller populations to decline then it might be expected to increase the impact of para- sitoids and reduce damage. The general absence of these natural control agents in local conventional orchards (Joan Cossentine, personal communication) may invalidate any application of an established relationship between trap catches and dam- age from organic orchards where natural controls are also acting. Mating disruption of leafrollers in conventional orchards may have to be augmented with insecticides, J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 orchards 10 Mean + SE % summer leafroller damage 1997 LC] Isomate-CM/LR 1998 a7 Insecticide orchards 1999 Figure 5. Comparison of mean (+ SE) percent damage at harvest caused by summer-feeding leafroller larvae in Isomate-CM/LR-treated organic apple orchards (m = 5) and insecticide- treated conventional apple orchards (n = 5) in 1997 -1999. Paired means with the same letter superscript are not significantly different (P > 0.05) by two-sample -test. particularly where C. rosaceana is the dominant species. With one exception (Trimble and Appleby 2004), limited use of selective insecticides in combination with mating disruption has provided a small im- provement in the control of C. rosaceana over mating disruption alone (Agnello et al. 1996, Lawson ef al. 1996, Knight ef al. 1998, Knight et al. 2001). To the best of our knowledge this study is the only evaluation of mating disruption of C. rosaceana and P. limitata with Isomate-CM/LR in organic production sys- tems where no insecticides were applied. This technique holds promise for organic pome fruit producers in the Similkameen Valley, especially if P. limitata is the domi- nant species. Our results are in sharp con- trast to a failure of mating disruption to keep damage from C. rosaceana below economic levels in other regions even when used in conjunction with pesticides (Agnello et al. 1996, Lawson et al. 1996). This failure has been attributed to high population density and potential immigra- tion of adults and larvae into treatment ar- eas. Population density should be an impor- tant factor in limiting the efficacy of mating disruption, but this has seldom been shown experimentally. Our data certainly point to a strong relationship between relative adult numbers, mating success and harvest dam- age, but moth catches in our pheromone- treated orchards were often greater than those reported elsewhere so it is difficult to reconcile our results on the basis of adult population differences alone. Four of the five organic orchards in this study were somewhat isolated by having other orchards located on only one border. Orchard O3 was the only one that was surrounded by adjacent orchards, particularly cherries, which were not treated for leafrollers, and it was the one orchard in which we saw a significant increase in catches of P. limitata late in 1998 and damage in 1999 (Fig. 4). Interestingly this was the only orchard that received a petal-fall spray of Bt in spring of 1998. As noted by Knight et al. (1998), immigration may be an important constraint on use of mating disruption for leafrollers, but monitoring may help to allay some of this concern if it can predict immigration of adults, as it did in orchard O3. Although damage in the organic or- chards was comparable to that seen in some comparison insecticide-treated orchards (Fig. 5), we make no claim that mating dis- ruption is as effective as an optimal insecti- cide-based control programme. However, we are of the opinion that the efficacy of mating disruption against any species is 58 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 best evaluated over several years. Mating disruption is certainly a less robust control technique than most insecticides, and more constrained by population density than the latter. Suppression of codling moth popula- tions using mating disruption often takes several years and this will probably be true of leafrollers (Fig. 4). Depending on the comparison orchards chosen, it is possible for mating-disruption technology to look very effective, or highly ineffective; a better approach may be to examine its long-term effects in the same locations over several years and compared with standard systems as has been used for codling moth (Charmillot 1990, Judd et al. 1997). The long-term impact of mating disruption on biological control of leafrollers in orchards (Cossentine et al. 2004) relative to standard controls also needs to be considered. In areas of BC outside the Similkameen Valley, control of leafrollers using phero- mone-based mating disruption requires a multi-species approach if different com- plexes of sympatric leafrollers are to be controlled effectively (Judd and McBrien 1995). For example, in the Okanagan and Creston Valleys of BC, eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schif- fermiiller), European leafroller, Archips rosanus (L.) and fruit-tree leafroller, Ar- chips argyrospilus (Walker) are also impor- tant pests of apple. The latter two species use Z11-14:Ac as the major component in their multi-component pheromone blends (Arm ef al. 1982) and small-plot studies (Deland 1992) demonstrated that phero- mone communication and mating in A. rosanus and A. argyrospilus could be dis- rupted effectively with a pheromone blend similar to that used in Isomate-CM/LR. Spilonota ocellana, however, uses (Z)-8- tetradecenyl acetate as its major pheromone component (Arn et al. 1982) and would not be controlled by Isomate-CM/LR, but can be controlled by mating disruption (McBrien et al. 1998). An Isomate dis- penser containing this added ingredient is currently under study as a _ mating- disruption system for control of the entire leafroller complex found in organic pome fruit orchards in BC. With an organic for- mulation of spinosad (Entrust®) registered in Canada during 2005, the combined use of this insecticide and mating disruption in organic orchards also warrants study, be- cause the impact of spinosad on parasites of leafrollers in these systems needs to be con- sidered carefully. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the Similkameen-Okanagan Organic Producers' Association (SOOPA) and its cooperating members for allowing us to conduct trials in their orchards. We thank Janine Gartrell, Lila DeLury, Karen Todd, and Nicole Verpaelst for technical assistance. We especially thank Joan Cossentine for providing trapping data on leafrollers in untreated orchards, and Don Thomson of Pacific Biocontrol Corporation for making Isomate-CM/LR available for testing and sharing technical data on this product. This research was partially funded by the Washington State Tree Fruit Re- search Commission, SOOPA and the Agri- culture and Agri-Food Canada Matching Investment Initiative. REFERENCES Agnello, A.M., W.H. Reissig, S.M. Spangler, R.E. Charlton, and D.P. Kain. 1996. Trap response and fruit damage by obliquebanded leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in pheromone-treated apple orchards in New York. Environmental Entomology 25: 268-282. Arn, H., M. Toth, and E. Priesner. 1982. List of sex pheromones of Lepidoptera and related attractants, ys Edition. International Organization for Biological Control, Montfavet. J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 59 Brunner, J.F., L.J. Gut, and A.L. Knight. 1994. 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Mating disruption utilizing lepidopterous sex pheromones: three years of testing in apple orchards in The Netherlands. Brighton Crop Protection Conference — Pests and Diseases 3: 1193-1198. Walker, K.R. and S.C. Welter. 2001. Potential for outbreaks of leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in California apple orchards using mating disruption for codling moth suppression. Journal of Economic Entomology 94: 373-380. Wearing, C.H., J.T.S. Walker, W.P. Thomas, J.R. Clearwater, D.M. Suckling, J.G. Charles, P.W. Shaw, V. White, and G. Burnip, G. 1995. Pest control for organic apple production in New Zealand. The Orchard- ist July: 22-27. Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical Analysis, Second edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, USA. J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Climate change and potential selection for non-diapausing two-spotted spider mites on strawberry in southwestern British Columbia D.A. RAWORTH! ABSTRACT A validated model of the timing of post-diapause oviposition in the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, was used to predict when 50% of strawberry leaflets with 7. urticae also have T. urticae eggs (100s) in each year from 1954 to 2006 at Lang- ley, British Columbia. This timing was studied in relation to hours of frost occurring before and after oviposition. Historically, IOo.5 occurred before there were frost-free days, but there was a clear threshold at 390 h with temperatures < 0 °C after 100.5, which was not exceeded. This suggests that there is selection pressure for early oviposition, but also a limit to the extent of selection. The subzero temperature profile ~1 month before oviposition was clearly different from that after 109.5. The number of hours with subzero temperatures 1 month before oviposition, and the standard deviation of those estimates, were negatively correlated with year and indicated that there could be oviposition in January - rather than February - by 2015. Cumulative hours with temperatures < 0 °C between 27 November (the empirical estimate of the time when T. urticae begins accu- mulating degree-days for post-diapause oviposition) and 30 April was negatively corre- lated with year, and extrapolation of a linear regression suggested that there could be selection for continuous annual oviposition by 2050. There was considerable variation in the data, but considered in combination with published evidence for climate change, these results will be important in developing pest management strategies, and further- more, will impact many aspects of agriculture in the Fraser Valley of British Columbia. INTRODUCTION Global warming (Intergovernmental (B.C.), Canada. This study considers 61 the Panel on Climate Change 2007) will proba- bly affect arthropod ranges (Gray 2004; Logan and Powell 2004; Gutierrez et al. 2006; Musolin 2007) assuming fixed bio- logical tolerances to environmental condi- tions. At the same time, within a home range, it will probably also affect the life history characteristics of arthropods through selection (cf. Bradshaw ef al. 2004). Winter diapause is a key feature of temperate arthropods (Danks 2006). Dia- pause characteristics will probably be af- fected by global warming, and changes may become evident first in areas that have a relatively mild but temperate climate, such as the Fraser Valley of British Columbia effects of climate change on the timing of initial, post-diapause oviposition (IO) by two-spotted spider mites, Tetranychus urti- cae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), on straw- berry (Fragaria x ananassa_ Duch. Rosaceae). T. urticae females have a facultative reproductive diapause. Diapause is induced in the pre-imaginal stages, particularly at the end of the protonymphal instar, by short-day photoperiods (Veerman 1977a). Termination is dependent on duration of cold rest, temperature, and photoperiod during the first few months of diapause (Veerman 1977b). During winter, after photoperiodic sensitivity is gone, diapause ' Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, P.O. Box 1000, Agassiz, British Columbia, VOM 1A0, Canada. e-mail: raworthd@agr.gc.ca 62 J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 would be sustained and prolonged by low temperatures. Under long days at relatively high temperatures, diapause can be termi- nated without a cold rest period (Veerman 1977b), but under short days a cold rest period is required. Given a warmer climate there should be selection for individuals who reproduce continuously, despite short days, and there may be selection for individuals who do not respond to the initial photoperiodic induc- tion cues. This idea is supported by the fact that there is considerable variation in dia- pause induction and termination character- istics among 7. urticae strains, probably associated with adaptation to local condi- tions (Takafuji et al. 1991; Koveos et al. 1999). Raworth (2007) developed and validated a FORTRAN program (ProgIO) that deter- mined the timing of post-diapause oviposi- tion — the day when 50% of strawberry leaf- lets with T. urticae also had T. urticae eggs (100s). The oviposition model for the pro- gram was based on field samples from inland and coastal sites, collected during 1988 to 2006; estimates of 10); from 10 populations during 1988 to 2003 were used to calibrate the model, and six independent populations during 2004 to 2006 were used for validation. Here, ProglO and historical weather data are used to examine 1) where, histori- cally, T. urticae has placed 1095 with re- spect to frost, and 2) the annual historical trends in hours of frost. These trends are then used to predict when 7. urticae can be expected to commence oviposition in Janu- ary — rather than the current timing in Feb- ruary — and when 7. urticae may go through the winter with no reproductive diapause. It may be objected that viable leaves must be available for feeding and oviposition; how- ever, in this system mature green leaves overwinter, and the mites usually initiate feeding and oviposition on these leaves in February and March (Raworth 2007). MATERIALS AND METHODS ProglO and meteorological data were used to predict IOo.5 each year from 1954 to 2006. ProgIO first calculated the tempera- ture under a strawberry leaf in a commer- cial field at Langley, B. C. based on hourly temperature and cloud opacity data meas- ured by Environment Canada at Abbots- ford, B. C. since 1953, and calibration equations (Raworth 2007): 1. Cloud opacity = 1 (full cloud) a. 0800-1600 h: y = -8.756 + 1.009 ¢ + 1.731 h - 0.013 # - 0.076 h° + 0.015 ¢Xh R’ = 0.92, P< 0.0001, 425 df. b. 1700-0700 h: y = -1.104 + 0.864 ¢ - 0.025 h+0.010r R’ = 0.92, P< 0.0001, 862 d.f. 2. Cloud opacity = 0 (full sun) a. 0800-1600 h: y = -54.250 + 1.116 ¢ + 9.515 h- 0.370 h° R* = 0.85, P< 0.0001, 241 df. b. 1700-0700 h: y = -3.848 + 1.153 ¢ + 0.066 h + 0.023 r R’ = 0.92, P< 0.0001, 554 df. where: y = temperature experienced by the mites; ¢ = temperature in a Stevenson Screen in the field (¢ = -1.141 + 1.043 tec, where fec = air temperature at the Environ- ment Canada station); and / = hour (where: 0800-1600 h = 8, 9,...16; and 1700-0700 h = 17, 18,...24, 25, 26,...31). Temperatures under a leaflet in intermediate cloud condi- tions were determined by linear interpola- tion between the results provided by the equations for full cloud and full sun. The timing of IOo5 was then determined from thermal summations > 9.4 °C starting on an empirically-derived day, 27 November (Raworth 2007), and a thermal requirement (vy) that was negatively correlated with ac- cumulated cold-rest hours < 4 °C (x) summed from 27 November (Raworth 2007): 3. y= 78.3 - 0.0279 x; r° = 0.83, P= 0.01, 4A df. Equation 3 implies that, for equivalent rates of thermal summation, the spider mites will stay in diapause longer if they have had insufficient cold rest. The timing J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 of IOo.5; was compared graphically with the cumulative daily hours of frost below 0 °C summed between 27 November and 30 April of the following year. To determine what temperature condi- tions the mites have avoided, annual fre- quency was plotted against the number of hours of frost below 0, -1, -2,...-10 °C that remained after IOo,5 (3-d plot), and the hours of frost below 0, -1, -2,...-10 °C that occurred one month before mite eggs would be observed in the field, 10 January to 10 February (3-d plot). To determine when conditions would be suitable for earlier 63 occurred between 10 January and 10 Febru- ary were regressed (SAS Institute 2004) against year and the regression was ex- trapolated beyond 2006. Changes in vari- ability as a function of year were deter- mined by pooling the latter data for each decade and regressing 1 SD for mean hours below a given temperature in that decade against the median year. Finally, a similar technique was used to determine when con- ditions would be suitable for T. urticae to pass through the winter without reproduc- tive diapause based on the annual sum of the hours of frost below 0 °C between 27 oviposition by 7. urticae, the annual sum of | November and 30 April. hours of frost below 0, -2, -4,...-10 °C that RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Cumulative hours of frost below 0 °C between 27 November and IO, ;, from 1954 to 2006 varied between 400 and 1600 h (Fig. 1B, triangles). Despite this variation, 100.5 always occurred before frost-free days had begun (Fig. 1A, B), but with a clear upper threshold of 390 h of frost remaining after 1095. This indicates sensitivity to frost, because all the estimates of IOp;5 are clustered below 390 h; it also indicates some selection pressure for early oviposi- tion, because the mites do not wait until frost-free conditions occur. As long as a female’s progeny can survive and go on to reproduce, a female that initiates reproduc- tion early in the season should have a nu- merical advantage over one that initiates reproduction later. This result should be qualified. The 390 h threshold was deter- mined from a model of post-diapause ovi- position in southwestern B. C.; it would not be expected to apply to 7. urticae popula- tions that are adapted to different local con- ditions in other temperate regions. Such a generalization would require further re- search. Comparison of the subzero temperature profiles before and after IOo.5 suggests that T. urticae in southwestern B. C. is able to tolerate >200 h at -2 °C, but only 20 h at -6 °C (Fig. 2). Lower temperatures for longer periods (Fig. 3) have been avoided. How- ever, the number of hours with tempera- tures below 0, -2, ... -10 °C, 1 month before T. urticae normally commences oviposi- tion, have declined significantly since 1954 (Fig. 4). Taking -8 °C as a critical tempera- ture associated with no oviposition (Fig. 2), the data indicate that an average year will have zero hours <-8 °C by 2015 (Fig. 4). At this time there could be reduced selection pressure against emergence, and hence ovi- position in January rather than February. Because the regression predicts hours at a given temperature in an average year, one would expect some hours at temperatures <-8 °C in some years, and possible mortal- ity of early-emerging mites. However, the variation in subzero temperatures during this 1 month period has also declined since 1954 (Fig. 5) so that there will be less un- certainty about subzero conditions in 2015 than there was in 1957, and reduced selec- tion pressure against early emergence. The regression of total hours of frost below 0 °C from 27 November to 30 April against year suggests that the number of hours of frost will decrease to the threshold of 390 h by ~2050 (Fig. 6). At this point, selection for early oviposition could result in reproduc- tion by some individuals right through the winter in southwestern B.C. The objective of this study was to exam- ine general patterns in the initiation of post- 64 800-4:;.' Hours < 0°C 400 eae rp ! z eon Pi he Or Tc. ma Eset a ct OE 3.) sift tee a et gees: er ?: t%e, ° Pee ‘Pun, ° a cae EES eet ae, c teed. peat rin Tae . ee. 3 J. ENTOMOL. SOC Apr . BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Figure 1. Cumulative hours with temperatures < 0 °C under a strawberry leaflet in a commer- cial field from: (A) start date to 30 April versus start date (dots); (B) 27 November to the date when 50% of strawberry leaflets with 7. urticae also have T. urticae eggs (IOs) versus IOo.5 (triangles); and (B) 109.5 to 30 April versus IOo,5 (circles), each year from 1954 to 2006. The horizontal line represents a threshold number of hours < 0 °C remaining after IOg.s. V oe Number of years 0 aN Z\ 34 Ow, 2, RSA Sk SS SSS em: SSSSSSSS SSS EUS %, SSS Figure 2. Number of years with a given number of hours at subzero temperatures under a strawberry leaflet in a commercial field, after the date when 50% of strawberry leaflets with T. urticae also have T. urticae eggs. J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 65 } fee) Number of years : 4 mm 2\ rS) % -A KY ©, 200 h at -2 °C, but only 20 h J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 at -6 °C; and -8 °C was taken as the critical temperature after 1095 associated with no oviposition. These thresholds could be con- firmed by further work, but this was not the point of the study; regardless of the exact value of the thresholds, the patterns are clear. Oviposition is initiated before frost- free days occur — in ProgIO and ipso facto in the field data used to build ProglO; the number of hours of frost 1 month before Oviposition, and variation in those estimates among years, has decreased significantly during the last half century; and the number of hours of frost from 27 November through 30 April have also decreased sig- nificantly over the years. It is clearly risky to extrapolate from a linear regression based on data with consid- erable scatter (Figs. 4, 6); the relationship may be negative but asymptotic at, for ex- ample, 600 h frost (Fig. 6). However, there is additional evidence. Although it is diffi- cult to attribute observed temperature changes to natural or human causes at smaller than continental scales because factors such as land use change and pollu- tion complicate the picture (Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change 2007), the trends observed in the current study are consistent with the global warm- ing scenario. The mechanism driving global warming, namely increasing levels of greenhouse gases (GHG) (N20, CHg, and CO) is well established, and ‘With current climate change mitigation policies and re- 67 lated sustainable development practices, global GHG emissions will continue to grow over the next few decades’ (Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change 2007); a global temperature change of +0.2 °C per decade is projected. Therefore, the linear extrapolations in Figs. 4 and 6 may be reasonable. Time will tell, however if correct, oviposition in January should be observable within the next decade. Despite the many uncertainties in this study, there is sufficient evidence for earlier post-diapause oviposition in 7. uwurticae within the relatively near future in south- western B. C. to at least consider it in plan- ning spider mite monitoring and manage- ment activities. This would evolve naturally into planning for continuous annual ovi- position should that occur in 4 to 5 decades. Furthermore, a relatively rapid reduction in the number of hours of subzero tempera- tures during the winter will have significant implications for many aspects of agriculture in the Fraser Valley, including arthropod pest and disease management, crop produc- tion, and crop selection in both field and greenhouse environments. These effects need to be considered carefully by growers, pest managers, researchers, and government planners at Provincial and Federal levels with studies and approaches to address po- tential problems evolving as trends become increasingly certain. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank M. Petrou (Environment Can- ada) for meteorological data, and two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments. Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre contribution # 774. REFERENCES Bradshaw, W.E., P.A. Zani and C.M. Holzapfel. 2004. Adaptation to temperate climates. Evolution 58: 1748-1762. Danks, H.V. 2006. Key themes in the study of seasonal adaptations in insects II. Life-cycle patterns. 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Information Report Pacific Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service (BC X 399): 210-222. Musolin, D.L. 2007. Insects in a warmer world: ecological, physiological and life-history responses of true bugs (Heteroptera) to climate change. Global Change Biology 13: 1565-1585. Raworth, D.A. 2007. Initiation of oviposition after winter diapause in the spider mite Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae): prediction and historical patterns. Population Ecology 49: 201-210. SAS Institute. 2004. User’s manual, version 9.1. SAS Institute, Cary, NC. Takafuyi, A., P.M. So and N. Tsuno. 1991. Inter- and intra-population variations in diapause attributes of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, in Japan. Researches on Population Ecology 33: 331- 344. Veerman, A. 1977a. Aspects of the induction of diapause in a laboratory strain of the mite Tetranychus urticae. Journal of Insect Physiology 23: 703-711. Veerman, A. 1977b. Photoperiodic termination of diapause in spider mites. Nature 266: 526-527. J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 69 Biology and management of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Washington cherry orchards MICHAEL D. DOERR'”, JAY F. BRUNNER' and TIMOTHY J. SMITH” ABSTRACT The biology and management of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae) in Washington cherry orchards was investigated from 2003-2005. Two dominant species were identified attacking cherry (Prunus spp.) orchards: the shothole borer, Scolytus rugulosus Miller, and an ambrosia beetle, Xyleborinus saxeseni Ratzeburg. S. rugulosus was the species most implicated in damage to healthy trees. Two distinct periods of S. rugulosus activity occur in Washington, with a possible partial third in some locations. The first activity period begins in late April and peaks in late May to early June, with the second beginning in mid-July and peaks in late July to early August. Yellow sticky traps (unbaited apple maggot traps) were effective tools to monitor S. rugulosus activity but ethanol-baited intercept-style traps were necessary to monitor X. saxeseni activity. Movement of S. rugulosus into orchards was closely associated with emergence from outside hosts, generally a pile of recently pruned or cut wood placed outside the orchard. S. rugulosus readily moved distances of 10-50 m to attack trees on orchard borders, but did not move more than two or three rows into a healthy orchard. A residue bioassay technique demonstrated that several insecticides caused mortality of S. rugulosus adults. A pyrethroid, esfenvalerate, was the most active 21 d after treatment. Azinphos-methyl was acutely toxic to S. rugulosus, but for only seven d. Endosulfan and the neonicoti- nyls, thiamethoxam and acetamiprid, were somewhat toxic to S. rugulosus. Key Words: bark beetles, Scolytus rugulosus, Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae, ambrosia beetle, Xy/eborinus saxeseni INTRODUCTION Bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculioni- dae, Scolytinae) have historically been re- ported as pests of pome and stone fruit (Kirk 1969, Linsley and MacLeod 1942, Mendel et al. 1987, Payne 1977, Smith 1932). They are commonly described as attacking weakened trees and causing limb or even tree death if present in high enough numbers (Lindeman 1978). Nutritionally stressed trees, or those damaged by sun scald or winter freezing may provide points of access into orchards for opportunistic beetles (Bhagwandin 1992). Health of trees is important to the natural plant defense against bark beetle attack. High plant cell turgor pressure through proper soil water availability may allow trees to mechanically flood out or chemically repel potential colo- nizers through increased sap flow at the site of attack (Rudinsky 1962, Berryman 1972). The use of synthetic organic insecticides has likely mitigated problems with bark beetles in tree fruit orchards, and until re- cently they have been considered sporadic and localized pests (Beers ef al. 1993). However, the reported incidence of injury from bark beetles in Washington stone fruit orchards has been increasing (Brunner 'Washington State University Tree Fruit Research and Extension Center, 1100 N. Western Ave., We- natchee, WA 98801, USA : Washington State University Cooperative Extension, 303 Palouse St., Wenatchee, WA 98801, USA : Corresponding author. E-mail: mdoerr@wsu.edu 70 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 2003). Anecdotal reports attributed injury to beetles moving into orchards, especially cherry orchards, from outside hosts and attacking healthy trees. The damage most often noted is the boring of beetles at the base of buds by pioneer beetles, causing affected buds to die. Continuous and re- peated attacks eventually weaken otherwise healthy trees and make them susceptible to secondary attacks from either conspecifics or possibly other wood boring beetles. Es- pecially vulnerable are new plantings of young cherry trees. Economic difficulties in Washington’s fruit industry during the late 1990s likely contributed to the bark beetle problem through an increased occurrence of neglected or abandoned orchards providing suitable host material for bark beetle repro- duction (Warner 2006, Mendel e¢ a/. 1987). Initial observations (2001-02) of bark beetle damage in cherry orchards indicated a need to further explore certain aspects of their biology and management. With little or no published information from Washing- ton, species identifications and verification of life histories were required for all bark beetles infesting Washington cherry or- chards. Preliminary observations indicated that the main beetle species was the shot- hole borer, Scolytus sp., however at least one other species, possibly an ambrosia beetle, was also involved in attacking healthy cherry trees. While many other wood boring beetles were observed in and around infested hosts, their role in damage to healthy trees was either unknown or unlikely based on what was known of their natural history. Pests invading orchards from an exter- nal host represents a significant challenge to the timing of chemical controls. Knowl- edge of the pest’s development in host plants is needed along with its ability to migrate from these hosts into orchards. Adult traps have proven useful for monitor- ing bark beetles in other orchard or natural systems (Kovach and Gorsuch 1985, Mar- kalas and Kalapanida 1997), but research is needed to identify and optimize monitoring systems for tree fruit pest management pro- grams. Information is also needed on how much of an orchard requires protection from bark beetles, over what time periods, and which insecticides would be effective at providing required protection. This paper provides new knowledge that will help Washington cherry growers man- age bark beetle problems. The key species involved in attacking pome and stone fruit trees were identified along with a clear un- derstanding of their seasonal life history. We also developed methods of monitoring bark beetles, and determined the distance bark beetles moved from a natal food host to attack healthy orchard trees. A bioassay technique was developed for assessing rela- tive toxicity of candidate insecticides, and we documented successful control strate- gies used to manage bark beetles in heavily infested orchards. MATERIALS AND METHODS Bark beetle identification, monitor- ing, and life history. Bark beetles and other wood boring Coleoptera infesting Washington cherry orchards were identified by a combination of rearing adults from host wood infested with immature larvae in emergence cages and trapping adults near suspected host sites and along orchard bor- ders. All insects collected in the following trials were stored in alcohol and later identi- fied to family (Dr. Christian Krupke, Pur- due University; Dale Whaley, Washington State University; Michael Doerr, Washing- ton State University). All Scolytinae and associated parasitoids were sent to Malcom Furniss, (Entomologist Emeritus, Univer- sity of Idaho) for identification. All Coleop- tera collected from emergence cages and adult traps were identified in 2003. In 2004 only Scolytinae were submitted for identifi- cation. By 2005 it was apparent that Scoly- tus spp. were the dominant bark beetles present in Washington cherry orchards so identification was further limited to those J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 species. Emergence cages were used to identify a species:host relationship. Infested wood from four sites was collected during the spring and summer in 2003, placed in opaque cardboard boxes (50 x 50 x 30 cm), and held under laboratory conditions (22 + 2 °C). One glass vial (2.5 cm diameter x 10 cm) was placed through a hole in each emergence box. Emerging beetles (and Hy- menopteran parasitoids) where attracted to the light coming through the opening in the box and entered the vial. Beetles and natu- ral enemies that entered the vial were re- moved daily. Adult traps were placed near infested wood piles outside of orchard blocks (referred to below as ‘outside hosts’) and on the orchard border closest to the outside host at sixteen locations in north-central Washington from 2003-05 (twenty one or- chard-yr equivalents). No specific protocols were followed across all sites, but rather an effort was made to ensure that trap place- ments sufficiently covered the threatened area of each orchard border and encircled outside hosts. Considerations had to be made depending on the size of each loca- tion. Generally, traps were placed approxi- mately 10 m apart on orchard borders and hung directly in the trees at a height of 2 m. At least four traps were placed around a suspected outside host. If circling a host was not possible, traps were placed ap- proximately 10 m apart across the length of the host. Most often traps were hung di- rectly from host material, but it was some- times necessary to hang them from a 2 m tall post that was placed adjacent to the host. Monitoring efforts in 2003 focused on identifying the best available trap and lure system. Commercially available intercept- style traps (Lindgren Funnel Trap, 8- funnnels, Phero Tech, Inc., Delta, British Columbia, Canada; Pane Intercept Trap, IPM Technologies, Inc., Portland, OR), either with or without an ethanol attractant, and un-baited yellow sticky traps (Pherocon AM, Tréceé, Inc., Adair, OK) were evalu- ated in trials replicated across several loca- tions for their ability to monitor adult activ- Wh ity at an outside host and at a nearby or- chard. A 12.5 cm? DvDP kill strip (Vaportape II insecticidal strips, Hercon Environmental Co, Emigsville, PA) was placed in the collection container of the intercept-style traps to kill beetles and pre- vent their escape. In 2003, a direct comparison was made between the Lindgren Funnel Trap and the Pane Intercept Trap at six locations. Each trap type was baited with the respective manufacturer’s commercially available ethanol lure. Traps were placed on 15 April and monitored every seven d until 15 Oct. Lures were replaced at six-wk intervals, based on manufacturer recommendations. A direct comparison to evaluate the effective- ness of the ethanol attractant in the Lindgren Funnel Trap was also made at four locations in 2003. Traps were placed on 15 April and monitored every seven d for six weeks. In 2003 and 2004, a direct comparison was made between a Lindgren Funnel Trap baited with an ethanol lure and an unbaited yellow sticky trap at ten loca- tions. In 2004, traps were placed on 1 Mar and monitored every seven d through Octo- ber. The ethanol lures were replaced at six- wk intervals. Two traps of each treatment were placed in an alternating pattern at all locations. Season-long captures of the dominant Scolytinae species were averaged for the two traps at each location. Due to high variability in populations between locations, trap capture data from the paired comparisons were analyzed by a Wilcoxon Rank Test (P=0.05) (Wilcoxon 1945) using JMP statistical software (JMP v. 5.1.2 2004). Adult trap data gathered from the loca- tions with the highest populations (15 or- chard-yr for S. rugulosus and five orchard- yt for X. saxeseni) were used to plot cumu- lative emergence of the dominant species for each of the generations. With no tem- perature-dependent developmental (degree- day) data available, the only point of refer- ence between years was Julian days. Cumu- lative emergence at each date was averaged and plotted with the raw data from each orchard site. Julian days were then con- 72 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 verted back to calendar days for ease of reference. Scolytus rugulosus migration and damage distribution. Two orchards in 2004 and two in 2005 were identified where host wood piles that were heavily infested with S. rugulosus were threatening nearby healthy orchards (<50 m). Yellow sticky traps were placed by the hosts located out- side the orchards to track adult emergence and on the orchard borders to monitor 1m- migration. Cumulative capture percentiles for an entire S. rugu/osus generation at the outside host and on the orchard border were plotted together for each study site. If cu- mulative percentiles were identical at the host and the orchard this would suggest that adult dispersal to a suitable feeding or re- productive site occurred immediately after emergence. However, dramatic shifts in cumulative percentiles would indicate e1- ther a delay in migration from the outside host or a constant or prolonged immigration into the orchard from multiple outside hosts. Each location could only be moni- tored for one generation because we al- lowed growers to remove the natal host and protect their orchard following our observa- tions. At the same locations described above, damage to healthy trees in the orchard was monitored by visually inspecting trees. Every tree along the border row and then every tree in subsequent rows moving into the orchard away from the outside host were monitored for S. rugulosus damage until no further damage was noted. The total number of trees sampled varied at each orchard (Site 1 — 3 rows x 19 trees, Site 2 — 5 rows x 8 trees, Site 3 — 4 rows x 12 trees, Site 4 — 7 rows x 15 trees). Twenty growing shoots were randomly selected from each tree and the total number of shoots exhibit- ing wilting or flagging foliage (visually confirmed to be caused by S. rugulosus burrowing) was recorded. We calculated the total number of damaged shoots at each site, then noted what percentage of that total was found in the row closest to the outside host (row one) and each subsequent row moving away from the outside host. Scolytus rugulosus insecticide screen- ing. Insecticides were evaluated using newly emerged Scolytus rugulosus adults in 2004. The insecticides outlined in the Re- sults and Discussion section included the majority of those recommended for use on cherries in Washington (Smith et al. 2004). Although the insecticides chosen for this trial were those available on cherry, mature Delicious apple trees at WSU-TFREC were the only trees readily available for this test. The trees were treated with various insecti- cides at the manufacturers’ recommended rates. All treatments were applied with a handgun sprayer at 300 psi to drip, simulat- ing a full dilute spray. Treatments were applied to one-tree plots replicated three times in a randomized complete block. A one-tree buffer (unsprayed tree) was left between each replicate to reduce over-spray and drift. Treated apple branches, approxi- mately 15 cm long x 1.25 cm diameter sec- tions of two-yr-old wood, were collected at 1, 7, 14 and 21 d after treatment (DAT), returned to the laboratory and stored at 2 °C until new adults could be collected. Branch sections were placed into 1 L deli cups (Prime Source PS232, Dallas, TX). Un- treated apple branches were used as con- trols for each sample date. Five arenas were prepared for each treatment. Five S. rugulo- sus adults, collected from emergence cages described above, were added to an arena and survival was recorded after 24 h (25 adults/treatment/DAT). It was assumed that the adults appearing in the vials were newly emerged, but that could not be verified. Both males and females were used in the bioassay, with no effort made to segregate by sex. We did not generate enough adults to run the entire screening at one time so adults were added to the insecticide arenas in the following order: one replicate from each treatment followed by an untreated control replicate for the one DAT samples. All replicates from this initial collection date were completed before beginning evaluations on the next series of samples (seven DAT). The process was repeated until all samples were completed. Rearing conditions were 22 °C, 16:8 L:D. Average J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 survival and standard error of the means were reported for each treatment. Successful Scolytus rugulosus man- agement practices. During the course of this study, we documented S. rugulosus control efforts in four heavily infested or- chards. In each situation we were contacted by growers who were already experiencing severe injury to cherry orchards. We worked with growers to monitor potential hosts, whether inside or outside of an or- chard, with adult traps in an effort to iden- tify the sources of infestation. Dissections of suspected host material (removing bark to expose live larvae) were conducted to 73 verify S. rugulosus were currently utilizing the material as a natal host. We also con- ducted damage evaluations throughout the orchards to isolate the areas that required intervention. Once the S. rugulosus situa- tion was completely described, growers implemented their own sanitation programs. We continued to monitor the orchards with adult traps throughout the clean up process and subsequently conducted post treatment damage evaluations to document the effi- cacy of these efforts. The methods used in these damage evaluations were consistent with those described in the trials above. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bark beetle identification, monitor- ing, and life history. A total of 17,116 adult Scolytinae were collected from in- fested fruitwood, yellow sticky traps, and ethanol-baited intercept traps. The domi- nant Scolytinae found throughout Washing- ton was the shothole borer, S. rugulosus Miiller (ver. Malcom Furniss) (Table 1). An ambrosia beetle, Xyleborinus saxeseni Ratz- burg (ver. Malcom Furniss), was present in high numbers at only one location, a cherry orchard abandoned for several years. More than one species of Scolytinae were de- tected at each location where identification was not limited to Scolytus spp. A second Scolytus sp. (S. multistriatus) was found infesting a pile of cherry wood at only one site. Cherry has not been reported as a host (Furniss and Johnson 2002) for S. multistriatus, and in this case, S. multistria- tus infested only the pile of cherry wood and was not detected moving into the neighbouring cherry orchard. Many other wood decomposing beetles were reared from infested fruitwood. In fact, the major- ity of Coleoptera species collected were associated with dry, older wood (dead for more than 18 mo). Buprestid (Buprestidae) and powderpost beetles (Lyctidae) were the primary beetles associated with dry wood (Table 1). S. rugulosus and X. saxeseni were the primary attackers of weakened trees or recent cuttings (<18 mo). S. rugulo- sus was the species most implicated in dam- age to healthy orchards, whereas X. saxe- seni was found attacking only trees that had been previously damaged or weakened. Initial observations from laboratory emer- gence cages indicated that there was a high rate of parasitism (approximately 50%) of S. rugulosus larvae by Cheiropachus quad- rum (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) (ver. Malcom Furniss) based on their relative abundance in vials from emergence cages. No statistically significant difference was noted between commercially available intercept-style traps in their ability to cap- ture adult S. rugulosus (Chi-Square 3.103, df 1, P = 0.078) but X. saxeseni captures were slightly higher in Lindgren Funnel Trap than Pane Intercept Trap (Chi-Square 4.021, df 1, P = 0.045) (Table 2). Both in- tercept-style traps should be suitable moni- toring systems for S. rugulosus and X. saxe- seni adults. The addition of an ethanol lure significantly enhanced captures of both S. rugulosus (Chi-Square 5.333, df 1, P = 0.021) and X. saxeseni (Chi-Square 5.333, df 1, P = 0.021). Although ethanol lures significantly increased captures of both species, this may be an area where monitor- ing systems could be improved. Synergistic plant volatiles (Montgomery and Wargo 1983) and/or aggregation pheromones (Lindgren et al. 1983, Pitman ef al. 1975, Schroeder and Lindelow 1989, Peacock ef 74 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Table 1. Wood-boring beetle collections from infested fruitwood, yellow sticky traps, and ethanol- baited intercept traps from Washington, 2003-05. Location Yr Host Material Wenatchee 2003 Dead cherry Wenatchee 2003 <1-yr-old cuttings Mallot 2003 1-yr-old pushed over apple Okanogan 2003 <1l-yr-old pushed over cherry Oroville 2003 <1-yr-old cuttings Oroville 2003 Neglected apple E. Wenatchee 2003 <2-yr-old cuttings Wapato 2003 Neglected cherry W. Valley 2003 Neglected cherry Cowiche 2003 Neglected cherry Orondo 2004 <2-yr-old cuttings Wenatchee 2004 Dead cherry E. Wenatchee 2004 <2-yr-old cuttings Okanogan 2004 Corresponding author. Tel. 417-547-7507. E-mail: MPszczolkowski@missouristate.edu 84 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 neonates’ response to gingko extract in the apple plug assay with their response to whole apples using an assay previously described in Pszczolkowski and Brown (2005). MATERIALS AND METHODS Insects. Codling moths originated from USDA-ARS Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory in Wapato, WA, the same source as used by Suomi ef al. (1986). This laboratory has maintained the codling moth colony for about 40 years, comprising more than 480 generations. Moths were held at 25 °C, 70-80% RH, under a 16L:8D light- dark regime, and allowed to oviposit on polypropylene foil. Neonates were collected 0.5-1 h post-hatch, and used for experi- ments. Plant extracts. The extracts were pre- pared from foliage of G. biloba, A. absin- thium, Artemisia arborescens L. x Ar- temisia absinthium L., Artemisia ludovici- ana Nutt. “Valerie Finnis, Artemisia cali- fornica Less. and Artemisia vulgaris L. Dried A.absynthium foliage was pur- chased from a local pharmacy (London Apothecary, Mansfield, MO). Remaining plant material was collected in the gardens of Missouri State University Research Campus, Mountain Grove, MO, in July 2008. Dehydration alcohol (91% v/v ethanol, 4% v/v methanol, 5% v/v _ isopropanol; EMD Chemicals Inc., Gibbstown, NJ) was used to prepare all extracts. Plants were dehydrated using an Open Country food dehydrator (Nesco/American Harvest®, Two Rivers, WI) at 35 °C for 48 hours. The dry foliage was ground in a coffee grinder. Approximately 0.5 ml of dry plant powder was placed in a plastic centrifugation tube, 500 ul of dehydration alcohol added, then the tube was vortexed and left at room tem- perature for 10 min. The tube was then cen- trifuged at 2000 G for 10 min and 300 ul of liquid fraction was transferred to a pre- weighed plastic test tube and allowed to air dry overnight. The test tube with the resi- due was re-weighed the next morning and enough dehydration alcohol was added to make a 10 mg/ml solution of each plant extract. The extracts were prepared imme- diately before testing. Modified assay using apple plugs. For each test arena, four plugs were procured from the same Golden Delicious apple, using a length of plastic soda straw (Fig. 1A), such that the straw covered the pulp, but not the epidermis of the apple. The crevice between the plug and the edge of the straw was sealed with paraffin wax ap- plied with a warm spatula (Fig. 1B). The straws were then placed in a holder, apple plug facing up, and 5 ul of test solution were applied to each plug. The plugs were allowed to air dry, and four plugs were placed in a 60 x 15 mm polystyrene Petri dish (Fig. 1C). Small pieces of modeling clay held the plugs in place. New clay was used for each assay. A glass rod (1.3 mm diameter, 25-27 mm long) was positioned such that each end of the rod touched both the control and the treated member of the plug pair (Fig. 1C). One neonate was placed, using a camel-hair artistic brush, in the middle of the glass rod and the Petri dish was covered with a lid. The entire as- sembly was covered with a half of a white plastic RipBall (TM & Enor Corp., North- vale, NJ) to provide a white, slightly opaque cupola (Fig. 1D) and placed on the testing bench illuminated by fluorescent tubes and Soft White 60 general purpose bulbs (General Electric Canada, Cleveland, OH). Such an arrangement provided dis- persed, non-directional light of uniform luminosity (900-920 lux) over each test arena, which was important because cod- ling moth neonates exhibit mild phototro- pism (Jackson, 1982). Prior to every experi- ment, glass rods and Petri dishes were washed sequentially in tap water, double distilled water, alcohol, then dried. Preliminary experiments showed that neonates could be expected to locate a plug and begin feeding within 20 hours, and that J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 85 a: monaannncnnnnaniin va ‘eee out of apple. B. Crevice between the plug and the straw is sealed with paraffin wax. C. a, c. Plugs treated with plant extracts; b, d. control plugs treated with dehydration alcohol. D. Test arena is covered with plastic cupola to disperse light and eliminate possible effects of direc- tional lighting. neonates showed no preference for any plug position in the arena. In the experiments reported here, 30 neonates were individu- ally exposed to ginkgo extracts, and 18-23 neonates were individually exposed to ex- tracts of each Artemisia species. All neo- nates were tested simultaneously. All apple plugs were examined under a dissecting microscope after 20 h for feeding indicators such as abraded epidermis, presence of ex- crement, or a feeding cavity. If evidence of feeding was found, the plug was removed from the straw and dissected to reveal the larva. Whole-fruit assay. To test whether or not neonates behaved similarly when pre- sented with ginkgo extracts on whole fruit, we compared neonate behaviour in the ap- ple-plug assay with behaviour in our previ- ously described whole-fruit assay (Pszczolkowski and Brown, 2005). Unin- fested thinning apples (Red Delicious; about 20 mm diameter) from Mountain Grove experiment orchards were used for whole-fruit assays. Apples were submerged in 10 mg/ml extract of ginkgo in dehydra- tion alcohol or in dehydration alcohol only (about 200 ul of test solution per apple), 86 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 and allowed to air dry. Two apples (one ginkgo-treated and one alcohol-treated con- trol) were placed 0.5 cm apart in a 70-mm diameter Pyrex glass crystallizing dish. One neonate was gently placed with a fine camel-hair artistic brush in the space be- tween the fruits and the crystallizing dish was covered with a glass Petri dish. To pre- vent airflow that could bias the results of the assay, the entire assembly was placed in a semi-translucent 473-ml high-density polypropylene container and covered with a transparent lid. The testing bench and test arenas were illuminated as described for the apple-plug assay. Before each test, glass- ware and polypropylene containers were washed sequentially in tap water, double distilled water, alcohol, then dried. Thirty neonates were tested individually in this assay. Both apple-plug assay and whole-fruit assay were conducted at the same time After 24 h, all apples were ex- amined under a dissecting microscope for evidence of feeding, as described above for the apple-plug assay. Statistical analysis. Exact Fisher’s test (a=0.05) was used in all assays to test the null hypothesis that neonates do not dis- criminate between plugs or apples treated with plant extract and those treated with alcohol (i.e., 50% of the neonates choose treated plugs or apples and 50% of the neo- nates choose control plugs or apples). RESULTS Effects of ginkgo in apple-plug assay and whole-fruit assay. In both the apple- plug and the whole-fruit assays, the major- ity (29 of 30, and 28 of 30, respectively) of neonates avoided fruit treated with 10 mg/ ml of ginkgo extract (P< 0.001). For every neonate, feeding indicators such as abraded epidermis, presence of excrement, or feed- ing cavities were found on only one apple plug or one apple out of two members of one pair. We conclude that this is evidence that each neonate larva, upon arrival at a ginkgo-treated plug or fruit, did not attempt to feed and was deterred or repelled, or both, by ginkgo extract. Effects of Artemisia extracts in apple- plug assay. Extracts from three of the five Artemisia species discouraged neonates from burrowing into apple plugs (Table 1). Extracts from A. absinthium, A. arbores- cens x A. absinthium and A. ludoviciana “Valerie Finnis” were active (P<0.01). Ar- temisia vulgaris and A. californica had no effect. As in the case of ginkgo, for every neonate, feeding indicators were found on only one apple plug out of two members of one pair. We conclude that Artemisia ex- tracts were either repellent or deterrent or both. DISCUSSION Deterrent or repellent activity of ginkgo extracts toward codling moth neonates is a novel finding. Surprisingly, information about insect deterrent activity of this plant is scarce in the literature, but what exists provides indirect supportive evidence. Two studies showed that extracts from ginkgo foliage reduce feeding by two insect pests of cabbage: Pieris brassicae (Fu-Shun et al. 1990) and P. rapae (Matsumoto and Sei 1987). Addition of anacardic acids (an al- kylphenol found in ginkgo) reduced intake of artificial diet in Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Schultz et al. 2006). Other biologically active compo- nents of ginkgo foliage include flavonoids and there is evidence that some flavonoids have deterrent and antifeedant activity in insects (Simmonds 2001). At the current stage of our study, we do not know what constituents of ginkgo extract discourage codling moth larvae from burrowing into apple plugs. The finding that A. absinthium deters codling moth neonates corroborates the results of Suomi ef al. (1986). In their ex- periments, only 9% of larvae bored into apple plugs treated with a 1% extract ob- J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 87 Table 1. Effect of 10 mg/ml extracts obtained from plants in the genus Arthemisia on feeding by cod- ling moth neonates. Plant species used for apple plug Number of Number of larvae feeding Artemisia absinthium pA Pius Artemisia arborescens x A. absinthium 16 aad Artemisia ludoviciana “Valerie Finnis” 17 sta Artemisia vulgaris 16 4 Artemisia californica 18 71 | ** P<().01, Fisher’s exact test ?* no statistical significance tained from this plant. Our results showing that extracts from other members of Ar- temisia genus also have deterrent properties against codling moth neonates are novel, but not surprising in the light of other data from the literature. For instance, the essen- tial oil of A. annua has repellent activities against two economically important stored- product pests, the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus (Tripathi et al. 2000). The compound 1,8-cineole isolated from the same plant has feeding deterrent activity against 7. castaneum (Tripathi et al. 2001). Essential oils from A. vulgaris also repel T. castaneum beetles (Wang et al. 2006). The fact that different plants from the same genus have different biological activity against codling moth neonates may facilitate isolation of their active compo- nents by comparative chemical analysis. We think that our findings warrant fur- ther studies on effects of ginkgo and Ar- temisia extracts on codling moth neonates. Active constituents of these extracts should be identified, and their potential as codling moth feeding deterrents or repellents — as- sessed. Perhaps, if manufactured on a larger scale, those constituents could be used as organic alternatives to conventional insecti- cides for management of codling moth on apples. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Ms. Pam Anderson and Mr. Jim Harris, USDA, ARS, Wapato WA, USA for provision of insects for this study. Technical assistance of Miss Samantha Sellars is greatly acknowledged. A part of this project was funded by Missouri Life Science Research Board, grant No. F0741 162001. REFERENCES Fu-Shun, Y., K.A. Evans, L.H. Stevens, T.A. van Beek and L.M. Schoonhoven. 1990. Deterrents extracted from the leaves of Ginkgo biloba: effects on feeding and contact chemoreceptors. Entomologia Experi- mentalis et Applicata 54: 57-64. Jackson, M.D. 1979. Codling moth egg distribution on unmanaged apple trees. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 72: 361-368. Jackson, M.D. 1982. Searching behavior and survival of 1*-instar codling moths. Annals of the Entomologi- cal Society of America 75: 284-289. Landolt, P.J., R.W. Hofstetter, and L.L. Biddick. 1999. Plant essential oils as arrestants and repellents for neonate larvae of the codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Environmental Entomology 28: 954-960. Matsumoto, T. and T. Sei. 1987. Antifeedant activities of Ginkgo biloba L. components against the larva of Pieris rapae crucivora. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 51: 249-250. Pszczolkowski, M.A. 2007. How to trick codling moth? Prospects of manipulation with neonate larvae 88 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 behavior to the benefit of the grower. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sc. - SGGW, Horticulture And Landscape Architecture 28: 7-18. Pszczolkowski M.A. and J.J. Brown. 2005. Single experience learning in host fruit selection by lepidopteran larvae. Physiology and Behavior 86: 168-175. Schultz D.J., C. Olsen, G.A. Cobbs, N.J. Stolowich, and M.M. Parrott. 2006. Bioactivity of anacardic acid against colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) \arvae. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54: 7522-7529. Simmonds, M.S.J. 2001. Importance of flavonoids in insect-plant interactions: feeding and oviposition. Phytochemistry 56: 245-252. Suomi, D., J.J. Brown and R.D. Akre. 1986. Responses to plant extracts of neonatal codling moth larvae, Cydia pomonella (L.), (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Olethreutinae). Journal of Entomological Society of British Columbia 83: 12-18. Tadic, M. 1957. Jabucni Smotavac (Carpocapsa pomonella L.). Biologija kao osnova za njegovo suzbi- janije. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Belgrade, Yugoslavia. 100 pp. Tripathi, A.K., V. Prajapati, K.K. Aggarwal, S.P.S. Khanuja and S. Kumar. 2000. Repellency and toxicity of oil from Artemisia annua to certain stored-product beetles. Journal of Economic Entomology 93: 43- 47. Tripathi, A.K., V. Prajapati, K.K. Aggarwal and S. Kumar. 2001. Toxicity, feeding deterrence, and effect of activity of 1,8-cineole from Artemisia annua on progeny production of Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 94: 979-983. Wang, J., F. Zhu, X.M. Zhou, C.Y. Niu and C.L. Lei. 2006. Repellent and fumigant activity of essential oil from Artemisia vulgaris to Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Journal of Stored Product Research 42: 339-347. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Management of dandelion to supplement control of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in apple orchards S.D. COCKFIELD’” and E.H. BEERS! ABSTRACT We evaluated whether management of the broadleaf weed dandelion, Taraxacum offici- nale F.H. Wigg. ager., affected damage to apples by western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)). Four commercial apple orchard blocks in central Washington having high densities of dandelion were monitored over a 3-yr period. Herbicides were applied to the drive rows in one-half of each orchard for each year of the study. A 92% reduction in dandelion densities in the low-weed plots was achieved by the third year of the experiment. The number of thrips per dandelion plant did not change as dandelions became less numerous. This resulted in an overall reduction in western flower thrips per unit area on dandelions throughout the course of the trial. However, the number of west- ern flower thrips in the apple flowers and shoots were not affected by the treatment. Estimated western flower thrips population density per ha on apple and dandelion indi- cated that dandelions harboured a much smaller pool of western flower thrips in com- parison to apple. No significant reduction in fruit injury was detected in any year. Thus, reduction or elimination of dandelion from the orchard floor appears to be of limited value in managing western flower thrips in apple orchards. INTRODUCTION 89 Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a sporadic, di- rect pest of apple (Beers ef al. 1993). The most conspicuous injury consists of an ovi- position puncture, which leaves a small, rugose scar, and a series of white spots sur- rounding it, commonly known as pansy spot (Newcomer 1921). Injury is most ap- parent on green or blush cultivars (Madsen and Jack 1966). Densities of adult thrips in apple blossom clusters increase in late April and May as the flowers open; oviposition in fruit occurs from the end of bloom until fruit reaches 30 mm in diameter (Cockfield et al. 2007a). Beginning with the earliest investiga- tions of western flower thrips in apple or- chards, broadleaf plants in the groundcover have been assumed to greatly influence the population dynamics of this pest. Venables (1925) collected western flower thrips from tumbling mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum L.), a common weed, and alfalfa, Medicago sativa L., from apple orchards in British Columbia. These host plants harboured the pest throughout the summer. Childs (1927) stated that the choice and management of cover crops is a major component to west- ern flower thrips management. He recom- mended cultivating or plowing the orchard ground in early spring to eliminate weeds and to disrupt overwintering thrips in the soil. After the practice of growing cover crops such as alfalfa was no longer com- mon, Madsen and Jack (1966) determined that dandelion, Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. aggr., was the most abundant under- story host of western flower thrips before and after apple bloom, and wild mustard, Brassica kaber (DC.) L.C. Wheeler, and asparagus, Asparagus officinalis L., were important alternate hosts in the summer. Pearsall and Myers (2000, 2001) found that not only did a number of broadleaf weeds 'Tree Fruit Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, 1100 N. Western Avenue, We- natchee, WA 98801 * Corresponding author: PO Box 1461, Malott, WA 98829. E-mail: pest@bossig.com 90 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 harbour western flower thrips, but orchards with the highest population of weeds had some of the highest numbers of western flower thrips caught in sticky traps. Two recent experiments done on groundcover management have shown mixed results. Hubscher (1983) found that a temporary perturbation, such as mowing dandelions in spring (intended to redirect pollinators to apple blossoms) had no meas- urable effect on the population of western flower thrips in apple, or damage to fruit. Cossentine ef al. (1999) showed that elimi- nation of weeds such as dandelion in small plots reduced thrips populations in trees, but the effect was temporary. The magni- tude of the effect may have been limited by the temporal and spatial scale of both stud- ies; thus, a more substantial, permanent effect may result from eliminating weeds for a number of seasons in larger orchard blocks. If successful, this method could reduce the need to control western flower thrips around the bloom period, or reduce fruit damage as part of a multi-tactic IPM program. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of a cultural control method, long-term management of dandelion, on populations of western flower thrips in large blocks of commercial apple orchards and to determine the effect of thrips population changes on fruit damage. MATERIALS AND METHODS Site Description. This experiment was conducted over the course of three years in four commercial apple orchards near the towns of Bridgeport, Brewster, Pateros, and Quincy in Washington State, U.S.A. The orchards were selected because of a history of significant thrips damage to fruit and for their high densities of dandelions (>10/m’). Trees in the Bridgeport orchard block were cv. ‘Granny Smith’, while the Brewster and Pateros blocks were cv. ‘Braeburn’. The Quincy block was planted with alternating two rows of cv. ‘Fuji’ and ‘Braeburn’. Trees were 7-15 yr old. Each block was approximately 2-4 ha and was surrounded by other orchards. There were two treat- ments: 1) low-weed, where herbicide appli- cations were made in the drive rows (the section of the orchard floor between the tree rows left as mixed grass and weed ground- cover to facilitate use of equipment) and 2) high-weed (drive rows untreated with herbi- cides). Each of the four orchards was di- vided in half, and treatments assigned ran- domly, with each site serving as a replicate. Herbicides. A _ vegetation-free strip about 2 m wide was maintained beneath the trees in both halves of the block. All or- chards in the study had a similar program for weed control in the vegetation-free tree rows. Pre-emergent herbicides, and some- times 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4- D), were applied in early spring, followed by individual sprays or mixtures of paraquat, 2,4-D, and glyphosate after bloom. If necessary, repeat applications were made in June. The drive rows of low-weed plots were sprayed with 1.1-1.6 kg Al/ha of 2,4-D (Weedar 64, Nufarm Inc., St. Joseph, MO) + 370 ml/100 litres of R11 surfactant (Wilbur-Ellis Co., San Francisco, CA). One or two applications were made in the spring with a weed sprayer calibrated to deliver 234 litres/ha. Any surviving weeds were treated individually with a 9% vol:vol solu- tion of 2, 4-D with a 15.1 litre backpack sprayer (Wil-Gro, Wilbur-Ellis Co., San Francisco, CA). Insecticides. Insecticides applied for apple pests in a given site were the same across the entire block (high-weed and low- weed plots). Densities of lepidopteran pests were generally low in the study orchards, and required minimal treatment. These pests were managed with applications of chlorpyrifos at delayed dormant, spinosad at petal fall, and azinphos-methyl or meth- oxyfenozide during early summer. Because of the history of fruit injury, growers ap- plied formetanate hydrochloride to control western flower thrips at full bloom every year. Sampling Methods. Dandelion densi- J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 ties were sampled by counting the numbers of plants in a marked 1 m’ area in the drive rows. Ten randomly selected areas were marked in the middle row of each treatment block, with each area separated by about 3- 5 m. Within these areas, dandelion plants (both total numbers and those in flower) were counted monthly from March or April through October. Thrips densities were sampled monthly on four flowering and four vegetative dan- delion plants per plot. All thrips samples were taken the same time of mid-day in each of the paired plots, although the time differed between sites. Dandelion plants (outside the m” marked areas) were severed at ground level and placed in self-sealing plastic bags. Thrips were sampled in the blossoms and vegetative shoots of apple trees. Blos- som samples were taken during full bloom (April or May) about one day before insec- ticides were applied. Twenty-five open ap- ple blossoms were selected from eight trees randomly chosen in the middle row of the plot. The blossoms were clipped off and placed in self-sealing plastic bags. The area sampled was at least 30 m away from the edges of the plots. In the third and final year, the sample size was increased to 150- 300 flowers per tree. Thrips in vegetative shoots were sampled monthly after the ter- mination of bloom. The tips (3 cm in length) of 10 growing shoots were collected from each of eight trees. Thrips samples from dandelion and ap- ple were stored under refrigeration and processed the day after collection. Thrips were separated from plant material by fill- ing the bag with water, adding a few drops of liquid detergent, and agitating for several minutes. Thrips and plant material were separated from the soapy water by pouring through two sieves (Hubbard Scientific Co., Northbrook, IL). The larger sieve (#10, 0.25-mm mesh) trapped most of the plant material, and the finer sieve (#230, 0.0014- mm mesh) trapped the thrips. Thrips were then rinsed into a vial of 50% ethanol. Specimens were first examined under a dissecting microscope. All Frankliniella 9] adults were slide-mounted in PVA Mount- ing Medium (BioQuip Products, Inc., Ran- cho Dominguez, CA) for identification to species. A reference collection was sent to Cheryl O’Donnell, Department of Entomol- ogy, University of California, Davis, CA, who confirmed the identity of species. Only numbers of F. occidentalis adults were re- corded. The means of the samples taken per plot were used in the analyses. All data were expressed as thrips per dandelion plant, apple flower, or apple shoot. Thrips per dandelion plant during peak dandelion flowering were averaged over the three years of the study. Population Estimates. The monthly population density of western flower thrips per m° in dandelions in the drive rows was estimated by multiplying the average num- ber of thrips per sampled nonflowering and flowering dandelions by the average num- ber of dandelions of each type per m’. Esti- mates were also summed for each replicate over the three years of the study. The esti- mate at peak dandelion bloom, just before or during apple bloom, was then used to calculate the number of western flower thrips on dandelion on a per-hectare basis. This was done by multiplying the mean number of thrips per m* by the number of m’ of drive rows in each ha. Similarly, esti- mates were obtained for western flower thrips per ha in apple flowers. Flower den- sities were estimated by counting all blos- soms on 10 trees per plot. Mean flowers per tree were calculated for each site, then con- verted to means per ha based on the tree density per ha. Flowers per ha were multi- plied by the mean number of thrips per flower. Data Analysis. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with the four orchards serving as replicates. The effects of herbicide treatment and month on dandelion densities were assessed using a two-way analysis of variance having re- peated observations through time (=month). The analyses were done in SAS _ using PROC MIXED (SAS Institute 2002). Sepa- rate analyses were done for each of the three years of the study. We used a square 92 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 root transformation on the count data before each analysis to meet ANOVA assump- tions. In the event of a significant treatment x month interaction, tests on simple effects of treatment and month were done using the SLICE command. Analyses of flowering dandelions were done only for the sampling date with the highest number of flowering plants. Comparisons of flowering dandeli- ons were made by year using paired t-tests (SAS Institute 2002). Data for thrips densi- ties, whether monthly, averaged, or summed measurements, were analyzed by date using ANOVA. Treatment means were separated using a LSD test (high-weed vs low-weed, a=0.05). Data for proportion (p) of fruit with pansy spot injury were first transformed by arcsine(square root (p+0.001)), then analyzed using ANOVA (SAS Institute 2002). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Dandelion Densities. Densities of total dandelions were high in both high-weed and low-weed treatments at the start of the experiment (Fig. 1A). A few other broad- leaf weeds also occurred in the orchard blocks, most notably alfalfa, but population densities of these other weeds were zero in the randomly-sampled areas. All perennial and annual broadleaf weeds were affected by the herbicides and were reduced in the low-weed plots, which resembled mani- cured lawns. The treatment < month inter- action terms were highly significant in 2003 (F=4.10; df=7, 42; P=0.0016) and 2004 (F=3.39; df=8, 48; P=0.0037), and signifi- cant in 2005 (F=2.37; df7, 42; P=0.039), thus we examined the simple effects tests (herbicide effect for each month sepa- rately). Treatment differences became sig- nificant by July of 2003, with 17.1 (4 11.6 SEM) dandelions/m’ in the low-weed plots versus 66.1 (+ 23.4) in the high-weed plots. These differences were sustained through the remainder of the year. Treatment differ- ences were only marginally significant for the first two months of 2004 (P<0.10), but were re-established by May with lower dan- delion densities in the low-weed plots throughout the remainder of the year (P<0.001). Treatment differences were sig- nificant throughout 2005 (P<0.001), which was also reflected in the main effect treat- ment means for this year (low-weed plots, 2.3 + 0.3; high-weed plots, 29.4 + 2.4 dan- delions/m*; F=75.79; df=1, 6; P=0.0001). The treatment differences in 2005 reflected a 92% reduction in dandelion densities in the low-weed plots relative to the high- weed plots. Dandelions flowered primarily in April or May; very few plants flowered in the summer and fall (Fig. 1B). During the peak period, flowering dandelion density was not significantly different in the low-weed (5.5 + 1.6) and high-weed (7.5 + 3.4) plots in 2003 (t=0.60, df=3, P=0.59). The effect of the herbicide applications was more clearly seen in 2004 (low weed, 2.8 + 1.8; high weed, 10.1 + 3.1; 3.74, df=3, P=0.03) and 2005 (low weed, 0.3 + 0.1; high weed, 8.0 + 1.8; 4.36, df3, P=0.02). Thrips in Dandelions. The estimated population density of thrips on dandelion in the drive rows (on a per m” basis) generally increased in the high-weed blocks in late spring, and peaked in April (2005), during which maximum dandelion bloom occured, or June (2003, 2004) (Fig. 1C). Adult thrips decreased in numbers by July and August and remained at low densities in the fall. Estimated densities of thrips were highly variable between sites and monthly com- parisons were not significantly different; however, there were higher thrips densities in dandelions in the high-weed plots (33.7 + 11.0) than in the low-weed plots (2.9 + 0.7) when the estimates were summed over the three years (F=7.79; df=1,6; P=0.031). The three-year average of thrips per flowering dandelion plant was 0.22 in high- weed and 0.33 in low-weed blocks, while thrips per vegetative plant was 0.04 in high- weed and 0 in low-weed blocks during peak dandelion flowering (F=0.38; df=1,6; P=0.56,). No difference in thrips density (on a per plant basis) was found in flower- J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 93 100 | m fais —co— Low-weed —@— High-weed 80 60 40 Total Dandelions/m? Flowering Dandelions/m2 nN Thrips on Dandelion/m@ ra ee or : (Nx --Q--@ aie a ee | Se ee ae | Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan 2003 2004 2005 Figure 1. (A) Dandelions per m’ area of orchard ground in low-weed and high-weed orchard blocks. (B) Blooming dandelions per m” area of orchard ground in low-weed and high-weed orchard blocks. (C) Western flower thrips population estimates (adults per m*) on dandelions in low-weed and high-weed orchard blocks. Symbols are means, error bars are SEM. Grey bars indicate the period of apple bloom. 94 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 ing dandelions from either low-weed or high-weed blocks at any sample period. Therefore, thrips population density per dandelion was largely not influenced by dandelion density. The reduction of thrips per area was determined by reduction of dandelions. Thrips in Apple. All of the thrips speci- mens collected from apple flowers in the three years of the experiment were western flower thrips, F. occidentalis. Western flower thrips has been the dominant thrips species collected from apple flowers in the inland Pacific Northwest (Venables 1925, Childs 1927, Madsen and Jack 1966, Cock- field et al. 2007b). In contrast, apple shoots and dandelions contained a mixture of spe- cies, including F. occidentalis. Western flower thrips accounted for about 38% of the thrips in apple shoots sampled in Wash- ington state (Cockfield et al. 2007b). No significant differences in adult western flower thrips populations were found in any of the apple flower or shoot samples from high-weed and low-weed plots, even in 2005, after dandelion numbers had been greatly reduced in the low-weed plots (Table 1). Thrips densities at full apple bloom were average compared with other samples in Washington (Miliczky ef al. 2007). Thrips in the apple shoots may con- tribute to fruit injury in late May, but more likely sustain the population in the orchard throughout the summer and from year to year (Cockfield et al. 2007a, 2007b). While thrips densities provide a useful measure of the treatment effects, the critical measure- ment for the purposes of management is fruit damage. In the study orchards, an in- secticide treatment was inadequate to pre- vent fruit injury, indicating the need for an additional management tactic. However, significant reductions in numbers of dande- lions did not correspond with a significant reduction in fruit injury in any of the three years (Fig. 2). Thus the effort and time in- vestment needed to manage broadleaf weeds did not provide a substantial benefit to fruit damage reduction. One possible explanation for the lack of effect is that thrips moved between high- weed and low-weed plots, in spite of the large size of the experimental plots. A sec- ond and more likely explanation is that the potential contribution of western flower thrips from dandelion is relatively small during late spring, when fruit injury occurs. While dandelion flowers often harbour large numbers of thrips, western flower thrips may be <10% of the total individuals present (Cockfield et al. 2007b). The per- hectare estimates of thrips densities indi- cated that 45,000 and 4,000 adult western flower thrips per ha (high-weed and low- weed plots, respectively) occurred on dan- delion, compared to estimates of 141,000 and 157,000 thrips per ha, respectively, on apple flowers at peak bloom just before the critical period for fruit damage. The attrac- tiveness of flowering plants to western flower thrips is well established (Terry 1991, 1997). During their bloom periods there were 1.9 million apple blossoms per ha compared with 43,000 dandelion blos- soms; even assuming they are equally at- tractive, the sheer number of apple flowers could be expected to dominate this interac- tion during the bloom period. There is ample evidence this highly polyphagous species is abundant in many hosts other than apple, including crop and non-crop plants. Recent studies (Pearsall and Myers 2000, Pearsall and Myers 2001, Cockfield et al. 2007b) clarify that in the semi-arid interior fruit growing districts of the Pacific Northwest, multiple species of the native vegetation serve as a host for thrips. Further studies indicate that immi- gration from the native vegetation may af- fect thrips density and damage in orchard borders (Miliczky ef a/. 2007). Even though the orchards in this study were not adjacent to native vegetation, it is still potentially a very large source of thrips in the industry. Removal of one relatively small source, dandelion blossoms, would constitute only a minor change in local populations. This, coupled with the large resource constituted by apple blossoms, and to a lesser extent, vegetative tissues, effectively negates any benefit of dandelion removal. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 95 Table 1. Western flower thrips, mean (SEM), sampled per apple flower and per shoot in high-weed and low-weed treatments’. Low-weed High-weed Date Flowers Shoots Flowers Shoots F P May 2003 0.148 (0.068)a 0.106 (0.051)a 142 0.320 June 2003 0.194 (0.034)a 0.181 (0.041)a O.15 0.721 July 2003 0.056 (0.030)a 0.069 (0.01l)a 0.24 0.658 Aug 2003 0.028 (0.020)a 0.028 (0.020)a_ 0.0 1.000 Apr 2004 ~=0.035 (0.012)a 0.025 (0.006)a 1.04 0.382 May 2004 0.388 (0.229)a 0.316 (0.126)a 0.43 0.557 June 2004 0.203 (0.123)a 0.121 (0.059)a 1.54 0.303 July 2004 0.156 (0.080)a 0.113 (0.053)a 1.01 0.388 Apr 2005 ~=—_0.074 (0.027)a 0.089 (0.031)a 4.54 0.123 May 2005 0.028 (0.016)a 0.084 (0.028)a 4.96 0.112 June 2005 0.190 (0.112)a 0.200 (0.122)a 6.00 0.092 July 2005 0.058 (0.011 )a 0.058 (0.018)a 0.0 1.000 'Means within rows followed by the same letter are not significantly different, LSD test, oa=0.05. For all analyses, df=1,3. a High-weed % Injured Fruit ! pa 2003 2004 Figure 2. Percentage of fruit with pansy spot in low-weed and high-weed plots. Bars are means, error bars are SEM. Means with the same letter are not significantly different within each year. 2003: F=0.72; P=0.4581. 2004: F=2.33; P=0.2241. 2005: F=1.15; P=0.3625. For all analyses, df=1,3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Cheryl O’Donnell, Depart- ment of Entomology, University of Califor- nia, Davis, CA, for identification of species in the reference collection, and for helpful information on the preservation and identi- fication of thrips. We thank Angela Schaub for assistance in the lab and Randy Talley for assistance in the field. David Horton, 96 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 USDA-ARS, Wapato, WA, provided valu- _ part through a grant from the Washington able contributions to an earlier draft of the | Tree Fruit Research Commission. manuscript. This research was funded in REFERENCES Beers, E.H., J. F. Brunner, M. J. Willet, and G. M. Warner (eds.). 1993. Orchard pest management: a re- source book for the Pacific Northwest. Good Fruit Grower, Yakima, WA. Childs, L. 1927. Two species of thrips injurious to apples in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Economic Entomology 20: 805-809. Cockfield, S.D., E.H. Beers, D.R. Horton and E. Miliczky. 2007a. Timing of oviposition of thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in apple fruit. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 104: 45-53. Cockfield, S.D., E.H. Beers and R.S. Zack. 2007b. Phenology of western flower thrips (Frankliniella occi- dentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on plant species in and near apple orchards in Washing- ton. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 104: 35-44. Cossentine, J.E., E.J. Hogue and L.B.M. Jensen. 1999. The influence of orchard ground cover and intro- duced green lacewings on spring populations of western flower thrips in apple orchards. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 96: 7-12. Hubscher, T.L. 1983. 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Journal of Economic Entomology 94: 831-843. SAS Institute. 2002. User's guide. SAS Institute, Cary, NC. Terry, L.I. 1991. Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) oviposition in apple buds: role of bloom state, blossom phenology, and population density. Environmental Entomology 20: 1568-1576. Terry, L.I. 1997. Host selection, communication and reproductive behaviour, pp 65-118., pp. 65-118. Jn T. Lewis (ed.), Thrips as crop pests. CAB International, New York, NY. Venables, E.P. 1925. Pansy spots on apple (a peculiar form of thrips injury). Proceedings of British Colum- bia Entomological Society 22: 9-12. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Effect of pesticides on integrated mite management in Washington State LUIS MARTINEZ-ROCHA’, ELIZABETH H. BEERS'” and JOHN E. DUNLEY' ABSTRACT The effect of pesticides used against codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., on integrated mite management was studied for three years in five or six commercial apple orchards in central Washington. Phytophagous and predatory mites were counted throughout the season in blocks ranging from 0.4-1.6 ha in size treated with four codling moth insecti- cides. In one year of the study (2006), five out of six orchards experienced elevated mite densities relative to the standard. In four orchards, novaluron caused a 3.0-16.9*x in- crease in mite populations; acetamiprid caused a 2.6-3.4* increase, and thiacloprid caused a 1.7-13.8x increase. In the fifth orchard, the organophosphate standard had an extremely high mite population, in addition to all three experimental treatments. In 2005 and 2007, only one or two orchards had elevated mite levels in the novaluron, acetami- prid, and thiacloprid treatments. Additive effects of codling moth and thinning programs were evaluated in small plot research trials. Treatments with all three elements [1) cod- ling moth insecticide; 2) calcium polysulfide; 3) carbaryl] produced the highest levels of spider mites. Three sulfur-containing products (calcium polysulfide, ammonium thiosul- fate, and dry flowable sulfur) were evaluated for their effect on Galandromus occiden- talis (Nesbitt) and apple rust mite, Aculus schlechtendali (Nalepa). All three materials caused suppressed G. occidentalis numbers. Calcium polysulfide caused the greatest reduction in apple rust mite numbers, ammonium thiosulfate the least reduction, with dry flowable sulfur intermediate between the two. Additive effects of codling moth ma- terials, carbaryl, and sulfur-containing products may be causing increased mite levels in Washington orchards. Key Words: spider mite, integrated mite control, apple, acetamiprid, thiacloprid, no- valuron, carbaryl, calcium polysulfide, lime-sulfur, dry flowable sulfur, ammonium thi- osulfate INTRODUCTION | Spider mites are induced pests of pome fruits, generally occurring in orchards which have been disrupted by pesticides. In wild or abandoned trees, spider mites are usually maintained at low densities by predators (Glass and Lienk 1971, Croft 1983). However, in heavily sprayed sys- tems such as commercial apple orchards, perturbations occur regularly based on the need to control direct pests. In Washington State, codling moth, Cydia pomonella L.., is the key direct pest of apple, and control measures used against it determine the en- tire pest management program and structure the fauna of the agroecosystem. The history of spider mite management in apple orchards is characterized by dis- ruption of mite biological control following the introduction of new materials for cod- ling moth control. DDT was introduced following WWII, and its use in tree fruits was accompanied by large scale mite out- 'Tree Fruit Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, 1100 N. Western Avenue, We- natchee, WA 98801 USA * Corresponding author. Fax: 509-662-8714; email: ebeers@wsu.edu 98 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 breaks (Newcomer and Dean 1946, Baker 1952, Clancy and McAlister 1956). As a result of the disruption, acaricide resistance became widespread (Hoyt and Caltagirone 1971). DDT was replaced by organophos- phate insecticides, including azinphos- methyl, which initially were toxic to both pest and predatory mites. Spider mites be- came resistant to the organophosphates, but it was not until the primary predator of spi- der mites, Galandromus (=Typhlodromus = Metaseiulus) occidentalis (Nesbitt) also became resistant that the opportunity for integrated mite control arose in the western US (Hoyt 1969). Integrated mite manage- ment was then implemented on approxi- mately 90% of the acreage (Whalon and Croft 1984) by conserving the organophos- phate-resistant predatory mites, with grow- ers actively avoiding materials that were toxic to these valuable predators. This op- portunity, however, was predicated on con- tinuing efficacy of azinphosmethy] for cod- ling moth control. The integrated mite control program implemented in the early 1970s in Wash- ington remained largely effective through the 1990s. During this time shifts in the pesticide program occurred, at least for pests other than codling moth. The efficacy of the organophosphates against many of the secondary pests of tree fruit (aphids, leafhoppers, leafminers, and _leafrollers) declined steadily through this period, and new materials were substituted for their control. The use of carbaryl for fruit thin- ning was implemented in the late 1970s; this carbamate insecticide was initially highly toxic to G. occidentalis, and its use was restricted to protect predator popula- tions in integrated control programs. How- ever, moderate levels of resistance to this carbamate were documented within a short period of use (Babcock and Tanigoshi 1988). Other carbamate insecticides, simi- larly toxic to the predator, were also used sparingly, typically only when no other substitute was available. The use of pyre- throids, notoriously disruptive to integrated mite control, was largely avoided in Wash- ington apples in order to protect the inte- grated mite control program. However, following almost forty years of reliance on azinphosmethyl for codling moth control, shifts in the codling moth management program began in the mid- 1990s. These changes have been driven mainly by either the development of or- ganophosphate resistance in codling moth or by regulatory issues (Beers ef al. 2005). In the meantime, new control techniques and materials have increased in use. Mating disruption now forms the foundation of codling moth control in about 80% of Washington’s apple orchards (J. Brunner, personal communication). Choices for sup- plementary insecticides include insect growth regulators and _neonicotinoids. While the new materials meet the new stan- dard for improved worker safety, their ef- fects on natural enemies and predator/prey dynamics have not been well explored. One class of alternative insecticide chemistry, the neonicotinoids, demonstrated a tendency to disrupt integrated mite con- trol even in the early phases of testing (Beers et al. 2005). These tests, however, were characterized by small plots, high rates, and season-long programs. It re- mained to be seen if the potential for dis- ruption still existed under commercial use conditions (large acreages, applications against a single generation of codling moth with any given material). Additionally, po- tential multiple-year effects from continued use of the same products could not easily be examined prior to registration. Other shifts in the Washington pesticide program occurred during the same period as the change in the codling moth program, especially in the crop load regulation and fungicide programs. The blossom thinner, sodium dinitro-o-cresylate (Elgetol®), was withdrawn from the market in the mid 1990s, and its use was later replaced with calcium polysulfide (lime sulfur). A plant nutrient, ammonium thiosulfate, also be- came more widely used; its sulfur content is similar to calcium polysulfide. The use of sulfur fungicides increased in part because of the plantings of mildew-susceptible culti- vars, and in part as an alternative mode of J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 action for fungicide resistance management (FRAC 2008). The goals of this study were to explore the effects on integrated mite control of three newer codling moth insecticides when used in a commercial setting; to examine 99 the additive effects of codling moth insecti- cides, carbaryl, and calcium polysulfide in a seasonal program; and the comparative effects of three sulfur-containing com- pounds used as a blossom thinner, fungi- cide, and plant nutrient, respectively. MATERIALS AND METHODS Large-block experiment. This test was conducted in five (2005, 2007) or six (2006) commercial apple orchards from Bridgeport to Royal City, WA. Plot size ranged from 0.4-1.6 ha per treatment at each orchard; treatments were randomly assigned to one of four plots within an or- chard, and replicated across the orchards. All treatments were applied at a finished spray volume of 935 litres/ha by the or- chard’s personnel using their own equip- ment. The dominant cultivar in the blocks was either ‘Delicious’ or ‘Fuji’. Four of the orchards received the same treatments for all three years of the study (orchards ARR, BAN, QLR, SLH); MZN was treated in 2006-07, while RYL and BTE were treated only in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Treatments consisted of one of the four insecticides used for codling moth control: acetamiprid, a neonicotinoid (Assail® 70W, Cerexagri, King of Prussia, PA; 0.17 kg AI/ ha); thiacloprid, also a neonicotinoid (Calpyso® 4F, Bayer CropScience, Re- search Triangle Park, NC; 0.21 kg Al/ha); novaluron, a benzoylurea insect growth regulator (Rimon® 0.83EC, Chemtura, Mid- dlebury, CT; 0.23 g Al/ha); and an organo- phosphate standard. For the organophos- phate standard, growers could choose either phosmet (Imidan® 70W, Gowan, Yuma AZ; 3.9 kg Al/ha) or azinphosmethyl (Guthion® 50W, Bayer CropScience, Research Trian- gle Park, NC; 1.1 kg Al/ha). Applications of acetamiprid, thiacloprid, and novaluron were made only during the first generation of codling moth (May and June). Two ap- plications of acetamiprid and _ thiacloprid were made per season, the first timed for 250 codling moth degree days, and the sec- ond 21 d later. Three applications of no- valuron were made (based on its ovicidal activity), the first at petal fall, the second 14 d later, and the third 28 d later. For the above the treatments, codling moth control for the second generation (July and August) consisted of two applica- tions of the benzoyl hydrazine insect growth regulator methoxyfenozide (Intrepid® 2F, Dow AgroSciences, Indian- apolis, IN; 0.28 kg Al/ha), the first timed for 1,250 codling moth degree days, and the second 21 d later. In the organophosphate standard treat- ment, two applications were made per gen- eration, using the same timing as for acetamiprid and methoxyfenozide for the first and second generations, respectively. Mites were sampled every 2-3 wk from late May through mid-September. One hun- dred leaves per plot were collected from the center portion of the plot and kept cool dur- ing transportation and storage. The mites were brushed from the leaves using a mite brushing machine (Leedom, Mi-Wuk Vil- lage, CA) and collected on a revolving sticky glass plate. The composite sample on the plate was counted using a stereoscopic microscope. Phytophagous and predatory mites were recorded, including the motile stages of European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch); twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch; McDaniel spider mite, Tetranychus mcdanieli McGregor western predatory mite, G. occidentalis; a stigmaeid predatory mite, Zetzellia mali Ewing, and apple rust mite, Aculus schlechtendali (Nalepa). Additive effects experiment. This small-plot experiment examined the effect of adding one or two potentially disruptive compounds used for crop load regulation to the same codling moth programs (rates, timing, and materials) described for the 100 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 large plot experiment. The compounds used were a blossom thinner, calci1um polysul- fide (Rex Lime Sulfur®, Or-Cal, Junction City, Oregon), and a fruit thinner, carbaryl (Sevin® 4F, Bayer CropScience, Research Triangle Park, NC). Both compounds were used at their respective recommended tim- ings (Smith et a/. 2006). Calctum polysul- fide was applied three times (pink, 20% and 80% bloom) at a rate of 8% vol:vol. Car- baryl was applied twice, when the fruitlets were 8 and 12 mm in diameter, at rate of 1.7 kg Al/ha. This test was conducted in a 2 ha block of mature ‘Oregon Spur’ and ‘Red Spur’ Delicious apples with ‘Golden Delicious’ pollenizers. Plots were five rows by five trees. The experimental design was a ran- domized complete block design with 12 treatments and 4 replicates. All applications were made with an airblast sprayer (Rears Pak-Blast, Eugene, OR) calibrated to de- liver 935 litres/ha. Treatment timings and materials for first and second generation codling moth control were the same as de- scribed in the large-block experiment. Mites were sampled every other week from May through September by collecting 40 leaves per plot. The leaves were col- lected, stored and processed as described above. Sulfur products experiment. The sec- ond small-plot experiment examined the effect of three sulfur-containing products on G. occidentalis and apple rust mite. For purposes of comparison, the materials were applied to an existing population of these two species in June, rather than at their nor- mal timing which ranged from prebloom through the early post-bloom period. The three sulfur products were calcium polysul- fide (Rex Lime Sulfur®, Or-Cal, Junction City, Oregon; 12% vol:vol), ammonium thiosulfate (a plant nutrient) (Thio-Sul®, Tessenderlo Kerley, Phoenix, AZ; 3.4% vol:vol), and dry flowable sulfur (a fungi- cide) (Kumulus® 80DF, Micro-Flo, Mem- phis, TN; 10.8 kg Al/ha). The experimental design was a random- ized complete block (randomized on the basis of a pretreatment count) with seven treatments and four replicates. Each repli- cate consisted of three trees in a single row, with one untreated buffer row separating the treatment rows. Plots consisted of three cultivars, “Oregon Spur’, ‘Goldspur’, with ‘Red Fuji BC2’ in the center; however, only the center tree was sampled. Treatments consisted of either one or three applications of each of the three sulfur-containing com- pounds plus an untreated check. Treatments receiving a single application were applied 26 June 2006; treatments receiving three applications were made 26 June, 8 July and 19 July. Treatments were applied by air- blast sprayer at 935 litres/ha. Mite popula- tions were assessed by collecting 25 leaves per plot and processed using the method described above. Counts were made pre- treatment and weekly after treatment through late July. Data analysis. Cumulative mite days (CMDs) were calculated for tetranychid (P. ulmi plus T. urticae), predatory (G. occi- dentalis plus Z. mali), and apple rust mite. CMDs provide an estimate of population densities integrated over the course of the test, and are calculated as the sums of the average density of mites on two dates mul- tiplied by the number of intervening days: CMD = 20.5(P,+P,)Da+ where P, and P, are the population den- sities (mean mites/leaf) at times a and b, and D,» is the number of days between time a and time b. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS 1988). Data were tested prior to analysis for homogeneity of variance using Levene’s (1960) test. Vari- ances found to be non-homogeneous were transformed [In(y+0.5)] before analysis. PROC GLM was used to conduct an analy- sis of variance, and treatment means were separated using the Waller-Duncan k-ratio t-test. Single degree-of-freedom contrasts were used to compare groups of treatments in the small plot experiments. J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 101 RESULTS Large-block experiment. Spider mite populations in the experimental blocks con- sisted primarily of European red mite, with 99, 92, and 78% of the population of motile forms comprised of this species in 2005, 2006, and 2007, respectively. Twospotted spider mite was the next most numerous species; a relatively higher proportion of this species occurred only in one orchard, MZN, in 2007, when 57% of the motile forms were twospotted spider mite. Only trace numbers of McDaniel spider mite were found during the course of the study. There were no statistical differences among treatment mean CMDs for tetranychids or for predatory mites in any of the three years of the study (Table 1). In 2005 and 2006, rust mite populations were higher in the acetamiprid treatment com- pared to the standard. In general, the differ- ences in densities among years and or- chards were greater than those among treat- ments. Despite this variation, some trends in these data are apparent. In 2005, elevated mite densities occurred in only one of five orchards (QLR) (Fig. 1). However, the highest mite levels occurred in the novalu- ron (peak density 54 mites/leaf), acetami- prid (21 mites/leaf), and thiacloprid (20 mites/leaf) treatments, with only a moderate increase in the organophosphate standard treatment (11 mites/leaf). Not all of the population peaks in the treatments with newer insecticides can be explained by low predator numbers, although predatory mite densities were highest in the organophos- phate treatment (peak density 2.3 predators/ leaf). The thiacloprid treatment peaked at 0.9 predators/leaf, while the acetamiprid and novaluron treatments never exceeded predator densities of 0.3/leaf. Apple rust mite densities were moderate in most of the treatment (peak density of 150-300 rust mites/leaf), with the exception of the no- valuron treatment, which had relatively low rust mite densities (<10/leaf) for most the season. Mite densities were much higher overall in 2006 than in 2005 (Fig. 1). Five of six orchards experienced elevated tetranychid mite densities in one or more treatments. This may have been due to a cumulative effect of disruptive products in four of the orchards; however, 2006 was characterized by a high frequency of mite outbreaks throughout the central fruit-growing district of the state. The novaluron treatment had elevated tetranychid mite levels in five or- chards (20-45 mites/leaf at peak density); the acetamiprid treatment in two orchards (22-34 mites/leaf); and the thiacloprid treat- ment in three orchards (13-32 mites/leaf). One orchard (QLR) had a high peak mite density in the organophosphate treatment, as well as the other three treatments; how- ever, this was the same orchard that had high levels in several treatments the previ- ous year. Trends in predatory mite densities were again difficult to interpret. Although no statistical differences occurred among treatment means for the entire season, the peak densities of predators occurred too late in the season to prevent the mid-July peak in tetranychid mites (data not shown). Mite densities in the experimental or- chards were much lower in 2007 than in 2006 (Fig. 1), with no treatment exceeding 7 mites/leaf. Only two of the five orchards experienced a moderate increase in tetranychid mite levels, with a slight eleva- tion in the novaluron treatment in one or- chard (SLH) (6.2 mites/leaf peak density), and acetamiprid in two orchards (4.4 and 3.5 mites/leaf in MZN and SLH, respec- tively) and thiacloprid (3.6 mites/leaf) in one orchard (MZN). Additive effects experiment. The re- sults from the experiment examining the additive effect of several disruptive prod- ucts during the season showed a distinct trend toward increased tetranychid mite densities when one of the newer codling moth insecticides was used in the same program with both a blossom and fruit thin- ner (Fig. 2). The lowest tetranychid mite densities occurred in those treatments where only insecticides for codling moth were used. Treatments where all three com- pounds were used (codling moth insecticide 102 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Table 1. Seasonal mite densities (cumulative mite days) resulting from four codling moth control re- gimes, in commercial apple orchards in Washington, 2005-2007 Cumulative mite days! Treatment Rate(AlI/ha)~ n een s Per ane Merial 2005 Acetamiprid 0.17 kg 5 113+ 99a i242a 10,861 + 2,690a Thiacloprid 0.21 kg 5 93 + 84a 17+4a 8,563 + 1,718ab Novaluron 0.23 kg 5 252 + 244a 11 +3a 6,589 + 2,639b Standard --- 5 49 + 38a 26 + 8a 6,668 + 1,394b Vas es 4.32, 0.013 1.90, 0.16 12.03, 0.0001 2006 Acetamiprid 0.17 kg 6 267 + 132a 26 + 3a 870 + 372a Thiacloprid 0.21 kg 6 305 + 149a 28 + 5a 634 + 244ab Novaluron 0.23 kg 6 520 + 178a 33 2.134 563 + 30lab Standard --- 6 401 + 343a 27 45a 476 + 197b ye 4.78, 0.0045 1.98, 0.12 19.80, <0.0001 2007 Acetamiprid 0.17 kg > 55+3la 29 + 13a 719 + 346a Thiacloprid 0.21 kg > 18+ 10a 35+ 14a 883 + 240a Novaluron 0.23 kg 5 3742358 16+ 8a 346 + 153a Standard --- > 25 5a 32 + loa 632 + 229a ae a 6.17, 0.0032 5.74, 0.0043 3.43, 0.030 'Means within columns not followed by the same letter are significantly different. For 2005 and 2007, df=7, 19; for 2006, df=8, 23. + calcium polysulfide + carbaryl) had sig- nificantly higher tetranychid mite densities than when codling moth insecticides alone were used (df=1, F=5.54, P=0.02). Trends in seasonal densities of preda- tory mites and apple rust mite were less clear (Figs. 3, 4). Comparisons of treat- ments with or without calcium polysulfide indicated that there was a significant reduc- tion in the seasonal apple rust mite densities where calcium polysulfide was included in the program (df=1, F=5.07, P=0.03), how- ever, there was no effect on predatory mite densities (df=1, F=0.70, P=0.41). Sulfur products experiment. All three sulfur products used in this study sup- pressed G. occidentalis to about the same extent (Fig. 5). There was a 64-74% reduc- tion in densities of G. occidentalis in the treatments containing sulfur products in relation to the check. There was no differ- ence between treatments with one applica- tion versus three applications (df=1, F=0.11, P=0.75), likely because most of the mortality had occurred from the first appli- cation, without sufficient time for reinfesta- tion between applications. The effect of the three sulfur products on apple rust mite was more variable. There was a 30-80% reduction in densities of ap- ple rust mite in these treatments. The reduc- tion in apple rust mite numbers was greatest in the calcium polysulfide treatment (Fig. 6), and least in the ammonium thiosulfate treatment. As with G. occidentalis, there were no differences in treatment means between treatments with one versus three applications (df=1, F=0.99, P=0.33). J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Organophosphate Novaluron Thiacloprid Acetamiprid v s "PT IT LILLIE ED LILI CLLLALLL ADL LALA LAL ALL LLL LAL Organophosphate Novaluron Thiacloprid Acetamiprid Organophosphate Novaluron Thiacloprid Acetamiprid 400 103 QLR besgq SLH 600 800 1000 Cumulative Mite Days {Tetranychids) Figure 1. Seasonal tetranychid mite densities (cumulative mite days) in commercial apple or- chard blocks treated with four insecticides for codling moth control, 2005-2007. DISCUSSION The responses to the two neonicotinoid insecticides used in the large-block study confirms previous work done on small plots (Beers et al. 2005). Mite populations in the acetamiprid treatments averaged 2.3, 2.2 and 3.0x higher than the standard organo- phosphate treatment during 2005-2007, respectively. Mite populations in the thia- cloprid treatments averaged 1.3, 3.4 and 2.2x higher than the standard. In addition to the neonicotinoids, this study provides evi- dence that novaluron also causes disruption of integrated mite management, although this trend was not apparent in small-plot trials (J. Brunner, personal communication). Mite populations in the novaluron treat- ments were 2.1, 7.6, and 2.7x higher than the standard treatment in the three years of the study. Although widely observed, the mecha- 104 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 CaPoly+Carbaryl+Phosmet - CaPoty+Phosmet Phosmet - CaPoly+Carbaryl+Novaluron CaPoh+Novahiron Novaluron CaPoly+Carbaryl+Thiacloprid CaPoly+Thiacloprid + Thiacloprid CaPoly+Carbaryl+Acetamiprid - CaPolytAcetamiprid + Acetamiprid a 0) OQ 200) OO 400 DOO G00 Cumutative Mite Days (Tetranychids) Figure 2. Additive effect of thinning materials and codling moth insecticides on seasonal CaPoly+Carbaryl4+ Phosmet CaPoly+Phosmet 4 | ab Phosmet4 a CaPoly+Carbaryl+Novaluron b CaPoly+Novalurony Novaluon+} b CaPoly+Carbaryl+Thiacloprid ab CaPoly+Thiacloprid ab Thiacloprid CaPoly+Carbaryl+Acetamiprid ab eee CaPoly+Acetamiprid | ab ee os Acetamiprid 60 80 Cumulative Mite Days (Predatory Mites) Figure 3. Additive effect of thinning materials and codling moth insecticides on seasonal predatory mite populations. F=2.05, P=0.054, df=11, 47. Data transformed log(x+0.5) prior to jas) NO (os) aN j=) nism for the neonicotinoid effect has never effect (Ako ef al. 2004, Ako et al. 2006). been clearly established. Hormoligosis is thought to play a role in stimulating pest reproduction (James and Price 2002), but other studies have found no hormoligosis Conversely, neonicotinoids have also been found to stimulate reproduction in benefi- cial arthropods (James 1997). Repellency (James 1997) and suppression of functional J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 CaPoly+Carbaryl+Phosmet CaPoly+Phosmet Phosmet CaPoly+Carbaryl+Novaluron CaPoly+Novaluron Novaluron CaPoly+Carbaryl+Thiacloprid CaPoly+Thiacloprid Thiacloprid CaPoly+Carbaryl+Acetamiprid CaPoly+Acetamiprid Acetamiprid 0 1000 105 2000 3000 4000 5000 Cumulative Mite Days (Apple Rust Mites) Figure 4. Additive effect of thinning materials and codling moth insecticides on seasonal apple rust mite populations. F = 3.03, P = 0.0067, df= 11, 47. Check Amm. Thiosulfate (3x) Amm. Thiosulfate (1x) Sulfur (dry flowable) (3x) Suflur (dry flowable) (1x) Ca Polysulfide (3x) Ca Polysulfide (1x) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Cumulative Mite Days (Predatory Mites) Figure 5. Effect of sulfur-containing products on predatory mites. F' = 2.68, P=0.0.049, df= 6, 2d. response (Poletti et al. 2007) may also play a role in the disruption of biological con- trol. It is evident from previous studies (Beers et al. 2005) that while neonicoti- noids can cause mite outbreaks, they would not do so in every case. This makes the role of other disruptive materials more impor- tant on a relative scale. In an organophos- phate-based pest management program, calcium polysulfide and carbaryl had been used with few apparent deleterious effects; under this program, only about 7% of Washington’s apple orchards were treated with acaricides (NASS 1992). The low mite levels documented by the survey are likely typical of acaricide use from the early 1970s, when integrated mite control was first established, until the early 2000s when shifts in codling moth insecticides began. However, there has been a substantial in- crease in the percentage of Washington apple acreage treated with sulfur fungicides (7.8x) and calcium polysulfide (11) since 106 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Check Amm. Thiosulfate (3x) Amm. Thiosulfate (1x) Sulfur (dry flowable) (3x) Suflur (dry flowable) (1x) Ca Polysulfide (3x) Ca Polysulfide (1x) 0 200 400 600 800 MOLD A hy LL LOG AOE, CLI M MLD ky LG LA 1000 Cumulative Mite Days (Apple Rust Mites) Figure 6. Effect of sulfur-containing products on apple rust mite. F = 22.3, P = <0.0001, df= 6, 27. 1991 (NASS 1992, 2006). These com- pounds, which are typically applied early in the season, may predispose the orchard to later disruption by codling moth insecti- cides. The toxic effect of carbaryl and sulfur- containing products on mites is well known (McMurtry ef al. 1970). In the case of car- baryl, moderate levels of resistance in G. occidentalis (Babcock and Tanigoshi 1988) may have mitigated the disruptive effect to some extent. Sulfur products have a long history of disruption of integrated mite con- trol, and although resistance in G. occiden- talis populations had been found in Califor- nia vineyards, this had apparently not oc- curred in Washington orchards (Hoy and Standow 1982). Thus it is reasonable to expect that increased use of these materials could contribute to mite outbreaks. The organophosphate—based programs of the past few decades have provided one of the most stable periods in integrated mite control in Washington orchards. The insec- ticides that replaced the organophosphates were initially thought to be more selective, but a number have shown nontarget effects on beneficial arthropods. Because of this destabilization, acaricide use has increased in recent years (NASS 1992, 2006), leading to increased production costs and increasing the probability for resistance development in pest mite species. It could be argued that because of widespread resistance to organo- phosphates in populations of both pests and natural enemies, that many of the organo- phosphates are now fairly selective from a pest management perspective. While human and environmental health concerns out- weigh pest management issues, it will re- quire further study and manipulation to re- establish the highly successful integrated mite control program as the primary means of mite control in Washington apple or- chards. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the cooperating growers and fieldmen who generously allowed us to use their orchards for this experiment. Thanks also go to Randy Talley, Amy Blauman, Michelle Blauman, Aaron Galbraith, Tim Houghland, Kelly Green and Brandon Talley for assistance with mite counts. We also thank Bayer CropScience, Cerexagri, Chemtura, Dow Agrosciences, and Gowan for donation of materials. This work was funded in part by grants from the Washing- ton Tree Fruit Research Commission and the Washington State Commission on Pesti- cide Registration. J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 107 REFERENCES Ako, M., C. Borgemeister, H.-M. Poehling, A. Elbert and R. Nauen. 2004. Effects of neonicotinoid insecti- cides on the bionomics of twospotted spider mite (Acari: Tetranychidae). Journal of Economic Entomol- ogy 97: 1587-1594. Ako, M., H.-M. Poehling, C. Borgemeister and R. Nauen. 2006. Effect of imidacloprid on the reproduction of acaricide-resistant and susceptible strains of Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae). Pest Management Science 62: 419-424. Babcock, J.M. and L.K. Tanigoshi. 1988. Resistance levels of Typhlodromus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseii- dae) from Washington apple orchards to ten pesticides. Experimental and Applied Acarology 4: 151-157. Baker, H. 1952. Spider mites, insects, and DDT. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1952: 562-566. Beers, E.H., J.F. Brunner, J.E. Dunley, M. Doerr and K. Granger. 2005. Role of neonicotinyl insecticides in Washington apple integrated pest management. Part II. Nontarget effects on integrated mite control. Journal of Insect Science 5: 16. Clancy, D.W. and H.J. McAlister. 1956. Selective pesticides as aids to biological control of apple pests. Journal of Economic Entomology 49: 196-202. Croft, B.A. 1983. Introduction, pp. 1-18. Jn B. A. Croft and S. C. Hoyt (eds.), Integrated management of insect pests of pome and stone fruits. Wiley Interscience, New York. FRAC. 2008. Fungicide Resistance Action Committee. FRAC code list. http://www.frac.info/frac/ publication/anhang/FRAC_Code_List_2007_web.pdf. Glass, E.H. and S.E. Lienk. 1971. Apple insect and mite populations developing after discontinuance of insecticides: 10-year record. Journal of Economic Entomology 64: 23-26. Hoy, M.A. and K.A. Standow. 1982. Inheritance of resistance to sulfur in the spider mite predator Metaseiu- lus occidentalis. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 31: 316-323. Hoyt, S.C. 1969. Integrated chemical control of insects and biological control of mites on apple in Washing- ton. Journal of Economic Entomology 62: 74-86. Hoyt, S.C. and L.E. Caltagirone. 1971. The developing programs of integrated control of pests of apples in Washington and peaches in California, pp. 395-421. Jn C. B. Huffaker (ed.), Biological control. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, NY. James, D.G. 1997. Imidacloprid increases egg production in Amblyseius victoriensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Experimental and Applied Acarology 21: 75-82. James, D.G. and T.S. Price. 2002. Fecundity in twospotted spider mite (Acari: Tetranychidae) is increased by direct and systemic exposure to imidacloprid. Journal of Economic Entomology 95: 729-732. Levene, H. 1960. Robust tests for equality of variances. /m I. Olkin, S. G. Ghurye, W. Hoeffding, W. G. Madow, and H. B. Mann (ed.), Contributions to probability and statistics. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. McMurtry, J.A., C.B. Huffaker and M. Van de Vrie. 1970. Ecology of the tetranychid mites and their natu- ral enemies: A review. I. Tetranychid enemies: their biological characters and the impact of spray prac- tices. Hilgardia 40: 331-458. NASS. 1992. Agricultural chemical usage, 1991 fruit crops, NASS. National Agricultural Statistics Service, Washington, DC. NASS. 2006. Agricultural chemical usage, 2005 fruit summary, National Agricultural Statistics Service. NASS, Washington, DC. Newcomer, E.J. and F.P. Dean. 1946. Effect of Xanthone, DDT, and other insecticides on the Pacific mite. Journal of Economic Entomology 39: 783-786. Poletti, M., A.H.N. Maia and C. Omoto. 2007. Toxicity of neonicotinoid insecticides to Neoseiulus califor- nicus and Phytoseiulus macropilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and their impact on functional response to Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae). Biological Control 40: 30-36. SAS. 1988. Statistical Analysis Institute. User's guide, Cary, NC. Smith, T.J., J.E. Dunley, E.H. Beers, J.F. Brunner, G.G. Grove, C.-l. Xiao, D. Elfving, F.J. Peryea, R. Parker, M. Bush, C. Daniels, T. Maxwell, S. Foss and S. Martin. 2006. 2006 Crop protection guide for tree fruits in Washington. EB0419, Washington State University Cooperative Extension, Pullman, WA. Whalon, M.E. and B.A. Croft. 1984. Apple IPM implementation in North America. Annual Review of En- tomology 29: 435-470. 108 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 109 SCIENTIFIC NOTE Additional records for semiaquatic Hemiptera in southwestern British Columbia R.D. KENNER! and K.M. NEEDHAM? Scudder (1977) published an annotated checklist of the aquatic and semiaquatic Hemiptera of British Columbia (BC); sub- sequently, several more species were added (Kenner and Needham 2004, Maw ef al. 2000, Scudder 1986). Scudder (1977) lists only a single record for Hydrometra martini Kirkaldy: Lytton, 26.vii.1931, W. Downes. For Mesovelia mulsanti White, three re- cords are given for southwestern BC, all from Vancouver Island: Elk Lake (Saanich district), 1x.1924, W. Downes; Duncan, 4.1x.1926, W. Downes; Malahat, 4.1x.1929, W. Downes; as well as several records for the interior of BC. We report additional records for these two species from south- western BC. Voucher specimens for all new records were deposited in the Spencer Ento- mological Museum (SEM) at the University of British Columbia. Hydrometridae, water measurers or marsh treaders, are small bugs resembling tiny walkingstick insects (Phasmida) and have long, slender heads and bulging eyes at about mid-length on the head. They are often found walking slowly over the water surface searching for prey. There are nine species in North America, all in the genus Hydrometra (Polhemus 2008); only one of these, H. martini, is known from Canada (and BC) (Maw et al. 2000). We collected a single specimen of H. martini from a 10 m wide roadside ditch in Pitt Meadows (ditch between Neave Road and the Pitt River dike, 49°20’N 122°38’W, 12.iv.2008, R.D. Kenner and K.M. Needham). The specimen is apterous, strongly suggesting breeding at this site. This appears to be only the second time this species has been collected in this province. The 77 year gap between records, even though knowledgeable collectors have been looking for this species (Scudder pers. comm.), suggests that H. martini is truly rare in BC. Mesoveliidae, water treaders, are small predatory bugs usually found crawling or running over the water surface. There are three species in North America, all in the genus Mesovelia (Polhemus 2008), two of which are known from Canada, with only one species, M. mulsanti known from BC (Maw ef al. 2000). We report the first re- cords for M. mulsanti from the Lower Fra- ser Valley: Bowen Island, Killarney Lake, 49°23°N_ = 123°21’W, 9 20.vili.1998, R.D. Kenner, 1 specimen, apterous; Vancouver, Jericho Park, Main Pond, west end, 49° 16’N 123°11’W, 08.viii.2008, 8 specimens, 1 macropterous, 7 apterous; 22.1x.2008, 4 specimens, all apterous, R.D. Kenner. In addition, we collected this species on Van- couver Island: Hamilton Marsh, 49°24’N 124°38’W, 11.viii.2004, R.D. Kenner and K.M. Needham, 1 specimen, apterous. Searches through the collections of the SEM and Royal British Columbia Museum (Victoria) add the following unpublished records: Saanich, 48°33’N 123°22’W, 15.ix.1924, 30.ix.1925, W. Downes; Gali- ano Island, north end, 49°0’N 123°34’W, 1 & 2.1x.1984, G.G.E. Scudder. Although the records for M. mulsanti from the interior of BC span the range from April to Septem- ber, those from the coast are only from Au- ‘Cowan Vertebrate Museum, Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 ? Spencer Entomological Museum, Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 124 110 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 gust and September. This species may not be as rare as these few records suggest since most specimens are apterous and may easily be dismissed as ‘unidentifiable’ im- mature bugs. We thank G.G.E. Scudder for confirma- tion of identifications and useful discus- sions, and R.A. Cannings and C.R. Copley for checking the Royal BC Museum collec- tion for additional records. REFERENCES Kenner, R.D. and K.M. Needham. 2004. New waterboatman records for Western Canada (Hemiptera: Corixidae). Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 101: 57-58. Maw, H.E.L., R.G. Foottit, K.G.A. Hamilton and G.G.E. Scudder. 2000. Checklist of the Hemiptera of Canada and Alaska. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Polhemus, J.T. 2008. Aquatic and semiaquatic Hemiptera. Chapter 15 in: An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 4" Edition (R.W. Merritt, K.W. Cummins and M.B. Berg, editors) pp. 385— 423. Scudder, G.G.E. 1977. An annotated checklist of the aquatic and semiaquatic Hemiptera (Insecta) of Brit- ish Columbia. Syesis 10: 31-38. Scudder, G.G.E. 1986. Additional Heteroptera new to British Columbia. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 83: 63-65. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 111 SCIENTIFIC NOTE Podosesia syringae (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae): a new clearwing moth record for British Columbia VIRGILIU M. AURELIAN!, MARIO LANTHIER? and GARY J.R. JUDD® Podosesia syringae (Harris), commonly known as the ash borer, is a clearwing moth (Sesiidae) whose larvae are borers within the trunks of lilac, Syringa vulgaris L., and various ash species, Fraxinus spp. This native North American insect (Eichlin and Duckworth 1988) is considered a major pest of wild, cultivated and ornamental ash trees in eastern provinces and_ states (Appleby 1973, Solomon 1983). In their review of North American Sesiidae, Eichlin and Duckworth (1988) reported collections of P. syringae from Washington State and eastern Alberta, but British Columbia (BC) was excluded from their description of its western range. Adults of this species occur in two distinct colour morphs, a black morph that has a dark brown abdomen, and a yellow morph that has a light brown ab- domen surrounded by yellow bands. The two morphs are geographically distinct, the yellow morph fraxini being restricted to Western North America and the nominate morph being restricted to Eastern North America (Eichlin and Duckworth 1988). A wide hybridization zone exists in the mid- West and the prairies (Eichlin and Duckworth 1988), suggesting the two ex- treme morphs may be two different subspe- cies. Future molecular research will be im- portant in elucidating whether a subspecies level is warranted for the ash borer. In winter of 2006 one of us (ML) dis- covered many unknown lepidopteran larvae infesting various three-year-old Fraxinus spp. nursery stock collected from commer- cial tree nurseries located in Westbank and Armstrong, BC. In early 2007 cut sections of these infested ashes were brought into the laboratory and the emerging adults were identified by one of us (VMA) as the ash borer, Podosesia syringae (Harris). Voucher specimens from BC (CNCLEP00041170 & CNCLEP0041171) were deposited in the Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nema- todes, Ottawa, ON and confirmed as the ash borer by J-F. Landry (personal communica- tion). In spring 2007 we surveyed wild and ornamental lilacs surrounding nursery plantings in Westbank, and found evidence of larval feeding and pupal exuviae charac- teristic of the ash borer. In June 2007, Pherocon 1-CP style wing traps (PheroTech Int. Inc., Delta, BC) baited with Clearwing Borer lures SC L103 (Scentry Biologicals, Billings, Montana,USA) containing (Z,Z)-3, 13 octadecadienyl acetate, a known clear- wing male sex attractant and possibly the major component of the female pheromone for this species (Nielsen and Purrington 1978), were deployed in and around six ash nursery plantings in Westbank and Arm- strong, BC. In a total of 102 traps deployed in both regions we captured 325 male P. syringae adults. No black morphs were captured in BC. Superficially, the yellow morph resembles a paper wasp (Polistes spp.) but on a sticky trap it could also be confused with the Western poplar clear- wing, Paranthrene robinae Hy. Edwards; which is native to BC. However, on closer examination P. syringae can be distin- ' Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, CW315 Biological Sciences Building, Ed- monton, AB, T6G 2E9 : CropHealth Advising and Research, P.O. Box 28098, Kelowna, BC, V1W 4A6 > Corresponding Author: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Box 5000, 4200 Highway 97, Summerland, BC, VOH 1Z0. Email: Gary.Judd@agr.gc.ca $ 175 L c ™ 150 (o)) £ a = 125 jo kK ~ ~ 100 ie fo) Fe O 75 ” s fo) 50 = Qa fo) 25 | = () a & 3 0 a 14/5 21/5 28/5 4/6 11/6 18/6 25/6 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Westbank Armstrong — — — 100 2/7 9/7 16/7 23/7 30/7 6/8 13/8 Trap Checks (Day / Month) Figure 1. Temporal pattern of seasonal catches of male P. syringae adults in sex-attractant baited sticky traps at two locations within the Okanagan Valley, BC, in 2007. guished from P. robinae by the presence of a very long first metatarsal segment and distinctive forewing venation. Weekly trap checks revealed a male flight period that lasted six weeks in West- bank with peak flight occurring in the first half of June (Fig. 1). Further north in Arm- strong, the flight period was more extended, ending in the first half of August, but the smaller peak flight occurred about the same time as it did in Westbank. In eastern North America adult flight begins in April and ends in July (Neal and Eichlin 1983). In summer 2008 we redeployed sex-attractant the fall of 2007. Our catches of P. syringae confirmed the presence of this species in the absence of ash, supporting the view that local plantings of lilac on residential prop- erties outside the nursery of initial discov- ery are now a potential source of this insect. From these results we conclude that P. sy- ringae is established within parts of the Okanagan Valley, BC. However, the origi- nal source of infestation remains unknown. We thank Larisa Aurelian for help col- lecting biological specimens. This research was partially supported with funds from a BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands Plant traps around a fallow nursery field from Health Grant held by GJ. which all ash trees had been harvested in REFERENCES Appleby, J.E. 1973. Observations on the life history and control of the lilac borer. Journal of Economic Entomology 66: 248-249. Eichlin, T.D. and W.D. Duckworth. 1988. Sesioidea: Sesiidae. Jn. R.B. Dominick. The moths of America north of Mexico, fascicle 5.1. Wedge Entomological Research Foundation, Washington, D.C. USA. Neal, J.W. and T.D. Eichlin 1983. Seasonal response of six male Sesiidae of woody ornamentals to clear- wing borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) lure. Environmental Entomology 12: 206-209. Nielsen, D.G. and F.F. Purrington. 1978. Field attraction of male Podosesia syringae and P. aureocincta to blends of synthetic compounds. Environmental Entomology 7: 708-710. Solomon, J.D. 1983. Culturing the lilac borer Podosesia syringae, a serious pest of green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica). Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 18: 300-313. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 113 SCIENTIFIC NOTE Survival of male click beetles, Agriotes obscurus L., (Coleoptera: Elateridae) during and after storage at different temperatures WILLEM G. VAN HERK', J. TODD KABALUK', VIOLA W.M. LAM! and ROBERT S. VERNON! The dusky wireworm, Agriotes obscurus L. (Coleoptera: Elateridae) is a significant pest of vegetable and field crops in the Fra- ser Valley of BC (Vernon ef al. 2001). Adults emerge from the soil from late March through May and die soon after mat- ing (males) or egg laying (Brian 1947), restricting their availability for research and necessitating storage methods that prolong survival. Here we compare beetle survival during and after storage at various tempera- tures for various durations. Male A. obscurus beetles were col- lected at the Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre (Agassiz, BC) during their peak emergence (1° wk of May, 2005) and placed in groups of 10 beetles into 150 ml plastic containers with a freshly-cut apple piece (approx. 2 x 2 x 0.5cm) placed on 70 g of moist sandy clay-loam soil. Containers were put in growth chambers (15 per cham- ber) (Controlled Environments Ltd., Winni- peg, MB) set at 5, 8.5, 12, and 20 °C (4 0.1 °C), and dead beetles removed, and apple pieces replaced, biweekly. Three containers were removed from each chamber after 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wks to determine subsequent survival at room temperature (RT) (21 +1 ° C), and beetles transferred to 10cm Petri dishes (one per container) placed on 5cm high racks inside Styrofoam boxes. Each box (36 x 26 x 9cm deep) contained 2.5ml water to prevent desiccation; a lcm gap between the box and its lid permitted air exchange. Beetle feeding and observation continued (as above) for up to 12 wks. Beetle mortality during storage was highest at 20 °C, and similar at 5, 8.5, and 12° C for the first 6 wks but considerably lower at 8.5 °C thereafter. Beetle mortality was rapid within the first 2 wks of storage, and increased with duration for all tempera- tures except 8.5 °C (Table 1). Regression (stepwise, backward; Proc REG, SAS 9.1; SAS Institute 2002) of the proportion dead per container during storage (m) to tem- perature (t) and duration (d) yielded the following: m = 0.003t? — 0.022t + 0.050d (SE slopes: 0.0005, 0.012, 0.009 respec- tively; P < 0.0001, 0.06, <0.0001 respec- tively, d.f. = 3,57, adj. R’ = 0.88), indicat- ing that survival increases as storage tem- perature decreases. For post-storage survival analysis, each beetle was considered an experimental unit, and storage temperatures were compared with Kaplan-Meier survival analysis (Proc LIFETEST, SAS 9.1), with strata duration (Cox and Oakes 1984). The survival time of 50% of beetles (ST50) was subsequently estimated by modelling survivorship for each storage temperature-duration combina- tion. Survivorship curves were compared with log-rank tests; ST50 values were com- pared using 95% confidence intervals. Post-storage beetle mortality was rapid regardless of previous storage temperature. Beetles stored at 12 °C died more quickly at RT than those stored at 8.5 or 5 °C (y” = 12.64, P = 0.0004; 7? = 19.27, P < 0.0001, respectively). Beetles stored at 5 °C sur- vived longest, but not significantly longer than those stored at 8.5 °C (y° = 2.91, P = 0.09). Comparison of ST50 values and sur- vival curves indicated that beetles survived longer if stored at 5 °C than at 8.5 °C, if Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, P.O. Box 1000, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada VOM 1A0 114 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Table 1. Mortality of Agriotes obscurus beetles after storage at various temperature for different dura- tions, and subsequent survivorship at room temperature (RT). N = 30 per storage duration- temperature combination. Post-storage survivorship at RT modelled with Kaplan-Meier sur- vival curves; ST50 = time required for 50% survival. S S Mean (SE) number of torage torage heetles: dead (out of Survival of beetles at RT after storage (d) temperature duration (CC) (wk) 10) at the end of the STS50 Upper Lower storage period 95% CI 95% CI 5 2 2.33 (0.67) 68.0 54.0 89.0 5 4 2.0 (0.58) 20.0 12.0 33.0 D 6 3.0 (1-53) 19-0 5.0 33.0 S 8 4.0 (2.08) 30.5 19.0 47.0 = 10 5.67 (0.33) 12.0 5.0 26.0 8.5 Z 2.0 (0.58) 27.0 26.0 47.0 8.5 + 2.0 (1.0) 26.0 14.0 47.0 8.5 6 3.67 (0.33) 19.0 14.0 33.0 8.5 8 1.33 (0.67) 19.0 12.0 21.0 8.5 10 2.67 (1.67) 12:0 7.0 33.0 12 Z 1.33 (0.88) 33.0 12.0 47.0 12 4 2.67 (0.33) 12.0 12.0 14.0 12 6 3.00 (0.58) 12.0 5.0 21.0 12 8 4.67 (2.19) 95 5.0 19.0 12 10 8.67 (0.88) n/a’ n/a’ n/a! 20 2 5.0 (1.15) 5.0 5.0 7.0 20 4 9.67 (0.33) n/a! n/a! n/a! 20 6,810 10.0 (0) n/a’ n/a’ n/a! ' Not enough beetles survived storage to permit analysis. stored for 2 wks (y° = 15.48, P<0.0001) or 8 wks (7? = 6.15, P=0.013; Table 1), but not when stored for 4 or 6 wks (P>0.05, Table 1). Surprisingly, beetles stored for 2 wks at 5, 8.5, or 12 °C survived longer at RT than those stored at 20 °C (Table 1). These results indicate that storage at lower temperatures prolongs male click beetle survival, and that storage at 8.5 °C caused highest overall survival. Future re- search should investigate how cold storage conditions affects beetle physiology. We thank Drs. D. Gray, C. Stevenson, D. Raworth and R. Bennett, and sundry reviewers for valuable advice. REFERENCES Brian, M.V. 1947. On the ecology of beetles of the genus Agriotes with special reference to A. obscurus. Journal of Animal Ecology 16: 210-224. Cox, D.R., and D. Oakes. 1984. Analysis of Survival Data. London: Chapman and Hall. SAS Institute Inc. 2002. SAS/STAT user’s guide, Version 9.1. SAS Institute Inc. Cary, North Carolina. Vernon, R.S., E. LaGasa, and H. Philip. 2001. Geographic and temporal distribution of Agriotes obscurus and A. lineatus (Coleoptera: Elateridae) in British Columbia and Washington as determined by phero- mone trap surveys. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 98: 257-265. J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 115 SCIENTIFIC NOTE Effect of handling and morbidity induction on weight, recovery, and survival of the Pacific Coast wireworm, Limonius canus (Coleoptera: Elateridae) WILLEM G. VAN HERK’” and ROBERT S. VERNON’ Wireworms can recover from prolonged morbidity induced by exposure to insecti- cides (Vernon et al. 2008), but it is unclear to what extent wireworm physiology and survival are affected by repeated handling or morbidity inductions, which reduces larval weight and retards development (Nicolas and Sillans 1989) in some insects. It may be that differences in weights or survival in wireworms repeatedly made moribund, similarly handled but not made moribund, or not subjected to handling or morbidity might occur. Larvae of the Pacific Coast wireworm, Limonius canus LeConte, become tempo- rarily moribund after contact with teflu- thrin-treated wheat seeds, and recover more quickly when re-exposed (van Herk and Vernon 2007), but it is not known if contin- ued re-exposure further decreases recovery time. Wireworms repeatedly contact insec- ticide-treated seeds in the soil, thus a con- tinued decrease in the morbidity duration may affect the insecticide’s efficacy in the field. Here we discuss if wireworms con- tinue to recover more quickly from teflu- thrin-induced morbidity, and if this or han- dling affects their weight and the time to complete the larval instar. Wireworms were collected from an or- ganic farm in Kelowna, BC, in June 2007 and stored in soil at 15 °C. Late-instar, feed- ing wireworms were randomly allocated to one of three treatments (24—50 per treat- ment), the ‘morbidity’, ‘handled’, and ‘control’ treatments. All observations were made at 21+1 °C. In the ‘morbidity’ treat- ment, morbidity was induced, and wire- worm health assessed following van Herk and Vernon (2007). Individual wireworms were placed for 2 min in 1.5-ml Eppendorf microcentrifuge tubes (Fisher Scientific) with a single, ungerminated wheat seed (cv. Superb) treated with Tefluthrin 20CS (20% tefluthrin w/v) at 10 g AI/100 kg seed and the fungicide Dividend XLRTA (3.21% difenoconazole, 0.27% mefenoxam) at 13 g AI/100 kg seed. Seeds were treated in 2007 by Syngenta Crop Protection Canada Inc. (Portage la Prairie, MB). After exposure, larvae were placed in individual Petri dishes lined with moistened filter paper to observe the onset of morbidity, and subse- quently placed in separate, identical film canisters filled with finely screened soil with 20% moisture by weight. Wireworm ‘health’ was assessed every 10 min until 30 min after no further symptoms of morbidity were observed (i.e. 7-15 times). Morbidity was induced using this method at 24-h in- tervals for 4 consecutive days. Wireworms in the ‘handled’ treatment were placed for 2 min in Eppendorf tubes with a single untreated wheat seed and, as above, observed for 20 min in a Petri dish, and then transferred to film canisters filled with soil. To expose these wireworms to handling comparable to those in_ the ‘morbidity’ treatment, the health of ‘handled’ wireworms was assessed at 10- min intervals 12 times on the first day and 10 times on the subsequent 3 d. Wireworms in the ‘control’ treatment were placed in film canisters and weighed, but were not placed in Eppendorf tubes or Petri dishes. Larvae were weighed individually for 5 consecutive d, approx. 6 h before wire- worms in the ‘handled’ or ‘moribund’ treat- ' Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, PO Box 1000, 6947 Highway 7, Agas- siz, British Columbia, Canada ? Corresponding author: vanherkw@agr.gc.ca 116 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 ments were placed in Eppendorf tubes the first 4 d, and at the same time of day on day five. Larvae were weighed for final time approx. 2 mo later, at which time the pro- portion moulted was recorded. Wireworm recovery durations were compared among treatments with ANOVA, and the % decrease in recovery time be- tween day | and days 2, 3 and 4 was calcu- lated. Weight loss over time was compared among treatments with repeated measures ANOVA; orthogonal contrasts were used to compare wireworm weight loss between ‘control’ and ‘handled’, and between ‘handled’ and ‘moribund’ treatments. Pro- portions of larvae that moulted were com- pared with Chi-square analysis. In the morbidity treatment, the time to recovery on day 1 was 88.8 + 2.3 (SEM) min, similar to the 86.0 to 87.8 min re- ported by van Herk and Vernon (2007). Time to recovery on day 1 was significantly longer than on days 2, 3 and 4 (72.4 + 1.8, 69.4 + 1.8, 71.8 + 1.8 min, respectively; F=20.70, df=3,196, P<0.0001), but recov- ery durations on the latter 3 d were not dif- ferent (P>0.05). Recoveries on days 2, 3 and 4 were 18.5 — 21.8% more rapid than the initial recovery time. These data suggest that repeated contact with tefluthrin-treated seeds in the field will not likely make wire- worms insensitive to the insecticide. Analysis of individual wireworm weights over time using the first five meas- urements indicated a weight loss over time (F=8.35, df=4,384, P<0.0001, Table 1) and an interaction between weight loss and treatment (F=2.25, df=8, 384, P=0.02). These remained significant (P<0.05) when all six weighing days were included in analyses; orthogonal contrasts indicated greater weight loss in ‘handled’ than in ‘control’ treatments (F=3.04, df=5,480, P=0.01), but not between ‘moribund’ and ‘handled’ treatments (F=0.80, df=5,480, P=0.55). This suggests that weight loss in the ‘moribund’ treatment was due to han- dling alone, and that extensive handling of wireworms may cause stress or damage, perhaps including elevation of hemolymph sugar or lipids (Woodring et al. 1989). It is unlikely the observed weight loss was from desiccation as it continued from days 5 to 68 when wireworms were continuously in moist soil. Thus care must be taken to mini- mize handling events and/or trauma. All wireworms were alive on day 68 with no difference in moulting in the treat- ments by day 68 (0.62, 0.52, 0.42, respec- tively; ea = 2.79, df=2, P=0.25), so that re- peated morbidity induction and handling did not affect survival or development. We thank M. Clodius and C. Harding for technical assistance, S. Reid for permis- sion to collect wireworms, and L. Letkeman for treating wheat seeds. Table 1. Mean (SEM) weight (mg) of Limonius canus larvae subjected to one of three treatments: ‘Moribund’: repeated handling plus morbidity induced by insecticide exposure; ‘Handled’: repeated handling only; ‘Control’: no handling or morbidity induction. Treatment N day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 68 Control 24: 25.2(1.2) 25:6(1.2) 2551.2). 255 02) -235.5(12)5 25.712) Handled 25 26.001.1) 25.80.1) 25.80.41) 25.701.1) 25.6(1.1). -249(1.2) Moribund 50 25.4(0.8) 25.5(0.8) 25.1(0.8) 25.1(0.8) 25.1(0.8) 24.7 (0.8) REFERENCES Nicolas, G., and D. Sillans. 1989. Immediate and latent effects of carbon dioxide on insects. Annual Review of Entomology 34: 97-116. van Herk, W.G. and R.S. Vernon. 2007. Morbidity and recovery of the Pacific Coast wireworm, Limonius canus, following contact with tefluthrin-treated wheat seeds. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 125: 111- 117. Vernon, R.S., W. van Herk, J. Tolman, H. Ortiz Saavedra, M. Clodius, and B. Gage. 2008. Transitional sublethal and lethal effects of insecticides after dermal exposures to five economic species of wireworms (Coleoptera: Elateridae). Journal of Economic Entomology 101: 365-374. Woodring, J. P., L. A. McBride, and P. Fields. 1989. The role of octopamine in handling and exercise-induced hyperglycaemia and hyperlipaemia in Acheta domesticus. Journal of Insect Physiology 35: 613-617. J. ENTOMOL. SOc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 117 Symposium Abstracts: Biodiversity in Stanley Park Entomological Society of British Columbia Annual General Meeting, West End Community Centre Auditorium, Vancouver, BC, October 4th, 2008 Parks, Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation in B.C. Geoffrey G.E. Scudder. Zoology Depart- ment, University of British Columbia, Van- couver, B.C. Currently over 12% of the land area of Brit- ish Columbia is categorized as Protected Area. This includes national and provincial parks, ecological reserves, and a few other areas. However, it does not include regional and municipal parks and lands owned by various conservation organizations, al- though these have definite conservation value. An assessment of the Protected Ar- eas network shows that this not only does not serve as an efficient ecological network, but it has unequal ecosystem representation, and evidently does not adequately protect the biodiversity richness and rarity hotspots in the province. There are few buffer areas and most parks and protected areas have not been adequately assessed for biodiversity. Impending climate change will undoubtedly have a dramatic impact on the species and ecosystems in British Columbia. There is an urgent need to assess current elements of biodiversity in all the parks and protected areas, monitor these, and develop a land- scape framework with appropriate connec- tivity and integrity, that will facilitate the movement of species in the future. Some first systematic surveys of the in- sects of Stanley Park in 2007 and 2008 John A. McLean. Department of Forest Sciences, University of B. C., Vancouver, B. C. The winter storms of 2006/07 felled a large volume of large trees throughout Stanley Park. Freshly fallen trees are quickly at- tacked by ambrosia beetles and bark beetles as part of nature’s first phase of recycling the dying tissues. The records of some past outbreaks of insects in Stanley Park will be reviewed. In 2007, baseline surveys were made of moths using light traps in undam- aged forest stands near the Aquarium and the Hollow Tree. Semiochemical-baited multiple funnel traps were also set out to evaluate bark beetle and ambrosia beetle populations along with pitfall traps to evaluate ground beetle populations. In 2008, the multiple funnel traps and pitfall traps were set out in areas that had been severely affected by the 2006/07 winter storms after a large portion of the felled trees had been removed and new seedlings planted. A brief overview of some of our results will be given. A Fascination with Nature or "How big can small get?" Peter Woods. Vancouver, B. C. Imagine yourself let loose; able to explore any and every facet of the natural history of a favourite place. Give yourself ten years or so. Where would this journey take you? I have enjoyed just such an opportunity and the rare privilege to observe, listen, touch, imagine, and photograph nature in Stanley Park. This presentation is a sampling of what a naturalist does. It is a blending of curlosity, wonder, fascination, observation, fact, understanding, and shared discovery. It is also about 'small things' and a world of parallel universes. It is about what can hap- pen only when you stop and stand still, in one, magical place. It is about biodiversity with inspiration drawn in equal measure from ‘Winnie the Pooh's hundred acre wood', and ‘Alice's Adventures in Wonder- land'. Here are creatures that have taken me on special journeys captured by a powerful new tool, the 'eye' that sees through the lens of a digital camera. Naturalist-photographer, 118 J. ENTOMOL. SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 105, DECEMBER 2008 Challenges of Small Vertebrate Manage- ment in Stanley Park Robyn Worcester. Conservation Officer, Stanley Park Ecology Society, Vancouver, B.C. Although Stanley Park is a fragmented natural area in the heart of a large urban setting, it is home to a diverse array of resi- dent and migratory wildlife and presents unique challenges as one of the oldest and largest urban parks in North America. Fol- lowing the massive windstorms in the Park in December 2006, the small vertebrates of Stanley Park became recognized as a com- ponent of ecologically based forest manage- ment and a renewed interest in their protec- tion enabled formal research and invento- ries to be undertaken, in many cases for the first time. I will discuss the results of the inventories that took place over the last two years, the challenges that were faced throughout the restoration process, and the ongoing efforts of the Stanley Park Ecology Society to maintain and enhance the diver- sity of the small vertebrates in the Park though data collection and public educa- tion. Stanley Park Restoration Project - Re- spond/Plan/Restore Jim Lowden. Director of Special Projects — Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreation, Vancouver, BC. A look at managing a multiple objective program to respond to a natural disaster; balancing competing agendas while at- tempting to do good. What we learnt from the last 22 months in the trenches. Hurricanes, invasive beetles, and urban forests: lessons from Point Pleasant Park. Jon Sweeney. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Fredericton, NB. Point Pleasant Park, much cherished and heavily used by people (and their dogs) in Halifax, Nova Scotia, has been hit by many disturbances since its inception in 1866, not least of which were the relatively recent arrivals of the brown spruce longhorn bee- tle and Hurricane Juan. Loss of much of the mature red spruce to wind-throw and the beetle has obviously altered forest age class and stand structure in many areas of the park; arthropod species composition and diversity has likely also changed as a result, but unfortunately our baseline knowledge is limited. I will give a brief history of Point Pleasant Park, focusing on changes in the last 2-3 decades, highlight some of our re- search on the biology and management of the brown spruce longhorn beetle, and de- scribe plans for park restoration in the after- math of the Hurricane. History of Survey and Control Activities for Forest Pests in Stanley Park and Ad- jacent Forest Environs Leland Humble. Natural Resources Can- ada, Canadian Forest Service, Victoria, B. C. Since its opening in 1887, the 400 ha of forest lands of Stanley Park have been sub- jected to multiple abiotic and biotic distur- bances that have impacted the health of its forest stands. The extensive blowdown caused by the 2006/07 winter storms is but the most recent example of an abiotic dis- turbance. Ninety-nine species of beetles, 122 species of moths and 11 species of sawflies have been recorded from Stanley Park and adjacent forest habitats on the north shore by the Forest Insect and Disease Survey during survey activities between 1949 and 1995. Only a few of these species are damaging. Outbreaks of defoliators such as the western hemlock looper, the green-striped forest looper, and the western blackheaded budworm have caused exten- sive defoliation or mortality within areas of the park. Aerial control operations to pro- tect the forest resources of the park have been undertaken three times against native defoliators and once for an introduced defo- liator. The biology and damage caused by the major forest pests present in Stanley Park and the history of the control opera- tions undertaken in the park are reviewed. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS The JESBC is published once per year in December. Manuscripts dealing with all facets of the study of arthropods will be considered for publication provided the content is of regional origin, interest, or application. Authors need not be members of the Society. Manuscripts are peer-reviewed, a process that takes about 6 weeks. Submissions. The JESBC accepts only electronic submissions. Submit the manuscript in MS Word or Wordperfect format, along with a cover letter, as an e-mail attachment to the Editor. Manuscripts should be 12-point font, double-spaced with generous margins and numbered lines and pages. Tables should be on separate, numbered pages. Figure cap- tions should be placed together at the end of the manuscript. Each figure should be sub- mitted as a separate electronic file. Figure lines should be sufficiently thick and lettering sufficiently large so that they are clear when reduced to fit on the Journal page, 12.7 x 20.5 cm. Preferred graphic formats are GIF and JPG at least 1500 pixels wide. Do not send raw (uncompressed) files such as TIFF or BMP. Submission deadline for Vol. 106 is September 1, 2009. Submit contributions to: Dr. Hugh Barclay, Editor hbarclay@nrcan.gc.ca Pacific Forestry Centre 506 West Burnside Road Phone (250) 363-3338 Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5 Fax (250) 363-0775 Style and format. Consult the current volume for style and format. Style generally con- forms to the Entomological Society of America Style Guide, available at http:// www.entsoc.org/pubs/publish/style/index.htm. Pay particular attention to the formats of References Cited. If there is no precedent, consult Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, 6" Ed., published by the Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Notes are an acceptable format for short reports. They must be two Journal pages maximum, about 4.5 manuscript pages. 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This file will also be posted on the ESBC Website (http://www.sfu.ca/biology/esbc/) to provide free electronic access to our Journal for all interested parties. Back issues. Back issues of many volumes of the Journal are available at $15 each. Membership in the Society is open to anyone with an interest in entomology. Dues are $20 per year; $10 for students. Members receive the Journal, Boreus (the Newsletter of the Society), and when published, Occasional Papers. Address inquiries to: Dr. Lorraine Maclauchlan, Secretary — lorraine.maclauchlan@gov.bc.ca B.C. Ministry of Forests 515 Columbia St Phone (250) 828-4179 Kamloops, BC V2C 2T7 Fax (250) 828-4154 iii ! entomelngiat Manes vs weit Columbia G.G.E. Scudder. New provincial and state records for Heteroptera (Hemiptera) in Canada and the United States Jeremy R. Dewaard, B. Christian Schmidt, Gary G. Anweiler and Leland M. Humble. First Ca- nadian records of Lampropteryx suffumata ({Denis & Schiffermiller], 1775) (Geometridae: Larentiinae) 9 D. Thomas Lowery, Michael G. Bernardy, Robyn M. Deyoung and Chris J. French. Identifi- cation of new aphid vector species of Blueberry scorch virus John K. Mackenzie, Peter J. Landolt and Richard S. Zack. Sex attraction in Polistes dominulus (Christ) demonstrated using olfactometers and morphological source extracts Gary J.R. Judd and Mark G.T. Gardiner. Efficacy of Isomate-CM/LR for management of leafrol- lers by mating disruption in organic apple orchards of western Canada D.A. Raworth. Climate change and potential selection for non-diapausing two-spotted spider mites on strawberry in southwestern British Columbia Michael D. Doerr, Jay F. Brunner and Timothy J. Smith. Biology and management of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Washington cherry orchards Kevin Durden, John J. Brown and Maciej A. Pszczolkowski. Extracts of Ginkgo biloba or Ar- temisia species reduce feeding by neonates of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on apple in a laboratory bioassay S.D. Cockfield and E.H. Beers. Management of dandelion to supplement control of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in apple orchards Luis Martinez-Rocha, Elizabeth H. Beers and John E. Dunley. Effect of pesticides on inte- grated mite management in Washington State SCIENTIFIC NOTES R.D. Kenner and K.M. Needham. Additional records for semiaquatic in southwestern British Columbia Virgiliu M. Aurelian, Mario Lanthier and Gary J.R. Judd. Podosesia syringae (Lepidoptera: Se- siidae): a new clearwing moth record for British Columbia Willem G. Van Herk, J. Todd Kabaluk, Viola W.M. Lam and Robert S. Vernon. Survival of male click beetles, Agriotes obscurus L., (Coleoptera: Elateridae) during and after storage at differ- ent temperatures W.G. Van Herk and R.S. Vernon. Effect of handling and morbidity induction on weight, recovery, and survival of Pacific Coast wireworm, Limonius canus (Coleoptera: Elateridae) ABSTRACTS Symposium Abstracts: Biodiversity in Stanley Park Entomological Society of British Columbia Annual General Meeting, West End Community Centre Auditortum, Vancouver, BC, October 4th, 2008 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS