LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTAiNiv.i^ GARDEN ^0 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS COMBINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND THE FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME XVII f SOCIETY 1 I AMERICAN I L FORESTERS i W 1900 , With One Cut and Thirty-six Diagrams PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS AT 930 F STREET N. W. WASHINGTON. D. C. 1919 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY A professional journal devoted to all branches of forestry EDITED BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS EDITORIAL BOARD B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief Raphael Zon, F. E., Managing Editor R. C. Bryant, F. E., A. B. Rkcknagel, M. F., Forest Utilization, Forest Mensuration and Organization, Yale University Cornell University B. P. KiRKLAND, M. F., H. D. TiEMANN, M. F., . Forest Finance, Forest Technology, . University of Washington Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Barrington Moore, M. F., J. W. Toumey, M. S., M. A., Forest Ecology, Silviculture, New York, N. Y. Yale University T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M. F., Policy and Administration The JouRXAL appears eight times a year — monthly with the exception of June, July, August, and September. The pages of the Journal are open to members and non-members of the Society. Manuscripts intended for publication should be sent to Prof. B. E. Fernow, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any member of the Ed- itorial Board. Missing numbers will be replaced without charge, provided claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to the Joltrnal op Forestry, Atlantic Building, 9W F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Officers and Members of Executive Council of the Society of American Foresters for 1919 President, F. E. Olmsted. Stanford University. California. Vice-President, W. W. Ashe, Atlantic Building. Washington, D. C. Secretary, Paul D. Kelleter, Atlantic Building, Washington, D. C. Treasurer, A. F. HawES, Atlantic Building, Washington, D. C. Executive Council The Executive Council consists of the above officers and the following members: Term expires Term expires S. T. Dana Jan. 1, 1924 H. S. Graves Jan. 1, 1921 J. W. Toumey Jan. 1, 1923 R. C. Bryant Jan. 1, 1920 H. H. Chapman Jan. 1, 1922 B. E. Ferxow (Chairman Editorial Board) CONTENTS Page In Memoriam : Theodore Roosevelt 0 Mahogany and Some of Its Substitutes 1 By S. J. Record. Some Biological and Economic Aspects of the Chaparral 9 By E. N. Munns. The Relation of Gray Birch to the Regeneration of White Pine 15 By J. W. Tourney. The Influence of Thinning on Western Hemlock and Grand Fir Infected with Echinodontium Tinctorium , 21 By J. R. Weir and E. E. Hubert. Appraisal of Fire Damage to Immature Timber for Statistical Purposes.... 36 By F. G. Clark. Bear Clover {Chamacbatia fcliolosa Benth) 39 By J. A. Mitchell. State Forest Notes and Legislation 44 Private Forestry 113 By H. S. Graves. Roosevelt's Part in Forestry 122 By G. Pinchot. The War and the Lumber Industry .' 125 By R. C. Bryant. Marketing Timber from Farm Woodlands 135 By F. W. Besley. Women in Southern Lumbering Operations 144 By E. N. Munns. The National Forests: the Last Free Hunting Grounds of the Nation 150 By A. Leopold. The Structure and Use of the Parana Pine Forests of Brazil 154 By H. N. Whitford. Some Causes of Confusion in Plant Names 159 By Agnes Chase. Economic Aspects of the Wood-Fuel Campaign 163 By A. F. Hawes. Some Remarks on State Forest Policy 168 By R. S. Hosmer. Planting in Relation to the Future of National Forests 173 By F. R. Johnson. The Timber Census in the Northeastern States 17b By A. B. Recknagel. The Work Ahead 227 By F. E. Olmsted. The Organization of Finance in Forest Industry 236 By B. P. Kirkland. Reviews of Lumber Industry Affairs 245 By P. S. Lovejoy. Forest Research and the War 260 By E. H. Clapp. Some Aspects of Silvical Research as an After-the-War Activity 273 By C. Leavitt. Need for a United Forest Research Program 281 By J. W. Tourney. Some Reflections upon Canadian Forestry Problems 290 By C. D. Howe. IV Page Preliminary Report of Some Forest Experiments in Pennsylvania 297 By J. S. Illick. Measuring Cordwood in Short Lengths 312 By R. C. Hawley. A National Lumber and Forest Policy 351 By H. S. Graves. A Program of Forest Conservation for the South 364 By J. G. Peters. Tropical Reconnaissance with Special Reference to Work in the Philippines and British North Borneo 371 By D. W. Matthews. Results of Cutting at Ne-ha-sa-ne Park in the Adirondacks 378 By B. A. Chandler. Observations oh Unburned Cut-Over Lands in the Adirondacks 386 By E. F. McCarthy. Forest Service Salaries and the Future of the National Forests 398 By A. Leopold. Influences of the National Forests in the Southern Appalachians 402 By W. L. Hall. Forestry and the War in Italy 408 By N. C. Brown. A Formula Method for Estimating Timber 413 By E. L Terry. The Control of Flood Water in Southern California 423 By E. N. Munns. A Plea for Assertion 471 By F. E. Olmsted. Present Status of Forest Taxation in the United States 472 By M. K. McKay. How Can the Private Forest Lands be Brought Under Forest Management.. 490 By W. N. Sparhawk. Public Control of Private Forests in Norway 497 By S. T. Dana. A Forest Policy for Louisiana 503 By R. D. Forbes. Aerial Photography and National Forest Mapping 515 By R. Thelen. Suggestions for Instruction in Range Management. 523 By A. W. Sampson. A Forest Reconnaissance of the Delaware Peninsula 546 By R. M. Harper. The Segregation of Farm from Forest Land 627 By P. S. Lovejoy. The Lumbermen's Attitude Toward Forestry 647 By H. T. Kendall. What Is Potential Forest Land 650 By C. Hoar. Eflfect of Changed Conditions upon Forestry 657 By W. W. Ashe. Activities of the Society of American Foresters 663 By F. E. Olmsted. Pathological Markmg Rules for Idaho and Montana 666 By J. R. Weir and E. E. Hubert. Mechanical Aids in Stem Analysis 682 By E. C. Pegg. Mensuration in France 686 By D. Bruce. Comment on " A Formula Method of Estimating Timber " 691 By D. Bruce. Page The Development of a Brush-Disposal Policy for the Yellow Pine Forests of the Southwest 693 By H. H. Chapman. A Plea for Adj ustment 771 By E. A. Sterling. Alinement Charts in Forest Mensuration 773 By D. Bruce. Determination of the Middle Diameter of a Standing Tree 802 By P. d'Aboville. The Royal Italian Forestry College 807 By N. C. Brown. Bordered Pits in Douglas Fir : A Study of' the Position of the Torus in Mountain and Lowland Specimens in Relation to Creosote Penetration 813 By G. J. Griffin. A Suggested Departure in National Forest Stumpage Appraisals 823 By H. R. Flint. Turpentine Orcharding Effect on Longleaf Timber 832 By G. Drolet. An Analysis of Logging Costs in Ontario 835 By G. A. Mulloy and W. M. Robertson. A Volume Table for Hewed Railroad Ties 839 By J. W. Girard and U. S. Swartz. The Lines Are Drawn ; 809 By G. Pinchot. A Policy of Forestry for the Nation 901 By H. S. Graves. Forest Devastation: A National Danger and a Plan to Meet It 911 Report of Committee. An Answer to Dr. Compton's Fourteen Points 946 Climate and Forest Fires in Northern California 965 By S. B. Show. REVIEWS 47, 180, 318, 430, 556, 703, 843, 980 RECENT PUBLICATIONS 77, 574 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 83, 185, 327, 439, 577, 723, 875, 1000 EDITORIAL COMMENT 93, 192, 336, 448, 587, 749, 880 NOTES 95, 202, 342, 452, 601, 753, 884, 1008 SOCIETY AFFAIRS 208, 465, 621, 767, 896 INDEX art.=article ; rev.=rcview; br.=:brief (periodical literature); rcf.=referencc (recent publication) ; c.=:coniment ; n.=note. Acer rubrum^ varieties, br 440 Adirondacks, cut-over land, art... 386 forest reserve, purchase, n 1012 results of cutting, art 378 Adjustment, pica tor, art 771 Aerial photog'-aphy, mapping, art. 515 Ailanthus for wood pulp, rev 722 Airplane, expedition to Labrador, n 892 Alabama, national forests, n 893 Alaska, revegetation, Katmai Val- ley, br 1002 Algeria, forests, rev 986 Alinement charts, art 773 Alsace-Lorraine, forest manage- ment, rev 333 American - Scandinavian founda- tion, n 894 Applachian forests, timber sales, n 98 influence of national forest, art. 402 Arbor day, n 457 Argentina, wood fuel, n 610 Artificial vs. natural regenera- tion, n 1012 Ashe, W. W., art 657 Aspen reproduction and grazing, rev 564 effect of grazing, ref 575 Association, eastern foresters, meeting, 1919, n 202 Australia, quarterly, n 107 South, report, 19.17-18, rev 324 Western, forestry, rev 340 Balsa wood, n 103 Balsam fir, diseases, rev 332 Baltimore meeting, 1918, c 197 Bark beetles, ref 77 Bavaria, private forestry, br 878 Bear clover, art 39 BeslEy, F. W., art 135 Big trees. New Zealand, n 890 Birch, gray, and white pine re- generation, art 15 Birds, attracting, ref 576 Blister rust control, report, rev.. 325 conference, n 1010 Massachusetts, ref 79 Bordered pits in Douglas fir, art.. 812 and impregnation, art 812 Boswellia scrrata, naval stores, rev 322 Brazil forests, n 105 pine forests, art 154 British Columbia, conservation report, n 108 course for forest rangers, n 763 forest conditions, n 616 forests, rev 865 lumber cut, 1918, n 895 report, 1918, rev 571 wood-testing laboratory, n 461 Brown, N. C, art 408, 807 Bruce, D., art 686, 691, 773 Brush disposal, policy, art 693 Bryant, R. C, art 125 California, agricultural college re- port, 1917-18, ref 574 flood water control, art 423 state forester, report, 1919, rev. 570 Calosoma, ref 77 Canada, Dominion parks, n 346 forest fires, 1914-16, ref 80 forest products, 1915, ref 80 forest supplies, n 619 forest survey, n 893 forestry association, n 348 forestry problems, art 290 limiting factors in range of trees, rev 721 lumber census, n 204 maple sugar, exports, n 348 native trees, ref 78 Ontario forest reserve law, n... 760 pulp and paper association, woodlands section, n 105 pulp and paper industry, n 616 pulp and paper industry, statis- tics, 1915, n 753 pulpwood supply, n 347 Rockies, rev 73 standardization committee, n.... 345 trade matters, n 613 trees, root habits, br 443 Carrier pigeons, fire protection, n. 464 Cascara bark industry, n 605 stumpage, n 463 Cedar, nursery, blight, ref 80 soil requirements, n 887 Chamacbatia foliolosa, art 39 Changed conditions, art 657 Chapman, H. H., art 693 Chandler, B. A., art 378 Chaparral, biology and economics, art 9 Chase, A., art 159 Chestnut blight, quarantine, c... 449 China, wood oil, rev 993 Churchill, H. L., art 601 Clapp, E. H., art 2G0 Clark, F. G., art 36 Climate and forest fires, art 965 Climate, influence on plant growth, rev ; • • S^ Coeur d'Alene timber protective association report, 1917, ref. 575 Compton's 14 points, answered, art 947 Conference, Southwestern super- visors, n 342 Conifers of Europe, key, br 577 of Rockies, ref • • 77 Connecticut, state park commis- sion's report, 1918, rev 437 Conservation, foundations of na- tional prosperity, rev 50 Cooperage statistics, rev 995 Cordwood measure, in short lengths, art 312 Corn stalks, laminated, n 346 Costs, logging in Ontario, art 835 Creosote treatment, jack pine and hemlock, rev 716 Cross ties, creosote treatment, ref. 576 Cut-over land, Adirondacks, art.. 386 Quebec, rev 338 Cypress forests, n 62 D'AbovillE, p., art 802 Damage, appraisal, art 36 Daxa. S. T.. art. 497. trans 802 De Broen, obituary notice 462 Delaware peninsula, forest recon- naissance, art 546 Dendrometer, new, rev 85."'> Denmark, yield of state forests, n. 611 Diameter, measuring middle of standing tree, art 802 Diseases, balsam fir, rev 332 Disease, surveys, ref 79 rev 874 by larger fungi, rev 722 manual, rev 321 Douglas fir, bordered pits, art.... 812 logging, rev 180 properties, ref 81 properties, rev 857 Drolet. G., art 832 Durability of wood, cause, br 876 Ecology, forest tree requirements, n 884 of rain forests, br 1001 of roots, rev 990 Elm, utilization, ref 81 Empire State forest products as- sociation, n 613 forest policy, n 1011 Environment and leaf structure,br. 186 I'.stiniating by formula, art 691 formula method, art 413 ICucalyptus, Hawaii, n 202 monograph, vol. 4, pt. 5, ref 77 Exhibits in France, n 460 Eye-protector for use of lookouts, n 463 Farm and forest lands, art 627 timber marketing, art 135 Fernow, B. E., retirement, n 766 Finance, fire damage, appraisal, art 36 organization, art 236 stumpage appraisal, art 832 Fire conference, Spokane, n 345 damage, appraisal, art 36 finder. O.sborne, n 757 propagation agency, ref 80 protection, carrier pigeons, n... 464 rural control, ref 79 trespass, verdict, n 462 Fires, Pennsylvania, ref 80 weather forecasts, ref 80 First aid manual, ref 81 Flint. H. R., art 823 Flood water control, art 423 Florida, forests, inventory, ref.. 78 Forbes. R. D., art 503 Forest devastation, committee re- port 910 Forest experiments, art 297 Forest and farm land, art 627 Forest fires, co-operation, n 109 and climate, art 95 (See also under Fires) Forest influences, rev 717 on snow, rev 47 Forest management, rev ;. 850 Forest pathology, laboratory, n... 205 western hemlock and grand fir, art 21 Forest planting, national forests, n 109 (See under Planting) Forest policy (see also National forest policy) Fore=t products association, n....l011 national, c 880 Forest policy, national, art 351. 899, 901, 946 national, committee report 910 New York state forestry asso- ciation, c 199 purchase of private lands, c 192 of states, art • • • 168 Forest production in the Pacific, rev ;v 562 Forest products laboratory, activi- ties, n 1013 iz Forest ranger school, British Co- lumbia, n 763 Forest ranger, song collection, rev. 997 Forest recreation, course at N. Y. state college, n 892 Forest research (see also under Research) in Forest Service, n 619 and war, art 260 Forest schools. Great Britain, n... 765 Forest service and extension divi- sionsy n 109 salaries, art 398 Forest and water, rev 717 Forester's, position in New Zea- land, n 758 Foresters' Union, c 448, 596 Forests and war, br 447 Forestry battalions, Canadian and American, n 243 conditions changed, art 657 and community development, ref. 78 in Italy, art 408 New York, ref 79 Formula, estimating timber, arts., 413, 691 France, aid from Norway, n 765 forest service in the war, br.... 743 forestation, br 441 forestry exhibits, n 460 lumber problems, n 759 mensuration, art 686 message from forest engineers, ref. 81 Norwegian assistance, n 347 oak disease, br 726 pine reforesting, br 577 private forests, br 747 stumpage values, n 342 Fruit trees along roads, br 748 Frustum form factors, maple and birch, rev 712 Fuel, use of wood, rev 710 Fuelwood campaign, art 163 production and value, rev 980 Fuels, efficient utilization, ref.... 81 Fungus diseases, rev 72 Game and national forests, art.... 150 preserve. Mt. Pisgah, n 97 prices in Germany, br 742 Germany, forest resources, rev... 430 br 1000 periodicals, br 439 civil service federation, br 745 forest schools, br 748 forestry in Prussia, br 746 fuelwood regulation, br 727 research organization, br 90 training apprentices, br 745 turpentine industry, br 729 Gingko, fossil, n 104 GiRARD, J. W., art 839 Graft of spruce on pine, anatomy, br 723, 875 Grand fir, influence of thinning, art 21 Graves, H. S., art 113, 351, 901 Grazing and aspen reproduction, rev 564, 703 control in white pine, n 347 on national forests, statistics, n. 615 and yellow pine reproduction, rev 705 Griffin, G. J., art 813 Great Britain, afforestation propo- sals, br 724 committee report, br 860 forest schools, n.. 765 forestry, n 612 plantations competition, br 1004 transport of wood, br 88 Groundwood for newsprint, n.... 107 Gum, oleo-resin, rev 322 H.^LL, W. L., art 402 Hardwood stocks, short, n 761 Hardwoods and impregnation, rev. 985 for pulp, n .....103, 892 resistance to creosote injection, ref 81 Hawaii, eucalyptus plantations, n. 202 forestry, rev 717 forestry report, 1918, rev... 720, 853 Hawes, a. F., art 163 HawlEy, R. C, art 312 Heart rot, western pine, n 754 Hemlock, western, heart rot, ref. 574 influence of thinning, art 21 Heredity, spruce sports, br 439 Hosmer, R. S., art 168 Howe, C. D., art 290 Hubert, E. E., art 21,666 Hunting and national forests, art. 150 Hutchinson, A. H., tree range, limiting factors 721 Idaho, state land administration, n 105 state forests, n 346 Iluck, J. S., art 297 Impregnation through bordered pits, art 812 of hardwoods, rev 985 tests in longleaf pine, rev 864 Increment, annual and seasonal, br. 85 measuring" instrument, n 616 Indiana, forestry report, 1917. ref. 78 hardwood logs, situation, n 759 trees, n 617 trees, rev 870 war memorial park, n 461 Inspection, wood, lian(ll)ook, n.... 617 Italy, forestry education, art 807 forestry and the war, art 408 Jack pine, soil requirements, n — 887 JoH NSON, F. R., art 173 Katniai Valley, revegetation, br...l002 Kauri forest management, New Zealand, rev 561 Kendall, H. T., art 647 Kentucky, eastern, forests and coal mining, rev 572 forest legislation, art 45 forestry report, 1917, ref 78 KiRKLAND, B. P., art 236 Korea, forestry report, 1915-16, ref. 79 Labor and research, c 749 Labrador airplane expedition, n... 892 Laminated wood, n 346 Land acquisition by exchange, n.. 346 classification, art 627 Landscape engineering in national forests, c 93 Leaf structure and environment, br 186 Leavitt, C. art 273 Lec-ther substitute, n 463,464 Leopold, A., art 150, 398 Life forms and leaf size, in phyto- geography. rev 328 Lo<):ging costs, Ontario, art 835 in Douglas fir region, rev 180 Loiitr'eaf pine, absorption tests, ref. 81 effect of turpentining, art 832 impregnation tests, rev 864 propagation, ref 80 Lookout, eye-protector, n 463 Louisiana, forest policy, art 503 Lovi-jov. P. S., arts 245, 627 Lumber dealers' association, meet- ing, n 455 industry, review, art 245 and war, art 125 prices, committee report, 1918, rev 320 production, ref 81, 574 p-oduction, 1917, n 614 raft, n 10? softwood, distribution, ref 81 used in wooden products, ref.. 81 Lumbering, women, art 144 Lumbermen's attitude, c 590 art 647 obligation to the forest, n 758 Lumbermen, social service, rev... 339 McCarthy, E. F., art 386 McKav, M. K., art 472 Mahog:iny and substitutes, art.... 1 Maine, forestry report, 1917 571 state lands and forestry report, 1918, rev 571 Manitoba, new district, resources, ref 574 Maple sugar, Canada, n 348 Iklapping by aerial photography, art 515 Marine borers, oil treatment, rev. 985 Marketing farm timber, art 135 Marking rules, pathological, art.. 666 Maryland, forestry report, 1916 and 1917, ref 78 Massachusetts, blister rust, ref... 79 forestry association, tour, n.... 462 state fore.ster's reports, 1915, 1916, 1917, rev 63 Matthews, D. W., art 371 Alensuration, alinement charts, art. 773 annual and seasonal increment, br 85 cordwood in short lengths, art... 312 estimating by formula, art 691 in France, art 686 frustum form factors, rev 712 mechanical aids, art 682 middle diameter of standing trees, art 802 railroad ties, art 839 Mesopotamia, afforestation, br.... 189 Alexico, forest school, n 893 Michigan legislation, n 458 nursery, n 618 Minnesota, appropriations, n 895 forest fire, rev 867 state forester, report, 1918, rev. 567 Mississippi, forest legislation, art. 44 Mitchell, J. A., art 39 Montana, forest school, n 106,615 lumber industry, n 609 red belt injury, n 99 revised fire law, n 348 state forester, report, 1918, rev. 556 supervisors' meeting, n 344 Moore, Barrington, research, n... 96 MuLLOY. G. A., art 835 MuNGER, T. T., art 605 MuNNS, E. N.. arts, 9. 144, 423, c. . 197 National forests, rev 67 influence in Appalachians, art.. 402 finances, n 101 hunting grounds, art 150 increase by exchange, n 346 loan, n 108 planting policy, art 173 and water-user, ref 575 policy, arts 351, .899, 901, 946 lumber manufacturers' associa- tion, n 1014 recreation uses, ref 576 road-building, ref 78 stumpage appraisal, art 823 National prosperity, foundations, ref 50 Naval stores, from Boszvellia ser- rata, rev 322 Germany, br 729 Nehasane Park, results of cutting, art 378 New Brunswick, crown lands re- port, 1917-18, ref 574 forest revenues, n 764 New England forestry congress, n. 614 New Hampshire, forestry report, 1916-18, ref 574 New Jersey, conservation report, 1917, ref 79 1917, rev 318 forest legislation, art 44 New York, Adirondack forest re- serve, n 1012 conservation report, 1919, rev.. 182 forestry association, resolutions, c 199; n. 203 forestry journal, n 895 forestry laws, ref 79,452 making use of idle lands, ref.. 575 water power resources, ref 575 New South Wales, commercial trees, ref 78 forestry report, 1917, ref 79 New Zealand, big trees, n 890 forestry, n 610, 765 Kauri forest management, rev. 561 Nitrification of soil and reproduc- tion, rev 69 Nomenclature, confusion, art 159 North Carolina, forest legislation, art 45 Norway, assistance to France, n... ." 347, 765 control of water powers, n.... 604 forest dwellings, n 603 private forest control, art 497 Nurse trees in plantations, br.... 84 Nursery experiments, n 763 Oak, hybrids, Texas, n 344 loss in France, br 726 seasoning, n 894 American, br., 185 Oakoal, fuel, n 618 Oil against marine borers, rev... 985 Oleo-resin in Thitsi, rev 707 Olmsted, F. E., arts 227, 471, 663 Ontario, fire organization, n 348 forest survey, n 893 timber administration, n 761 Oregon, forest fires, n 615 Osborne fire finder, n 757 Pacific, northwest, forest produc- tion, rev 562 Paper pulp (see also Pulp) Paper pulp from leaves, n 891 from rice straw, n 461 Paper and pulp industry, Europe, rev 995 Paper soles, n 463 waterproof, untearable, n 107 Parana pine, forests in Brazil, art. 154 Pasture and forest, Switzerland, br 725 Pathology, balsam fir, rev 332 fungus diseases, rev 722 heart rot, western pine, n 754 and marking rules, art 666 plant pest, committee, n 206 tree diseases, rev 321 white and red pine, n 1008 Pearson, R. S., timber, antiseptic treatment 718 Pegg, E. C, art 682 Pennsylvania, fires, ref 80 forest experiments, art 297 grange reports, n 20) statistics, n 459 Personalia ..110, 111, 112, 205, 206, 207, 895 Peters, J. G., art 364 Philippines, bamboos, ref 576 material for paper manufacture, n 894 sources for pulp, ref 576 Phyto-geography, methods, rev... 328 PiNCHOT, G., arts 122, 899 Pine wood testing, n 104 Pisgah game preserve, n 97 Pith rays, origin, br 875 Plant importation, control, n 346 names, confusion, art 159 succession, Colorado, ref 77 Plantations and nurse trees, br... 84 Planting, commercial, n 95 policy in national forests, art.. 173 profitableness, br 190 Poison for killing trees, n 456 Polyporus pargamenus Fries, biology, ref 574 Position for foresters, n _. . 758 Potlatch, timber protection associa- tion report, 1917, ref 80 Preservation of cross ties 716 of timber, br 190 Preservation treatment, rev 718 jack pine and hemlock, rev TIG of wood, rev 63, 753 Prices, history, international dur- ing the war, rev 843 price-fixing committee report, rev 320 stabilizing program, n TOO Private forest control, Norway, art 497 management, art 490 forestry, art li:i; ref. .5T.') ; c. .587 Adirondack^, n 601 vs. state planting, n T.")8 Prussia, forest service, br 878 overcrowding profession, br.... 747 Pulp from hardwood, n 892 ground wood, n 107 and paper industry, statistics, 1915, Canada, n 753 variations of cooking conditions, ref 81 Pulpwood, consumption and pro- duction, 1916, 1917, ref.. 80, 757 statistics. 1918, rev 873 supplies, in Middle West, n 347 Quarantine, new rules, n 346 Quebec, fire record, 1918, n 464 forest administration, n 764 nursery, n 766 wood-using industries, ref 81 Quebracho, reproduction, br 726 Quercus alba, ray tracheids, ref. . . 77 Rabbit growing, rev 719 Raft, self-propelling, n 895 Railroad ties, specifications, n.... 103 volume table, art 839 Rain forests, tropical, ecology, br..l001 Range of forest trees in Canada, rev 721 Range management, instructions, art 523 poisonous plants, ref 77 preservation and erosion, rev.. 720 preservation, relation to erosion control, ref 79 Raunkiaer, work, in phyto-geogra- phy, rev 328 Ray tracheids, Qtiercus alba, ref. 77 Recknagf.l, a. B., art 178 Reconstruction and natural re- sources, c 598 Record, S. J., art 1 Recreation areas, n 617 Red belt injury. Montana, n 99 Red pine attacked by white pine weevil, n 1008 Redwood, distribution, rev 331 Rkei), p. W., c 98 Reproduction and soil nitrification, rev 69 Research, France, n 96 India, n 102 and labor, c 749 organization, Germany, br 90 program unified, art 281 silvical, art 273 Results of cutting, Adirondacks, art 378 REVIEWS: Barton, J. E., forests and coal mining 572 Benskin, E., and Rodger, A., Thitsi and oleo-resin 707 Bentley, J., Jr., forest manage- ment 850 Betts, H. S., timber, strength, seasoning, and grading 982 Blister rust control, report, 1918 325 Boerker, R. H. D., our national forests 67 British Columbia, 1918 571 Bruce, D., new dcndrometer. . . . 855 Campbell, J. E., paper and pulp, Europe 995 Carver, Ely, Hess, and Leath, foundations of national pros- persity 50 Cary, A. E., and Oliver, F. W., tidal lands 75 Chandler, B. A., frustum form factors of maple and birch... 712 Cheel, E., and Cleland, J. B., tree diseases 722 Cleland, J. B., and Cheel, E., tree diseases 722 Connecticut, park commission re- port, 1916-18 437 Craig, R. D., British Columbia forests 865 Dana, S. T., national forests and water-users 717 Deam, C. C, Indiana trees 870 Dearborn, N., rabbits and meat supply 719 Douglas fir, properties 857 Ely, Hess, Leath, and Carver. foundations of national pros- perity 50 Flury, P., root grafting 872 Forest production, continuous.. 562 German forests, resources 430 Gibbons, W. H., logging, Doug- las fir region 180 Goldsmith, M. L., prices during war, history 843 Great Britain, forestry report.. 960 Griffin, A. A., snow, influence of forests 47 Guthrie, J. D., Forest Ranger. . 997 Hawaii, forestry report, 1916-18 720 Hess, Leath, Carver, and Ely, foundations of national pros- perity 50 Hesselman, H., soil nitrification 69 Homans, G. AL, California for- estry report, 1918 570 Hubert, E. E., forest disease sur- veys 874 Judd, C. S., Hawaiian forestry report. 1917-18 853 Leath, Carver, Ely, and Hess, foundations of national pros- perity 50 Lin, D. Y., Chinese wood oil.. 993 Lumber prices, 1913-1918 320 McLean, J. D., hardwoods, re- sistance to creosote 985 McLean, J. D., longleaf pine, ab- sorption tests 864 Marc, M., Algerian forests 986 Massachusetts, forester's report, 1915-17 63 Middaugh, F. K., prices during war, history .' 843 Minnesota, forestry report, 1917-18 567 Mitchell, W. C, prices during war, history 843 Montana, forester's report, 1917- 18 556 National forests, timber surveys, instructions 856 New Jersey, conservation and development report, 1917 318 New York, conservation com- mission report, 1918 182 New Zealand, Kauri forest 561 Pierson, A. H., cooperage statis- tics, 1918 995 Pearson, R. S., and Singh, P., turpentine from Boswellia serrata 322 Rankin, W. H., tree diseases manual 321 Recknagel, A. B., forest man- agement 850 Record, S. J., economic woods.. 859 Rhode Island, report, 1918 874 Richardson, H. W., Minnesota forest fire, 1918 867 Sampson, A. W., climate and plant growth 59 Sampson, A. W., grazing and as- pen reproduction 564, 703 Sampson, A. W., and Weyl, L. H., range preservation and erosion control 720 Shackell, L. F., test, oil treat- ment against marine borers.. 985 Smith, F. H., cooperage statis- tics, 1918 995 Smith, F. H., pulpwood statistics, 1918 873 Snow, C. H., wood and other structural materials 181 South Australia, forestry report, 1917-18 324 Sparhawk, W. N., grazing and yellow pine reproduction 705 Sporri, E., Zug state forests... 871 Sweden, forest experiment sta- tion report, 1918 431 Taylor, W. H., ailanthus for pulp 722 Teesdale, C. H., hardwoods, re- sistance to creosote 985 Teesdale, C. H., longleaf pine, absorption tests 864 Teesdale, C. H., tests, oil treat- ment against marine borers.. 985 Virginia, forester's report, 1916 and 1917 566 Wallis-Taylor, A. J., preserva- tion of wood 62, 573 Weaver, J. E., ecology of roots. 990 Webster, A. D., firewoods, pro- duction and fuel values 980 Weir, J. R., forest disease sur- veys 874 Weyl, L. H., and Sampson, A. W., range preservation and erosion control 720 Whitford, H. N., British Co- lumbia forests 865 Wilcox, W. D., Rockies in Canada 73 Rhode Island, report, 1919, rev... 874 Rice straw for paper-making, n.. 461 Roads, federal aid act, n 890 and fruit trees, br 748 Robertson, W. M., art 835 Rockies in Canada, rev 73 conifers, ref 77 Roosevelt and forestry, art 122 obituary notice 0 Roots, ecological relations, rev... 990 Root-grafting, rev 872 habits. Canadian trees, br 443 Roth, F., c 93 Rubber cultivation, ref 80 Russia, timber industry, ref 78 Sal, double seedlings, n 109 Sampson, A. W., art 523 Sanitation, need, art 666 Sawdust for pulp, n 104 Scotland, forest school, n 618 taxation, br 89 Scrub oak, thinning, n 755 Seasoning, oak, n 894 Seeding experiments, n 763 time and results, n 763 Seeds, choosing best, ref 8u in duff, n 345 Sequoia scmpervirens, rev 331 Shore problems, rev 75 Show, S. B., art 965 Silviculture, Adirondacks, cut-over land, art 386 artificial vs. natural regenera- tion, n 1012 Nehasane Park, art 378 N. J. scrub oak, n 755 pathological marking rules, art.. 666 problems, br 83 problems, rev 336 research, art 273 seeding experiments, n 763 soil nitrification, rev 69 thinning, art 21 thinning, n 755 Sitka spruce, production in war, n. 892 tree study, n 607 Snow, influence of forests, rev.. 47 Society activities, art 663 Society affairs... 208, 465, 621, 767, 896 Society of American Foresters, Baltimore meeting, c 197 resolutions. 1918, c 192 work, art 227 Soil nitrification and reproduction, rev 69 Soils, limiting range, n 887 South Australia, report, 1917-18, rev 324 South, forest conservation, pro- gram, art 364 Sparhawk, W. N., art 490 Spruce grafted on pine, br 875 gum, n 608 market, n 761 sports, heredity, br 439 Squirrels, control, ref 675 Standardization committee, C. F. A., n 345 State forest policy, art 168 forests, notes and legislation, art 44 land administration, Idaho, n... 105 Stem analysis, mechanical aids, art. 682 Sterling, E. A., art 771 Stumpage appraisal, national for- ests, art 823 Survey, instructions in national forest, rev 856 SwARTz, U. S., art 839 Sweden, forest experiment sta- tion work, rev 431, 718 Switzerland, forest production, br. 87 notes, br 445 organization, br. 585 pasture and forest, br 725 state forest, rev 871 use of wood in locomotives, n.. 764 working plans, br 578 Sycamores, distinguishing charac- ters, ref 77 Syracuse University, special lec- tures, n 609 Taxation, England, br 443 present status, art 472 Scotland, br 89 Technical workers federation, c 751 Terry, E. I., art 413 Thei.kn, R., art 515 Thiery, obituary notice 460 Thinning, influence on diseased hemlock and fir, art 21 of N. J. scrub oak, n 755 Thitsi and oleo-resin, rev 707 Tidal lands, rev 75 Ties (see Railroad ties and cross- ties) Ti m b e r census, northeastern states, art 178 Timber physics, applied, br 585 Timber, strength, seasoning and grading, rev 982 supply, shortage, rev 337 surveys, instructions, ref 78 Tolerance, limiting factors, n.... 884 specific ranges, rev 721 ToUMEY, J. W.. arts 15, 281 committee report 943 Tree planting. Belle Fourche rec- lamation, results, ref 79 pollen dispersal, br 723 shade, guide, ref 80 Tropical reconnaissance, art 371 rain forests, br 1001 Turpentining, effect on longleaf pine timber, art 832 Turpentine industry, Germany, br. 729 Union for foresters, c 448, 596, 751 United States, entomologist's re- port, 1916-17, ref 574 Utilization, woods waste, n 1013 Virginia, forester's report, 1916 • and 1917, ref 79; rev. 556 Volcanic eruption, effect, br 440 Volume table, railroad ties, art,. 839 Walnut, English, value, n 619 War and forest research, art 260 forestry in Italy, art 408 forests, br 447 lumber industry, art 125 Washington, college of lumbering, n 893 forest club annual, vol. vi., ref. 82 forest school, n 460 Waste in utilization, n 1013 Water and forest, rev 717 Weir, J. R., arts 21, 666 Western Australia, forestry, rev.. 340 Western forestry and conservation association, resolution, n...l014 Western yellow pine reproduction, effect of grazing, ref 575 White pine blister rust, diagnos- ing, ref. 77 report, rev 325 in relation to gray birch, art. ... 15 nursery stock, n 1009 weevil, attacking red pine, n....l008 Whitford, H. N., art 154 Williams, I. C, career, n 108 Women, as forest guards, br 586 in forestry, n 762 and lumbering operations, art.. 144 Wood for fuel, ref 576 ; rev. 710 fuel campaign, art 163 and coal-burning locomotives, n. 764 moving picture film, n 204 values, n 106 Wood inspection, handbook, n 617 materials, rev 181 oil, Chinese, rev 993 treated, U. S., 1917, ref 81 treatment against marine borers, ref 81 products, lumber used, ref 81 Woodpulp, ailanthus, rev 722 Woods for ties, identification, ref. 81 United States, rev 859 Work ahead, art 227 Yale forest school, n 619 forest, n 100 Yellow pine, brush disposal, art.. 693 western, heart rot, n 75* in Michigan, n 458 reproduction, n 889 Yellow poplar, germination of seed, n 101 Yew tree, Oregon, largest, n 619 Yield of conifers, br 727 Young, L. J., n 101 Zug, state forests, rev 871 Vol. XVII JANUARY, 1919 No. 1 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE SOQETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS COMBINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND THE FORESTRY QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS AT 930 F STREET N. W. WASHINGTON, D. C. Single Copies, 50 Cents Annual Subscription, $3.00 Entered as second-class matter at the post-office at Washinerton, D. C, ander tbe act of Marcta 3, 1879. Acceptance for maillngr at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917. authorized November 20. 1918. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY A professional journal devoted to all branches of forestry EDITED BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS EDITORIAL BOARD B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief Raphael Zon, F. E., Managing Editor R. C. Bryant, F. E., A. B. Recknagel, M. F., Forest Utilization, Forest Mensuration and Organization, Yale University Cornell University B. P. KiRKLAND, M. F., H. D. TiEMANN, M. F., Forest Finance, Forest Technology, University of Washington Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Barrington Moore, F. E., J. W. Toumey, M. S., M. A., Forest Ecology, Silviculture, New York, N. Y. Yale University T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M. F., Policy and Administration The Journal appears eight times a year — monthly with the excep- tion of June, July, August, and September. The pages of the Journal are open to members and non-members of the Society. Manuscripts intended for publication should be sent to Prof. B. E. Fernow, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any member of the Editorial Board. Missing numbers will be replaced without charge, provided claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to the Journal of Forestry, Atlantic Building, 930 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C, Jn Mtmtitxvim: In the death of Theodore Roosevelt the Society of American For- esters mourns the loss of its greatest, most brilliant, and most effective leader. The early growth of the profession of forestry in the United States was intimately bound up with his statesmanship while President. As a leader of the conservation movement, he brought forcibly home to the American people the need of wise use and protection of the natural resources of this country. The crystallization of the conservation policy and the realization in large measure of forest conservation was one of the greatest achievements of his administration, and of pro- found significance in our progress toward national efficiency. As a lover of nature and the; out-of-doors, he was keenly interested in the forests, mountains, streams, and wild life. As a traveler and explorer he expanded our knowledge of the forests of remote regions, both in Africa and in South America. By his proclamation, 148,000,000 acres of National Forests were set aside — an amount three times the total proclaimed by all other Presidents since 1891, when the making of National Forest reservations began. It was in his administration, and largely because of his advocacy, that a true National Forest policy was made possible by the transfer of the National Forests from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture, in order that these Forests might be placed under technical supervision. He realized the need of technical foresters in this country for the reali- zation of this National Forest policy, and therefore actively furthered forest education. He became an honorary member of the Society of American Foresters, and, while President of the United States, ad- dressed the Society upon the ideals and duties of American foresters. This address still remains to its members an inspiration of high pur- pose and of public service. As long as these ideals remain the guiding principle of the profession, the Society will remain in the forefront of progressive thought and action in this country. On behalf of the Executive Committee: GiFFORD PiNCHOT. Henry S. Graves. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Vol. XVII JANUARY, 1919 No. 1 MAHOGANY AND SOME OF ITS SUBSTITUTES ^^,^^ A Descriptive; Key Based on the Gross and Lens Characters "^^^ ^i BOTANI By Samuel J. Record ttAM>l Professor of Forest Products, )'a/r Unkrrsity This key embraces most of the woods known to the trade as "mahogany" or used as a substitute for the wood to which the name rightly belongs. A few of importance, particularly of African origin, have been omitted because authentic material was not available to the author. Some others have been excluded be- cause of their insignificance. Representatives of 13 families and 27 genera are described; 11 genera belong to the mahogany family Meliacese. The only equip- ment necessary to use the key is a very sharp pocket knife and a small hand lens magnifying from 10 to 15 times. Care should be taken that the cuts made, espe- cially on cross section, be very smooth, otherwise the structure will be obscured. The two main divisions of the key are based upon the visibility or invisibility of the rays. When doubt exists on this point, as is likely where the rays are very near the limit of vision, the user may need to try both divisions. In three such cases the descriptions are duplicated. This key was prepared in connection with a course in tropical woods. Material assistance was rendered the author by his students, especially Mr. Allen B. Engle and Mr. I. Laurance Lee. Contribution from Yale School of Forestry, No. 2. A Rays visible on cross section without lens, though often very fine. a Resin ducts present, usually appearing under lens (on cross section) as small white dots in few to many tangential lines which are sometimes con- centric and rather widely spaced as though limiting growth rings. < Pores readily visible; often subdivided; gum deposits absent; tyloses present or absent ; white substance sometimes present in dense specimens. Wood parenchyma associated with resin ducts and sometimes in wavy tangential lines in certain species; not prominent on longitudinal surface. Rays con- spicuous on radial surface, usually considerably darker than the fibers. Ripple-marks absent. Woods odorless. Color variable from yellowish or pinkish to reddish-brown or deep brownish-red. Density and texture widely variable. "Philippine Mahogany," "South P.\cific Mahog.xny,'' Lauans, Tanguile, Bat.^an. a^ Woods comparatively heavy, hard and fine-textured. T.\nguile, B.\- T.AAN : Shorea polysperina, et al. (Dipterocarpacese ). b^ Woods light, soft and coarse-textured. a* Color reddish or pinkish. Red L.^uan : S. ne\groseitsis. b^ Color yellowish, grayish or nearly white. Almon, White Lau.\n : S. cximia, Pentacme spp. (Dipterocarpaceae). JOIKXAI, Ol" I"()ki;STKV b Rcsiii ducts absent; as a ^-esult of injury, gum ducts with dark-red con- tents may appear in a compact tangential row in certain species, a' Woods with yellow color predominating; in some cases becoming brown upon exposure to sunlight. Gum ducts not known to occur. (f" Growth rings fairly distinct, due mostly to differences in density but often accompanied by a tine limiting line of wotxl parenchyma; no lines of parenchyma within growth rings. Pores very numer- ous, small to minute, more or less clustered and often in short, irregular, diagonal chains; tyloses abundant; gum and white de- posits absent. Rays of the same color as the fibers; sometimes storied producing fairly distinct ripple-mark^ (about lOO pe: inch) ; rays not conspicuous on radial section. Wood rather light but fairly hard. Color pale yellow or yellowish-brown. Pri.ma \'i:r.\. "WiiiTK Mahoc.anv'' : Tabcbuia doiinoUesudtii ( Bignoni- acea?). b' Growtli rings absent or indistinct; density uniform. Pores of fairly uniform size, rather numerous; sometimes subdivided ra- dially but not arranged diagonally; usually surrounded by paren- chyma. Ripple-marks absent. Color bright yellow at first, turn- ing brown upon exposure, rt' Pores rather large and prominent, surrounded by irregular patches of parenchyma sometimes confluent for a short dis- tance or even forming long tangential lines, prominent on all sections ; white deposits common ; tyloses not abundant. Rays of about the same color as the fibers in fresh wood; other- wise lighter. Wood rather hard. Jackwood: Artocarpus iii- tegrifoUa ( Urticacese). b^ Pores medium-sized or rather small, usually associated with parenchyma which may form short inconspicuous wings not confluent into long lines : white deposits absent ; tyloses abun- dant, appearing more or less gummy and making the vessel lines very conspicuous. Rays considerably darker than wood fibers. Color somewhat variegated or striped. Wood light and soft; ratlier wooly-textured. Espave, "Espave AIahoc- ANv": . I nacardiinn rhiuocarptis (.^nacardiacece). /'' W(j()(ls with rcddisli, pinkish or purplish color predominating. Gum ducts known to occur in several species. a" Woods with aromatic scent like cigar-box cedar. (/^ Growth rings present. Wood parenchyma mostly in concen- tric lines at limits of growth rings only. (/* Woods mostly ring-porous or showing tendency to be- come so; when strictly diffuse-porous (as in certain neo- tropical species or varieties of Cedrela) growth rings are marked by conspicuous light-colored line of parenchyma showing plainly on all sections. Pores large to minute ; mostly open; often subdivided; gum deposits present: white substance not observed ; vessel lines usually very prominent. Gum ducts occasionally present in prominent dark-red streaks. Ravs fine but distinct on all sections. MAHOGA^■^■ AXD SOMK OF ITS SUBSTITUTES 3 Ripple-marks absent or rarely of local occurrence. Woods variable from light, soft and spongy to fairly heavy and Hrm; texture fine to very coarse. Color varial)le, brick- red, brownish-red, light brown with pinkish hue, etc. Spanish Cedar, Cigar-box Cedar, Cedro: Cedrela odo- rata, C. fissilis, et al. (Meliacese) ; Toon, Red Cedar: C. toona; Calantas : Toona spp. (Meliacese) ; Margosa, Neem : Melia irtdica; Bead-tree, Persian Lilac, Aus- tr.\lian White Cedar: M. composita. b* Wood strictly diffuse-porous. Lines of wood paren- chyma very fine and inconspicuous. Pores small, uni- form, open; mostly subdivided; occasionally in diagonal arrangement ; gum deposits present ; white substance not observed; vessel lines not very prominent. Gum ducts not known to occur. Rays very fine, scarcely distinct on cross section, readily visible on radial and tangential. Ripple-marks of local occurrence. Wood rather hard ; fine-textured. Color reddish-brown with golden luster. Chitt.\gong Wood, "East Indi.\n Mahog.\ny," Indian Redwood, Cedar, Bast.\rd Ced.\r : Chickrassia (Cliuk- rasia) Jabularis { Meliaceae). b^ Growth rings absent. Wood parenchyma in numerous, fine but distinct, closely and uniformly spaced concentric lines, producing distinct but not conspicuous striping on longitudi- nal surface. Pores medium to small ; open ; often subdivided ; gum deposits present ; white substance not observed. Vessel lines dark-red and prominent. Gum ducts not known to oc- cur. Rays extremely fine, inconspicuous on all sections ; not always visible on cross and tangential. Ripple-marks absent. Wood moderately hard. Color rose-red or bright reddish- brown. Australian Rosewood, ".Australian I\L\hoganv" : Dysoxylon fraseranuni (Meliacese). b' Woods without aromatic scent. Always diffuse-porous. a' W^ood parenchyma in tangential or concentric lines. Growth rings present ; limited by parenchyma and sometimes marked by differences in density, fl' Pores usually indistinct without lens; not surrounded by parenchyma; solitary or subdivided; open; gum deposits and white substance absent. Wood parenchyma in fine concentric lines at limits of growth rings which are usually distinct on longitudinal surface. Rays distinct on radial surface, indistinct on tangential ; sometimes not visible on cross section without lens. Ripple-marks ab- sent. Wood of very fine and uniform texture; usually straight-grained. Hard and heavy but readily worked. Odorless. Color brown tinged with red ; sometimes de- cidedly reddish. Birch: Betida lenta, B. lutca (Betu- laceje"). JOIRXAL OF FORESTRY b* Pores distinct without lens. a" Lines of wood parencliynia conspicuous on all sec- tions; usually li^ht-colorcd hut sometimes reddish; concentric and apparently limiting growth rings; sometimes rather closely spaced. Rays on radial sur- face distinct but not decidedly darker than fibers; occasional exceptions. Ripple-marks often present throughout (about 50 per inch) ; distinct. Gum ducts not uncommon, producing prominent dark-red streaks. White deposits common in vessels of dense wood. Wood variable from light and soft to hard and heavy. Color variable from maroon to reddish or pinkish brown; occasionally yellowish. True Ma- HOC..\.\Y, Caob.^, Havwoou: Szvietciiia iiiahagoni, S. macrophyllum (Meliaceae). b^ Lines of wood parenchyma visible without lens but not prominent on any section ; mostly dark reddish. Rays very tine and not always distinct on cross sec- tion : prominent on radial surface and darker than fibers. Woods moderately dense; fairly uniform. Color red-brown or chocolate, o" Interior of growth' rings marked with numerous wavy or broken tangential lines of parenchyma. Rays showing plainly on tangential surface as short uniform lines less than .03 inch long; more or less storied, producing ripple-marks (about 50 per inch), at least locally.- Gum ducts not known to occur. Sapeli, "African Mahoc.any" : lintaiidropJiragma candolei (IMeliacese). />'' Interior of growth rings normally without par- encliyma lines. Rays showing ratlier indistinctly on tangential surface as lines of varying length, many of them .06 incli or more ; not storied. No ripple-marks. "DemErara Maho(;anv," Crai?- woon, Car.\pa, Andiroka: Carapa iitiiaiieiisis. et al. (Meliaceae): "Africax Mahocanv": C. gogo. b' Wood parenchyma not in tangential or concentric lines. Growth rings, if present, due to differences in density of wood. a* Rays on tangential surface showing conspicuously as nar- row lines of var\ing length, many of them from .06 to .10 inch long: never storied; very dark and prominent on radial surface. Ripple-marks present (about 60 per inch) due to storied arrangement of vessel segments and wood fibers. Vessel segments uniform in lengtli and visi- ble without lens ; apparently lined with reddish gum and sometimes filled with it. Rows of gum ducts occasionally present and very conspicuous. Wood light and soft but firm; rather coarse-textured. Color reddish-brown with MAHOGANY AND SOME OF ITS SUBSTITUTES 5 a golden luster. Lumbayao, "Lumbayao Mahogany," "Philippine Mahogany": Tarrictia javanica (Stercu- liaceae). b* Rays on tangential surface inconspicuous : all less than .05 inch ; not storied except sometimes locally. Vessel segments of irregular length and indistinct, o" Gum present in vessels ; localized often as dark specks on surface of wood. Rays fine but readily visible on tangential section ; sometimes more or less storied locally producing irregular ripple - marks (about 50 per inch). Rows of gum ducts occasion- ally present. Wood variable from light and soft to rather hard and heavy. Color light to dark reddish- brown, sometimes with purplish tinge. "African Mahogany," "Gambia Mahogany" : KJiaya scnega- Iciisis. et al. (Meliaceae). b'^ Xo gum deposits in vessels. Rays extremely fine, barel.v visible on tangential section : not storied. No ripple-marks. Gum ducts not known to occur. Wood light and soft but firm. Color light pinkish- or pur- plish-brown. "Libreville Mahogany," OkumE, Gaboon, Cedar: BosweUia kJaineana (Burserace^e). B Rays not visilile on cross section without lens. a Wood parenchyma visible, usually without lens; indistinct to very distinct. Gum ducts not known to occur. a^ Wood parenchyma in numerous closely spaced tangential or concen- tric lines, a- Wood parenchyma of same color as or darker than fibers; in concentric lines, mostly independent of the pores : appearing on longitudinal surface as wavy red lines. Pores readily visible; mostly open. Ripple-marks absent. Growth rings apparently absent. 0' Many of the pores subdivided radially; little or no tendency to diagonal grouping ; tyloses absent ; white substance some- times present. Lines of wood parenchyma often as broad as the pores; not conspicuous on any section. Wood rather hard. Color brick-red or maroon. Cancharana, "Bastarp ]\L\hogany": Cabralea spp. (Meliaceae). b^ Few pores subdivided radially : arranged in groups or diag- onal rows; tyloses present: white substance not observed. Lines of wood parenchyma about one-half as wide as the pores ; conspicuous on longitudinal surface as fine zig-zag lines. Wood soft to rather hard. Color brownish-red or purplish. "Borneo Mahogany," Palo ALaria, Poon : Calo- phyllum iiwphyUum ( Guttiferse) ; Santa Maria, Ocuje. "Chijole Mahogany": C. calaba ; Jacariuba : C. Bracilieiise. b^ Wood parenchyma of lighter color than fibers. a' Ripple-marks distinct under lens (over 100 per inch). Pores of irregular size and distribution, tending to make wood ring- JOlKNAl, Ol- l•()KliSTK^■ porous. Wood parenchyma in fine but distinct lines of irreg- ular width, length and distribution ; extending wing-like from pores, connecting pores or becoming continuous and concen- tric ; often wavy ; more or less conspicuous on longitudinal surface. Woods moderately to very dense. Faint cedary scent sometimes present in certain species. Color widely variable; dark-red or crimson, dull red, reddish-l)rown or brown, often variegated; red color fading upon exposure. "Tenasserim Mahogany," Vermilion, Andaman Redwood, Padouk: Ptcrocarpus dalberyioides (Leguminosae) ; Padouk, Burmese Rosewood. "Indian Mahogany," "Philippine Ma- hogany," Narra : P. iiidicus. Ripple-marks absent. Woods never ring-porous. Wood parenchyma in tine or very tine lines, mostly independent of the pores. a* Woods fragrantly scented. Wood parenchyma in fine but distinct, closely and uniformly spaced, concentric lines, producing fine striping on longitudinal surface. Growth rings absent. Pores solitary or subdivided ra- dially ; gum deposits present ; tyloses absent or few. Rays not prominent on radial surface. Woods moder- ately hard. if Pores of medium size; very distinct; vessel lines very prominent on longitudinal surface ; white de- ])osits not observed. Texture medium. Color bright reddish-brown. .Australian Rosewood, ".Austra- lian IM.xhogany" : Dyso.vyloii fraseraiiiiiii (Melia- ceae). &° Pores small, not very distinct ; vessel lines not promi- nent ; white deposits occasionally found. Texture fine. Color dull brick-red. Australian Rosewood. "Scrub Mahogany": Synoiim glaudulnsum (Melia- ceae). h* Woods not scented. Wood parenchyma inconspicuous on longitudinal surface. Vessels without gum and white de- posits ; tyloses present, fj' Pores in radial or diagonal rows ; individual pores scarcely distinct without lens ; tyloses often abun- dant ; vessel lines inconspicuous. Rays not promi- nent on radial surface. Growtli rings absent. Wood parenchyma mostly in very fine broken or wavy tan- gential lines. Wood very dense and fine-textured. Color deep reddish- or purplish-brown; uniform. Balata, Bulletwood, Massaranduba : Mimusot>s globosa, et al. (Sapotacese). /?' Pores scattered ; solitary or doubled ; individually dis- tinct without lens ; tyloses present but not abundant r vessel lines conspicuous. Growth rings present but not always clearly defined. Rays prominent on radial MAHOGANY AND SOME) OF ITS SUBSTITUTES 7 surface. Wood parenchyma in numerous fine but distinct concentric lines. Wood rather dense ; me- dium-textured. Color rather light reddish brown with purplish tinge; often striped. "Colombian Ma- hogany," Albarco: Cariiiiana pyrifoniiis (Lethyci-. dacese). b^ Wood parenchyma not in very numerous closely spaced tangential or concentric lines; concentric lines, if present, are always or mostly at limits of growth rings. a" Pores and pore-groups surrounded by a circle or patch of paren- chyma of lighter color than the fibers. Vessel lines conspicuous, a" Pores rather large with narrow circles of 'parenchyma which are not confluent; mostly solitary but occasionally subdivided; irregularly disposed with tendency to become ring-porous; sometimes in diagonal chains ; mostly open ; reddish gum present; white substance not observed. Fine concentric lines of parenchyma at limits of growth rings. Rays inconspicuous on radial surface; scarcely visible on tangential even with lens ; sometimes faintly visible on cross section without lens. Ripple-marks absent. Wood hard and heavy but easily worked. Odorless. Color chestnut brown tinged with red ; sometimes striped. Sabicu : Lysiloma sahicii (Leguminosae). b^ Pores small to minute within prominent patches of paren- chyma which are sometimes confluent ; solitary or more often subdivided ; well distributed, without tendency to become ring-porous ; sometimes in diagonal chains ; mostly open ; red- dish gum present ; white substance not observed. Growth rings present but not limited by parenchyma except locally. Rays inconspicuous on radial surface ; scarcely visible on tan- gential even with lens. Ripple-marks irregular ; about 80 per inch. Wood very dense. Odorless. Color dark purplish brown with light-colored vessel lines ; sapwood yellowish white with reddish streaks. T.\marind. Madeira, "Madeira Mahogany": Tamarindus iiidica (Leguminosae). b^ Pores and pore groups not surrounded by parenchyma. Vessel lines visible but not conspicuous. a^ Pores usually indistinct without lens ; numerous and well dis- tributed ; solitary or subdivided : open ; gum deposits and white substance absent. Wood parenchyma in fine concentric lines at limits of growth rings which are usually distinct on longitudinal surface. Rays distinct on . radial surface, indis- tinct on tangential ; often visible on cross section without lens. Ripple-marks absent. Wood hard, of very fine and uniform texture; usually straight-grained. Odorless. Color brown tinged with red or pink; sometimes decidedly reddish. Birch: Betitla Iciifa, B. hifea (Betulaceae). b^ Pores small but distinct without lens ; numerous and well- distributed ; solitary or mostly subdivided ; mostly open ; gum deposits present ; white substance not observed. Wood paren- JOIRX.M. Ol" I'OKI'S'lin' cli.vina in I'mc CDiicentric lint-s at limits of growth rings which arc not always distinct on longitudinal surface. Rajs readily visii)le on radial and tangential surfaces. Ripple-marks of local occurrence. Wood rather hard; fine-textured; usually rihbon-grained. Fragrantly scented. Color reddish-brown with golden luster. Cui'rT.^r.oNC. Woon, "East Indi.^n Ma- HfK'.ANY." Indian Rkdwood, Cedar. Bastard Cedar: Chick- rassia (.Cliuknisia) tabularis (Meliace:e). b Wood parenciiyma not visilile. Growtli rings present. Ripple-niarks ab- sent. Rays inconspicuous on radial --ection ; scarcely visible on tangential even with l.ens. o' Pores very small, open ; occasionally in oblicpie or even zig-zag rows. Gum ducts not known to occur. Wood hard, heavy, fine-textured, uniform. a" Wood light-colored, grayish or brownisii. Brl'sh Box. "Bris- bane Mahogany": Tristaiiia confcrta (Myrtacese). /'" Wood dark-colored, reddisli. "Swamp Mahogany." Water Gum : T. laur'ma. h^ Pores rather small, filled with tyloses; often in diagonal rows. Large gum ducts sometimes present. Wood extremely hard and heavy, medium-textured, with interlaced grain. or Wood oily or greasy. Tallowwood. "Red Mahogany": Eucalyp- tus luicrocorys (Myrtacese). b' Wood not oily or greasy. fl' Color pale-brown or very light. "White Mahogany": £. aciiiciioides. E. robusta. b'' Color deep red. "Red Mahogany": E. resinifcra. SOME P.IOLOGICAL AXD ECOXOMIC ASPECTS OF THE CHAPARRAL I'.v Ei)\v. X. }iIl-.\xs, I'orcst li.vainiiier, U. S. Forest Service The field for study that is open in the chaparral forests of the South- west is unlimited and their importance from many standpoints is as yet but little realized. There are a number of phases of the work carried on in these brush forests that are of interest, a few of which are treated here. Two types of chaparral have been recognized, one temporary and the other permanent. This distinction has been based on a fallacious empiricism that the temporary chaparral was the result of a fire, or repeated fires, which destroyed tree growth and made conditions un- favorable for the return of the forest, while permanent chaparral occupied areas where tree growth was impossible or where it was unable to encroach upon the chaparral because of the aggressiveness of the brush: in other words, the forest was being crowded out by the chaparral and would in time disappear. As a matter of fact, the so- called "true or permanent" chaparral is also a temporary type, but because of the more severe conditions under which it grows the rota- tion is much longer. A number of factors support this point of view, some of which are : the dominant species of chaparral of the temporary type in northern California are also found as dominant species in southern California; scattered trees and tree stands exist in the chap- arral where fires as yet have been unable to entirely destroy the growth due to the strength of the species ; good reproduction of coniferous forest trees exist in localities wherever the chaparral is supposed to be driving out the forest ; successful plantations have been made in the chaparral at elevations from 1,500 feet up on all slopes and in brush of varying degrees of density. The application of the plant-indicator idea to the sand-hill region of Kansas and Xebraska has resulted in the successful planting of various conifers in this region which held no promise of success, and similar plant indicators are found in this region which indicate similar sites. Thus, in northern California, Ceanothus indicates a site for yellow pine, in southern California one for Jefifrey pine; Cercocarpns 9 10 .lOURXAL OI' rORKSTRY in the nmlh indicates a Douglas fir site, in southern California a site for the sister tree, the big cone spruce; an oak in the north indicates the yellow pine-sugar pine association, in tlie south the same species a site for the Coulter pine. Fire is recognized by all who have gone into the (juestion as the agency responsible for the change in northern California from timber to brush, but it has not been so recognized in the South, where, be- cause of greater drought, the fires have been much more severe. Chap- arral forest fires are exceedingly destructive to any forest trees which may be in the stand because of the greater inflammability of the brush and the height to which the flames reach, trees whose tops were more than 50 feet above the level of the brush cover being killed. Exami- nations of fire areas where trees have been killed show that only 6 per cent of trees 12 inches or over escape a chaparral fire, while 20 per cent of the trees under 10 inches diameter escape the ordinary light ground fire in a forested area. What happens to these small trees during a chaparral fire needs no comment. There is scarcely a watershed on the Angeles and Cleveland Forests that does not show evidence of fire-destroyed forest growth. In stands of brush where growth studies of oak showed there had been no fire for more than 47 years were found numerous stubs of bigcone spruce and possibly Coulter i)ine. On other areas where mountain residents of many years standing declare positively that they do not recall seeing a single tree in the brush slopes, evidences of a former bigcone spruce stand is found. Of the conifers growing in the chaparral, three may be termed strong species, for were it not for certain characteristics peculiar to them there would be no tree growth in the chaparral at the present time. These species are the bigcone spruce and the Coulter and knob- cone pines. The former is a strong species because of its fire-resist- ing qualities and the ability of the seed to lie dormant in the litter without losing its vitality. Out of over 200 trees tallied on various old burns. 19 per cent were not destroyed, while all other mature conifers are killed by chaparral fires. Seeds sown in the litter from one to five inches deep retained from 10 to 25 per cent of their vitality at the expiration of two seasons, and the young seedlings are able to withstand much shade, growing rapidly when released. Coulter pine is classed as a strong species, for though the tree is readily destroyed by fire, much seed is borne annually, the seed is of good vitality, and when in the litter can withstand a light ground fire without severe hurt. Seed is retained in unopened cones from one to five years on BIOLOGICAI, AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OE CHAPARRAL 11 the tree, and this seed can pass through tires which totally destroy the parent tree, without deterioration, the seed being scattered when the cones open. Knob-cone pine is a strong tree because of its relatively rapid growth on dry sites, and the fact that the cones retain seed of good vitality for many years to be released after a fire. In the past the fire rotation in the chaparral forests was something like 20 years longer on some areas than others, but since the Forest Service has developed its present efficient protective schemes, the rate of fire rotation has been increased to something like 200 years. This change is manifesting itself in the reproduction, for now young trees are showing up through brushy areas where their presence was never before suspected and where there are no evidences of a previous forest. With man aiding the forest by lengthening this rotation, the rapid encroachment of the forest upon the chaparral may be expected. The successful planting of conifers in localities far from any tree growth also demonstrates the fact that this is really forest land. In one plantation Monterey and knobcone pines and deodar cedar are growing so rapidly and thriftily that they are shading out the brush and have built up a forest floor, having attained an average height of 16 feet and an average diameter of five inches in 15 years. Chaparral has a marked efifect on the reproduction of the trees. In heavy mature stands of oak, lilac, and kindred species, a heavy leaf litter from three to eight inches deep is formed. When this deep, it nearly always is matted firmly together, and one can lift large chunks of this material several inches thick without difficulty. Seed falling upon this and not finding conditions favorable for germination either lie dormant or rot. How long seed can lie in this dufif without losing its vitality is not known, but with favorable conditions some seed will germinate on the surface, though some will be unable to reach mineral soil. It has been found that western yellow pine and bigcone spruce cannot send their radicals through two inches of this duff, Jeffrey pine through three inches, and Coulter pine through three and one-half inches. In addition to offering a physical resistance to the germination of the seed, the chaparral harbors countless numbers of seed-eating rodents and birds who destroy immense quantities of seed, so that the chance of a few seed trees being able to seed down a large brush area is ex- ceedingly slight. If, however, a seed year comes soon after a fire in which the seed trees have not all been destroyed, there is an excellent chance of tree growth getting a start to some extent before the rodents again become active. 1'-^ JOIKNAI, dl" 1•()KI•;STR^■ After the seed germinates the greatest deleterious effect that the chajjarral exerts on the young tree is the root competition for soil moisture, which in jjcriods of drought is exceedingly harmful. Chap- arral plants as a rule have a douhle root system, (^ne of these lies close to the surface, where there is a mass of very fibrous roots, while a much deeper system, of which we know very little, grows to a dei)th of 30 feet and over. The roots nearest the surface are believed to become dormant as soon as the soil moisture is reduced to a point at which they can no longer function, and all water required by the i)lant is then furnished 1)\- the deeper roots. With such an established root system the young tree is at a decided disadvantage, for it must reach that level from which it is able to secure enough water to sustain life throughout the long, dry season. A study was made of the rate of growth of the Jeffrey pine under tree cover where the influence of shale on height growth was greater than that of root competition, and of trees growing in the chaparral, where measurements revealed the light to be less than under a tree cover but where the root competition was much greater. The results show to' what extent the root competition affects the rate of growth, there being seven years difference in the between trees growing in the chaparral to a height of seven feet and those grow ing under tree cover. This difference can be explained only on the basis of root competition. After Jeft'rey pine had attained the height of the chaparral it was found that the height growth was reduced 2^4 inches annually for a period of 16 years, and the height grow^th of the Coulter pine was reduced 1.7 inches annually for a period of nine years. In plantations of the Jeft'rey pine in chaparral on the same site and under the same conditions of soil, density of brush and species, it was found that where the chaparral roots were eliminated to a depth of 30 inches the height growth of the trees averaged 1.3 inches greater the first year after planting and i.S inches greater the second year than trees of the same stock planted in direct competition with the brush. Soil moisture determinations give a very good reason for this difference, as the chart evidences, being especially marked at the time when growth first begins. The root systems of the brush are of great value in furnishing a most effective preventative against erosion and landslides. 'Phe roots which lie near the surface form a closely woven mat, which so binds the soil that there is little displacement during heavy storms, no matter what its character. Surface erosion, or sheet erosion, is therefore of BIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF CHAPARRAL 13 very minor importance from an area with a dense stand of brush uni- form over the area, but after a fire has destroyed the cover these sur- face roots are killed and severe erosion takes place. Landslides in dense stands are relatively frequent on steep slopes and are caused by a supersaturation of the soil mass. With plenty of the heavier, deeper root .systems of the chaparral, these landslides cannot occur, but frequently the species forming the cover on such areas do not possess roots capable of anchoring the surface soil firmly in place. Studies of these slips show that the genera in the order of their importance in preventing these slips are: (i) oaks, (2) man- zanitas, (3) sumacs, followed by other species, as the quinines, cas- caras, and legumes, with greasewood bringing up the rear. In nearly every case it was found that when oaks were destroyed in these slips these deep roots were badly decayed, and it is well known that grease- wood is weak, which would account for its place in the scale. It is apparent, therefore, that there is a direct relationship between the strength of these, deep taproots and the number of landslides. Another interesting thing in connection with the chaparral is the change in vegetation that takes place on an area following the removal of the chaparral cover: large numbers of herbaceous annuals and per- ennials spring up whose presence before had not been noted. On two areas, at an elevation of 4,300 feet,, from one of which all the chaparral cover had been cleared, there were 37 species on the cleared area not found in the brush, the increase in the number of individual plants amounting to 164 per cent, while there were found in the chaparral five species not found on the cleared areas. The same change in the character of the plants which spring up after the removal of the brush is also to be noted on fire areas. Here 21 species occurred which were not found anywhere in the adjacent brush. While the litter was not entirely destroyed, the number of individual plants per unit area was 75 per cent greater than on the area where it was entirely consumed. Similar studies were carried on by sowing litter obtained in the brush in the open, and species sim- ilar to those found on the burn and cleared areas were obtained, indi- cating that there were a large number of dormant seeds of various plants aw^aiting favorable conditions for germination, and also evinc- ing the fact that the chaparral area formerly had been destroyed. On the economic side, chaparral holds a future which is just be- ginning to be appreciated. For example, the yucca stem is being used for surgeon's splints and for tree protectors, while from yucca leaves 14 JOIKNAI. Ol" I'OKKSTKV brooms and binder twine are being made, the latter product being superior to that obtained from the sisal, in having a longer and a stouter fiber. Manzanita and lilac root swellings are being made into pipe-stock material, the jiroduct equalling the briar importations. At the present time experiments are being carried on in determining whether manzanita will yield a dye such as the Indians formerly used, while the lilacs were used by the same peoples in making a soap. Oaks and mahoganies, though diameters of more than 4 inches are rare, are aiding in the present crisis by furnisliing fuel material to a region where that commodity is lacking and expensive, and they are capable of renew^ing their stands in a few years by coppice. Hoop material for the cement industry is being sought for, due to the present dififi- culty in the transportation of freight, while novelties and souvenirs of many various kinds arc being made from such woods as the lilacs, mahogany, and manzanita. which take a high polish and unique color- ations. It is evident, therefore, that in these little-known forests are many problems awaiting solution — problems of an ecological nature, problems of streamflow and erosion, and problems of an economic nature — which invite the attention of the natural sciences, engineering, and forestry. THE RELATION OF GRAY BIRCH TO THE REGENERATION OF WHITE PINE r>Y J. W. TOUMKY Professor of Forestry, Yale University During the months of July and August, 1918, the writer made a series of field studies on the natural regeneration of white pine near Keene, in southern New Hampshire. The primary object of these studies was to ascertain so far as possible the effect of gray birch of varying ages and densities on white pine reproduction and on its rate of height growth. The studies were made for the most part on the forest owned by the Yale School of Forestry some two miles south of Keene. Some of the studies, however, were on privately owned for- ests west of Keene. All of the areas where studies were made are in or adjacent to the sand plain of the Ashuelot River. The under- lying rock formation is granite, which appears at the surface only in a few places adjacent to the sand plain. A deep mantle of sand for the most part covers the rock formation. The surface soil where the studies were made is for the most part relatively free from stones, a*nd is light, loamy sand, much better adapted for forest crops than for agriculture. It is better suited for white pine and red pine than for hardwoods. The writer knows no general locality better suited by nature for the growth of white pine, where natural reproduction can be more easily attained and where the young trees suffer less from competition with hardwoods. Most of the lots near Keene owned by the School of Forestry are more or less completely stocked with white pine from natural repro- duction. Until recently most of the young reproduction was over- topped by gray birch of varying ages and varying degrees of density. Approximately ten years ago improvement work was begun in remov- ing the gray birch and thus exposing the pine to the light and air. The hardwood has been removed from considerable areas during the past four years; thus, during the past winter some 500 cords were cut, mostly gray birch from two to six inches in diameter and from 20 to 30 feet tall. These hardwoods formed a more or less complete canopy over the pine, or else when sufficiently open some of the pines reached into the hardwood canopy, where their tops were broken or badly whipped by the birch, due to wind action. 15 16 .lOrRXAL OK l*()Ki:STKV Three temporary sample plots, each 40 feet hy 100 feet, were estab- lished on the r>lake lot. where the birch and other hardwoods were removed from over the pine in the winter of 1917-18. Each plot was representative of different degrees of density of the overwood as de- termined by the number and diameter of the stumps. Plot I had the least degree of density: Plot II intermediate, while Plot III had the greatest degree of density. The problem was to ascertain, if possible, the effect of the liardwoods, chiefly gray birch, on the density of the white pine and on its rate of growth. On all three plots the birch and other hardwoods were 24 years old. and for the most part from sprouts following a clear cutting. The average height of the canopy prior to cutting the hardwoods was approximately 28 feet, as deter- mined by adjacent stands of the same age as yet uncut. Reducing the data derived from the sample plots to an acre basis. Plot I, with the least degree of density of hardwoods, had 610 hard- wood stumps per acre from one to six inches in diameter, with gray birch forming practically all of the larger sizes. The white pines freed by the removal of the hardwoods were 1,230 per acre, for the most part of the same age as the overwood removed. Many of these pines extended up into the hardwood canopy, and in time would have out- stripped the hardwoods and formed a practically pure pine stand. Under this density of hardwoods, chiefly gray birch 24 years of age, the number of pine was adequate for a fully stocked stand and had from the beginning made a very satisfactory growth, as but 2,'/2 out of 1,230 per acre were under eight feet in height. Although the tops of some were badly whipped by the birch, the removal of the hardwoods was not necessary in order to prevent loss due to shading or marked decrease in growth. Plot II, with an intermediate density of hardwoods, chiefly gray birch, when reduced to an acre basis had 2,198 hardwood stumps per acre, one to six inches in diameter. The white pines freed by the re- moval of the hardwoods and with only a relatively small number reaching up into the birch canopy, were 2,428 per acre. They were with few exceptions of the same age (24 years) as on Plot I. .Vo pines were found that had been killed by competition 7i.nth the over- wood. Those less than two feet in height were as old as those eight or ten feet tall. The denser overwood had no apparent effect upon the density of pine beneath its canopy, but compared with Plot I the pine was much smaller and more slender. The foliage was less and much more open. The chief effect of the increased density of the birch overwood was to restrict the rate of height growth of the pines and give them the appearance of being much less robust. Under a RELATION OF GRAY BIRCH TO WHITE PINE 17 density of 2,198 hardzvood stems per acre, chiefly gray birch, zuith the trees 24 years old, from one to six inches in diameter and averaging 28 feet tall, there appeared to be no loss of zvhitc pine due to overshading. There had, however, been a remarkable reduction in growth as com- pared with Plot I. On Plot I but 22 pines per acre were below two feet. in height, while on Plot II over 800 per acre were below. More- over, the smaller pines were of the same age as the larger ones, being held back, due to the keener competition with the hardwoods. On Plot II, however, with 2,198 hardwood stems per acre, from one to six inches in diameter and 28 feet in average height, no pines had been killed through competition with the overwood, although they had been greatly checked in growth as compared with Plot I. The annual height growth of the pines on Plot II during the past four years showed the average annual growth to be as follows : Vear Height growth in inches 1915 54+ 1916 5.8+ 1917 5.1+ 1918 34+ The growing season following the uncovering of the pine height growth was greatly reduced, although the trees appeared more vigorous and the needles were larger and more numerous. Not only in this instance, but in five other cases where measurements were taken on pines uncovered during other years, height growth the season follow- ing the removal of the overwood was reduced from 30 to 60 per cent from the average of the three years preceding its removal. Plot III, with a very dense overwood of hardwoods, chiefly gray birch, when reduced to an acre basis, had 2,374 hardwood stumps per acre, with gray birch forming nearly all of the larger sizes and aver- aging considerably larger than on the two previously described plots, approximately 75 per cent being above three inches in diameter, while on Plot II less than 50 per cent were above three inches in diameter. It was clearly evident from the size and number of the hardwood stumps that Plot III had a much denser hardwood canopy before its removal in the winter of 1917-18 than either of the other two plots; moreover, the ground was lower and the soil moister. Not only were the gray birch stems larger and more numerous, but red maple, to considerable extent, replaced aspen in mixture with the birch. Plot III, with its great density of 24-year-old hardwoods, had in its under- story 860 white pine trees per acre. They were, as in the other two cases, of the same age as the hardwoods. Over 70 per cent were less than two feet in height, about 10 per cent were over four feet tall. 18 JOURNAL OF l\)Ri;STRV and only ten trees per acre attained a height of six feet. Evoi on this plot the great density of the birch did not prevent the persistence of the white pine beneath. Its chief etlfect appeared to be to arrest the growth of the pine. Without exception, however, the foHage was short and sparse and the trees lacked vigor. The average height growth of the pine during the past four years was as follows: Year Height growth in inches I915 2.3+ 1916 2.7+ I917 2.2-(- 1918 9+ On this plot, 7 per cent of the pine, mostly in the upper height classes, died the growing season following the removal of the over- wood, although the season was exceptionally favorable. From the data derived from Plot IV, which is discussed later in this article, it is believed the poor condition of the pine on Plot III and the loss after the removal of the overwood are not due so much to the density of the birch, but to the much denser foliaged red maple intermixed with it. The above studies suggest that gray birch at 24 years of age, and probably at all ages, is never so dense that zvhite pine in southern New Hampshire i<.'ill not survive beneath it. The growth of the pine, how- ever, is governed by the density of the birch. When the birch is moderately open, even with as many as 600 to 800 trees per acre up to six inches in diameter and 28 feet tall, the pine as a whole is not held back essentially in height growth, and the chief advantage in re- moving the birch is to prevent the whipping of the pine tops by the birch. As the density of the birch increases up to the maximum for the species, there appears to be no essential reduction in the number of pine beneath due to the birch, but there is a progressive falling off in height growth with increase in density, and it becomes necessary to remove the birch in order to secure adequate growth in the pine to justify its management as a pine forest. What is the cause of the falling off in height growth in an under- story of white pine when under gray birch, and why is there so little loss in the number of pine per unit of area even under the densest stands? Is the poor growth due to the effect of the birch in with- holding light, or is it due to root competition for soil nutrients and moisture? A carefully selected sample plot was laid out in a very dense stand of 18-year-old gray birch growing on a moist, loamy sand. On this RELATION OF GRAY BIRCH TO WIIITF, PINE 19 plot, 52 by 52 feet in area, out of 317 hardwood trees growing thereon, all but 16 were gray birch. They all originated from seed and were uniformly distributed over the plot. For the most part they were tall and straight, with the canopy 18 to 28 feet above the ground. The understory of pines was entirely below the birch canopy. Reduced to an acre basis, there were 4,816 birch stems per acre from one to six inches in diameter and approximately 200 small stems of poplar and black cherry. The white pine beneath this remarkably dense stand of 18-year-old gray birch were 432 per acre, of which approximately 25 per cent were over five feet in height. The high quality of the site, particularly the better soil and moisture conditions, permitted a fair grozcth in the pine, even under the densest gray birch. Measurements taken from a large number of trees showed the average height growth during the past four years to be as follows : Year Height growth in inches 1915 6.7-\- 1916 6.4+ 1917 6.4-1- 1918 5.5+ Plot I\' represents the maximum density of 18-year-old gray birch. Measurements were made at noonday, August i, of the chemical light intensity under the average canopy of this plot. The measurements were made with the Clements photometer by exposing it while walking back and forth across the plot in two directions at six-foot intervals. The average chemical light intensity under this maximum density of gray birch canopy was 1/9 of full light. Only a short distance away white pine seedlings were abundant and growing well under an over- wood of pine, where the average chemical light intensity measured the same day was 1/14 of full light, while pine reproduction did not en- tirely disappear until the light was reduced to from 1/25 to 1/35 of full light. It zi'ould appear from the above that even under the densest gray birch there is adequate light for the persistence and growth of white pine. Why, then, is the growth so greatly checked in the pine when under dense gray birch, particularly upon upland dry soils? It appears to be primarily, if not entirely, due to root competition for moisture and nutrients. On Plot l\\ with more than 4,800 birch stems per acre, forming the overwood and evenly distributed, every square foot of the surface soil is occupied by the birch roots, and the understory of smaller pine has but little chance for adequate soil moisture and nutrients to sustain growth. In the spring of 191 7 a large area of almost pure gray birch, 27, years old and varying in density, was underplanted with white pine 20 JOURNAL OF 1-ORF.STKV and red pine transplants three years old. A plot 52 by 52 feet was laid out in this area in July last; the average crown density was 0.6 and the canopy extended to 22 feet above the ground. The overwood was entirely gray, birch, which, when reduced to an acre basis, gave 1,232 stems per acre, of which number 338 were over three inches in diameter, the larger being six inches one foot above the ground. The average chemical light intensity under the canopy, based upon the average of 20 exposures made by passing back and forth over the area at six-foot intervals, was slightly more than 1/3 of full light. Height growth measurements on the planted pine under the canopy were as follows : Species Year Height growth in inches White pine 1917 3.3+ White pine 191S 5.4+ Red pine 1917 4-6+ Red pine 1918 4-5+ The height growth of both species averaged less ou those portio)is of the measured area zchere they were exposed to full light for con- siderable portions of the day. Under gray birch of the above density there appeared as yet to be no apparent retarding of growth due to shade. The following tentative conclusions have been drawn from this study : (i) Pure stands of gray birch in southern New Hampshire are never sufficiently dense to cause the death from shading of white pine growing beneath. (2) Natural reproduction of white pine under gray birch is for the most part of the same age as the birch. (3) The rapidity of height growth in white pine under gray birch is dependent upon the density of the birch. (4) The falling off in height growth of white pine with increase in the density of the gray birch overwood is chiefly due to competition for soil moisture and nutrients and not to the density of the shade cast by the birch canopy. (5) Pure stands of gray birch of all densities may be underplanted with white pine and the birch removed when the slowing down of growth in the pine or the economic utilization of the birch makes it advisable. There is little danger that the shaded pine will be killed by competition for light with the birch. (6) There appears to be a decided economic advantage in planting white pine under gray birch over cutting the birch and planting later. In the former case the need for cleanings to free the pine from sprouts after the birch is cut is not so great. THE INFLUENCE OF THINNING ON WESTERN HEMLOCK AND GRAND FIR INFECTED WITH ECHINODONTIUM TINCTORIUM By James R. Weir, Forest Pathologist, and Ernest E. Hubert, Scientific Assistant, Office of Investigation in Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, Missoula, Mont. The opening up of a stand of timber by the methods as practiced in present-day private logging- operations is usually brought about by the cutting and removal of the most valuable of the tree species and leav- ing the inferior or less valuable material standing. In many instances on National Forests definite thinnings or selection cuttings are made as a predetermined system of forest management. As a result of these activities, especially the earlier logging and timber sales operations, there are many logged-off areas which have a considerable stand of the so-called inferior species left growing. These areas form admirable sites for the study of the influence which thinning bears on the problem of the decay in this type of stand and the probable sanitation effect it may have on the surrounding forest. It is well to mention here that thinning as used in this article refers not to a particular process, such as selection cutting, but is used as a term indicating the removal of a certain portion of the original stand. It is a well-known fact that the thinning of a stand very appreciably affects the vigor and size of the remaining trees and is not alone due to the increased light, but must also depend greatly upon the increased root space and moisture content of the improved soil.^ The aim of this paper is to determine, if possi- ble, the influence which the thinning of a stand and the opening of the crowns to full light might exert upon the development of the trees in question in respect to vigor, annual growth, etc., and to note the effect this might have upon certain phases of the life of the fungus infecting them. The study should develop the part which light plays in increasing the crown and increment, and thereby the vigor, and should bring out the relation which the action of full sunlight has upon the sporophores produced by a tree infected w^^ile in the original stand. ' Zon, R., and Graves, H. S. : Light in Relation to Tree Growth. 1911. U. S. Dept. Agr., For. Service Bui. No. 92, p. 18. 21 22 JOURXAI, OF FORESTRY DESCRIPTION OF AREAS STTDIKO The areas included in this study he in the river-bottom flats of the Priest River Valley, in Idaho. They are typical of the river-bottom type of forest common in this region and in the Kaniksu National For- est. The mixture of the original stand consisted of western white pine {Finns nionticola), grand fir (.Uyics graiidis), western hemlock (Tsitga heterophylla) , western red cedar (Thuja plicata), western larch {Larix occidcntalis), and Douglas fir (Psciidotsitga taxifolia) in the order of their numerical occurrence. The density of the original stand before logging was approximately 230 trees per acre, including all trees to a lower diameter limit of 2 inches (breast high). The soil is a sandy loam, with a thick covering of humus, needles, and logging debris. Owing to the heavy rainfall and poor drainage, the site is very moist during the greater part of the year. Previous to 191 5, no fires had produced visible damage on this area during the life of the present stand. A majority of the original stand had been cut during the period between 1900 and 1902 for its merchantable timber, leaving the western hemlock, grand fir, and a few of the smaller individuals of Douglas fir and larch standing on the area. The average density of the stand re- maining on the areas after logging, computed from the data, is approxi- mately 50 trees per acre. This forms a very open stand of hemlock and grand fir. In all 5 plats were laid out on the cut-over areas, comprising a total of 9.5 acres, upon which 435 trees, 57 of hemlock and 375 of grand fir„ were studied. FIELD METHODS The methods used in securing the data are as follows : Plots were laid out and detailed forest descriptions of each plat were recorded. The trees were then prepared for examination by first lightly blazing the bark and inscribing a number on the smoothed surface by means of lumbermen's crayons. The trees w^ere numbered successively from i to 435 and all data were recorded under the given numbers. The increment borer of And Mattson, 14 inches in length, was suc- cessfully used in securing borings at diameter breast height, from which the approximate total age and the measurements of the width of annual rings for the last tW'O decades were secured. A very good indication of decay was also secured b}' this means, in conjunction with observa- tions on the presence of sporophores and the soundings made on the trunk. Out of 120 hemlocks felled and opened up for the detection of THK INFLUENCE OF THINNING 23 rot on adjoining areas ii6, or 96.6 per cent, of the trees showed typical rot in the stump section, and out of 75 grand firs similarly treated ']2, or 96 per cent, showed typical rot at the stump. In most cases several borings were made in the same tree in order to secure a boring which expressed an average condition of the annual rings, and also included the pith, or center, of the heartwood whenever this was not too badly rotted. The tree was recorded as being infected whenever the core of the boring gave evidence to the presence of rot. The measurements on the cores taken from the tree were made immediately, so as to lose nothing by the shrinkage of the wood and to guard against future pos- sible loss. The cores were given the same number as the tree from which they were taken, an indelible pencil being found very useful in this numbering. A device for receiving the core of the boring as it emerged from the tree was made from one-inch stems of the common elderberry fashioned into a trough. By this method the cores were extracted without loss or further breakage and allowed of much greater accuracy in making the measurements and counting the rings. The total height of the tree as well as the lengths of the original and secondary crowns were accurately computed by the use of a Klaussner hypsometer. The crown widths were secured by measuring the length of an average lower branch of each crown and multiplying by two. The viability of the sporophores was determined principally by the presence or absence of the fresh, white hymenial layer, and in doubtful cases the fruiting bodies were removed from the tree and carefully examined. Sporophores which were alive the preceding year and as yet gave no evidence of imminent sporulation showed a zone of fresh brown tissue of last year's growth on the outer edge. These were classed as live. The age of the sporophores as determined by the annual zones was an important part of the data. In many cases the trunk of the tree was chopped into where it was thought necessary to examine the wood tissues directly adjacent to the sporophores. Since several borings were made in most cases at different points on the cir- cumference at diameter breast height, and since the increment in domi- nant or isolated trees is chiefly in the lower portion of the trunk,^ it is believed that the readings taken from the cores will prove to be true indications of the variations in annual increment during the 20-year period. The large number of trees entering into the data will serve also to lessen the possible error due to the unequal distribution of incre- ment. Trees of all ages and sizes were grouped together in compiling the data used for the curves. A general average of the growth of all ^Loc. cit. (i). 2-i JOl-RXAI, OF I'ORIvSTRV the trees on the area for each separate year for a period of 20 years was desired. THE IXIXUKXCU OF TIIIXXIXG ON WESTKRX lIli.MLOCK IXFECTED WITH ECHINODONTIUM TINCTORIUM It is evident that the various environmental factors tend to influence the vigor of the tree, and the vigor in turn presumably determines the ability to resist fungous attack. The part which light i)lays in the full development of a tree is important, although, according to Zon and Graves,^ there are other factors concerned in the production of in- creased increment due to the opening up of a stand. The process of thinning has always been used with the belief and justified by the ex- perience that the remaining trees left standing would show an appre- ciable increase in development soon after the stand was opened to more light and upon the establishment of less root and crown competition. The principal effect to be noted in the development of the trees so favored is a marked increase in the amount of wood laid down annually. This physiological reaction is a direct indication of the increased vigor of the tree and is a means by which foresters are able to judge the alternate periods of low and high vigor. With the purpose of record- ing the effect that thinning has upon western hemlock and grand fir infected with EcJiinodontUtui tinctorimn, the following data were se- cured. The field data were grouped under the two tree species and separate tables composed accordingly. The data on western hemlock were concentrated by means of aver- ages, totals, etc., into one table, and from that portion of it which gives the average width of the annual rings a curve was platted (fig. i). This curve serves to show graphically the marked effect produced by the opening up of the stand. From the various plots examined a total of 57 hemlock were analyzed, ranging in age from 48 to 116 years, and giving the average age for the stand at approximately ^2 years. The hemlock curve (fig. i) shows a slight suppression period between the years 1897 and 1899, followed in 1900 by a slight rise. In 1902 the curve drops to its lowest point, and seems to indicate the effect or shock of the sudden opening of the stand, with its attendant injuries to vari- ous portions of the tree. The unusually large amount of logging in- juries, including stripping of live branches from the trunks and injury and exposure to the root system, were successfully healed by the in- creased activity of the trees. In 1903, the year following the close of 'Loc. cit. (i). THE IXFLUEXCE OF TIIIXXIXG 25 the logging operations, a slight increase is again noted, indicating a recovery from the low vigor period. From 1903 to 1908 a very rapid growth is indicated, followed by depression points in 19 10 and 1913. The measurements for 191 5 do not represent the entire year's growth, since the records were taken during the latter part of that summer. The curve shows plainly the effect of the thinning as influencing the annual growth in hemlock, and records the reaction to the shock of exposure as well as the response to environment following the cutting. In comparing the two curves and the data from which they were / \ i 1 1 16 / \ 17 ; J K / \ « / > L / \ 15 / \ ■A 1 / k N ' 1 / 4 II = 1 i y \ / 1-"*- / / V ^ / 06 1 ' f , J / V B7 k ,^-- ^y y / 06 s <^ y 1/ Ob / r 04 ^ ^ ^ >^ y V OJ u W IB 97 1« se 18 M 3S 19 00 1 n^ 1901 1902 1 1903 BO* 19 Ye 05 19 in 06 19 07 13 OJ 19 09 19 0 19 19 I 19 5 1? 4. 1^ 5 ILn Fig. I. — Curies for -western hemlock and grand fir, showing the increase in width of annual rings due to thinning platted, it is found that the hemlock responded more vigorously to the thinning than did the grand fir. In hemlock the increase in periodic annual growth for the period 1903 to 191 5, inclusive, over the period from 1896 to 1902, inclusive, is 242 per cent. A like figure for grand fir is 216 per cent — a balance in favor of hemlock of 26 per cent. A comparison of the average crown of the hemlocks upon the thinned area and those upon the unthinned area (Table i) shows a striking contrast. The average crown size of the hemlocks on the cut-over area is 1,065 square feet and on the uncut area 374 square feet. The differ- 26 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Table i. — Co)iiparison of Data Taken on Cut-over and Uncut Areas Areas. Average age, years. Average, d. b. h., inches. Average height of tree, feet. Average size of original crown- length by width — sq. feet. Average secondary crown. Basis number of trees. Cut-over area Uncut area 72.2 78.3 72.2 II. 0 6.05 6.50 -41% 64-3 43-7 37-9 -41% 1,064.7 374-3 628.2 —41% Original crown much thickened. None .... None 57 120 (103) Cut-over area after allowing for origi- nal differences in stands based upon difference in mean annual diameter growth. Table 2. — Comparison of Data Taken on Cut-over and Uncut Cut-over area. Uncut area. Cut-over area after allowing for origi- nal differences in stands based upon difference in mean annual diameter growth. 64.5 71.5 64-5 12.09 7-1 7-7 -36% 69.2 56.8 44.3 -36% 901.2 322.3 576.8 -36% 170.7 None . None. 375 (458) a Secured by subtracting the increased diameter growth due to thinning for a period of 13 years from the average diameter given in above table. The remainder is divided by 72.2, the average age of the stand. THE INFLUENCE OF THINNING of Same Type and Site. Western Hemlock. River-bottom Type. 27 Total number of sporophores. Total number of trees. Total number of trees bearing sporophores. Total number of trees showing- rot at stump. Mean annual diameter growth, inches. Original density in total trees per acre, number. Live, number. Dead, number. Sound, number. Infected, number. lO (32.2%) 131 (87.9%) (67". 0%) + 143 (67".8%) 18 (12.1%) (33.0%) -41% 19 (33-3%) II (11%) —41% 38 (66.7%) 116 (96.7%) 92 (89%) + 14370 13 (22.8%) (58''.3%) 32 (31%) + 143% 38 (66.7%) 116 (96.6%) (89%) + 143% 0.1290 0.076 0.076 -41% 225 280 225 Areas of Same Type and Site. Grand Fir. River-bottom Type. 34 (13-9%) no (80.0%) 94 (41%) + 176% 211 (86.1%) 28 (20.0%) 135 (59%) —36% 180 (48%) 115 (25%) -36% 195 (62%) 75 (100%) 343 (75%) + 176%- 92 (27.2%) 65 (86.6%) 162 (35%) + 176% 195 (62%) (96%) 343 (75%) + 176% 0.155^ 0.099 0.099 -36% 225 280 225 b Secured by subtracting the increased diameter growth due to thinning for a period of 13 years from the average diameter given in above table. The remainder is divided by 64.5, the average age of the stand. 28 JOI'RXAL Ol- r"OKE:STRV ence in original densities between the two stands compared on a basis of all trees found on the area to a lower diameter limit of 2 inches (breast high) may serve to reduce the apparent difference. The density of the uncut area was found to be approximately 280 trees per acre, and that of the cut-over area previous to logging 225 trees per acre. This indicates the uncut area is denser by at least 20 per cent, but the figures show that the average crown for the cut-over area is approxi- mately 185 per cent greater than that for the uncut area. A compari- son of the mean annual diameter growth of the hemlock on the uncut for the period of its life up to 191 5 and the hemlock on the cut-over area for the same period shows a difference in growth of 143 per cent in favor of the cut-over area. The crowns of the trees in the uncut area disclosed no such thickening by additional twigs as did those of the cut-over area. The larger crown sizes and the evident increase in the width of the annual rings for the hemlock on the thinned areas are correlated and indicate increased vigor. The data collected show the majority of the injuries received by the hemlock to be healed. Some of the old branch stubs were found en- tirely occluded by the rapid growth, a further evidence of increased vigor. Most of the frost cracks were found healed on the cut-over area, while on the uncut area the majority found were unhealed. In comparing the infected and uninfected trees of both areas (Table i), another point which may indicate the effect of thinning is noted. On the cut-over area, out of a total of 57 trees, 19, or 33 per cent, were found to be sound and 38, or dj per cent, were infected in varying degree by the fungus Bchinodontium tinctorium. On the uncut area, out of a total of 120 trees, only 4, or 3 per cent, w'ere found to be sound, while 116, or 97 per cent, were infected in varying degree by the same species of fungus. The comparison of the sporophore data in Table i for the two areas gives the following: On the cut-over area 32 per cent of the total sporophores found gave evidence of being alive, while 68 per cent were unable to continue alive, the majority drying out and dying after a period of from i to 3 years. The uncut area shows 88 per cent of the total sporophores alive and only 12 per cent dead, or 56 per cent more live sporophores than on the cut-over area. Of the sporophoro-bear- ing trees the cut-over area has 13 out of 57 trees, or 23 per cent, bear- ing sporophores either live or dead or both, while the uncut area has 70 out of 120 trees, or 58 per cent. These data indicate that the greater amount of infection is found on the uncut area, where the trees are crowded and suppressed, than on the cut-over area, where the stand is THE IXFLUKXCE OF THIXXIXG 29 very open. The difference in the original densities of the two stands no doubt brings these comparison figures nearer each other, but it is not beheved that this difference could be entirely responsible for the great variance in number of live sporophores and in number of sporo- phore-bearing trees exhibited by the data for the two areas. THE IXFLUEXCE OF THIXXIXG OX GRAND FIR INFECTED WITH ECHIXODOXTIUM TIXCTORIUM The similarity of the general trend of the two curves (fig. i) is very pronounced, indicating a simultaneous, although not equal, effect pro- duced by the opening up of the stand. In order to ascertain whether the rainfall of the region for the various years had a marked effect in the variations shown by the two curves, a graph was platted, usii.g the U. S. Weather Bureau reports as the source of the data. Xo direct correlation could be traced between the three, the periods of greatest annual precipitation often coinciding with or preceding the low vigor points in the curves and vice versa. Kirkwood^ has shown that in trees growing upon areas where the effect of precipitation is most apparent in the seasonal growth of the tree a direct relation can be traced be- tween the year of drought and the following season's growth. No doubt in very moist situations such a reaction would not be possible. The influence of thinning on grand fir is quite similar to that pro- duced in hemlock, although to a lesser extent. The comparison data given in Table 2 show clearly the larger size measurements of the trees in the cut-over area as compared to the uncut area, the most pronounced contrast being evident in the sizes of the original crowns and the pres- ence, in the case of the trees in the cut-over areas, of the secondary crowns. A few words should be said here in reference to these unusual productions of secondary branches. Tolerant tree species show a greater and more rapid response to increased light in the matter of crown expansion and in the development of adventitious shoots from the older parts of the tree than intolerant species. The presence of dormant buds on the older parts of the trees, lasting over for many years from the time of their origin, is a characteristic of grand fir. Very frequently these dormant buds are congregated in one place from I to 4 feet from the ground and form raised burrs, or burls, on the trunk. The axis of these buds extends usually in very regular, finely radiating lines from the point of origin in the pith to the outer surface, ^ Kirkwood. J. E. : The Influence of Preceding Seasons on the Growth of Yellow Pine. 1914. In Torreya, v. 14, no. 7, pp. 115-125. 30 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the cambium, and seldom shows the sinuous course so characteristic of adventitious structures in the wood of maples and other broadleaf spe- cies. The increased food supply induced by the thinning is also a factor in initiating the growth of these buds. They are generally located at the branch whorls, and they are capable of growth up to the period in the life of the tree when very thick bark is produced. Consequently, on the lower part of the trunk of the oldest trees these buds may die out. The data on the cut-over area show the average original crown size for grand fir to be 901 square feet, with an average secondary crown of 171 square feet, or a total average crown of 1,072 square feet. The average size of the original crown for grand fir on the uncut area is 322 square feet, which leaves a balance of 233 per cent in favor of the cut-over area. The uncut area is denser than the original cut-over area by 20 per cent. The mean annual diameter growth on the cut-over area for the period up to 191 5 is 176 per cent greater than a similar figure for the uncut area. These figures plainly indicate the grand fir on the uncut to be suppressed to a greater degree than was the original stand on the cut-over area. The sporophore data (Table 2) exhibit an important contrast be- tween the percentages of live and dead sporophores. On the cut-over area only 14 per cent of the total sporophores were alive and 86 per cent were dead, while on the uncut area 80 per cent of the total sporo- phores were alive and only 20 per cent dead. In summing up the total number of trees bearing sporophores on each area, it is interesting to note that in the cut-over area 92 out of 375 trees, or 27 per cent, were found bearing sporophores, while in the uncut area 65 out of 75 trees. or 87 per cent, were found to bear sporophores. This result compares with a like result obtained for hemlock, and gives further evidence of the greater fungous activity to be found in the trees of the uncut area. In the cut-over area, out of a total of 375 trees, 180, or 48 per cent, were found to be sound and 195. or 52 per cent, were found infected in varying degrees. In contrast to these figures, out of a total of 75 trees taken on the adjacent uncut area, none were found sound, giving 75 trees, or lOO per cent, infected in varying degrees. In the thinning stand 48 per cent of the trees are free from infection. Out of a total of 245 sporophores (dead or alive) produced on the cut-over area 86 per cent were found dead, leaving only a very small percentage living, and these were found to be small and in every w^ay inferior in spore production to the live sporophores of the uncut area. In this considera- tion the drying effect of thinning upon the sporophores produced, as well as the action of the direct light, tend to gradually check the devel- THE INFLUENXE OF THINNING 31 opment of the fruiting bodies, and the result is a crop of small, inferior sporophores, which in most cases die out in the course of from i to 4 years. Similar observations on the amount and state of injuries were made for grand fir as for hemlock. In the case of grand fir much root ex- posure was recorded and a large amount of injuries, including many broken tops, was observed. Several of the broken tops were caused by the weight of an enormous cone production, which was in progress at the time the field data were taken (1915). Many of the tree-tops were bent over with the additional weight, and the addition of moisture or the force of the wind was in many instances sufficient to break the stem. the; vaeue of thinning as affecting echinodontium tinctorium IN western hemlock and GRAND FIR It is deemed unnecessary here to enter into a lengthy discussion of the effects produced by thinning, from a forester's point of view. The process of thinning has long been practiced in foreign forestry opera- tions and enters vitally into the forestry policies of this country, where it is better known as one of the systems of forest management under the name of selection cuttings. Some of the recent literature dealing in part directly with the influence and effect of thinning is interesting. Mason," in a discussion of the light requirements of lodgepole pine, gives some interesting points in connection with thinning. A release from a suppressed condition by means of thinning was found to result in a very marked increase in growth, amounting in one example cited to an increased growth of 772 per cent in the last 12 years of growth over the preceding 12 years. Tables are also included in the work, showing the marked increase in the periodical annual diameter growth due to the influence of thinning. ]\Iattoon*^ gives some very interesting and striking examples of the effects of thinning caused by three different agencies — ice storms, tor- nado, and by logging operations. All three agencies resulted in thin- ning the stand, and the stimulation in growth was very marked, the trees formerly suppressed growing relatively much faster. ]\Iore recently Roth,'^ working with firs and birches, traces the effects produced in the year rings by the influence of three intermittent thin- " j\Iason. D. T. : The Life Histon- of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains. 1915. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. No. 154. pp. 1-35. *M,attoon, W. R. : Life History of Shortleaf Pine. 1915. L'^. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. No. 244, pp. 32-34- ' Roth. Julius : Beitriige zur Lichtungsfrage. Iti Forstwissenschaftliches Cen- tralblatt. Jan., 1916, pp. 43-48. oZ jOL'KXAI, ol- l-iiUI'.STin- niiif^s. 'I1u' (lata recorded show a striking increase in the width of the annual rings soon after the thinnings were made. He C(jncludes that "the width of the annual rings diminishes toward the top (of the trunk), although the increase in growth in comparison with the earher develo])nient is there also very great," and states further that the reason for the added increment heing deposited in the lower trunk is not very clear. The present studies have shown both for hemlock and grand fir that the thinnings very marked!}' affected the diameter growth, the total height, and the size of crowns, producing in the case of grand fir a dis- tinct and separate secondary crown. The data are to be accepted as evidence that through thinning the trees have recovered from suppres- sion to a remarkable extent and have passed from a low to a high vigor status. The increased vigor has been made evident through greater increment. In co-ordination with these physiological activities the crowns have developed to as much as twice their former size in the case of the hemlock and produced secondary crowns equal to and at times surpassing the original crowns in the case of grand fir. Such activity and renewal of vigor cannot help but possess beneficial effects in respect to the development of the tree and, it appears, must also play an important part in checking the number of sporophores produced on the trees. In order to determine the possible eft'ects of thinning upon the two tree species studied, the data for both hemlock and grand fir in Tables I and 2 respectively w^ere reduced or increased according to the signs indicated in each column and to the percentage indicated. This was done to allow for the original differences between the two stands prior to cutting operations and was based upon the differences between the mean annual diameter growths of the trees on the two areas. In hem- lock the mean annual diameter growth on the cut-over area was found to be 143 per cent greater than a similar figure on the uncut area and, v-ice versa, 41 per cent less. Thus, as an example, by reducing 11 inches, the average diameter breast height for the cut-over area, by 41 per cent gives 6.5 inches as the average diameter (breast high) for the cut-over area after reduction. This comes within 0.45 inch of the aver- age diameter (breast high) given fc^ir the imcut area. Tn the continua- tion of this process the number of live sporophores was increased by 143 per cent, as was the total number of infected trees and the total number of trees bearing sporophores. The +143 per cent and — 41 per cent were applied according to whether the reduction of the original THE INFLUENCE OF THINNING 33 cut-over area to a condition nearly equal to the uncut area called for a subtraction or an addition. In Table i, comparing the total figures in the uncut area with the figures given for the adjusted cut-over area, the cut-over area has al- most similar averages for age, diameter (breast high), and height, a much larger average crown. 21 per cent fewer live sporophores, 21 per cent more dead sporophores, 8 per cent more sound trees, 8 per cent fewer infected trees, 27 per cent fewer trees bearing sporophores, 8 per cent fewer trees showing rot at the stump, and identical figures for mean annual diameter growth and for density. In Table 2 a similar comparison shows the grand fir on the cut-over area has almost similar averages for age and diameter breast height, an average height greater by 13 feet, a larger original crown and a large average secondary crown not possessed by the trees on the uncut area, 39 per cent fewer live sporophores, 29 per cent more dead sporophores, 25 per cent more sound trees and 25 per cent fewer infected trees, 52 per cent fewer trees bearing sporophores, 25 per cent fewer trees show- ing rot at the stump, and identical figures for mean annual diameter growth and for density. On the other hand, the activity of the fungus is much more pro- nounced in the uncut stand, where all the environmental factors favor the progress of infection and decay. Here the vigor is greatly lowered, due to the crowding of the stand, and by reason of this density and its resultant shade the lower portions of the crowns die out, causing the formation of dead branches and branch stubs, which become open to infection. The shade produced by this crowding and its attendant moisture conditions also favors the germination of the fungous spores. In the cut-over area these factors are all reversed. Crowded conditions give way to an open stand, light is admitted to the greater portion of the tree, secondary crowns and secondary thickening of old crowns are produced in place of dead branch stubs, and the vigor is greatly in- creased. The annual rings become much wider, the efifect being evi- dent soon after thinning, and consequently the trees show a larger diameter growth. Conditions unfavorable to the germination and pene- tration of the fungous spores are established and the data indicate, although not conclusively, that the activities of the fungus within the tree as regards the development and viability of the sporophores is appreciably curtailed. The old sporophores that developed on the trees while still in the forest had in most cases died and were completely separated from the old pin knots by 5 or 6 layers of living wood. The old branch wounds were thus completely occluded and the sporophores 3-i JOURNAL OF FORESTRY were merely suspended, attached to the bark. Many of the trees (loi out of 195) that were infected disclosed in the borings taken that the rot was in its typical stage (well established), had not produced sporo- phores while in the forest, and had not done so since the thinning. In fact, the decayed wood of such trees had taken on the nature of a soft rot, differing in every respect from the typical decay produced by the fungus under the favorable conditions of the closed forest. These comparisons show a balance in favor of the thinning influence in every case, and also show that the method of bringing the two stands on a more nearly comparable basis has aided in securing more nearly correct results. These data indicate that the opening of a stand to full sunlight after a period of suppression apparently influences the devel- opment of the attacking fungus. Fungi and fungous fruiting bodies are tolerant of shade. This point need. not be discussed. Since moisture forms one of the prime necessi- ties of plant life, especially fungi, it must follow that the shaded, and therefore more humid, situations would be the most favorable ones. j\Iuch sunlight and exposure to unfavorable drying conditions increases the transpiration at the hymenial surface of Echinodontium fiiictoriidit. just as in the case of green leaves, with the result that this layer soon dries out and dies. This is. no doubt, the effect produced upon some of the sporophorcs found on the trees of the cut-over area by the opening of the stand and the extreme change in density from 225 trees per acre in the original stand to 50 trees per acre left after the logging opera- tions. Several live fruiting bodies of the fungus were produced on this area, yet the conditions of increased vigor and light, the diminished shade and moisture, and the absence of many open injuries are ex- tremely adverse to the germination and development of fungous spores. Provided thinning caused a very appreciable restrictive influence upon the fungus infecting hemlock and grand fir, it would not be advisable to depend upon such a method of forest sanitation in outlining means of controlling the spread of this fungus. In cases where the destruc- tion by fire of all infectious cull material and standing infected trees left on an area after logging cannot be enforced, it might be found beneficial to leave as open a stand as possible in order to create an en- vironment less favorable to the development and spread of the fungus. SUMMARY The main facts brought out by the data, compared with the analysis of trees taken from an adjacent uncut area of the same type and age THE INFLUENCE OF THINNING 35 class, but having a somewhat lower mean annual diameter growth for the period prior to the thinning, are as follows : The thinning produces in both trees a very marked increase in the width of the annual rings, being more marked in the case of hemlock. A larger diameter, height, and crown growth is recorded for both species of tree growing in the cut-over area. In the case of the hemlock a very marked secondary growth of the old crown takes place, while in the grand fir a distinct secondary crown appears on the lower trunk below and intermingled with the original crown, this secondary crown in many cases extending to within a few feet of the ground. !More injuries were found on trees on the cut-over area and a greater number healed than on the uncut area. These facts indicate a greatly increased vigor. A comparison of the cut-over and uncut areas after the figures for the cut-over area had been adjusted, so as to be more nearly comparable with those of the uncut area, shows the following results : The mean annual diameter growth for the cut-over area was found to be 143 per cent greater in hemlock and 176 per cent greater in grand fir than a similar growth for similar tree species upon the uncut area. These figures formed the basis for adjusting the figures of the cut-over area to those of the uncut area. A comparison of the data thus secured indicates that a less favorable condition for fungous activity exists within the cut-over area, and shows plainly that a highly favorable environment for the fungus is present in the uncut area. The total number of infected trees, the total number of live sporophores, and the total number of sporophore-bear- ing trees are comparatively less on the cut-over area for both species of tree. A conclusion is reached that the influence of thinning very appre- ciably affects the vigor of the trees on the cut-over areas, as shown by the increased diameter, crown, and height growth, as well as the num- ber of injuries healed. That a restrictive influence due to thinning is apparently exerted upon the activities of the fungus Echinodontium tinctorium infecting hemlock and grand fir. The increased light, the absence of maximum moisture conditions and shade common to timber stands of this region, and the increased light due to thinning are apparently unfavorable to the germination and penetration of the fungous spores. The thinning influences affecting the fungus Bchinodontinin tiitc- toriitiii are not of sufficient importance to cause any variation from the predetermined sanitation rules to be applied to these species of trees. APPRAISAL OF FIRE DAMAGE TO IMMATURE TIMBER FOR STATISTICAL PURPOSES Bv F. G. Clark Forest Examiner, U. S. Forest Serz'icc There has always been a need for a method of appraising fire damage to immature timlier when the values obtained are to be used for statis- tical purposes. In general, these values have been arbitrarily fixed for the various species, or a flat rate applied to all, with no great thought toward working these values out on a definite basis or differentiating between the dift'erent species. It is believed that basis for these values should be expressed in a formula to be used in preparing a table of values which will give consistent results when applied to any given region and to any given number of species. The use of straight expectation or replacement methods when ap- plied to a region in the estimating of reproduction killed by fire, espe- cially when that value is to be used for statistical purposes only, do not give satisfactory results. The principal disadvantage of the expectation method is that the major premises — the stumpage price and the yield — must be assumed. One other disadvantage of the expectation method is that the younger age classes of our slow-growing species, as the yellow pine and Douglas fir on the poorer sites, show a negative value, after assuming average yields and moderate stumpage prices. On the other hand, a straight replacement formula with only varia- tions being due to difference in cost of growing nursery stock and field planting. The market value of the w^ood or its intrinsic qualities has no place in the formula. A modified replacement formula is proposed in this paper which is intended to overcome the difficulties mentioned. It is modified in the following respects : I. The cost of planting is reduced by a percentage represented by the propor- tion of artificial to natural reproduction which experience indicates holds good over large burned areas. For example, if it is found that it will be necessary to plant 30 per cent of all burned area in a region in order to secure satisfactory restocking, then 30 per cent of the planting charge per acre would be assessed against every acre burned. This figure may, of course, be changed for each type or for each species if the 36 APPRAISAL OF FlRR DAMAGK 37 facts warrant ; but it is a much simpler process and more in keeping with the purpose for which the formula is intended if one standard figure for all types in a region is used. 2. The resulting values for each age class are prorated to the different species in accordance with their present relative commercial values. If these values were used directly in the formula they would give values that are too high and make necessary the use of a reducing factor. This factor must be dependent on the relative commercial values and should place each value dependent on the others. It is ob- tained by dividing the number of relative commercial values by their sum, and is shown in the following formula by the expression of J- — This is a partial weighted average of the relative commercial SR values. Under this condition, if one of the relative commercial values N is changed, then the value of -^^ is changed, which of course directlv affects all values that may be computed. This then becomes a reducing factor which is dependent on the relative commercial values. For example, if the relative commercial values of several species are 5, 3, 2, and i, this gives four relative values, which may be represented by "N". Their sum is equal to ii, which may be represented by SR, where R represents each of the values, 5, 3, 2, or i. Then ^- is equal SR to -t. II The formula as proposed, with the above-mentioned modifications, is as follows : V = RJ^[c(r.op..)(a)+^^"^P"-^m Where * SR L i.op— i J ) V = Value per acre for any species or age class. R == Relative commercial values of the various species. In applying the formula to northern Idaho and Montana these have been assumed as follows : White pine 5 Yellow pine, cedar, and spruce 3 Larch and Douglas fir 2 Lodgepole pine i "R" is here equal to 5, 3, 2, or i, depending upon the species under consideration. N = Number of relative values, or 4. SR^Sum of relative values, or 11. C = Average cost of planting, or $5. P^ Interest rate of 3 per cent. m = Average age of stand destroyed. 38 JOlKNAIv Ol' I'OKIvSTKV fl := Fractional part or percentage of whole area burned over which needs re-r planting. Tliis is placed at 30 per cent. May be varied, of course, for each species or type. K = Cost of protection and achninistr.ition \)vr acre per year. Tliis is placed at 4 cents. From these ai)i)roxinicite data the following table has been computed, the values being rounded off to the nearest half dollar: .\vcrage age of stand Species 10 years 20 years 30 years 40 years White pine $4.50 $7.00 $10.00 $14.50 Yellow pine, cedar, spruce 2.50 4.00 6.00 8. 50 Larch, Douglas I'lr 2.00 3.00 4.00 4.50 Lodgepole pine i . 00 i . 50 2 . 00 3 . 00 In applying the table to mixed stands consideration should be given the percentage of species in the mixture and the proportionate values of each species used. The same principle should be used for the value of understocked stands, since the table is based on fully-stocked condi- tions. For protecting forests an arbitrary value per acre for all species is satisfactory. In actual practice the data should, of course, be carefully worked out. It has been approximated in this article without a great deal of investi- gation for purposes of illustration. The most difficult premise to secure will no doubt be the fractional part of the burned area necessary to plant. Extensive planting reconnaissance will do much toward clearing up this point. It is realized that the method probably will not fit purely local con- ditions, but it is believed for statistical purposes it will approximate very closely the average value of the reproduction destroyed as nearly as can be determined when applied to an entire region. BEAR CLOVER (ChaiiKcbatia foliolosa Benth.) (mOUNTAIX misery, BHAR-MAT, TARWKKI) j Bv J. A. Mitchell Forest Examiner. U. S. forest Service No one can travel far through the Sierras of California without becoming more or less familiar with this abundant, strong-scented, low-growing shrub. Throughout the pine belt it occurs in great patches, acres in extent, forming a dense mat or ground cover a foot or so in depth. Often in open stands of western yellow pine it ex- tends for miles, for all the world like a great green carpet. In early summer its millions of dainty white blossoms against the vivid green of new leaves make a sight never to be forgotten. From a practical standpoint, however, few plants are less useful or more obnoxious both to the stockman and the forester ; for, of no value in itself, it occupies the ground to the practical exclusion of all other species. Botanically speaking of the rose family, bear clover is characterized by minutely divided fern-like leaves, a white five-petaled strawberry- like flower, sticky foliage, and a rank aromatic odor. The latter char- acteristics are so marked as to give it the name "tarweed" in certain localities and serve generally to identify it. Any one who has once walked through a patch of it and smelled the pungent aromatic odor it gives off when bruised is certain to remember it. The plant itself is a low, woody evergreen shrub, growing from one to two feet high, with numerous slender branchlets. It has a long taproot and many laterals, which send up shoots at frequent intervals. This habit of sprouting accounts for its rapid spread and its ability to withstand repeated fires. In addition, it produces seeds abundantly and repro- duces itself readily in this manner, particularly on areas where the mineral soil has been exposed. Within its range, which includes the lower timber or yellow-pine belt on the west slope of the Sierras, from the Kern River on the south to the Pitt River watershed on the north, bear clover is a most important forest weed. While growing in a variety of situations, it does best where the soil is deep and where there is an abundance of sunlight. 89 S »» it 3 " J{ in Oi T3 O C > (U y, B c "5 o ^ c o bco £•0 ni .O "■' •- - ^ (^ CTJ rt ^ OJ *^ r- CS ■> .i' _ ^ - ^ rt'S O .Ph C I. ns u oj '^ -1-. ~ be f a; tj O |V _ .~ u _ o CJ 5 .. o bJ^Pn t1 .-^-s^^. P- 3 xn ^ rt .. O Ph' i2 « - c J« ^' HH 4.J i> (y re a.y:i ti S^O J^ (U 3 ^. > CO cc o. o - - ° ^ rt 5 S • rt ■^ . a; P c 1^ "^ a., '-C ^ ^ 5f n.^^ « . .o • V cs ;:: ■■ c/) in t* , -, rt "Oyr HI ^ ~0 "T t. rt cr, -r 1^ I- I >- -^ j:: . o -Ph d. -•*- i2 b"-- S-^ Ji^ ° O CO C o xrx tn xfi I ^ I^ 00 o o lO O 0\ O t^ o t^ 8^ ro 1^ t fO lO o ►-• fO > a m 'J y rj-i ;2; > 12; LO CAi ^ y ^ 2 8 5 <^ "O i2 ~ _« 2 -;3 rt 2 ~ f2 c5q S S o o c • c o •o T3 rt a W W yi m W 4) U J ^ ^ X x: X X X XXX M 3 x: o 40 « a cq CQ « cq a m m CQ O a. c 5:! ^ -::.' c c ^ ^ I X Cti a; C — ' 2o o O O'Z! OS o P OJ ^ >> p oj O rt-^ ex 5 - >. o o •"SH o Oh bCjz be en ^ O U -^ _a;^-c >.C ^ c -c -a o z:^ ^ = =_:•« f^- it: c ^ o -^ ra re I t) .o 1^ VO a\ & o 0\ C\ 00 ^ ^ :z IZ c/i 8 1 8 1 8 1 1 1 1 :- U3 aj > aj lU a; aj aj c; 1^ ' ' •-^ > > > '^ ^ ^ > o ^ o o o o o Q c u u o u o O o •- ^>, X CQ m CQ CQ X 41 42 JOIRXAL OF l-ORI-;STRY Shade appears to be its worst enemy and about the only thing that is able to kill it out. Cattle and sheep will not eat it, and tire only serves to spread it by removing competition, exposing the mineral soil, and stimulating sprouting. In fact, the extensive bear-clover areas today are largely the result of repeated surface- fires. As a fire menace, bear clover is one of the worst types of cover with which the fire-fighter has to deal. While it is not particularly inflam- mable itself, it burns fiercely, owing to the deep accumulation of litter which it fosters, and fires in it consume the young reproductions in their path and do serious damage to the butts of mature trees. It is only with the greatest difiiculty, also, that fires in it can be controlled, the tangle of stems and roots making the building of fire lines through it an exceedingly slow and laborious undertaking. Bear clover undoubtedly has some value as a ground cover in pre- venting erosion, but as a conserver of moisture it is a grave question whether the protection oft"ered is not more than offset by the amount of moisture transpired and the amount of precipitation prevented from reaching the ground. Once established, bear clover has things pretty much its own way, for few species are able to gain a foothold in it, owing to the density of the cover, the depth of the litter it accumulates, the competition for moisture, and the frequency and intensity of the fires that prevail. Of the tree species, incense cedar seems best able to cope with it, and in places where fires have been kept out cedar has been observed to be gradually shading it out. Deer brush {Ccanothus integerimus) also has been known to displace it where it had an even start and has been protected from fire and grazing ; but without adequate protection, no species, either tree or forage plant, has a show in competition with bear clover. The results of observations made on the Eldorado and Stanislaus National Forests in 1912 by Forest Examiners George W. Lyons and J. V. Wulfif and on 20 sample plots are summarized in Table i. While not absolutely conclusive, the figures in Table i indicate that in general reproduction on a given site is adversely affected by a ground cover of bear clover ; also, that, as stated, the relative percent- age of incense-cedar reproduction increases, while the per cent of pine reproduction falls off' as the density of the bear-clover cover increases. In the densest stand it will be noted that reproduction of all species has been completely excluded. Considering the acreage involved, estimated at 18,000 acres on the URAR CLOVER 43 Stanislaus National Forest alone, it is evident that bear clover is a serious menace to the natural reproduction of our western slope Sierra pine forests, and that sooner or later something will have to be done about it. Considering the nature of the plant, adequate fire pro- tection is unquestionably the first and most essential step. While this alone will ultimately reduce the unstocked acreage materially, there will probably still remain considerable areas on which artificial re- forestation will have to be resorted to. This presents a problem yet to be solved, as past efforts in this direction have proved generally imsuccessful, particularly where broadcast and seed-spot sowing has been tried. Even where furrows were plowed and the seed sown in the mineral soil laid bare, the results were not particularly encouraging, as the bear clover soon spread over the furrows and choked out the pine seedlings that did manage to become established. Better success with nursery stock is to be hoped for ; but the aggressive root compe- tition of the bear clover will have to be reckoned with and some means devised to counteract it. STATE FOREST NOTES AND LEGISLATION MISSISSIPPI A forestry bill introduced in the legislature failed of passage. It authorized the establishment of a board of forestry and the appoint- ment of a State forester, and provided for a system of forest protec- tion, management, and replacement, and for a State forestry fund by levying a license tax on the amount of timber cut. In proposing to- secure funds from a license tax, the Louisiana plan was followed. NKW JERSEY special Effort to Prcz'cnt Fires Eseapiny from Brush Burnings A small hand-bill poster calling attention to the requirements of the permit law, which allows no building of fires within 200 feet of the woods or of any ground cover that may carry fire to the woods, has been issued. The intention is for firewardens, patrolmen, and similar officers of the Forest Fire Service to post one or more of these posters on every site where there is any reason to believe burning will shortly be done because of brush that has been cut or of new clearing that is going on. It has been found to be so emphatically true that if resi- dents secure permits they are far more careful than when they do not that this efifort, presumably, will cut down the number of fires from brush burnings, in addition to preventing the large number of viola- tions of the permit clause because of ignorance of the law. Since the fires that start from brush burnings are from 10 to 20 per cent of the total fires in the State annually, a special efifort is being made to curtail this difficulty. Special Privileye to the Military The large concentration of men at Camp Dix, in New Jersey, which is located on the edge of one of the worst wilderness sections of the South Jersey pines, presented an unusual problem from the forest-fire standpoint. I'y an understanding with the authorities in command, special emphasis is being laid upon the need for care with fire when the men at the camp have occasion to go into the wooded sections for either recreation or official work. The department has made a blanket waiver of the necessity for securing permits for building fires to all 44 STATE FOREST NOTES AND LEGISLATION 45 TniFitary parties who are out on ofificial duty in the various sections adjoining the cantonment. KENTUCKY The consolidation of the State Board of Forestry and the Geological Survey was brought about at the 1918 session of the General Assem- "bly. Early in the session strong opposition developed to what were termed boards and commissions. This opposition grew throughout the session and finally took concrete form in a series of bills prepared by an investigating committee, which proposed sweeping changes involv- ing abolishments and consolidations. Among the proposed changes was the consolidation of the Board of Forestry and the Geological Survey. This was finally brought about with the following noticeable ^features : 1. The Board of Forestry and the Geological Survey were abolished. 2. A Commissioner of Forestry and GeoIog>' was substituted, appointive by the Governor, and a deputy was also provided for. If the commissioner was a graduate forester the deputy should be a graduate geologist and rice versa. 3. The appropriation of the Board of Forestry was repealed and the appro- priation of the Geological Survey continued for the new department, and in addition the salaries of the commissioner and the deputy are paid directly out of the treasury and not out of the appropriation. 4. The method of procedure and the character of work of the two departments -was left unchanged. It is not expected at the present time that the personnel of the two departments as they heretofore existed will be interfered with. The Governor appointed J. E. Barton, formerly State forester, as Commis- sioner of Geology and Forestry, effective July i. This appointment is for two years. Subsequent appointments run for four years. NORTH CAROLINA Pire Protection The departure in fire protection has been made of employing the patrolmen to cover much larger districts than heretofore. Whole counties, or even still larger areas, are now given to one man, who is expected to post notices all over his district, interview sawmill men, farmers, and other residents, distribute leaflets, and explain the forest- fire law. They devote much more time to educational work and less time to actual fire patrol than the men previously appointed, who had ^smaller districts. It is thought that the educational work done by 4G JOURNAL 01- FORESTRY these men will much more than compensate for their inahility to deat fully with actual fire extinguishment. Mitchell State Park The administration of this park, which includes the summit of Mt. Mitchell, the highest peak in the eastern United States, has heen turned over to the State forester. One of the chief objects of the creation of this park was to save for the people of the State a small area of spruce forest, which reaches its southern limit on the highest mountains in North Carolina. These spruce forests, which were practically un- touched 15 years ago, are now nearly all destroyed by lumbering fol- lowed by fire. Last spring fire from an adjoining lumbering operation entered the park and destroyed 15 acres of the best timber. The sale of the burned timber, however, has produced a fund which is being used for the construction of fire lines, the improvement of trails, and the general administrative expenses of the park. A scenic railroad carries thousands of visitors to within a mile of the summit of Mt. Mitchell, and one of the chief problems is to protect the young trees, shrubs, and flowers from the despoiling visitors. I'^arm forestry The State has secured a farm forestry specialist as an expert in the Division of Extension of the Federal States Relations Service, to work under the joint direction of the State Director of Extension, the State forester, and the U. S. Forest Service. Already examinations have been made for a large number of farmers who wish to sell the products of their woodlands to the best advantage or who are interested in their better management. North Carolina is the first State to secure the services of a farm forestry specialist in this capacity, although farm forestry has been specialized in by some of the State forestry departments. REVIEWS Influence of Forests upon the Melting of Snozu in the Cascade Range. By Alfred A. Griffin. Reprinted from !\[onthly Weather Review, July, 1918, 46, pp. 324-327, 3 figures, 4 tables. (Dated Portland, Oregon, April, 1918.) Up until very recently American foresters have been compelled to turn wholly to European investigators for data relating to the influence of forests upon the melting of snow, but during the last five years several papers have appeared dealing with xA.merican conditions which are beginning to make us more independent of these Old World sources. Fernow's excellent review^ of meteorological observations in Europe shows that snow is held longer and more continuously in for- ests, and that the melting of snow is retarded by from five to eight days (in Switzerland) and very often as long as several weeks. Pear- son,- in a meteorogical study of western yellow pine forests in Arizona and New Mexico, carried out from 1909 to 1912, found that snow fell more evenly and accumulated to a slightly greater depth in the park than in the forest in the winter time, but that it remained on the ground from two to three weeks later in the forest, and that a greater portion of the snow waters was absorbed by the soil in the forest than in the park. Jaenicke and Foerster," working in the same type of forest in Arizona, from I9io.to 1913, found that heavy drifts of snow persisted in the forest for two or more weeks after the total disappearance of the snow in the open parks. The present study deals with an entirely different part of the country, namely, the Columbia River watershed in Oregon and Washington. In the forests of this region it was found that snow remains an average of 17 days longer in the forest than in the open. Thus, again, are the results of both American and European investigators corroborated upon this important subject. Members of the United States Forest Service carried out these * Fernow, B. E. : Forest Influences. Forestry Division, Bulletin Xo. 7. pp. 20, 137, 152. Washington, D. C, 1893. ^Pearson, G. A.: A Meteorological Study of Parks and Timbered Areas in the Western Yellow Pine Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. Monthly Weather Review, 41, pp. 1615-1629, 1913. 'Jaenrcke, A. J., and Forester, M. H. : The Influence of a Western Yellow Pine Forest on the Accumulation and Melting of. Snow. Monthly Weather Review, Alarch, 1915, 43, pp. 115-126, 9 figures aiid 23 tables. 47 48 JOIRXAI, OF 1*()KI':STRV studies on three separate areas — in central Oregon, in soutliern Wash- ington, and in central Washington. Messrs. Sproat, Kraebel, Kloe, Ramsdcll, Ilellen, and (iritifin took the observations and A. .\. Grififin compiled the data. On each area the depth, density, and distril)ntion of the snow throughout the melting season at from 8 to 20 typical ojjservation points or stations were observed during the seasons 1916 and 1917. These stations were well distributed, altitudinally. from a minimum of 1,200 feet to a maximum of 6,800 feet. The forests con- sisted largely of Douglas fir, hemlock, true firs, and western pines, and the density of the stand, although somewhat variable, ranged between 0.45 to 0.8. The three areas were located upon important tributaries of the Columbia River, and each watershed was important and valuable on account of the irrigation water which it furnished. The stations were located in the open and in the forest in pairs, being similar in all respects except forest cover. Careful notes were taken, especially upon aspect, degree of slope, and distance to trees, stumps, edge of timber, and upon the possibilities of drifting. Snow depths were measured at regular intervals of a week or less, from the period of greatest depth, throughout the melting season. The season varied from 9 to 17 wrecks. Permanent graduated stakes were used. Snow density or water equivalent was measured at each regular observation by means of standard U. S. Weather Bureau apparatus and by means of sampling cans. The results of the observations show very clearly that there was more snow in the open than in the forest when the observations began (in early April), but that in spite of this there was still considerable snow left in the forest after the snow had disappeared from all the open stations (in July). Thus, on the Tumalo area, in central Oregon, no snow was left on July 18, 1916, on any of the stations in the open, while the forest stations showed an average of 19.3 inches of snow, equivalent to 8.7 surface inches of water. On the Wind River area, in southern Washington, 28.2 inches of snow remained at the forested stations as the corresponding open stations became bare. On the Yakima area, in central Washington, 19 inches remained after the cor- responding open stations became bare. Thus, on the average, the forest areas conserved 7.5 surface inches of water through a period of from 17 to 42 days — a factor which is of vital importance from an irrigation viewpoint. The influence of forests upon the melting of snow was correlated with site factors; but, due to insufficient data, most of the relations REVIEWS 49 one might expect to find did not materialize, (^ne result, however, on this point worthy of note is the fact that the conservation of snow, both on the basis of quantity and duration, was shown very clearly to vary directly with the density of the forest. For instance, a forest with a density of 0.49 conserved 4.4 inches of snow for two weeks, while a forest with a density of 0.77 conserved 27.8 inches of snow over a period of four weeks. These figures are, of course, averages for a larger number of stations of approximately equal density. On the whole, the study seems to have been very carefully planned and carried out, and it is a very welcome addition to our meager knowl- edge of the subject. The men who carried out the instrumentation are to be commended for their perseverance and tenacity, for dovibtless they encountered many difficulties in taking these observations. The reviewer spent the greater part of one winter taking similar observa- tions on Pikes Peak and can appreciate the hardships and physical difficulties often encountered in work of this nature. One important criticism which we cannot help bringing to the reader's notice is the short period over which the study was carried out. A certain class of scientists, who sometimes like to willfully distort things, or at best throw huge obstacles in the way of the forester who is w'orking on forest influences, may easily raise the objection that the results are based upon too meager data and may easily be accounted for either on the basis of wholly accidental differences in local distribution of pre- cipitation or on the basis of residual and uneliminated errors of meas- urement, which are known to be very large for snow. We do not mean to say that the reviewer would take this attitude, but professional meteorologists might. Therefore studies of this nature should, in order to clear away all intentional or unintentional doubt, be based upon many years of observations. Also, it seems that the results here tabulated are a little too much abbreviated. We should like to know, for example, how the density of the forest was measured; also, perhaps some notes upon the condi- tion of the soil at dift'erent periods, as regards to the depth of frost in the forest and in the open. The latter would have an important bear- ing upon percolation and surface run-off and thus be applicable in irrigation. We are glad, however, to note the application of the results obtained to the irrigation problem, so important upon the areas tributary to these watersheds. Expressed in irrigation terms, the figures mean that on areas studied the average square mile of forest land retained 50 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the average equivalent of 400 acre- feet of water in the form of snow after the open areas had l)econie bare, or sutificient to irrigate about 650 acres for one month during the summer low-water period. The author therefore concludes that the forest is a very important and very valuable factor in increasing the water available for irrigation. It would be interesting to have a more detailed explanation of just how the retarded melting of the snow would benefit irrigation. While a difficult matter to prove experimentally, we would hazard this sug- gestion : the retardation of the melting of the snow gave a longer time for infiltration to the subsoil, which, being less deeply frozen, was more apt to be open for subterranean drainage than open land. Open land is more apt to become incrusted with an impermeable surface stratum which turns the melting snow waters into surface drainage. This re- sulting increase of subterranean drainage is the important factor for irrigation. The snow which fell during the winter and melted in the spring is thus preserved for the water table, to reappear in the summer when there is danger of water shortage. In conclusion we would say that we would like to see more work like this. Certainly the present set of data should be amplified by future observations upon the same area ; also, data upon other sections of the country would be welcome. Xo doubt the Forest Service files contain mucli valuable data upon this and similar problems which is doing nobody any good. Not only must such data be published for the perusal of foresters, engineers, and scientists in general, but, what is more important, it should be brought to the attention of the public, who is paying for the maintenance of our Xational Forests. Apropos of the present study, we would suggest that the results, especially as the}' are related to the irrigation problems of the region studied, be made public in the Seattle. Portland, Tacoma. and Spokane press. R. H. D. B. The Poundations of Xational Prosperity. By Richard T. Ely, Ralph H. Hess, Charles K. Leith, and Thomas Nixon Carver. Xew ^'ork: The Macmillan Co., 1917. ]\Iisery is not the only thing that makes strange bed-fellows. This volume assembles four papers, originally presented before the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress. Of their four authors, three are professors of political economy, the fourth a professor of geology. The theme is in each case some aspect of conservation. A preface is supplied by Professor Ely. who also contributes the paper entitled REVIEWS 51 "Conservation and Economic Theory." In the preface we are told: "It occurred to the editor that these four papers supplemented each other and, if properly expanded, would make a harmonious whole." The expansion, however, though moderate, is more in evidence than the harmony. It is chiefly because of the bookbinder's art that the)' form a volume. The first three papers, it is true, do treat, though with uneven merit, of what constituted the conservation movement. In the fourth paper Professor Carver takes for his title the "'Conservation of Human Re- sources." As always, he is delightfully lucid, entertaining, and at his ease. He writes with obvious enjoyment, not to say joyousness; had economics always been dealt with in this manner, it could never have been called the dismal science. He writes also with a sort of careless freedom from the trammels which a conventional treatment of his subject-matter would naturally have imposed. It is the unexpected and the overlooked which particularly attract him. He is like a good dinner guest, giving us table talk that is keen, discriminating, humor- ous, and challenging. Not that he trifles with his subject; he is amply grounded in it, though he bears his learning lightly ; but he handles it with a zest akin to playfulness and with a cultivated casualness of method that leaves no suspicion of an attempt at systematic presenta- tion of his thought. Hence the reader can count on much entertain- ment as he turns the pages in which Professor Carver expounds essen- tially orthodox economic dogma, though sugar-coated, in discoursing of wastes of human energ}-; of idleness, ignorance, dishonesty, and vice ; of wise and unwise investors and our urgent social need of wise ones; of "rational consumption"; and so to his "conclusion," which is perhaps as appropriate here as it would be anywhere else. It is a chapter of two paragraphs, characteristically summarized by the author under the headings "Why it is better to tell the truth than to tell lies" (though the paragraph concerns mainly the social desirability of having private property secure and the pros and cons of inherited wealth) and "\'arious types of nation-builders." Thus the real issues of conservation — the social causes of poverty, disease, crime, and the means available for their amelioration — are passed over. We need not quarrel with Professor Carver for having done this, especially since he gave us fair warning, in the third sen- tence of his introduction, that it was his purpose "to present some phases of the problem which are commonly overlooked in current trea- tises rather than to cover the whole field." None the less, such a treat- 52 jorRXAi, OF l•■()Kl•;s^K^• niciil indubitably leaves something to be desired if the jjtirpose of the volume is supposed to be a serious attempt to inform the general reader as to the real issues raised by the conservation movement. Of the seriousness with which Professor Ely handles his special topic, entitled "Conservation and Economic Theory," there can be no question whatever. Vet it is difificult to take the paper itself as seri- ously as the reputation of its author would make one wish to do. Un- fortunately, in this case, Professor Ely seems, after all, to have had little of importance to say. Of this, it is true, he himself was appa- rently unconscious. I'arren definitions, classifications which get no- where, and solemn i)latitudes delivered as though they were the sum and substance of human wisdom, weary the reader to no profit. To enumerate in detail the shortcomings of this venture into a field in which it is as necessary as it is charitable to assume that the author strayed without adequate preparation would take more space than can here be given. For those who have any knowledge whatever of the history of the conservation movement, the value and accuracy of the paper will be sufficiently characterized by allowing it to speak for itself. Chapters 11, HI, and 1\' give a kind of historical review of the development of the conservation movement. According to Professor Ely, "it was the work of economists in i)reparing the public mind throughout the length and breadth of the land that helped to make possible the later work of the conservationists." Modesty does not prevent Professor Ely from claiming for his own "early treatises, be- ginning with the Introduction to Political Bcouoiny, published in 1889," a considerable share of the credit. "Forestry was discussed" — in two pages, a footnote informs us — while the State was "presented as a guardian of the permanent interests of society." This view of the State "is the corner-stone of wise conservation policies — a very sine qua non. Isow this book was prepared for the Chautauqua reading course, elsewhere. And Chautauqua was then able to take the mes- sage to every part of our broad land." Dr. Fernow is given a place of deserved prominence in this historical review, but principally, it would appear, because of his lectures and writings on the economics of forestry. Mis name first appears on page 15, where we are informed that "in 1891 the American Economic Association showed its appreciation of one of the more important aspects of conservation by publishing a monograph on forestry con- sisting of three papers — one by Mr. Gifford Pinchot, on 'Forestry KEVIIiWS 53 Abroad'; one by Mr. Edward A. Bowers, on 'The Present Conditions of Forests in the PubHc Lands' ; and the third by Mr. B. E. Fernow, on 'The PracticabiHty of an American Forest Administration." " It is possibly a cavil to call attention to the fact that only in this passage do the first and third of these names appear without the title of "Dr." ; but accuracy in details is no more a shining virtue of Professor Ely's present "study" than is its sense of proportion and perspective. The next mention of Dr. Fernow's name is due to the fact that in 1896 he "gave a course of lectures on the economic aspects of forestry, under the auspices of the Department of Political Economy, in the Univer- sity of Wisconsin." . The passage thus introduced occupies nearly a full page. A little later a quotation is introduced as from "Dr. Fer- now's address of 1886." The original may be found both in Dr. Fer- now's "Economics of Forestry," published in 1902, and in an address delivered in August, 1895, before the American Association for the Advancement of Science. On page 21 we are told that "the Forest Service was created February i. 1908." This misstatement is imme- diately follow^ed by the sentence: "Xor should we neglect to mention the work of Dr. Gififord Pinchot, which has been epoch-making in conservation." This is all that Professor Ely has to say regarding Mr. Pinchot. Except for a footnote of no importance, Mr. Pinchot's name appears only in the somewhat equivocal statement that "if the econo- mists helped prepare the way, we may say that, under the leadership of President Roosevelt and such men as President Van Hise and Gif- ford Pinchot, the public first became conscious of the real import of conservation policies." It is impossible to ascribe solely to ignorance the grudging character of Professor Elys appraisal of the work of the true leaders in the great movement of which President A'an Hise has said that "among the men who have promoted the modern conservation movement, Gif- ford Pinchot has first place." And again, "Gifford Pinchot, generally recognized as the most potent force underlying the conservation move- ment." Of pure ignorance, it is true, there is ample evidence. Professor Ely simply did not take the trouble to qualify himself sufficiently by adequate study of the documents for the task to which he put his hand. If he ever heard of Professor Marsh's book, "The Earth as ^Modified by Human Action," by far the most notable American early contribu- tion to what eventually became the conservation movement, the text before us gives no sign of the fact. The volume is innocent of a bib- 5-t JOTRNAL OF I"(^Ri:STin' liography. It may be that the egregious slip embodied in the state- ment which is fathered upon Mr. Pinchot in the footnote on page ii, that "the name (conservation) was devised in the United States in 1898," is one for which Professor Ely is not primarily responsible; but careful proof-reading by any one really familiar with the history of conservation should have caught up the error. More significant, how- ever, because suggestive not merely of superficial knowledge, but also of deliberate unwillingness to give credit where credit is richly due, is the reference to the work and writings of Dr. W J McGee. Adequate statement of Dr. McGee's contributions to the conserva- tion movement would necessitate nothing short o^ a full history of that movement. In a sense, his share in it was the crowning accomplish- ment of his full, varied, and immensely productive life. A record of that life, from the standpoint of its scientific and public- welfare activi- ties, is embodied in a recent publication of the Washington Academy of Sciences, entitled "The McGee Memorial Meeting." This meeting was held in Washington, at the Carnegie Institution, December 5, 1913. The bibliographies incorporated in the published record of this meet- ing fill nine pages with titles of Dr. McGee's writings. An authorita- tive statement from the man better able than any other living being to appraise the importance of Dr. McGee's work for conservation was made at this meeting by Mr. Pinchot. In this statement he said : "Without McGee the conservation movement would either have been de- layed for years or would have been halting and feeble at birth. His con- tribution to it has been too little known. . . . Many and many a passage in Roosevelt's p«residential messages and in other State papers dealing with conservation had its first beginning in McGee's penetrating intelligence. . . . . So far as such a thing can ever be said of any one man in a move- ment so extensive, McGee was the scientific brains of the conservation movement all through its early critical stages. The distinguishing character of that movement from the first was its joint consideration of all the natural resources together as the working capital of humanity. . . . The wide and balanced knowledge of this continent which was so striking a peculiarity of McGee's intellectual equipment naturally fitted him for this work in a very high degree. . . . McGee at least as much as any other one man was responsible for formulating the plan for the Roosevelt Inland Water- ways Commission, which for the first time in any national project considered as a single problem the wise handling of all the natural resources of the continent. As secretary of this commission and as unofficial adviser and guide of all of the inland waterways associations. McGee played a part in the development of our rivers the importance of which it would be difficult to overstate. Of all his services to the conservation movement, this was the REVIEWS 55 one. ... in which his contributions were most effective. . . . His relation to the National Irrigation Congress during the latter years of his life was hardly less decisive. . . . He was one of the two men upon whom rested the arrangements for the great Conference of Governors held at the White House in May, 1908. Many of the utterances which attracted most attention at that conference were prepared by him or with his assis- tance. . . . Out of the Conference of Governors grew the National Con- servation Commission. Officially McGee was merely secretary of one of its four divisions, that which dealt with the waters of the continent. Practically, in every branch of the Commission's work he was the trusted and effective adviser, a very fountain of knowledge, without whom the material for its historical report, the first inventory of the natural resources of any nation, could not have been brought together." Of this man Professor Ely merely says in his text : "Dr. W. J. (sic) ^TcGee's name is one which must not be entirelj^ omitted." ^ He appends this footnote : "W. J. McGee — anthropologist, geologist, and hydrologist (1853-1912), was the author of The Agricultural Duty of Water, 191 1, but probably is chiefly to be remembered with conservation as the recording secretary of the Conference of Governors referred to above." It is not for the purpose of vindicating Dr. McGee's rightful claims to recognition as one of the foremost figures in the conservation move- ment that the slighting mention made of him is brought out. His reputation needs no vindicating in the Journal OF Forestry. What we are concerned with now is the apparent bias displayed by Professor Ely, and the reasons for it. Other passages than those already quoted show, though guardedly, the same spirit. Reference is made, for ex- ample, to "the indiscretions, exaggerations, and other mistakes of cer- tain conservationists whose wisdom was not equal to their zeal." Evi- dently Professor Ely wishes to have it understood that he is a safe- and-sane, middle-of-the-road conservationist. He is no wild-eyed bol- shevist, but a student of economics applying in the alembic of his mind the acid test of logic and sound method to loose conceptions and half- baked proposals. Along with this must be taken into account that he starts out with a thesis to maintain. In his view, the scientists have had a dispropor- tionate prominence in conservation matters. When we reflect seri- ously on the subject, he tells us, we see that we have here to do with ^ Dr. ^IcGee invariablj'^ wrote and printed his name without periods after the two initials. 56 JOURNAL OF F(JRF,STRV two orders of inquiry. One of them falls within the broad field of the natural sciences ; the other is economic in nature and is concerned with property relations. Geologists, agricultural scientists, and for- esters must instruct us, in their respective fields, concerning the nature and extent of our natural resources and methods of putting them to use ; but "it is in the property relations most suitable for conservation that the greatest difficulty arises, and it is on this account that the chief role in conservation belongs to the political economists, who must cultivate more diligently than heretofore that part of their field which we must designate as economic jurisprudence." The scientists have run away with the topic and most of the glory, and have come near to upsetting the applecart ; but long before their appearance on the scene the economists had perceived the fundamental issues and had laid the groundwork for the new point of view regarding the relationship between the public welfare and the rights of private property. Thus our Wisconsin economist discloses a twofold purpose : The first and less important is to establish the historical importance of the work of economists as leaders in the conservation movement. In this he does not succeed. Only by a complete distortion of the history of the movement does he make out even a prima facie case. The greater part of his paper, however, consists of an attempt to demonstrate the practical value of economic thought as a means of solving the vexed questions to which the conservation movement has given rise. The demonstration, it must be said, is highly disappointing. It is true that property relations and the rights of the public in the mainte- nance or the wise use, from the standpoint of the general welfare, of our natural resources lie at the very heart of conservation. But it was not by applying the principles of political economy to the facts that the course which should be followed was to be determined. The essence of the matter lay not in what the economist can show is true, but in what you are going to do about it. In other words, the true problems involved were problems of statesmanship. If proofs of this fact were wanted, the book before us amply provides it. As econo- mists, its authors can only go a certain distance in telling us what is expedient. Beyond that point they can only say that the way is uncer- tain. You may or may not get through. You will have many risks to run. There is this danger on one side and that on the other. But the statesman cannot wait for the uncertainties of the future to become the certainties of the past before he moves forward. The conserva- tion movement affords much for economists to write about, but a poor REVIEWS 57 opportunity for them to claim a right to the chief role in the shaping of public policies. It is significant that of the four papers which make up "The Founda- tions of National Prosperity," Professor Leith's is the only one which is particularly informative on concrete conservation issues; and Pro- fessor Leith is not a political economist, but an economic geologist. His paper, entitled "Conservation of Certain Mineral Resources," deals specifically with coal, iron, and copper, which are regarded as illustra- tive. The essence of the matter, if not its sum and substance, is the husbanding of these and similar non-renewable resources, mainly by reducing waste. Private enterprise and the natural play of economic forces are working strongly in this direction. The most promising field for the use of the powers of government to the same end is that of co-operative, not antagonistic, activities. From private monopoly there is little to fear, since the reserves are too great to be successfully controlled. Greater concentration of control and greater freedom to enter into combinations, accompanied by public regulation of a reason- able, not to say benevolent, character, would have its advantages. The high standards of conservation which happily already characterize large-scale production, as a rule, might be made compulsory upon the weaker competitors of big business. Along these lines does Professor Leith advance to the statement of his final position, that there is plenty of room for conservation that won't hurt any existing private interest, while it will be a long time before we shall know enough to have much prospect of success with any other kind. The second of the four contributors to Professor Ely's book has so far gone unmentioned — Professor Ralph H. Hess, who writes on "Con- servation and Economic Evolution." The appraisal of the value of his discussion of underlying economic theories may perhaps best be left to those whose primary interest is with abstruse conceptions rather than with concrete questions of practice and policy; for it is more than time to point out what the conservation movement really was and sought, in contrast with what the reader of these conservative essays might sup- pose. Conservation is a word of many uses. Its present vogue was gained as the result of a great public awakening to the need of a new attitude toward our natural resources. Those who initiated and led this move- ment knew very definitely what they were after and what kind of a fight they were in for : but it was good strategy to mask the attack on the citadels of privilege while the crusade was gathering momentum and to join battle on new ground. "One of the beauties of calling this 58 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the conservation movement," Gifford Pinchot used to say, "is that no- body can reasonably say he is against conserving our resources." In its initial stages conservation sv^ept the country. The idea behind the word was applied in a steadily broadening field, and a multitude of causes hastened to inscribe on their banners the new motto and to array their forces with the gathering hosts. It was neither expected nor desired that conservation should be as a shibboleth, to distinguish the true believers from their real opponents. To say that it became all things to all men would be nearer the truth. The present volume illustrates the fact that, after ten years of warfare over the conserva- tion issues, the word had an ambiguous significance even before Messrs. Hoover and Garfield had seized it to consecrate saving at the breakfast table, heatless Mondays, gasless Sundays, and lightless nights for the winning of the war. The ambiguity arises from the fact that the essence of the idea com- monly supposed to be denoted by the word is waste. When the his- tory of the United States from the opening of the twentieth century to the opening of the war with Germany comes to be written, it will be found that a truer denotation is monopoly. Conservation challenged the right of capital to control the development of the country in its own interest. It did so on the ground that important interests of the public were being sacrificed, and that it was both right and necessary for the nation to protect the interests of the public. The arch-foe which it attacked was not unthrift, but big business ; but the bill of indictment which it brought against big business was on the grounds both novel and practical. Big business was already under indictment at the bar of public opinion on many charges — that it owned the Government, made the laws, ran the courts ; crushed or stifled competition ; oppressed the wage-earner ; concentrated wealth ; promoted inequality ; sapped the foundations of American democracy and its ideals of individual free- dom, economic independence, reasonable comfort, and equal opportu- nity for all. The answers to these indictments were mostly in the form of a confession and avoidance. If social injustice resulted from the operations of big business, the fault lay not with big business, but was inherent in the nature of things, unless you wished to make things worse by prohibiting efificiency. Big business made for economy, thrift, the increase of wealth, and hence in the long run for the best interests of all concerned. But the conservationists — that is, the real ones — cried, "No." The goal of conservation was more than the prevention of waste, the safeguarding of resources against unnecessary impairment or destruc- REVIEWS 59 tion, and the increase of their capacity to serve hu;nan needs. Its pri- mary concern was not economic, but social betterment. From start to finish, it was an assertion of the pubhc interest in such a handling of the sources of wealth as would result in the greatest good to the greatest number. It sought not merely more prosperity and continued prosperity, but diffused prosperity. This greater part of the whole matter is all but omitted in the present volume save for Professor Ely's side-heading "Justice in Distribution," a misleading label because, as conservation was conceived of and presented to the nation in the Roose- velt days, this old sentimental battle-ground was avoided. Instead there was substituted a new, intellectual conception — the necessity for better conditions for the sake of national efficiency. P. W. Climate and Plant Grozvth in Certain Vegetative Associations. By Arthur W. Sampson. Bulletin Xo. 700, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture. Forest Service, October 1918. 72 pages. Ecologists have been keenly alive to the importance of serious re- search to determine the relation of climate to the growth and develop- ment of vegetation. Sampson, in the bulletin under review, places emphasis on the climatic requirements of various plant types as largely responsible for the results obtained in experimental seeding and in forest planting. He believes that, when once the adverse climatic fac- tors are known, failures may be largely avoided by the judicious selec- tion of sites or of species especially adapted to withstand the limiting factors. The reviewer agrees that a perfect interpretation of the divers site factors with reference to growth and development in different plant forms is much to be desired, but the problem is a difficult one and a long way from satisfactory solution. The author, by planning and carrying out an extensive series of experiments at the forest research station in central Utah, has added not a little to the rapidly accumu- lating data on site factors and vegetation. The work was planned, first, to obtain a comparison of the climatic requirements of the main plant types of the region, and, second, to determine quantitatively the relation between various environmental factors on the one hand and plant growth and certain other physiological functions on the other. The experiments were conducted over a period of two years and in the following vegetative types : oak-brush, aspen-fir, and spruce-fir. The investigations were chiefly concerned with recording and summa- rizing the meteorological data and in determining the relation of certain weather factors to growth, water requirements, and certain other phys- 60 JOURNAIv OF FORIJSTRY iological functions of standard plants developed under different cli- matic conditions. The plants experimented with under the different types of climate and in different kinds of soil were peas, wheat, and brome-grass, all of which were grown in suitable potometers. Water was added in mea- sured amounts, as needed, to keep the soil from drying to a point ap- proaching closely its wilting coefficient. The measurement of the plants grown in the battery of potometers, at each of the different stations representing the three climatic types, in- cluded the measurements of the stems and leaves at regular intervals throughout the growing season, in order to obtain data on the relation of the environment to the tendency of the plants to elongate their stems and to expand their leaves: also, at the end of the growing season, the dry weight and ash content of the parts above ground were determined, and in some instances the soil was washed from the roots and the dry weight and ash content also determined. In these measurements full consideration is given to possible sources of experimental error. The measurement of the physical factors at each of the type stations where batteries of potometers were located included continuous records of air temperature, precipitation, evaporation, relative humidity, sun- shine, and barometric pressure. A continuous record of wind velocity was kept at the upper and lower stations. It is well known that the values obtained in the measurements of the physical site factors depend largely upon the kind and character of the instruments used. The author emphasizes this point and presents a comparison of evaporation data derived from a free-water surface and from the porous cup atmometer of various types. In order to obtain an evaporation record comparable with transpiration from the plant for short periods, the instrument with which the evaporation is measured should correspond quickly with temperature changes in the air, as does the plant itself. The author found the atmometer superior to the free- water surface employed, due to its quicker response to temperature changes. The data on sunshine intensity were obtained by noting the difference in evaporation between the radio-atmometer and the ordinary white porous cup atmometer. The duration of sunshine was measured with the Marvin sunshine recorder. The difference in the rate of evapo- ration from the black and white porous cup atmometers is not only a measure of sunshine intensity, but it was found to be a fairly good index of sunshine duration. There was but little variation in the slope of the curves of evaporation from the two atmometers except on cloudy REVIEWS 61 days, and the data seemed to warrant the statement that the use of atmometers to obtain records of sunshine duration are quite as rehable as the more costly sunshine recorder. The author presents a detailed comparison of the climatic character- istics of the sites where the potometers were located and summarizes them on different bases. It is a comparatively easy matter to measure the growth of plants and to measure the separate site factors to which they are subjected. The difficulty comes in correlating growth with these factors. The most interestinK, but also in many respects the most unsatisfactory, part of the bulletin is the attempt on the part of the author to correlate growth with the environmental factors. An analysis is made, first, of the relative development of the plants at each station and their corresponding water requirement ; second, of the rela- tive development of the plants at each station and the amount of avail- able heat ; third, the effect of evaporation and temperature on the production of dry matter and on the growth of the plant as a whole. The temperature factor in the respective stations for the periods that the potometers were under observation was summarized as follows : (a) By physiological temperature coefficient. (b) By the sum of the means above 40° F. (c) By the sum of the daily means. It is worthy of note that the summed physiological temperature co- efficients derived by Lehenbauer's method bore practically the same relation to each other in the respective type stations as the sums of the means above 40° F. This relation, however, did not hold true in the summation of the daily mean temperatures. The summation of water requirements in the respective stations was based upon the water required to produce during the growing season a unit weight of dry tops of the standard plants. The most striking features brought out in the graphs, representing the summation of water requirements, were the greater vegetation development per unit of water consumed in the aspen-fir type and the relatively high water requirement for the production of a unit of dry matter in the oak- brush type. In order to determine the relation of the water requirements of the standard plants to evaporation and temperature in the type stations, the water used per unit of dry matter through practically the entire growing season was in each case divided by the evaporation for the corresponding period. The value of the quotients obtained was found to be highest in the oak-brush type, intermediate in the aspen-fir type, and lowest in the spruce-fir type, and the conclusion was reached that 62 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the water requirements of the standard plants are largely a matter of evaporation and temperature. Hence agricultural and forest plants grown in the localities of least rainfall, highest evaporation, and highest temperature should be confined to soils of high water-holding capacity and subject to minimum run-off, so that the soil may provide them a high percentage of the rainfall. Evaporation appeared to be the chief factor in limiting the growth and development of plants in the oak-brush and spruce-fir types. Con- sequently, the extension of agriculture and forestry in these associa- tions should be limited to lands protected from excessive evaporation. This can be done by selecting sites more or less protected by native vegetation and natural obstacles. The opinion is expressed that failures from forest planting in the middle or aspen-fir type are seldom caused bv adverse climatic conditions, but by preventable causes. Although the bulletin contains a fund of information for students of site factors and their correlation with the resulting vegetation, it brings us no nearer to an acceptable method of relating forest vegetation to the complex of physical factors which constitute the environment. J. W. T. The Preservation of Wood. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler. Wm. Rider & Son, Ltd., London, ipi/C?). Pp. 344. As is so commonly the case with books of this class published in Great Britain, this book is not dated. It may therefore be sold for an indefinite period as the latest work on the subject of wood preservation. Mr. A. J. Wallis-Tayler, who has written similar books on subjects ranging from Diesel engines to tea factories, delivered a paper on the preservation of wood, before the Royal Society of Arts, on the i8th of February, 1914. According to the author's preface, this book is based upon that paper. This is at the outset rather unfortunate, as at that time Air. Wallis-Tayler labored under the impression that the decay of wood begins with the fermentation of the sap, caused by bacteria. In this book we consequently note that "putrefactive fermentation and the subsequent decomposition of vegetable matter is due to albumen," and also that "the most common causes of decay of wood are the pres- ence of sap and being subjected to alternating conditions of wetness and dryness, or to a combination of moisture, heat, and the absence of ventilation," which should be rather instructive information to foresters and others who are working in the field of forest pathology. Decay is classified as "tvct rot and dry or sap rot," and the chapter on this sub- REVIEWS 63 ject is a curious mixture of citations from modern and ancient au- thorities. The illustrations of fruiting bodies of fungi, on pages 23 and 24, copied from Plate II of Bulletin No. 41 of the old U. S. Bureau of Forestry, are credited to R. Wade & Sons, Ltd., of London. Unlike other untechnical writers of technical literature bearing on the utilization of wood, Wallis-Tayler has had the courage to condense the inevitable list of important woods, which are presented only in a tabulated form, thereby saving considerable room on many library shelves. The chapter on kiln-drying shows an almost startling lack of information on the development of this work in America. His refer- ence to Tiemann's "Strength and Stiffness of Wood as Influenced by Moisture" is confined to a citation from a review which appeared in the Engineering and Mining Journal of November 10, 1906. The theory of the penetrance of preservatives is rather cleverly handled by long extracts from articles by Bailey and Tiemann, thus giving a good summary of the work that has been done on this subject without introducing errors due to the very evident lack of familiarity on the part of the author with the structure of wood, as will be noted in the following quotation, taken at random : "The vessels or tracheids form the lungs of the plant, and in these vessels is the sap, the circu- lation of which through the tree is the source of its existence." Whether the illustration of a magnified section of beech wood on page 112, which is of German origin, is a subtle attack upon the over-ad\'er- tised technical prowess of the Germans, is a matter that may give rise to some interesting speculation. If it was chosen for that purpose, it shows that the author possesses a rare sense of humor. The chapters on the apparatus used in wood preservation are reason- ably good compilations from booklets of various machinery manufac- turers and the proceedings of the American Wood Preservers' Asso- ciation. The chapters on preservative processes show an evident lack of familiarity with every-day problems that are encountered in the operation of wood preserving plants. Proprietary wood preservatives are given full attention, but their limitations are not discussed. The book closes with chapters on the fireproofing of wood, the cost of preservative treatment, and tables, formulae, etc. B. L. G. Annual Reports of the Massachusetts State Forester for 191 f,, 19 16, and 19 17. Boston, Mass. Pp. 130, 124, and 99. By some unaccounted delay the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth reports of the Massachusetts State Forester have reached us at the 6-4 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY same time. We regret this delay in receiving the earlier reports, the more as they contain much interesting information ; at the same time by reviewing them together a fuller insight into the state of aiTairs is gained. There is a personal note and enthusiastic optimism and self-satisfac- tion pervading these reports which is refreshing and apparently justi- fied, but still provokes a smile by its exuberance. To quote : "We undoubtedly have the best forest-fire protective system of any State. Our reforestation work is well under way, with approximately 15,000 acres set out to young forest trees. The practice of improvement thinnings and modern methods of forest management is yearly receiv- ing more attention by woodland owners. Forest depredations of dis- eases and insects are given special consideration in regard to their eradication and control in this State." This last phase of the forest department's activities is by far the most prominent as regards number of employees and expenditure. Indeed, one is tempted to make insect control the basic raisou d'etre of the department. Of the staff of employees, some 720. cited by name, almost one-half is directly engaged in moth-work, and of the total appropriations and contributions from towns and private forest owners, amounting to around $350,000. over $270,000 seem to be chargeable to "moth-work." We say "seem," for while any number of financial statements are strewn through the pages of the reports, it would take a competent accountant to disentangle correctly the direc- tion in which the expenditures are chargeable, since there is no one final financial statement. Some thirty-odd thousand dollars are ex- pended in fire-fighting; some ten to fifteen thousand on improvements in State forests, and the State Forester's general expenses (with a more or less permanent staff of about 40), including nurseries, around twenty thousand dollars. These amounts are partly appropriations by the State, partly and to a considerable extent contributions from mu- nicipalities and private sources ; but again it would require considerable figuring to separate the two sources as a whole. Besides the moth inspectors, over 300 forest wardens, located in towns, form a most effective army for propaganda of forestry ideas as well. Co-operation, far and wide, with municipalities, corporations, and individuals is the principle on which the forest department is based. This co-operation is more or less developed in protective work and in giving advice and assistance in management of woodlots, in planting, REviivWS 65 etc. Lately such co-operation is also had with the country farm bureaus. The war, with its attendant shortage of coal, and hence increased fuelwood demand, has been a blessing in disguise, permitting the profit- able utilization of moth-killed material. Thinnings as a means of con- trolling the gypsy moth had been advocated years before, but the diffi- culty of disposing of the cordwood prevented more general application of the operation. Last year "forestry paid"^that is to say, the thin- nings could be done profitably — as did utilization generally, in cord- wood and sawmill operation, under advice and co-operation of the de- partment. Some 874 acres were, under such co-operation, cut with a net profit to the fifteen owners of about $25,000. In 191 5, when 1,485 acres were under operation, a net return of only $5,000 was antici- pated. These thinnings concern themselves mainly with oak. Nothing is said about the silvicultural results of these thinnings, and we are left in doubt whether a mere utilization of dead or dying material or real silvicultural operations are involved. The need of fuelwood for the military camps has also benefited this part of the activities. The de- partment also became the center of activity in recruiting complete saw- mill units for England under a fund of $150,000 furnished by the lum- bermen of New England, besides enlisting men for similar service organized by the U. S. Forest Service. Reforestation work, usually on land ceded free of cost, but with the privilege of redemption on the part of the owner under the refores- tation law of 1908, had by the time of the 191 5 report given rise to 125 plantations on waste land, and during the period of the reports has added 35 more, with nearly 1.300 acres, and altogether some 15,000 acres are planted. Apparently the average number per acre planted is 700 trees — a rather small number. Six nurseries furnish the material also for the State forests and for sale to private individuals ; to the latter, in 19 17, some 300,000 plants were sold at $7 per thousand for 3 and 4 year olds. A special point is made of the reforesting experi- ments in scrub-oak lands, the planting being done in openings of the scrub after a fire with 4-year transplants, which in three years appear well established. If it were necessary to clear the scrub, as where it is too dense, the planting would be too expensive. As regards the methods and the attitude towards the eradication of insect and fungous diseases, we note the following: Creosoting egg clusters is effective with the gypsy moth, but spraying with arsenate of lead is more effective. For this, special auto-truck sprayers are used G() JOURNAL OF FORESTRY which outside the spraying season can be used for other purposes. The breeding and dissemination of parasites in co-operation with the U. S. Entomological Bureau continues. It does not appear whether there is hope of ever coping with the pest to its extinction, although an optimistic note on the value of the work is sounded ; but the control in cranberry bogs, which can be flooded, seems to be entirely efifective. The chestnut blight is still rampant, and nothing can be done except timely utilization, in which the department co-operates. The w^hite- pine blister rust, which in the reports of 191 5 and 1916 comes in for discussion, is, as far as we can find, left entirely unmentioned in the report for 19 17. In the former reports, while the seriousness of the infection is admitted, the author refuses to be pessimistic as to its spread. It is doubtful whether here the wish was father to the thought, as the very extended use of white pine in the plantations and nurseries and the great setback of interest in planting due to the fear of loss naturally inclined the State Forester to an optimistic non- alarmist attitude. We dare not take position for or against such atti- tude, but believe it the part of wisdom to combat the disease as vigor- ousl\' as the gypsy moth, which we believe can be done with more hope of success than in the case of the latter, on account of the definite host plants and need of two such. It is claimed that by systematically cutting and burning weevil- infested shoots for two or three years in plantations the weevil can be controlled in great part. As regards protection against fire, we have already quoted the boast that "we undoubtedly have the best fire-protective system of any State." In spite of this, the tabulation of causes shows no appreciable decrease of the number of fires during the last six years, and in spite of loco- motive inspection, still 35 per cent of the fires are on the average ascribed to railroads and a similar number remains unknown as to cause ; hunters, with 12 per cent, being the next largest contributors. The damage during the last ten years has averaged around $170,000, with an average area of nearly 40,000 acres and a cost of extinction averaging $30,000. The service is under a special State Fire Warden, who reports to the Forester, with five district fire wardens, 36 towers and other observation stations connected by telephone, special auto- mobile outfits, with pumps. Co-operation of the Federal Government and with towns, the poorer ones being in part reimbursed for fire- fighting tools, are part of the system. The law relative to the compulsory disposal of slash and brush fol- lowing logging operations, enacted in 1914, seems not to have accom- REVIKVVS 67 plished the expected results by 1917 for lack of its enforcement. Better observance is reported for the last year. A special State Forest Commission to purchase waste lands, insti- tuted in 1914, has so far acquired four small States forests, totalling 11,000 acres, the management of which is placed under the State For- ester, so far without special appropriation. But it appears that the Forest Commission may allow some of its funds to be expended on these forests. It is mainly reclamation work and has been begun in a small way. An interesting incident of the department's work in 191 5 was the handling of a relief fund for unemployed, consisting of an appropria- tion by the legislature of $100,000 and a contribution of the towns of nearly $15,000. This fund permitted the employment of over 1,400 men in clearing roadsides, burning brush, thinning, bushing, and plant- ing some 500 acres, and cutting cordwood. The w^ork accomplished, both in amount and quality, far exceeded the State Forester's expecta- tions. But the next year conditions in regard to labor had changed and lack of labor is complained of. If we may allow ourselves a criticism as to style, it is that a more systematic arrangement of material would make the reading and taking in the reports easier, besides obviating the frequent repetitions, which bewilder the reader. We note that the reports are addressed to nobody in particular, but from the language it appears the general public is addressed. The reader of these reports will certainly be struck with the great variety of activities and the wholly democratic spirit of co-operation which characterizes them. Such co-operation is particularly practicable in ^Massachusetts, where small forest holdings are the rule. We are impressed with the laudable initiative of the State Forester. B. E. F. Our Xatiojial Forests. By R. H. D. Boerker. The ]\Iacmillan Com- pany. Xew York. 1918. Pp. 238. Price, $2.50. The title of this volume and the title of the author (arboriculturist of the department of parks of the city of Xew York), as well as his previous ventures in literary lines, led us to expect something different from the contents of the volume, namely, the natural history of our National Forests. It is, however, an account of the organization and character of work of the U. S. Forest Service, with a brief statement 68 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY of how and why the Forests and the Service came into existence, the story based upon the author's seven years' experience in that Service. We may say at the outset that the work is conscientiously done, and, while it is announced as a "short popular account," it is worth reading by every professional student of the technical art, as it will open his mind better than any other reading to the great, almost bewildering, variety of specialization in forestry work as pursued by a great forest administration, and would serve well as collateral reading in a course on forest administration. The book can also be specially recommended to intelligent people with interest in open-air recreation. Especially in the West our moun- taineering societies contain large numbers of these. It is also of special general and practical interest to inhabitants of National Forest regions, for the land of the National Forests is the land of the cow-puncher, the sheep-herder, and the lumberjack — a land of crude customs and manners, but, withal, of generous hospitality. It is the country of the elk and the mule-tail deer, the mountain lion and the rattlesnake. Its grandeur makes you love it; its vastness makes you fear it; yet there is an irresistible charm, a magic lure, an indescribable something that stamps an indelible impression upon the mind and that makes you want to go back there after you have sworn an oath never to return. Thus forcefully does the author show the National Forest region to contain much of the atmosphere whence springs the vitality and idealism of America. Yet the underlying thought is that the material resources must be preserved if the region is to continue to maintain this virile population, which may be expected in future to contribute much of its vitality to the country as a whole. The contents are divided into four chapters, besides a lengthy intro- duction (50 pages). The latter, designed mainly to be an argument for the creation of the National Forests, is, perhaps, the weakest part, being too condensed. The first chapter, which concerns itself with the historical development, suffers from the same fault, some interesting and instructive details being evidently unknown to the author. The fact that the first reservations were created in response to peti- tions made by citizens of the locality, engineered by the American Forestry Association, would have been worth recording. The facts that President Cleveland came near being indicted for his wholesale creation of twenty million acres of reservations, and that the whole reservations policy was on the point of being overthrown, are important enough to be mentioned in even a short account. REVIEWS 69 The fact that by 1894 a bill was passed by both Houses of Congress creating a Forest Service for the administration of not only the exist- ing forest reservations, but of all federal timberlands, which failed by a legislative accident, should at least have been mentioned. A misconception is created on page 16 by coupling the appropriation for the Division of Forestry with a reference to the Reserves, for the two had no relation to each other. Incidentally, we may correct the date of one of these incidents, namely, the beginning of the timber physics work, on page 12, which should be 1888. From the standpoint of the bookmaker, we find the printer's work excellent, the volume well illustrated, and the publishers' part as is to be expected from the Macmillan Company, but we do not think it a wise arrangement of material to let an introduction of 50 pages, roman numbers, be followed by 19 pages of contents before the real reading begins. This arrangement confuses the reader and also leads to un- necessary repetition. The absence of an index is only partly offset by a very full table of contents. These criticisms are, however, only of minor points in an otherwise excellent book. B. P. K. B. E. F. Soil Nitrification in Relation to Forest Reproduction. Henrik Hes- selman, Skogsvordsforeningens Tidskrift, Haft i, January. 1918, pp. 1-104. In a lengthy and richly illustrated article Hesselman, of the Swedish forest experiment station, discusses the fixation of nitrogen in forest soils in its relation to forest reproduction in Sweden. For several years he has been studying the pine heaths of northern Sweden, where reproduction is especially difficult. Early investigations convinced him that the difficulty could not be attributed to lack of moisture. He therefore turned his attention to chemical conditions in the forest floor. Where reproduction is lacking, its failure is generally attributed to the fact that under certain conditions the organic matter of the forest floor is not converted into available nitrogen. These conclusions are based upon numerous chemical analyses of soils and plants under dif- ferent forest conditions. Two general classes of forest soils are recognized. In one the trans- formation of organic matter into available nitrates is complete, while in the other the process stops with the formation of ammonia. To the 70 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY latter class belongs the bulk of the Swedish forest, namely, all the coniferous forests bearing heavy growths of moss and lichen. In forests of this type, clear cutting or even thinnings may bring about lively nitrification. The same result may be accomplished by cultiva- tion in which the humus is mixed with mineral soil, even in closed stands. Decaying brush or logs also favor nitrification. If the layer of raw humus is very thick, cutting alone may not suffice to bring about nitrogen formation, although the production of ammonia is increased. Under such conditions, nitrification is hastened by cultivation or burn- ing. Where large openings are made, the increased nitrogen supply, together with increased light, may favor herbaceous growth to the det- riment of forest reproduction. Hesselman enters into a detailed discussion of various theories which seek to explain the favorable action of the various treatments above cited upon soil nitrification. His own theory, supported by previous investigations, is that the bacteria which are most active in nitrification require a certain amount of salts (electrolytes) for their development. He also cites the investigations of the Danish soil bacteriologist, Chris- tensen, which show that one of the most universal nitrifying bacteria, aaotobacter, occurs only in soil which is rich in salts, especially calcium. It never occurs in acid soils, rarely in neutral soils, but is nearly always found in soils of alkaline reaction. Hesselman's opinion is that all soils are continually being inoculated with nitrifying bacteria. Where conditions are favorable the bacteria develop rapidly, with the result that nitrification is active ; but where conditions are unfavorable — i. e.,. in acid or neutral soils — the bacteria die or do not develop sufficiently to become a factor in soil nitrification. The function of all the measures recommended to promote nitrifica- tion and aid reproduction, namely, opening up the stand, cultivation, and burning, is to supply the salts which are absent in the raw humus and which are required by the nitrifying bacteria. When the stand is opened by cutting, the addition of green slash may supply enough salts to start nitrification. After the process is once under way, there is a further liberation of salts due to chemical action. Opening up the stand also increases evaporation from the soil, and thus carries up salts from the lower strata. Increased aeration, which is commonly regarded as an aid to nitrification, is not here re- garded as a potent factor, because under ordinary circumstances aera- tion, even in dense stands, is sufficient for the needs of nitrifying bacteria. REVIEWS 71 Cultivation brings to the surface the mineral soil which contains salts in sufficient quantity to promote nitrification. Burning supplies salts which occur in the ashes. Another possible explanation for the beneficial effect of burning lies in the theory of partial sterilization, which in recent years has acquired many adherents. Experiments have shown that soils heated to moderate temperature, ranging from 65 to 98 degrees Centigrade, afterwards show a notice- ably higher content of food elements, especially nitrates, than before treatment. Plants grown in such soils are more vigorous and of richer color than those growing in untreated soil. This phenomenon has been explained by the English investigators, Russell and Hutchinson, on the following theory : The soil contains, in addition to bacteria, large num- bers of protozoa which feed on the bacteria. Moderate heat kills the protozoa, but does not injure the bacteria, which thus are given an opportunity to increase in number. If this theory is correct, we might expect the same result after a ground fire in the forest, providing it is not so severe as to destroy the bacteria and the organic matter. Good reproduction is everywhere associated with an adequate supply of available nitrates. A high nitrate content, however, is not necessary or even desirable. Old trees are relatively independent of soil nitrifica- tion, since in some of the most productive stands nitrifying agencies are inactive. Young growth under such stands, however, shows distinct signs of nitrogen starvation. Numerous instances are cited where pine and spruce saplings apparently suffering from lack of light under an old stand began to grow vigorously after a light fire which burned the litter and ground cover, thus starting nitrification, without damaging the trees. Typical two-storied pine forests are often produced in this manner. Although fire is beneficial under proper conditions, it may also prove harmful when not rightly used. Due to a lack of understanding of the fundamental principles governing the use of fire, there has been considerable dissension on this subject among Swedish foresters. Harmful eft'ects may result from too hot a fire. Which consumes a large part of the organic matter and thus reduces the main source of nitrogen. On the other hand, if nitrification is already active, fire may stimulate it to such an extent that the humus is quickly converted into nitrates which are dissipated in a few years and then followed by a decline in growth. Again, an abundance of available nitrates often produces an overluxuriant herbaceous growth, resulting in the suppression of young seedlings. The rule laid down by Hesselman is, therefore, to use fire only when distinctly necessary. Obviously the question asked by the 72 " JOURNAL OF FORESTRY practitioner is. How shall he decide in a specific case what measures to adopt? The guiding rule in answer to this question is. that where the humus is comparatively loose, being composed largely of moss and needles, nitrification may be expected to take place when the stand is opened up by cutting. Another good criterion is the type of herbaceous vegetation. Hesselman names a list of plants which are termed nitro- phylous and whose presence is regarded as an indication of a soil rich in available nitrates. Among these plants are the following : Epilobium augustifolinm Rubus saxatilis Rnbus idseiis Urtica dioica Senecio silvaticns Arenaria trinervia Taraxacum officinale Fragaria Galeopsis bifida Rumex acetosella Luzula pilosa Sonchus arvensis Rubus strigosus Cirsium lanceolatum A type of soil in which nitrification is not taking place is indicated by the presence of a ground cover made up of mosses and lichens which do not wilt on exposure to sunlight, or where the ground is covered by a mat of Aira flcxuosa. Other indicators of nitrogen deficiency are P olytrichiiim juniperinum, Vaccinium, and Arctostaphylos nva ursa. Under such conditions a light burning is advocated. Failure to recognize these two general types of soil is thought to account for many of the dift'erences of opinion in regard to silvicul- tural practice. The author cites examples to show that the advocates of shelter-wood systems, particularly Wagner's "border-cutting." have worked mainly on relatively good soils, where cutting alone suffices to bring about nitrification. On the other hand, foresters who have advo- cated heavy cuttings followed by burning or cultivation have, as a rule, dealt with soils in which nitrification is difficult. The findings of this investigation, if not directly applicable to Amer- ican forestry, should at least prove suggestive. They probably will find application in the more humid forests of this country, where there is a large amount of decaying organic matter in the forest floor. For such conditions this investigation seems to offer an explanation of the beneficial action universally attributed to exposing the mineral soil by burning or partial cultivation. It is interesting to note in this connec- tion that a system of heavy cutting followed by slash burning is now practised in the Douglas fir forests of the Pacific Northwest. In open stands, such as the yellow pine forests of Arizona and New Mexico, this investigation can have only a remote application. Here REVIEWS 73 the soil is for the most part bare, and what httle organic matter occurs in the form of dead grass, twigs, needles, and slash decays very slowly on account of a lack of moisture. Some idea of the slow rate of decay may be gained from the observation that brush piles left after logging usually show no appreciable decay after a period of lO years. The nearest approach to the formation of humus is underneath old trees, where needles and cones have accumulated for centuries. The surface soil underneath this litter is usuallx- black or brown, in contrast with the reddish soil typical of the volcanic formations in this region. That such sites favor the establishment of seedlings is attested by the rather common occurrence of groups of seedlings under standing trees or around stumps. Similar observations have been made with regard to burned brush piles. In the latter instance the favorable conditions may be due to stimulation of nitrification by increasing the salt content of the soil, as suggested by Hesselman. It seems more likely, however, that the condition which favors seedlings on such spots is increased moisture supply due to the elimination of competing vegetation. Al- though reproduction is favored by allowing litter and slash to accumu- late until they become incorporated in the soil, or by burning this mate- rial, the net result of these factors in localities where reproduction is generally poor has been largely negative, because the beneficial influ- ences are not sufficient to prevent the death of seedlings at critical times. This investigation is a striking illustration of co-ordination between different branches of science in the solution of a forest problem. Hes- selman is a forest ecologist, but the investigation is based as much upon chemistry as upon forestry and botany. It is noted that for several years the Swedish forest experiment station has had a chemist on its staff". Incidentally it may be mentioned that the staff of this station is made up of specialists who have been attached to the institution for years. This organization, which is in striking contrast to that of our forest experimentations, undoubtedly accounts in a large measure for the high standard of scientific work for which the Swedish experiment station is noted. G. A. P. The Rockies of Canada. By Walter D. Wilcox. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1916. Third edition. Pp. 300. For the lover of the great out-of-doors, especially the mountains, this book is a rare treat. Mr. Wilcox is an experienced mountaineer and naturalist, as well as a skillful artist with the camera. The book 74 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY is primarily a description of the Canadian Rockies, the finest scenery on the continent south of Alaska ; but it is enlivened by many interest- ing narratives of exploration, and with accurate descriptions of forests, trees, flowers, and animals. The region explored lies in the vicinity of Lake Louise and Banff and the wonderful country lying between and south of the Bow River. This region, which is the cream of the mountains, is now easily accessible to tourists by means of excellent mountain trails and a system of splendid hotels maintained by the Canadian Pacific Railway. A large part is included in the Canadian National Park. Some idea of the stoical Indian mind is given in an incident when one of the party slipped and nearly lost his life. When being carried back to camp the stony Indian guide attempted to con- sole him by this remark: "You think you die? ]\Ie think so too!" However, the man recovered. Accurate descriptions are given of the forests and trees, but chiefly from the standpoint of the physiography of the country and of the artistic impressions. "The trees are spruce, balsam, and pine. On the sunny south-facing slops there are a few large Douglas firs which pene- trate the lower mountain valleys from the foothills, but do not live at much higher altitudes than that of Banff, which is 4,500 feet. The open glades are filled with small aspen poplars, willows, and birches, which are practically the only deciduous trees. The scrub-birch (Bctula glandulosa) is rarely absent from any mountain meadow. The white spruce (Picea cngelmanni) is found everywhere through- out the mountains, from the lowest altitudes to the highest limits of tree growth. . . . The balsam spruce [Alpine fir] {Abies subal- pina) has about the same range as the white spruce, but is less com- mon. . . . There are two kinds of pine, black pine [lodgepole] (Piniis murrayana) , which cannot endure high altitudes, and the white- barked pine {P. albicaulis), which is found on rocky slopes at greater heights. . . . The most interesting and by far the most beautiful conifer is Lyall's larch (Larix lyaUi). . . . It is restricted to the summit range of the Rockies and its southern limits have not been de- termined. ... It rarely lives at altitudes below 6,000 feet, the extreme range being 5,600 to 7,600 feet. Probably no other tree in the world endures such stress of weather. The Douglas fir is only found in the foothills east of the mountains or in valleys which are less than 5,000 feet above tide. Here it is found in company with the aspen poplar (Populus trctnnloidcs) and the cottonwood (P. balsam- ifcra)!' The hemlocks occur only west of the Columbia River, in the REVIEWS 75 Selkirk Mountains and westward. Both species are found at Glacier. They are not mentioned in this book, as they are not included in the region explored. The floral displays are very beautiful, each season having its own characteristic species. "The succession of flowering plants has re- served mid-August for the glorious climax. From our tent we could look over seas of untold millions of wild asters. For a quarter of a mile in every direction the dominant tone was a pale lilac color. The sun when it pours a flood of light over these wild flower gardens gives a marvelous sensation of cheerfulness." The wild flowers are de- scribed in considerable detail. A chapter on hunting, fishing, and wild game and one on the stony Indian, won over to friendliness for the white man through the noble life of early missionaries and subsequent fair treatment by the Canadian Government, complete the book. The full-page photogravures are one of the best features of the book and deserve special mention for their artistic beauty. Concerning these the author says : "Many were obtained only after patient efifort and long delays while waiting for a favorable opportunity. Nature, espe- cially in the mountains, reveals her most inspiring moments so rarely that only a tireless patience may claim the prize of a perfect picture." This work is on a par with John ]\Iuir"s "Yosemite \^alley," although the author's style is different and does not perhaps quite reach the sublime depths of feeling of that wonderful student of nature. H. D. T. Tidal Lands: A Study of Shore Problems. By A. E. Carey and F. W. Oliver. Blackie and Son, London and Glasgow, 1918. Pp. xiv and 284. Price, 12s. 6d. This book is by a marine engineer and "a longshore botanist." From the engineering standpoint the book shows a wide experience and abun- dant information regarding the works of other engineers. The botan- ical part of the volume has been handled by a student of shore and strand flora and their usefulness for preventing erosion. All who have studied the matter know that' Triticiim junceum, Are- naria peploides, Salsola kali, and Cakle maritima are the first sand- gatherers, but Ammophila arenaria, Glyceria maritima, Fescua rubra, and Blymus arenarius soon arrive as the sands deepen. "P. arenaria, with its tufty habit of growth, formed the summit of the sandhills, while the broad spreading roots and leaves of B. arenarius secured the 76 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY base and sides." Finally, Hippophce rhamnoidcs arrives, the east coast of Lincolnshire being discussed. These are the stabilizers of the es- tablished "meals," as the marine hills are called in Lincolnshire, in contradistinction to the inland eolian dunes. In the case of pure shingle beaches, another series of plants comes in. Riimcx trigraniilatus, Silcnc maritima, Glaucium luteum, and Crambc maritima are the palisade type of shingle-holders, along with 4renaria pcploidcs: also the mat plants aid, namely, Calystegia soldan- clla and Lathynis maritimiis ; but the most important shingle plant is Suadcda frnticosa, of whose great value and use there is a very full and detailed account given. Other species useful for this work of binding the dunes are : Tamarix gallica, Salix rcpcns, Lycium chi- iiense, Ulcx, Cytisiis, Cratccgus, Ilex, Prunus, and Rosa canina. Then the following trees are suggested: Alnns incana, Piiius laricio, P. aiistriaca, P. i)isigiiis, and Cupressus macrocarpa, while P. sylvestris and Picea excelsa and alba are spoken of for special purposes ; nor are the sycamore, wych elm, walnut, and holm oak forgotten, but for some reason the seaside pine, P. pinaster, has been overlooked. The plants winning the salt marsh from the tidal waters and making it into land are treated almost as fully as the sand and shingle species. The volume is well illustrated. We consider that its usefulness would be greatly increased by the addition of a glossary giving the meaning of unusual local and technical terms. E. A. W. RECENT PUBLICATIONS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY The Genus Calosonia, including Studies on Seasonal Histories, Habits, and Economic Importance of American Species North of Mex- ico and of Several Introduced Species. Bull. 417, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Entolomology. Wash- ington, D. C. 19 1 7. Pp. 124. Stock-poisoning Plants of the Range. By C. D. Marsh. Bull. 575, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 24. Miscellaneous Conifers of the Rocky Mountain Region. By G. B. Sudworth. Bull. 680, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 45. Canadian Bark Beetles: Part II, A Preliminary Classification, with an Account of the Habits and Means of Control. By J. M. Swaine. Bull. 14, Entomological Branch, Department of Agriculture. Ottawa, Canada. 1918. Pp. 143. Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. By J. H. Maiden. Vol. IV, Pt. 5 (Pt. XXXV of the Complete Work). Published by the Government of New South Wales. Sydney, N. S. W. 1918. Pp. 111-135; pis. 144-147. Diagnosing JJliite-pine Blister Rust from its Mycelium. By R. H. Colley. Journal of x'Vgricultural Research, 11 (1917), No. 6. pp. 281- 286. Distinguishing Characters of Xorth American Sycamore Woods. By W. D. Brush. Botanical Gazette, 64 (1917), No. 6, pp. 480-496. Plant Succession on Abandoned Roads in Eastern Colorado. By H. L. Shantz. Journal of Ecology, 5 (1917), No. i, pp. ig-42. Ray Tracheids in Quercus alba. By S. J. Record. Botanical Gazette, 64 (1917), No. 5, p. 437. 77 78 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION An Inventory of Florida's Forests and the Outlook for the Future. By R. AI. Harper. Biennial Report, Department of x\griculture of Florida. No. 14 (1915-16), Pt. 2. Pp. 194-213- Native Trees of Canada. By B. R. Morton and R. G. Lewis. Bull. 61, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 191 7. Pp. 233. Forestry Handbook — //, Some of the Principal Commercial Trees of Xezv South Wales. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, N. S. W. 1917. Pp. 224. The Timber Industry in Russia. Forest Leaves, June, 1918, pp. 143-4- MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT Instruction for Making Timber Surveys in the National Forests, including Standard Classification of Forest Types. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1917. Pp. 53. Opening up the National Forests by Road-building. By O. C. Mer- rill. Separate No. 696 from Yearbook of the Department of Agricul- ture, 1916. Washington. D. C. 191 7. Pp. 9. POLITICS, EDUCATION, AND LEGISLATION Forestry and Community Development. By S. T. Dana. Bull. 638, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Serv- ice. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 35. Report of the Indiana State Board of Forestry for 1917. Indian- apolis, Ind. 1918. Pp. 13. Third Biennial Report of the State Forester of Kentucky for IQI/- By J. E. Barton. Frankfort, Ky. Pp. 39. Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for igi6 and iQiy. Bv F. W. Beslev et al. Baltimore, Md. Pp. 86. RECENT PUBLICATIONS V9 5^/0^^ Forestry Laws: Ncii' York. Forestry Laws Leaflet 2^, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 40. Annual Report Department of Conservation and Development of the State of Xezi' Jersey for the Year Ending October ?/, 19I/'. Union Hill, N. J. 1918. Pp. 141. Report of the Forestry Connnissio}! of Xezv South IVales for the Year Ending June ?o. 79/7. Sydney. X. S. W. 1918. Pp. 20. Report on Forestry. Annual Report Reforms and Progress, Chosen (Korea), 1915-16. Pp. 129-134. Countx Organization for Rural Fire Control. By W. Metcalf. Cir. 202, College of Agriculture. L^niversity of California. Berkeley, Cal. 1918. Pp. 23. The Administrative Report of the Virginia State Forester for the Calendar Years igi6 and 191'/. Virginia Geological Commission. Charlottesville, Va. 1918. Pp. 81. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION Forest Disease Surveys. By J. R. Weir. Bull. 658. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington. D. C. 1918. Pp. 23. Range Preservation and its Relation to Erosion Control on Western Grazing Lands. By A. W. Sampson and L. H. Weyl. Bull. 675, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 35. The Results of Tree Planting on the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project. By B. Aune. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribu- tion from the Bureau of Plant Industry. Work of the Belle Fourche Experimental Farm, 1916. Pp. 26-28. Summary of the Blister-rust Situation in Massachusetts. By H. T. Fernald. Bull. 119, Massachusetts Forestry Association. Boston, Mass. 1916. Pp. 23-25. 80 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Forest Fires in Canada, 1914-15-16. Bull. 64, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1918. Pp. 45. Rubber Cultivation in Trinidad and Tobago. By N. Lamont ct al. Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture of Trinidad and Tobago, 1917. No. 3, pp. 95-127. Forecasts of Weather Favorable to an Increase of Forest Fires. By E. A. Beals. Proceedings 2, Panama-American Science Congress. 191 5-16. Vol. 2, pp. 257-270. Rubber Culture in the Philippines. By P. J. Wester. Philippines Agricultural Review (Eng. Ed.), 10 (1917). ^o- 3^ PP- 201-220. Agency of Fire in Propagation of Longleaf Pines. By E. F. An- drews. Botanical Gazette, 64 (1917),- No. 6, pp. 479-5o8. Choosing the Best Seeds. By C. J. Kraebel. Journal of Heredity, 8 (1917), No. II, pp. 483-492- A Nursery Blight of Cedars. By G. G. Hahu, C. Hartley, and R. G. Pierce. Journal of Agricultural Research, 10 (1917), No. 10, pp. 533- 540. Annual Report Potlatch Timber Protective Association, 1917. Pot- latch, Idaho. 1918. Pp. 20. Pennsylvania and Forest Fires. Forest Leaves, June, 1918. pp. 141-3- A Shade-tree Guide. By A. Gaskill. Department of Conservation. Union Hill, N. J. 1918. Pp. 22. STATISTICS AND HISTORY Pnlpivood Consumption and Woodpnip Production, ipi6. By F. H. Smith and R. K. Helphenstine, Jr. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1917. Pp. 30. Forest Products of Canada, ipi6. Bull. 62, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 191 7. Pp. 64. RECENT PUBLICATIONS 81 UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY Lumber Used in the Manufacture of Wooden Products. By J. C. Nellis. Bull. 605, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 18. Relative Resistance of Various Hardz^'oods to Injection z^.'ith Creo- sote. By C. H. Teesdale. Bull. 606, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 36. Tests of Absorption and Penetration of Coal Tar and Creosote in Longleaf Pine. By C. H. Teesdale. Bull. 607, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington. D. C. 1918. Pp. 43. Effect of Varying Certain Cooking Conditions in the Production of Sulphite Pulp from Spruce. Bull. 620, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 24. Production of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles in igi6. By F. H. Smith and A. H. Pierson. Bull. Gy^,, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Con- tribution from the Forest Service. 1918. Pp. 43. Utilization of Elm. By W. D. Brush. Bull. 683, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 43. The Distribution of Softwood Lumber in the Middle West. Whole- sale and Retail Distribution. Studies of the Lumber Industry, Pts. VIII and IX. By O. M. Butler. Reports 115 and 116, Office of the Secretary. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 96 and 100. Guide Book for the Identification of JVoods Used for Ties and Tim- bers. By A. Koehler. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. 19 17. Pp. 79. Canadian Douglas Fir: Its Mechanical and Physical Properties. Bull. 60,' Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa. Canada. 1917. Pp. 84. 82 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY JVood-iising Industries of Quebec. By R. G. Lewis and J- A. Doucet. Bull. 63, Dominion Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1918. Pp. 89. Field Tests Made on Oil Treatment of Wood against Marine Borers. By C. H. Teesdale and L. F. Shackell. Engineering Xews-Record, 18. 1917. Pp. 833-837. Quantity of Wood J^reatcd and Preservatives Used in the United States in ipi/. By R. K. Helphenstine, Jr. American Wood Pre- servers Association. Baltimore, Aid. 1918. ]'p. 22. MISCELIvANIX)US The University of U^ashington Forest Club Aiuuial. Volume VI. Seattle, Wash. 19 18. Pp. 96. Contains the following articles : Causes and Remedies of Lahor Un- rest in the Lumber Industry, by W. F. Ogburn ; Possibilities of Future Airplane Spruce Production in the Pacific Northwest, by A. J. F. Brandstrom ; The Need and Value of Accurate Cost Records, by J. P. Robertson; The Place of the Trade Journal, by W. E. Crosby; The Present Status of the Wood-preserving Industry in the Pacific North- west, by B. L. Grondal ; Opportunities for Research Work in the Col- lege of Forestry of the University of Washington ; French Lumbering, as Viewed by a Washington Forester. First-aid Manual for Field Parties. By H. W. Barker. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1917. Pp. 98. A Message from the Forest Engineers in France. Forest Leaves, October, 1918, pp. 167-70. Fuels of JVestern Canada and their Efficient Utilisation. By James White. Commission of Conservation. Ottawa, Canada. 1918. Pp. 44. PERIODICAL LITERATURE SILMCULTURE, PROTECTIOX, AND EXTENSION In discussing the handicaps to the appHcation Silvicultural of silviculture in Lower Burma, Watson ex- Probletns presses himself, among other things, on the se- lection method and improvement fellings in the following manner : The so-called selection system was evolved at a time when the staff was inadequate for supervision. It is admittedly rough and inade- quate, and it is hard to realize why to date it has not been replaced by a more rational system. Where only certain species in a mixed forest are salable, any system of selection which bears only on one, or possi- bly more, species forming a small percentage of the crop must logically result in a great reduction in the stock of the species exploited. The counterpoise was to have been improvement fellings ; but so far these have been carried out unsystematically and, apart from this, have failed to keep pace with extraction. Of late years the introduction of the uniform method has been under consideration, but our moves in this direction have been desultory and on the whole negligible in results. Improvement fellings have been classified in two grades : "O" fell- ings, for the improvement of the existing stock, and "Y" fellings, to * induce or aid regeneration. Where, as usually is the case, the produce felled is unutilizable and unsalable the operation is economically un- sound. "O" fellings progress annually by square miles ; but, except in rare cases, where groups of valuable species are freed, the results are barely worth the paper they are described on. "Y" fellings progress annually by acres (in Zigon division there have been none so far). Their cumu- lative effect as compared with the total area of reserves is so fractional as to be almost negligible. The most striking feature, however, of many improvement fellings is that they appear to be carried out without any clear object being aimed at. Their general object should be the creation of a homogene- ous crop over as large an area as possible. Yet the primary essential to produce this, namely, the careful use beforehand of a preparatory extraction of the salable species that are overmature or interfering 84 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY with promising groups, is almost invariably omitted. This omission is equally obvious in the case of compartments that are heavily planted over. Forestry in Loiver Burma. Indian Forester, May, 1918, pp. 212—217. The following notes refer to the use of nurse Nurse Trees trees in young plantations of hardwoods, chiefly in beech and oak. They are based on the experi- Plantations ence of annual plantings for the last eleven years — a period which covers the whole existence of the bulk of the nurse trees. The chief points of a good nurse tree are: (i) Hardiness against spring frost; (2) rapidity of growth when young; (3) light foliage and upright habit; (4) ability to stand pruning; (5) value as early thinnings. The trees employed in this case have been European and Japanese larch. Of these, the European larch has proved superior in hardiness against spring frost, in lightness of foliage, and habit of growth. Both larches have grown rapidly ; the European larch has made the more rapid growth in height, and the Japanese has given the larger bulk of small pit-wood at the age of nine to eleven years. The Japanese larch has the disadvantage of throwing out strong side branches, but it stands pruning well. The planting distance is 3 feet. Of the 4,840 plants to the acre, approximately 2,500 are beech, 2-1 year; 1,500 oak, i-i year, and 800 larch, 2-1 year. Every third row consists of larch and beech alter- nately ; the other rows consist of beech and oak alternately ; so that the larch nurses stand 6 feet apart in the rows and the rows of larch and beech are 9 feet apart. For the first three or four years after planting, the nurse trees have very little influence on the growth of the crop. There is ample space for all, and if after the second year the larch begins to take the lead, it is only as isolated individuals. From the fourth or fifth year the larch takes much more than its share of the growing space. It may be said that as soon as the nurse trees begin to do good to some of the young oaks by their shelter they also begin to injure others by their side shade. From the fifth year until the last of the larch are cut out, the plantation requires close attention and care, directed to obtaining the maximum benefit from shelter and the minimum injury from side shade. PERIODICAL LITERATURE 85 In the sixth year some more pruning of side branches may be neces- sary. In the seventh to eighth year it often becomes necessary to re- duce the number of larch where the oaks are suffering from their shade ; sometimes a very severe pruning is all that is needed. In the ninth year at least half of the remaining larch is removed, giving some 350 pit-wood poles per acre. The remainder of the larch are cut out in the tenth and eleventh years, giving another 300 to 350 poles per acre of rather larger size. At the present prices the return from these early thinnings is not negligible ; and although a much larger return could be obtained by allowing some of the larch to stand for three or four years longer, this gain would be at the expense of the future crop of oak and beech, which must suffer if any appreciable number of larch are retained in the crop after the eleventh year. It is possible that some other kind of tree — for example, birch — might possess all the other good qualities of larch as a nurse, but hith- erto larch stands alone in the value of the early thinnings. One feature is noticeable in all the plantations described — the very trifling extent of damage done by the larch canker and aphis. Recommendations regarding these operations by Professor Fisher in 1907 have been thoroughly justified by the result, both in the good growth of the oak and beech and in the considerable return from the early thinnings of larch. Transactions of Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, July, 1918, pp. 173— I7f. MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT A set of interesting systematic increment mea- Annual surements are published by Milne-Home, the and measurements having been made in several plan- Seasonal tations, six to eight years in succession. The Increment tabulation gives, besides the year of measure- ment and age of the plantation, the estimated growing stock, number of stems per acre, average dimeter at 4 feet 6 inches high, per cent rate of growth, mean annual increment, current annual increment. The percentage rate is figured by Schneider's formula! Unfor- nd tunately, a full description of the stands is not given, but from the statement of the number of trees it appears that we have in several cases to deal with rather open plantations, the numbers running for 8G JOURNAL Ol' FOKKSTRV spruce for the fourth and fifth decade from 440 to 700 trees, and in one plantation in the fifth decade to 275 per acre ; in one plantation 670 to 710, in another 275 to 280 for pine in the same decade. A Japanese larch plantation became measurable in the eighth year, and from the eighth to twelfth year, with 880 reduced to 860 stems, grew at a rate of over 12 per cent, the current increment in the twelfth year being 1 83 cubic feet and with no sign of decline, the average diam- eter being 5.9 inches and the mean annual increment 132 cubic feet. The other plantations being over 32 years old, no comparison is to be made with the larch performance. For tlie spruce, in the better stands of over 35 to 47 years old, tlie mean annual increment moves between 71 and 78, the current incre- ment from 79 to 116 cubic feet, the diameters in the oldest and best reaching over 11 inches. In no case is the maximum reached (when current equals mean increment). The two Scotch pine plantations, from 37 to 47 years old, are evi- dently poor, the better of the two showing for the last 7 years a con- stant mean increment of 40 cubic feet and a vacillating current incre- ment in the latter period of 50 to 51 cubic feet. The best performance in the other plantation, in the forty-fourth year, shows a current increment of 71 cubic feet and a mean of 36 cubic feet. Most interesting it is to follow the movement of the increment per cent, which with almost precise regularity is a function of time that is sinking with age, due, of course, to the fact that the capital — the growing stock — to which the increment is related is constantly increas- ing. Thus the highest increment per cent is found in a spruce planta- tion of 32 years with 6.95, the lowest with 2.44 at 44 years. The pine plantations show the highest percentage at 38 years with 4.75 per cent, the lowest with 2.45 per cent at 47 years. The author adds : At a moderate estimate it should be possible to increase these results by 20 per cent, which would represent a yield very substantially beyond what is looked for at the present time in continental forests. Regarding the seasonal growth, this proves variable in different sea- sons. A table shows for the different plantations the percentage of growth made during each month of the growing season. The averages for all species are : klay June July August September 19 S3 24 20 4 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 87 The general conclusions which may be drawn from these figures appear to be that in the average season timber increment commences about the middle of May and attains its maximum in June, during which month one-third of the whole increment is laid on. There is a gradual falling ofif in the growth during July and August, when in many cases increase in girth ceases. In certain trees, especially on better soils, a small growth is made in September. It has been ob- served that a cold, backward season, with an absence of sun, may post- pone any timber increment until June, but rainfall in the early part of the season is not so important, no doubt because there is rarely any lack of soil moisture at that period. Prolonged dry weather in the latter half of June or in July has, however, a very marked effect on both spruce and Japanese larch, although when sufficient rain does fall the loss of growth is usually made up. Observations i)i Connection n'ith Annual Increment of Growing Crops of Tim- ber. Transactions of Roval Scottish Arboricultural Society, Julv, 1918, pp. 164-168. The city forest of Winterthur is one of the Sii'iss best managed and most productive in Switzer- Forcst land. It contains around 2,800 acres, mostly Production conifers, and in 1917, without exceeding the sus- tained yield with a cut of 75 cubic feet, the net return was over $50,000, or over $17 per acre. To be sure, the wood prices were high, 22.6 cents per cubic foot, an increase of 46 per cent over 1916. The workwood per cent was 70, leaving 30 per cent for fuelwood. A nursery of 160 acres furnishes plant material, part of which is for sale. The cantonal forest of Soleure, also only about 3,000 acres, produced, with a sustained yield of only 37 cubic feet, a little over $8 per acre. In the communal forests of St. Gallen the cut was 81 cubic feet, with a gross return of a little over $13; net results are not given, but the interesting fact is stated that of the principal cut, 7 per cent w^as from clearing system, 51 per cent from successive fellings, 40 per cent from selection cuttings. For the canton Bern it is stated that while in the public forests the cut has remained nearly normal, in private forests it has increased to treble what it was in 1913. The net price has exactly doubled over that of 1915, and is stated for 1917 at 16 cents per cubic foot. In the canton Vaud the cantonal forests produce at the rate of 61 cubic feet per acre, the communal forests at 57 cubic feet, but the pri- 88 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY vate forests at 90 cubic feet (overcutting!), but the net return is more favorable for the communal than for the State forest, being $8.66 per acre and 15.2 cents per cubic foot, as against $8.34 and 13.7 cents. Journal Forcstier Suisse, July-August, 1918, pp. 113, 132— 136. UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY . Unwin draws attention to the need for more British roads and better roads in the south of England Transport if the timber in the woods is to be got out with and reasonable profit. Roads The woods are mostly of small area and scat- tered, and no working plans seem to be available giving position, area, thinnings or fellings, and approximate valuation. The wooded areas are of three types: (i) old oak or beech woods, mixed with ash, alder, elm, etc.; (2) regular coppice with an under- growth of hazel, ash, and chestnut, with the scattered short-boled standards chiefly of oak, occasionally a few ash; (3) the newer plan- tations of Pinus sylvestris, P. austriaca var. laricio, Larix euro pea, L. Icptolepis, Pseiidotsuga douglasii, Picea excelsa. Large areas of hardwoods, mostly oak and beech, are ready for harvest, most of the coniferous material, with, in some cases, large amounts of hardwoods, having been felled during the war; but lumber- ing operations in this region would not pay, because where the woody areas are in hill country the tracks are too steep or the road surfaces too soft and poor for timber wagons and the rides through the woods themselves not fit for heavy- wheeled traffic. No systematic manage- ment has been undertaken. Even large estates do not employ a forest officer, the agent of the estate having general supervision of the woods, and he it is who hires foresters — more properly called woodsmen — to do the cutting. Also, only on large estates are there small sawmills, and so here again good roads would further the lumbering of these scattered areas. The author suggests the desirability of each owner ascertaining the amount of standing timber on his estate, what is mature, and what could be felled. This information in conjunction with the market re- quirements would determine whether and to what extent the roads should be improved or new roads built. He makes suggestions as to how this improvement in the road system may be secured. The road board might provide for local roads and bridge work and grants might PERIODICAL UTERATURR 89 be made to land-owners for road-building. In some cases it might pay to establish a sawmill, to which timber from several estates might come, or other wood-using industries. The firmly established chair- tnaking industry in Buckinghamshire is cited as a paying example where economic and forest conditions are known. Co-operation, he thinks, might be best also for nursery and planting operations and a properly qualified forest officer might be given charge of several of the smaller estates. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, October, 1918, pp. 271— 275. POLITICS, EDUCATION, AND LEGISLATION The President of the Scottish Arboricultural Forest Society shows by two detailed exhibits from his Taxation own experience that taxation in Scotland is more in onerous and unfair than with us, not inducive to Scotland private planting. The first exhibit is for an area of over 4,000 acres, where rates are rather low. The valuation is only $7 per acre, but the tax rate, composed of the greatest variety of charges, amounts, in 1918-19, to 84 cents, or 12 per cent on the valuation. The second exhibit refers to 396 acres, where the rates are higher, but the valuation is lower, namely, $2.50 per acre. Here the charges add up to $3.30, exceeding the valuation. In addition to the regular taxes, death duties have to be paid at the rate of 21 per cent on the net value of any timber sold. There is a county rate as owner and as occupier, a parish rate as owner and as occupier, a heritor's assessment, a land tax, a minister's stipend, besides an income tax, variously computed, and a supertax. This tax is heavier than on any other property ; a comparison with property in stocks shows that the death duties and supertax on these would be one-third that for the forest. The author also subjects the planting proposition of the Reconstruc- tion Committee to a financial calculation which is not encouraging. Transactions of Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, July, 1918, pp. 169-173. 90 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY MISCELLANEOUS Howard, having spent some time in the Prus- I'orcst sian Research Institute, traces the development Research of forest research in Europe. In Germany, Oryauizvtion Wedekind in 1826, Carl Heyer in 1845, ^'^^ ^ number of other leading foresters around i860, pointed out the need of such research. In 1867 and 1868 Gayer and. Baur sketched in detail organization and methods, and the first real move was made at a meeting in \'ienna. The committee there elected were Wessely, G. Heyer, Ebermayer, Judeich, and Baur, representing most of Germany. They met in Re- gensburg in November, 1868, where it was decided that the larger States, Austria, Prussia, and Bavaria, should have independent research institutes For the smaller States the professors in the various forest colleges were to undertake research work as part of their duties. Among other things, they discussed the advisability of forming an association to further forest research and suggested an international association. It was decided that the research institutes of all the States were to be combined with the educational branch — that is to say,, the president of the forest college was to be president of the research institute. Germany was the first country to organize its research and to found a Forest Research Association. This association, although really dating from the committee meeting in 1868, was not formally formed imtil 1872. The hopeless inferiority of French research is put down by French foresters to lack of men and money and bad organization. If France had attended the international meetings, enough interest would prob- ably have been stimulated for men and money to be forthcoming, and, at any rate, much would have been learned about organizing research. Although instructions were issued for organizing forest research in 1882. to be under the control of the director of the Nancy Forest College, the instructions were "hopelessly carried out." "Experiments were begun, but were usually badly organized and badly carried out." In 191 1, however, these proposals had not yet materialized and a professor at Nancy stated that he was not very hopeful about them. He confessed that French research was severely handicapped by not taking part in the International Association. In 1912 all German States of importance had their Forest Research. Institutes (combined with the college) united under the German Forest I'KRIODICAL LITKRATURK '-H Research Association (which meets as a rule twice a year), and this. in turn, united with the International Forest Association. The Prussian Research Institute was started in 1S71, though not officially created till 1872, and is united with the Forest College at Eberswalde. There are six branches : 1. Silviculture 2. Physical chemistry 3. Meteorology 4. Plant physiology 5. Zoology 6. Mycology (started in 1899) According to original arrangements, the local forest officer was in charge of the outstation experiment under the control of the Regicr- uiigsforstbeaiiitcn and directed by the research officer; but this was not successful. Pressure of other work, lack of technical knowledge and training in experimental work, and other reasons tended to show that the local forest officer w^as not the man to carry out the experi- ments. The principal work of the silvicultural branch is the compilation of yield tables and the collection of statistics connected with them, while other work embraces relations between stacked and solid volume, ex- periments with exotics, experiments concerning root-formation, ma- nure, technical properties of wood, seed tests, etc. It is worth noting that the tests of strength of wood, etc., are done by technical experts at Charlottenburg, and not by the Forest Research Institute, and that the silviculturist represents the forest side of these experiments. The meteorology branch is concerned with experiments dealing with the influence of forests on climate and not so much with the reverse. All kinds of observations on temperature, humidity, winds, etc., are made. The plant physiology branch is purely botanical. It takes up such subjects as researches on bacteria, formation of annual rings, grass floras, influence of the district on seeds, influence of soil factors on plants, natural distribution of forest trees, etc. The zoology branch is concerned with zoological researches as far as they concern forests, and with control methods. Physical-chemistry branch has to do wnth the chemistry of soils, humus formation, hard-pan formation, etc. 93 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY The mycology branch is concerned with mycology in its relation to forestry, and control methods. The writer, having Indian conditions in mind, thinks that decentral- ization beyond the point of provincial silviculturists would be a mis- take. The methods and ideas must be controlled by a central body, if any unity is to be obtained. Thus the various experiments in each German State are carefully discussed, and an exact procedure and method is passed upon by the German Forest Research Association before the experiment is started. The writer concludes that it is high time the prejudice against intro- ducing European methods into India should be done away with. "Local conditions certainly influence all work, but they influence details far more than principles." Indian Forester, September, 19 18, pp. 394—401. EDITORIAL COMMENT "Landscape Enginkering in the Xationae Forests" Under the above title/ Air. Frank A. Waugh has prepared a most readable and interesting little pamphlet which every forester ought to read and study. He follows this up by one on "A Plan for the Devel- opment of the Village of Grand Canyon, Arizona.'' ^ Since both of these studies discuss some very important principles involved in the proper use and best enjoyment of lake and stream, sea- shore and mountain, it would seem valuable to get the opinions, espe- cially of foresters, landscape men, and others who have to deal with these problems. It is chiefly to make a start, then, that these lines of an amateur are ofifered. Here in Michigan and in other parts of the Great Lakes country hundreds of lakes are surrounded with lots ; backyards as well as pretty front ones form shoreline decoration. The traveler is asked to keep away by signs and dogs ; the lake is "closed," except to the boat, but landing is verhotcn. Our beautiful rivers have been closed, have had their banks and bluffs devastated. They have ceased to belong to the people ; they have ceased to furnish the refreshing and restful diversion from city life. Why all this? Has it paid? Even our Atlantic seacoast for miles is closed to the traveler by people buying large estates and fencing out the public. Waugh's article on the "Summer Camp" brings out this same situ- ation, and the questions naturally arise: Is it necessary? Is it good policy? Is it not time right now to consider this and stop future mis- takes, even if we are helpless regarding the past? ^^'augh apparently had something of this kind in mind when he leaves a strip along the lake as reserve {see map, p. i8). We bother our heads about the number of people per acre, the di- vision of land into lots; but the first question seems to be: Should anv private dwelling and ground (even if rented) be allowed on any lake? Should a few hotels, boat-houses, and other truly public aft'airs be al- lowed? Should anv structures and other human disfigurement be 'U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D. C, IQ18, pp. 23 and 38, respectively. 93 94 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY allowed at all? If only hotels and other public affairs are allowed, how far back or away should private buildings be located? Naturally, different lake shores differ. At one the bluffs come close ; at another lots of easy ground exists, etc. But the fundamental ques- tions stay. To my mind, one-half mile from lake, or river, or shore, or park is not very much. These people are not busy city-dwellers ; they are benefited by walking; and if the shore is ivee to all, the "hog" spirit goes, and we can all sit together on "inspiration point," if we choose. There is a further consideration. The number who can have lots at the lake is limited, anyway. Then why not limit on larger lines ? Make lots 300 feet along the shore, set houses back 300 feet, and thus utilize, but limit, before crowding. That there w'ould go up a shout of hog, and pets, and preference, and pull is a matter of course ; we have the same shout when we try to stop shanty towns in cities. Coming, now, to the Grand Canyon village. I want to agree with Waugh in saying that it is not necessary to keep all buildings away from the rim, and also that it is useless to limit structures in size and form and try to make them invisible. Things are big here ; the ordi- nary man standing at the rim does not see the camps in the park below. Then, why shout about a few hotels and other buildings which give so much pleasure, especially to old people and invalids and children, when they can sit on the veranda and enjoy the sights? Briefly. I feel that private "hogging" of rim and pushing back of people ought never to be allowed. The rim is sacred and belongs to all. Any village aft'air should be large, not on pigmy city lines, and plenty of the open pine woods to give the air of comfort and seclusion. The politics can well be left out; if Washington can be run by a three-head Commission, this village certainly can, and, in view of its transient character, should so be run. I must find fault with the estimates. Let us do things in keeping with their importance. Put in $10,000 and send down a commission made up of the foremost authorities on forestry landscape work and sanitary engineering and then ask for a real appropriation, and perhaps the transfer of lands from National Forests to National Parks will go at a slower pace. F. Roth. NOTES CoMMERciAiv Forest Plaxtixg Nowhere in Canada has such an excellent start been made toward •commercial forest planting as in the Province of Quebec, and even here the W'ork done constitutes only a small beginning in comparison with the real needs of the situation. The lead in this direction has been taken by the Laurentide Company, Limited, and the Riordan Pulp and Paper Company, both of which concerns have for some time realized the slow progress which nature unaided makes toward restoring the stand of commercially valuable pulpwood species on our northern lands after they have been heavily cut over. The Laurentide Company is the pioneer, having started planting op- •erations in 1908. Up to the present, a total of 453 acres has been planted up by this company, mostly with Norway spruce and white spruce, with a smaller representation of white pine, Scotch pine, red pine, poplar, and other minor species. About 1,500 trees are planted to the acre, so that the total number planted to date aggregate some '680,000. During 1919 the Forestry Division of the Laurentide Com- pany expects to plant about 500,000 young trees, mostly Norway spruce .and white spruce. The program for 1920 includes the planting of 700,000 trees and for 1921 one million trees, mostly wdiite spruce. The Tate of planting is to be increased until it totals 2,000,000 trees per year. The Laurentide Company has in its forest nurseries near Grand Mere, P. O.. nearly four million seedlings of different ages to be used in planting operations between 1919 and 1921. This will be supple- mented by purchases from other nurseries, until the capacitv of the Grand Mere nurseries can be increased to cover the entire planting program of the company. The company's forester. ]\Ir. Ell wood Wil- son, reports that the cost of planting, usually with 3-vear-old seedlings, is from $9 to $10 per acre. The Riordan Pulp and Paper Company began its reforestation work in 1 91 6, its forest nursery at St. Jovite, P. O.. being established the fol- lowing year by their forester, ]\Ir. A. C. A'olkmar. To date a total of 780 acres has been planted to Norway spruce, white pine, red pine, white spruce, and Scotch pine. In the nursery at St. Jovi'te are 2,180,- 000 Norway spruce seedlings, 800,000 white spruce, and 200,000 white 95 9() JOURNAL OF FORESTRY pine of different ages. By 1920 it is expected that the scale of planting will be increased to one million spruce and 100,000 white and red pine, and that operations will be continued at this rate, using 3-year-old stock. Both these companies are confining their planting operations to lands owned by them in fee simple, readily accessible to existing means of transportation. This will give the plantations a high value when the timber reaches commercial size. In order, however, to encourage large- scale planting on private lands, it is imperative that provision be made against excessive taxation. A low annual tax rate, with an added tax when the crop is finally harvested, is most just to all concerned. The reforestation of denuded Crown timber lands is a problem of large proportions, the solution of which belongs primarily to the Pro- vincial government. The provincial forest nursery at Berthierville, which has been in existence for nine years, has supplied millions of voung trees to private land-owners, mostly farmers and pulp compa- nies, including tw© million trees sold during 1908. The provincial for- ester, Mr. G. C. Piche, announces that the capacity of this nursery is to be increased to an annual production of five million young trees, partly in contemplation of the provincial government adopting a program of forest planting on denuded Crown timber lands. Forest Research in France The first feature to strike an American is the remarkable skill and fineness of touch possessed by the French foresters and the compara- tive poverty of their forest literature. The French foresters, by long practice and by living constantly in close touch with their forests, have developed a skill which I believe is unequalled anywhere else in the world. To them forestry is an art, not a science ; an art based on the experience of generations. This does not mean, however, that they are satisfied with the methods which their predecessors considered the best. They are constantly trying to improve upon the old methods, and they assert their individuality in the adaptation of their favorite methods to the particular forest. But they seldom write down their ideas ; why I do not know. They keep most of them in their heads, so that the only way one can ever obtain a complete knowledge of French forestry is by conversation with the foresters in the woods. There seem to be several reasons why forestry has developed into an art rather than a science in France. In the first place, the practice of forestry antedates the development of modern science. It had, there- fore, started along the road of empirical methods and already possessed NOTES 97 a large body of facts before science was in a position to l)e of assistance. Secondly, tbe number of tree species and combinations of conditions are very small compared with those found in the United States. Perhaps one of the strongest reasons is that the intluencc of man has been exerted for such a long period that natural conditi(jns have almost entirely disappeared. This makes it impossible to study the vegetation resulting from the action of natural forces. In America the situation is quite dilTerent. France has barel\- a dozen commercial species, while we have over two hundred ; she has no natural forest types, while we have many. Our opportunity and duty are therefore correspondingly greater. We cannot depend upon em- pirical methods because our species and types are so numerous that it would take centuries, as it has taken in France, to develop the necessary methods. Alean while some of our richest types would be lost. We must, therefore, turn to scientific research for the basis of our practice. France makes one realize the vastness of our opportunities for research. We still have large areas of virgin forests and larger areas of second growth of which we know the original growth. It is our privilege as well as our duty to take advantage of the opportunity presented to us to develop research to the point where it will unlock the secret of our natural forests before these forests disappear. With research we can develop our practice rapidly and without wasting our resources. With- out it we grope in the dark, for we have not long experience nor as vet accurate knowledge. I have returned absolutely convinced that Amer- ica can be the foremost country in the world in forest research and in ft) rest wealth. Barrinctox Moore. PiSGAH National Game Preserve The establishment of the Pisgah National Game Preserve of North Carolina is the first concrete case of an area purchased under the Weeks law having been set aside by the President, and its maintenance and the care and control of the fish and game taken over by. National Forest officers. As a preliminary to this step the State had through proper legislative action waived control of and jurisdiction over the game and fish within forests established on the purchased lands. Hereafter hunt- ing and fishing will either be wholly prohibited within this area and the preserve used as a sanctuary in which the game may breed and increase without being disturbed, or there will be established certain seasons in which game and fish may be taken under regulations promulgated bv 98 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the Secretary of Agriculture. In this way the area will in time become a reservoir of game from which it will overflow onto the surrounding country, thus affording a steady supply of game for recreative hunting. Game and fish thus placed under Federal control will be afforded ample protection from illegal fishing or hunting, the presence of forest officers making it difficult for violators of the game and fish laws to operate and the punishment being often more swift than under State laws en- forced by local residents. The State is relieved of all responsibility as to protecting the game and fish on the preserve, and added strength is given to the protection by reason of the game and fish laws being under the charge of Federal courts. Timber Sales on the Southern Appalachlvn Forests The revenue from timber sales on the purchased forests in the Southern Appalachians shows a gratifying and steady increase, in spite of the scarcity of labor in the woods and the high cost of production. Local operators are becoming better acquainted with Forest Service methods and the purchase of Government stumpage is steadily increas- ing. Timber sales in the Southern Appalachian Forests are of par- ticular interest, as compared with sales elsewhere, on account of the variety of species, both hardwood and softwood, found growing to- gether and of the many different products taken out under one-sale contract. It is no uncommon thing for a single sale, involving two or three million feet of timber, to include some twelve or fifteen species for lumber, with individual species utilized for such by-products as tannin extract and wood bark, telephone poles, railroad ties, pulpwood, firewood, and dyeing material. Each species and product, as a rule, has a different sale value and so a different stumpage value. This makes the stumpage appraisal, even in a comparatively small sale, a complicated afifair. The value on the stump, however, is ample compensation for the difficulty encountered in w^orking up a sale of this kind. Yellow poplar and red oak bring from $6 to $9 per thousand, and the other oaks and chestnut from $3 to $5. Tanbark last spring, owing to war values, had been bringing from $4 to $7 a ton on the stump. There is one chance on the Cherokee Forest, in Tennessee, on which the total estimated stand, converting all products into thousand board feet, is approximately 7 million feet, yet the total estimated value on the stump exceeds $36,000. The widely varying forest types, due to dift'erences in altitude, lati- tude, exposure, topography, and soil conditions and the variations in NOTES 09 the mixture of species, present an infinite variety of silvicultural prob- lems. Silviculture in the Southern Appalachians, however, in the last analysis, boils itself down to a very simple proposition. The extreme vigor of these forests, the readiness with which they reproduce them- selves from sprout and from seed, and the rapid rate of growth, enable them to recover c^uickly from the most destructive methods of cutting. Repeated fires and heavy overgrazing are their only real enemies, and with these eliminated heavy cutting does the forest little harm. A good many interesting logging engineering problems are presented by the timber sales in the Southern Appalachians. The Government has acquired many small tracts of practically virgin timber within easy hauling distance from the railroad, most of which have been preserved from previous logging by the extreme roughness of the topography and difficulty of transportation. Flumes and tram roads are in some in- stances found possible on account of the demand for lumber and the present high prices. F. W. Reed. Red-beet Injury in Montana Forests A peculiar injury to forest trees on the Helena and Deerlodge Na- tional Forests of Montana w^as reported early in 1918. Examination by specialists in charge of insect control and forest pathology failed to show that either insects or disease were the cause of the trouble, but that it was a form of winter-killing known as the red-belt injury. E. E. Hubert, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, made a detailed examination of the afifected areas. This same condition has been previously noted in Montana and is mentioned in a number of publications covering the winter-killing of forest trees. The name is derived from the occurrence of the injury as a belt or strip of killed or partly killed timber along the contour of mountains and the brown color of the newly killed tree needles. In the 1918 appearance of the trouble the afifected strip was from one-fourth to one-half mile in width and ran parallel to the valley floor. Bordering large valleys, this strip lay at from 5.000 to 6,000 feet eleva- tion, while near the heads of tributary valleys the altitude limits were approximately 1,000 feet higher. Trees on the more exposed portions of the topography, standing along or projecting above the general forest cover, were the ones most injured. Damage was heaviest on the east, southeast, south, and south- west exposures. All trees on the same site were not afifected to the 100 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY same extent, though all the trees within the strip showed some injury. The several tree species were also differently afifected, Douglas fir, western yellow pine, and lodgepole pine heing the most injured, in some cases as high as 30 per cent of the stand of these species within the belt being killed outright. Alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and juni- per were usually injured only to a slight extent. A peculiar efifect of the red-belt injury was the killing of mistletoe on trees that were only slightly damaged and were capable of full re- covery. Mistletoe-infected trees outside of the zone still have living plants of the parasite. The red-belt injury is apparently due to excessive transpiration of the needles during the periods of Chinook winds, especially when the warm wind has been preceded by an extreme cold spell. This sup- position is borne out by a study of weather records for the winter of 19 1 7- 1 8. The loss of water through the ([uickly thawed-out needles cannot be replaced from the remainder of the tree, which continues in the frozen condition for a greater length of time. This results in the death of the needles and. if enough of the foliage is damaged, in the death of the tree. A New Forest for the Yale School of Forestry- The Yale School of Forestry has recently received a gift of nearly 1,500 acres of forest in one area. It is the so-called Den forest, some 40 miles southwest of New Haven. It is a mixed hardwood forest typical of southern Connecticut. .Vccompanying the gift of the land are interest-bearing securities, the income of which will more than pay the taxes ; also a fund to pay for a survey of the property. This survey will be made as early as opportunity permits and a bulletin published descriptive of it along the same lines as Bulletin Xo. 4 descriptive of the Keene forest. As the Keene forest is coniferous in character, being chiefly white pine, the addition of the Den forest, which is hardwood in character, places the school in a strong position as to forest ownership. Improve- ment on the Keene forest has progressed rapidly during the past year, and cleanings made to free young stands of white pine from overstand- ing gray birch and other hardwoods have netted the school more than $1,000. Similar improvement work is now in progress. Two additional areas adjacent to the Swanzea tract, approximate! v 140 acres in area, have been purchased and two detached tracts located some distance from the Swanzea area have been sold, it being the policy NOTES 101 of the school to dispose of the more inaccessible holdings and extend the forest near Keene as opportunity permits. The school now owns approximately 2.500 acres of forest, with funds available to increase this by several hundred acres. Gkr.mi.vatiox of Yellow-poplar Seed To those foresters who have occasion to handle yellow poplar (Linodcndron tiilipifcni) in the nursery, the results of an experiment at the University of Michigan may be of interest. Having had very poor success in securing germination of yellow- poplar seed when bought from dealers and stored in sacks in cold stor- age, it was necessary to locate the trouble. Through the courtesy of ^Ir. I. C. Williams, Deputy Commissioner of Forestry of the State of Pennsylvania, a supply of the seed was obtained in the fall of 19 17 which was fresh from the trees. Upon receipt of this seed, in November, two pounds were sown im- mediately in a 4 by 12 bed and covered with a mulch of leaves. A second lot of two pounds was stratified in moist sand, and the box con- taining the sand and seed was buried in sandy, well-drained soil. A third lot, also of two pounds, was placed in a cloth sack and hung in a cool, dry cellar. In May, 1918, the second and third lots of seed were sown in 4 by 12 beds in the usual way. A count of the seedlings in each bed, made in October, showed the following results : Lot No. I (seed sown in fall) 487 seedlings Lot No. 2 (seed stratified and sown in spring) 1,088 seedlings Lot No. 3 ( seed kept dry and cool, sown in spring) 8 seedlings The conclusions are obvious. Seed should be obtained fresh from the tree and kept moist and cool until sown. Under our conditions, spring sowing with this species is apparently better. L. J. Young. The cost of operating the National Forests for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1918, was $4,000,000, plus $700,000 special deficiency appro- priation because of the very serious fire situation. The receipts for this period totaled over $3,574,000, exceeding those of the previous year by almost $120,000. All revenue-producing activities of the for- ests, excepting the timber business (lessened in consequence of the gen- eral let-up of private building on account of the war and of the dislo- 102 JOURNAL OI' FORESTRY cation of transportation facilities) and perhaps permits for water power, contributed to the increase in receipts ; but officials believe that the main increase is due to the number of live stock grazed, which yielded over $1,700,000, timber sales yielding the next largest amount, namely, $1,500,000. Other forms of activity brought in $120,000, the sale of turpentine privileges on the Florida Forest a little over $8,000. The use of the National Forests is to a great extent free. For in- stance, settlers and residents of small communities in and near the for- ests are allowed without charge reasonable amounts of wood for fuel ; settlers may obtain timber for use in the improvement and maintenance of farms and are given the privilege to graze free not to exceed ten head of milch and work animals. The Imperial Forest Research Institute at Debra Dun, India, insti- tuted in 1905 ( ?), gives an exhibit of its activities in a list of publica- tions (for sale) in the July, 1918, number of the Indian forester. The publications are divided into eight classes, namely : 1. Bulletins (old series) 11 2. Leaflets 5 3. Pamphlets 16 4. Bulletins (new series) ,37 5. Forest Records ( volumes ) 6 6. Memoirs 14 7. Manuals 8 8. Other publications 14 While most of these publications have interest only for Indian for- esters, some of general interest may be cited : Notes on a Visit to Some European Schools of Forestry, b}^ E. P. Stebbing. Note on the Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply, by S. Eardley-Wilmot. A Glossary of Forest Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry, by A. M. F. Caccia. The Compilation of Girth Increments from Sample-Plot Measurements, by R. S.. Troup. Note on an Enquiry by the Government of India into the Relation between For- ests and Atmospheric and Soil Moisture in India, by M. Hill. The Selection System in Indian Forests as Exemplified in Working Plans Based on this System, with a Short Description of Some Continental Methods, by A. M. F. Caccia. Indian Woods and Their Uses, vol. i, pt. i. Economy Series, by R. S. Troup. Preparation of Forest Working Plans in India, by W. E. D'Arcy. Practical Determination of the Girth Increment of Trees, by R. S. Troup. Translation of M. Jacquot's "Incendies en Foret," by C. E. C. Fischer (out of print). The Work of the Forest Department in India, by R. S. Troup. These publications may be obtained from the Superintendent, Gov- ernment Printing. India, Calcutta. NOTES 103 The Laiirentide Company at Grand IMere, P. Q., is making some interesting experiments in the grinding of hardwoods. In a recent letter Mr. Ellwood Wilson, manager, Forestry Division, mentions the methods used and the results obtained, as follows : "In order to determine the practicability of grinding hardwood, the Forestry Division got out about sixty-hve cords of hardwood with which to run the test. This wood was stored in the yard for several months and tinally, on August 17, 19 18, we started to grind on No. 7- A stone; the stone was practically new and we used a six-cut straight-tooth burr for sharpening. The test covered a little over two days and the results, both from a quantity and quality standpoint, were very gratifying. The average production was 77,000 pounds per stone per 24 hours, dry weight, and the quality was good, viz., the fibers were verj^ fine and quite uniform, and I think for summer conditions 10 or 15 per cent of this pulp would be beneficial to our stock as a whole. The pulp produced w^as a slightly darker color than tlie ordinary run, and of course was run much thinner in the pits in order to prevent burning. The wood as weighed into the mill averaged 5,483 pounds to the cord and was 76.42 per cent dry." Regarding tie specifications, the Tiiubcnnan says: The new tie speci- fications issued by the railroads require modification, which already has been done in some cases by the Northern Pacific in the Inland Empire. It would seem that an attempt was made to issue one general specifica- tion which would cover the entire production of ties throughout the United States without taking into consideration the various varieties of timber, growth, and inherent defects. The theory upon which the specifications were drawn would clearly indicate that either the com- mittee entrusted with the job knew mighty little about timber or were determined to attempt to secure a theoretical standard tie that would conform with a preconceived notion of an unattainably high standard. A tie inspector for the Great Northern frankly confessed that it would be virtually impossible to secure any ties in Minnesota of the grades suggested. The proper plan is to withdraw the new specifications and amend them in accordance with the experience of the past, through a committee of lumbermen and practical maintenance-of-way officials of the western lines. The Indian Forester for August, 1918, page 376, contains further in- formation about balsa wood, a tropical tree of the West Indies and Central America, belonging to the order Malvacea. Among the many names given to it are West Indian corkwood, "bois flot," "down tree," referring to the silky floss wrapping the seeds in the long, narrow pods, useful for filling cushions, mattresses, etc. The word "balsa" is a local 104 JOURNAL Ol? FORESTRY name for a type of raft used in certain parts of South America. The wood is soft, spongy, and, as has been stated before, very light, its specific gravity having been given as 0.120. It is used for hfebelts, as cork substitute for bottle stoppers, and for fenders for lifeboats. Ex- ])eriments to test its suitabilit)', in the form of wood meal, as a material for increasing the sensitiveness of blasting explosives did not give satis- faction ; others, however, indicate it to be valuable for an insulating material and for woodpulp for paper-making. Experiments in the use of sawdust for pulp for newspaper have been carried on in Great Britain with good success. Grinding mills convert sawdust into wood-flour, fresh sawdust being better, as it can be ground finer, than dry sawdust Most satisfactory results have been obtained by mixing 35 per cent of sawdust pulp with 30 per cent of waste (paper), or altogether 65 per cent of home material and 35 per cent of imported pulp. Previously proportions were reversed, being about 70 per cent of imported pulp, with 30 or 40 per cent of home materials. /\.n estimate places the amount of sawdust pulp to be obtained from the United Kingdom per annum at about 20,000 tons. The Missoula, Montana, office of the Bureau of Aircraft Production has a method of testing pine trees to ascertain whether they will yield wing-beam stock. It consists in making a cut in the butt of the tree and at this point taking a test chip, which must split straigJit both z^'ays. No churned or tapered butts are acce])table, and all logs must have a minimum taper. Precautions against overripe timber have been issued. Logs with knot defects on one side, however, may be cut if clear airplane cuttings can be obtained from one side. Pine for wing beams must have not less than six annual growth rings per inch when measured in a radial direction through the zone of maxi- mum growth on either end section. Wood showing not less than 18 annual growth rings in three inches is rejected. Specifications for pine logs require them to be cut 20 feet 6 inches in length to yield stock 3 by 4^/2 — 19 feet 11 inches in length. Among the fossils found in North Dakota is what appears to have been the immediate ancestor of the gingko, or maiden-hair, tree of China and Japan. This strange tree has come down to us practically unchanged from earliest Mesozoic time. During the Jurassic period it NOTES 105 was widely spread from the Arctic regions over most of the globe, but ■since that time it has been gradually dwindling, until it is now repre- sented by a single living species in Japan and China. In the Far East .it is regarded as a sacred tree, and as such is planted about the temples .and sanctuaries, but there is great doubt as to its present existence in a •truly wild state. It is not likely to become extinct, however, for its fascinating history and curious fernlike foliage have made it so inter- esting that it has been extensively planted in many parts of the world, notably in southern Europe and in the eastern part of the United States. It is a familiar shade tree on the streets of Washington. D. C. The Woodlands Section of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Associa- tion, inaugurated a year ago, met on September 20 at the Windsor Hotel, Montreal, Air. Gerard Power, Chairman, presiding. This Sec- tion brings together the practical woodsmen and the responsible heads of woods operations. Alany interesting papers were read, leading to hearty discussions, both of which are considered of such significance to the pulp and paper trade that they are being completely reproduced in the Pulp and Paper Mayazinc, beginning with the issue for October 10. The State of Idaho has made a radical departure from previous timber-sales practice in adopting up-to-date conservative methods of ■disposing of the merchantable timber on State lands. Twelve million feet board measure and 7,800 ties are being advertised to be sold at public auction at AlcCall. Mininuun stumpage rates of $2 per thousand feet board measure for western yellow pine, $1.50 for Douglas fir and western larch, $1 for Engelmann spruce, $0.50 for white fir, and $0.07 each for ties have been adopted. The timber will be marked or desig- nated for cutting by the State agent in charge. The sale will be made by 40-acre legal subdivisions, according to the estimated amount of timber on each. The successful bidder will be given five years in which to remove the timber. Former sales of State timber were not limited to the merchantable timber ; but the entire tract was lumped off by esti- mate at a flat rate, regardless of species. In some instances the land was sold and the timber allowed to go with the land. During the past summer Dr. H. N. Whitford, of the Yale School of Forestry, has continued his w^ork in forestry in the Brazilian forests. In 19 1 7 he was in Colombia and Venezuela. In 1918 he visited the ;southern part of Brazil and made investigative trips to two forest lOG jULRXAL OF FOKIiSTKV tracts — the one a hardwood forest on the coast north of Rio de Janeiro^ and the other in the Parana forests of southern Brazil. Dr. Whitford reports the hardwood forest to be one of the most accessible in the State and full of a number of timbers that are being extensively used in the Brazilian market, especially since the war has cut off importa- tions. The Parana pine forest is the most extensive coniferous forest in the Southern Hemisphere and covers a region of not less than one hundred square miles. Since the war, lumber production in this region has more than doubled. In a bulletin by James White, published by the Commission of Con- servation of Canada, discussing the fuels of western Canada, a brief note is made to wood fuel and the equivalents to one ton of anthracite- are stated upon the authority of the Forest Products Laboratory, of Madison, as follows: One cord of birch, 1.15 cords of tamarack. 1.20- cords of Douglas fir, 1.50 cords of jack pine, 1.55 cords of poplar, 1.60 cords of hemlock, 2.10 cords of cedar. But the poor grade of coal received in Canada last winter would increase these quantities of wood by probably 23 per cent. A one-year course in practical forestry is given by the School of Forestry at Montana State University, beginning last autumn. This course is being offered at the request of officials of the Forest Service and lumber companies. It is distinctly a war course, and will fill the demand for a short, highly specialized course of vocational training to prepare for positions now vacant. Applicants for the course must be at least 16 years of age, while students 18 years or more who are not high-school graduates may be admitted if they give satisfactory evi- dence of being able to pursue the course successfully. The curriculum for the first quarter is to include introduction to- forestry, lumbering, surveying, mapping, mathematics, military drill, and physical education ; for the second quarter, forest improvements, scaling and cruising, surveying and mapping, fire protection ; for the third quarter, stream measurements, economics of forestry, forest ad- ministration. The development of a large and well-regulated stock industry in the South promises to bring much benefit to timber, according to Austin Cary, who has spent most of the past year in that section. In the first place, it focuses interest on land hitherto idle ; secondly, it will bring a NOTES 107 good measure of fire protection in its wake, and, thirdly, a portion of a pasture area appears to be more useful for pasture if covered with a certain stock of timber. The movement to raise more and better stock in the South thus promises to do much for forestry as well as to serve " the nation directly. It is gaining fast, many substantial men — lumber- men and others — entering into it. Eradication of the cattle tick, fenc- ing, improvement of stock, improvement of pastures, and provision for winter feed are some of its features. Timber-growing will be a sort of by-product in the beginning; later, if things work as foresters have expected, it may prove to be the dominant interest. The Taggarts Pajjer Company, of Great Bend, New York, has de- veloped a process for the making of newsprint from all ground-wood pulp, omitting entirely any proportion of sulphite pulp. The president of the company says: "It requires two cords of wood for a ton of sulphite pulp, while one cord of wood will make more than a ton of ground-wood pulp. It takes 20 per cent more timber to make paper out of 20 per cent sulphite than it does out of all ground wood. One- fifth more acreage of timber is required for the sulphite method." If this process proves generally feasible, it will do much to conserve supplies and efifect a considerable saving in the cost of manufacturing newsprint and in the consumption of sulphur. An untearable or reinforced paper, also waterproof, has been for many years an object still to be attained by paper-makers, one pre- ventive factor being the high cost of manufacture. The Little Journal informs us that the goal has been reached and the goods are being manufactured at last. It is a cotton, reinforced, waterproofed kraft paper. It can be made stiff and hard or creped, and soft and thick or thin. This paper will largely take the place of burlap, performing the double service of (i) paper to keep out the dust, oil, water, and (2) burlap for strong outside wrapping. The Red Cross has used large quantities of this reinforced, waterproofed paper for wrapping surgical dressings and a softer quality is used to make vests for soldiers. A new quarterly publication, Jarrah, devoted to the interests of the Australian forests, has appeared at Perth, western Australia. It is edited by J. S. Ogilvie, secretary of the Australian Forest League. In adopting the name of the Australian wood for the publication it is not the intention of the league, according to an editorial in the initial issue. 108 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY to push exclusively the wood of that tree. Other species of Australian woods will be exploited and the influence of the magazine devoted to furthering the interests of the x\ustralian forest resources. According to the British Timber Trades Journal, the Rafanut x\ktie- ' bolaget has been formed in Stockholm to exploit new methods of ship- ping wood, in view of the anticipated shortage of tonnage after the war. The plan is to raft the lumber across the North Sea, and it is to be specially noted that the company's idea is to facilitate the shipment of sawed goods. Some previous experiments in floating large masses of logs have been successful, but it is thought that no previous attempts have been made to float sawed timber long distances at sea. Irvin C. Williams, deputy commissioner of forestry in Pennsylvania since 1904, matriculated at the University of Michigan Graduate School in October, 191 7, as a candidate for the degree of Master of Science in Forestry, which was awarded to him in June, 1918. He is now a candi- date for the Ph. D. degree. Mr. Williams became the legal adviser to the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry in 1903. For several years he was lecturer in civil and criminal law at the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy, and is now giving a series of fortnightly talks to the students on general biological and forestal subjects. Because the appropriation bill for the Department of Agriculture for the current year had not yet been passed, it was necessary to resort to the special defense fund of $50,000,000 put at the disposal of the Presi- dent by Congress for a loan of $1,000,000 that the Forest Service might meet the necessary fire-fighting expenses attendant upon the serious emergency conditions in the National Forests of the Northwest and Pacific Coast States. The loan was readily authorized by the Presi- dent, who recognized the protection of the National Forests as a war activity. The forthcoming report on British Columbia's forest resources, pre- pared by ^Messrs. Craig and Whitford for the Conservation Commission of Canada, makes the total stand of timber, including pulpwood, 366 billion board feet. Of the total land area of the province, amounting to 355,855 square miles, 200,000 square miles are incapable of bearing commercial forest growth, and only 28,000 square miles carry sufficient NOTES • 100 amounts to be classed as statutory timber land. One-third of the total area, or over 100,000 square miles, once forested has been totally de- stroyed by fire, and more than half this mileage has been seriously damaged. The loss through forest fires in standing timber is estimated at over 665 billion feet. It is stated that when, last February, President Wilson was to make a momentous announcement before both houses of Congress the Chi- cago Tribune sold 700,000 copies for that issue. For this issue 84 acres of woodland were cut in Canada; the paper was made in mills along the Welland Canal, where 510 men were kept busy for four days. If the papers had been spread out sheet to sheet they would have reached from Bering Strait to Cape Horn, and if that amount of paper had been bought in the 6o's it would have cost $185,000. Co-operative agreements have recently been made between the State foresters, the Extension Divisions of the Agricultural Colleges of Maryland and Virginia, and the U. S. Forest Service to promote and assist in the marketing of farm timber. The technical control of the work rests with the State foresters and the Forest Service, whose rep- resentatives give specific demonstrations under the auspices of the county agents. Co-operative arrangements have been made with 126 individual owners controlling about 250,000 acres of timber lands in California, whereby the Forest Service assumes the detection and fighting of all fires that may occur. The lands are sitviated within the territory cov- ered by the rangers of the Eldorado and Tahoe forests. This protec- tion is obtained at an average cost of i^ cents per acre, paid by the owners. The Indian Forester for August, 1918, contains a photograph show- ing two seedlings of sal that have come up from one seed, and a corre- spondent writes that this is not an infrequent occurrence. ]\Iany would take the two shoots to be the main stem and an oflfshoot, the latter appearing before the former died down ; but in many cases examination will prove them to be two separate shoots from the one seed. A total of 2.275 acres was planted within the St. Joe, Lolo, Pend Oreille, and Cabinet National Forests of the ^lissoula district during 110 JOURNAIv OF FORESTRY October. The reforestation work was entirely confined to old burns which have failed to restock naturally. The species planted were west- ern white pine, eastern white pine, and western yellow pine. Two and three year old stock from the Forest Service nursery was used. A. C. McCain, for over ten years assistant district forester in charge of the Office of Operation in the Intermountain District of the U. S. Forest Service, has become supervisor of the Teton National Forest at his own request. Mr. McCain is succeeded in Ogden by Vernon Met- calf, formerly supervisor of the Lemhi National Forest. George S. Perry, for the past five years forester in charge of the Hull and Brumbaugh State Forests in Pennsylvania, has been appointed a professor of forestry at the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy. He succeeds Prof. George A. Retan, who resigned to take up dairy farming in Tioga County, Pennsylvania. "The Recovery and Remanufacture of Waste Paper" is the title of an interesting volume which has been written by James Strachan, chem- ist of the Donside Paper Company, Aberdeen, Scotland. The book itself is printed on paper made entirely from regenerated waste paper. The students in forestry at the Ontario Agricultural College, Canada, are mostly returned soldiers, the whole student body being less than a freshman class of a few years ago. Courses in forestry have been opened to women and four are in attendance at the present time. Lieut. J. R. Martin, among the Canadian prisoners in Germany to be repatriated and sent home, was formerly district forester at Nelson, British Columbia. He was wounded four times before being captured and spent twenty-two months in enemy territory. Li the absence of Dean Hunt, of the College of Agriculture, Univer- sity of California, on war work. Prof, Walter Mulford served as acting dean and director; the forestry school, of which he is the head, was nearly dismantled through enlistments. Willard Melvin Drake (University of Michigan Forest School, '06), for the past four years professor of forestry at the University of Mon- tana Forest School, has been appointed a professor of forestry at the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy. NOTES 111 Mr. Charles L. Pack, President of the American Forestry Associa- tion and head of the National War Garden Commission of the United States, has had the degree of Doctor of Laws conferred upon him by Trinity College, Toronto, Canada. According to a leaflet issued by the U. S. Department of Commerce, the daily production of paper in the United States is 15,000 tons. 21.4 per cent of which is made from waste paper, books, magazines, etc., of which 380,000 tons are imported. Six of the sixteen members of the Montana Civilian Rifle Team, which competed in the National Association matches at Camp Perry, Ohio, were U. S. Forest Service employees. A very creditable showing was made by the team. C. A. Dahlgren, until recently on the Coeur d'Alene National Forest. has been transferred to the Denver office, where he will take over the duties of lumberman. He fills the place left vacant by the resignation •of E. B. Tanner. It is said that over fifty kinds of bark are now used for the manu- facture of paper, besides banana skins, bean stalks, pea vines, cocoanut fiber, clover and hay straw, fresh-water weeds, seaweeds, and over 150 kinds of grasses. Prof. Samuel N. Spring, of Cornell, sailed for France late in October as a Y. M. C. A. secretary. He has been granted a leave of absence from the university for the year 1919. Forest Examiner R. D. Carver, formerly in charge of entry surveys in the district ofiice at Ogden, has been transferred to the Cache Na- tional Forest as deputy supervisor. Forest Examiner L. F. Watts, formerly in charge of the Pocatello Nursery, has been transferred to the Boise National Forest as deputy supervisor. Frederick H. Millen was appointed December i as assistant forester of New Jersey after two years' service on the stafif of the State For- ester of Texas. 113 .lOURNAIv OF FORESTRY J. C. Roak, formerly deputy supervisor of the Idaho National Forest^ has been transferred to the Kaibab National Forest as supervisor. Prof. John Bentley, Jr., has been in charge of the courses in lumber- ing at the Yale Forest School during the autumn term of 191 8. It is estimated that 90 million feet of white pine is used for match stock in the United States every year. ♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦■»»♦♦»♦♦♦»♦♦♦»»»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ ♦ ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦♦♦♦»»»»»»»»»»»»-»»»»»»»»»»"»^-»» ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ LIDGERWOOD PORTABLE SKIDDERS BRING AT (OWEST GROUND SYSTEMS OVERHEAD SYSTEMS LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO. 96 LIBERTY ST.. NEW YORK ChicaLgo Sea^ttle Woodw&rd. Wight & Co., Ltd., New Orlesvns ♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦»♦»»♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦»»»♦♦♦»»♦♦»♦♦»»♦»♦»♦»»♦»»»» ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ CONTENTS Page In Memoriam: Theodore Roosevelt Mahogany and Some of its Substitutes 1 Samuel J. Record Some Biological and Economic Aspects of the Chaparral . 9 Edw. N. Munns. The Relation of Gray Birch to the Regeneration of White Pine 15 J. W. Tourney. The Influence of Thinning on Western Hemlock and Grand Fir Infected with Echinodontium Tinctorium .... 21 James R. Weir and Ernest E. Hubert. Appraisal of Fire Damage to Immature Timber for Statisti- cal Purposes 36 F. G. Clark. Bear Cover 39 J. A. Mitchell. State Forest Notes and Legislation 44 Reviews 47 Recent Publications 77 Periodical Literature 83 Editorial Comment 93 Notes 95 Vol. XVII FEBRUARY, 1919 No. 2 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE SOOETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS COMBINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND THE FORESTRY QUARTERLY r SOCIETY 1 OF AMERICAN ^FDRESTERSj 1900 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS AT 930 F STREET N. W. WASHINGTON, D. C Single Copies, 50 Cents Annual Subscription, $3.00 Entered as secood-class matter at the post-ofiBce at WashinsrtoD, D. C, nader the act of March 3, 1879. Acceptaoce for maillnir at special rate of postaee provided for in Sectlos 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. authorized November 20, 1918. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY A professional journal devoted to all branches of forestry EDITED BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS EDITORIAL BOARD B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Bditor-in-Chief Raphael Zon, F. E., Managing Editor R. C. Bryant, F. E., A. B. Recknagel, M. F., Forest Utilization, Forest Mensuration and Organization, Yale University Cornell University B. P. KlRKLAND, M. F., H. D. TiEMANN, M. F., Forest Finance, Forest Technology, University of Washington Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Barrington Moore, M. F., J. W. Toumey, M. S., M. A., Forest Ecology, Silviculture, New York, N. Y. Yale University T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M. F., Policy and Administration The Journal appears eight times a year — ^^monthly with the excep- tion of June, July, August, and September. The pages of the Journal are open to members and non-members of the Society. Manuscripts intended for publication should be sent to Prof. B. E. Fernow, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any member of the Editorial Board. Missing numbers will be replaced without charge, provided claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to the Journal of Forestry, Atlantic Building, 930 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Vol. XVII FEBRUARY, 1919 No. 2 PRIVATE FORESTRY* By Henry S. Graves The emphasis placed on the pubHc forests in recent years has tended to throw into the background the problems of our private forests. The very magnitude of the National Forest enterprise has created in the minds of many people the impression that the problem of forestry in this country is already on the way to definite solution. In point of fact, only certain initial steps have been taken ; the most difficult problem, that of the protection and right handling of forests privately owned, is still before us. The importance of the private forests to our country is evident, when one considers that 97 per cent of the timber and other wood products used in the United States is obtained from private for- ests. Less than 2 per cent of the sawmills of the country are operating on public forests. Private owners own four-fifths of the standing timber of the country, and it is the best and most accessible timber. Nearly the entire supply of certain important commercial species are in private ownership, such as eastern white pine and spruce, southern pine, cypress, redwood, and most of the hardwoods. The experience of the war called sharp attention to the condition of our remaining timber supplies. The bulk of the material for general construction was obtained from a few large centers of original forest, often involving long rail hauls and high cost. Extreme difficulties were encountered in obtaining promptly an adequate sup]:)ly of specialized products, like some of the high-grade hardwoods. If the emergency had come 15 years from now, we would have had very great embar- rassment in obtaining even the lumber needed for general construction except at great sacrifice in time. cost, and crowding of the railroads. Alost of the lumber would have come from the Pacific coast. We may nt)t expect a repetition of such a grave emergency as we have just passed through, but we would be unwise indeed if we failed to recog- nize that the sources of timber supply upon which we have relied are * An address delivered before the forestry congress held under the auspices of the Boston Chamber of Commerce and the Massachusetts Forestrj' Association, on February 24, 1919. 11.3 114 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY being greatly depleted, with far-reaching economic and industrial con- sequences. Many people are deluding themselves with the idea that we do not need to concern ourselves with regard to forests because of large virgin supplies which still exist in the Pacific Northwest, the Inland Empire, and California. I have even heard it suggested that if we should use up or destroy all of the forests in the United States there are very considerable quantities of wood supplies in the great river valleys of Brazil and other South American countries. Leaders of the southern pine manufacturers state that the bulk of the original supplies of yellow pine in the South will be exhausted in ID vears, and that within the next five to seven years more than 3.000 manufacturing plants will go out of existence. This is an exceedingly significant statement, because it means that the center of lumber pro- duction of the United States will within no long time move to the Pa- cific coast. While it does not mean that there will be an actual exhaus- tion of all of the timber in the South, it does mean that the competitive influence of southern pine in many markets will be withdrawn, and that there will be the increase of prices that inevitably must follow such an important economic occurrence as the shift of the center of supply of a raw material one to three thousand miles. One of the most acute problems of forest supplies is that of wood pulp, particularly the material suitable for news print. Already paper manufacturers are embarrassed for supplies. Some of our principal paper concerns have fortified themselves by purchasing large blocks of timber in Canada. Many of you are familiar with the progressive diminution of supplies in the regions like the White [Mountains, where private owners are rapidly working back on the high slopes, even strip- ping oiT areas which for general public benefits should be kept substan- tiallv intact for all time. It is my hope that we may secure sufficient public support to enable us to accelerate the acquisition by the Govern- ment of the more important remaining areas before it is too late. The claim is made that the Adirondack State Preserve should be opened to cutting because of the urgent need of supplies for the paper mills in the near future. The question of supplying the paper mills in Michigan and Wisconsin is even more acute, and it is only a question of time when those mills will have to import their pulpwood from a long distance or liquidate investments of great value in waterpower and plant and move to new sources of supplies. Partly due to the rapid exhaustion of the old sources of wood-pulp supply and partly due to the tarifif laws of Can- PRI\'ATK FORKSTRY 115 ada. American capital is going into that country to build mills to supply this country with wood pulp and paper. Within the last lO years new mill development for news-print manufacture has almost wholly ceased, while in Canada during that time no less than 28 mills have been built, largelv with American capital. It w^ould be possible for me to de- scribe the acute situation confronting many of the other industries that use special classes of forest products, due to the uncertainty in regard to supplies in the future. I refer to industries that use oak, hickory, cherry, yellow poplar, walnut, and ash. Douglas fir from the Pacific coast is already coming into the New England market. This means that because of the diminishing supplies in the East the prices have risen to a point where it is possible to ship lumber 3,000 miles in competition with that produced locally. With the further reduction of home spruce supplies, the approaching exhaus- tion of white pine in the Lake States and the withdrawal within a few years of southern pine as a competitive factor, the East will be turning more and more to the Pacific coast. It is estimated that the Lake States, which a few years ago were the greatest producers of timber, are today paying a freight bill of about six million dollars a year to bring in lumber and other products from Outside sources. About 30 years ago New England was not only self-supporting in her timber resources, but exported large cjuantities to other parts of the country and abroad. Within the last 15 years New England has be- come an importing region and looks more and more for timber supplies to the South, to the Lake States, and even to the Pacific coast. It is estimated that fully 30 per cent of all the lumber used in New England now comes from outside the region. This is in addition to the impor- tations of large quantities of pulpwood. New England is one of the important centers for wood-using industries. Heretofore many of these industries have drawn upon local supplies. It is estimated that the annual growth in New England of forest materials that will be suitable for lumber or other higher uses is less than half of what is being cut. These are facts of vital interest to a region that has about 300 million dollars invested in the wood and forest industries and em- ploys in this connection over 90,000 wage-earners. It happens that the area of forest land in New England is about 25 million acres. This is almost the same as the forest area of France, and in many respects the character of the forest has marked points of similarity. France is producing by growth each year 50 per cent more than New England. She has for years been improving her forests and api)roaching a point where she can furnish most of her domestic needs. IIG JOURNAL OF FORESTRY New England by progressive diminution of capital stock and failure adequately to produce forests is going in exactly the other direction, losing ground every year. Before the war France was building up her forest resources ; New England has been progressively destroying hers. Before the war France was importing about 80 million cubic feet of lumber. New England's imports exceed this amount. The forest and wood-using industries of France furnished employment to over 700,000 persons, and because the forests were handled in a way to keep up pro- duction by growth this employment was permanent. It was the small industries supported from local forests that furnished employment to so man}- people. England before the war felt itself quite independent in forest mat- ters. Her command of the seas made it possible to import from many competing countries. She didn't have to practice forestry. During 19 1 5 and 1916 the excess cost over previous years of importing forest materials was 185 million dollars. The next year she had to stop im- porting almost entirely. She then cut down her meager forests and park timber, and finally had to rely on France, which was supplying the needs of all the armies on the west front. England now plans a great program of reforestation. She proposes to plant up over a mil- lion acres in the next 40 years, spending during the first decade over 17 million dollars. England does not intend again to be caught without home supplies. New England represents in many ways the most favorable condi- tions for forestry in the country. The region is naturally endowed with excellent types of forest, with valuable species, and a climate favorable for tree growth. There is a large amount of land suited only to growing trees. On account of the large number of wood-using in- dustries, markets for forest products are excellent. Transportation for moving these products is well developed. The public sentiment regard- ing forestry is in advance of most other parts of the country. Yet even under these favorable conditions, New England is not keeping pace with the destructive influences that are depleting her forest resources. The situation is much more serious in other sections of the country. We are still drawing upon original timber for our chief national needs. We are not providing for a proper replacement of the old stock by new forest growth. Most of the private timber is cut without anv regard whatever for replacement. Destructive processes are permitted that retard or actually prevent the succession of a good forest growth. Region after region is exhausted of old supplies. Remnants of culled forests and patches of second growth are for the most part not being PRIVATK FORESTRY 117 protected. We are failing to produce by growth the materials that will be needed for local industries, needed to make a large part of our land useful to the State and community, needed to prevent one part of the country becoming dependent on another far-distant part, with the in- evitable burden of high prices. Xature is so prolific that some vegetation usually follows the initial stages of forest destruction. Occasionally by a combination of adven- titious circumstances, and in spite of current methods employed, repro- duction follows unrestricted cutting or even a first fire of moderate proportions. j\Iore often the succeeding growth is inferior. Repeated fires and other abuse cause further deterioration, so that millions of acres of cut-over land are covered with worthless species or brush, or with trees that are so crooked, slow growing, or defective that they will never yield products of value. The fact that there is some woody growth on cut-over lands gives a false impression. \'ery commonly it is but a screen of valueless vegetation that conceals the effects of forest abuse. Pennsylvania has its great forests of low scrub oak that through repeated fires have replaced a growth of valuable trees. South- ern New England has thousands of acres of slow-growing, crooked sprouts of hardwoods replacing pine or thrifty hardwoods. Minnesota has hundreds of square miles of bird cherry and fireweed in place of her former wonderful white and red pine. The South has its worthless blackjack oak rei)lacing tlie yellow pine. The IMiddle West has her heavily grazed woodlots that are almost bare of young growth. Cali- fornia has its chaparral or brush, the eft'ect of a destructive system of annual or periodic burning of pine forests. Sometimes forests are wiped out by a great conflagration like that in ^linnesota last fall, which killed several hundred people and destroyed many million dollars' worth of property. Generally the process is slower and less spectacular, but the consequences are just as serious. Already the general effect of depleting our forest resources is being felt bv wood-using industries and by the consumers of lumber. Hundreds of communities are suft'ering because the resource supporting their chief industry has been exhausted. Sawmills and wood-working establish- ments close, subsidiary industries can no longer exist, the population moves away, farms are abandoned, roads and other public improve- ments deteriorate, and whole townships and even counties are impov- erished. A few individuals may have realized handsomely from the speculative enterprise. The community has been gutted of its principal capital. It has lost the basis for industry and has now only unproduc- tive land that for many years will be a burden rather than a source of 118 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY prosperity. This is not an occasional occurrence. It is the history of milhons of acres of land unproductive and now an economic desert. I am advocating a large program of public forests widely distributed throughout the country, but the solution of the forest i)roblem will not come from public forests alone. Even with the most liberal policy of acquiring additional public forests, the nation's needs with respect to forests in the future will have to be met in considerable part from pri- vate lands. We point to the forests of France as having met a great crisis in the war. Do you know that 60 per cent of the American sup- plies obtained in France came from private forests? You may ask if the increasing interest in forestry of private owners and the operation of State forest laws are not likely to bring greatly changed conditions in the near future. Unfortunately this will not be the case, unless a much more comprehensive and effective program is adopted b\- the public and there is a radical change in point of view and methods on the part of most timber-land ow^ners. We should give credit to those individual owners and groups who are endeavoring to handle their timber lands constructively. Great credit, too, is due to the State foresters and their supporters for what they have achieved in the face of public indifference and even hostility. Rut when we consider our forests as a whole, we have hardly begun to stem the tide 'of forest de- struction. Even in the matter of organized fire protection, the effort on private lands is confined chiefly to the protection of the merchanta- ble timber. Cut-over lands and young-tree growth are usually not pro- tected except as may be necessary to safeguard the mature timber, and over a great part of the country there is practically no effort whatever to keep out fires. Timber-land owners feel that they cannot change their present meth- ods. They have purchased the land to exploit the timber and not to grow a new crop of trees. For an owner who intends to hold his lands forestry is just as essential as is agriculture to a farmer. But most timber-land owners do not intend to hold their lands after cutting the timber, and they see no reason why they should expend money or effort on the land to secure public benefits or to avoid injury to the com- munity. It is the speculative character of ownership that explains the lack of incentive to timber-land owners to handle their lands construc- tively ; and we may not expect that such owners will take any different view or action on their own initiative. The profits of forestry, though very real, do not furnish in themselves a sufficient incentive to cause the changfe. I'RiNATi-: Forestry 119 In seeking a solution for the forestry problem on private lands, it should be recognized that its very character is such as to require public participation, assistance, and direction. There are certain things that the public should do, and in a liberal spirit, to make forestry by private timber-land owners effective. At the same time the public should insist by adequate legislation that the destructive processes be stopped, and that methods be adopted which will leave the forests in a productive condition. To secure these ends there is necessary a broad program that is practicable and equitable, based on consideration of existing economic conditions. Its formation calls for the most careful construc- tive thought, with no point of view neglected. The limits of this paper do not permit the discussion of all the prob- lems that must be considered in an effective program of forestry on private lands. Some principles may, however, be briefly indicated. A program of forestry should include, first of all. compulsory fire protec- tion, and this should apply to second growth and cut-over lands as w'ell as to old timber. State law'S should be unequivocal, with adequate penalties, in their recjuirements upon timber-land owners for protective measures, including the prevention of dangerous accumulations of slashings. Fire protection should be organized and under State super- vision. The States should provide an effective organization to enforce the fire laws and to administer the organized protective work. Liberal funds should be made available for patrol, improvements, supervision, and inspection. In most of the States the laws are not drastic enough ; there is not sufficient direct responsibility on the owner, and there are not provided adequate means to execute the laws and administer the protective work. The damage by forest fires can be stopped. Its con- tinuance is due to a combined failure on the part of the public and the owners. The methods of cutting determine Avhether for one or perhaps sev- eral tree generations the lands will be productive or not. The public in its own protection should prohibit destructive methods of cutting that injure the community and the public at large. With the co-opera- tion of the public, constructive measures of forestry are feasible. They should be mandatory. The States should adopt a policy of taxation of forests that would encourage rather than hinder the practice of forestry. Present tax policies tend to force early cutting and add to the burden of holding young forests. Other factors also cause premature and wasteful cutting in most timber-land regions. The speculative character of ownership, the bur- 120 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY dens of carrying stumpage, the necessity to meet the interest on bor- rowed capital and other, fixed charges, and the uncertainties regarding markets, labor, and other conditions are among the causes of the haste to cut. The result is frequent overproduction, demoralization of the market, and industrial instability. Lumbermen are already appealing to the public to aid them to bring about a more stable condition of the industry. They have requested tax reforms, the naming by the Gov- ernment of "fair prices," based on cost of production, and the modifi- cation of the Sherman Act to permit agreements in restraint of trade for the curtailment of production. The industrial situation is one that demands the consideration of the public because of the many public interests involved, including the danger to our remaining forests. I do not concur in the proposals that have been made for Federal legislation relative to agreements in re- straint of trade, but I believe that public participation is necessary to meet the difificulties. The solution of this problem involves many fea- tures that can be taken care of by improvements within the industry itself; others require public co-operation to bring about a sounder basis of ownership and financing of timber lands. In any case aid extended by the public should carry with it an insistence that the forest lands be handled constructively, from the standpoint both of protection and of forest growth. In point of fact, the very measures that would be nec- essary to secure a right handling of forest lands would go far in solving the problem of instability that constantly menaces the lumber industry and all the interests dependent upon it. A program of forestry should include, further, co-operation in prob- lems of labor, in land classification looking to the development of agri- cultural portions of cut-over lands, co-operation in colonization, public activities in technical and economic research, co-operation in the meth- ods of forestry, and so on. The farm woodlot offers a special problem. The public should lend liberal assistance to the farmer and the small owners, not only in dem- onstrating the best methods of forestry and in reforestation, but in matters which pertain to marketing the products of the woodlot. Finally, a program of private forestry is intimately related to that of public forests. We should greatly extend our public forests. For- ests on critical watersheds should be owned by the public for their pro- tective value. Public forests serve, also, as centers of co-operation with private owners and as demonstration areas for the practice of forestry as well as furnishing their direct benefits in producing wood materials, as recreation grounds, etc. PRIVATE FORESTRY 13 L We have been discussing these j^roblems for many years, but we have made Httle progress in securing the right handhng of private lands. The need of the general public to have the forest lands of the country productive and the need of wood-consuming industries alike call for the initiation of a broad program of forestry that includes pri- vate as well as public forests. I have presented some of the issues as I see them. I urge that those interested in the forest problem join in bringing about some definite and conclusive action. r ROOSEVELT'S PART IN FORESTRY By GiFFOKD PiNCHOT Instead of a formal article from me describing in a balanced way President Roosevelt's service to forestry, will you accept this discursive letter, which neither surrounds the subject nor lays measured stress upon its different parts, but just talks about the man and the leader whom we all loved. Just at the moment I am deep in an effort to defend the Roosevelt policies as to coal, oil, and phosphate, and that comes first. Some men belong to all people and all time. I suppose it is true that Theodore Roosevelt was loved and trusted by more men and women in more lands during his lifetime than any other man who ever lived. Certainly more men and women followed him in spirit to the grave than ever did the like before for any other man in human history. Very much of the work that Roosevelt started is yet unfinished. As his great soul goes marching on, we know that at the very heart of the goal to which it marches is that greatest of Roosevelt policies — the planned and orderly development and conservation of the natural re- sources of America — by no means forgetting the forest, which in a true sense is the mother of all the rest. No matter how or where you touched him, you could not long delay in finding that Roosevelt was an outdoor man. Gifted in the highest degree wnth the forester's master qualities of hardiness, judgment, self- control, and the power of observation, Roosevelt brought with him to the White House so deep a sympathy with the foresters' viewpoint that it gave color and direction to all he did touching the great central problem of conservation. There was no forester but would have liked to have him on the hard- est of his trips. There was no time when his mind was not alert for the protection and advancement of the forests. His sympathy with foresters as such was well shown when he broke all Presidential prece- dents to attend, at a private house, a meeting of the Society of Amer- ican Foresters, to address its members and to meet them all personally. Roosevelt's sympathy with forests and his genius for administration made him from the first an active and powerful supporter of the pro- posal to transfer the National Forests from the General Land Office to the old Bureau of Forestry, and thus to unite the forest work of the 122 ROOSRX'IvI.T's part IX FORESTRY 123 Government under a single head. For more than three years, as I remember it, his recommendations for the transfer were made to Con- gress, while the personal pressure which he exerted was by far the strongest factor in our final success. Without him it would have been wholly impracticable to bring the transfer about. It was Roosevelt who made the Forest Service possible. It tells but little of the story to say that Roosevelt saved for us more National Forests than all other Presidents put together. He not only created but defended and preserved them, and when Congress finally took from him the power to add to their number, at the last moment he saved to the people of the United States some 16.000,000 acres more of mountain forest lands. He did it by using the method which has meant so much to forestry and conservation in America, by out-think- ing the opposition. It was William T. Cox, now State Forester of ^Minnesota, who came to me with the suggestion that Roosevelt should save this forest land before the objectionable provision had passed both houses. When I took Cox's suggestion to him, the President approved it with enthu- siasm ; the Forest Service was ready ; the necessary field studies had been made ; the maps had been drawn ; we knew what we wanted and we knew how to get it. It remained only to prepare the official procla- mation for each addition to the existing National Forests. For 48 hours the drafting force of the Forest Service worked night and day. As fast as they prepared the proclamations they were taken to the White House. As fast as he received them the President signed them, and sent them at once to the State Department for safekeeping. Thus Roosevelt saved from destruction and set aside for all the people an area more than half as large as the State of Pennsylvania, and did it in the short interval while the bill was passing, and before it passed. X'o other President has ever been, and doubtless no other ever will be, as practically familiar both with the forest and the range as was President Roosevelt. It was in the early part of his administration that the fbrest and grazing problem in the Southwest became the livest ques- tion before the Bureau of Forestry. To the huge gain of the nation as a whole, Roosevelt was thoroughly equipped to handle it. At the rec- ommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, as I recall it. President Roosevelt made, soon after he came to the White House, a decision as to grazing on National Forests in Arizona which I thought to be unwise. Representatives of the grazing interests of that territory, including, I believe, the present Associate Forester of the United States Forest Service, came to me and set forth their objections to the President's 124 JOL'RNAL OF FOKKSTRY decision. I agreed with them, and I suggested that, although the Presi- dent's action had been made pubhc, we might nevertheless put the case before him. We did so, very briefly. With his usual lightning grasp of a situation. Roosevelt saw that he had followed the wrong trail, and without the slightest care that he would be reversing himself in public, he set the matter right. I knew then that he was a great man. It was the endless good fortune of forestry in America that while it was still voung it should have had in the White House so firm, sympa- thetic, and understanding a friend. How much it owes to him it will never be possible accurately to determine : for the debt of forestry to Roosevelt is not to be counted only in the great things he did for it. but also in the thousands of small advances and advantages which came to American forestry because it was known to be dear to the heart of the first citizen, the greatest driving force, and the most powerful influence in America. Forestrv is firmly established among us today because Roosevelt stood behind it like a stone wall when there was little to it except hope and good intentions. THE WAR AND THE LUMBER INDUSTRY ' Bv R. C. Brvaxt Professor of Lninberiiig, Yale Forest School The entrance of the United States into the European war brought the himber industry of this country into prominence because one of its chief products — knnber — was found to be indispensable to the success- ful carrying out of the war program, both of ourselves and our Allies. It may be of interest, therefore, to review briefly the general con- ditions which prevailed in the lumber industry previous to our entrance into the war, the manner in which the industry has responded to the demands made upon it during the last eighteen months, and to point out some of the weaknesses in organization which became evident as the war progressed. The year 191 3 opened with great promise for the lumber trade, because during the previous year business had been good and a large number of orders were carried over into 191 3 by many of the mills. The demand for all classes of building material had been strong during the latter part of 191 2. and there appeared to be every indication that the industry would have a prosperous year. By April, however, trade began to slacken, due to reduced railroad buying and to curtailment in building, which was caused by a tightening of the money market. There were few encouraging features developed in the lumber demand during the latter part of 191 3, because of general uncertainty in the business w^orld. There w-as a gradual decline in the price of lumber, beginning in the spring and continuing throughout the year, and buying was for the purpose of filling immediate needs only. The chief factors causing the depressed condition in the lumber trade appeared to be the uncertainties brought about by tariff, industrial and financial legislation, the Balkan and Mexican troubles, and a partial crop failure in some sections, due to a period of extreme drought. The year 1914 was looked forward to with optimism, but it proved to be one of slow business and small profits for the industry, due to the uncertainty which existed in the general business world and, later in the year, to the outbreak of the European war. On the whole, the ' Delivered before the Society of American Foresters at its annual meeting, at Baltimore, Aid.. December 27, 1918. 125 ]2() JOURNAL OF l-ORi;STRY industry received low prices for its product and the demand was greatly curtailed. The year 191 5 showed a marked improvement in general business conditions and was soon reflected in the lumber trade, which was active during the latter part of the year. Southern yellow-pine mills showed a marked decline in stocks on hand from June on — a condition due to the large increase of war business in all industries and to good crop conditions in the cotmtry at large. The year 1916 was one of great prosperity throughout the United States, both to the various industries and to agriculture. The railroads showed heavy earnings which were reflected in large purchases of car materials, among which lumber was an important item because of the scarcity of steel for car construction. The lumber industry responded to the general business prosperity by increased production, which, how^- ever, brought about a surplus of stocks. The eft'ect of the latter was reflected in a drop in the price of Douglas fir, southern yellow pine, and other competing woods, due to overproduction. The effect of the latter was a general curtailment of production, which again brought prices up to a fairly satisfactory level. The latter part of the year was marked both by a car shortage, which prevented the movement of lum- ber, and by an increase in the cost of labor and supplies. The export trade likewise drop})ed oft', due to a shortage in bottoms for this class of trade. The year 19 17 proved a prosperous one for the industry because of the heavy demand for lumber for the construction of cantonments and for other military purposes both here and abroad. The Southern Pine Association barometer shows that at the beginning of the year the stocks on hand were 112 per cent of normal, which increased to 121 per cent in April. Immediately after the entrance of the United States into the war, heavy orders for lumber were ])laced with southern pine manu- facturers, stocks dropping from 121 per cent of normal in April to 96 per cent of normal in August. Shipments rose from 75 per cent of normal in February to 119 per cent of normal in August. Douglas-fir mills did not show such a marked increase in business, because a large part of the 1917 cantonment orders were placed in the South. The lumber industry was called on in 191 7 and 1918 to furnish large quantities of lumber for wooden shipbuilding, airplane manufacture, gun-stock material, box material, and various other lumber products which were essential for the prosecution of the war. Complete figures are not available as to the amount consumed, but the quantity of lum- ber furnished by the southern pine mills is significant of the strong THE WAR AND TIIK H.Ml'.KK IXDCSTRV 127 market which prevailed. Up to November i, 1918. the Government had placed orders for southern pine, through the Southern Pine Emer- gency Bureau, totaling 1,625.000.000 feet, of which amount 300,000,000 feet was ship timbers, 145,000,000 was car material, and i , 180,000,000 was cantonment lumber, export material, etc- The total quantity of lumber of all species furnishetl to the Government during the last 18 months totals several billion feet. The extraordinary demands for the production of special material early developed certain weaknesses in the lumber industry, because its organization did not prove sufficiently elastic or resourceful to meet sudden emergencies. One case in point is walnut production. The computed lumber cut of this species in 1916 was 90 million feet, which in 1 91 7 had fallen to 62 million feet. Our entrance into the war called for the production of several million rifles, for the stocks of which walnut is the wood par excellence, and for large quantities of material for airplane pro])eller blades, for which purpose the wood was especially well adapted. Walnut was produced largely in small mills located in the central hardwood belt, which secured their logs either on the open market or through agents who scoured the country buying a few trees here and there. It early became evident that the customary methods of securing walnut logs would fall far short of producing the required amount of material, and it became necessary for the Government agencies concerned to undertake a campaign of advertising, asking owners to sell their walnut timber ; to send men into the field to locate timber and stimulate production ; and to instruct lumber manufacturers in the proper method of handling logs to secure the greatest possible output of propeller and gunstock material from them. It also became necessary, on March 28, 191 8, to prohibit the use of walnut suitable for the above purposes in any other class of work. The production of spruce and tir airplane stock on the Pacific coast earh' developed weaknesses which called for drastic action. The lumber industry in the Northwest gave no promise of a satis- factory solution of the involved labor question in the woods and saw- mills, and it was only when spruce production was placed under the direct charge of a military representative that conditions reached a point which was considered at all satisfactory. The lumberman proved to be an individualist, who appeared unwilling to accept the necessary point of view on the labor question and to merge his own particular interests with the other operators in the region for the general public good. It was only when a Government agency dictated a common policy which all must follow that the proper relations between employer 138 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY and employee were established. The lack of harmony was not peculiar to the Northwest, but was evidenced in every lumber manufacturing region. The reason that it stands out prominently on the Pacific coast is that the necessity for the production of specific material was there most pressing, and the industry under the previous methods in vogue could not meet the requirements. The last eighteen months have brought out very plainly the fact that the industry is extremely provincial in its viewpoint. Such marked sectional differences exist that it appears hopeless to expect the various lumber-producing regions to get together even on economic problems of national interest to the industry. Not only has there proved to be a sectional feeling in the industry, but also an intrasectional one, which does not promise concerted action on questions of national forest policy. While it is true that the lumbermen have met the demands made upon them by the military program, it was largely because of the Gov- ernment supervision which was inaugurated soon after our entrance into the war and which served as a governor and stabilizing influence throughout. While the industry on various occasions called attention to its patriotism during the war period, we must not lose sight of the fact that the lumber industry in most regions had a satisfactory price period, and, in common with many other industries, was well rewarded, financially, for the efforts which it put forth. Evidences of a desire to profiteer were not always absent in their dealings with the Govern- ment, as was evident at some of the price-fixing hearings, although this disposition was displayed by small groups rather than by the industry as a whole. The need for some control over the industry, so far as Government requirements and price were concerned, was early recognized, and in May, 191 7, there was organized in the Council of National Defense a Lumber Committee, the duty of which was to advise the various Gov- ernment departments in regard to specifications, possible sources of material, and to serve as a general central source of information on lumber- It early developed that it was not feasible for the Government to place orders with individual lumber com])anies, because of the large quantities required and because there was no agency in Washington which was sufficiently familiar with the business of each individual to enable the placing of orders w^here they could be filled most expedi- tiously. To meet this emergency the lumber interests of each producing sec- tion organized emergency bureaus, through which orders for a given THE WAR AND TIIU LUMBER INDUSTRY 129 wood were placed, and these bureaus then distributed the orders to the individual mills which could best handle the business. Among the first of these bureaus were the Southern Pine Emergency Bureau, which was organized in May, 1917; the North Carolina Pine Emergency Bureau, organized in ]May, 1917; the Georgia - Florida Yellow Pine Emergency Bureau, organized in June, 1917; the Douglas Fir Emergency Bureau, later termed the Fir Production Board, organ- ized October, 191 7, followed by other bureaus representing hardwoods, hemlock, eastern spruce, wholesale interests, etc. In June, 191 7, the Lumber Committee, unofficially, began the allocation of Government orders through existing bureaus to the extent that it advised the various Government departments as to the proportion of a given order of lum- ber which should be allotted to a given region. The Lumber Committee of the Council of National Defense con- tinued to function until September, 191 7. when the work was trans- ferred to the newly created Lumber Section of the War Industries Board, under a Director of Lumber. The Lumber Section was given added powers over those possessed by the Lumber Committee by an order of the President, and will continue to function up to January i, 1919, although it has not been allocating new business for some weeks. One of the important phases of work which the Lumber Section undertook, under authority given to it by the President, was the fixing of a maximum price on lumber for certain species which were of greatest importance in the military program, among them being south- ern yellow pine. North Carolina pine, hemlock. Douglas fir, eastern spruce, and western spruce. The object of the price-fixing on lumber was the stabilization of lumber prices which would ensure sufficient pro- duction to meet the needs of the United States and her Allies. The bases for price-fixing were provided by the Federal Trade Com- mission, which investigated costs of production in the different pro- ducing regions and which established a cost basis of production, to which was added a reasonable profit to the operator. The costs of production used in fixing prices were set at a point which would enable efficient manufacturers to operate at a reasonable profit. That the prices which were fixed for the various species were just and adequate is shown by the fact that the industry prospered, in spite of adverse industrial conditions. The signing of the armistice removed to a very large extent the need for Government price control, and, on consultation with the various groups of lumbermen interested, it was agreed between the Lumber Section of the War Industries Board and the parties interested that loO JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the Government base price for each species should automatically go out of existence on the expiration of the period for which it was fixed. Thus the fixed price for eastern si)ruce expired on December i, that for southern yellow pine on December 23, and for Douglas fir the date set is January 15, 1919. • There were many interesting phases of Government control of the- lumber industry which were inaugurated during the present year, more drastic steps being taken from month to month during the latter half of 1918. It was not found necessary to ration the lumber industry as was done in Great Britain, but steps were taken to control shipments and curtail the use of lumber for what were regarded as the less essen- tial industries. Direct Government needs, including lumber for can- tonments, shipbuilding, airplane manufacture, and like uses, were placed on a preference list and were given priority in shipment over lumber destined for less essential uses. Transportation proved to be the keystone of control. Regulations were put into effect establishing embargoes on shipment into some sections and a system of priority permits established, requiring each shipper to have a priority order for a given shipment before it would be accepted by a transportation com- pany. In this way shipments could be made for non-essential civilian requirements only when they did not interfere with the movement of lumber for some preferred use. There early developed a labor shortage in shipbuilding plants, muni- tion factories, and on other Government projects, and relief was sought by the curtailment of less essential industries through denying them labor and supplies. One of the most sw^eeping orders was the curtail- ment of non-essential building operations- It was found that normally 1,500.000 men were employed in building construction, that 25 per cent of the tonnage moved by railroads was of building materials, and that large quantities of steel were used by the trade, which could not be spared, because the total production of steel in the United States during the last half of 1918 would fall short of meeting actual essential re- quirements. The War Industries Board thereupon issued an order prohibiting all new construction in excess of $1,000 without a special permit, which was later modified in some minor respects. This served to release a large number of laborers for other work, eased up the transportation situation, which was critical, and made available for military purposes a very large part of the steel production of the country. Soon after the armistice was signed these restrictions were removed and the building industry was again permitted to take its normal course. THE WAR AXI) THK LUMT.ER INDUSTRY 131 The reaction on the lumber industry of these extreme measures was interesting. The lumber trade submitted willingly to the restrictions so long as the war was actually in progress ; but immediately on the signing of the armistice, a hostile attitude was apparent toward any form of Government interference and the demand for the instant abolition of all forms of Government control demanded. This was in marked contrast to the steel industry, which asked for the continuance of price and other control during the period of readjustment. In con- formity with the wishes of the lumber industry, all restrictions have been raised ; but it seems certain that the best interests both of the industry and the public would have been served by the continuance of some stabilizing factor for at least a few more months. To those who believe in the theory that the public has an interest in the natural resources of a country, and that ownership of the same by an individual does not grant him the right and privilege of exploiting those resources to his advantage without regard to the welfare of the nation, the attitude of some lumbermen during the war is rather dis- heartening. Throughout the entire period of the war the industry was held in line by Government restrictions and orders and did aid greatly in the fulfillment of our war needs for lumber. There was exhibited at no time, however, any special interest in the general public welfare, and there was also evident under the surface a feeling of discontent on the part of some, at least, with any form of Government control, unless that control promised to inure to the benefit of the lumbermen them- selves. It is true that lumbermen would now be glad to "co-operate" with the Government agencies, provided the "Sherman anti-trust law" was modified to permit them to curtail and thus hold up prices ; but with that idea there does not seem to go the conception that the indus- try should in return so conduct its forest operations that the future of our forest resources should be assured. Lumbermen as a class have failed to grasp the new conception of the relation between the owner- ship and exploitation of an essential natural resource and public wel- fare, and the adoption at some future time of a sane and practicable forest policy for handling the private forest resources of the United States must be done over the heads of lumbermen and not in co-opera- tion with them, unless their attitude changes markedly in the near future. In connection with the work which I have done in Washington dur- ing the last few months. I have been greatly impressed with certain weak points which lumbermen either refuse to recognize or the exist- ence of which they do not appreciate. The lumber industrv proved to 132 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY be narrow in its viewpoint, each producing region working independ- ently, the chief aim, apparently, being to secure the lion's share of Government orders, and every effort was exerted to push the particular species in which a given region was interested without regard to the welfare of other producing sections or of the country as a whole. In- trasectional strifes and competition developed. Differences of opinion on policy also existed among operators from the same region, and by presenting conflicting propositions complicated the administration of Government business in Washington. There was but little evidence of the existence of any real national conception of the problems at issue. This was unfortunate, since only by taking a broad-gauge viewpoint of the situation could the problems be solved with the least harm to the industry as a whole. In the presentation of arguments before the authorities in Washing- ton, the representatives from the various lumber-producing sections showed that they were not thoroughly familiar with many of the funda- mental economic factors upon which the lumber industry is based, and, judging from their attitude, there is but little inclination on their part to improve this situation in the future. It is scarcely conceivable that in an industry which is of such great importance in this country uncer- tainty should still exist on questions of the true factors underlying cost determination, lumber distribution in all its phases, uses of its product, and like factors. While it is true that lumbermen are devoting con- siderable time and effort to straighten out cost data, they do not seem to manifest much interest in many other important economic phases of their industry. The dearth of information on the distribution and uses of woods was most striking, and while strenuous efforts were made to collect these data when it appeared that these factors might play a prominent part in the distribution of Government business, the interest in the matter largely subsided as soon as the crisis was past. Although some lumber-trade associations have collected statistics on production, shipments, orders received and stocks on hand for some years, various inconsistencies were detected in the work when a careful analysis was made of the data. It was found that, due to the manner in which the statistics were submitted by the mills, the figures were largely guesses, and while representing tendencies did not represent actual conditions. One group of operators, who were an important factor in producing war material, made a strong eft'ort to secure a large amount of Govern- ment orders on the plea that in the production of essential material for military purposes they were accumulating large quantities of lumber. THE WAR AND THE LUMBER INDUSTRY 133 which they termed "side-cut," that could not be marketed. They there- fore asked the Government to extend aid to them in moving this ma- terial in order that they might continue to produce the lumber required by the United States and the Allies. On investigation of the current statistics furnished by many of the mills concerned it was found that in many cases shipments had been in excess of production, and that as a whole the mill records did not show an accumulation, but rather in some cases the stocks on hand had de- creased as compared to the year 19 17. Discrepancies also were detected in dififerent sets of figures for the same mills, so that some doubt was cast over all of the figures presented. The operators met the situation first by the statement that the figures were incorrect, although furnished by them. No efiforts were made, however, to furnish so-called accurate data to prove their case ; but, on the contrary, the association refused to furnish other data which might prove their contention. There are indications that the figures did represent the general conditions, and the failure of the association to continue to co-operate in the work after the signing of the armistice has merely added strength to this opinion. The weak point in the whole procedure, from the standpoint of the lumbermen, was that they grasped at one idea only to present at Washington, without previously investigating the situation to see if the facts supported the case. Had a careful study of conditions been made previous to the presentation of the subject, it is doubtful if the issue of large "accumulations" would have been raised. The whole situation points to the need of more accurate statistics being collected by lumber-trade associations, both for the use of them- selves and the Government agencies which are interested in lumber as a commodity. While it may be too much to expect that any far-reaching changes may be effected in the near future which will put this work on a sound basis, there is some evidence that lumbermen are taking a greater interest in this phase of association work than they have in the past. However, it is not only the lumbermen who are weak on forest eco- nomics. The demands for information along this line from various sources during the past year have been frequent, and unfortunately foresters have been able to meet the requirements only to a minor de- gree. It is one of the weak points in the profession that as yet we have not developed forester-economists who can speak authoritatively on the many vital problems affecting forests and forestry. The profession should contain within its ranks men who are regarded by jurists, econ- 134 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY omists, and laymen alike as authorities on cost-finding methods as related to forest products, as experts on tariff questions related to lum- ber, as experts on lumber distribution, and other like subjects. Why are not foresters called into consultation by courts and Government agencies on questions involving tariff' legislation, export policy, lumber transportation, and like issues? It is, I think, largely because we have been content in the past to devote our attention to the problems which seem more closely related to forestry and have neglected the broader economic phases of the subject, which did not seem at the moment of so great interest or of such vital importance. Forestry is now accepted as a part of our national activity, but we have made but little progress in the practice of forestry on private lands. I feel that one of the ways in which a greater respect for for- estry can be inculcated in the minds of lumbermen is for the profession to take a more active part in solving the economic problems of the in- dustry. When the lumberman finds that the profession has a greater knowledge of his business economics than he himself, and when the forester actually shares, as he can and may, in the solution of some of the knotty problems of the industry which may come before Govern- ment departments or courts for action, then we may expect to see a desire for co-operation on the part of the lumbermen from the stand- point of self-defense. Until we have some such club to wield we may expect the lumbermen to continue to hold themselves aloof from for- estry in most of its phases. In closing, I want to urge on you the need for the immediate up- building of this phase of forestry and the giving of the full recognition to the subject which it demands. Silviculture and related branches of forestry are well and good, but without a chance to apply them on private holdings they come to naught. The entering wedge to private forestry now appears to be through the economic door, and every encouragement should be given to its development. MARKETING TIMBER FROM FARM WOODLANDS ' By F. W. Beslev State forester of Maryland The last census reports 6.351.502 farms in the United States, having a wooded area of 190.865.553 acres, or approximately 30 acres per farm. The average annual value of the forest products from each farm was $81. of which 76 per cent represented cut products and 24 per cent standing timber sold. A large proportion of the forest area of the United States east of the 100th meridian can be classified as farm woodlands, and since the farmer, with his relatively small hold- ing, enabling closer supervision, better protection, and more intensive management, is in an excellent position to practice forestry. It is therefore of the greatest importance to maintain the productivity of these lands, and. in my opinion, there is no better way of reaching the farmer and leading him along the lines of practical forestry than in the assistance that it is possible to give him in marketing his timber under a system of regulated cutting. USUAL SELLING METHODS X'arious methods are followed in the selling of timber. The common practice is for the timber buyer, with a portable mill, attracted by a piece of timber, to approach the farmer with a proposition to buy for a lump sum. The farmer will generally hold off for a higher price than is offered, on the principle that the offer is probably a good deal less than the timber is worth, and to give him time to think it over. If the sale is made on this basis, there may or may not be a stipulation as to the minimum stump diameter. Even if there is, it is usually so low as to leave little of the small, thrifty timber. A minimum stump diameter, especially in hardwoods, does not permit of enough leeway in disposing of undesirable trees and of reserving very desirable individual trees. Furthermore, it is generally so loosely interpreted and difficult to en- force as to be little protection. Instead of selling the tract for a lump sum. the sale may be made on a price per acre, but the result is practically the same. 'Delivered before the Society of American Foresters at its annual meeting, at Baltimore, Md.. December 27, 1918. 135 l;3() JOURNAL OF FORESTRY In selling for a lump sum, the owner knows in advance how much he is to receive, and is relieved of all responsibility in getting out the timber and putting it upon the market. On the other hand, he usually gets less for his timber, has little con- trol of the operation, and the w^oodland is left in very poor condition. A second method is to sell the timber by the thousand feet, or other unit of measure, the price per unit depending upon the kind or grade of material, the operator doing the cutting, measuring, and grading, checked by the owner. Under this system, the ow'ner is paid on a basis of a classified prod- uct, which enables him to follow the operation more closely, and where the cutting and grading is done to advantage, a higher price is obtained for the timber. The disadvantages are that too much is left to the honesty and in- tegrity of the operator, often leading to disagreements and controver- sies, and frequently there is excessive waste and poor utilization of the timber, especially in the lower grades, in which there is the least profit to the operator. A third method is for the owner himself to do the cutting and to market the product direct to the users or consumers, in the case of saw logs selling them to manufacturers or hiring a portable sawmill outfit to cut the timber at a specified rate per thousand feet. This method often enables the farmer to utilize his teams and help profitably during the winter months and to receive the highest returns, since he is doing away with the middle man. It is particularly well adapted to the marketing of small products, such as firewood, pulp- wood, poles, posts, ties, acid wood, etc. Another advantage is that the farmer has full control of the operation in the woods and can limit the cutting to such trees as should be taken, although his lack of knowledge of what to cut and what not to cut often nullifies such advantage. The chief disadvantages are that the farmer is not usually familiar with timber prices, nor is he in touch with the best markets. In the case of logs and saw timber he does not have the proper equipment for handling them, nor is he experienced enough in classifying and grad- ing to get satisfactory results. A fourth method often advocated for farmers having small tracts of timber is a co-operative plan by which two or more farmers join in the sale of their products. This method is particularly applicable where a farmer does not have enough timber on his own place to justify an operation, but by combining with one or more adjoining farmers simi- MARKETING TIMBER FROM FARM WOODLANDS 137 larly situated the operation presents a sufficiently attractive proposition to enable the owners to secure good prices. These methods have all been practiced with varying success, depend- ing upon the ability of the farmer in handling timber and in the honesty of the timber buyer. The difficulty is that the farmer who, as a rule, knows little about the value of timber is pitted against the timber buyer, an expert in such matters, with the result that the farmer generally gets the little end of the bargain and is inclined to look upon all timber buyers with suspicion. The farmer owns the land and is in an excellent position to practice forestry if he can be properly directed. The timber buyer trades upon the ignorance of the farmer as to timber values and methods of han- dling timber. The farmer needs, and often seeks, the help of the for- ester, while the timber operator is apt to avoid the forester and attempt to discredit him to the farmer, with whom he may be negotiating. There should be a common ground upon which the forester can stand and render the greatest service to both. It is only in this way that the practice of forestry on farm woodlands and the marketing of timber can be placed upon a satisfactory basis. Taking the farmer with the average farm of 138 acres, of which 30 acres is wooded (I am using the census figures) ;• this woodland repre- sents that portion of the farm which, in the farmer's opinion, is of the least vaUie and which he regards as unfit for anything else. He looks upon it as a source of firewood, fencing, and occasionally some saw logs for building purposes, but does not regard it as a productive area in the sense that he does the tilled portion of the farm. It is true that at times it has helped him out with ready cash, often at the expense of sadly depleting the woodland, but these occasions are so rare in the experience of the individual farmer that it fails to impress him with the idea that the woodland can be handled as a constantly producing portion of the farm. In order to reach the farmer with the principles and practices of forestry, he must be shown practical results and be convinced upon his own land under existing conditions just how the forester can benefit him. Much is being done these days through the county agents, and these men are in a position to render valuable service to the forester as ad- vance agents. They have to a large measure the confidence of the farmer and the opportunity to start him to thinking of the possibilities of handling his woodland with a view to sustained vield. 138 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY As a rule, the farmer does not seek the advice of the forester until there is enough salable timber on the place to invite the attention of timber buyers, or until he is in pressing need of money and wants to know how much his timber is worth and how he can market it. This gives the forester his opportunity, and the successful handling of the market end of the proposition will often be the measure of his success, from the farmer's standpoint. To the forester this does not often present the ideal conditions under which he can fully put in practice the best forest management, but it does give him the chance to demonstrate to a practical man that for- estry has a place in farm management, and it comes at a time when the farmer is ready to do something. For the past twenty years the foresters of the U. S. Forest Service and those engaged in State work have examined the woodlands of private owners and advised them how to handle their lands. ]\Iuch of this advice has no doubt been excellent, but the trouble has been that in probably 50 per cent of the cases the good advice of the foresters was wasted, and in such cases little, if anything, was done to improve con- ditions. The reports submitted were too elaborate, the language used too technical, and the advice given often too impracticable to be trans- lated into action by the farmer. The recommendations generally called for the practice of more knowledge of forestry than the average farmer possessed. His inability to understand the treatment to be given or fear of making mistakes deterred him from doing anything, or resulted in carrying out the recommendations in such a modified form as to render them practically useless. There was evidently something wrong ; the trouble seemed to be partly in the failure of the forester to follow up the initial step or failure to provide the farmer with the necessary expert assistance to put the recommendations into effect. After making, no doubt, many mistakes and experiencing many diffi- culties, the writer undertook some years ago to work out a plan of co- operation between the Forestry Department and the farmers of the State for marketing timber and other forest products. The plan evolved has been in successful operation for several years, demonstrating its practical value, and I feel safe in presenting it as a working basis for those who have had difficulty in getting small woodland owners to practice forestry. MARKETING TIMBER FROM FARM WOODLANDS 139 THE MARYLAND I'LAN 1. Examination by the forester. a. Full discussion with the owner or agent on the ground. b. Written report, with recommendations submitted, outlining prescribed treatment. 2. Marking and estimating the timber. a. Trees for cutting selected by forester, marked and measured by helpers. b. Information as to logging costs, local timber prices, etc. 3. Working up field data. a. Tabulation of marked trees by species and amount, showing board-foot contents and other units of measure. b. Stumpage value of timber (price at shipping point less 20 per cent profit less lumbering costs gives stumpage value). 4. Sale of timber. a. Prospectus sheet, statement of amount and kinds of timber and condi- tions. b. Form of contract, containing provisions suitable for protection of owner. 5. Inspection of operation. a. This is made where requested by owner or when convenient for the forester. 6. Cost. a. Owner pays travel expense of examination and travel and subsistence expenses and $3 per day for forester for estimate. b. State pays all office expenses and salary of forester. The net result is that the owner pays about half and the State about half, making it truly co-operative. Under the plan above outlined, the preliminary examination of the woodland is made by the forester upon application of the owner and with the owner present, if possible, to discuss the problems presented on the ground. This is important, as it gives an opportunity for the forester to get the viewpoint of the owner, as well as to show him what the problems are and how best they can be worked out. It is often a case of convincing the owner what he should do and of finding out how far he is willing to go in the practice of forestry in view of the condi- tions presented. The examination is followed by a written report, with recommenda- tions, submitted to the owner and prescribing a definite method of treatment. It should be added that the treatment recommended does not always represent what the forester feels should be done in the indi- vidual cases, but is often somewhat of a compromise between what the farmer wants to do and what the forester wants to do, and constitutes what the forester believes that the farmer is willing to do after having the situation fully explained and the proper results outlined. 140 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY In some cases there is no opportunity to do more than impress the farmer with the importance of protection of his woodland, especially the taking care of the young growth and possible improvement cuttings or thinnings to supply his own needs for firewood and other uses. In a great majority of cases, however, there is enough salable ma- terial on the ground to justify an operation, and it is in such cases that the forester can do the most effective work. In a mixed, uneven aged, hardwood stand, such as is common in the farm woodlands of the East, the selection of the trees to cut and those to be left for future growth is of the greatest importance if the pro- ductivity of the woodland is to be maintained, and unless the forester is prepared to carry the farmer through this critical stage a golden opportunity will be lost. The plan under consideration is designed to do this in an effective way, so that the forester can guide the operation through all of its stages. MARKING AND ESTIMATING THE TIMBER At the time of the preliminary examination the foundation is laid and treatment prescribed for the next step of the operation, which involves the selection, marking, and measuring of the trees to cut. This work usually follows some time after the examination and is per- formed by a man of technical training, although a high-salaried man is not required, since he is carrying out a prescribed treatment. A good working crew is a forester with two assistants, usually the farmer and a helper. The forester selects the trees and does the tally- ing, while the two assistants caliper and mark the trees. The mark consists of a blaze four or five feet from the ground, always on the same side of the tree on a given tract to facilitate the inspection, and a check mark, consisting of a blaze on the root or near the base of the tree, stamped with a marking hatchet. A three-man crew can usually cover about 25 acres per day under average conditions. The work is often lightened by omitting the mark- ing of certain species, all of which may be included in the estimate, such as chestnut, on account of the blight, or certain undesirable spe- cies. These may be calipered or diameters estimated without being marked. Information is also secured to supplement that obtained at the time of the preliminary examination as to logging costs, local timber prices, etc., to be used in connection with general information as a basis for determining stumpage values. MARKUTIN'G TIMHICR FROM FARM WOODLANDS 141 I WORKING UP FIELD DATA This work is done in the office and results in a valuation sheet fur- nished the owner, showing the number of marked trees of each species, the amount of material they contain, and its stumpage value, based on log run of the various species. The tally is arranged by inch diameter classes and height classes and all deductions for form or unsoundness made in the field. The merchantable content is determined from local volume tables which have been worked up from taper measurements of the important commercial species in ]\Iaryland. Stumpage value is generally determined by deducting from the sale price at the shipping point, first a 20 per cent profit for the operator, then the logging, manu- facturing, and delivery cost, the remainder representing the stumpage value. From a large number of operations in any given section stump- age values may be determined by comparison. In working out stump- age values the mill-run product is considered and little attempt made to classify by grades. SALI3 OF TIMBER Having marked the timber for cutting and determined the amount and its value, the next step is to bring about a satisfactory sale. For this purpose a prospectus sheet is prepared, setting forth briefly the amount and kinds of timber offered for sale, its location with reference to shipping point or market, the conditions, and such information as would be of special interest to a prospective buyer, except no mention is made of prices. This form is mimeographed and about fifty copies furnished to the owner, with the names and addresses of as many sawmills and timber operators selected from the State list, taking those who would be most interested in thg particular tract of timber. This list of timber buyers is kept as near up to date as possible for the benefit of those having timber to sell. These prospectus sheets are sent out by the owner, and as a result many inquiries are generally received and a number of timber men inspect the timber. As the trees are all plainly marked, the inspection is much facilitated. This placing the seller in direct commu- nication with buyers greatly increases the chance of a satisfactory sale. When the valuation and prospectus sheets are furnished to the farmer, he is also provided with a form of contract containing pro- visions suitable for carrying out the operation and fully protecting him. The contract provides for limiting the cutting to marked or specified trees, the protection of young growth and unmarked trees in the log- 142 JOURNAL OF FORp:STRY ging operation, precaution against fire, and often special provisions, sucli as the lopping of tops, cutting of weed trees, and the like. One of the provisions of the contract is an arbitration clause which obviates expensive litigation in case of disagreement, and at the same time acts as a strong deterrent in holding the operator to strict accountability. The owner of the timber equipped with this information is fully pre- pared to deal with timber buyers and to close the bargain. The sale is made between the owner and the timber buyer, the forester only acting in an advisory capacity. INSPECTION OF OPERATION The farmer can closely follow the cutting operation, and, with the trees for cutting so plainly marked, there should be little difificulty in detecting violations of the contract. It is often helpful, however, to have the forester make one or more inspections during the progress of the operation. The moral efifect is good, both on the farmer and the timber operator, in the one case to see that he gets a square deal and fully appreciates the importance of protecting his woodland, and in the other showing the operator that the State is interested in seeing the ])lan fully carried out and that the owner is being backed up. COST The owner pays the travel expenses of the preliminary examination and the travel and subsistence expenses plus $3 per day for the forester while engaged in the field-work incident to the marking and estimating. In some cases where the farmer is unable to furnish the help for the field-work, it is furnished by the forester at actual cost. The State bears all ex])enses of the ofifice work and salary of the forester, the $3 per day paid by the owmer representing a part paym^it. Under this arrangement the owner of the woodland pays about half of the total expense and the State half, making it a co-operative undertaking. The owner is receiving expert assistance at nominal cost, while the State is securing practical results in forest management, and each operation serves as an object lesson in the community, calculated to demonstrate applied forestry in a most practical way. It is better to make a charge for this work, even though the State may be perfectly able to pay it, and be recompensed by thus promoting the practice of forestry. Of course, the terms of co-operation here suggested can be easily changed to meet different conditions in other MAKKKTINC. TI.MI'.ER FROM FARM WOODLANDS 143 States, even to the extent of charging for the entire actual expense of the service. The chief vaUie in this plan of selling timber is that from the time the farmer has his woodlands examined and is convinced of the feasi- bilitv of the plan of management offered the whole operation is under the forester's guidance, and if he fails to get proper results it is largely his own fault. The forester lays out a plan to begin with, after weigh- ing the conditions on the ground, which has the assurance of being workable, made so by the co-operation of the owner. He selects the trees for cutting and limits the operation to the trees that he has se- lected. He offers a contract that contains the provisions he considers necessary for securing proper results. After the owner has made some investment in the marking and estimating of the timber, and any change that he might make from the prescribed course would render this value- less, he is rather definitely committed to carrying out the recommenda- tions in toto. So far as the farmer is concerned, it is quite evident that he is getting the kind of help that he needs at a nominal cost. But inasmuch as it is a market proposition and he is offering the timber for sale, a natural question is. How does the timber buyer look upon the plan? Timber buyers have traded on the ignorance of farmers so long and so successfully that they are inclined to resent any interference. When this plan was first inaugurated, they condemned it as impracticable and tried to convince the farmer that the forester was trying to work out some theories that were detrimental to his best interests. This, how- ever, was anticipated by the forester, and the farmer was told in ad- vance what he might expect. There was a tendency among some of the timber buyers to avoid buying marked timber, but this was purely local and never amounted to much. The plan became popular among woodland owners from the first, and so many tracts of timber were marked and the sale limited to marked trees that the timber buyers, already having difficulty in secur- ing available timber, were almost forced to accept the new marketing arrangement. Then, too, the timber men have learned that the esti- mates make due allowance for logging costs and i)ermit a fair profit to the operators, giving them a fair chance. The tendency is to force out of business the irresponsible, shyster timber buyers and to put the cutting and marketing of timber on a more stable basis. WOMEN IN SOUTHERN LUMBERING OPERATIONS By Edw. N. Munns forest Examiner, U. S. Forest Service There are in the Southern States from Georgia to Texas some 125,000 employees in lumbering operations in pine and cypress. Up to the beginning of the war relatively few women were employed on these jobs, even in the office, as the lumber business has been consid- ered as work for men only. To be sure, in the larger companies and in the larger communities women were used to some extent in steno- graphic and clerical work, but the male element predominated, even in the office force. Now, due to the labor shortage, woman has entered the lumber game, and over 5,000 women are now employed in one ca- pacity or another (December i, 1918), and just recognition of the place they fill has been given them, both in the office and in the woods oper- ations proper. Up to the time when labor began to be easier in lumbering work gen- erally, there was a general tendency to employ women whenever possi- ble to take a man's place, for the reduction of the force by 25 per cent or more was correspondingly reducing the production of lumber urgently demanded for ships, cantonments, and the railways. How far women could have gone in this field is largely a matter of speculation now, but it is certain that at least 25 per cent more of the male force in lumbering operations could have been replaced by women, with but little reduction in efficiency or production. To what extent women will supplant the men with a return to pre-war conditions is impossible to determine, and the operators are hesitant in making any statements as to policy during the period of readjustment and reconstruction of national business generally. It is generally conceded by the lumbermen that the Southern negro laborer in the army has learned much of sanitation, living conditions, and of co-operation, while the man who was not in the armed service learned the value of his time and the dependence of the employer upon him through the bids made for his services in increased wages, shorter hours, and better living conditions by rival concerns or outside inter- ests. Whether the negro will go back readily to the old conditions is problematical ; but it is certain that during this transition period, if not 144 WOMEN IN SOUTHERN LUMBERING OPERATIONS 145 later, women will be utilized to the full. If the labor which has been taken away or has drifted away during the war comes back to the works, it is (|uite possible that the competition for labor between the men and the women for certain classes of work will be quite keen, and on the heavier work the women will doubtless be replaced almost en- tirely. The white women, generally speaking, are used on a higher grade of work than the negro women and. broadly speaking, will not be so readily replaced. The character of the work performed by women in the Southern operations is described under the various classes of work. IN THE WOODS Verv few white women are employed in the woods. Usually wdiere so used it is on a small operation close to her residence and limited to occupations she considers above a negro's job. This usually takes the form of driving a team, which she is not called upon to load. Negro women in the woods are much more plentiful and fill a num- ber of places. In team logging they are used as hostlers, teamsters, skidders. and road-repairers, doing in fact almost every conceivable job connected with such work. In machine or steam logging men have been replaced by women as firemen on the skidders and loaders, as wood-choppers, where they handle an axe with great proficiency, and occasionally as signalmen, where they have been found to be as reliable as men. As teamsters on the outhaul line they have given excellent service, supplanting boys and older men who went onto more arduous undertakings. As fellers and buckers women have not been used to any great ex- tent. In a few operations they have been utilized when the man power of the crews dropped ofif and the mill could not be kept running. While in such capacities they are unable to do as much as a man, they keep the crew going and mill operating. In such capacities they are about 60 per cent as efficient as men, but cause more loss in the woods from breakage and lack of skill in felling the timber in the right direction. As trimmers they give fair service, doing about three-fourths the work of a man. When possible these crews of women are pitted against the men. creating a rivalry which results in a greater number of logs ])er crew from the men. On the logging railroads there are few jobs that the women do not fill, from running the trains to laying the track, the greater portion being employed in the latter work. They are not so often used around a track-layer because of the heaviness of the work and the labor entailed. 14() JOURNAL OF FORESTRY IN THE SAWMILL Women are seldom used in the sawmill proper because of the manual labor required the full day and with little chance of rest from standing the entire time. Occasionally a woman is used on the conveyor chain, picking out pieces to go to the lather or to be used as fuel. At the lather she is used to some extent to tie bundles. One mill utilized a woman at the trimmer with some measure of success, and one as an off-bearer, but the work was too heavy for her. PLANING MILL In the planing mill women can be utilized to good advantage. Once the machinery is understood and its limitations and their own learned, the work runs smoothly and with little trouble. As a rule, the planers offer the best chance to the white woman because of her greater adapta- bility and quicker grasp of situations. One operator stated that he would much rather use white women than negro men because of the greater ease with which they did the same amount of work and the more application and concentration put on the job. This resulted in fewer breakdowns and greater speed in the operation of the machinery. Negro women are not looked on with favor in these positions and boys are used in preference. In the finish rooms the negro women are utilized in tieing bundles, sorting items and lengths, and similar work. At the grading table white women have been used, and soon are able to grade as carefully and as efficiently as a man. The amount of training given these women is remarkably small, and they soon learn the value of the various de- fects, and after learning the grades are as apt as the men. IN THE YARD In the yards women are used best in clean-up gangs and in repiling lumber, though this latter job requires very close supervision. In the dry sheds the handling of finished stocks is done to some extent by women, especially where the monorail system is used. As many of the bundles are heavy, the number of women on the job is naturally in- creased, though this is unsatisfactory because of the small working space. At the kilns women are used to load and unload the lumlier on the kiln trucks. Practically all this work is performed bv negroes. WOMEN IN SOUTHERN LUMBERING OPERATIONS 147 MISCELLANEOUS POSITIONS In the shingle mill there are few jobs that the women are unable to fill, except those involving the machinery and handling the bolts, which are usually too heavy. Bundling and clean-up work is readily handled by women. The negro women make indifferent loaders. At board mills, where finish stuff is handled to a large extent and the stocks dry and of small sizes, they can be utilized to good advantage both as passers and as loaders proper. The work is heavy and rest periods must be given. Heavier material nearly always recjuires men. As timekeepers, as talleymen, or checkers the white girl is found to be superior to the men. As in grading, they soon learn the lengths, sizes, and class of material and become as quick in recording this data as the men. Furthermore, their sheets are always much neater and cleaner than those made up by the men — a fact which is greatly appre- ciated by the office force. In these places it is fairly safe to presume that the operators will not go back to the old order of things, but con- tinue to use women entirely because of their neatness and accuracy. In the boiler rooms negro women are occasionally employed as fire- men, but generally without success because of the nature of the work and their ability to go elsewhere for work. WOOD-l'SING INDUSTRIES The principal wood-using industries connected with the lumber cen- ters are sash and door works, veneer, food containers and box manu- facture, and novelty or small woodenware works. In these plants are great possibilities for the development of woman labor because of the lightness of the work and the possibilities of sitting while working. In these places fully 60 per cent of the total employed force may be the woman worker, with no reduction in the efficiency or output of the plant. Among the positions where she is employed at present are in the making up of crates and baskets, of veneers, the bundling of box shocks, stapling, oiling, sanding, polishing, varnishing, handling lum- ber, running planers or stave machines, etc. In many of these occupa- tions it will be very difficult to get the old system of things again in force. 148 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY LIMITATION OF THF \VO:\IAN WORKER IN T?IE LUMBER INDUSTRY There are certain limitations which will always prevent women from supplanting men in the lumber business. The first of these is her gen- eral lack of strength, which prevents her from doing most of the heavy work connected with the handling of green lumber and timbers, or general work, where the prime requisites are weak heads and strong backs. The second is her constitutional weakness, which imposes the limitations of shorter hours than men, with relatively more frequent rest periods or positions at which she may work while seated. In gen- eral, it has not been found wise to work a woman more than eight hours at heavy tasks, as the overdoing of her strength reduced her efficiency to a niarked degree. Of course, there are always present a few women of the Amazon type, to whom the heaviest kind of work comes with ease and to whom long hours and heavy work has no terrors. Such women may be employed in any place where men may be used and where she develops skill and care enough to be trusted around ma- chinery. WAGES PAID Before woman had been placed in those lines of work which she could handle she was paid much less than men in the same class of work ; often but half that paid the men. Boys and women were on a parity as to wages, and often a woman received less than the boy. This has gradually changed, till at the present time women receive in the mill but one or two cents per hour less than the man formerly employed. In the yards and in the docks women in the clean-up gangs and push- ing dollies receive on the average about five cents less than men work- ers. In the woods and on the railroad women receive the same wages as men where the work is piecework — that is, the same rate per thou- sand and the same rate per trip by rail. In other lines of endeavor they receive about three-fourths of the standard wages paid men. For track work in railroad construction they average 25 cents a day less than men workers, which holds true for the wage received for work in machine logging. Where employed as teamsters they receive the same wages as the men. White women in general receive the same wage as those paid men whom they replace. As checkers, scalers, machine workers, and in the office they are given the same pay men received as soon as their fitness for the work is demonstrated. Usually in many of these places these women are placed in an apprenticeship status for an indefinite period. WOMEN IX SOUTHERN' LUMBERING OPERATIONS 149 depending on the individual. In the wood-using industries, when she has found her place, she is given the same pay as the men for the same work. FUTURE OUTLOOK How successful women are in the lumber industry in the South is reflected in the wages paid them. At the start, when only a few women were employed at occupations for which they were unsuited, a strong feeling of antagonism to the woman worker was apparent, but this was later lost when the work and the women had adjusted themselves through the employer studying his help with the idea of finding the work at which they could be utilized. This was easier with the white women than with the negro because of her greater adaptability. Negro women work better in groups than when employed singly with men around, and while there always will be a more or less general loss of labor from the combination of sexes in the black race, this loss has not resulted in any great reduction in the work accomjilished as compared to the new labor supply opened up. White women in the South are not employed to the extent that negro women are used because, in general, manual labor in the weaker sex is looked down upon by all classes. Indeed, it was late in the fall when women were used to any extent in the elevator, in the hotels, or in other lines of similar work, while the rest of the country had been using them for at least six months. Once this prejudice has been broken down it will be comparatively easy for women to obtain em- ployment generally. The white women, so far where tried, have proved themselves superior to men in a few lines of work, due to their quicker brain and quicker grasp of mechanical operations, and far superior to the black men in whatever place she has found herself. The negro women have been tried in positions which largelv involved manual labor rather than skill or application. In these positions they have not been as successful as men, and their deficiencies have been due entirely to the lack of physical strength, and this has been met in large measure, where possible, by the employment of a larger number of workers. THE NATIONAL FORESTS: THE LAST FREE HUNTING GROUNDS OF THE NATION By Aldo Leopold Secretary, Chainher of Commerce, Albitquerque, X. M. In a previous article^ I have made the following assertions, which have so far not been disputed : 1. The demand for hunting on the National Forests exceeds the supply. 2. The practicability of increasing production by applying scientilic principles is not hampered by inaccessibility, as with timber. Hunting is in demand and is marketable wherever found. 3. Therefore the time is ripe for scientific game management on the National Forests, and its development presents a duty and an oppor- tunity to Foresters. The foregoing argument is premised on the present relation of Na- tional Forest game resources to the present hunting public. It is the purpose of this paper to forecast the future relation of these resources to the future hunting public and to point out certain conclusions bear- ing on the present game policy of the Forest Service. What do we know about the future himting public? There are three points which may so safely be predicted that they require nothing more than a mere enumeration : First, the hunting instinct is a fixed character, and will continue to appear in a certain proportion of all normally developed individuals. The number of hunters will increase at least as fast as the population. Second, the proportion of hunters to whom the National Forests are accessible will increase by leaps and bounds. Good roads, automobiles, and airplanes — what more need be said? Third, the leisure and the means to indulge the taste for hunting will grow with the growing recognition of outdoor recreation as a vital necessity, with the increase of wealth, and with the cheapening of indi- vidual transportation. In short, hunting on the National Forests will in the future attract more people, for more time, from a vastly greater territory. This much is self-evident, and all these factors will operate to intensify the demand for hunting on the Forests. ^ "Forestry and Game Conservation," Journal of Forestry, April, 1918. 150 Tin-: NATIONAL F()Ki:STS 151 There is only one condition which might operate to partially offset the growth of this demand, and that is the development of more attrac- tive hunting grounds on other territory — that is, on private lands. To correctly forecast the future of game management on the Forests, it is necessary to carefully consider the probal^le future relation between National Forests and outside hunting grounds. Game conservation in America has now pretty well passed the initial propaganda stage and people are beginning to think about ways and means. It is no longer a question of whether, but of how\ One of the most popular of the various proposed solutions of the "more-game" problem is the doctrine loosely designated as "game farming." Game farming, as at present advocated by certain radical elements, includes a number of wholly vicious proposals, such as the wholesale opening of markets and the abandonment of restrictive game laws. But it also includes a number of fundamentally sound proposals which have both a direct and an indirect bearing on the question of game on the National Forests. Among these are the artificial control of vermin, the artificial establishment of food plants and coverts, the feeding of game during critical periods, and the maintenance of a stable breeding stock by liberating game artificially reared. It is axiomatic that as the natural production of a desired natural resource fails, it is supplemented by semi-artificial means of produc- tion. This is the long and short of game farming. This is the long and short of Forestry. The aspect of this process which concerns the sub- ject in hand is the fact that these semi-artificial means of production alwa\s require an iwi'cstincnt, and therefore must pay a return on that investment. In short, the product becomes commercialized and the free supply comes to an end, because even the remainder of the virgin supply acquires a sale value. Game farming, however carried on, requires an investment of money, time, material, or land. Therefore its product, hunting, will be sold to the highest bidder. ]\Iore concretely, the farmers, who own the greater part of the hunting grounds of the nation, jvill maintain coverts on little odd corners of land, will winter- feed their birds, will set their boys to killing off vermin, and then will lease their hunting privileges, for cash, to individuals or groups of hunters. It follows that they will post their lands against trespass, and free hunting on farms will be a thing of the past. It is hardly necessary to point out that this commercialization of hunting privileges will take place first on lands of high value — that is, agricultural lands. It is already foreshadowed by the wholesale posting 152 JOL'RNAL OF FORESTRY of such lands throughout the country. It will take place last, if at all, on lands of low value — forest lands. It is also evident that it will take place first with upland game and last, if at all, with migratory game. But it will, in the not- far-distant future, result in the end of free hunt- ing for a larger part of the five million sportsmen now dependent on wild game for outdoor recreation. Is it necessary to point out the effect of all this on the free recrea- tion grounds of the National Forests? I think not. It simply means that people will flock to the Forests in numbers we now do not even dream of. They will come there, too, for other reasons than mere inability to own a private shooting preserve or pay dues in an exclusive club. Re- gardless of cost, there is an ingrained repugnance in the heart of many sportsmen to having their sport served to them in a spoon. There is a certain rugged independence — I suspect inherited from generations of self-respecting yeomen — poachers of the feudal ages — which eschews "boughten" sport. These estimable throwbacks, regardless of financial ability, will choose to test their skill, not on posted preserves, but on the public hunting grounds of the National Forests, beholden to no man or his dollar, but only to the law of the land. In short, demand for hunting on the Forests will increase not only with population and with transportation, but especially with the rising price of hunting elsewhere. The rate and extent of the increase will probably be greater than we are at present able to comprehend. This forecast, if correct, certainly contains some lessons in National Forest game policy. What are they ? First and foremost, it means we must do something. It means that the time is ripe for aggressive thought and action on the game question, lest we be overwhelmed by a demand for which we are unprepared. The development and perpetuation of the nation's last free hunting ground — is that not an opportunity for service which should stir the imagination of more than a mere handful of "cranks"? Secondly, it means that thg Forest Service must hang tooth and nail to its traditional policy of keeping out exclusive privilege. The writer here and now pays his respects to the man who wrote into the Forest Manual the absolute prohibition of private game preserves. The larger part of the United States will be a private game preserve in 1940, and to extend this form of monopoly, inevitable on private lands, to the National Forests would be little short of a crime against democratic society. That the temptation will exist is evidenced by the pressure already brought to bear for fishing preserves on some of the western Forests. THE XATIOXAL FORESTS 153 Thirdl}', it means that the Forest Service is directl}' interested in the system of differential State Hcenses as a regulator of the tide of hunters. Some well-intentioned sportsmen are advocating a flat license fee, applicable to residents and non-residents alike. They say it is not justice to discriminate between American citizens, especially as regards federally regulated migratory birds and federally owned National For- ests. As a matter of fact, a non-resident license is not only justice, but common sense. It is a surtax on the man who can afiford to travel out of his own State in search of hunting — that is, a surtax on the well-to- do. From the standpoint of the Forest Service, it is also plain self- preservation. A flat license at the present time would turn a flood of hunters into the Forests, under which our game in its present unpro- ductive condition would simply collapse. Fourthly, it means that as a fire hazard the National Forest hunter will occupy a position of increasing importance. This, of course, is no reason against developing the production of game, but rather a reason for better fire plans and more effective educational work among hunters. In any State without a live sportsmen's association, it would well repay the Forest Service to go out and organize one for this pur- pose alone. In New Mexico, for instance, the State Game Protective Association, organized largel}- by the Forest Service, will next fall paste on every box of shells sold in the State propaganda for care with fire and observance of the game laws. Fifthly, it means that in those few places where game actually inter- feres with live stock, the question of meeting the future growth of demand for hunting must be intelligently considered in applying the principle of highest use. This by no means implies a wholesale exclu- sion of stock ; on the contrary, it will generally mean that reliance will be had on species which do not interfere with stock, the production of which may be expanded without injury to other interests, and the rele- gation of troublesome species, such as elk. to National Parks and other regions where they can do no harm. Sixthly, it means that it will be more than ever good business for the Forest Service to develop species on which it has a practical monopoly. These will prove especially attractive to hunters who will come from a distance. The mountain-sheep, the white goat, the ptarmigan, the Co- lumbian blacktail. the wild turkey, the javelina, the fantail. the Crook's deer — all these will be worth ten times their weight in ordinary venison to the hunter from Iowa or Kansas who will come to seek respite from "No hunting, under penalty of the law." THE STRUCTURE AND USE OF THE PARANA PINE FORESTS OF BRAZIL (Contribution from the Yale Scliool of Forestry, No. 3) By H. N. Whitford In the search for raw materials of kimber. the possibihties of trop- ical and subtropical forests have usually been overlooked. While the Parana pine (Aroucaria braailiana) region of southern Brazil has been mentioned as a probable source of lumber, its importance has not been sufficieiitly emphasized. This tree grows in commercial quantities in the plateau region of Parana, Santa Catharina. Rio Grande do Sul. Small areas also occur in the States of Minas and Sao Paulo. \Miile it has a botanical range of from 20° S. to 30° S. latitude, its commer- cial range is restricted mostly betw^een the parallels of 22° S. and 2"/° S. The three States mentioned above contain an area of some 575,000 square miles. According to the best reports available, 336,000 square miles of this area contains forest growth of some kind, of which more than 100,000 square miles is a conservative estimate of the area within which merchantable quantities of Parana pine are found. Figures con- cerning the amount of timber within this area have never been made. One lumber company has under its control some six billion feet of the timber which will average 8,000 board feet per acre, including the blanks in the forest. Excluding such blanks, the average is near to 12,000 feet per acre. Some areas which I saw will produce as high as 25,000 board feet per acre. Many other parts of the region are broken by large areas of prairie and hardwood forests. To make allow- ance for these large blanks, reduce the area to 60,000 square miles and the amount per acre to 5,000 feet, and we have a stand of timber that is about two hundred billion feet. From what I saw of the region I should judge that fifty billion feet of this is accessible to present lines of transportation. Botanically speaking, the Parana pine does not occur in pure forests. Like many tropical and subtropical forests, its structure contains four fairly well defined stories. The upper story, or cap, is from 80 to 120 feet in height, composed entirely of Parana pine. The third story contains trees 60 to 80 feet in height, composed mostly of 8 or 10 species of the family Lauracese, known in southern Brazil as the Canellas. One of these, known as Embuia (Ncctandra sp.), comprises 50 or more TIIK PARANA PINE FORESTS OF P.RAZIL 155 per cent of the stand of this story and nearly all of the i)resent cut. Scattered specimens of a number of other species occur in this story, among which are Cedro (Ccdrcla sp.), a number of Leguminosae, Big- noniacese. Alyrtacese, and members of other familes. In places a i)alm gives a tropical tone to the story. The second story is composed of a large number of species which, when mature, will reach a height of between 30 and 60 feet, the composition of which is little known, though members of the Laurace?e and Myrtaceae seem to predominate. It is l)erhaps more complex than the third story. The first story, or base, is from 10 to 30 feet in height. A tree fern, a bamboo, and the famous Brazilian tea {Ilex paragucnsis) are the characteristic trees of this story, but there are many others. Of course, in the lower stories there are immature trees of the story or stories above them. A botanical survey of the forest might show 50 or more species per acre, but the point to be made here is that the upper stories are simpler than those below them, and the top story contains only one species. The above is the description of the forest where I had an opportunity to study it closely. Toward the north and northwest the composition changes. Gradually the hardwoods, represented usually by dififerent species, become taller and the pines become shorter, until the tops of the pines and hardwood intermingle. Finally, the pines drop out alto- gether. To the south, as the drier regions of central Rio Grande are reached, the pine holds its relative position, though lower in stature ; but some distance beyond its limits a hardwood forest, 50 to 70 feet in height, prevails, especially along streams. Finally, the prairie, or campos, is reached. So much for the structure of the forest. Let us now consider the extent to which these different stories are utilized. Take the upper story first. In 191 3 the estimated output of Parana pine was about 60 million feet. From figures I collected the output has greatly increased, and today certainly reaches 150 million feet or more. This rapid increase is due in part to the normal growth of the lumber industry, but mostly because Brazil. Argentina, and Uruguay have been cut ofif from supplies of coniferous timbers from temperature regions, due to the war. Before the war these three countries in ques- tion used, in round numbers. 700 million feet of lumber, 500 million of which was imported from the United States and Europe, mostly south- ern yellow pine. To meet this demand, the total home production of both hardwoods and pine is estimated to have doubled, but still falls short by 300 million feet of the normal consumption. The greatest increase has been in the Parana pine region, where the production has nearly trebled. It is known that if the railways had sufficient rolling stock to carry the output, the lumber industry of this region has de- 156 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY veloi)ed sufficiently to cut one-third more than it is doing, and this, too, in spite of the fact that the industry has been also cut off from new milling and logging equipment. Most of the lumber companies cut only the pine, so that to them the forest is lOO per cent pure. The largest lumber company, and the only one well equipped with all modern and logging machinery, is cutting, annually, 40 million feet, or nearly one-quarter of the total amount produced. Ninety per cent of its cut is Parana pine and 10 per cent is hardwoods of the third story, mostly Embuia {Ncctandra sp. ). Rmbuia is the timber de luxe of the four southern Brazil States. Like all tropical hardw^oods that are durable, it is used alike for construction purposes, mostly railway ties, and for fine furniture and interior finish. The amount utilized each year is not known, but the railways of the States of Parana and Santa Catharina consume annually 450,000 ties of Embuia for their maintenance. These last from fifteen to twenty years. The second story is chiefly valuable for its firewood, though all other stories furnish more or less of it. The railways of the three southern States used, in 1917, about 1,000,000 cubic meters of firewood. The total consumption of firewood- is estimated at 1,500,000 cubic meters. This is equivalent to about 400,000 cords of wood, most of which comes from the Parana pine forest. Besides firewood, the large, conical-shaped resinous Parana pine knots are a valuable source of fuel, especially for the railways, since, due to war conditions, imported coal has been cut oft". The railways alone use some 48,000 cubic meters of these knots. One cord of pine knots or two cords of wood are the equivalent of one ton of coal. In all, the annual production of pine knots and firewood are equal in calorific power to more than 200,000 tons of coal. The total production of wood products, including sawed lumber, fuel, and railway ties, amounted in 1917 to nearly 2.000,000 cubic meters, distributed as follows : Cubic meters Lumber 150,000,000 board feet, or 350,000 Ties 800,000 (number), or 48,000 Firewood 400,000 cords, or 1,500,000 Pine knots 50.000 Total 1,948,000 The estimate of the value of the products delivered at the railroads is near to $5,000,000, distributed as follows: Lumber at $20 per 1,000 board feet $3,000,000 Ties at 75 cents each 600,000 Firewood at 75 per cubic meter 1,015.000 Pine knots at $2 per cubic meter 100,000 $4,715,000 THli PARANA PINK FORKSTS OF 1;RAZ1I. 157 The most valuable product of the base story of the forest is the famous Brazilian or Paraguay tea {Ilex paraguensis ) . This small tree is botanically related to. and closely resembles in appearance, the south- ern holly of our country. In the virgin forest it is suppressed, and it is only when the forest is cleared of its underljrush and sometimes of all or a part of its second, third, and fourth story trees that it reaches full development. It seems to do best under the rather thin canopy of the Parana pine. For small areas, it is the most valuable forest product of the region, for it is made to yield continuous crops of leaves. Sad to relate, it is the only forest product that is under management. Scat- tered throughout the lumbering region are farmers with small areas of the tea, or herva matte, as it is called locally, growing under the pine. So far I have obtained no reliable figures concerning the production of matte. There is authority for the statement that there are no less than 50,000,000 kilos consumed annually by the people of southern Brazil, Argentina. Uruguay, Paraguay. Chile, and parts of Peru and "Bolivia. The largest part of this comes from the pine forests. In the above I have attempted to describe briefly the forest and its present use. With the exception of the matte, the forest is being ex- ploited without any regard to its conservation. The stumpage price is low, amounting to 50 cents per thousand board feet. All the accessi- ble timber is in the hands of private owners, and is being cut or burned to make way for the cattlemen and the farmer. I am told, however, there are large inaccessible areas still under the control of the Govern- ment of the difterent States, and perhaps before this is opened by rail- ways, the National or State governments will have taken steps to form National or State forests, to be lumbered with a view to their conserva- tion rather than destruction. There are reasons to believe that the Parana pine region will play a role similar to that played by the white pine region of our Great Lakes. Like the white-pine region, the forests of Parana pine lie to the northeast of a great prairie country that needs lumber for its develop- ment. Heretofore this jirairie region has depended on coniferous woods of the North Temperate region, chiefly southern yellow pine. Today the greatest lumber-producing region in the world is the vellow-pine region of the southern part of the United States. \\'ith an estimated stand of 386 billion feet and an annual cut of 15 billion feet, it is vearly drawing on its forest capital. Is there any sane economic reason why this region should be called upon to carry timber thousands of miles to supply lumber to a region which has a forest at its back door con- taining 200 billion feet, or about one-half as much timber as the vellow- 158 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY jMiie region, and which is annually cutting only 150 million instead of 15,000 million feet, or one one-hundredth as much? While it might not be practicable, it would be in the interests of forest conservation of the United States if the Government would prohibit the exportation of pine to southern South America and induce some of the capital now invested in the lumbering industry of the southern States to be trans- ferred to the Parana pine region. This would mean capital sufficient to increase the cut at least to 500 million feet, the pre-war consumption of pine in the region. I am certain that if the Government would make such a prohibition, the lumbermen of the United States would soon learn of the immense profits that are being made by the lumber industry of the Parana pine region and many of them would make a grand rush to get in on the ground floor. SOME CAUSES OF CONFUSION IN PLANT NAMES By Agnes Chase Assistant Systematic Agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture To plant breeders, horticulturists, ecologists, and other botanists not primarily systematists the changes made from time to time in the names of familiar plants is a source of confusion and irritation. There is a rather general impression in our day that want of uniformity in the use of names or change of names is a recent affliction due to the per- nicious activity of certain botanists interested in nomenclature. But a comparison of contemporary botanical work of different countries any time during the last century will show that nonconformity in the use of names is no new thing. Successive editions of a standard work also often show the unsettled state of nomenclature during the whole period since the binomial system was accepted in 1753. And the old pre- Linnaean phrase names were so uncertain in their application that the confusion wrought by them was one of the main reasons for the ready acceptance of the Linnsean binomials. But to show that there always has been confusion as to the names of plants is not to argue that there always must be such confusion. Paradoxical as it may sound, it is the effort made during the last twenty years or so to bring about stability and uniformity in the use of names that has caused such a bewildering diversity. Mewing the development of the science of botany since 1753, we find two principal causes for the confusion of names of which we are the heirs. First is the difference between the early and the present-day concept of a genus. The generic concept of the older botanists was an ideal made up of certain specified characters. The generic concept of botanists today is a group composed of related species. In the first case the genus depended on the generic characters assigned to it. In the second case the genus depends on its type species. In the first case the genus was supposed to be known when described ; the characters given as generic were assumed to be common to all the species. In the second case inability to state with certainty which characters of a given species or group of species are generic is admitted ; the genus is limited to a definite type species and its related species, whatever their char- 150 160 JOURNAI, OF FORESTRY acters in common, known and as yet unknown, may be, and however one or more of these related species may depart from characters origi- nally supposed to be generic. The earlier concept of a genus was from ■the viewpoint of special creation of each species; the present concept of a genus is from the viewpoint of the theory of evolution. The earlier concept may be compared to a box into which certain species were fitted. The box itself, as an ideal, existed independent of what might be ])ut into it, as witness Endlicher's excellent generic descrip- tions with never a species mentioned. The later concept may be com- pared to a colony of coral still held together by an ancient common ancestry long since submerged. According to the earlier concept, a genus could be more definitely described than can most genera accord- ing to the later concept, but the species contained therein and conform- ing to the characters assigned to the genus might be heterogeneous. According to the later concept, characters assigned to a genus are ac- cepted as a working hypothesis only and are changed or discarded as further investigations throw more light upon the subject. Species are assembled into genera according to the sum total of their morphological resemblances. If a given character hitherto regarded as generic is not common to such a related assemblage, or if it would bring together species which by their want of morphological resemblances do not show close relationship, this character is rejected as generic. Relationship to a definite species (the type) is, according to the later concept, the bond that holds a genus together. Hence, if the characters of one or two species deviate from those common to all the others, they may still be included in the genus if the sum total of their characters denote rela- tionship. This later concept of a genus is both more fixed and more flexible than the earlier concept. Both are matters of human judgment, and the limits ascribed to a genus according to either concept varies as human judgments vary. But with a definite species as the basis of a genus, human judgments are more likely to be in accord than with an ideal set of characters as the basis of a genus. In most genera de- scribed in recent years a type species has been specified. But in the genera of older authors, working under the earlier concept of a genus, very rarely was a type designated. To adjust these older genera to the prevailing concept, it is necessary to choose a type species. This is often difficult because many genera of the earlier authors, especially those of Linnseus, are made up of very diverse species. The genus Finns of Linnfeus, for example, contained ten species, of which but five belong to the genus Pinus as limited today. The other species be- long to the firs, spruces, and larches, and one is the cedar of Lebanon. CAUSES OF COXFl'SION IX PLANT N'AMlCS 161 Paiiiciiiii of Linnaus contained such diverse grasses as pearl millet, common millet, barnyard grass, Pasf^alitiii, St. Lucie grass (Stenota- phriun) , crabgrass, Opilismenus, and Bermuda grass, besides the group now called Panicuni. His Holcus contained sorghum and Johnson grass, velvet grass, holy grass, or vanilla grass, a species of Uniola, and one of Sacciolcpis. The generic names given to such heterogeneous groups were subsequently differently applied by different authors, ac- cording to which of the diverse elements they applied it. Today bot- anists are striving to formulate reasonable rules to govern the choice of the types of such genera, so that the generic names may be perma- nently fixed. This is the most difficult problem which nomenclatorial rules aim to solve. The second cause of the confusion in names was the relative isola- tion of the different workers. A few industrious compilers like Roemer and Schultes for a time sought to bring together the new genera and species, ever increasing in number as the result of scientific voyages and exploring expeditions. Their attempts at co-ordination sometimes wrought confusion because their work was based largely on literature and not on the plants. There was a short-lived Xeue Entdekungen fur Pflanzenki^inde in the early nineteenth century, and a Botanischer Zeitschrift later, that attempted to review current botanical literature, but these could do little in so rapidly growing a field. Ignorant of each other's work, men in different countries often described the same genus under dift'erent names, or various authors hit upon the same w^ord in naming diverse genera or in naming dift'erent species in the same genus. The name Elodea, for example, was given to a common water-weed and to the pretty pink-flowered ally of the St. Johnsworts ; a lichen and a grass were both called Sctaria. In the third and fourth decades of the last century, another industrious compiler, Steudel, prepared a Xomenclator Botanicus, which, while faulty, must have been a most useful work, being an index to the place of publication of plant names, generic and specific. But the second (and last) edition of this was issued in 1840 and 1841. It is Darwin who, impressed with the need of such work, left funds for its compilation, that we have to thank for the Index Kewensis. Darwin's original idea, so his son tells us in the "Life and Letters," was a nomenclator simply. The plan of attempting to pass upon the validity of genera and species and of referring them to synonymy developed at Kew as the work proceeded. This attempt to establish names by fiat for awhile added to confusion, for there was a tendency when the index first appeared to accept its fiat. Most middle-aged systematists today can recall the shock they sustained when 162 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY they first realized that when the Kew Index said such a species equaled such other species it was not necessarily so. For all its shortcomings, however, the Index Kewensis, with its successive supplements, affords an invaluable index to names and places of publication (its references to synonymy may be disregarded), and serves more than any other one thing to make possible serious work looking toward a final uniformity and stability of nomenclature, so far as that is humanly possible of attainment. Until about twenty-five years ago there had been no concerted effort to bring about conformity in nomenclature. A center of great botanical activity, like Kew, rather expected its usage to be followed out of respect for authority, and it was so followed in the United States. Paris and Berlin, the other great centers of activity, went their separate ways. The need of reform at last became so pressing that several botanical revolutions broke out, each bent on establishing a "stable nomencla- ture." At about the same time there was published the Pflanzen- familien, by Engler and Prantl, which gave the families and genera in a new order, beginning with the most simply organized plants and end- ing with the most highly specialized, expressing, so far as possible in a lineal secjuence. the evolution of plant life. This sequence agreed with the current viewpoint so much better than that followed by Bentham and Hooker in their Genera Plantarum, which began with Ranunculacese. ascended to Compositas. and then descended again to I sedges and grasses, that it found wide acceptance and gave advantage to the nomenclature used. There was a fairly general desire to base nomenclature upon priority. The Engler and Prantl, or Berlin, nomen- clature was based on priority, with, however, a good many exceptions (most of these exceptions were later embodied in the list of Nomina Conservanda of the Vienna Code — that is. names to be conserved, re- gardless of priority) ; but many botanists believed that only by a strict adherence to priority could stability be attained. Another source of nomenclatorial diversity was the idea of basing each genus on a type species. This was America's contribution to the problem, and though it has brought about some troublesome changes of name, such as the restoration of the name Holciis to the sorghums, it. together with adherence to priority, promises to be the means of bringing about eventually a uniform nomenclature, so far as that is humanly possible. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE WOOD-FUEL CAMPAIGN By a. F. Hawes U. S. Fuel Administration The campaign to produce wood as an emergency fuel to relieve the coal situation during the war was, on the whole, a success. Like many- other activities connected with the war, its benefits would have been more apparent had the war lasted longer. It is safe to say that the greatest advantage derived has been the awakening of the general public to the importance of wood as a fuel and the vast resources of the country in this form of fuel. Communities long unaccustomed to burn wood have learned to use it, and many householders have found it an economy to heat their houses with temporary wood fires during mild weather, even at the prevailing high prices for wood, rather than use coal. Many people have formed a habit of providing themselves with a reserve of wood fuel which should be of lasting benefit. It is extremely difficult to form any estimate of the increased amount of wood used as a result of the campaign, because it has varied so much in different sections. The question also arises as to whether the result should be compared with the amount burned in a normal peace year or with the amounts which would have been burned under war conditions had no campaign been instituted. As compared with normal consumption, it is doubtful whether northern New England, for ex- ample, increased its consumption of wood, since the scarcity of labor tended to offset the eft'orts of the Administration. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island, on the other hand, the consumption of wood was probably increased lOO per cent, while in York County, Pennsylvania, the fuel administrator estimates that it was increased 500 per cent. The total amount of firewood consumed in the country in a normal year is about 100,000,000 cords, or about one cord per capita. Allowing i^ cords as the equivalent of one ton of coal, either bituminous or anthra- cite, this means the replacement of 66,666,000 tons of coal. As com- pared to an annual total consumption of 500,000,000 tons of coal, this is not a large figure. But as most of the wood is used for domestic purposes, it is in competition only with the 110,000.000 tons of coal used domestically. On the whole, it seems conservative to estimate that the consumption of wood was increased at least 10 per cent, which would amount to 10.000.000 cords, and would represent a saving of 16.3 164 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY 7,500,000 tons of coal, or about 7 per cent of the coal used domestically. The chief difficulty in stimulating the demand for wood was the un- precedented high price asked for it in all parts of the East. This was, of course, due to the scarcity of labor, and was largely justified by the cost of production, but the feeling was prevalent that there must be a good deal of profiteering in the wood business. The Lever law, under which the Fuel Administration was organized and which pro- vided for fixing the prices of coal, did not authorize the fixing of wood prices. By many this was considered a serious objection to a wood campaign. The writer has felt from the first that the best way to regu- late the price of wood was to stimulate its production and increase competition among sellers. Experience has shown that the old law of "supply and demand" is a safe one to tie to. The experience of New Haven, Connecticut, illustrates this point very nicely. The campaign was organized there for the Fuel Administration under the direction of Professor Hawley, of the forest school. In place of the 15 to 20 dealers who were formerly selling wood in this city there are now (Jan., 1919) from 25 to 40 dealers. Many of these men have only recently acquired gasoline mills and gone into the business. Prices of stove wood have dropped from $2 to $4 a cord, partly owing to the improved coal situa- tion and partly to the greater competition among wood dealers. Thir- teen of these dealers carried advertisements in one evening paper. Prices mentioned for hardwood in stove lengths were: $10, $11, $12, and $12.50. The consumers' interests had further been safeguarded by the establishment, in agreement with the dealers, of a standard cord of stove wood. Previously there had been no standard. Consumers had supposed that they were buying 128 cubic feet of stacked wood for a cord. On the other hand, dealers had claimed that a cord of stove wood was the amount of wood sawed from 128 cubic feet of 4-foot wood, but in many cases it was measured only roughly as thrown into the wagon. The Fuel Administration after careful investigation- adopted 90 cubic feet of stacked stove wood as a standard cord. This is slightly more than has been commonly given. The campaign throughout Connecti- cut has resulted in the small towns stocking up with wood to such an extent that the coal situation in the cities would have been materially relieved had the war continued. In the same way it is estimated that wood production in Rhode Island was increased about 100 per cent. In contrast to this encouraging experience in New England, an un- fortunate condition existed in Virginia at the time of the signing of the armistice. During the summer of 1918 Mr. Montague, of the Fuel Administration, organized an efficient campaign for stimulating the THE WOOD-FUEL CAMPAIGX 165 production of wood by the farmers throughout the State. By agree- ment with him, the dealers in Richmond and Norfolk guaranteed to pay the farmers $9 per cord for 4- foot wood delivered in these cities. A plan was further worked out with the banks of the State to finance the farmers in their operations. A portion of the Fuel Administrator's letter to the farmers is quoted below. "The majority of owners of wood, on the stump, throughout Virginia recog- nize the call on them to turn their forest trees into needed fuel. Only a com- parative few, however, have at their command the outlay of ready money re- quired to cut, haul, and season this wood, and they must have the assurance of a ready sale for their prepared wood at a price that will cover expenses and allow a reasonable profit ^r their work. To cover the many cases in which the owners of standing timber and wood, who are willing and desirous of turning same into prepared wood, but are unable to finance the cutting, hauling, and seasoning of this wood, the following plan will render effective and immediate assistance. "A contract drawn as per the sample copy enclosed, taken to a bank or financial institution, by the owner of stumpage, deposited attached to collateral note, as per enclosed sample copy No. 2, will, in cases where the responsibility and good name of the producer are not questioned, enable the producer to borrow from the bank or financial institution the amount of money necessary for the actual cost of cutting and hauling the wood. "By this plan thousands of cords of wood will be obtainable that otherwise would remain as forest. "We have a big task in Virginia to convert our forest resources into prepared fuel, and have same accessible to the consumer, and a short time to accomplish this task. It must be done." The Fuel Administration in making this proposition to the farmers also offered to assist the dealers in finding plenty of wood, and agreed that $14 was a fair price for the dealers to charge for stove wood, delivered to the householders. Under this arrangement the items of cost are estimated as follows : Stumpage $1 . 50 Cutting : 2 . 50 Hauling 2.00 Wholesalers' gross profit i .00 $7.00 Freight $2 . 00 Unloading and. storing 50 Sawing i .00 Delivering 2 . 00 Retail profit, overhead, and shrinkage 1.50 7.00 $14.00 The above arrangement would luidoubtedly have produced the neces- sary amounts of wood for the cities of Richmond and Norfolk, which was estimated as 100,000 cords. Unfortunately, complaint was made 166 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY to the State Council of Defense that the retail price of $14 was too high, and the council announced that it would supply the householders with wood at $9. This immediately upset the previous program, as the dealers stopped buying wood and the farmers stopped producing it. The Council of Defense undertook a cord wood operation on a tract which had been cleared of its forest growth for a Government powder bagging plant, and has been able to deliver a considerable amount of wood. However, had not the armistice resulted in a plantiful supply of coal, it is evident that there would have been a serious situation as a result of this interference with the plan of production by farmers. In other words, production can only be stimulated by an attractive price, and the consumers' interests are better served in«the long run by stimulating production than by fixing the price. It may appear, at first glance, that the plan of the State Council of Defense to cut and sell wood in Richmond was in line with the plan advocated by the Forest Service to develop municipal wood yards. Several of these were successfully operated in the South, but for the most part they have relied upon the farmers to produce the wood. In fact, the main purpose of a municipal wood yard was to guarantee a price sufficiently high to stimulate production by private operators. The municipal wood yard was most generally adopted in North Caro- lina. A somewhat different plan was adopted in the Tennessee towns, where local war fuel companies were organized. These are stock com- panies made up of public-spirited citizens as stockholders, operating under a charter duly registered with the State. The officers serve with- out pay and the profits are limited to 6 per cent, as the object is entirely to alleviate the fuel situation. In some of the northern cities, notably Worcester, Mass., the Chamber of Commerce undertook to furnish wood by advancing funds. In this case the special object was to pro- vide the industries of Worcester with an emergency fuel. Several con- cerns were saved from closing by these measures, and although their fuel costs were much higher than usual, they found that they could burn wood satisfactorily, and there was no interruption in the carrying out of the war contracts, which would otherwise have been the case. The wood-fuel campaign served its main purpose of relieving the coal shortage with wood. It has not brought about any better handling of the woodlots, as was possible with the high prices obtaining for inferior wood. It seems to the writer that there is an undeveloped opportunity to encourage forestry through the public wood yard, but that the best results could be brought about through some modification of the Ten- nessee plan, whereby the stockholders were pledged to the advancement of forestry in the surrounding country as well as the sale of wood at Tin-: wooD-FuKL ca:mpaign 167 a reasonable price- I would suggest that such a company offer two prices for the same grade of wood — the normal i)rice for wood cut clean and an advance price (perhaps 50 cents higher) for wood cut under methods approved by the State forester or some other approved for- estry authority. All wood would be pooled and sold to the consumer at a uniform price, since he does not have the interest in the improve- ment of the forest which the community has, and, theoretically, does not care how the wood is cut. The increased price should be suffiicient to cover the extra cost of cutting under the selection or other method of silviculture. Much has been written during the past few years advocating munici- pal forests for this country and citing the experience of European cities. It is extremely difficult to overcome the well-known American prejudice against public ownership and so-called socialism. Little progress has been made thus far in this line. The wood-fuel campaign of the war furnishes a further argument for such forests as reserves of wood fuel. It should be easy to make the people of Worcester, Mass., and other towns which have suft'ered for lack of coal, see the advisability of having close at hand a large supply of fuel which can be obtained by team and auto-truck without burdening the railroads. A coal shortage may occur at any time, due to a stpke of the miners or the railroad employees or to a serious epidemic like the flu or to other unforeseen causes. In addition to the attempt to establish the contents of a cord of stove wood, as mentioned above, several States have made progress in classi- fying fuel wood. The following simple classification established by the fuel administration for New Hampshire may serve as an example : Quality i. — All good-sized cleft hardwoods of beech, maple, yellow and white birch, with smaller quantities of hickory, ash, and oak. Some very large cleft limbs would not be objectionable in this grade. Quality 2. — Partly cleft and partly limb wood, all of hardwood species, mostly of the better kinds of hardwood, but with some good-sized soft maple and chest- nut. No softwood. Quality j. — Mostly limlnvood of all species, with some softwood. The permanent benefits which should result from the wood- fuel campaign may be briefly summarized as follows : 1. An increased burning of wood and a more general interest in the woodland as a source of fuel. 2. The establishment of standards for the measurement and classification of wood. 3. The creation of co-operative wood markets. 4. Furnishing a new argument for municipal forests. SOME REMARKS ON STATE FOREST POLICY ^ By Ralph S. Hosmer Professor of Forestry, Cornell University What I have to say concerns itself with the definite enunciation of forest poHcies in State work. It has been my experience that the im- portance of this point has been minimized. I am arguing that greater stress be laid on it. I shall attempt to show that certain distinct advan- tages are to be gained thereby. It may be regarded as axiomatic that to attain the largest measure of success in the forestry work of any State there is required behind the State ofificials a strong public sentiment. Very briefly, I wish to discuss certain ways in which such a sentiment can be promoted and maintained. The people support that which they understand and are interested in. Consequently a part of the problem of State forestry becomes one of education, especially through popular channels. The first requirement, naturally, is that there be a solid foundation. In no State can public forestry work be permanently successful unless it be based on well-considered ideals, sought to be put into practice by an efficient organization. From the experience of the past 25 years, there is pretty general accord in the minds of American foresters as to what constitutes good organization in State forest work. Many forms have been tried out, with varying results. The most satisfactory solu- tion seems to be control by a small, non-salaried board, preferably made up of representatives of the interests in the State that have most to do with forests, under which serve technically trained men, protected by the regulations of a civil service. We do not need here to consider that aspect. The point to which I would direct attention is the need for a better formulation of the forest policy of the State, and especially the definite enunciation of such a policy. Most of the States having for- estry departments have a comprehensive enough program, but few of them have made the things for which they stand so clear that he who runs may read. The fundamental forestry law of a State should, of course, contain a broad statement of principles, and from time to time the State for- ^ Prepared to be read before the Society of American Foresters at its annual meeting, at Baltimore, Md., December 27, 1918. 168 REMARKS ON STATK FOREST TOLICV 169 ester, or other recognized spokesman, should explain in more or less detail what it is he proposes or wishes to do. But in few States can one find easily and in one place a statement of all the important things in forestry for which that State stands. If one is reasonably familiar with the situation, it is not perhaps very difificult to get this information together. But in many States it has to be compiled from a speech here, an interview there, or indirectly from references in an annual report to past or current work. ]\Iy contention is that it would be to the distinct advantage of any State to issue in liberal number and to distribute freely a brief sum- mary of the points in its forest policy which the State officials regard as significant, perhaps backed up in a few words by the reasons why. Such a statement would go a long way to clarify what now is often an obscure situation. The general public, and even the man who has some interest in forestry, has little time and less inclination to search for this information. But if in 12 to 16 pages he can find, quickly and accu- rately, what he wants to know, his interest tends to increase and often his active support is secured. State forest policies are naturally subject to revision with change of time. New happenings bring in new issues and require readjustments. It is not to be expected or desired that the policy of any State will be fixed on all points once and for all. Like a good working plan, a State's forest policy should be subject to periodic revision. But if at any given time one wishes to know easily and quickly just where the State For- estry Department stands, it seems to me that he should be able to get that information without recourse to correspondence. The definite enunciation of a policy has certain concrete advantages. First, it clarifies the minds of the men who draw it up and centers their attention on the points of most importance. It stands thereafter until revised as a guide to themselves, and especially to their subordinates. It strengthens the esprit dc corps of any organization if every member feels that he is one of a team working toward perfectly known and well-understood ideals. Second, a statement of policy tends toward continuity of effort in a given direction and strengthens the hands of those whose duty it is to carry out programs extending over many years. Forestry projects are necessarily often of long duration. It is desirable, when after careful study such projects have been adopted and put into efl:'ect, that they be not interfered with or disturbed. One of the strong features about a continuing board of control is that the slowly changing personnel tends to prevent sudden departure from established usage. Further, and ];(» JOURNAL OF FORESTRY more important, the endorsement and continuation of a given policy by several successive boards or single commissioners or State foresters gives that part of the general program a standing from which it cannot lightly be dislodged. This fixing of a policy reacts beneficially in sev- eral ways. It tends to delay hasty action on the part of new appointees. Even should there be a general overturn of the State forester's staiT, it would be a rash politician who would dare upset ofifhand a policy (for example, the acquisition of State forests) to which, with the approval of the people, the State had been definitely committed over a period of years. In the same connection, the fact that the people of the State generally knew just what the forestry policies were would cause them to be more on their guard should the likelihood of hostility to the State's forest policies seem imminent on the part of a new governor or legislature. A third reason is that the portion of the public that is interested in forestry would often be glad, or could easily be induced to give better support to a given program or project if they thoroughly understood its bearing and relation to the fundamental aims of the State's forest work. A clear statement of what those aims were would be accessible to every one were such a publication as that indicated available and readily to be had. Especially important is it at this particular time that there should be a clear understanding with regard to all questions of vital interest to the people. Never were men's minds more open to seek wise solutions of problems, social and economic. To the forestry profession, which in America has always stood for a frank discussion of all matters relat- ing to forestry and to conservation, this reconstruction period is a time unusually opportune for re-emphasizing the basic need to the people of forestry and forest work. It is an era in which many things are to be weighed in the balance. State forestry officials have no reason to fear the searchlight. On the contrary, this is the time above all others when the people should be made aware of what forestry means and is. If a State's forestry policy is already well known, it will do no harm to re- affirm it. If it has never been stated succinctly, let the officials of that State respond promptly to the knock of opportunity. It may not be sounded again. A fourth and final reason why it is desirable that the forest policy of a State be clearly outlined is because of its bearing on the relation be- tween the State forester and the State forestry association. Organized as most of our State forest services are, there are certain kinds of work pertaining to forestry that can better be done by a quasi- REMARKS ON STATE F0R1-;ST POLICY 171 public association than by the State forester's office. The State forester should be closely affiliated with the State forestry association and should co-operate cordially with it. But it is better for many reasons if he does not take too prominent a part in its activities. The forestry association or its equivalent — and there are in the different States many organizations that often make unnecessary a definite forestry associa- tion— is in a better position than any other agency to exert a beneficial influence on forestry legislation and to help to press or to retard bills that are favored or opposed, as the case may be, by the State forester's office. In certain phases of publicity or information service work the forestry association, too, can exert a powerful influence and often reach persons whom the State forester cannot. Further, in some States, the forestry association can sometimes undertake definite lines of forest or kindred work that need to be done, but which from lack of funds or for other reasons do not fall within the scope of the State forester's activities. The time when general propaganda was a necessity has passed in certain regions of this country; elsewhere it still seems nec- essary to continue to impart elementary truths. But it will be a long while yet before the need ceases for a better understanding by the general public of what forestry really seeks to accomplish and of how forestry and conservation measures can best be promoted. This is essentially the field of the State forestry association. Rightly carried on, such an organization can do yeoman service in holding up the hands of the workers in the profession. I do not need here to enter into that other phase of the question — the moral support that a properly run State forestry association can give to a State forester who is hampered in his work by self-seeking political opposition. One has only to recall the cases in recent years of two New England States, where in the one instance the situation was saved because of the help of the forestry association ; in the other where it was lost, because although public opinion throughout the State was probably in the State forester's favor it was not properly organized and hence was ineffective. The whole point in this relation between the forester and the forestry association in a State is that to obtain the best results for all concerned, and with especial regard to the ultimate best interests of all the people, it is highly desirable that the co-operation between the forester and the association be close and cordial. A good approach is complete mutual understanding. On the part of the forester, how can this be better accomplished than through a clear and comprehensive statement of policy ? 172 JOURNAI. OF FORESTRY Summarized, the points made in the above argument are: That to secure the best permanent results in pubHc forestry in any State there is needed a strong public sentiment. To help in securing such a senti- ment a. definite enunciation of policy goes a long way. Further, this is of advantage because it does four particular things, to wit: (i) It clarifies the situation and provides a definite working plan for the State's forestry work; (2) it tends to establish continuity of effort in a given direction and to guard against the upsetting of the forestry policy by political or other enemies; (3) it is one of the most helpful bases on which to rest a campaign of rightly directed publicity — a matter of especial importance during the present reconstruction period ; and (4) because it forms a good bond of connection between the State forester's ofifice and the State forestry association. An enunciation of State forest policy does not have to go into great detail ; indeed, it is better if it does not do so. But there is, in my judg- ment, a greater need than has been realized of having in every State a clear and definite summary of the big, broad issues that are involved. PLANTING IN RELATION TO THE FUTURE OF NATIONAL FORESTS By Fred R. Johnson Forest Examiner, U. S. Forest Service We wish to discuss a. phase of the grazing policy on the National Forests as influenced by the present war, which, when combined with some natural consequences following the war, may react to work a possible injury to our National Forests ; and also how an effective planting polic\- may have much to do with offsetting this threatened danger. In 1917, in an effort to make the National Forests play a helpful part in winning the war, increases were allowed in the grazing authoriza- tions of the various Forests of 200,000 sheep and 100,000 cattle. It was announced that the Secretary of Agriculture felt that it was neces- sary to take some chance of overgrazing in the interest of large imme- diate production. In 1918 this policy was further continued and 188,000 head of cattle and 876,000 sheep were grazed over and above the 19 17 figures. This is pleasing in a number of ways : (i) It makes us feel that the National Forests have been of some material assistance in providing forage for the much larger herds that are necessary if we expect to furnish the additional food for starving Europe in accordance with the plans of the Food Administration. (2) It materially increases our receipts and helps to bring the organi- zation nearer the desired self-supporting basis. On the other hand, are not the dangers from a policy of this kind much greater than any possible benefit to be derived from overcrowding the Forests with stock without making adequate investigations to deter- mine the damage that is being done to the natural forest growth? There is no need in this article to discuss the effort that is alread\^ being made by stockmen to have their "temporary emergency permits" made permanent on the grounds that since the range has carried the increased number for two seasons it can carry them indefinitely, nor of the ten- dency on the part of supervisors to forget the silvicultural viewpoint and look upon their Forests as big ranges. The Forester has foreseen this very danger and has sounded a word of warning. Tliis matter of temporary increases is not the danger, as I see it. so 173 li-t JOURNAL OF FORESTRY much as the grazing idea that has been instilled into the heads of our men. It is natural for the average ranger to be more interested in the grazing business than to the division of his entire district into working circles with definite plans of management and rotations, such as our forestry regiments found in France. But it is surprising to read in planting reports and to have advanced to you by men who have had forestry educations the argument that planting should not be done on certain areas because they are now bringing in more revenue and doing more good in the production of beef than they could possibly do by their change from a light aspen stand, valuable for grazing, to the char- acteristic lodgepole type having small forage value and not producing any revenue for 150 to 200 years and possibly inaccessible for logging. These men have forgotten the reasons for the creation of the National Forests — timber production and water conservation. They do not have the vision of the French foresters who planted a century ago the trees that helped so much to defeat the enemy today. Areas which from the present logging viewpoint are inaccessible and represent minus values will be the storehouses of the future. But I am not attempting to show that the present grazing policy is injurious to the best silvicultural development of our Forests. In the Rocky Mountain District of the Forest Service it can safely be said that sufficient investigation has not been made to prove or disprove this point, although in justice to the branch of Research it may be stated that several projects of this character proposed by this office have been eliminated from the general program of investigations. The solution of some of these problems should now be effected by the closer co- operation of the branches of Grazing and Silviculture, as planned in the recently announced policy of the Forester. But this grazing policy has a bearing upon a larger movement into which we are just now coming. It is a known fact in our history that after each of our big wars in this country there has been a movement to the soil. Men who prior to the war had indoor positions will have become so accustomed to life in the open that their former jobs will be intolerable ; the war will also have created in many boys, some of whom prior to the time they were drafted never had been more than fifty miles from their homes, the spirit of "wunderlust." To meet this spirit, we have a grateful Congress or scheming politicians providing ways and means for the soldiers to acquire homesteads under easy terms. Al- ready the Department of Interior has announced proposed plans for making available more homes for the soldiers. But most of the public domain now open consists of desert land, cut-over land, or swamps. PLANTING IN KIXATION TO TIIK FrTlRK 1T5 Large areas have recently been opened under the grazing homestead law and as rapidly entered. The National Forests in one district alone contain about six million acres of grassland, sagebrush, land above timberline. etc. Is there any reason for supposing that the prospective homesteader, the politician, and the agitator will not point with greedy hands to the large grazing areas within the National Forests and ask why this land, similar in character to the grazing homesteads, should not also be opened to entry? They will point to the fact that the National Forests have as advantages over the average grazing homestead water and timber ; they will point to the increased number of stock that have been grazed on the Forest ranges during the past few years, which demonstrates clearly the grazing character of the land and makes it compare very favorably with the average grazing homestead. You may doubt the value of the grazing homesteads and state that this land will eventually pass into the hands of stockmen, but this will not be apparent for some years and not before the threatened danger to the National Forests is likely to appear. During this period the Forest Service will be upon the defensive and a clear and definite policy will be necessary in order for the Service to retain its areas intact. The necessity for retaining scattered areas of grassland for administrative reasons in connection with the manage- ment of adjacent timber lands is of little force to the general public. The argument that certain areas are potentially forest lands and neces- sary to the management of a certain unit loses its value when these areas of sagebrush or grassland are continued year after year as ranges and no efifort is made to afforest or reforest them, as the case may be. To this the reply is made that all the Forests have been thoroughly classified in accordance with the existing law, and that we simply need to produce our classification reports and show that the land is more valuable for forestry than it is for agriculture or grazing. Undoubtedly the classification reports answer the purpose in segregating arable land from true forest land, as we know agriculture development at present. But I contend that our classification reports are not infallible, particu- larly with respect to the present policy of developing public lands to their highest use, as expressed by Congress in the grazing homestead bill. That Congress has not looked with favor upon the inclusion of purely grazing land within the Forests or their administration .sepa- rately under lease to stockmen is evident by their turning down pro- posed legislation of this kind. This being the national policy, whv should we not expect attacks upon the classifications of the National Forests if the large grazing areas within these Forests, having a poten- 17(5 JOURNAI, OF FORIvSTRY tial forest value, are not devoted to the use for which they were set aside? Sympathy for the returned soldier, or the political advantage to be gained by some congressman or group of congressmen, or party, in winning the favor of the large soldier vote will probably have consid- erable influence in the passage of future land legislation. That legisla- tion of this character is successful is demonstrated by the creation of National Parks continually from National Forests, regardless of na- tional needs, the influence of the congressional delegation often being the determining feature rather than the merit of the project. The attack has already started upon the organization and it is up to us to have our line of defense clearly prepared. It seems to me that a vigorous planting policy upon non-timbered lands within our National Forests will assist greatly in meeting the present situation. Never before have the people of the United States had the needs of forestry impressed upon them so much as during the present period. The discovery that our supplies of black walnut, black locust, and accessible spruce were almost exhausted came as a shock to the people of the United States. The knowledge that France had been practicing forestry for over a century and had thus acquired forests which helped to shorten the road to victory has stimulated the interest of the people in forestry. We even have the National Council of De- fense urging the planting of walnut, hickory, and other species of forest trees. This indicates that the nation as a whole would be prepared for any expansion in our planting program. Extensive planting of this kind will remove the objection that some lands are being held for graz- ing purposes and will indicate that we were consistent in including cer- tain lands within National Forests on account of their potential forest values. Of course, it will be impossible to start planting extensively at once without some investigation and some plans. From successful plantings we have data for numerous regions, indicating the proper methods and species to use, and for other areas the data which we had hoped to secure through ranger planting was rendered valueless by the tramp- ling of cattle. It is true that many of these failures were due to care- less selections of planting sites, often the small plots being located in places convenient to the ranger station, but on sites unfavorable for tree growth. The present planting policy calls for the forestation of the most favorable areas first, with intensive experimentation on the more vigorous sites before large operations are commenced there. It PLANTING IN RELATION TO THE FUTURE 177 has just been announced that a commission, which has been investigat- ing the forestry situation in England, has recommended that 1,000,000 acres be reforested and has formulated definite plans for the work. Even battle-worn France several months ago requested 1,000 pounds of Douglas-fir seed for reforestation purposes, which indicates the im- portance she places upon perpetuating her forests. The point is that it will not be necessary to start in immediately upon extensive planting operations, provided we at once formulate our policy, draw up our plans, and announce them to the public. During the meantime investigations covering a wide range of condi- tions from the efifect of grazing upon reproduction in various types to the proper species and methods of planting can be started, and if neces- sary a start can be made upon the reduction of grazing in accordance with the Forester's announced policy "that grazing must give way to forestry when there is a conflict." We recognize that grazing has a certain value in the present forest and undoubtedly will have, to a less extent, in the future fully stocked stand in the protection it affords through the use of luxuriant forage crops. There will be also certain minor types which possibly will be permanently valuable principally for grazing, including wet parks and willow lands. But many of these points are of uncertain status and it is our duty to determine the correct use of all lands. Let us preserve the integrity of our present forests, which we have been reducing and compacting during the past ten years until it would seem that a halt must be called if we would have anything left but rock slides and land above timberline. Let us put them to their proper use in the practice of forestry and water protection and subordinate graz- ing to its proper place, which must be determined by thorough investi- gation. Let us formulate a definite planting policy that will finally establish a forest cover on the large treeless areas within our bound- aries, thus increasing the water-storing capacity of our Forests, so that more desert lands may be reclaimed, and providing timber for the future, when our present supplies will long since have been exhausted. THE TIMBER CENSUS IN THE NORTHEASTERN STATES ' By a. B. Recknageiv Shortly before the Germans launched their drive on the vernal equi- nox, which, as far as they were concerned, ended in a winter solstice known as an "armistice," certain members of the War Committee of the Society of American Foresters foregathered in the New York office of R. S. Kellogg and planned another drive which, it is hoped, will result far more favorably. The objective was nothing less than a timber census of the North- eastern States, and, to be precise, the meeting was held on April 25, 1918. Those present represented the States of Maine and New York, and a plan of campaign was developed for securing the desired data. The chairman of the War Committee. Professor Toumey, of Yale, was unable to attend, but shouldered the burdens of securing the needed data for the States of Massachusetts, Rhode Island. Connecticut, New Hampshire. and Vermont by enlisting the co-operation of various organ- izations in these States. The campaign developed rapidly and met with an unexpected degree of support on the part of timberland owners. Forms for reporting estimates were prepared and sent out in each State by some recognized agency. In New York, Mr. C. R. Pettis. Superintendent of State For- ests, and myself, under date of May 15, sent out the following letter, which may be considered typical : "The undersigned request your careful attention to the enclosed form. There is urgent need for reliable information about merchantable standing timber to meet the inquiries of the Federal Government as to available sources of supply for war industries. "The information obtained from you will be kept strictly confidential and no one will see the figures who has any pecuniary interest involved. "Your co-operation in this undertaking is necessary for its success. Please give the information immediately in order that statistics may he tabulated and com- pleted in time to help the Government." What followed up to the ending of the war has been told by Pro- fessor Toumey in the November issue of the Journal, so that there is no need to repeat. * Read by I. C. Williams before the Society of American Foresters at its annual meeting, at Baltimore. Md.. December 27, 1918. 178 TI.MI'.KR CKXSl'S I\ XORTIIEASTEKX STATKS 1T9 On the day following the signing of the armistice, the "census makers" gathered in Boston and, with the joyous shouts of the peace revel in their ears, decided that despite the end of the war the valuable data accumulated in the census should not be lost, but that the work should be carried to completion. It was left to each State to compile the data and to publish them through whatever agency in the. State seemed most appropriate. Then the Forest Service will probably pub- lish a summary for the entire Northeastern region. So the matter stands at present. Conceived as a piece of war work, the timber census gives promise of filling a peace need as well. Witness the following resolution adopted at the Reconstruction Conference of the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association in Chicago on No- vember 23 : "Whereas, A census of standing timber classified by species, quality, location, and accessibility — a census of cut-over lands that will remain temporarily or per- manently in forest would secure to the lumber industry information important in the conduct of its business ; and "Whereas, Such a census would afford a basis for the interpretation of eco- nomic problems in forest and wood-using industries ; and "Whereas, Such a census would greatly aid the development of a permanent national forest policy, with respect to timber ownership, lumber export, tariff, local taxation, value of stumpage, and sundry forest problems; "Therei-ore, First. The National Lumber Manufacturers' Association heartil}' endorses the proposal that the Bureau of the Census with the Forest Service undertake such census ; "Second. To this end the association offers its facilities to the Bureau of the Census and the Forest Service ; "Third. The association urges Congress to make adequate appropriation to make such census complete and comprehensive." I would like to cite one practical result of the timber census. Only a few months ago the country was being scottred for aircraft spruce. "How much spruce have you ?" was a burning question. The answers varied. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bui. 544, The Red Spruce (Oct., 1917). gave a total of 13,300,000 M feet board measure of spruce in New York State. ]\Iany of us were skeptical that so much spruce remained. J\Ir. K. M. Clark, of the Forest Service, in a report on airplane spruce sup- plies (June, 1918) estimated the total standing spruce in New York State at 4.000,000 M feet. The Forest Service (Sept.. 1918) revised its estimate to 2.869 ^^ ^^^t — a difference of 10 billion feet in less than a year ! The census has shown that there are actually about ^/j billion feet, board measure, of standing spruce in New York State. REVIEWS Logging in the Douglas Fir Region. By W. H. Gibbons. Bull. 711, U. S^ Department of Agriculture. Contribution from the Forest Serv- ice. Washington, D. C. 1918. Pp. 256. A person undertaking to write a volume describing the logging indus- try of the Pacific Northwest is confronted with an immense mass of details and a ramification of methods which renders the full presenta- tion in a readable form exceedingly difficult. The author of the bulle- tin, however, in his preface, frankly states that "the subject is broad in scope, and only the more important features of Douglas fir sawlog operation, as a rule, are covered.'' The first portion of the bulletin is devoted to a brief description of several very important matters con- nected with the logging industry, such as the organization of Pacific Coast logging operations, labor and wages, camps, workingmen's com- pensation acts, taxation, scaling and grading, accounting, and log prices. There then ensues a detailed description of the various steps involved in converting the standing tree into logs and transporting the logs to the sawmill. Falling, bucking, yarding, loading, railroad transportation, unloading, rafting, and towing are discussed in detail in the order in which they take place in the woods. Much of this information has been secured from the Proceedings of the Pacific Logging Congress and various Pacific Coast lumber trade journals, but the bulletin is none the less valuable, as it, for the first time, sets forth in a logical printed form a complete survey of the industry as carried on in the Pacific North- west. The author is to be complimented on the freedom from inaccuracies that have appeared in some other publications dealing with the logging industry which have been written by men not intimately connected with the industry. Two exceptions to this statement were noted. At one point a diagram shows ground yarding roads radiating out from the landings, whereas in practice they radiate from a lead block attached to stumps located a convenient distance on either side of the landing. In another place the salary of a logging engineer is listed at $100 to $125, which is just the same rate as given for the scaler and bookkeeper and less than for some of the skilled workmen of the operation. In other words, the logging engineer, who has spent four years in college, or the equivalent in practical work, is worth no more than a bookkeeper, who 180 RKVIEWS 181 can learn the simple routine of camp accounting in a few days. It may be true that the author found some second-rate men masquerading as logging engineers at this rate, but he evidently failed to ascertain the salaries of the prominent and representative engineers who reviewed his manuscript. It is unfortunate that this statement should appear twice in a publication which will be circulated as widely as this bulletin, since the logging engineer is just beginning to take his place as the man in charge of the planning of operations, and as such is being placed on a par with the foremen or other high-salaried men. Since the industry is in a state of rapid evolution and the publica- tion of the bulletin was evidently delayed for some time following its compilation, several important changes might be given. High lead log- ging, wdiich is mentioned as a special method, would now be described as the standard method. As a result; the standard yarding distances listed would have to be considerably decreased, and the Duplex loading niethod would be described as the standard method of loading logs. If the bulletin were written at the present time, mention would need to be made of the swinging-boom method of loading, and also the two- speed donkey engine, which is meeting with considerable favor. The description of operations is taken up chiefly from the standpoint of costs rather than from that of comparative efficiency. This is in keeping with the announcement made in the preface, namely, "greatest emphasis is laid on costs, especially costs about which not much written material is available." The lists of costs are very complete, and in many places the fluctuation is given over a period of several years. Unfortunately, all of the costs cover a period prior to April, 1917 — that is, previous to the present era of w^ar prices, and are, therefore, entirely out of date. However, the bulletin is presented in a very readable form and forms a valuable addition to the publications on lumbering. E. T. C. Wood and Other Structural Organic Materials} By Charles H. Snow. 191 7. Pp. 478. McGraw-Hill Book Co. It will be of value to many foresters and teachers to know that a con- cise summary of the influence of wood-destroying animals and the ap- proved remedies and preventatives devised have been prepared by one who has devoted special study to this field. Snow is an engineer who has given special attention to shipworms and to methods of controlling ^ See also review in Vol. XVI, p. 585. 183 JOURNAL or FORESTRY them. The common injurious animals with which the engineer deals are shipworms, the crustaceans, Liinnoria, Chelura, Sphccroma, barna- cles, and the molluskan pholads. Snow devotes a chapter (pp. 300- 325) to summarizing the injuries to wood which are made by animals. Numerous methods have been tried to secure protection from marine borers, such as transference to salt water, by external protective coat- ings for the wood, of metal, tiling, cement, large-headed nails, or a paraffine mixture reinforced by burlap. By impregnating wood with creosote, protection is given as long as the creosote lasts, even as much as forty years. Of terrestrial wood-destroyers, attention is called to the fact that engineers seldom protect wood from the attacks of beetles, although living trees are often destroyed by them. From an engineer- ing standpoint, termites, or white ants, are the most destructive of land w^ood-destroving animals. C. C. A. Eighth AuJiiial Report of the Conservation Coiitiiiissioii. State of Xew York, igi8. Albany, 1919. 205 pp. The Eighth Annual Report of the New York State Conservation Commission is a reply to the challenge of its opponents and critics. Coming at a time when the commission is under fire, it sets forth clearly just what the commission has accomplished and what it proposes to do. By reading this report, any citizen of the State may inform himself as to the work of this State department and draw his own conclusions. This report, more than any in recent years, is a finished piece of literary work, for which credit is due the unflagging zeal of the com- mission's able secretary, Warwick Carpenter. The report consists of 205 pages, divided as follows : Pages General Topics 32 Fish and Game 62 Land and Forests 43 Waters ( Storage and Power) 28 Saratoga Springs 19 Miscellaneous 21 It is superbly illustrated by 24 plates. Space does not permit the briefing of any but the section on Land and Forests, which is. of course, of the greatest interest to foresters. As the report points out, the administration of the forest preserve — an area about one and a half times the size of the State of Delaware, intermixed with private land of even greater area and bounded by more REVIEWS 183 than 9,000 miles of lines — is not an easy problem. It is, therefore, greatly to the credit of the commission that trespasses such as were com- mitted a decade ago are unknown. In past years the commission has urged legislation which would give it authority to regulate lumbering operations on privately owned lands, with a view to stimulating tree growth and perpetuating the forests. The legislature has not favored this, but has, through the appropria- tion of funds to acquire land, made it possible to accomplish the same objects in another way. The purchase of 159,855 acres, at an average price of $5.83 per acre, has been approved, and 18,635 acres more expropriated. This, added to the present area of 1,838,322 acres, gives a total of nearly 2,000,000 acres in the forest preserve. A new high record was made in planting 4,213 acres. Some of this work was done by women who worked in the planting gangs. The women gave complete satisfaction. In addition to the 4,213,000 trees planted on State land, 426,000 trees were given to State institutions and 2,597,785 trees were sold, making a total of 7,236,785 trees, or. perhaps, 7,000 acres planted altogether. The production of the State nurseries in the year was 7,236,413 trees. This it is planned to increase largely. The commission feels that it is now safe to resume the planting of white pine under the following conditions : 1. That the stock which is to be planted shall be absolutely free from any disease. 2. That the plantation be made on an area on which there are no cur- rant or gooseberry bushes. 3. That there be an immune zone of 500 yards around the plantation which is free of Ribes. The work of eradicating Ribes on 2(^,2ili7 acres cost as high as $2.35 per acre and as low as $0.31 per acre, an average of $1.46 per acre — an excellent showing. In 1918. which was a dry year, 398 fires burned over 7.354 acres and did damage to the extent of $8,170. Ten years ago 368,072 acres were burned, with a loss of $802,135, which shows the improvement made. Among the causes of fire, railroads lead (25 per cent of number, 10 per cent of area), wnth smokers a close second. Fishermen, burning brush, and campers follow in the order named, then berry-pickers, lightning (19), incendiary, and hunters. The rest are less than ten each. Statistics of forest products for the cut in the State show a further falling ofif. The total for 1917 w^as 861,870,781 board feet, of which 1S4: JOURNAL OF FORliSTRY 360,541,000 board feet were lumber and an equal amount of pulpwood. New York dropped below the billion- feet mark ten years ago and shows no sign of recovering its former position. Under the heading of war work, mention is made of the wood-fuel campaign, the timber census, etc. Among the forestry lessons taught by the w^ar are cited the need of protecting watersheds by reforesta- tion, for the purpose of greater power; that timber-growing must be encouraged by proper taxation, in order that it may be profitable for land-owners to use suitable land for the production of a forest crop ; that wood must be used more freely as fuel, and that forests must be protected more effectively than ever before. To all of which the reader will say, "Amen — so be it." But he will look in vain for any mention of another lesson taught .by the war, equally obvious and of capital importance, namely, that the State forest preserve should be made an asset rather than an expensive luxury. The Conservation Commission in 1918 spent $875,702.68; it took in $349,621.75. Here is a deficit of half a million dollars, most or all of which can be saved the taxpayers by the judicious sale of matured timber. A. B. R. PERIODICAL LITERATURE BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY Trelease has recently published two important American papers on American oaks ; one on the ancient oaks Oaks of America and the other on the naming of Amer- ican hybrid oaks. The purpose in the first of these papers is to bring together the scattered facts relating to fossil American oaks. The many species of oak which are now a most striking component of forest vegetation in America and of large economic value are worthy of much attention on the part of silviculturists and dendrologists. A thorough knowledge of living species demands some knowledge of those that existed before our own day. Although a large number of fossil oaks have been described, they have, for the most part, been identified from the impressions of leaf fragments. Only two fossil species appear to be known in fruit. Due to the fragmentary character of fossil ma- terial and the absence of twigs and fruits, many fossils appear to have been called oaks rather because they could be called nothing else than for any other positive reason. Early identifications often placed European and American forms to- gether, but at present very few American fossil oaks are considered identical with European species. The earliest appearance of Qnercus is in the Cretaceous, for which 48 species are recognized in the United States and Canada. None of these survive the Cretaceous and none closely resembles existing oaks. Fifty-six species are reported from the Eocene, distributed from Alaska to Mexico. Like those from the Cretaceous, none closely resembles living species. The species for the Miocene, numbering 42, are widely distributed over the United States. These oaks are more closely related to existing species, as shown in the fact that a Miocene oak of California has been considered a variety of an existing species. Otherwise none of the species of Miocene oaks are thought to exist today. The Pleistocene oaks, which occur in glacial and later deposits, are strikingly like existing species and manv are considered identical, while others are believed to be ancestral forms of present species. The author has arranged the principal leaf types of American fossil 185 LSI) JOURNAL OF FORESTRY oaks in a key, but without regard to horizon. This arrangement is for convenience of reference rather than the showing of relationships. The text is illustrated with nine plates showing different leaf types. The second paper by Dr. Trelease deals entirely with American hybrid oaks. The reviewer is impressed by the large number of re- ported hybrids. In no case, however, has hybridization been definitely established between the black oaks and the white oaks. The author states that in his study of American oaks he has had to account for a considerable number of hybrids, some of which have been described and figured as species in the ordinary sense of the term, while others have been made known by reference to specimens more or less gener- ally disturbed by their collectors. He states that no collective treatment of these forms has been made. They are encountered in herbaria some- times under binomials of their own and sometimes under one or the other of the parental species. Two methods of designating hybrids are sanctioned by usage. These methods are illustrated in the naming of the hybrid between Oiioxus alba and Oucrcus priuiis — a common hybrid of eastern United States. Quercus alba X prinus.^ X Quercus Saulii." In the former method the names of the two parent species are made use of ; in the latter the hybrid is designated by an entirely new binomial. Each of the indigenous hybrid oaks in the table compiled by the author is designated by a binomial and by the equivalent name derived from the tw'o parent species. More than 125 indigenous hybrid oaks are listed. The paper is accompanied by three plates, showing photo- graphic reproductions of herbarium material. J. W. T. This paper, by Herbert C. Hanson, gives the Leaf Structure results of a year's investigation, beginning the as Related to summer of 1915, the purpose of which was to Bnvironment determine the exact differences in the structure of the leaves in the center of the tree from those on the south periphery — that is, shade leaves and sun leaves. The work is distinguished from most of the previous investigations by the * The ancient oaks of America. Memoirs Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Vol. I, June, 1918, pp. 492-501. ' Na>ning American hybrid oaks. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. LVI, 1917, pp. 43-52. PERIODICAL LITERATURE 187 measurement of the environmental factors, and thus deals with the modern phase. The factors measured were : light, evaporating power of the air, temperature, humidity, and wind. A brief survey is given of the recent previous investigations, in which the work of some thirty investigators is analyzed and the result stated. The readings for the data on factors were made in the sun among the leaves of the south periphery of isolated trees and at the apex of trees growing in the forest. At a corresponding height to stui readings on isolated trees, readings were taken in representative positions in the crowns ; and for forest trees, readings were taken among the lowest leaves. Care was taken to measure the different factors at the same point in the tree. Cytological material was collected from both sun leaves and shade leaves which showed the differences in structure. The response of the leaves tmder these two different conditions was shown in: the green and dry weights and water content of given leaf areas ; the thickness of the leaf and its parts ; the compactness of the tissues ; the structure of individual cells ; and in the macroscopic char- acters, as area and lobing. In obtaining the physical factors, light w^as measured by the Clements photometer between ii a. m. and 2 p. m. in Atigust. Livingston's stand- ardized porous cups were used for measuring the evaporating power of the air during the period from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m. Temperature w^as taken by simultaneous readings in the two positions, and was usually 1° C. higher where the light was stronger. Wind velocity w'as also obtained by simultaneous readings and by means of hand anemometers. Humidity readings were obtained by means of cog psychrometers from the same trees from which the temperature data were secured. ]\Iuch original data are given on the effects of the physical factors under the two contrasted conditions, set forth in tables and illustrated by drawings of leaf sections. The article on the whole impresses one as the result of careful and well planned work according to the best modern methods, and that it has yielded results of value. The previous work is apparently well canvassed and full use made of the data obtained and theories advanced by other investigators. The results obtained are also thoroughly dis- cussed and compared. A bibliography is appended and the essential points summarized by the author as follows : I. The light intensity, as measured by the Clements photometer. within the crown of 10 common broad-leaved trees was found in Au- gust to vary from .0076 of full sunlight in Acer sacchaniiii to .1132 in Ou.rcus macrocarpa. 188 JOURNAI, OF FORESTRY 2. The evaporation, measured by the Livingston porous cup atniom- eters, was found to be from i^ to 2^ times as great at the south periphery as within the crown. 3. The temperature at the south periphery was usually but one or two degrees higher than within the crown. 4. The humidity, measured by cog-psychrometers, was usually from I per cent to 6 per cent higher within the crown. 5. A wind of low velocity caused greater differences in the air move- ment between the center and the periphery of the crown than a strong wind. The wind, was found to be from i^^ to 8 times as strong at the periphery as within the crown. 6. Transpiration experiments showed that the south periphery leaves lose more water per unit area than the center leaves. In Fra.vinits pennsylvanica, the south periphery leaves lost from 3 to 6 times as much as the center leaves; in Uhnus americana, about 12 times as much. Even w4ien the potometer containing south periphery leaves is placed under similar conditions with the potometer containing center leaves, it will lose more water per unit area. 7. The leaves from the periphery of the tree were usually more deeply lobed, more prominently toothed, and smaller than the leaves from the center of the same tree. 8. The water content of the leaves from the center of the tree was always higher than that of the leaves from the south periphery. The amount of dry material per unit area in the exposed leaves bears a relation to tolerance. The dry weight of the leaves of the most tolerant trees is less per unit area than the dry weight of the leaves of the least tolerant trees, as leaves from Acer saccharmn contain 1.029 grain of dry matter per unit area, while leaves from Quercus macrocarpa con- tain 1.272 grains. 9. The differences in the total thickness between the south periphery and the center leaves on the same tree are usually greater than the dif- ferences heretofore reported from leaves of mesophytic and xerophytic forms of the same species. The leaves from the south periphery have more palisade tissue, greater compactness of structure, thicker epider- mis and cuticle than the leaves from within the crown. E. R. H. American Journal of Botany, November, 1917, Vol. 4, pp. 533-560. PERIODICAL LITKRATURE 1 HO SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION Nicholson writes regarding the advisabihty and Mesopotamia practicality of afforestation on a large scale in and jMesopotamia. Afforestation Lower ^Mesopotamia, bounded on the east and north by hills and on the west by deserts, is a vast plain, for the most part clay or sandy soils of great depth and po- tential fertilit}' — a tract of country which in the period before the Mon- golian invasion and Arab apathy yielded plenteous harvests of grain and which can by extensive irrigation again become one of the world's grain fields. This section of the country could not, then, be considered in any large aft'orestation scheme ; but since there is at present here a dearth of timber of any kind, it is considered advisable that afforesta- tion be undertaken on waste areas to the extent of furnishing the dis- trict with its requirements of small timber for fuelwood, etc. Neither the Syrian desert nor the sandy gravelly tract adjacent to these plains of Lower Mesopotamia lend themselves to afforestation unless afforestation is linked up with irrigation systems. To the east and north are hills interspersed with plains, the soil varying from pure gravel to sandy clay or rich loam. The absence of hard rock brings about erosion and the configuration of the ground remains indetermi- nate, only the higher ridges having attained any definite form. Here the land, except for the scattered plains, is of forest or pasture soil, is independent of irrigation, owing to greater rainfall, better soil aeration, and the presence of springs and streams. Moreover, this region is not altogether destitute of timber. This, then, would seem to be a promis- ing section of the country for afforestation. The prosperity which the grain fields of Mesopotamia will bring to the country and the remote- ness of foreign supplies of timber would seem to justify afforestation of this section, which at best yields poor pasture. The protective role the forests would play in the conservation of moisture and the preven- tion of floods is an added reason for aft'orestation. As to the practicality of aft'orestation. though records are not avail- able, it is considered that climatic conditions would be favorable and that the rainfall would be sufticient to support forest growth, the explanation of the absence of forests in this age being their gradual destruction by men and animals, rendering natural reproduction im- possible. If. however, this impossibility results from desiccation of the soil rather than from the eft'ects of grazing, "the outlook, from the for- ester's point of view, is not very hopeful." Hope of success mav be ]!)() JOURNAL OF FORESTRY gleaned from legends of the country, which tell of "hills covered with stretches of boundless forests." The conclusions reached by the author are : Afforestation is practi- cable, but not everywhere ; that, considering the difficulties to be over- come, afiforestation should be experimental in character and limited in extent ; the fertile tracts in the hills and portions of the broken plains not given over to agriculture should be the field for experiment. Indian Forester, October, 1918, pp. 476-485. MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT An interesting financial transaction is reported Is Forest in detail by Luttrell concerning a plantation made Planting in 1881 with 137 Douglas fir in lo-foot spacing. ProHtahle? The harvest in 1918 yielded 2,459 cubic feet of round timber and pitwood, sold at $1,336. Ex- penses of lumbering were $218, leaving net receipts of $1,117, or ap- proximately at the rate of $2,259 P^^ acre. There are Douglas fir upward of 40 feet high growing outside the plot and self-sown from it. The plot was replanted in 1918 by National Service women with Japanese larch, which have made a good start. Quarterly Journal of Forestry. January, 1919, pp. 58-59. UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY A review is here given of the results obtained Treatment by the forest department after years of experi- of mental work in the treatment of Indian timbers Timber for sleepers and published by Mr. Pearson in "Antiseptic Treatment of Timber Recording Re- sults from Past Experiments." This work is said to be very replete in information. There are 32 species included. All of the standard and well-known treatments were used. Mr. Pearson states that "it is difficult to lay sufficient stress on the importance of seasoning timber before treatment, for unless proper care is taken in this respect any undertaking of this nature will be doomed to failure." In dry, hot localities the moisture content should not exceed 15 per cent and in humid localities 25 per cent. Steaming at 250°, in cylinders, followed by vacuum and also boiling in oil at 230° F. is used. Pressure plant PERIODICAL ijtkrature; 191 gives better results than open-tank treatment. A long list of antiseptics was used, including oils, tars, and salts. The latter are liable to leach out during the rainy season. "Cheap creosote of good quality is at the basis of the whole question, and so long as India has to import all its wants, so long will the treatment of sleepers be handicapped." Duration tests have been conducted in six groups of antiseptics, and the average life of imtreated and treated sleepers is stated. "Review- ing the results of all six groups of laboratory experiments, it may be stated, generally, that the hard and moderately hard woods treated, as compared with untreated specimens, have fared, in proportion, better than the softwoods. The results obtained with Powellized tim1)er are fairly satisfactory, but the outstanding feature of the experiments is the superior results obtained with the various coal-tar creosote products as compared with salt solutions." H. D. T. Indian Forester, September, 1918, pp. 424-434. EDITORIAL COMMENT Is Public Purchase of Private Timber Lands the Only Solution ? The annual meeting of the Society of American Foresters, held in Baltimore December 27 and 28 (1918), adopted a number of resolu- tions as the attitude of the profession toward important forest prob- lems of the day. These resolutions are printed elsewhere in this issue of the Journal. One has especial bearing on the future national forest policy of the United States. It reads as follows : Whereas a sustained timber supply adequate in quantity and diversified in quality is alike essential to national defense in war time and national progress in time of peace; and Whereas the growing of timber to the larger sizes involves an investment too long in time, with too great hazards and too low a rate of final return for private capital to undertake ; and Whereas only 30 per cent of the present forest area and but little more than 20 per cent of the existing timber stand is in public forests in the United States — a wholly insufficient basis for the future timber supply of the country — therefore be it Resolved, That the Society of American Foresters urge the immediate initia- tion of a permanent policj^ of national and State, or other public acquisition of forest land, until the acreage of publicly owned land capable of producing timber is sufficient eventually to supply the bulk of the raw material required by the nation. It is very much to be regretted that such an important resolution, committing the Society of American Foresters to a definite national forest policy, was adopted without any opportunity for deliberation by the entire membership of the Society. Its wording conveyed the im- pression that the Society believed the only solution of the forest prob- lem in this country to lie in the acquisition of forest lands by the public. It has already been interpreted by lumber journals as a frank admission on the part of foresters that private timber owners cannot profitably engage in timber production, and therefore are given a clean bill of health for all the devastation and destruction they may work on the national timber resources in their custody. We are far from denying the great importance of public ownership of forest lands for providing the future needs for timber in this coun- try. Xo one has been more ardent in advocating the need for extend- 192 EIJITORIAL COMMENT 193 ing ownership of forest lands of this country by the pubhc than the editors of this Journal. We still believe that the enactment of the Weeks law, authorizing purchase of private timber lands' by the Gov- ernment, was one of the wisest and most far-reaching legislative meas- ures adopted within the last decade. We are advocating with all our strength, and with deepest convictions of the wisdom of the action, its extension so as to cover not only forest lands needed for watershed protection, but also forest lands for timber production alone. What we should like to guard against is the practical limitation of such a policy, and therefore its inadequacy for the immediate solution of the serious situation with respect to future supplies of timber. It is only because we believe that as an immediate solution it is not likely to accomplish any tangible results within the brief space of time which we have left in which to make our remaining timber last, that we cannot see in this policy alone a practical solution. The sponsors of the resolution have evidently entirely overlooked the fact that in order for public ownership of forest lands to accom- plish the purpose which they had in mind the people of this country, either the Federal Government or the States, must acquire within a short space of time the greater part, if not all, of the 78 per cent of the country's forests, including the best and most accessible timber now in private ownership. These private timber lands represent a value close to six billion dol- lars, not including the mill and logging equipment, in which another billion dollars is invested. While the war has demonstrated that noth- ing is too great for the Government to undertake when the necessity is evident, especially since under conservative management this invest- ment could pay a fair rate of return on its entire valuation, it is difficult to conceive that the present or any other Congress confronted with a budget two or three times larger than before the war would ever give its consent to the Government undertaking such a policy on a large scale. Yet nothing short of large-scale public timber-land purchase can solve the problem. As a matter of fact, it is doubtful whether even the advocates of this resolution intended that the Government should undertake purchase of public lands on such an enormous scale. What they evidently had in mind is the gradual acquisition of private forest lands as they are cut over by their present owners. It is roughly esti- mated that from 10 to 12 million acres of private timber land is cut over every year. Of this about one million acres is cleared for agri- cultural use, six to seven million acres comes up mostlv to inferior second growth, and from three to four million acres becomes waste 194 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY land. Even under the most careful management, approaching the pres- ent European practice, it may be conservatively estimated that from 350 to 400 million acres of productive forest land is needed to meet the timber requirements of this country in perpetuity. Leaving out of consideration doubts as to the wisdom of buying only waste lands, if the Federal Government and the States should acquire each year merely the three to four million acres of most severely cut-over land, even allowing for the more than 100 million acres already in Government ownership, it would still take in the neighborhood of 80 years for the country to become assured of sufficient forest area to produce the timber it needs. This solution, therefore, will come too late to save our remaining timber resources. To do even this, the Federal Govern- ment and the States will have to have regular annual appropriations, aggregating at least 10 to 12 million dollars for the purchase of waste land. This does not include any appropriations necessary for the pro- tection or reclamation of these lands, but of course such provision will be necessary, since the desired objects would not be attained by the purchase of lands without making them productive. In the light of our past experience in the purchase of timber lands, we seriously doubt whether such appropriations would be forthcoming. It took twelve years of agitation and education of the public before Congress passed the Weeks law and appropriated $11,000,000 for the purchase of private timber lands essential for protection of critical watersheds of the country. During the eight years of the operation of this law less than 2,000,000 acres have been acquired or approved for acquisition by the Federal Government and practically none by the States. During these 20 years at least 60 million acres of privately owned timber lands became waste land. \Miat assurance, then, have we that in the future purchase will keep pace with devastation? ]\Iean- while the destruction of our remaining timber resources is going on at an accelerated rate. The timber holders of the southern pineries, fear- ing competition of Douglas fir, made more real since the construction of the Panama Canal, are bending all their efforts to "retire their in- vestment" in timber by excessive cutting. J. E. Rhodes. Secretary of the Southern Pine Alanufacturers" Association, recently made the pub- lic statement that within five to eight years over 3,000 sawmills in the South will cut out their available timber. According to other lumber- men, the entire stand of virgin southern yellow pine will be cut out within ten years. Whether this is true or not is not pertinent to our discussion, but is significant of what is taking place in the lumber industrv. KDITORIAL C().M.\[KXT 195 Another elementary point which foresters, most of all, should not forget is that unless cut-over land comes up naturally to forest within a few years, or is prepared for agriculture or pasture, its reclamation for forest purposes becomes a very difificult and expensive task. On the other hand, when the practice of forestry begins with the forest still on the ground, its perpetuation is in many cases a simple matter, often merely at the cost of fire protection. If, therefore, we adopt a laissc::-fairc policy toward private timber holdings, and the public as- sumes control of them only after they have been laid waste, their recla- mation will strain the financial resources of the States or even of the Federal Government. England's example ought to be very instructive. The plans of the United Kingdom for the next ten years provide for an appropriation of over $17,000,000 to reforest about 200,000 acres, and yet England, with its island climate, oflfers most favorable condi- tions for tree growth. It is commonly believed that the older countries of Europe have solved the problem of continuous forest production by government ownership of timber lands. This does not entirely square with the facts. In Switzerland, for instance, where forest management is highly developed, the government owns only 4.6 per cent of the forest area ; in Belgium. 4.8 per cent is owned by the State ; in France 12 per cent ; in Austria 10.7 per cent. Even in Germany, where State ownership was more highly developed than in most other European countries, less than one-third was in actual government ownership. Yet most of the forests of those countries are on a continuous productive basis. While in our own country, with 22 per cent of the area under Government and State ownership, the timber supplies are rapidly disappearing. It is further to be regretted that the resolution takes it for granted that the practice of forestry by private timber owners is unprofitable, and they should therefore not be held morally responsible for the proper use of their forests. While it is true that except under special conditions forestry is profitable only in the long run and financially means "present expenditure or foregoing present revenue for the sake of a future revenue." there is or ought to be enough profit in the exploi- tation of the virgin timber, properly carried on. to leave the ground not a waste, and here the aid of the Government may well come in, as indicated below. Under certain conditions real forestry practice in virgin forest may even be shown profitable from the start if no specu- lative profits were looked for. The farmers of this country engaged in production of food so essen- tial to the nation earn on the average less than 3 per cent on a simple 196 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY interest basis, yet no one would for that reason undertake to justify the taking over by the Government of the production of food or to excuse the farmer for allowing his land to deteriorate so far as to endanger the public interest. In public discussions of the possibility of the practice of forestry by private timber owners, it must be clearly recognized that if the large timber owners in their operations regard the forest merely as a mine, it is not often because they cannot handle it as a continuous resource with a fair profit, but because, being accus- tomed to speculative profits, they are unwilling to engage in continuous forest production which promises only a moderate return. Whether the policy of public ownership is adopted or not, the country cannot afford to allow its remaining forest lands to be devastated. Forest devastation must stop. Acquisition of as much land as possible by public agencies is a move in the right direction, but does not afford immediate relief. It must be brought about by placing the bulk of the non-agricultural private forest land on a permanent forest-production basis. The States and the Federal Government, in cases where lumber enters into interstate commerce, have the constitutional right and the moral obligation to prevent laying waste of forest land. Timber owners should be required upon removing the timber to either reforest their land, leave it in such a condition that it will restock naturally, or prepare it for agriculture or for pasture. In case of fail- ure to do either of these things, the land should revert to the State, which should take steps to put it to its highest economic use. The assessment of waste land for taxation purposes at the value which it would have if put to its best use might also be effective in causing cut- over land to be left in a productive condition. Fire protection, particu- larly of second-growth forests, should be insisted upon. Private owners may be encouraged and helped to practice forestry by proper forest taxation laws, by State insurance against loss by fire or otherwise, by providing cheap credit through State or Federal forest loan organizations similar in principle to the Federal Farm Loan Banks, by co-operation between public and private owners in managing their forests and in marketing their products, pooling resources if necessary, and by other measures of similar character. The acquisition of the bulk of the forest lands by the public, though desirable as the ultimate solution of the problem, is not sufficient, as far as the immediate future is concerned. It will be necessary to place these lands on a continuous forest-production basis while they are still in private hands if our remaining forests are to be saved and our wood- using industries are to prosper. EDITORIAL COMMENT 197 The editors are unwilling to consider the resolution as it passed the last meeting of the Society as the mature and best judgment of its membership. We should like, therefore, to throw open the pages of the Journal to a full and frank discussion of the problem, "What is to be done with private forests?" The contribution of H. S. Graves, which appears in this number, opens a discussion which we hope will be followed up in succeeding numbers. Impressions of the Baltimore Meetings The American Association for the Advancement of Science meetings in Baltimore. December 26 to 28, 1918, were very successful and the character of the papers presented and the discussions were on a high plane ; in fact, higher than those heard at the Pittsburgh session in 1917. In all the meetings of the affiliated societies in the Botanical Section, at least, the programs were well arranged and the papers dove- tailed into one another remarkably well. This feature contributed very largely to the interest in the sessions and also to the discussion, provok- ing the highest kind of criticism and comment and giving every one a wonderful stimulus toward better, more thorough, and more consci- entious work. Two things which were emphasized and reiterated were the recog- nition during the war period of the value of research by outside inter- ests, who had previously not thought it of practical value, and the need for more careful, better, and systematic research in all things botanical. Pure research, as contrasted with so-called applied research, has at last been recognized by organizations which prior to the war had not seen any advantage gained from exploring the realms of the unknown in search of primal causes. In forestry the need of research was brought out time and time again, as papers presented the discovery of certain fundamental prin- ciples which will have a great bearing on future forest policy and on silvicultural practices. Studies of the distribution, growth, and silvics of forests emphasized how little is really known as yet of the under- lying causes, and was evidenced by the differences in opinion during the discussions. The progress of research at the Forest Products Laboratory during the war was strongly brought out. and the great advances in technology and the use of woods contrasted strongly with how little has been done in forest production. That this is realized by foresters, and steps are being taken to overcome it, is evidenced by the establishment of an experiment station in connection with the work of 198 JOURNAL OF FORKSTRV the State forest school of Pennsylvania, at ^lont Alto, and by the estab- lishment of a similar station in Ontario through the co-operation of the State and large pulp and paper interests. The need of co-operation and co-ordination of work in solving prob- lems was developed in the papers of Coulter, Whetzel, and Duggan in a symposium on the botanical opportunity, and in papers of Livingston, Harper, Moore, and Lyman dealing with botanical research and the war. It was shown that in certain studies w-here the botanists had pooled their ideas and talents solutions were arrived at with the mini- mum loss of time and etTort. As the value of such work has now been demonstrated conclusively, it is improbable that science will again de- pend wholly upon individual effort for the solution of its problems. The failure to secure a number of angles on the situation by men work- ing on the same subject, and to confer with those working in other fields on similar lines, stood out as one of the weak points of the forest investigative work so far. The co-operation of foresters with soil ex- perts, chemists, and botanists on a single subject has so far, at least, been a rarity; but it has now been shown more clearly tlian ever before how great is the need for such co-operation. The work of the National Research Council and its plans for survey- ing the scientific field in its entirety was vividly portrayed by Dr. George E. Hale. The known work done throughout the world is to be compiled and kept up to date by the International Council, so that an investigator in any field may be able to have at his elbow, so to speak, a resume of all that has been done or is known regarding the problem that confronts him, which will prevent the great duplication and multi- plication of effort that has marked research work in the past. Among the forestry papers that caused considerable thoughtful dis- cussion were those by Kirkland and Recknagel in the realm of eco- nomics and those by Illick, Pearson, Leavitt, and Tourney on silvical work. All the papers showed careful and thoughtful preparation and the search that is being made in silvics for the fundamentals governing growth and distribution of species. Before the Ecological Society papers by D. T. McDougal on the measurement of tree growth and B. E. Livingston on climatic temperature complexes were of great in- terest to tht)se foresters who were able to hear them, as well as Whit- ford's papers on distribution in Brazil and in British Columbia. L^nfor- tunately, the program w'as so arranged that it was necessary to miss many interesting subjects in allied lines before other societies, but this was unavoidable in general meetings of this character. However, much of this could have been avoided if the meetings had been called on time r:DITORIAL COM. M EXT 199 and if one or two individuals with important papers had seen fit to be present at the time agreed upon. General papers by Bryant and Clapp on general research work car- ried on during the war were generally instructive, as was the rather informal talk of Hirst on the work of the Xew England forestry units. Similarly, the informal and impromptu talks at the smoker and dinner were decidedly illuminating and interesting. Major Aloore told of work and experiences in France, and Elwood Wilson and Leavitt told of Canadian developments and plans, that of using hydroplanes in locating forest fires being of more than ordinary interest. A general discussion, led by Kellogg and Peters, on State forestry and policies, showed how tangled this work could become. In general, the conferences, conversations, and discussions did much to promote and advance new ideas, which will be carried into far fields, and personal contact and acquaintance with other workers developed, known previously only through correspondence and cold type. Alto- gether, the sociability and general informality which marked the meet- ings of the Society were features that created what is believed will be a lasting impression, and many differences of opinion on phases of the profession were ironed out and toned down, so that in the future greater good and better understanding will develop. Edw. X. ]^Iuxxs. A Turning Point in New York Elsewhere in this issue is printed the resolution adopted by the Xew York State Forestry Association at its recent meeting in Albany, wherein that association goes on record as favoring a broad policy for the economic use of forest land in the State— a policy looking forward to the removal of the constitutional inhibition which at present pre- vents effective use of the State Forest Preserve. The adoption of this resolution may be a turning point in the development of forestry in X"ew York State. It was adopted only after a heated discussion, in which the issue was squarely drawn between the esthetic interests and those who favor a wise, economic use of the State Forest Preserve. This matter is familiar to our readers, since the struggle has been going on for many years. The Xew York State Forestry Association attempted to straddle the fence and to combine in its membership the divergent interests. This policy led to an intolerable situation, which came to a head in the January meeting. The association has dwindled in influence until the taunt was openly made that it was half dead or 200 J(K'RN.\L OF FORI^STKY dying. As one of the speakers stated : "This situation is due directly to the failure of the association to take a definite stand on the issue of how best to use the State forests." To one not familiar with the situation in New York State, it seems well-nigh incredible that the State should maintain two institutions wherein forestry is taught and foresters are trained and yet on its own land fail to practice what it preaches. The challenge to the forestry profession is a direct one, since it is the avowed policy of the aesthetic interests to prevent any cutting in the Adirondacks and to keep them permanently as a pleasure park only. Foresters throughout the country are concerned in this issue, which assails the correctness of their tenet, that the forest can be made to produce useful material and still be just as attractive to campers, hunters, and health-seekers. The resolution provides for the appointment of a committee to for- mulate a constructive policy. This committee will comprise representa- tives from the Conservation Commission, the New York State College of Forestry, Cornell University, the New York State Forestry Asso- ciation, the Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks, and the Empire State Forest Products Association. These representatives may be expected to line up somewhat as follows : The Conservation Commission, in its recently issued report for 1918, thus declares its attitude : "The commission, in the performance of its duty to enforce the provisions of the Constitution respecting the Forest Preserve and acting under the advice of the Attorney General, has taken the position that no one shall have the exclusive use of any portion of the preserve; that no one shall be allowed to claim any particular camp site from year to year; that the forest lands and waters shall be enjoyed by all the people as far as is possible and compatible with the public policy expressed in the Constitution." In former reports the commission was not so neutral in its attitude. Thus in its fourth annual report, speaking of the State forest preserve, the following declaration occurred : "The proper use of this great area is a matter of vital importance. The con- stitutional inhibition practically prevents any direct use, except for camping, hunt- ing and fishing. The entire wood^ production on the mature areas is at present a total loss, because there is no utilization of the larger trees. If we assume that the average annual growth should be 200 feet per acre per annum, then the annual growth on the merchantable forest areas alone would approximate 240,000,000 feet, board measure. Once the land is placed under systematic forest manage- ment, this amount could be secured annually without reducing the forest itself. It means taking the interests on the wood principal. The quantity would be EDITORIAL COMMENT 201 further increased b}' ultimate growth on what are now non-nifrchantahle areas and through reforesting of denuded lands." Quoting further from the same report : "The present system does not best provide a future supply of timber . . . The question of the source of supply of our necessary wood material is one that must be seriously considered . . . if the resources of the State are properly developed the necessary supply can be produced. "Good forest management which will produce better commercial forests is none the less useful in producing the indirect benefits." The representatives of the educational institutions at Syracuse and Cornell will, of course, favor a proper use of the forest preserve. The State Forestry Association avowedly favors "a. rational policy in managing the forest lands owned by the State," and its representa- tive may be counted on to uphold this viewpoint. The Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks has since its organization, in 1901, been a controlling influence in respect to the handling of the forest preserve. It regards itself as the "watch-dog" of the Adirondacks, and the representative of this association is likely to brand any measure proposed as a dangerous and unnecessary im- pairment of the constitutional protection of the forest preserve. Finally, the Empire State Forest Products Association, while not free from the taint of commercialism, has in recent years contended for a broad, public-spirited, comprehensive policy, which will establish a rational and practical treatment of the great conservation questions, whether they be forest or water-power. In this respect its representa- tive will take his stand with the forces of education and progress. Thus, when the committee assembles, four out of the six representa- tives may be counted on to favor a forward-looking policy. If their viewpoint prevails and is accepted by the people of the State, it may be that the long night of disuse is over and that the morning of a better day for foresters in New York State is at hand. It will require the passage of a resolution by two successive legislatures and a referendum by the people and it cannot become effective until January, 1922. To accomplish this, a campaign of education and enlightenment is needed, overcoming old prejudices and inculcating the proper viewpoint in regard to matters of forest policy. Meanwhile it behooves every forester, w'hether he resides in New York State or not, to get behind this movement and to "give a reason for the faith that is in him." A. B. R. NOTES Meeting of the Association of Eastern Foresters In accordance with the eadier notice, the winter meeting of the asso- ciation was held at Janssen's (formerly the Hofbrau), Broadway and 30th streets, New York City, on February i, 1919. The following pro- gram was carried out : The Need for and Suggestions Concerning a Permanent Forest Research Program J. W. Tourney The Possibilities of Interstate Co-operation in Pul)lic and Edu- cational Forest Administration G. H. Wirt The Relation of Timberland Ownership to Forestry W. O. Filley Forestry and the New Economic Conditions R. C. Bryant Does Forestry Need a Dififerent Advertising Viewpoint? T. C. Hirst The Recent Fuelwood Campaign a Stimulus for Permanent Util- ization W. D. Clark A committee of three was appointed by the chairman to formulate and put into efifect a forestry research program for the Eastern For- esters Association, and that they be requested to confer with the So- ciety of American Foresters for the purpose of fitting in with a national program. Committee appointed : Air. Toumey, chairman ; Air. Illick, Mr. Hirst. C. P. WiLRER, Secretary. Results of an Experimental Etcalvptus Plantation in Hawaii There was established in 191 1 in Nuuanu Valley, Honolulu Water- shed Forest Reserve. Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, by the Division of Forestry, in co-operation with the United States Forest Service, a plantation of 18 dififerent species of eucalyptus. The object of this plantation was to secure data as to the habit, form, rate of growth, and relative value under local conditions of species of eucalyptus supposed to be of economic importance, but little known in Hawaii. On account of exposure to strong trade winds sweeping down the valley and the rather excessive rainfall, averaging about 175 inches annually, and the presence of a rank growth of grass, the conditions for the best growth and development were not favorable, and the trees in this experiment may be said to have undergone a very severe test. At the end of five 202 XOTF.S 203 years a count of the trees was made and their height and diameters measured. Success varied from 39 to 93 per cent: maximum height reached was 38 feet in the case of yellow stringy bark (E. niiicllcriana) and mountain ash (£. sicbcriaiia). The maximum d. b. h. reached in this period was 8 inches for tallowwood (£. microcorys) . On some of the plots the trees were mere spindling whips, hardly erect, and often sprawling over the tall grass. In others, where protection was afforded by small gulches, the growth was excellent. Eight of the species tried gave a yield of one cord or over per year, the highest being given by the blackbutt (£. pilularis)- — 4.51 cords per acre. None of these are exceptional and do not compare with the yield of bluegum (£. globulus) at Makawao, Alaui, Territory of Hawaii, which at the age of five years ran as high as 15.1 to 17.4 cords per acre. Air. Judd remarks, however, that for results to be expected from the planting of trees of the species tried under conditions similar to this plantation the data given may be used as criteria. As results of this experiment the following species appear to be most likely for planting under the conditions stated: Blackbutt (E. l^ilularis) , tuart (E. gom- phoccphala), yellow stringybark {E. iiiucllcriaiia) , mountain ash (E. sieberiana) , tallowwood (£. microcorys) , red gum (£. rosfrata), sugar gum (E. corynocalyx) , and gray gum (E. fereticoniia). New York State Forestry Association The following important resolutions were adopted at the seventh annual meeting of the New York State Forestry Association, in Albany, on January 21, 1919. The committee which reported these resolutions consisted of Dean Hugh P. Baker, of the New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse, N. Y. ; Prof. Ralph S. Hosmer, of Cor- nell University, and A. B. Recknagel, Secretary of the Empire State Forest Products Association : Jlliereas as the association believes that the agencies concerned with forestry in this State should formulate a broad policy for the economic use of forest land in the State, and that this policy should look forward to the removal of the con- stitutional inhibition at present preventing effective use of the State forest land ; and Whereas this period of reconstruction is a particularly opportune time for the formulation of constructive policies for the use of forest land : Resolved, That the president be authorized to appoint a committee to be com- posed of one representative from each organization interested in forestry in this State to formulate the indicated policy. It is suggested that the following organ- 304 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY izations shall be represented : Conservation Commission ; New York State College of Forestry, Cornell University; New York State Forestry Association; Associa- tion for the Protection of the Adirondacks, and the Empire State Forest Prod- ucts Association, IVJiercas the question of the development of water-power on both State owned and private land is now before the people of the State; and Jl'hereas this association is vitally interested in water conservation through both reforestation and building of storage reservoirs : be it Resolved, That this association commend the policy of water conservation and water-power development as formulated by the State Conservation Commission in its report for 1918; and be it Resolved further, That more aggressive reforestation by the State go hand in hand with development of storage reservoirs and water-power in the State. A wood fuel moving-picture film, prepared last summer by the New York State Conservation Commission as a part of the wood-fuel cam- paign in New York State, is now being shown on the regular circuit of moving-picture theaters throughout New York. The scenario, pre- pared by Warwick S. Carpenter, secretary of the New York State Conservation Commission, tells the story of the appointment of a comity fuel administrator and his work in furthering the use of wood fuel. One of the pictures portrays a meeting in the executive chamber at the Capitol at Albany, where Governor Whitman, the members of the New York State wood fuel advisory committee, and other State officials are seen discussing the proposed program. Canada Lumbkr Industry Census A census of the lumber industry in Canada has just been completed by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, embracing 2,879 operating con- cerns, of which 52 were in Alberta, 251 in British Columbia. 29 in Alanitoba, 255 in New Brunswick, 462 in Nova Scotia. 603 in Ontario, 60 in Prince Edward Island, 1.151 in Quebec, and 16 in Saskatchewan. The total capital invested in the industry, including land, buildings and plant, machinery and tools, stocks in process and supplies, and working capital, is given at $149,266,019. The number of employees on salaries was 2,874 males and 285 females, who received a total of $3,554,097. The average number of employees on wages was 25,516 engaged in logging operations and 28,820 in the mills, and their combined wages amounted to $34,412,411. The aggregate value of production in 1917 was $115,884,905. The census covered 29 kinds of lumber, 11 of shin- gles, 10 of lath, 6 of pulpwood, and 10 of miscellaneous products, in- cluding cooperage stock, veneer, ties, poles, posts, dressed lumber, etc. NOTES 205 The principal kinds of lumber by species of wood used were spruce, 1,466.558,000 feet; white pine, 791,609,000 feet; Douglas fir, 706,996,- 000 feet : hemlock, 322.722.000 feet ; cedar, 149,999,000 feet ; red pine, 119.321.000 feet; balsam fir, 102.373.000 feet, and all other varieties, including custom-sawed lumber, 483.293.000 feet. The total quantities and values of lumber, lath, shingles, and pulpwood cut. and of miscel- laneous products were as follows: Lumber, 4,142,877.000 feet, $83,- 655,097; lath. 616.949.000 feet. $1,828,018; shingles. 3.020.956.000 feet, $8,431,215; pulpwood. 988,444 cords. $10,543,630; miscellaneous prod- ucts valued at $11,436,945. The Laboratory of Forest Pathology of the Bureau of Plant Indus- try, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Dr. James R. Weir in charge, has been removed from Missoula, Montana, to Spokane, Washington, where it will be permanently installed in a fire-proof building. The most intensive work of this laboratory is centered in the great white- pine forests of Idaho. To promote pathological investigation in this region, a permanent field station will be established ; also a forest patho- logical museum. All future communications should be addressed to Laboratory of Forest Pathology. Spokane. Washington. On December 11, 1918. ]\Iessrs. Giftord Pinchot. W. T. Creasey, and Fred Benckman, acting as a committee on conservation of the Pennsyl- vania State Grange, submitted to that organization an exhaustive report on the forestry situation in Pennsylvania. The report is divided into four parts : Dealing with forests ; waterways, water uses, and water rights; water-power; recommendations for the continuation of the committee on conservation. Copies may be obtained from Mr. Pinchot. whose address until May 15 is 12 18 Real Estate Trust Building, Phila- delphia. Pa. Prof. Alfred Akerman. of Georgia, is at present a member of the instructing staff of the New York State College of Forestry at Syra- cuse. He expects to return to Georgia next summer, when he will transfer the Georgia College of Forestry from Greene to Towns County, where a tract of land has been acquired. Lewis A. Zimm has accepted an appointment as extension forester for Georgia with the Extension Division of the Georgia State College 2()(i JOl'RNAL OF FORESTRY of Agriculture. ]\Ir. Zimm graduated in forestry at Cornell University and later specialized in forest pathology at the same institution, obtain- ing the degree of Master of Science. During the time at Cornell Uni- versity he acted as instructor in forestry and plant pathology. Mr. Zimm spent a season in dendropathological field-work, under Dr. Meinicke, on the Pacific coast prior to his being commissioned in the Army. The Department of Forestry at Cornell University, in the three months' term beginning December 30. 1918, has resumed something like normal activities, with an enrollment of 32 professional students. It is expected that in the term beginning ]\Iarcli 31 this number will be considerably augmented by the return of former students who are still in military service. The committee on the suppression of the pine blister rust in North America has been reorganized under the name of American Plant Pest Committee and will include four officials from each State and province. The purpose is to call public attention to new and dangerous pests and to secure national and State appropriations. Prof. A. P>. Recknagel has been granted a further leave of absence from Cornell University from January i to September 30, 191 9. in- clusive, to permit him to continue his connection with the Empire State Forest Products Association as forester and secretary. He will resume his regular duties at Ithaca next October. The Massachusetts Forestry Association plans during the summer of 191 9 to make a tour of the National Forests and National Parks, sim- ilar in itinerary to the one conducted in 191 7. It will be conducted under the direction of Harris A. Reynolds, secretary of the association. Prof. John Eentley, Jr., of Cornell, expects to devote his period of sabbatic leave, beginning in February, to visiting the various National Forests and experiment stations throughout the Western States, which will occupy him during the spring and summer months. Prof. John H. Reisner. of the College of Agriculture and Forestry. University of Nanking, China, ofifers to supply seed of certain Chinese NOTES 20 r trees. He would be glad to correspond with any one desiring to obtain the seed of oriental, but particularly Chinese, species, which he is pre- pared to furnish at reasonable rates. The Bilfnwrcau, the magazine of the members of the Biltmore Forest School, contains in a combined issue of September and December, 1918. a list of the Biltmore men who were in military service. Eighty-one names are included, but it is stated that there probably should be more additions. Capt. H. P. Baker has returned to Syracuse and again taken up his work as dean of the New York State College of Forestry. Prof. F. F. Moon, who has been acting dean during Dr. Baker's absence, has been granted a year's leave of absence. Col. John S. Dennis, C. JM. G., president of the Canadian Forestry Association, has been chosen by the Canadian Government as a mem- ber of the commission which has charge of the Dominion's commercial interests in Russia. The cost of fighting fires in the three eastern associations of Que- bec— the St. Alaurice, the Laurentide, and the Southern St. Lawrence — was only $2,000 in 1918, as against $15,000 in earlier seasons. Prof. R. C. Bryant resumes his work at Yale with the opening of the second term and will, as usual, have charge of the senior work of the South. An interim forest authority has been appointed to make preliminary arrangements for developing aitorestation in the United Kingdom. T. S. Zschokke is chief of the division of forest management of the Philippine Bureau of Forestry at Manila. Dr. H. X. Whitford, of the Yale Forest School, returned in October from a five months* trip to Brazil. SOCIETY AFFAIRS To THE Members The great war is at an end and people all over the world have cele- brated the old Teutonic festival of Christmas with added joy and inter- est. The time of the shortest day, of long nights and darkness, is about to give way to a period of the growing day, of more light and joy to all. March storms are still ahead, but in the end spring and summer, with flowers and harvest for all, will greet our race. Our foresters, like all other groups of good citizens, have earned for themselves the thanks of the nation. They have not only proven, what was expected, that they were ready, fearless, and capable physically and mentally, but they have repeated the Old World experience, that foresters make the best of soldiers, fit in mind and body, and fit by training and habit as well. Not only in their own line of work, in the loth and 20th Engineers, but also in regular engineering, in infantry, artillery, and in the Navy, they have demonstrated that a forester's education and training make ready men for many lines of work. The war has called for great sacrifice. Our small group of foresters, too, had its share, and it is significant that the name of Augsburger should head the roll, as published in American Forestry. But if the war has had its losses, it has also brought its gains. Of great importance to forestry, several points seem to stand out con- spicuously. Today wood is wood, as never before, and there is no longer any question aljout it. With the experience of Great Britain,. her admission that if France had neglected forestry as she has done, the war could not have been fought to the end ; with her planting i)rogram of 60 million dollars, the importance of wood has come home to all people, in Europe as well as here. That we in this country should add to this experience and have to organize an army to exploit spruce and other timber, in spite of the fact that our country cuts and uses over half of all the saw timber cut and used in the world, this seemed inconceiv- able. It is all fact now, and the sneer of the big politician who said he was thankful that they had no forests in his State has prolxibly come ofif for good. The second great lesson which came home to our people is that simple fact, long known and well known, and yet never really believed nor 208 SOCIETY AFFAIRS 209 acted upon, especially in high places, namely, that it takes land and time and effort to produce a log of oaks or spruce, and that no amount of money and outfit can alter this or even shorten the time. As a real surprise came the fact that in' forestry we differ radically from farming, and that Germany or France, for instance, while living from hand to mouth in agriculture, had 20 and more years' living ahead in timber. That a better appreciation and understanding of the lumber and tim- ber industries has come to our people through this war will hardly be questioned ; and the benefit of this better understanding should help the people and the industry, and should make for a beginning in real for- estry on millions of acres of our forest lands. The wonderful co-operation of State and private eft'ort developed during this war has a far-reaching lesson for our people ; it has broken down much of the old bonehead prejudice, the suspicion of business against the State and its ability to do. and, on the other hand, it has taught the State that if real work is to be done, it takes more than a mob of mediocrity, even though "highly recommended by Senator Doe." But one of the greatest lessons which the war has taught, and most important to forestry, is the fact that the State is infinitely more cap- able than the private owner. We had this lesson in the Panama Canal, but the people never seemed to appreciate it. "Why, yes ; the Govern- ment did dig the canal ; but what of it? anybody with money could have done it just as well." That this statement is not true and had already been proven false, did not occur to them. But the war, with its army of millions ; its stupendous naval program ; its food and fuel regulation ; its enormous manufacture and its coun- try-wide wage adjustment; and, above all, its perfect success in every single direction, this counted, and made our people realize its power as a nation. Today the average citizen no longer says, as he did only a few years ago : "Oh, well ; it is all politics ; the Government is incom- petent and wasteful, never gets anything done, and always full of graft," etc. To forestry, these lessons mean everything, and the outlook for real forestry — for large programs, fearlessly planned and persistently car- ried out — is better by far than it has ever been in our country. It should mean better support of our National Forest Service, espe- cially more liberal appropriations, such that good men not merely enter, but also stay, and that the people's property really receives protection and that fires are actually prevented. It should mean State forestry of the kind where States like New 210 JOURNAI, OF FORESTRY York, Pennsylvania, the New England and the wealthy Lake vStates, will not higgle and haggle about a few thousands or argue whether poor mountain and sand lands are not perhaps too good for forestry, when an earnest effort will mean no sacrifice at all, but merely a good and safe investment, and when timber is as much needed as the farm. How far this may go to making all forestry national in scope, like rail- ways and trunk lines of highways, is for the future. The experience of the past 30 years argues strongly for centralization and for co-opera- tion of State and nation. The great lessons of the war should help to bring forestry to the vast areas of private forest. How much private owners, engaged in their special lines of business, such as lumbering, can and will do is not so clear. The lumberman of Europe is not a forester. But a great deal can and should be done and done at once. With better forest protection by the State, with fair taxation, with a square deal, allowing the industry a fair return and a just price for its labor, the State and nation should put itself in a position where it may justly and fairly demand that wherever the land calls for a forest cover, the forest must stay, and devastation is "verboten." Here again comes the matter of men. It is useless to make a lot of fine sounding technical rules and regulations and hand the walking boss a bunch of "sealed orders.'' It needs men, and we have no right to expect any real forestry or even decent cutting in the forest until we are ready to ofifer men who have learned the business, know the forest, and love the forest. Such men cannot be had today, and the forester who preaches pessimism and advises against forest schools and discourages young men going into forestry does more harm to forestry than half a dozen good men can make good by their success. Coming now to the afifairs of the Society, but little need be said. Professor Kirkland's plan of an active committee and a live cam- paign to find ways and means of furthering forestry with private own- ers is good, and the time is here to make a beginning. Similar effort to use the strength of the Society to help in State and national work is urgently needed. Mr. Boerker has a timely plea for assistance in furthering research and of keeping forestry research not so much "off the rocks" as to keep it from that far more dangerous enemy, ''incipient dry rot." We need research and we need a real live brand of it. Then there is the matter of membership and interest in the Society. We need members, good people, lots of them ; we need to stop good foresters dropping out ; we need the funds to continue our good paper SOCIETY AFFAIRS 211 and to make it bigger and better. We still wait for the paid secretary, and Mr. Woodward is right and he is still anxious. The year found a large number of our members in war work, and it was to be expected that the affairs of the Society wait. But in spite of all the doings, the interest in the Society was evident, the contribu- tions to the Journal good and plenty — so much so that the order to save paper prevented the JournaIv from keeping abreast with the de- mands for space. At this point I wish to thank the American Forestry Association and American Forestry, and particularly its good editor, Mr. Ridsdale, and President Pack, for their eft'orts in doing for the foresters in the war; the news, the lists, and the funds did much good ; were most thankfully received and appreciated. I also want to thank the members of the Society and congratulate them. It was an era of stress and strain ; opinions dift'ered, as they always do, and yet there was the most cordial harmony and co-operation throughout this memorable and most trying period. It meant a good deal to your servants, the officers of t\xe Society, and it proved again that foresters are a sane and well-intentioned body of good and depend- able citizens. F. RoTii. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.* Report of the Secretary for 1918 Although a momentous year in history, with the death grapple of the titanic struggle brought to an end, it has been without striking events in the Society's affairs. Of necessity this must be largely true of an organization of this character. Most of its leading men were engaged in other capacities in connection with the war, and so engrossed with their special problems and overwhelmed with work that they could give little time to the Society ; also many were overseas and elsewhere in military service. In spite of these handicaps the Society as an entity, apart from individual efforts, has taken part in carrying forward the war. Early when hostilities began, or even before, it made a survey * The Executive Committee, because of its scattered membership (several mem- bers being overseas), did not submit any report this year. The printing of the Treasurer's report is deferred until a later issue, pending the auditing of the Treasurer's books. — Ed. 212 JOURNAI. OF FORESTRY of its men and their capabilities for service in essential specialized lines. The main work was, however, done through its War Committee, espe- cially appointed for the purpose, whose chairman has already presented a report which has developed the feasibility of an important line of work — the timber census. It is understood that this work will be con- tinued by the same committee under another name. In the reconstruc- tion problems upon us the Society has made plans and has done some preliminary work. Doubtless this feature will engage the research committee during the coming year, as it is likely to involve some funda- mental and perhaps revolutionary changes, especially in the field of economics and practical trade conditions. Reconstruction forestry, supported by the weight of the Society, with this committee as its spokesman, leader, and organizer, should do much to develop the prin- ciples of a new forestr}- and guide general research along broad and far-reaching lines, as well as throwing light on immediate problems. It is a most attractive field at this stage of world development and social adjustment. Coming now to more concrete and tangible features of the year's events. One new section was added to our number during the year, making eight in all. This latest comer is the New York Section, with C. R. Pettis, chairman, and A. B. Recknagel, secretary, and headquar- ters at Albany. It is encouraging to have a new section enter the ranks at so strategic a point for wielding an influence on the forest move- ment. This effort, it would seem, is well worthy of the Society's com- mendation. May it not be too much to hope that New England will be the next to enter the field, with a local section organized to take care of forestry interests in that locality. STATUS OF MEMBERSHIP There are at present about 350 Active members, 54 Associate mem- bers, and 13 Honorary members. Of the above, 40 Senior members, 3 Members, and 6 Associate members were added this year, and there are pending 33 candidates for Senior member, g for grade of Member, and 8 for Associate member. The first election for rank of Fellow held during the year resulted in the following members being raised to that rank : Hon. Gifford Pinchot Filibert Roth Lieut. Col. H. S. Graves Raphael Zon Dr. B. E. Fernow Lieut. Col. W. B. Greelev SOCIETY AFFAIRS 213 There have been 5 deaths : S. B. Elliott, Honorary member H. C. Williams (in France), Senior member T. P. Lukens, Associate member F. B. Moody, Senior member J. Roy Harvey, Associate member Eleven have been dropped for non-payment of dues: William R. Osborne J. H. Ramskill T. H. Sherrard Dorr Skeels A. C. McCain H. C. Neel Six Senior members resigned : F. W. Reed (1917) S. St. J. Malven L. G. Larsen Xames of new members elected Clifford W. McKibbin Anson E. Cohoon E. C. Clifford Wallace I. Hutchinson W. H. Mast J. M. Fetherolf E. M. Griffith W. B. Barrows C. Lee Billings Lewis C. Stockdale W. R. Barbour William W. Bennett E. Murray Bruner Kenneth M. Clark Douglas A. Crocker George L. Drake Reginald D. Forbes Samuel V. Fullaway Richard A. Hamilton Charles J. Heller Joseph Kittredge, Jr. Samuel B. Locke Charles K. McHarg Chester B. Morse Robert J. Noyes George A. Retan Ernest C. Rogerst Robert W. Shields Herbert A. Smith Robert C. St. Clair t Died February 11, 1919. Me]nbers R. Trevor Ferguson Senior Members \'ictor A. Beede A. O. Benson Howard L. Churchill John L. Cobbs, Jr. Walter J. Damtoft Richard C. Eggleston J. F. Forsythe Raymond D. Garver Wilmot G. Hastings Howard R. Krinbill Julius A. Larsen Fred R. Mason Robert G. Merritt Willis Munro Roy G. Pierce William B. Rice Earl C. Sanford Charles D. Simpson Harold G. Spahr Stanlev L. Wolfe 314 JOURNAI, OF FORESTRY Associate AI embers Homer E. Fenn Thomas P. Mackenzie Henry E. Hardtner I. C. Williams J. Roy Harvey* Clarence N. Woods Action deferred on the following candidates for Honorary member- ship : George N. Ostrander George M. Cornwall No reply received to notice of election to Senior membership: Reuben P. Prichard Candidates rejected for Senior members: Russell T. Gheen C. L. vSmith Members who cannot be located (mail returned unclaimed) : Senior Members O. M. Evans Arthur M. Cook Frank I. Rockwell M. L. Erickson Frank B. Notestein James B. Adams Members in military service abroad (suggest waiving unpaid dues imtil return) : Senior Members R. L. Marston Capt. I. F. Eldredge Capt. A. C. Ringland Donald Bruce W. H. Gibbons Swift Berry PUBI^ICATIGNS The Society has one active publication, the Journal of Forestry, now closing its second year, and also back numbers of two other publi- cations, the Forestry Quarterly and Proceedings of the Society, 14 volumes of the former and 11 volumes of the latter. The Society now has the entire back set of the Quarterly, as volumes 11 to 14, formerly handled by the American Forestry Association, were turned over dur- ing the year to this Society. It is recommended that a special committee be appointed to take an inventory of the back numbers and arrange for their safe-keeping and disposition to good advantage. It should be pointed out that these back numbers are quite an asset, as many libraries and more individuals in * Deceased. SOCIETY AFI-WIRS 215 the future will desire a complete set of the permanent periodical for- estry literature of this country and will be glad to pay the small price charged for them. The present year about $135 was received for back numbers. The numbers out of print should be reprinted, so that com- plete sets of each of the three publications can be supplied. ADVERTISING The Society should have an advertising committee and appropriate some funds, if possible, to securing more advertising and more sub- scriptions. Many manufacturers of wood-working supplies and outing material might advertise, and also more book companies, if the medium was brought to their attention. There are approximately 935 paid sub- scriptions on the books, of which about 350 are included in membership dues. This list should reach 3,000 in a few years, and might do so in a very short time if the right means were employed and the right people approached. CLERICAL ASSISTANCE The routine business of the Society has grown to such a volume, as well as the general correspondence, that regular clerical help is needed to take care of it. There are now eight sections of the Society, the back numbers of three publications, as Avell as minor ones, to handle, and the publication appears eight times a year instead of four, as for- merly. It is strongly urged that every effort should be made to employ a paid assistant, even if a small assessment is necessary for the present. It will pay in the long run. It should be remembered that the amount of business of the Society cannot be measured by the past, for a period of reconstruction is here and an era of expansion rapidly coming. The Society should prepare itself to take full advantage of these currents of progress and not lose the opportunity to exert a vast influence on forest and kindred interests, Avhich it cannot fail to do if it secures and maintains a commanding position at this time. E. R. Hodson_, Secretary. Report oe the Membership Committee Owing to unsettled conditions caused by the war, only one list of names was put up for ballot during the year. This made action on proposed members much slower than previously, when lists were put through every few months. However, 49 new members were elected 21 (i JOURNAL OF FORESTRY during the year, distributed by grade as follows : Forty Senior mem- bers, 3 Members, and 6 Associate members. Six members were raised to rank of Fellow at the election in February. ( See Report of Sec- retary.) In addition to those elected, a list of 50 proposed members was sub- mitted— 2)3 for Senior member. 9 for Member, and 8 for Associate member. In regard to the question of increasing the membership, the follow- ing suggestions are submitted to the Society for consideration : It should be the policy of the Society to elect a large number of men who are qualified to the grade of Member. By so doing many men will automatically become eligible for Senior membership who are now dis- qualified by the limiting clause of the Constitution, which requires them to serve in the grade of Member for two years. There appears to be no reason why all men who have completed their college work, or in the absence of collegiate training have completed at least three years' work of a creditable character in some branch of forestry, should not become members of the Society. In the course of two or three years these men will have served their apprenticeship as members, whether they have otherwise become eligible for Senior membership or not. Many without this apprenticeship will never, under the Constitution, become eligible for the Senior grade. It is urged that the various Sec- tions and the forest schools secure as many nominations as possible for the grade of Member. These nominations should be accompanied by statements showing that the candidates have the required qualifications. J. H. Foster, Member of the Executive Council, in Charge of Admissions. Report of the War Committee The War Committee of the Society of American Foresters was re- organized in April. 1918. At that time the President of the Society appointed J. W. Toumey chairman, with power to reorganize and in- crease the membership and undertake such special work and investiga- tions as might be of value in the conduct of the war. The War Com- mittee was reorganized, with the following executive committee and additional members : Executive Cormuittee J. W. Toumey, Chairman. Connecticut E. H. Clapp, Washington, D. C. Raphael Zon, Washington, D. C. I. W. Bailey, Massachusetts Gifford Pinchot, Pennsylvania C. R. Pettis, New York SOCIETY AFFAIRS 217 Additional Members S. L. Moore, Florida R. S. Kellogg, New York Walter Mulford. California E. G. Cheyney, Minnesota P. S. Lovejoy, Michigan H. H. Chapman, New Mexico Alfred Gaskill, New Jersey A. K. Chittenden, Michigan A. B. Hastings, New Hampshire A. B. Recknagel, New York R. S. Maddox, Tennessee. F. E. Olmsted, California J. E. Rothery, New York W. T. Cox, Minnesota J. W. Sewell, Maine -Hugo Winkenwerder, Washington ^^'ith such a large committee, with its members so widely scattered, it was apparent that it would be necessary for its members to work more or less independent of each other. Early in iSIay a communica- tion was sent to each member of the committee, enumerating certain kinds of work and investigation that might have a direct or indirect bearing upon the war or on reconstruction after peace terms were signed. Suggestions and recommendations were also asked for. It was urged that each member of the committee undertake and encour- age other foresters in their locality to undertake lines of work bearing upon war activities afforded by their own immediate vicinity. The replies to this communication showed that much work relating to for- estry and bearing upon war activities and war industries was already under way by members of this Society. Although it has been imprac- tical for your committee to meet as a whole, there have been meetings of the executive committee and two specific lines of work directly bear- ing upon war needs have been ptirsued with considerable success. Soon after the reorganization of the committee your chairman turned his attention to what he believed most useful at that time, namely, the bringing of foresters seeking employment in war work in communica- tion with army officers needing trained foresters for inspectors and other work. The committee has been instntmental in helping to secure a number of trained men for much-needed war work. Soon after the declaration of war, difficulties arose in locating avail- able supplies of standing timber of various species and kinds in eastern United States suitable for use in local war industries. Your War Committee believed that if the war continued into the following year a timber census of New England and New York would be of substantial value in the conduct of the war industries located therein. The plan at first was to confine the work to New York and Maine, but later it was extended to all the New England States and New Jersey as well. The work was started by Messrs. Recknagel and Kellogg and Mr. Colby, the Forest Commissioner of Maine, following a conference in 218 JOURNAL, OF FORESTRY New York City early in the spring. As the magnitude of the work increased, your chairman brought about co-operation with the United States Forest Service, the forest services of several States, and with State forest associations. The aim has been to secure as complete a list as possible of the owners of fifty acres or more of merchantable timber in each State by countries and towns, and by correspondence with the owners secure from them the acreage, location, and their own estimate of each com- mercial species in board feet or cords. Although it was realized that any list of timber-land owners that the committee could secure would be incomplete and many owners w-ould or could not comply with the request for estimates, it. was felt that the census would bring to light large quantities of merchantable timber of a variety of species that could be utilized for war purposes as necessity arose. The vast amount of work involved in compiling an acceptable list of owners of merchantable timber in the several States by countries and towns and the sending out of printed forms upon which the estimates were to be tabulated was assumed by A. B. Recknagel, working through the Conservation Commission in New York; H. A. Reynolds, secretary of the ^Massachusetts Forestry Association ; F. H. Colby, Forest Com- missioner of Maine; J. B. INIowny, Forest Commissioner of Rhode Island ; A. B. Hastings, Acting State Forester of New Hampshire ; W. B. Hastings, State Forester of Vermont ; W. O. Filley, State For- ester of Connecticut, and W. M. Baker, Assistant State Forester of New Jersey. K. M. Clark, of the United States Forest Service, was the active agent through whom co-operation was carried on with the National Government. The compilation of acceptable lists of timber-land owners was made possible in most States through the assistance rendered by the State tax commissioners and the town assessors. The following statistical form and letter, prepared for use in Con- necticut, is fairly representative of those used in each State : To Ozi'iiers of JVoodland in Connecticut: A demand for wood and timber for war purposes makes necessary an inventory of our forest resources. Our Government must know where the different kinds can be found and in what amount. White ash and spruce are needed for air- plane wings ; black walnut and yellow birch for airplane propellers and gunstocks ; oak for shipbuilding; black locust for treenails. Other species are needed for other purposes, or may be in the future, and knowledge of their location is im- portant. Cordwood for fuel will increase in importance if the war continues. The Society of American Foresters, in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service and the State Forester, has undertaken to compile the desired informa- SOCIETY AFFAIRS 219 lion. It is a patriotic service in which the co-operation of all woodland owners is necessary. You are therefore asked to give the time and thought required to fill out the enclosed hlank. It is not expected that you will make an exact estimate. All that is necessary is your conservative opinion of the amount, kind, and location of the cordwood and saw timber which you own. List the most important kinds separately and class those of minor importance as miscellaneous. Bear in mind the purpose of the inventory, which is to bring together facts regarding the available resources of the nation in the form of wood and timber and give all the information you can bearing on the subject. It will be treated as strictly confidential and will not be used for publication except in tabulated form. As it must be compiled at the earliest possible date to be of greatest value, an immediate response is requested and will be greatly appreciated. The enclosed franked envelope requires no postage and should be used for your reply. Very truly yours, J. W. TouMEv, ChainiKin. Although the signing of the armistice has made no longer necessary the primary purpose for which the census was undertaken, when com- pleted it will make available much-needed information on the owner- ship, location, and amount of merchantable lumber by counties and towns in the States where the work has been undertaken and carried out. On November 12 a conference was held in Boston, which was called for by the men directly concerned with the conduct of the census. The purpose of the conference was to ascertain the progress of the work in each State, to analyze the results that each might benefit by the experi- ence of the others, to have uniformity in the compilation of the data, and to determine on a method of publication of the results of the census. A report was received from each State, with the exception of New Jersey. Although a complete tabulation of the data is not available as yet in any State where the census has been undertaken, and in New Hamp- shire the work only continued through the initial stages, the general opinion of the conference was that the work should continue and the census be made as complete as possible, and that it be left to each State to complete the data and determine the manner of publication and presentation to the public. It was appreciated by the conference in Boston that the War Committee of the Society would be soon dissolved, but it was believed important that the timber census should be con- tinued for the benefit of the several States where taken. Your chair- man was elected chairman at the Boston conference of a new timber- census committee to continue the timber-census work of the War Committee. 220 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY The first fruits of the timber census for New York have already been made available, and the report from Maine will soon be available. The results of this work in Connecticut will be published as a bulletin of the State Forestry Association. It is the hope of your chairman that the results of the census in each State will be published and distributed so far as the data is of public interest. Your chairman wishes to state that the work of your War Committee has been done without any expense whatsoever to the Society. Respectfully submitted, J. W. Toumey. Report of the Baltimore Meeting of the Society of American Foresters, December 27 and 28, 1918 The meeting convened at Johns Hopkins University at 9 a. m., De- cember 27 and 28, with Prof. J. A. Ferguson as chairman. The papers were presented largely according to schedule, as follows : December 27. Forenoon, 9 to 12.30 Forest Reconstruction Problems Some Remarks on State Forest Policy Prof. R. S. Hosmer (Received too late to present.) The Effects of Destructive Lumbering on Labor Prof. B. P. Kirkland (Read by W. O. FiUey.) The Timber Census in Northeastern States Prof. A. B. Recknagel (Read by L C. Williams.) The Lumber Industry and its Relation to the War Pro- gram Prof. R. C. Brj'ant (Read by R. S. Kellogg.) Report of the War Committee Prof. J. W. Toume\^ Afternoon, 2 to 5.30 Forest Resources Marketing of Timber from Farm Woodlands F. W. Besley Use of Wood Fuel as a War Measure W. D. Clark War Lumbering in Scotland — Some Suggestions for American Forest Policj' E. C. Hirst Some Future Possibilities in Forest Industries Prof. F. F. Moon (Read by E. F. McCarthy.) The Structure and Value of Parana Pine Forests of Brazil H. N. Whitford Evening, 8.30 Smoker and Round-table Talks on Current Forest Subjects (F. W. Besley, Leader) SOCIETY AFFAIRS 221 December 28. Forenoon, 9 to 12.30 Forest Ecology, Experimental Forestry, etc. Forest Formations in British Columbia H. N. Whitford Forest Research and War E. H. Clapp Preliminary Results of Forest Experiments in Pennsyl- vania Prof. J. S. Illick Some Aspects of Silvical Investigations as an After-the- War Activity Clyde Leavitt Factors Controlling the Distribution of Forest Trees in Arizona G. A. Pearson Gray Birch and White Pine Reproduction Prof. J. W. Tourney Afternoon, 2 to 5.30 Business Meeting The Annual Reports of Officers and other Business of the Society Committee on Meetings, /;; Charge, J. A. Ferguson, Chairman. ]\Iost of the papers brought out considerable profitable discussion, although the time was too limited to permit much discussion for some of the subjects. A motion was passed that Bryant's paper, entitled "The Lumber Industry and its Relation to the War Program," be printed in the Journal of Forestry; also that the War Committee be continued, under the name of the Timber Census Committee, for the purpose of continuing the census. A resolutions committee was appointed by the chairman, consisting of Mr. Peters, chairman ; Mr. Ayres, Mr. Besley. The committee drew up the following resolutions, which were adopted by the Society : I. Whereas a sustained timber supply adequate in quantity and diversified in quality is alike essential to national defense in war time and national progress in time of peace; and Whereas the growing of timber to the larger sizes involves an investment too long in time, with too great hazards and too low a rate of final return for pri- vate capital to undertake; and Whereas only 30 per cent of the present forest area and but little more than 20 per cent of the existing timber stand is in public forests in the United States— a wholly insufficient basis for the future timber supply of the country: therefore be it Resolved, That the Society of American Foresters urge the immediate initia- tion of a permanent poHcy of national and State or other public acquisition of forest land until the acreage of publich- owned land capable of producing timber 222 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY is sufficient eventually to supply the bulk of the raw material required by the nation. II. Resolved, That this Society favors a very large extension of silvical re- search. It approves also the idea of Federal co-operation with other agencies. The Committee on American Forest Research is authorized and directed to take up the matter, on behalf of the Society, with the National Research Council, the American Forestry Association, and any other agencies in a position to help, with a view to securing adequate financial support from the Federal Govern- ment along these lines. III. Whereas it has been reported in the newspapers of the State of Wiscon- sin that an effort will be made to induce the coming legislature to eliminate the provision in the forestry law which requires that one member of the State Con- servation Commission must be a technically trained forester of experience ; and Whereas the elimination of the provision will make possible the appointment of a member to succeed the late F. B. Moody, who might be so out of sympathy with the splendid results in forestry already achieved by Wisconsin that the prog- ress made might be seriously arrested ; and Whereas the State could, with advantage, increase rather than lessen its activi- ties in forestry so that Wisconsin might play its proper part, along with other States, in helping to solve the various forest conservation problems which are likely to arise in the reconstruction period : Resolved, That the Society of x\merican Foresters respectfully urges the main- tenance of the present law to appoint a forester who is technically trained to suc- ceed the late F. B. Moody, and that a copy of this resolution be sent to such persons in the State as the President may select, with the suggestion that they take such action as may seem to them appropriate. IV. IVhereas there is great need for more forest extension work: be it Resolved, That the Research Committee of the Society of American Foresters bring before the State Extension Directors and the States' Relations Service of the United States Department of Agriculture this need and present for their consideration a definite program. Those present at the Baltimore meeting of the Society of American Foresters, December 27 and 28, were : E. H. Clapp I. C. Williams J. W. Toumey E. F. McCarthy Barrington Moore J. A. Cope J. A. Ferguson C. R. Anderson Willard M. Drake A. Carl Schroter G. A. Pearson E. W. Allen Ellwood Wilson R. M. Harper Clyde Lcavitt J. C. Nellis H. N. Whitford K. E. Pfeiffer J. S. lUick R. S. Kellogg b. J. Harris J. G. Peters E. I. Terry Richard H. Boerker George S.' Perry C. P. Wilber W. O. Filley J. D. Coft'man H. S. Newins R. Chapin Jones SOCIETY Al'l'AIRS 223 F. W. Ceslcy I). A. Crocker Philip W. Ayres W. I\. Mattoon A. H. Pierson K. W. Woodward W. Hoyt Weber E. C. Hirst I. T. Worthley Dr. H. L. Shantz F. A. Gaylord A. C. X'olkmar W. D. Clark E. R. Hodson Alfred Gaskill R. J. Blair Paul D. Kelleter E. N. Munns The ■Meetings Committee, to whom great credit is due for the suc- cess of the meeting, was composed of the following: J. A. Ferguson, chairman; J. G. Peters, F. W. Besley. Air. Besley was the local representative of the committee and looked after the quarters and ecpipment, as well as arranging for the informal dinner given at the New Howard Hotel on Friday evening, Decem- ber 27. At the business session, which followed the completion of the pro- gram, the usual routine reports of the officers and standing committees were presented. At the request of the Permanent Board of Control of Botanical Ab- stracts, by letter from Donald Reddick, two members — J. S. lUick and Barrington Moore — were appointed to represent the Society on that Board.^ At the dinner given on December 27 thirty-seven were present, many of whom took part in the informal discussion on a number of questions of current forest practice and policy. Major ]\Ioore gave a greatly appreciated talk on French forestry in war time and led the discussion which followed on that topic. The meeting was one of the most successful which the Society has ever held, due to the efforts of the Meetings Committee, those on the program, and members generally. About thirty or more were present at all the sessions, and the total number attending was close to fifty. It was noteworthy in another respect that while Forest Service men were present and took part the meeting was made up largely of those outside the Service, from State forester's forces, forest schools, and private forestry. This indicates the growing importance of forestry outside of the Federal Government's work and is a healthv sign. Can- ada was well represented by three foresters, who took an active part in the discussion and had one paper on the program. As evidenced by the resolutions passed, the Society takes a keen interest in the welfare of forest matters throughout the countrv and is prepared to throw the weight of its influence to promote progress by 234 JOURNAL OP FORESTRY appropriate and dignified action whenever necessary. In fact, as the collective spokesman of an important profession whose usefulness is rapidly becoming appreciated, it could not well do otherwise. E. R. HoDSON, Secretary. Report of Nominating Committee The Nominating Committee reports a list of nominations for the several officers for the ensuing year, 1919, as follows: President: Treasurer: A. Gaskill E. E. Carter B. P. Kirkland A. F. Hawes F. E. Olmsted C. G. Smith Vice-President: Member of Bxeciitive Council: W. W. Ashe S. T. Dana A. K. Chittenden J. H. Foster R. Headley b. R. Tillotson Secretary: P. D. Kelleter W. N. Sparhawk J. W. Stokes These selections were made without direct consultation between the members of the committee, each member submitting to the other two a list of candidates, to the number of five, for each office, arranged in the order of the member's own personal choice. Final selections as above were then made. In 13 out of 25 preliminary choices of candidates, agreement among the members of the committee was unanimous, which left a margin of candidates to select from where certain men declined to accept nomination. In every case two of the three members agreed on each final selection. The committee in making its selections endeavored to be gttided by the following general principles : 1. To nominate the maximum number of candidates allowable under the con- stitution to provide as wide a latitude of choice as possible as well as to avoid having it appear that the new officers were being hand-picked by the committee. In order to do this, it was necessary 2. To make as large a number of choices of possible candidates as practicable to whom we could write to know if they would agree to accept nomination. Defi- nite information as to this, it seemed to us, was particularly essential at that time, since doubtless many men would find it necessary to decline for one or another war reason. SOCIETY AI'l-AIRS 225 3. To avoid, so far as possible, nominating men to the same office which they have already held previously for two or more terms. Until there is a consider- ably greater dearth of suitable men than now, there should be no difficulty in getting new and acceptable men to fill the offices of president, vice-president, and member of the executive council. With the offices of secretary and treasurer necessarily limited to members resident in Washington, because the files and other impedimenta are there, two considerations were necessary to be borne in mind. The duties of both offices are detailed, onerous, and time consuming, and should not be imposed on a man too long. On the other hand, the work being detailed, the Society's interests suffer from too frequent change, since it takes a man some little time to get onto the ropes. Three to four years is, accordingly, about the limit. 4. To distribute the nominations for the offices of president, vice-president, and member of the executive council as widely as possible, from a geographical stand- point and from the standpoint of the various organized interests from which the membership is drawn — Federal forestry, State forestry, private forestry, forest schools, etc. — so that in the deliberation of the council, of which all officers are members, all shades of opinion would, so far as possible, be represented. 5. To present in our final list of nominations the name of no man who con- templates being absent from the country during the term of the office to which he was to be nominated. Respectfully submitted by the Nominating Committee, Louis S. Murphy_, Chairman. Herman H. Chapman. William G. Howard. Officers and Members of Executive Council for 1919 OFFICERS President— F. E. Olmsted, Palo Alto, California. Vice-President — W. A. Ashe, Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Secretary — Paul D. Kelleter, Atlantic Building, Washington, D. C. Treasurer — A. F. Hawes. Atlantic Building, Washington, D. C. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL The Executive Council consists of the above officers and the following mem- bers : S. T. Dana (5 years) H. S. Graves (2 years) J. W. Toumey (4 years) R. C. Bryant (i year) H. H. Chapman (3 years) B. E. Fernow (Chairman of Editorial Board) 226 journal of forestry Rkport of thf Board of Editors for thf Year 1918 During the year no changes have been made in the character of the Journal. The absence of any German Hterature has, of course, as in the preceding year, curtailed the section of periodical briefs. War activities have preoccupied the time of several of the editors and left reviews in arrears. Moreover, the paper controller's orders curtailed our space and thereby caused delay in bringing out some articles more promptly. An analysis of the contents shows that 641 pages of articles and reviews were distributed among nine classes of subjects, namely: Pages Botany and zoology 7 Forest geography and description 35 Mensuration, finance, and management 113 Politics, education, and legislation 105 Silviculture, protection, and extension 284 Soil, water, and climate 33 Statistics and history 25 Utilization, market, and technology 28 Miscellaneous 11 641 Special mention should be made of the fact that this volume contains the Terminology of the Lumber Industry, as the previous volume con- tained the Terminology of Forestry, both of which are for sale sepa- rately. The Secretary and the Treasurer have brought in their respec- tive reports the statistics of distribution, cost, and the financial status, all of which are greatly encouraging. B. E. Fi;rxow, For the Board of Editors. LIDGERWOOD PORTABLE SKIDDERS BRING JOGS AT lOWEST GROUND SYSTEMS OVERHEAD SYSTEMS LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO. 96 LIBERTY ST.. NEW YORK CtiicaLgo Seotttle WoodwaLfd. Wight & Co., Ltd.. New Orlea^ns' ♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦»♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ CONTENTS Page* Private Forestry . . . ., 113 Henry S. Graves. Roosevelt's Part in Forestry 122 Gifford Pinchot. The War and the Lumber Industry 125 R. C. Bryant. Marketing Timber from Farm Woodlands 135 F. W. Besley. Women in Southern Lumbering Operations 144 Edw.,N. Munns. The National Forests : The Last Free Hunting Grounds of the Nation 150 Aldo Leopold. The Structure and Use of the Parana Pine Forests of Brazil 154 H. N. Whitford. Some Causes of Confusion in Plant Names 159 Agnes Chase. Economic Aspects of the Wood-Fuel Campaign .... 163 A. F. Hawes. Some Remarks on State Forest Policy 168 Ralph S. Hosmer. Planting in Relation to the Future of National Forests . . 173 Fred R. Johnson. The Timber Census in the Northeastern States . . . . 178 A. B. Recknagel. Reviews 180 Periodical Literature 185 Editorial Comment 192 Notes 202 Society Affairs 208 Vol. XVII MARCH, 1919 No. 3 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE SOOETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS COMBINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND THE FORESTRY QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS AT 930 F STREET N. W. WASHINGTON, D. C. Single Copies, 50 Cents Annual Subscription, $3.00 Bntered as second-class matter at the post-office at Washingrton, D. C„ under the act of March 3, 1879, Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. authorized November 20, 1918. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY A professional journal devoted to all branches of forestry EDITED BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS EDITORIAL BOARD B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Bditor-in^Chief Raphael Zon, F. E., Managing Editor R. C. Bryant, F. E., A. B. Rbcknagel, M. F., Forest Utilization, Forest Mensuration and Organisation^ Yale University Cornell University B. R KiRKLAND, M. F., H. D. TiEMANN, M. F., Forest Finance, Forest Technology, University of Washington Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Barrington Moore, M. F., J. W. Toumey, M. S., M. A., Forest Ecology, Silviculture, New York, N. Y. Yale University T. S. WooivSEY, Jr., M. F., Policy and Administration The Journal appears eight times a year — monthly with the excep- tion of June, July, August, and September. The pages of the Journal are open to members and non-members of the Society. Manuscripts intended for publication should be sent to Prof. B. E. Femow, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any member of the Editorial Board. Missing numbers will be replaced without charge, provided claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to the Journal of Forestry, Atlantic Building, 930 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Vol. XVII MARCH, 1919 No. 3 THE WORK AHEAD By Frederick E. Olmsted, President, Society of Aiiicrican Foresters **'» While the world is engaged in directing its course along happier ways, the American forester rejoices in the feeling that his profession must play an important part in the great changes to come. The forester is concerned with the management of a natural resource of distinct importance to the public welfare. The bulk of the forests of the United States are in private ownership and are being used most unwisely from the viewpoint both of the present owners and of the public. Lumbermen, the private owners, are, as a class, distressingly stupid ; foresters, so far as the destruction of forests by lumbermen is concerned, are decidedly torpid ; forestry in this country is stagnant. The forester knows about trees, without which life would be uncom- fortable. All of us, including the lumberman, know that wood will always be a thing of great value. Trees, as distinguished from other natural resources, such as coal or copper, have a peculiar value, be- cause they are living things and, if decently treated, perpetuate them- selves. The forester knows that the forest may be treated in such a decent way that it will produce wood in perpetuity while being cut and manufactured into the many products so essential to the world's com- fort and development. The forester knows, as does the lumberman, that if a forest is not decently treated it stops reproducing and dies, becoming of such passing value as the bones of its ancient ancestor, the vein of coal. The forester knows that the kind of management given in the immediate future to forest lands of the United States will have an important influence upon the economic and social growth of the countrv in years to come. The lumberman refuses to look upon his -'industry from a viewpoint extending beyond his immediate, individ- i? ualistic interests, and in stupidly keeping to this narrow outlook he is injuring himself as well as the public. He is killing his forests. Forestry is the science and art of managing forests in continuity for forest purposes — that is, for wood supplies and forest influences. It 238 JOURNAL OF Forestry follows that foresters should see to it that those lands of chief value for the production of trees are so managed as to keep on i)roducing trees after they are logged, that we may always have sufficient wood and that the influences of forests — as. for example, that upon the flow of water — may continue to be effective. In this the foresters of the United States have failed to achieve substantial results. We have failed because we have rested wnth undue satisfaction over past accomplish- ments instead of keeping clearly in mind what we have not yet accom- plished and leading the way toward those ends which must be achieved if forestry in this country is to be a living thing; becatise we have been timorotisly blind to the fact that lumbermen, who own most of our forests, are complacently destroying the life of these forests as logging proceeds ; and because as foresters we have not placed before the public a definite plan aimed at the stoppage of this waste. For many years, now, the minds of both foresters and the public have been at peace, under the illusion that, as some one hundred and sixty million acres of forest and brush lands have come into ])u1jlic ownership, our forestry problems are solved. This has indeed been a fine achievement, but only a? a start toward the decent management of forests. About 98 per cent of our public forest lands are included in the National Forests of the West, New England, and the Si>uthern States and are owned and administered by the United States. On these lands forestry is practiced ; the ripe timber is sold when chances ofi:'er, the cuttings are so managed that the lands are kei)t productive, and systematic protection against fire is in efifect. The National Forests are efficiently managed. The timber so owned, bow-ever, is largely inac- cessible and of relatively poor quality, for it represents the thin milk left after a skimming of the cream by the lumbermen. The National Forests are of value for the grazing of cattle, sheep, and horses ; for the conservation of water ; and. perhaps, their chief tangible value, even now, is for purposes of recreation. The remaining 2 per cent of ]mb licly owned forests are held by the various States and munici])alities. These are almost entirely recreation groimds, and, viewed as a whole, must be considered as parks rather than as forests, where forestry is practiced. In spite of the fact that many of them are in the hands of able foresters, most State Forests are lamentably mismanaged be- cause of the fickleness of State administrations. Consider, then, one hundred and sixty million acres of publicl}' owned forest lands, all of undoubted real value to the iniblic, where forestry is practiced as occasion allow^s. What does this mean in regard to keep- ing forest lands productive? It means little or nothing. It means that the publicly owned forests, wdiich in general are decently managed and THK WOUK AUKAl) 229 kept productive, comprise one-tifth of the total standing timber of the country, much of this one-fifth being inaccessiljle at present; and that the privately owned forests, which in general are stupidly mismanaged and rendered nonproductive, comprise four-fifths of the country's timber, most of which is readily accessible. What is more directly to the point, it. means that only 2 per cent of the present annual cut of timber in the United States is derived from publicly owned forests, where forestry is practiced ; that 98 per cent of the present annual cut comes from privately owned forests where logged-off lands are turning to wastes or near-wastes. Whence the illusion that we are practicing forestry? It is perfectly evident that we are practicing forestry on the very tip of the tail of the dog. Until privately owned forest lands in this country are decently treated, the nation's loss in forest wealth will continue to be serious and forestry will continue to stagnate. On this whole question of forestry for the private owner and for- estry for the Government we have recently been thinking in a rut. We grant that the Government should practice forestry on its own lands and agree that it is now doing so quite successfully. Then we put the question, "Can the private owner of forest lands practice forestry?" and the pedantic answer is, "Oh, dear, no ; he could not ati'ord to wait 80 or 100 years for another crop of timber which might net him 3 or 4 per cent on a somewhat hazardous investment. He might do so, perhaps, if allowed to bring his individual interest into a lumber syndi- cate of such pregnant power as to rival the Government itself ; but existing conditions are indeed most discouraging."' And there we have dropped the matter. That is muddle-headed reasoning. Quite regardless of whether for- est lands may be publicly or privately owned in the future or of intri- cate guesses as to future financial returns, private forest lands nozv being logged must be kept productive, for otherwise they will be of no value to any future owner. We have muddled our minds in the attempt to discover what would happen to the private owner in case the whole science and art of forestry were clapped down upon him, overlooking the fact that the thing of immediate importance is to make sure that zve have forests in the future. Let us see to it, first of all, that we keep trees growing in order that we may have wood, and then, being assured of wood, let us determine, with all necessary deliberation, wdio, ulti- Aiately, should own and manage the lands upon which this wood is produced. In plain words, this means that the public must compel the lumberman to treat his forests decently, and that the forester, without delay or quibble, must show the public how this may be done. 230 JOURNAL OF Forestry It is sometimes argued that we do not need to concern ourselves about the forests of the future, because the forests we now have will last us for 50 or 100 years, or even longer ; that it is futile to worry about the matter, so long as we have wood. Of course, it is possible to estimate the length of time our present supply of timber will hold out, assuming certain fixed domestic and foreign demands (demands, incidentally, which are by no means fixed). This question has no direct bearing on the problem we are now discussing — that of keeping forest lands pro- ductive. Let us suppose, for example, that under certain estimated demands our present forests will last us for a hundred years. That is no reason at all why we should allow cut-over lands to become wastes or near-wastes. In the first place, it takes a hundred years, let us say, for a seedling to grow into a respectable tree, fit for the saw. The trees we are now cutting are, on the average, much older. The time to start our new forests, therefore, is now — not a hundred years from now — for otherwise we should have a long period during which we should be without adequate supplies of timber. In the second place, those who argue that no present action is necessary overlook one of the most vital facts in the whole forest problem, namely, that the destruction of for- ests in any one locality, district, or region has a distinctly adverse in- fluence on the prosperity of the country as a whole. The forest problem is essentially a local problem. For example, it is absurd to argue that after the white pine of the Lake States has disappeared the country will be as prosperous as ever, because of the enormous amovuits of Douglas fir to be had from the Pacific coast ; and that after the Pacific coast stands have been used up we shall jog along as comfortably as ever, because we shall be able to tap the extensive forests of Siberia. Such short-sighted reasoning overlooks entirely the fact that the destruction of forests in the Lake States means an immense industrial loss for that region, and hence for the country as a whole. It means the wiping out of wealth, production, and employ- ment over extensive areas good for nothing but the growing of trees. It should be borne in mind, also, that the accessibility of a timber supply — that is, the ease with which it can be brought to market — ^is of vast importance from the economic standpoint. Would not the Middle West and the East be immensely better ofif with an adequate supply of white pine at their very doors rather than to be dependent on some substitute from the Pacific coast or Siberia? The evils of costly transportation have recently been vividly illustrated. The im- portance of determining precisely how long our present supplies of timber mav last has been grossly exaggerated. We know ]ierfectly well THE WORK AHEAD 231 that our forests are disappearing — in some localities rapidly, in others slowly. Our main concern is to keep forest lands productive in all localities, aiming at the general welfare through permanent local pros- perity. Bear in mind that the private owner is harvesting 98 per cent of the yearly cut of timber in the United States and that he is making wastes or near-wastes of his cut-over lands. He must practice forestry to such an extend as may be necessary to keep his logged-off lands producing timber. Is it a practical thing for him to do this? It is. He has not done it heretofore because of his profound inertia, and will not do it in the future until the public takes occasion to disturb his profound inertia. Both occasion and disturbance are long overdue. The lumberman is holding and paying taxes on his worthless, or near-worthless, cut-over lands on the gambler's chance that "something may turn up" later on to make them of value. Examples have been before him for many years, indicating that he might give them one reasonably assured value from the very start. If he had taken the trouble to investigate he would have found that with little or no increase in his logging costs his lands could have been kept producing trees, thus taking on a definite potential worth which almost from the very begin- ning could have been discounted to present worth in dollars and cents. If he had taken the trouble to investigate he would have found that any increase in logging costs could usually have been almost entirely counterbalanced by resultant savings in woods and mill. If he had taken the trouble to investigate he would have found, from practical logging operations carried on under forestry methods, that when forests are decently treated they can be made to reproduce themselves on cut- over lands to excellent advantage. The tiresome plea that the long- sufifering consumer would have to bear any possible increased cost of production is hardly worth discussion, for such possible increase could be saved many times over if the lumber industry were efficiently instead of inefficiently managed. The decent treatment of forests would be a decided step toward efificiency. Moreover, the private owner of a valu- able natural resource, placed entirely at his mercy many years ago through a short-sighted policy of state, is under a distinct obligation to give that resource decent treatment, even if his own immediate profits should be slightly affected thereby ; and in case he fails to see this obli- gation, the public should convince him that it exists. Cut-over lands, of course, must be protected against fire. Here, again, the cost is nominal, as experience has shown. Moreover, it need hardly be argued that the owner of forest property, whether that prop- 232 joL'RNAL OF Forestry erty be virgin timber or cut-over land, sbould be compelled to protect it against damage or destruction by fire, for unless he does so his prop- erty becomes a public nuisance and should be dealt with accordingly. The immediate problem before us, therefore, the one problem of vital importance to the advancement of forestry in the United States, is how to plan for and bring about such reasonable management of privately owned forests as will guarantee ample and conveniently acces- sible supi^lies of wood for the country in years to come. The question of who ultimately should own the forests of the country must also be solved and solved with all due expedition. Let us not, however, con- fuse these two problems. The question of future ownership is ex- tremely complicated and cannot be finally settled for many years ; the question of kee])ing forest lands productive is fairly simple and should be settled without delay. As foresters should and must be the guiding and ])ropelling force for better things in forestry, the Society of Amer- ican Foresters should and must rouse itself from a lethargy bearing many of the earmarks of the lumber industry's inertia. A committee comprising the keenest minds at the Society's disposal, with advisory experts, is now in process of formation. It will be the duty of this com- mittee to plan and direct the Society's efforts for the advancement of forestry in the United States, and every one of us should lend it whole- hearted assistance. When we come to consider the problem of whether forest lands should be ultimately in private or public ownership, the question should be approached from the standi)oint of the best interests of the whole country. It might be determined that the individual owner of forest property could not advantageously serve the public interests in the long run. He is not, as a rule, in a favorable position to invest large sums returning low interest after long periods, assuming hazards which are often serious. It might be concluded that forestry, from its very nature, was an enterprise most favorably handled by collective interests on a large scale. If such a conclusion were reached, we should then face the decision as to whether this collective interest should be a com- bination of lumbermen or the Government. It has been proposed, for example, that in lieu of Ciovernment ownership the lumbermen of the country should be allowed to combine, forming one great association^ or syndicate, or trust (the name is immaterial). This would facilitate the borrowing of capital, and the control of production, distribution, and prices, thus placing the lumber industry on a more stable financial basis than at present and offering every inducement for the manage- ment of forests in continuity — for the practice of forestry. In return THF. WORK AIIlCAl) 233 for such a privilege this proposed trust would agree to conform to cer- tain standards of business management, labor management, forest man- agement, and "treatment of the public," which might as well be called public management. Admission to such a combination and the stand- ards required would be in the hands of various departments of the Government and the organization would be controlled by a board, upon which the Government would be represented to the meager proportion- ate extent of its own timber holdings. Once organized and instructed, this syndicate would be trusted to work out its own fate and the fate of the public without upper-handed control by the Government. For years we have been concerned with trees, lumbermen, and the public interest, and past experience offers small encouragement for the success of collective enterprise on any such basis. Success would be doubtful because the lumbermen of this country have proved them- selves incapable of managing their own industry efficiently even from the standpoint of their own business interests, to say nothing of the interests of the public ; because the management of forests for con- tinuous production, which is of prime importance to the public, if left to the lumbermen would become of secondary importance when con- flicting with the greatest immediate financial gain ; and. in general, because the control exercised by the Government would be entirely inadequate for the protection of public interests. Lumbermen are now referred to as a class, the remarks below not holding good for a few exceptional individuals of the trade. A lum- berman is one engaged in the felling and shaping of timber. Among the definitions of the verb lumber are the following: "to heap in dis- order" ; "to move cumbrously along" ; "to advance with a rumbling noise." Regardless of the origin of these definitions, they are fairly descriptive of the lumber industry of the United States. It is cum- brous and disorderly, and for many years past has made a great to-do about advancing, without advancing. In certain regions it has made substantial progress in protecting its own properties against fire, being largely driven to it by force of public sentiment. In protecting its own properties it has helped to protect forests in general through the whole- some influence exerted upon the careless, ignorant, and criminal part of the ])opulation. From some of its publicity work it might be inferred that in practicing fire prevention it was also i)racticing forestry or forest conservation, in a broader sense, which has not been true. The pre- vention of fire is. of course, a vital step preliminary to the practice of forestry, but it is not forestry. Moreover, fire prevention as ])racticed voluntarily by the lumbermen consists mainly in measures for the pro- 2oi JOURNAL OF FORKSTRY tection of virgin stands of timber to be cut at some future time, and except as an incidental precaution for the protection of such virgin stands, hunbermen have no interest whatsoever in fire prevention on their logged-off areas. In not a single one of the great timber regions of the country have lumbermen made any sincere, concerted effort to keep their cut-over lands productive. They are still skinning their forest soils to the quick, leaving them wastes or near-wastes, with an eye solely to the immediate dollar. The word skinning may have a familiar sound. It should have, for it was used in this connection more than once by Theodore Roose- velt. It is a much better word than timber-mining and should be brought back into common use. The history of the pine lands of the Lake States is in process of repetition all over the country, and logged- ofif regions are becoming industrially dead, beyond hope of recovery, except by processes so slow and costly as to be almost beyond con- sideration. We are speaking, remember, of lands chiefly valuable for the growth of trees, not of those trifling areas of logged-of¥ land which may be turned to agricultural uses. Even those cut-over lands which, wholly undesigned, are left productive in a small measure represent an enormous potential loss in future production and employment. Labor, the world over, is in a state of unrest. We in this country Wave had a touch of extremism from the I. W. W., an organization which all of us would like to see disappear. Perhaps one of the simplest ways to make it disappear would be to do away with the causes of which it is a symptom. The lumber industry, as much as any other, has been to blame for the existence and growth of the I. W. W. The causes have been abominable living conditions, long hours, under-pay, temporary employment, and the creation of industrial wastes through the destruction of the source of raw material. The lumber industry is many years behind the times in business intelligence and organization. It guesses at the amount and value of its raw material ; its plans for logging, transporting, and milling this raw material are haphazard; its. knowledge of the real cost of manu- facturing its product is ridiculously vague ; its accounting systems are extremely crude ; its understanding of the uses to which its products are put is childlike, and its fancy as to the amount and value of its stock on hand at any given time is susceptible to wide variations. It is interested in its own business chiefly from the narrow standpoint of plant against plant, region against region. It still clings to the excuse that it is a "pioneer" industry. It is ; for it is endeavoring to do busi- ness on. a pioneer basis long after pioneer days have passed it by. It THE WORK AHEAD 235 is a pioneer in laissez-faire. The industry has, to be sure, made a nota- ble advance in mechanical appliances for logging and milling, which has resulted both in decreased costs of manufacture and in enormous overproduction of manufactured materials. In the woods such appli- ances have generally resulted in increased forest destruction. The industry as a whole is archaic, individually self-centered, and penny- wise. If lumbermen are ever permitted to combine in restraint of trade, the United States G.overnment should be the undisputed and ever-active boss of the industry so combined, and perhaps the simplest way for the Government to make sure of its control would be to own the great bulk of the raw material, the timber. For many years past the forester has endeavored to persuade the lumberman that measures for keeping his lands productive were worth adopting. Persuasion has utterly failed, resulting in little more than mild amusement on the lumberman's part. The lumberman, to be sure, has always expressed a keen desire to "co-operate" with the forester in all ways possible ; but the difficulty there has been that in practice the lumberman's understanding of co-operation has been to accept everything to his immediate liking and to yield nothing in return. Pre- cisely at the point where the forester's suggestions imply a present restraint on the lumberman's part in order to insvire the future welfare of both the public and the lumberman, the forester becomes a theorist, an idealist, and what chambers of commerce are pleased to term an "insidious influence." The humor of the situation is that the lumber industry has fallen to its present level because of a total lack of theory and ideals. The time for persuasion has passed. These are the two tasks before us which overshadow all others : First, to compel the private owner of forest lands to keep his soils pro- ductive. Second, to reach a clear-cut conclusion as to whether the bulk of timber producing lands should rest ultimately in private or public ownership ; if in private ownership, under what system and con- trol; if in public ownership, through what procedure. The first task is far and away of greatest immediate importance. Have we anything more worth while to think about, write about, and act upon? THE ORGANIZATION OF FINANCE IN FOREST INDUSTRY By Burt P. Kirkland University of IVashingtoii, College of Forestry GlvNllRAI, CONSlDIiRATIOXS Owing to the short period of participation by America in the great war. reconstruction may not be as radical a process as must be faced l)y Europe. Certainly, however, many changes overdue before the war must be brought about to place industrial and social conditions on a stable footing. Inasmucli as forest industry was recognized as one of the most unstable, it must receive a large share of attention. This be- comes all the more urgent in view of the paramount importance our forests have in war or ])eace. Furthermore, it can scarcely have es- ca])e(l the attention of the most unthinking that our natural resources are after all severely limited. It follows that no man with honest desire for his country's continued welfare can refuse support to sound meas- ures of improvement in handling our forests. Nevertheless, either- through inability to grasp a unified program of forest betterment or reluctance to undertake thoroughgoing measures at one lea]:), it is prob- able that necessary changes will be undertaken ]")iecemeal. This dis- cussion is therefore confined to one item of possible improvement, which is. however, of a most necessary nature, namely, improvement in the organization of financial credit. AMOL'N't op CAI'ITAL Ki;nr I Ki:i » V<\ l"OKi:ST INDlSTin' AND I XTKKKST RATl-S A\ AILAT-LK The necessity for this imjjrovement is very evident. Investigations of the U. S. Forest Service conducted in 1915 disclose that 30 to 50 per cent of the cai)ital used in forest industry is borrowed, and that interest rates vary from 5 to 8 ])er cent, with an average of at least C^Yi per cent, or even more, when the cost of securing loans is added. ^- '-• '• Accord- ' Rci)(irt No. 114, U. S. Dept. Agriculture: "Some Pulilic and I'.conomic Asjiects of the Luml)er Industry," l^y W. B. (ireeley, pp. 14-15. * West Coast Luml)erman. Novenil)er i, 1916, p. 34. ■'Journal OK Forestry, January, 1917: "Continuous Forest Produclion of Vuh- licly Owned Timberlands as a Solution of the Economic Difficulties of the Lum- l)er Industry, liy l^.urt P. Kirkland. pp. 12 and 13. 2:!(> THE OKGAXTZAIION OF FINANCE IN l-OKEST INDUSTIO" 237 ing to report of the Department of Commerce and Labor/ private in- vestment in timber in this country amounts to not less than six bilHon dollars before the war. No doubt capitalization has increased with rising prices. The value of logging camps and sawmills adds about one billion dollars more to the capital investment in the lumber indus- try, making a total of about seven billion dollars, without counting capital used in distribution of lumber. It is no discredit to the industry that a large amount of this capital is borrowed. On the contrary, so long as our present system of industry is continued, it is of paramount importance that active managers of industry l^nrrow the capital of those no longer able to manage industry, including that of the "widow arid orphan." Borrowing in any sound industry should probably amount to 40 or 50 per cent of all the capital used. This permits a shrinkage of 50 to 60 per cent in the assets of the industry without jeopardizing the lender's investment, providing the credit instruments have been prop- erly framed and the borrowing properly organized. The assets of forest industry are of such stable and permanent character that there is no possibility of a 50 per cent shrinkage. There is indeed little or no possibility of a shrinkage of even 25 per cent in the assets of this indus- try, but it is inadvisable, both from the standpoint of the borrower and lender, to finance as much as 75 per cent of the assets on borrowed capital with long-time loans, because temporary interruptions of income, as in time of depression, may interfere with interest payments and dis- rupt the necessary relations of confidence between borrower and lender. Moreover, it is economically unsound for the enterpriser to be relieved of the necessity of employing considerable of his own capital in his own enterprise, or at least to be under immediate supervision of those who advance capital (the stockholders). To do so relieves him oi a large part of the incentive to conservation and close attention to business detail necessary for the best results. The sound business should be able to command short-term credit to cover the ups and downs of busi- ness to the extent at times of perhaps 25 per cent more of tlie capital employed, but this credit should probably come through ordinary liank- ing cliannels. as at present. ANForX'l" OF CAPITAL l!()RR( )WEI) AND SWIXCS I'A' ORC.A X iZ A'lH tXS oF CREDIT This discussion concerns itself with the 40 to 50 per cent of capital wliich is being or should he secured througli long-term loans. With an investment of seven billiim dollars, borrowings of this percentage wctild The Lumlier Industry, Part 1, p. la. 238 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY amount to from about three to three and one-half billion dollars. Tak- ing the smaller figure, the interest bill of the industry, at the present rate of almost 7 per cent, must be in the neighborhood of $210,000,000 annually. With proper organization of forest-industry credit, interest rates should shrink until comparable to the fates secured by other industries with properly organized credit, although with often less sound assets. Our railroads secure capital at 4 to 4^^ per cent, and at this writing U. S. steel 5's are quoted at par. Forest industry should not pay to exceed an average of 5 per cent, at which rate the above interest bill would be reduced to $150,000,000 per annum — a saving of $60,000,000 annually. This does not read large after examining a report on sums squandered on airplane production ; but we can better understand the magnitude of such a saving when we reflect that it is twelve times the amount spent annually by the Forest Service in managing the National Forests. It is also probably four times the amount necessary to regenerate by natural inea)is, supple- mented by some artificial aid, all commercial forest areas annually cut over in the United States, and protect forests in commercial forest regions from fire. Such a saving is therefore of the utmost importance to forests and forestry. REASONS FOR PRESENT HIGH INTEREST RATES Before addressing ourselves to the method of making this saving, the question arises as to why the interest rates are higher in forest industry than other industries, often with less stable assets? High interest rates arise in forest industry because of speculative reputation of industry, high cost of investigating loans, small individual borrowings by unor- ganized borrowers competing with each other for capital, and other minor factors. The conditions are very nearly identical w'ith those maintaining in farm borrowings. All these disabilities of forest indus- try as a borrower can be removed in large measure by organizatiorl if Americans will exercise some of that genius with which they freely credit themselves. It is unlikely, however, that the industry possesses entirely within its own ranks the requisite initiative and powers to organize effectively for this purpose. It will need aid of an impartial public agency, and, since the organization must be national, it must be a national agency. Fortunately, there is ample precedent for such Fed- eral organization, specifically, in the Farm Loan Board and. in a general way, the Federal Reserve Board. the; organization of finance in forest industry 239 SAVINGS to be made BY ORGANIZATION OF CREDIT, NOT BY FEDERAL SUBSIDY Briefly, then, a Federal Forest Loan Board is needed to organize the credit resources of forest industry to secure cheaper capital. We may pause here to pay our respects to those financial interests which profit by abnormal interest rates and financial chaos. These heretofore privi- leged interests have charged in connection with the Federal Farm Loan Board that the scheme constituted a paternalistic subsidy to the farmer. Similar charges may be expected in connection with a Federal Forest Loan Board. This occasion is therefore taken to repudiate any such charges. Neither the Federal farm-loan policy nor the proposed forest- loan policy involve paternalism or subsidy to the industries involved. These policies should be taken squarely at face value. Through them the Government does for these industries zchat it should stand in posi- tion to do for any Jiecessary i)idustry, namely, assist in the creation of financial institutions suited to the specific needs of each industry and operated by men with knozvledge of those specific needs. Some capital may properly be advanced temporarily by the Government, as in the case of formation of the farm-loan banks, which had small advances for purposes of organization. On account of the war some farm-loan bonds were also taken by the Treasury'. Farm loan 45^2 per cent bonds are now selling at a premium on their own merits, and some of the banks are now ready to return money advanced for their stocks by the Government. The advance of Government funds is only temporary and is beside the real purpose of the farm-loan act, the main purpose of which is to organize farm credit. SCOPE OF LOAN POLICY Although the Federal Farm Loan Board serves as an example of what is needed in forest industry, it cannot be said to fully meet the requirements, the main defect being overconservatism in its loan policy, which may. however, be pardoned during the early period of develop- ment, though there is extreme danger that this policy will become fixed. The valid objection to overconservatism becomes clear when we reflect that the products of industry required by society cannot be secured in adequate amount zcithout taking risks in industry. This being true, it is a.viomatic tliat the obligation rests on society to create financial insti- tutions capable of absorbing an adequate portion of the risk instead of 240 JOIRNAL OF FORESTRY Icaz'itiy all on the i)idii'ichta]. as docs the federal Farm Loan Board under its policy. To date we have induced the individual to take all the risks by promising high rewards for success. This system ruins some and makes millionaires of others. Happiness will be more general with fewer of each class in evidence. This result can be facilitated by institutions which will absorb some of the risks in industry, so that smaller rewards need to be offered to secure production. The solution of this problem, so far as it concerns finance, is relatively simple. Since the interest rate consists of three elements — (a) payment for the use of capital itself, (b) the cost of investigating the loan, and (r) payment to cover the element of risk — in the present 7 per cent rate on forest loans perhaps 3 to 4 per cent represents value of use of the capital, yi to I per cent cost (^f investigating the security and ])reparing the loans, and 2 to 3 per cent to cover risk. Proper organization of credit will eliminate part of the cost of investigating loans and much of the risk element, except in certain loans necessary to the industry, but inher- ently risky. These are taken care of by increased interest rates, as considered below. This brings us to consideration of the proper constitution of a Forest Loan Board and a brief statement of its methods. MAK1;-U1' oF FORFST LOAN r.O.\RT) The board should consist of five to seven members appointed by the President. Part of these members might well represent such present governmental organizations as the Treasury Department, Forest Serv- ice, Department of Commerce, etc.. and the remainder be selected from representatives of forest industry. Its duties should be to fix the gen- eral policies and supervise the operation of the Forest Loan lianks. REGIOXAL ORGAN IZ.VTIOX OF BANKS The plan of organization should provide for decentralization, as in the Federal Reserve and Farm Loan Banks. The country should be divided into eight or more districts, as, for example, ( i ) Xew England and Northern New York; (2) the Lake States: (3) the Central Hard- wood and Appalachian Region; (4) the Southeast; (3) the Northern Rocky Mountains; (6) the Southern Rocky ^Mountains ; (7) the South Pacific Coast ; (8) the North Pacific Coast. Further subdivision may be desirable. Each regional bank should reflect the local viewpoint and have a full staff' of forestry, timber, and financial experts. THE ORGANIZATION OF FINANCE IN FOREST INDUSTRY 2H I'TNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION On account of the various classes of loans to be placed, the banks ■should be functionally t)rganized into the following divisions, the func- tions of each of which is obvious, when considered in connection with the classes of loans later dealt with : ( (/ ) Division of Public Forest Loans, whose duty shall be to ])ass on ai)])lications of municipalities. States, and Federal departments for loans on forest properties presumably worked for continuous forest production. Federal loans are included here, because there is no reason \\hv such great properties as the National Forests should not finance themselves without recourse to tax moneys. (/;) Division of Private Forest Loans. — Continuous i)roduction forest. ((■) Division of Private Forest Loans. — Exploitation forest. (d) Division of Forest L^tilization Loans. — To loan on sawmills, logging develo])mcnts, inilp and paper, and other wood utilization in- dustry jjlants. (r) Division of Receiverships. — Any financial institution which loans adequatel}' to any industr\- will have to foreclose some mortgages. Tlie division of receivership should close out or operate such proper- ties until such time as they will close out with the least loss. In accord- ance with the social ])ur])ose of such an institution as this, special efifort should be made by this division to put bankrupted exjiloitation forests int(j the hands of owners who will put them on a continuous produc- tion basis, as, for example, the Federal Government, States, or munici- palities. This division, by reason of its close relations with other divi- sions ha\'ing power to make loans, would be in position to place forest properties in hands ^\•here they will be best managed. SlvCURITIES RECEIVED AND ISSUED The Federal Forest Loan Banks should advance capital to the various units of forest industry under suitable restrictions, considered in more detail hereafter, and receive first mortgages as security therefor. These relatively small mortgages should be used as collateral for large bond issues which will be marketable in the bond markets of the world, as no timber bond issue now is. Such bonds are desirable as invest- ments because of their marketability, stable value, and continuous income vield. 242 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY VARIATION IN INTEREST RATES It should be most specificaUy stated that the -financial institution zvill fail of its purpose if it establishes one set rate of interest for all classes of loans, as has been done by the Federal Farm Loan Board. Interest rates should be fixed with some degree of flexibiHty, just as the Federal Reserve Banks give preferred discount rates on certain classes of security. The principles under which interest rates should vary are partially discussed below. Of three elements going to make up the interest rate — (i) a per- centage to cover the bare value of the capital if loaned without cost of investigation or risk (a condition closely approximated in loans to the Federal Government), (2) a percentage to cover cost of investigating the loan, and (3) a percentage to cover risk — the first may be consid- ered constant as between loans on the same date and variable only by periods of time. The second possesses considerable variation, but the third is the principal variable, varying from nothing in loans to the Federal Government to 100 per cent in loans to some mining companies. It is by considering this element of risk that the Forest Loan Board can serve all parts of forest industry with capital in complete safety. If experience shows that in sawmilling i per cent of loaned capital is lost through industrial failures, then the risk part of the interest rate to sawmill concerns must not be under I per cent. If less tried wood- using plants, such as ethyl alcohol plants, lose 3 per cent of borrowed capital through industrial failures, then loans to this class must add 3 per cent to the base rate to cover risk. If the base rate (rate at which the capital is borrowed in open market) be 4 per cent, the cost of ad- ministration and investigation of the loan ^ per cent, and the risk 3 per cent, then the total rate to such an industry would be 7 J/ per cent. In a loan on the National Forests risk would be entirely eliminated and cost of investigation and administration nearly so. Hence the rate would be reduced practically to base rate and should not exceed 4^ per cent or less. It should also be remembered that it is not worth while for the public to lend its aid in the establishment of such a finan- cial institution unless it serves a social purpose. In this case it should aid in the perpetuation of the forest for national use and help in better- ing the conditions under which employer and employee live and work together. Enterprises best securing social ends may thus properly receive favored treatment in interest rates/ so far as consistent with sound finance. Fortunately, such enterprises, as a rule, present the least THE ORGANIZATION OF FINANCE IN FOREST INDUSTRY 243 financial risks, and are entitled to lower interest rates for this reason, also. For example, a forest under efficient continuous production man- agement does not depreciate, but continues to maintain or increase its value. It is entitled to a lower interest rate than an exploitation forest, whose value is dissipated as cutting progresses, oftentimes under con- ditions which forbid setting aside sufficient sums to repay borrowed money. Concerns creating favorable conditions for labor may well receive more favorable interest rates along the lines previously sug- gested by the writer.^ This is strictly sound finance, because industrial experience has amply shown that such concerns are on a basis of more stable income, that "being human is good business." INTEREST RATES ACCORDED DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LOANS Under the principles set forth in the preceding paragraphs, the writer conceives that various forest properties and industries are entitled to consideration in interest rates in approximately the following order : (i) Forests under continuous production management in the hands of the Federal Government, States, and municipalities, where the gen- eral public credit, as well as the properties, are pledged, say, 4 per cent interest (when interest rates are normal). (2) Similar forests where only the properties themselves are pledged as security, 45^ per cent interest. (3) Privately owned continuous production forests, 4) 2 to 5 per cent. (4) Private exploitation forest, where the bonds must be retired serially as the timber is cut, 5 to 5^^ per cent. (5) Sawmills, pulp and paper mills, wood-distillation plants, and other proven industries supplied by forests managed under continuous production, hence guaranteeing permanent supply of raw material, 5 to 6 per cent. (6) Similar plants dependent on exploitation forests, where supply of raw material will be uncertain, 6 to 8 per cent. (7) Less-proven industries dependent on continuous production for- ests, 6 to 8 per cent. (8) Similar industries dependent on exploitation forests, not loan- able. LOAN RESTRICTIONS A few necessary restrictions on certain classes of loans may be men- tioned. Continuous-production forests should, obviously, have first call on loan capital. The most urgent restriction should be exercised 'Journal of Forestry, January, 1917, pp. 32 and 33. 244 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY in the case of loans to wood-working industries. Loans should not he made to more plants in one locality or in the nation than are needed to supply the local or national markets. The rule here should be first come, first served, unless some plants are unloadable through bad loca- tion or construction and arrangement. In closing, the writer wishes to urge that the time was never more favorable than now for the formation of such an institution. In the next series of years the Federal Government will be paying ofif some 1 6 billions of low-interest-bearing bonds, thus rendering available to lenders some five times the sum necessary to cover the legitimate bor- rowing requirements of forest industry. No more opportune time could be imagined than this for floating all bonds necessary. It should also be again emphasized that the principle of decentralization must be strictly adhered to. Complete freedom of action must be left to all borrowers in order that freedom of initiative which has served so well in the past may continue to do so in the future. No restrictions should be placed on securing loans from other sources. The attempt of the Federal Government to dictate industrial methods would be a sure bar to progress and hence intolerable. It has perfect freedom to excel in management of its own forest holdings and is under no necessity to interfere elsewhere. The argument for the pro- posed financial institution may be closed with the positive declaration that if the Federal Government does not by its aid in organization of financial and other institutions bring order out of chaos in forest in- dustry now, which it can do at insignificant expense, it will later have to spend billions for reclamation of forest areas now being denuded of forest growth, with no care to the future. REVIEW OF LUMBER INDUSTRY AFFAIRS By p. S. Lovejoy, Professor of Forestry, University of Michigan The following survey of discussions, appearing in the lumber trade journals during the last half of 1918, is an attempt to sketch current events and economic conditions which promise to be of some perma- nent importance and with which it may be well for foresters to keep in touch, so that they may maintain an intelligent understanding of the point of view of lumbermen. GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY In common with other industries during the war, the producers of forest products were subjected to more rigorous supervision and more radical and particularized control than could well have been imagined. This control centered in the War Industries Board, and especially in the Lumber Section. The personnel of the war organizations was drafted, almost without exception, from the field of successful industry, and professional politicians or representatives of the old line of Wash- ington bureaus were notable in their absence. We had, in fact, a busi- ness-man's administration, in which business men for the time ordered the business of the nation. It is noteworthy that no large projects seem to have been inhibited or seriously delayed by lack of essential forest products, and the lum- bermen of the nation can well congratulate themselves on their accom- plishment. To be sure, serious friction did develop at times, as in the case of the vehicle makers and hardwood manufacturers, and again over price fixa- tion in southern pine ; but these difficulties were of short duration. In spite of the success with which a series of very trying situations was met by the industry, the lumber industry, in common with others, did not reconcile itself to governmental regulation, even though admin- istered by business men from its own ranks. The general sentiment seems to have been voiced by the convention of Wholesale Lumber Distributors, at Chicago, on November 23, the resolutions of which read in part : "For the good of the industry, the Government should discontinue and elimi- nate the restrictions and price-fixing on lumber products. . . . Government efforts should be directed to furthering trade, based upon the law of supply and demand, in opening commercial channels." 245 240 JOURNAL OF FORKSTRY The rapidity with which price fixation, regulation, and embargoes, building restrictions, etc., have been discontinued indicates the inten- tions of the Government to proceed along the lines indicated. There are signs that post-war developments in the way of a national policy in respect to essential raw materials may be expected, but there is no present indication as to how such legislation or such policies may afifect the lumber industry. Today the industry is, to a very large degree, in status quo ante. The amount of the purchases by the allied governments and their desires in this matter will, doubtless, in a large degree, determine the amount and form of Government control during the next few years. LUMBER EXPORT The possibilities of export business are being canvassed by American and Canadian lumbermen with great enthusiasm, and interest in the forest conditions of foreign countries is widespread. Various organi- zations, as notably the Northern Hardwood and Hemlock and the American Hardwood Associations, have already fairly detailed plans for the development of export organizations. Perhaps no other subject has been so generally discussed by the trade journals diu'ing the mid- winter months. This interest seems to be derived from the idea that domestic markets are failing or at least inadequate to absorb the cur- rent production of lumber and the idea that foreign trade may be expected to be more profitable than domestic. Detailed evidence or cogent reasoning on either point seems generally wanting. The Lumber Trade Journal, however (December 9, 1918), expresses itself unequivocally, as follows : "For nearly three years we have been confronted with the stubborn fact that we actually import more lumber and timber products of all kinds than we export. "There is an even chance that this situation will continue to grow upon us until, instead of seeking an outside market for timber, we will be seeking an outside supply to help supply our domestic needs. . . . "All authorities agree that, at the rate we have been going for a number of years, we will eventually reach a point where there will not be enough timber stumpage to supply domestic needs, unless the needs are cut down or some way is discovered to make the stumpage go much farther. . . . "This is a situation which should furnish food for much thought on the part of those prominent in lumber production in this country." The Atlantic City meeting of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States, in December, 1918, made somewhat vague reference to the desirability of paying attention to essential raw materials, but for- REVIEW OF LUMBER INDUSTRY AFFAIRS 247 mulated nothing definite in the way of a pohcy, in spite of the fact that lumbermen were well represented. In this connection it is interesting to note that the War Trade Board, in April, addressing southern hardwood interests, is quoted as saying: "We wish to advise that no white-oak railroad ties or white-oak ship timber will be permitted export from this country except where they are needed for war purposes. "We are determined to preserve our white oak for furniture manufacture, agri- cultural implements manufacture, and numerous other industries in this country and Canada ... as all other hardwoods are disappearing, and oak, especially white oak, is to be the mainstay of the above industries for the future" {Hard- wood Record, May lo, 1918). Information is not available to indicate the basis for the War Trade Board decision or why other species of timber sho'uld not have received similar treatment, as, for instance, hickory and ash. The situation offers interesting possibilities. There may be methods of "conserva- tion" not yet proposed and more practicable than some of those pre- viously attempted. In addressing the National Wholesale Lumber Distributors, at Chi- cago. Prof. R. C. Bryant, who was in charge of the Forest Service study of the lumber industry during the war, is quoted as saying: "Indications point to a much reduced lumber cut during the coming year. Tak- ing the country over, the decrease from normal will amount to several billion feet, and production will hardly recover the normal basis for a year or two." He indicated that about five billion feet would be the maximum foot- age allowable for export, the balance being required at home {Amer- ican LiDnbcrman, November 23, 1918). SOUTHERN PINE PASSED ITS PEAK While the statistics of lumber production have for several years read rather plainly, and while those in touch with the situation could not doubt but that the South was rapidly duplicating the procedure of the Lake States, definite and official confirmation of the current situation has been lacking. In July, before a meeting of West Coast lumbermen, President J. H. Kirby, of the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, made state- ments which may be startling even to those who have been watching the course of events and which are worthy of consideration from yet other angles. If President Kirby's figures are correct, the situation is even more acute than the most rabid "Pinchoist" might have thought. 248 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Mr. Kirby is quoted as saying, in part: "You will be here long after the rest of us have junked our mills and have gone into, other employment, but you will not be here forever. . . . Just a short time ago . . . from St. Louis to Maine was one vast forest. The for- ests of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota were regarded as inexhaustible . . . yet ... all that country is producing only a straggling little bit of timber. . . . Those wonderful forests are on their last legs, a few fringes left. "There is not a tract of forest of any size in all the South today that is not owned by some operator or held for operating. Fifteen years ago outside inves- tors . . . owned practically all of the southern forests . . . but about fifteen years ago the lumbermen of the South suddenly awakened to the knowledge that their forests were rapidly disappearing. They began to investigate, and when they did, they saw the limit of the forests and they rushed into the market and bought up all that was left ; so that today, in the South, you have only a fringe of forest. . Here and ther^ a little. "Of the 362 sawmills in Texas, 202 answered a questionnaire asking as to the quantity of timber owned. Of the 202 mills making reply, 90 per cent had shorter life than five years; so that if you men here have the idea that your industry is going to be permanent, get it out of your mind. . . . All intermediate terri- tory, everything between Illinois and the Atlantic, all the world, substantially, has got to be supplied from the Pacific coast in a little while. . . . "You are going to have a profitable business, and within five years you will havehave substantially no competition, save local competition among yourselves. "I am pointing to this to lead you to a certain thought. You think, perhaps, that your stumpage is high. . . . Within the period of my life, ... in east- ern Texas, my father traded 320 acres of yellow pine for a sewing-machine. "Under these circumstances, why don't you get behind the National Associa- tion? You owe it to yourself to put your industry on a high plane and get to- gether for the good of every one. You owe it to your country . . . your sec- tion, to the men you employ ... to yourself, to your neighbor, to your coun- try, and your God, to think and act in a big way. . . . You are asked to ex- tend a little more generous assistance to the National. In fact, to double your contribution ... I ask for this support. For every five cents invested you will get back a dollar" {Ltimbcr Trade Journal, August 15, 1918, page 22,). Further and confirmatory evidence as to the southern pine situation was given by J. E. Rhodes, Secretary and Manager of the Southern Pine Association, before a meeting of southern foresters at Jackson- ville, Fla., on January 3. He is quoted as saying: "In five to eight years at least 3,000 sawmills in the South will be cut out, and at the present rate of cut, the annual production will drop from around eight billion feet to three or five billion feet" {Lumber Trade Journal, January 15, page 19). "Trade Extension' is the term currently preferred to "advertising" or "exploitation," and the rapidity with which it increases in the lum- ber industry presents a decided anomaly, with log timber supplies REVIEW OF LUMBER INDUSTRY AFFAIRS 249 shrinking as they are known to be and with timber as essential as it certainly is. That the manufacturers should find it profitable, and pre- sumably necessary, to invest great sums in advertising their product is certainly worthy of attention. Evidently they have agreed with Thelen ("Substitution of Other ^Material for Wood," 1917), that "kmiber is no longer a necessity and must be sold in competition with other materials ; hence merchandising methods at least as modern and efficient as those of its competitors are necessary. This involves efl:ective advertising." But the world's recent experience would seem to contradict such a conclusion, and this feeling is editorially expressed by the Lumber Trade Journal (September i, 1918, page 13) : "The welfare of man- kind, in peace or war, demands the use of lumber, regardless of the price is has or may maintain." In any case the Cypress Association has increased its assessment from 20 to 50 cents per thousand feet, and plans an even greater pub- licity campaign than that of its past, and a committee report to the American Hardwood Association, principally interested in southern hardwoods, recommends that "we should not play second fiddle to cy- press," and urges a budget of $50,000 for gum and $100,000 for oak, equivalent to an assessment of about 121^ and 33>^ cents per thousand respectively (American Lumberman, December 21, 1918, page 37). It should also be noted that a Wood Wheel Manufacturers' Associa- tion has come into existence and has initiated an extensive campaign in the national magazines. Further, that a very large southern pine concern has done likewise, in effect trade-marking its lumber, each piece of which, it seems, is to bear the firm stencil — certainly an innovation without precedent. The National Lumber Manufacturers' Association has proposed a budget for the current year in which $60,000 out of a total of $132,000 is for the Trade Extension Department (concerning which see the remarks of President Kirby to the West Coast lumbermen in July, as previously noted) . For itemized budget, see Lumber, October 21, 1918. ASSOCIATED LUMBERMEN ASK FOR ADEQUATE CENSUS 1 On November 23, acting upon a suggestion of the War Industries Board and under the auspices of the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, probably the largest meeting of lumbermen ever assembled took place in Chicago. Some 32 regional associations and upward of 1,000 individuals were present. Problems of "reconstruction" were principally considered. The resolutions adopted included two of par- 250 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY ticular interest to foresters. One expressed appreciation of the work of the Madison Laboratory and requested Congress to continue ade- quate funds for its work. The other recites that : "A census of standing timber classilied by species, location, and accessibility — a census of cut-over lands that will remain temporarily or permanently forest — would secure to the lumber industry information important in the conduct of its business, would afiford a basis for the interpretation of economic problems in forest and wood-using industries, and would aid the development of a perma- nent national forest policy in respect to timber ownership, lumber export, tariff, local taxation, value of stumpage, and sundry forest problems." Congress is urged to make such a census possible. Few matters of national economics and nothing in the field of forestry is second in urgency or far-reaching importance to the proposed census. As Sargent's work in the Tenth Census first proved the suspicions of a few "cranks," and as the work of the Bureau of Corporations in 1913 demonstrated in full the contentions of the small group of "conserva- tionists," and as both were promptly reflected in national policy and legislation, so the new, and for the first time adequate, timber census may be expected to present our national forest status in a manner cer- tain to accelerate enormously the interests of foresters and, of course, the permanent interests of the lumber industry. It is to be hoped that the census may also include more adequate inventory of the woodlots of the country than has yet been seciu'ed. Foresters should certainly leave no stone unturned in supporting the lumberman's Chicago resolution. I LUMBFRMFN WANT DFPKNDABLF STATISTICS A somewhat tardy, perhaps, but none the less real, appreciation of the urgent need for an adequate consideration of forest economics is in- dicated by a report to the directors of the National Lumber Manu- facturers' Association. The report, which was adopted, calls for an organization to study and make available the base data of the industry. "We want to know the amount of our investment and that of the industry; how much timber we have and the amount of timber owned and controlled by the industry; the value of our timber; the cost of production; a cost system that is uniform; the available supply of timber in stocks and production; the prices obtained for our product. In other words, we should build within this body a bureau of lumber economics in the same way the railroads have estabhshed a bureau of railroad economics. We may witness the Federal Trade Commission making an effort to secure this information as the Interstate Railroad Commis- sion does for the railroads. But the railroads found it desirable and advisable to establish their own bureau, and for the same reason we should have a check upon these figures as well as the information itself." RKX'IKVV OF LUMURR INDUSTRY AFFAIRS Bol A policy of interchange of statistical information and economic views with lumber administrators of other countries and co-operation with the Census Bureau, the Federal Trade Commission, the Forest Service, and the War Industries Board is recommended {American Lumber- man, August 3. 1918). For a detailed statement of the data desired and the modus operandi proposed, see American Lumbennan, October 12, 191 8, page 44. LUMBER BUSINESS ACCOUNTING Federal investigation, price-fixing, and tax requirements, as well as general business conditions, combine to enforce a uniform cost account- ing system and practice upon a somewhat hesitant lumber industry. Dr. Wilson Compton (an ex-Professor of Economics and lately with the Federal Trade Commission, now Secretary Manager of the Na- tional Lumber Manufacturers' Association) points out correct and incorrect methods of handling depreciation and investment, showing that the difference between a cost calculated upon the net-investment method may show a variation of $2 to $3 per thousand feet, as com- pared with a similar computation based upon the gross investment. This dift'erence may often be the dilTerence between a fair profit and no profit at all. The two forms of accounts are discussed in detail, good diagrams illustrating each method. The conclusion is that the net-investment method is incorrect in principle and inconsistent with uniformity in cost-keeping methods and intelligent price-fixing policy based upon the costs of production {American Lumberman, July 27, 1918). If Dr. Compton's conclusions are correct, the Forest Service may have occasion to revise the instructions of its "Manual of Stumpage Appraisal." A more or less uniform cost-accounting system was adopted in Sep- tember by the California White and Sugar Pine Manufacturers' Asso- ciation, and is outlined in some detail in the American Lumberman of October 5, 1918. A cost accounting system has also been adopted by the Hardwood Manufacturers' Association of the United States (lately amalgamated with the American Hardwood Manufacturers' Association). Some six forms are used, facsimiles and official explanations being pub- lished, in part, by the American Lumberman of November 9, 1918, and the Lumber Trade Journal of November 15, 1918. 252 JOURNAL 01^ Forestry • "thk timber-holding Function" The Federal Trade Commission, the Treasury Department, and Con- gress seem to have decided that for revenue and bookkeeping purposes^ standing timber should be valued upon cost, plus carrying charges,, rather than upon current market value. Large owners of stumpage protest against this on the ground that such a practice will work great and unfair discrimination. Tax legisla- tion, which will make heavy levies against earnings over fixed limits, must provide for at least fair interest upon invested capital. The dififi- culty develops over the definition of "invested capital.'' For instance, if A, 20 years ago, invested $100,000 in stumpage and has since incurred, carrying charges of $50,000, his total "invested capital" might be con- sidered to be $150,000. But if A, previous to 191 3, sold to B. and the market value of the stumpage had by then increased to $300,000, B would now have an invested capital of $300,000, and would be allowed, to retain his interest upon that investment. It is the lumberman's con- tention that A. who might have sold out, but who did not do so, should be allowed to enter his "invested capital" as the full current value of the stumpage rather than having the difference between his accumulated cost value and the current sale value considered as excess profit and taxed accordingly. The (juestion seems, very plainly, to be as to the disposition of "un- earned increment." and it would appear very possible that the policy and practice finally established would have a prompt bearing upon tim- ber holdings and the development of forestry in this country. This effect might be for better or for worse. A good l)rief upon the matter, by Dr. Compton, Secretary of the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, is to be found in the America}! Luuihcrnuvi for November 16. 1918, page 28. In editorial comment, the American LitDtbcnnan says: "There is in tliis a lesson for the lumber manufacturer which it will do no- harm to reiterate. The troubles the manufacturers are now having with the- Federal Trade Commission and over the revenue bill are a logical result of the loose accounting methods that many of them have followed in the past. . . . The timber-holding function and the timber-manufacturing function have not been properly distinguished." (Issue of November 11. 1918, page 28.) General counsel for the National Lumber Manufacturers' Associa- tion is quoted as saying: "The difficulty appears to consist very largely in regarding a body of timber as a mine instead of as a crop. Congressmen cannot be blamed for falling into- REVIEW OF EUMBER INDUSTRY AFFAIRS 253 that error, inasmuch as too many lumbermen regard timber investments in that waj'." Mr. Boyle, in talking to the West Coast lumbermen in July, is also reported as saying : "Generally speaking, we deal with a one-crop growth — a national resource. The national has a deep concern in the forests of the land. These forests are rapidly fading. There has been no plan of co-operation looking to the conserva- tion of this national resource as l^etween the Government and private owner- ship. "The Forest Service is the scientific branch of the Government that has charge of the timber interests of the nation. This department has done splendid work for the conservation of our forests. The lumber industry, as such, however, has not shown a broad spirit of co-operation with this department. It should be the function of the National Association to develop a plan whereby the best interests of the nation, as well as the industry, should be conserved in so far as this great resource is concerned." {Lumber Trade Journal, August 15, 1918.) Air. Boyle's statement is directly to the point, and it is greatly to be hoped that the directors of the National Association may be constrained to give his suggestion real and immediate consideration. In this connection foresters may do well to observe that, with the exception of Kirkland's notable contribution ("Continuous Forest Pro- duction," Journal of Forestry, January, 1917), practically no con- sideration has been given by them to this most important subject. Too generally foresters have confined their attention to relatively very minor matters of a narrow, technical character, passing by this particular subject on the assumption that Federal or State ownership of forests, rather than private, must be accomplished as the only remedy for an increasingly intolerable situation. That we may in this case again successfully disregard European precedent, as is promised in the adjustment of our railroad tangle, is an eventuality worth very careful consideration. Mr. Boyle intimates that the Forest Service may have some plan "looking to the conservation of this (forest) resource, as between the Government and private ownership." If this is the case, the fact has not been well advertised, and if it is not the case, it would seem high time that such a scheme be matured by the Service. If Mr. Boyle's suggestion is to be taken seriously and the lumbermen of the country are prepared to look the future of their industry in the face, a meeting of representatives of the National Lumber ]\Ianu- facturers' Association with those from the Society of American For- esters might pave the way for intelligent and sympathetic understand- ing— mutually and inexcusably wanting in the past. 254 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY In the continued absence of such mutual understanding, the con- tingency anticipated in the editorial comment on page 831 of the No- vember, 1918, JouRNAi, OF FoRFSTRY may well come to pass. For instance, effort was made at the Arkansas Constitutional Con- vention last August to include an amendment "aimed frankly at the heavy holdings of the lumber companies." This provided authority for "a. graduated tax on all unimproved, uncultivated, and uninclosed land in excess of 2,500 acres." The proposed tax rate, starting at i per cent of assessed value, reaches 3 per cent of assessed value in 191 5, and is in addition to the other State taxes. A further item provides that "no corporation shall here- after acquire either legal or equitable title to any land in Arkansas, except such as may be necessary for site and railroad purposes." As was to be expected, little attention seems to have been given to this attempt, but the last Louisiana legislature made effective a law by which a license is required for all persons, firms, and corporations "engaged in the business of severing natural products from the soil." The license fee is payable quarterly and amounts to 2^ cents per thousand feet for pine, 3 cents per thousand feet for oak and ash, 4 cents per thousand feet for cypress, and 2 cents per thousand feet for all other timber, 2 cents a barrel for turpentine also being collected. All timber operators are required to file specific statements as to the loca- tion and character of their business. One-fifth of the collections are expendable by the Forestry Division of the Department of Conserva- tion (Lumber Trade Journal, September i, 1918, page 41). That "strange" legislation looking toward the radical revision of present conditions is rather generally apprehended among the owners of cut-over lands (ten million acres of which are said to be held by members of the Southern Pine Association alone) is shown by the somewhat guarded but widespread comment of the lumber trade journals. The Secretary of the Georgia Land Owners' Association, for in- stance, writes rather cryptically : "As to the necessity for owners of land to lead off in plans for their occupancy, this is absolutely essential. If not, under our policy of Government they will shortly be taxed away from their owners through single tax or some other taxing scheme. . . . Certain it is that the owners of the land will miss their oppor- tunity to get something for non-productive land now, because ... it will be taxed away from them anyway" {Cut-over Lands, January, 1919, page 16). Cut-over Lands for December, 1918, page 4, refers again to a dilemma in which large land holders find themselves. It appears to have been KK\-Ii:\V OF LUMP.KR IXDISTRV AFFAIR^ 255 i somewhat gLMieral practice for large operators to carry tlieir cut-over lands as nominal assets upon their books, in some cases the land values being charged off completely, the stumpage being considered the sole asset. The Reclamation Service, in working out the "Lane scheme," has been soliciting the listing of cut-over lands having agricultural possibilities, such listing amounting more or less to an option upon the lands. Now, "the war has produced larger sales opportunities for these big acreages, directly or indirectly consequent on the demand for sol- dier-settlement land ; but coincidentally, income and excess-profit taxes present themselves." . . . Since the Federal tax starts "on a low valuation and climbs toward the con- fiscation point in a sales transaction of several hundred thousand dollars or more, it is entirely human that there should be more or less hesitation in offering large acreages for sale. . . . The graduated income tax, so eft'ectively em- ployed in foreign parts (Denmark) for breaking up vast estates and company holdings of land, is discussed as the preferred weapon of the would-be land re- formers. . . . There can be no doubt as to the seriousness of the outlook in this regard." PROFITEERING IX LUMHER The last week in Jime a report upon profiteering was made to the Senate by the Federal Trade Commission. The report states that "no excessive profits" have been made by lumber producers on the West Coast, "although it is understood that producers of airplane spruce in that region have taken advantage of the allied governments." How- ever, "information in the Commission's possession does indicate unusu- ally and imnecessarily large profits on the part of southern pine pro- ducers. Forty-eight southern pine producers, producing 2,615,000.000 feet of lumber in 191 7, made an average profit on their nivestment of 17 per cent." That this is unusually large for the industry is indicated by the fact that the average profit in 1.9 16 was only 5.2 per cent. The range of profit in 1917 was from a small loss to 121 per cent on the net investment. "The margin of profit per thousand feet in 191 7 was nearly double that in previous years, being $4.83 as compared with $2.11 in 1916. A fair margin per thousand feet in the ]mst has been recognized as being $3" {American Lnmbcnnau, July 6, 1918). A statement by the president of the Southern Pine Association calls the charges of the Federal Trade Commission "unfair and misleading." He states that a recent investigation shows an investment per thousand feet of annual capacity ranging from Si 0.75 to $144.96, with an aver- age of $60.81. The net average profit per thousand feet given by the 256 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Federal Trade Commission as $4.83, in 191 7, then must represent the yield upon the $60.81 of investment — "certainly not a fair return." That a margin of $3 per thousand feet manufactured is recognized as fair "is rather a dictum than a fact" is alleged, and that "at no time since 1907 has there been a profit in the lumber industry consonant with the investment therein." J. D. Lacy is quoted as placing "the reasonable cash value of stump- age (southern pine?) in 1917 as between $7 and $8.'' Had this value been used in calculating the net profits, rather than the figures actually used, profits would have amounted to but 2.73 per cent. General commodity prices are quoted to show that "the value of lum- ber, as expressed in money, shows an increase of 39 per cent, but expressed in exchange value, shows a decrease of 43.7 per cent. The conclusion reached is that "there is certainly no justification whatever in the charge that southern pine has been profiteering." It would seem evident that the nub of the controversy again rests upon the value to be allowed for stumpage, there often being a very considerable difference between the net cost plus carrying charges and the actual current sale value. The governmental authorities seem to incline toward the former appraisal, the lumbermen toward the latter {Auierican Lumberman, July 13, 1918). There is further discussion of the subject by C. S. Keith in the Lum- ber Trade Journal for September 15, 1918. "must the lumber industry always trail?" The rapidity with which affairs in the lumber world are changing and the leading part being played by the trade journals is indicated by frequent editorials, as, for instance : "An honest appraisal of the lumber industry will develop one fact which is far from satisfying. Too much of its progress has come from without, too little from within. . . . Of course, there have been exceptions . . . but aside from some progress in the actual processes of lumber manufacture, lumbermen have little to which they can point with pride as evidence of a progressive busi- ness spirit comparable with what is found in some other industries. Were this not so, the refuse burners would have disappeared from most American sawmills a decade or two ago. . . . The lumber industry has ahead of it a problem of national scope that, while not altogether new, is almost generally unknown — the problem of making lumber a more economical building material in the face of rising costs. . . . It is the problem of selling houses rather than lumber by the thousand feet" (Lumber, October 28, 1918, page i). REVIEW OF LUMBER INDUSTRY AFFAIRS 257 A RETAIL LUMBER DEALER'S VIEWS The president of a prominent lumber company of Chicago, address- ing brother retailers, classifies their business troubles under three heads : "First, utter lack of scientific methods in handling our operations, which not only embraces a lack of understanding of the products we merchandise, from an •engineering and botanical standpoint, but a further lack of understanding be- tween producers and distributors of lumber; second, the labor situation; and, third, credit. The manufacturers, as a class, have conducted their selling opera- tions with all the dignity of a snake in quest of a frog, and with about the same result. The lack of knowledge upon the part of users of lumber is due largely to dealers themselves. We cannot refer to any other business of equal impor- tance where the merchants do not use every effort to educate the public to the proper uses of their material. Until the United States Government established a Bureau of Forestry, many retail lumbermen did not know whether their ma- terial was originally a tree or a vine. Through the meager teachings of techni- cal engineers and experts, the lumber merchant has slowly absorbed a better "knowledge of the product he handles" {American Lumberman, December 21, 1918, page i). New agencies develop and old agencies must learn new ways. At a recent meeting of the Retail Lumber Dealers of Wisconsin, they were addressed by members of the faculty of the University of Wisconsin, who urged upon them the possibility and desirability of increasing the service rendered by them to their customers. It was pointed out to the retail dealers, for instance, that most of them handled tile, and they were urged to learn something as to the proper methods of survey and use of drainage systems. In a similar manner they were told that much of the Wisconsin agri- cultural territory was in need of lime, and, insomuch as most of them carried lime in stock, they were shown how to make simple tests for soil acidity, with a view to rendering direct assistance to farmers in improving the value of their lands. LUMBER wholesaler's POINT OF VIEW A brief by the attorney for the National \Miolesale Lumber Dis- tributors presents in excellent form the relation of the wholesaler to the lumber market, legitimate need for and services rendered by him, and presents in detail the status of the wholesaler, his rights, and so forth. The document makes an interesting supplement to the publications of the Forest Service in connection with its studies of the distribution of southern pine {Lumber, July 22, 1918, page 13). 258 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY CONTROVERSY OVICR GRADING RULES Until recently there have been live separate hardwood associations ; two, the "National" of Chicago and the "Manufacturers' " of Cincin- nati, maintained separate sets of grading rules and separate sets of inspectors. Conflict of interest and obvious duplication of work have led to re- peated efforts to get these two organizations together, so as to agree upon one uniform set of hardwood grading rules. Under the stimulation of the War Industries Board in the fall, a new effort was made to compose the old dispute. This resulted in the amal- gamation of the "Manufacturers' " of Cincinnati with the "American" of Memphis and brought the rules fight again into the fore. The new "American" recently decided to adopt its own rules, evidently with a view to attempting the elimination of those of the "National." The situation evidently exhausts the patience even of the trade journal editors, who go so far as to suggest that there might even have been excuse for governmental intervention, especially since it is now estab- lished that the difference between the two sets of rules is practically negligible (concerning which see the following item") : MILL-SCALK STl'DY IN OAK D. G. AA'hite. of the Aladison Laboratory, recently conducted a very detailed study of red and white oak at an Arkansas mill. Among the several utilities of such a study as listed are a basis for accurate cost accounting — a system for improving methods of manufacture to con- seive hardwood supplies. About 300 logs were followed through the mill and stop-watch rec- ords were made at the head-saw. The product was graded, green, by inspectors of the National Hard- wood Lumber Association and of the Hardwood Manufacturers' Asso- ciation of the L'nited States, then stacked for some three months, and again graded by the same inspectors to determine the degree of degrad- ing which had taken place during seasoning. A^ery elaborate tables make up the bulk of the report. The cost per thousand, as computed in detail, varied between $15.81 and $17.93. Difference in scale board measure under the grading rules of the two associations averages about 2 per cent, with a "greater profit per hour" under the rules of the Hardwood ^Manufacturers' Association than under the National Hardwood Lumber Association. RKVIliW, OF LUMBER INDUSTRY xXFFAIRS 259 Milling waste was 41.7 for red oak and 29.9 for white oak. The report is published in the lumber trade journals and not as an official bulletin or circular, presumably in the hope of being made more easily available to those in a position to use it. Field-work seems to have been finished in February, 19 16, the report being published in October, 191 8. As a technical performance, the study seems to leave but little to be desired ; but one may wonder as to the point of view of a lumberman trying to apply its results to his business. It would be interesting to know the cost of such a study, and a carefully executed inquiry as to the specific uses made of the report might be profitably considered by the laboratory (American Liiuihcnnan, October 12, 1918). FOREST RESEARCH AND THE WAR ' By Earle H. Clapp Assistant Forester, U. S. Forest Service . The experience of the past year and a half in forest research has shown that in many respects we were better prepared for war than we knew. We had a background of twenty or more years, during which we developed an organization and made a very considerable progress in the formulation and solution of problems. A staff of experts was developed on such questions concerning our forests as stand, distribu- tion, and quality, on the economic and technical problems of produc- tion, and on problems connected wath the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of wood and its conditioning and utilization for a wide range of purposes. A nucleus was formed around which could be built quickly and effectively an organization capable of whatever expansion might be required. Results were being accumulated. To those of us who have been in close touch with the situation, it is still something of a surprise how completely all the data of past years have been used and how often most of them. Where results were not ready and could only become available through weeks and possibly months of investigation, it was possible to turn for advice and immediate assist- ance to experts whose knowledge and judgment have matured through years of investigations. A better conception of the requirements of war-time research may be secured by considering briefly the magnitude of the requirements and the diversity of the use of forest products. England's limited forest capital is largely depleted with the four years of war. A large forest area in northern France is devastated or cleared and her annual cut is anticipated for 20 years. Likewise Italy has so reduced her limited forest capital that cutting for at least one decade and probably two nmst be far below normal. We do not know definitely what has happened in Germany or x\ustria, but through devastation or exploita- tion the forests of an enormous area on the eastern front have been wiped out. To aid in supplying the needs of the western front, Canada sent specially organized forces to Britain and France for timber cut- * Delivered before the Society of American Foresters at its annual meeting, at Baltimore, Md.. December 28, 1918. 260 FOREST RESEARCH AXL) THE WAR 2(51 ting, and our own regiment of Forest Engineers when the armistice was signed had reached 20,000 men. On this side of the Atlantic the spruce industry in Xew England was being rapidly organized by the Navy to utilize for aircraft the entire percentage of the output suitable in size and quality and, further, to increase output to the maximum. The Spruce Production Corps of the Pacific Northwest operated in a region which before the war had only a nominal production with an Army organization alone on July i of 20.000 men. Heavy drains were made upon our southern-pine industry for cantonment and shi]) ma- terial, and ship, aircraft, and cantonment requirements taxed Douglas- fir production in the Pacific Northwest. For gunstocks and propeller material we have almost literally taken a census of the black walnut throughout its range. England and France and Italy, as well as the United States, have covered the tropics of America and Africa and the Philippines to secure mahogany for propellers. The supply of cocoanut shells everywhere has been drawn upon. The demand for wood for such uses as wagons, ties, road-making, housing, and fuel for the armies was to be anticipated. Less expected was the enormous demand for stakes in the wire entanglements in from one to many lines over the entire length of each front, sometimes reaching a depth of several hundred yards and subject to frequent change. Who anticipated the actual consumption for dugout props and for trench lagging, or that timber would be in such demand that it would be mined after shifts in the front? The war brought home something new in the exacting character of airplane requirements as well as surprised us by the volume necessary. The question of boxing and packing became so important with the need for conserving ship- ping space and securing the most efl:'ective results that a special organi- zation was formed in our General Staff, which later was extended into all of the bureaus of the War Department. The charcoal in gas masks preserved our western front before gas attacks. Wood pulp when fighting ceased was coming rapidly to the fore to supplement the supply of cotton linters in the manufacture of nitrocellulose, and it was wood pulp again which entered into a paper effective against sneeze gases. Hardwood distillation furnishes an im- portant substance for the manufacture of one class of explosives and grain alcohol of another, and the manufacture of grain alcohol from wood waste and from waste sulphite liquor was stimulated through the great need for food of the grains ordinarily consumed. Naval stores, among other things, had a particular field of usefulness in shrapnel- 2G2 JOURXAL OF I'ORKSTRY making. This merely indicates the wide range of the war uses of forest products, and it indicates also why a large and ever larger staff of investigators — foresters, engineers, physicists, and chemists was needed to work on problems of wood. In practically all phases of wood preparation and utilization there was throughout the war a very urgent demand for accurate knowledge, not that which is obtained by rule of thumb, which of course has its value, but rather that obtained by painstaking investigations. This was true of the simplest uses — for example, the wooden box— of the things we are all likely to take as a matter of course, and far more true of the newer and more exacting requirements such as aircraft and explosives. And with the demand for accurate knowledge came an equally insistent demand for the man who knew scientifically. This made the problem of holding together an organization outside of the military departments, much less of increasing it rapidly, one of extraordinary difficulty. In peace-time research a problem of today is pretty likely to be one tomorrow, but in war one can be certain of nothing. I am speaking of the industrial application of results rather than fundamental research. The problem of steam bending heavy oak for artillery wheels without great loss is with us today in an acute form, but we are led to under- stand that in the motorized artillery for the spring drive of 1919 wheels would have been replaced entirely by a steel caterpiller tread. When the gas mask needed only to afford protection against chlorine, our problem may have been one of quantity production of beech charcoal wathin certain temperature limits. The use of other gases brought in the cocoanut shell and later the shells and pits of other nuts and fruits. Still later the problem became one of supplementing shell and pit char- coal by one made from wood waste distilled under a special process. The solid wing beam of today must be replaced by a laminated struc- ture tomorrow, and the complicated truss fuselage of yesterday be- comes today a beautiful and comparatively simple structure stamped from plywood. The live investigative program of war time, even when it deals with forest products, must take into account very rapidly changing conditions. As to the field covered in Forest Service investigations and results obtairied, time permits only the briefest review. Investigations were, of course, wonderfully stimulated. It was necessary to make material increases in the organization. At the time the armistice was signed there were in the Branch of Research something over 500 persons, a large proportion of this force being stationed at the Forest Products FOREST RESEARCH AND THE WAR 2G3 Laboratory. Not all of the activities could properly be classed as re- search. Our plan was to aid whoever needed help wherever there was opportunity without the formality of request or invitation. Our ques- tion was not whether the line of work was fundamental research or industrial research or research of any kind ; it was whether and how an investigative organization could render assistance. First and last, our activities touched or dealt on a large scale with practically every use of wood in modern warfare, aircraft both lighter and heavier than air and for both land and sea, the wooden ship, mili- tary vehicles, boxes and crates and containers and packing in general, lumber and structural timber for many uses, gas warfare, both offen- sive and defensive, explosives, including the production of grain alco- hol, acetate of lime, and pulp for nitrocellulose, the products of hard- wood distillation for various additional purposes, wooden limbs, fiber board for various requirements, wooden pipe, wooden implement han- dles, naval stores products, such as rosin for shrapnel, tannin, nose plugs for shells, and pulp products for camouflage. Another Ust in- cluded the essential non-military uses, such as fuel, potash, cars, shut- tles, maple sugar, pulp, etc. Advice and assistance covered timber resources, both foreign and do- mestic, as to location, quality, means of increasing production, methods of manufacture in wood-using industries, the properties of wood, sub- stitutes, methods of drying, storing, finishing, and preservation, the preparation and review of specifications, inspection, the training of men, various questions of economics relating to the wood-producing and wood-using industries, and finally the field and laboratory investi- gations necessary as a basis for the data needed. Co-operative relations were maintained in the War Department with the General Staff, the Bureau of Aircraft Production, Ordnance De- partment, Quartermaster Department, Surgeon General, Engineer Corps, Panama Canal; in the Navy with the Bureaus of Construction and Repair, Steam Engineering, Yards and Docks, Supplies and Pur- chase; and in addition with the Shipping Board, Fleet Corporation, Fuel Administratitju, Advisory Commission of Aeronautics, Director General of Railroads, War Trade Board, War Industries Board, wdth several of our Allies, and with large numbers of manufacturers of war orders. A large part of the activities of the organization centered around the production and use of wood in aircraft construction — a highly ex- acting and comparatively new field of endeavor. The nations whose 2(;t JOURNAL OF FORESTRY ally we became had practically exhausted the stock of seasoned spruce when our own aircraft program was undertaken. It requires from one to two years to air-dry green spruce 3 inches thick. The Forest Service supplied specifications for kiln-drying spruce comparatively early in the war, under which satisfactory material in the thicknesses mentioned can be secured in from 20 to 40 days. It should be remembered that before this time aircraft designers maintained that only air-seasoned material could be accepted. Intensive investigations are now showing that material kiln-dried under proper specifications is equally or even more satisfactory than that secured naturally. This comparative im- provement becomes the more important when it is recognized that only a slight advantage in lightness and strength over the best substitutes makes spruce the preferred airplane wood and warranted the organi- zation of a Spruce Production Division. The problem of drying does not end with spruce. Xo one could predict on what additional species it might be necessary to draw, and work was well advanced on a num- ber of the best substitutes, so that had the war continued at no time would the United States have been embarrassed through lack of knowl- edge as to satisfactory methods to dry any species which might have been required. The highly technical character of airplane design required the best of fundamental data on the strength of woods. Before the end of the w'ar- service strength tests of many years past had risen to a total of more than 300,000, covering about 130 species. This data adapted for use in airplane design in a table showing strength values at 15 per cent moisture were adopted by both the Army and the Navy as a basis for the design of all wooden aircraft parts. It served further in the selec- tion of the species most suitable for airplanes and aided in the rejection of unsuitable species. Even with the best of strength data available, the preparation of satisfactory specifications is a difficult task which demands consideration and advice and constant check by specialists on strength properties of wood. Our experts were therefore able to render assistance the value of which cannot be definitely measured by prepar- ing or reviewing practically all of the airplane specifications for lumber and for airplane parts which were adopted by either the Army or the Navy. The data available enabled our laboratory men by recommend- ing density requirements on the one hand to insure the selection of the strongest stock; on the other hand, data on the effect of defects made it possible to admit specified defects in lightly stressed parts and thus practically double the quantity of acceptable stock without sacrificing FOREST RESKARCII AND THE WAR 2G5 anything in safety. On this latter recommendation alone work which involved for its aircraft application the work of one man for not more than two or three months would when measured in terms of a woods force have run into thousands of men, without enumerating railroads and other transportation and manufacturing facilities. Ordinary inspection of lumber and wood were found to be entirely inadequate to meet the recjuirements of inspection of airplane woods. The training of a new and special force was necessary. In this the Service assisted through the preparation of a "Handbook for Inspect- ors" and short training courses in wood inspection. To emphasize the need for careful work, inspectors were finally required by the Bureau of Aircraft Production to make initial flights in the planes for which they were responsible, so that careful work or the absence of it brought its own reward. Plans for the inspection and certification of glues were also developed by the Forest Service and the Avork directed for the Army. Very early the question arose as to the possibilities of built-up wing beams to permit the utilization of an increased proportion of the ma- terial cut, and the importance of this construction grew as the size of airplanes increased. The solid wing beam in the plane, with a 30 or 40 foot wing spread, is easily possible ; but something else must be looked for when the wing spread exceeds 100 or 150 feet as the other extreme. The design and construction of laminated, spliced, and built-up beams and struts is one of practically unlimited possibilities. Present specifi- cations of the Army and Navy for laminated and spliced beams and laminated struts are based on the results so far obtained in the Forest Service. To supplement ordinary methods of inspection, two simple non-injurious methods by actual test have been developed which reduce by half the number of rejections under the standard method. Frequent trouble with propellers explains the large number of pro- pellers prepared for each plane, a number which reached seven at one time, at least in foreign practice, and which at the conclusion of the war required three or four for American planes. Rejection of propellers through all stages of inspection is large, but beyond this it is stated by a French authority that 80 per cent of the French propellers produced and shipped to the front are rejected by pilots mainly because they are out of balance. This trouble is largely due to unequal absorption and distribution of moisture and requires for its elimination a waterproof coating. Such a coating was developed at Madison for airplane pro- pellers which incorporates a thin aluminum leaf in the finish. This coating was being placed in production by the War Department. 266 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY The growing use of plywood in airplane construction carried with it a growing demand for production of waterproof glues in quantity and for the improvement of their quality. Our production facilities in the United States at the beginning of the war were inadequate. We had comparatively few glues, and the formulae of those which were being produced were not generally available. The work of the Forest Service developed several formulse w'hich were demonstrated to manufacturers as needed. This work, together with other assistance to the military departments and to the manufacturers, resulted not only in increasing by two or three hundred per cent the quality of the plywood produced, but also resulted in a direct saving to the Government of several million dollars. For plywood as a material there was at the beginning of the war no technical information on strength: This was secured rapidly until several thousand tests gave the basis for fairly satisfactory plywood design. These tests were the basis of all the present waterproof ply- wood specifications and of plywood strength factors used in airplane design by both the Army and the Navy. The tests have already re- sulted in throwing open the field of use to a number of species formerly considered unsuitable, and the supply of plywood was removed as a factor controlling aircraft production, which it might easily have become. Strength tests of wood as such and of plywood as a material led logically into tests of airplane parts and were leading still further into tests of assemblies of parts, such as wings, fuselages, etc. As an ex- ample of what the specialist in the strength properties of wood can do beyond the airplane designer may be cited tests on the wing ribs of the De Haviland "4." Weight for these ribs was reduced by 30 per cent and strength per unit of weight was increased 300 per cent. The wing rib so developed was adopted. Similar designs w^ere developed for six other Army and Navy planes. The work of the forester was not completed, however, by furnishing material on the properties and conditioning and use of wood in air- planes. To decide upon the best substitutes for spruce it was necessary, in addition to knowing strength and other properties and methods of conditioning, to know the total and available stand and what might be expected in production. Then in a number of cases there was the problem of stimulating production. Our program included, therefore, field studies not only of the eastern spruces, comparable in everything except size with the Sitka spruce of the Northwest, but also other pos- rORIiST RKSKARCH Ax\D THlC WAR 267 sible substitutes, such as I'ort Orford cedar, Douglas fir, eastern white pine, Norway pine, western white pine, yellow poplar, western hemlock, silver, noble, white, and lowland firs, and even sugar pine, cypress, red- wood, and western yellow pine. This work was far in advance of the situation as developed at the time the armistice was signed, but the Navy was using intensively the data secured for eastern spruce. Judged by the extent of the drain upon our forests, the requirements of the wooden shipbuilding program greatly exceeded those of airplane production. Fortunately, so far as supply was concerned, demands centered in regions of our largest timber production. The use of wood in ships is so old that the art of shipbuilding was almost lost and it was practically necessary to create a new industry. The work of the Forest Service consisted here of a rather exhaustive study of the specifications which should be followed in the selection of timber, in the specifications of the preservatives which should be used to prevent its decay, to a slight extent of the selection of substitutes, such as the best species to use for the standard locust treenail, and to a slight extent of timber supply where again locust was the critical point. The vehicle wood problem centered largely on the investigative side in the successful application of scientific methods of kiln-drying. Ex- cessive demands soon exhausted the supply of air-dried stock and made it necessary to depend on something far more expeditious than air- seasoning of from one to three years. This can be cut to 90 days in the kilns. The use of improper methods resulted in enormous losses ranging from 10 to 100 per cent — losses which involved not only the timber itself, but disrupted the work of large organizations dependent upon the output of the kilns for the production of vehicles. The proper application of scientific methods, on the other hand, in three large plants mider close observation resulted in negligible losses. The question of bending, particularly important in the case of heavy stock required for large artillery wheels, has already been touched upon. The work was well under way, but would soon have been made unnecessary for that specific application through a change in the motive power of artillery and hence the design of gun carriages. Possibly the most important service we were able to render in con- nection with small arms was to stimulate the production of black walnut for gunstocks. The black-walnut region was covered in the greatest detail in co-operation with other forestry agencies and with such other organizations as the Boy Scouts. New sources of supply were indi- cated. New producers were located. The processes of manufacturing 268 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY at contributing plants were carefully inspected and supervised to insure the proper cut of desired products. Incidentally these activities were of as direct assistance in supplying material for propellers as for gun- stocks. While the results cannot be directly measured, it seems certain that the entire output was more than doubled and at the close of the war the supply of material on hand was not a cause for concern. The question of substitution, however, in the course of two or three years more would have been one of first importance. The limited black- walnut stand made the problem of artificial drying one of first impor- tance also. Proper methods had been developed in co-operation with a plant which before this method had been worked out had been unable to make any deliveries of rifles. A number of the concerns using For- est Service drying specifications are turning out gunstocks with losses of less than one per cent not uncommon. One plant adhering to a different schedule lost 60,000 blanks in one run. valued at $1.20 each when green. A wooden box seems at first thought hardly a subject for investiga- tion. Our laboratory work of past years was, however, of very great value. It became possible to broaden existing specifications. High- grade white pine, for example, or a very limited number of species, was replaced by approximately thirty species classified according to suit- ability and in standard widths and thicknesses. Nailing and strapping- and construction in general were standardized and adapted to the very severe requirements of overseas shipments under extraordinary con- ditions as to labor shortage, etc. It became possible to use the species near at hand and to use box-making plants everywhere. Boxes were strengthened to the required point by using a few more nails and by strapping. Large sums were saved in initial costs and requirements,, and cargo space, a vital factor, was materially reduced in practically every box specification considered. Some of the boxes in which space was saved were shipped by the millions and many others had merely reached the point of approval for quantity production. Redesigns for specific boxes saved, for example, 30 per cent, 43 per cent, 14 per cent, and 33 per cent of the original cargo space. Official reports are to the effect that since July i losses upon arrival in France are only 15 per cent of those before July i, and now compare favorably with domestic shipments. This is in part due to the application of the investigations of the Forest Products Laboratory. The use of wood pulp to supplement the supply of cotton linters, for which it seemed to be more satisfactory for purely mechanical reasons FOREST RESEARCH AND THE WAR 269 than long-fiber cotton, had reached the point of quantity production. For this the results of the Forest Service were in part responsible. The use of charcoal for gas masks has already been touched upiin. It is a matter of gratification to know that at the time of the signing of the armistice a charcoal closely approximating that obtained from cocoanut shells in gas-absorbing qualities had been developed through semi-commercial production which could be manufactured from ma- terial then used only as fuel and available in sufficient quantities to have supplied the entire American Army program to the extent of 4,000.000 men. It is equally gratifying that a similar state of development had been reached in the case of a special filter paper in which pulp was one of the constituents, designed to make gas masks eft'ective against the so-called sneeze gases. It seems probable, judging from results so far secured, that methods of kiln-drying can be developed for willow which will reduce to 60 or 70 days the three to five years now necessary to air-season this stock. A survey of the wooden-limb industry showed that the supply of arti- ficially seasoned willow for artificial limbs would soon have been ex- hausted if the war had continued. The tannin problem became important through the shortage of ton- nage for imports from ordinary sources. Our domestic supplies could meet demands only through increased production. A field survey by Forest Service men aided materially through pointing out means in specific cases. Additional work now under way promises the develop- ment of a satisfactory method for the artificial drying of pulverized bark, with the consequent saving of large amounts of material which now go to waste. To turn to wood as a fuel and thus relieve the coal shortage was natural for the forester, and although its amount cannot be directly measured, the joint campaign of State organizations, the Fuel Admin- istration, and the Forest Service unquestionably increased ]-)roduction of fuel wood and thus relieved part of the discomfort and suffering which would otherwise have resulted from the war. To make sure that our supplies of woods should not be dangerously reduced before this should be anticipated and necessary provision made led to a survey of the timber resources of the United States, which gathered together in tentative form the best available informa- tion from all sources. This plan incorporated, also, the idea of secur- ing and maintaining throughout the war the best possible figures on requirements. These and other considerations, such as those which 270 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY centered around "The Inquiry," resulted in the compilation of material on the forest resources of all other countries. The work of the Service on various other economic questions, con- cerning chiefly the production of lumber, was still in its initial stages when the armistice was signed. It had, however, progressed far enough to demonstrate its value not only to our own men, but to the men of other Federal agencies with which we were co-operating. I have covered in the briefest way some of the activities undertaken and a few of the results secured. Our conception of the responsibility of the Forest Service during the war was that we should attempt to supply any information which might be needed by any other organiza- tion on any problem growing out of the supply and use of forest prod- ucts. It was not possible to build up the organization fast enough to handle much that we clearly realized should be attempted. The solu- tion of one problem ordinarily developed several more, and there is no reason to believe that the same condition would not have held true even if the war had lasted several years longer. Furthermore, the value of our results is not confined to war uses alone. The extent to which they are applicable under peace conditions is not yet clear, but it is certain that it is very large. Strength data on plywoods as a material has direct application in many industries. The progress in box investigations can be applied at once and directly to all of our problems of export shipments and with some modifications to domestic shipments. The results in the gas-warfare investigations are more or less directly applicable to mining conditions. The stimulus to right methods of artificial drying will certainly not stop with the declaration of peace. Our fundamental data on the properties of woods supplement in an exceedingly desirable way that which we had secured before. The war investigations have been a wonderful stimulus to the force. Our progress during the past year was probably more than equal to five years of ordinary peace-time investigations, this with par- ticular reference to forest products. I believe that our work in the past year and a half has secured for us a better appreciation in foreign countries of American forestry and American foresters and what we can do. In some phases, possibly many, we have found ourselves ahead of our Allies. It is still too early to interpret all the lessons of the war for forestry and forest research, but some things are obvious. If there is time to grow them, I doubt if another war will find Great Britain practically without forests, and in varying degree the same lesson holds every- Forest research and Tiiii war 271 where. The necessity for forests and for forests at home, of independ- ence of foreign supphes, if possible, even assuming that the sea routes can be kept open to secure them and that tonnage will be available for transport, of supplies of species which will answer the needs of war as well as of peace is clearer than ever before, and let us hope that this knowledge is not confined to foresters. If forest research in the United States lacked justification before the war, it does not now. The background secured by the work of the past 20 years, the force of trained experts on hand, results used over and over again, the possibility of so much additional work during the war itself, have saved to the Government many times over the entire cost of all the work since its initiation, without taking into account results which cannot be so directly measured, such as the saving of time or the ability to do things well instead of poorly, or the possibility of doing them at all. The war alone has proven the wisdom of the work time and time again and has justified in a year and a half all that has been done. The war has broadened our conception of the investigative field. There are many more things to do now than there were in April, 1917, and there is greater emphasis on man}- things which we have known should be done. The advisability of being independent, so far as pos- sible, of foreign supplies does not lessen the need of knowing what and where foreign supplies are the world over, the properties and utiliza- tion of these woods, and of economic and trade considerations which influence their production and import. Future wars may be as full of surprises as the present one has been, and all such information has sufficient peace use fully to justify accjuisition. ]\Iore and more the supply and production of wood is becoming an international question. We ought to know much more definitely what our own forest re- sources are ; how much timber is actually being grown and the possi- bility of production. We need the foundation in economic knowledge for a wide extension in our national policy in forestry and the part that should be played by the Federal Government, the States, municipali- ties, and private interests. As rapidly as possible the foundation should be extended for technical practice in the growing of forests. I doubt if we can have it ready as soon as it will be needed. Lack of knowl- edge of materials, rule-of-thumb industrial processes, and ignorance of economic considerations in our forest industries have been made more glaring by the war than ever and call for a greatly expanded endeavor. The war has emphasized over and over again the need for research 27'Ji JOURXAL OF FORESTRY in all lines of human endeavor, and that the lesson is being heeded is shown by great national research developments, such as that now under way in England. The successful nations in after-the-war competition are going to be those which take the research lesson into account. In- dustries, certainly for their profits, and possibly in some cases almost for their existence, will likewise be dependent upon the investigative efiforts which they make for themselves or those which are made for them by other agencies and the results of which they apply. Investiga- tions to determine the properties of materials and the best methods for their manufacture and use are going to have a very decided bearing on the extent to which they hold their place. No industry can count on holding for its product any field which it has formerly occupied. This holds true of wood and the forest and wood-using industries as much as any others. Foresters should help them to appreciate the significance of this situation, if it is not appreciated already. It is going to be a question of competition all along the line, begin- ning with the use of the land, then between materials and industries in our own country, and finally a part of the struggle, friendly or other- wise, with other nations. The most efifective preparation for peace will go a long way toward the best preparation for war. A very material element in any plan of preparation will be in research, and in this all agencies must have a part. If the purpose of research is public service, it cannot be accomplished to a maximum by depending upon Government departments or the in- dustries to accept and apply its results. The war has demonstrated this repeatedly, and in this respect has merely served to emphasize what we already knew. It is a part of the job, therefore, of the investiga- tive organization, if it would render the fullest public service, to make a particular effort to put its findings into application. This requires bringing results in effective ways, such as reports and publications, to the attention of those who should be interested in commercial demon- strations which will adapt small-scale closely controlled laboratory methods to large-scale, more closely controlled commercial conditions. Last of all, however, it is a question of human relations. On the part of the investigator, efforts which are necessary for the wide application of results bring with them a truer prospective and better appreciation of the balance of things and a saner point of view regarding past ac- complishments and for future effort. For industries and the public, it means reasonably prompt application of results which are worth while rather than indefinite delay. :SOME ASPECTS OF SILVICAL RESEARCH AS AX AFTER- THE-WAR ACTIVITY ' By Clyde Leanitt Chief forester, Coininissioii of Conservation of Canada The object of my argument is to urge that provision be made for a very material extension of silvical research work, particularly in the East. I believe that, so far as the United States is concerned, the Forest Service should definitely take the lead in this, on a very much larger scale than has ever before been considered practicable, as a measure of national preparedness for after-the-war conditions, and that there should be a definite program of co-operation and collaboration with State, educational, and private agencies to this end. The collabo- ration suggested could readily become international, including Canada as well as the United States. The furthering of such an object ofifers to the Society of American Foresters an opportunity to render a public service of prime magnitude. The war has brought to all the peoples of the world a keener realiza- tion than ever before of the vital importance of the natural resources in national economy. While this importance has been particularly em- phasized by war conditions, it exists to an almost equal extent in times of peace. The forest has shared with other natural resources in the intensified public recognition of these facts. Clapp has pointed out, in Ameriean Forestry for July, that if justifi- cation were ever needed for forest research work the war has amply provided it. This unquestionably is true. Scientific research every- where has received a tremendous impetus as a result of demands made Tdv the war and in anticipation of economic i^eadjustment after the war. Governments have appointed councils or commissions to encourage or develop scientific and industrial research generally. All lines of indus- trial research are receiving particular attention. Better methods are to be developed for the wise utilization of natural resources. As Clapp points out, this has already taken place to a remarkable extent in con- nection with forest utilization, as witness the phenomenal increase in the scope of the Forest Products Laboratory at ]Madison. ^ Delivered before the Society of American Foresters at its annual meeting at Baltimore, Md., December 28, 1018. 274 JOURNAL O]? FORESTRY However, as Clapp also points out in his article, forest investigative work, under the stress of national necessity, has had to be concentrated on the more immediately pressing problems, primarily in connection with determining the properties and uses of certain woods and the loca- tion and extent of existing supplies of specific timbers. In other words, as might be expected, the most pressing problems were those involving; utilization and exploitation rather than the growing of the crop. I submit, however, that the time has now arrived when the balance should be redressed by making the expenditures on research in forest production more nearly commensurate with those on the use of the forest after it has been produced. Present methods of cutting on pri- vate lands do not, as a rule, leave the forest in a productive state ; they are destructive rather than constructive. This is amply evidenced by the progressive decadence of the lumber industry in many regions and by the gradual shifting of operations to the west and to Canada. The migration of pulp and paper industries to Canada is retarded only by the importation of considerable amounts of pulpwood from privately owned lands in the Dominion, the exportation of such timber from Crown (government-owned) lands being prohibited in order to encour- age local manufacture. The planting of denuded areas should, of course, be encouraged to the greatest possible extent. However, any conceivable planting pro- gram will still leave enormous areas untouched, and it is of the greatest importance that the necessity for planting be minimized as much as possible by the adoption of cutting methods that will perpetuate the forest instead of destroy it. What is needed is a nullification of Mr. Pinchot's dictum — which he meant to be of more limited application — that forestry is being practiced everywhere except in the woods. To accomplish this object, a large amount of silvical research is required to determine and demonstrate the fundamental facts, and in addition a large amount of co-operative educational and propaganda work among- timber owners to secure the gradual adoption of the improved methods, to be thus determined and demonstrated. Cannot this ideal ride in on the high tide of a sentiment, both public and official, favorable as never before toward scientific research to the goal here suggested? Surely, research calculated to increase the pro- ductivity of so vital a natural resource as our forests cannot fail tO' appeal as being both logical and necessary. The war has brought about a tremendous appreciation in Europe of the vital economic necessity for forestry practice, and it is logical that SO.Mlv ASl'IiCTS OF SILVICAL RESEARCH 275 the same result should follow on this continent. It is reasonable to suppose that this tendency will be greatl}- strengthened by the return from overseas of large numbers of foresters and lumbermen, who will have gained an appreciation of what European forestry has accom- plished for the belligerent nations for purposes of both war and peace, and this appreciation should prove an important factor in bringing about more adequate support for constructive forest policies on this side of the water. Action along these lines is particularly needed in the East, since here is the greatest concentration of population and consequently of markets. Further, the eastern forests are most advantageously situated with respect to possible export to European markets. , These forests are relativel}^ much nearer depletion than those in the West, and hence in greater need of attention. The rapidly mounting prices of all classes of timber are reflected in greatly increased stumpage values, which means that many things can now^ be done in the direction of more con- servative methods of cutting than were previously considered feasible. This is particularly true as to pulpwood operations, where, on account of large capital investment, permanency of operation is considered highly important. Further, the time element involved in growing the crop is not so long as in the case of an ordinary lumbering operation. As a rule, also, the class of men at the head of the pulp and paper in- dustries are more susceptible to the adoption of improved methods in the woods than is the average lumberman. Canada is as keenly interested in this whole problem as is the United States, perhaps more so. because her proportion of non-agricultural land is so much higher. The importance to Canada of placing her for- ests on a permanently productive basis is shown by the fact that the total annual value of her production of primary forest products is around $200,000,000. The exports of pulp and paper are now around $60,000,000 and are increasing rapidly. One-fourth of the newsprint used in the United States comes from Canada ; this constitutes three- fourths of the Canadian newsprint production. The value of an export trade of such magnitude in the economic life of a country can scarcely be overemphasized. The prospects for ultimate improvement in cut- ting methods in Canada are greatly enhanced by the fact that the great bulk of the non-agricultural lands are in government ownership, and the respective governments have full control over the method of cutting on such lands. Up to the present the forests have largely been handled as sources of raw material rather than as crops, notwithstanding the 27 G JOURNAL OF FORKSTRY general prevalence of diameter-limit restrictions in the regulations gov- erning operations on government-owned lands There is, however, a strong tendency for the administration of the timber business to be placed in the hands of technical forest organizations and the outlook for the future is distinctly encouraging. At the same time there is a great lack of sufficient data on which to base improved cutting regula- tions, and this inevitably makes for slow progress toward more intelli- gent methods of cutting. Recognizing these facts, the Commission of Conservation of Canada has during several seasons conducted silvical investigations, under the immediate supervision of Dr. C. D. Howe, of the Faculty of Forestry at Toronto University. Studies of natural regeneration, with special reference to the effects of repeated fires, have been carried on in On- tario and British Columbia. During the past two years broader inves- tigations have been conducted in the pulp wood forests of Quebec, in co-operation with the Laurentide and Riordon companies, which have shared the expense of this work. We have collaborated also with the provincial forest services of both Quebec and New Brunswick, which have conducted investigations of their own on a smaller scale. The Dominion Forestry Branch has also during the past two years con- ducted forest investigative work on the Petawawa Military Reserva- tion, Ontario. These activities show that the Dominion and provincial governments of Canada regard silvical investigation as sufificiently im- portant to justify at least some attention during time of war, when a very high percentage of the forestry profession are on military duty overseas. It is to be anticipated that all these activities will be ma- terially increased with the conclusion of hostilities. The forest investigative work of the Commission of Conservation includes regeneration studies by strip surveys, the establishment of per- manent sample plots, and studies of volume and growth. The general object is to determine just what is taking place, and why-, on the cut- over pulpwood lands of eastern Canada, and what it is necessary and at the same time feasible to do to improve the conditions. Our investi- gations thus far appear to show that the effect of present methods of cutting is to deteriorate the quality of the mixed forests, eliminating first the white and red pine, next the spruce, and more recently the balsam, converting the stand more and more into a hardwood forest, which is relatively valueless, due primarily to difficulties of transporta- tion. Some of the points to be considered in our studies are as follows : (i) The amount of natural regeneration of the valuable coniferous species. SOME ASPECTS OF SILVICAI, RKSlvAKCIl 277 (2) The causes of the high mortaHty of these seedlings, which pre- vents adequate representation of the higher diameter-classes. This will include a study of damage caused by insects, for which the co-operation of the Dominion Entomological Branch has been secured. It is hoped also that arrangements can be made for a similar study of forest fungi, particularly the one responsible for the heart-rot of balsam. (3) Rate of growth of the reproduction present to determine how long after cutting one may reasonably expect another crop. (4) The cumulative effects of repeated fires on reproduction. Re- sults thus far secured appear to indicate that under some conditions a single burn of light or moderate intensity may be favorable to the re- production of at least some coniferous species. Beyond any question, however, repeated fires are increasingly destructive. (5) This raises the question as how far it is desirable to go in utiliz- ing fire as a useful servant under adequate control. This, of course, ties up with the whole problem of slash disposal, the previous consid- eration of which in the East has been largely based upon questions of fire protection. We need now to consider much more carefully the silvical aspects, or the question of the effects of controlled burning operations on natural regeneration, as well as a measure of sanitation, in connection with the ravages of insects and fungi. Portable fire- fighting pumps have now been devised which give good promise of solving at least part of the difficulties in controlling slash-burning oper- ations. This point opens up the question of how far it is desirable to go in advocating clean-cutting with slash-burning, as contrasted with the selection system, and what restrictions are necessary by regions and types. Here comes in also the question of the extent to which conifer- ous reproduction may be due to seeds stored in the soil. Studies of natural regeneration on old burns of known age, as well as on old cut- tings, will be highly suggestive in connection with a number of these problems. It is proposed also to conduct slash-burning operations under control in selected localities and observe the establishment of natural regeneration through a period of years. (6) The lack of utilization of the hardwoods in the mixed forests of the northeast is still the greatest obstacle to good forestry practice. Here are involved the problems of transportation and markets. While these are outside the scope of silvical research, they will amply justify all the attention that can be given them. The use of tractors for log- hauling may help solve the first, and the apparent possibility of using up to" 10 per cent of birch as a filler, with spruce and balsam, in the 2^8 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY manufacture of groundwood pulp for newsprint may point the way toward one of the partial solutions of the markets problem. Experi- ments are being made along these lines in Canada, at least partly as a result of representations made by foresters. Turning now to the situation in the United States. We are all, of course, aware of the splendid work that is being done by the experiment stations in the West maintained by the Forest Service. Is there not, however, an urgent need for similar work in the East, and is it not logical that such work should be centered in the Forest Service, which has the requisite staff of experts? The existence of National Forests in Eastern States would furnish an excuse for such action were one needed. No such justification should, however, be necessary, in view of the unquestionably national scope of the whole Service. Good prece- dents for such constructive work by the Forest Service in the East are the preparation of management plans for timber owners, in the earlier days of the Service, and the later establishment of numerous sample plots, since, however, turned over to State or educational agencies. The Society of American Foresters organized nearly two years ago a Committee on American Forest Research "to assemble in convenient form for comparison and reference data on all forest investigations v/hich are being conducted or are proposed by all agencies in the United States and Canada." The president of the Society, in emphasizing the need for such a committee, pointed out the enormous field for forest research in America and the small part of the field which is now being covered. He referred also to the fact that in many agencies research has not been definitely recognized as an important activity ; that at the present time no one agency is in touch with the investigative work of the others, and that there is much less of attempts to correlate this work. The plans for the committee include the publication periodically of statements indicating the scope of investigative projects under way, the correlation of research carried on by all agencies, and the encour- agement of research on the part of such agencies as might not be alive to their responsibilities. All this constitutes a splendid program, and it is only to be regretted that war conditions have prevented its execution. Unquestionably, it is of the greatest importance that this program be carried out in some way. My suggestion, however, goes considerably further than this, since it involves the question of Federal support for the carrying out of the actual investigative work on a greatly increased scale, both independently and in close co-operation with State and edu- cational agencies. I may perhaps need to justify such a suggestion SOME ASPECTS OF SILVICAL RESEARCH 279 from an outsider by referring to my former connection with the Forest Service. It seems to me that the Forest Service should again take vigorous hold of the whole question of permanent sample plots, particularly in the East, and also establish experiment stations at selected points. Fur- ther, I think it should be prepared to render financial assistance, where such is necessary, in order to get investigative work under way at the hands of State forest services and forest schools. These agencies are generally short of funds available for such work, and such co-operation as is here suggested should bring valuable results. The existence of a central agency, wuth traveling inspectors, to standardize methods and correlate results would comprise not the least valuable feature of the organization. All this need not, of course, interfere at all with the conduct of investigative work by agencies which are in a position to go ahead independently. The field is so large that there is plenty of room for all. Neither should it be understood that appreciation is lacking of what work is already under way by the leading forest schools and by some of the State and private agencies. The point to be emphasized is the urgent need for a greatly increased program, with special stress on the practical application of results. In connection with the experiment station work, or otherwise, the co-operation of sympathetic lumbermen could undoubtedly be secured for the establishment of demonstration areas, on which various modi- fications of standard methods of exploitation would be tried out and the results observed carefully through a period of years. In Canada, as already noted, some of the pulp and paper companies are so keenly interested that they contribute very substantially toward the cost of investigative work on their lands. Studies might also be made of the results secured from technical plans of forest management which may have been put into efifect in past years, and definite conclusions drawn, by regions and types. It goes without saying that the highest grade of technical talent would be required, if the results are to be sound tech- nically and feasible commercially. An essential point is that all avail- able data from past, present, and future studies should be thoroughly digested, discussed fully with practical lumbermen, and the results tested on a demonstration basis on actual operations. A big-scale, broad-gauged handling of the situation is required. All this implies, of course, a very considerable expenditure by the Federal Government and one not provided for by existing appropria- tions. Have we not, however, ample precedents for such a policy of 280 JOURNAL OP FORESTRY Federal aid and support as is here suggested? In the first place, we have the Weeks law, which provides for a Federal policy of subsidized co-operation with States in forest-fire protection. Secondly, we have the very generous appropriations made for the support of the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, which concerns itself largely with the uses and properties of w'ood. The Bureaus of Entomology and Plant Industry are concerning themselves very largely with investiga- tive work on the insect and fungous enemies of trees, both inde- pendently and in direct co-operation with State and private agencies. Surely, the production of the forest crop, even on privately owned lands, is no less a national concern than is its utilization or its protec- tion from fire, insects, and fungi. Another precedent is the very large aid which the Federal Government has always extended toward the development and encouragement of better methods of agricultural pro- duction. The vast areas of non-agricultural lands are much more in need of attention, if they are to continue to add materially to the na- tional wealth, after the virgin stands of timber are removed. Experi- ence shows that this problem has not received adequate attention in the past, and the conclusion would appear to be fully justified that the situation calls for a generous measure of Federal support for a com- prehensive scheme of forest investigative work, both independently and in co-operation with State, educational, and private agencies. A greatly increased program of more or less independent work by such agencies is also extremely desirable. In iany program of forest investigative work for which provision may be made in the United States, I think there is no question but that the Dominion and provincial governments of Canada and the Canadian Society of Forest Engineers will be glad of the opportunity of the fullest possible collaboration. This should prove highly desirable, since the forest problems along the international boundary are substantially the same in both countries. NEED FOR A UNIFIED FOREST RESEARCH PROGRAM ^ (Contributions from the School of Forestry, Yale University, Xo. 6) By J. W. TouMEY Director, School of Forestry, Yale University As early as 1845 Carl Heyer, of Germany, published a paper advo- cating the formation of an association to exercise control over forest research. The recommendations of Heyer were voiced during the fol- lowing fifteen years by such prominent European foresters as Baur, Gayer, and Ebermayer, and in 1868 Baur published a paper on the organization of forest research and the methods of conducting experi- ments. At a meeting of foresters in Vienna, Austria, in the autumn of 1868 arrangements were made for the election of a committee of five prominent foresters interested in research to prepare a scheme of forest research, point out most pressing work, discuss organization, and formulate rules. On this committee were Judeich, Heyer, and Eber- mayer, who were among the foremost foresters of their day. ' The findings of this committee were that so far as Germany was concerned all the larger States like Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria should have independent forest research institutes and in the smaller States, as in Baden, it was recommended that forest research be organized and made a part of the work of professors of forestry in the colleges and academies within their respective States. After extended discus- sion of the findings of the committee, due largely to Danckelmann, forest research was finally organized in Germany as a part of the edu- cational branch in forestry. In general, the president of the forest college or academy in a given State became the president also of the forest research institute, as illustrated by the situation at Eberswalde, in Prussia, and at Tharandt, in Saxony. It appears that Germany was the first country to organize her forest research and to establish forest research institutes. Later on forest research became organized in connection with educational institutions in other countries. Thus the research station in France was under the president of the school of forestry at Nancy. Research work in Eng- land was linked up with the educational work at Coopers Hill and later * Read before the winter meeting of the Association of Eastern Foresters, at New York, N. Y., February i, 1919. 281 2S2 JOURNAL OF FORKSTRY at Oxford. In Austria the work of the research station at Alariabrunn was less closely united with the great school of forestry in \"ienna. In India the forest research institute at Dehra Dun was founded, with the express policy that the dual purpose for which the research institute was established was to give a high-class education in forestry and to conduct forest research. It appears, so far as I am able to determine, that in almost every country except the United States forest research has been organized and developed in connection with forest academies and schools through financial support by the Government. In Germany it was soon realized that some kind of a research organi- zation for the entire country was necessary to bring about co-operation in research at the different institutes and schools, to continue ideas and plans with changes in research personnel, and to assist in planning re- search and, possibly influence, through friendly criticism, the direction of research. Unfortunately, in this country we have not as yet recog- nized the need of such an organization. The German Forest Research Association was created in 1872, four years after the election of the committee of five in Vienna. Although the organization of forest re- search in most other countries has followed more or less closely the German plan, it must be admitted the work was better supported in Germany than elsewhere and that country has been most productive in results. The usefulness of the German Forest Research Association to that country in the past can scarcely be overemphasized. Up to the outbreak of war in 1914 it met twice each year, and included repre- sentatives from all German States. Although the research work of the European forest research insti- tutes is somewhat different in different countries and even in different States within a single country, as in Germany, I have selected the insti- tute at Eberswalde, with which I am personally familiar, as a repre- sentative forest research institute. The research work there is under six branches : 1. Silviculture. 2. Physics and chemistry. ■ ' 3. Meteorology. 4. Plant physiology. 5. Zoology. 6. Mycology. The men at the head of these branches, in some instances, are ap- pointed for research alone ; in other instances they are professors in NEED FOR A TNII'IED FOREST RESEARCH PROGRAM 283 the forest academy. Although the work in all branches centers at Eberswalde, numerous sample plots and experimental areas have been established in various parts of Prussia and have been selected with special reference to the research in hand. It was my fortune to visit nearly all the important forest research ■stations in Europe shortly before the outbreak of war and, so far as I was able to judge, the branches of research at each were much the same, although at different stations there were vast differences in the em- phasis placed on one branch as compared with that at another. Thus at Eberswalde the work in the branch of silviculture was especially prominent, while at Tharandt chemical investigations were prominent and had received international recognition. At the research institute in Bavaria meteorological investigations had long been prominent, par- ticularly in reference to forest influences. Although at Mariabrunn, in Austria, silvicultural investigations under Cieslar had long been promi- nent, special attention has been given to the investigation of the physical and mechanical properties of wood. Although in Germany forest research was stimulated and unified through a strong forest research association, in some other countries it was not. Thus in Great Britain forest research has for the most part been conducted independently by professors at Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh. So far as the writer can learn, it has not been organized, but is left to the initiative of the professors of forestry in educational institutions. In India, however, an active forest research institute is in operation, with separate branches, but closely linked with the school of forestry at Dehra Dun. The following research branches are represented in the institute at Dehra Dun : 1. Silviculture. 2. Forest botany. 3. Forest economy. 4. Forest zoology. 5. Forest chemistry. As the development of forestry in India is more recent than that in Europe, we should expect research to take on a somewhat different aspect due to different economic and social conditions, and so it does. For the same reason we should expect this country to take on a differ- ent aspect. In India and in the United States, when the interests of forestry center in the utilization of vast stands of virgin timber, forest 284 JOURNAL OF FORKSTRY research is chiefly concerned with forest economy or, as we term it^. forest products. Although this subject is not dignified as a special' branch of forest research in European forest research institutes, it seems to the writer to be of prime importance in any country where forestry is in its earher stages of development. We find it strongly developed in this country, notably at the United States Forest Research Laboratory at Aladison, Wisconsin. In India this branch investigates a wide range of subjects as it does in this country. For instance, it investigates the strength value of woods and variations in strength due to cutting at different seasons. It investigates woods useful for special purposes, such as for paper, boxes, matches, etc. It has investigated the antiseptic treatment of wood' for special purposes and the treatment of tea-box shooks to make them immune from insect attack. It inves- tigates new markets for forest products, and on the whole is engaged in the same general kind of research as at the Aladison laboratory. At Eberswalde, Tharandt, and elsewhere in central Europe, forests have long been under management, markets are established, the prop- erties of local forests products are well known, and forest research of the nature noted above receives relatively scant attention. Silvicultural research, however, has the leading place, that larger yields may be obtained from forests already under management. Both in India and America meteorological and silvical investigations center in forest ecology in order to interpret natural forest growth in terms of site factors. In Europe, however, meteorology has for its object the determination of forest influences or forest reactions. Natural forest growth uninterrupted by man has largely disappeared from Europe. In Europe the work of the forest chemist centers in investigations of atmospheric impurities that afifect forest growth and research on forest soil. In India and in this country his work centers in chemical investi- gations of various woods and other forest products. If we take into consideration the experience worked out in the old world since 1845, i^ appears that each country and, in the case of large countries like Germany or the United States, each State or province should conduct its own forest researches. Howard, in discussing forest research in India, says that, "judging from European standards, it would appear that each province should conduct its own forest research and there should be less centralization than there is at present at Dehra Dun." In the writer's opinion, the same criticism can be ofifered in this country. There should be less centralization than there is at present in the United States Forest Service in \\'asliington. NEKD rOR A UNIFIED FORRST RRSICAKCH I'ROCRAM 285 Forest research in the United States should not be confined, as it largely is at present, to the United States Forest Service, which is pri- marily an administrative and executive branch of the Government. The National Forest Service cannot and will not locate a forest re- search station in each State, and past experience has shown that those already in existence are located without reference to forest conditions in the entire country, but with reference to the national forests, which are a small part, and in man\' respects the least important part, of the forests of the entire country. In agriculture, engineering, mining, and other applied sciences, re- search is everywhere associated with educational institutions. Amer- ican schools of forestry must take a larger part in research and the work that the}' are now doing given a larger hearing. Although the volume and diversity of forest research in this country, under the United States Forest Service, outshadows that of all other agencies, it should not be overlooked that a good deal of important research work is being done by State agencies, as in Pennsylvania, and by educational institutions working alone and in co-operation with the United States Forest Service. What we want in this country at once is an organization to co-ordi- nate and give direction to forest research now being carried on by the United States Forest Service, State agencies, private agencies, and by educational institutions. This central bod\' might be called the Amer- ican Forest Research Association, comparable in many respects to the German Forest Research Association. A research committee appointed by the Society of American Foresters will not do, as shown in the inaction of the committee appointed some two years ago. Tt nnist be a virile association, composed of research workers in the national service, in State service, and in educational institutions, who accept the duties of the association as a part of their daily work. In Germany the association discusses the various experiments by all agencies in each German State and the exact procedure and method is passed on before the experiment is started. Prior to the outbreak of war the association usually met twice each year. The distances in this country are so great the members of a representative association could not meet oftener than once each year. An executive committee of five members could, however, do the current work of the association. The agencies included in the association should provide funds for clerical work and for publication. An annual calendar of forest research, with reviews and citations of all research within the year, should be jirinted 280 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY by the association. Tlie calendar should record the progress of inves- tigations soon to be undertaken. When investigations are postponed or abandoned without completion, reasons should be given and expla- nations made when mistakes have occurred. If forest research is to occupy the place that it merits in this country and be participated in by educational institutions and State agencies, as well as the National Government, a National Forest Research Associa- tion is essential. The question naturally arises, Where is the money coming from for forest research by educational institutions? although we admit, fol- lowing the analogy of other research, it naturally belongs in educa- tional institutions. Forestry in most respects is closely allied with agriculture. Both deal primarily with the production and utilization of crops grown from the soil. Recently in this country a number of well-known foresters have advocated the national support of forest research by State agencies and by educational institutions. The writer believes that forest research in this country must in one sense be de- centralized, but in another centralized. He believes that it must become a larger part of the work of State agencies and educational institutions and correspondingly less a part of the work of the United States Forest Service. At the same time all the research for the entire country must be unified through a strong and active research association. The same situation was experienced in agricultural research a half century ago that is experienced in forest research today. The States and educational institutions could not secure money for research. With the passage of the Hatch bill by Congress, agricultural research came into its own in this country, and States with their educational institu- tions became the active centers of agricultural research. It is generally admitted that the State agricultural experiment stations, largely sup- ported by the National Government, but under control of the States, have returned -to the nation a thousandfold in improved and larger crops for the expense incurred in their establishment and maintenance. Forestry needs in this country now what agriculture needed a half century ago. Forestry needs a forest research station in every State in the Union, under national support and linked up with an educational institution, preferably with the College of Agriculture or with estab- lished forestry departments in other institutions. Germany before the war supported from public funds a forest research institute in each of her more important States and found it well worth her while. A bill should be urged in Congress for an annual appropriation of $15,000 XEKD FOR A UNIFIED I-ORKST RESFARCII PROGRAM *'• I None of the conifers native to western North America, which have so far been given a fair trial, furnish any great promise for the future. European larch has been given a fair trial. It has been planted in all parts of the State under a great variety of conditions. In some respects this species has created a very favorable impression. It grows rapidly, surpassing all other trees planted on the State forests except black locust. In a plantation of 6,000 trees established in an abandoned field with a southern exposure, well-drained sandy loam soil, and an elevation of 900 feet, located on the Mont Alto State Forest, are many trees now 12 years old which have reached a breast-high diameter of 3 inches and a height of 25 to 30 feet, and a few trees exceed 30 feet. This rate of growth represents an average annual height growth of about 2^ feet. It is also adapted to well-drained mountain slopes, which constitute the major part of the State forests, resists storm and ex- tremely low winter temperatures, and produces a very durable wood which will surely find a wide use in the form of poles, posts, and ties. These attributes seem to recommend it for a place in the forests of Pennsylvania. A study of European statistics, however, causes one to be somewhat skeptical, for it appears to be on the decline. In 1861 it covered 8 per cent of the forest area of the municipal forest of Heidelberg, which was gradually reduced, until in 1909 only 2.3 per cent remained, and in the same year it comprised only about one-half of one per cent of the forest area of Baden. Such reductions certainly imply shortcom- ings, and a careful study of its habits will soon reveal them. The individual trees in all the plantations on Pennsylvania State for- ests show a very irregular height growth. No other tree shows such a wide variation ; hence, while some individual trees show an extraordi- nary growth, stands, as a whole, both pure and mixed, do not appear promising. European experience shows that pure stands are not rec- ommendable and its irregular height growth makes it difficult to mix satisfactorily. It is a very light-demanding species ; consequently not adapted for underplanting and overcoming inferior growth which preoccupies most of the planting sites of the State. It may also suffer considerably from late frosts, which is usually attributed to its starting growth early in spring. This, however, is incorrect. It leafs out early in spring, but does not start to elongate its twigs until about two weeks after most of the common trees have started. An investigation has been in progress at Alont Alto for the past two years to ascertain when the different o02 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY trees actually make their growth. During the past season this involved the daily measurement of about 200 trees, and in special cases they were measured twice in a day. The results of this study will be pub- lished and will throw much light on the subject of the best time to plant. The ultimate findings will be co-ordinate with an extensive experiment on fall planting now in progress. The foregoing study, amplified with observations on other State forests, proved that Euro- pean larch leafs out early, but its shoots do not elongate until late ; hence, if late frost injury does occur, it takes the form of temporary defoliation and not decapitation of shoots. Furthermore, European larch is attacked severely by a large number of insects and fungi, suffers heavily from forest fires, demands much growing space, and is generally difficult to handle in the forest. I feel that it can be dispensed with, except that it may be used in stocking areas where snow pressure is liable and for reinforcing openings in stands for which it is well fitted on account of its rapid growth. The latter use implies selecting rapid-growing specimens, which is possible, for I liave found that the vigorous specimens in the nursery grow rap- idly in the field and the spindly and dwarf nursery specimens, as a rule, continue to lag behind. Scotch pine has been planted on nearly all of the 53 State forests in Pennsylvania. The first plantations were established in 1909, and since then a large number were set out each year. I venture to predict, how- ever, that in a few years the planting of this species will be relatively negligible. The writer, in an article published in the December. 191 7, number of Forest Leaves, set forth at length data concerning the plant- ing of this tree in Pennsylvania and the results of some European in- vestigations pertaining to it. In the concluding paragraph I stated that even though Scotch pine is an important timber tree in Euroi)e, there seems to be no special need for planting it extensively in Pennsylvania for forestry purposes, but it may be advisable to continue the planting of it until we understand the sylvical requirements and jn^eferences of the native pines better. The i)lanting of Scotch pine would no doubt have been continued on an extensive scale, because the juvenile development of all the experi- mental ])lantings is satisfactory and in a few cases phenomenal, but through a calamity and a subse(juent comprehensive investigation a superior native species was found. Early in the spring of 1918 almost 1,000 mature pitch-pine trees were blown down near Mont Alto. This oitered an unusual opportunity to study the species, and special efiforts I'RELIMIXARV KKPORT OF RXl'KRIMEXTS IX I'UXXSVLVAXIA .'50.'] were put forth to prepare reliable tables of height growth, diameter growth, sectional area growth, merchantable and stem volume growth. form factor, form quotient, and yield. Tables were also prepared showing the actual mill cut in terms of the trees and the component logs. Each table was prepared on the basis of 200 to 600 trees. The complete results will be published soon, and a perusal thereof will show the superiority of the native pitch pine over the foreign Scotch pine. Just as the Riga district of Russia and the Baltic provinces of Prus- sia embrace the best stands of Scotch pine, so the Alont Alto, Clearfield, and Snowshoe regions of Pennsylvania contain the best stands of pitch pine in the United States. These regions of optimum development should be the source of the future seed supply for artificial regenera- tion. Scotch pine grows more rapidly in youth, may attain a greater age and height, and is somewhat more tolerant. On the other hand, ]\Iont Alto pitch pine at the age of 100 years attains a breast-high diameter of 20 inches, as against 14.4 inches for Scotch pine site-quality I, according to Swappach. A comparison of the results also shows that volume growth and form factor of pitch pine surpasses that of Scotch pine site-quality I. In middle age ])itch pine exceeds Scotch pine in height growth, but lags behind the latter in youth and does not attain so large a maximum height. These favorable results were obtained from pitch-pine trees which grew up without adequate i)rotection and practically no tendance. It is reasonable to assume that under proper sylvical management this species will do even better. Heretofore the pitch pine has been underrated. In appearance it is not prepossessing, and its apparent annual height growth is very slow, while its actual growth is satisfactory. This is due to the fact that pitch pine usually rests for a while during the growing season and then again resumes growth, and in consequence of this cessation produces a false whorl of branches. Hence, what often appears as the growth of two seasons is in reality that of but one season. The favor in which pitch pine is now held is not based solely on the above study, but is also in part the result of experimental seeding and planting. Direct seeding in lines and spots has been fairly successful. Broadcast sowing of seed on an experimental plot on the White Deer State Forest after five years showed an establishment of 90 per cent. Planting, however, has been conducted on a more extensive scale than direct seeding. The first pitch-pine trees were set out on State forests in 191 1. Since then an increasing number have been planted each year. The banner year was 191 8, when 534,000 trees were set out on State- oOJ: JOURNAt OF FORESTRY owned land and 137,250 were supplied for planting on private proper- ties throughout the State. To date, almost one and one-half million pitch-pine trees have been planted on the State-owned forest land of Pennsylvania. The State forest-tree nursery inventories show a total of 350,000 seedlings now in the nursery beds. On the Greenwood State Forest 12.6 acres were planted in April, 191 1, wnth 2-year seed- lings. At the age of 10 years the trees average 9.6 feet in height and show an establishment of 83 per cent. This tree promises to be of great forestal importance in Pennsylvania on account of its wide nat- ural distribution, modest and recommendable sylvical characteristics, and satisfactory yield. Norway spruce has been planted more extensively than any other exotic and with a large measure of success. To date, 4,547,753 trees have been planted on State forests, and 742,260 were supplied for planting on private properties throughout the State. It is the only foreign species which may be regarded as a naturalized member of the forests of the State and it will probably prove a valuable addition. Its principal shortcomings are its extremely slow growth in youth, which causes it to be a rather unsuccessful competitor with the hardwood sprout growth, so common on the planting sites of the State, its suscep- tibility to insect damage, and its liability to be wind-thrown and injury by late frost. Insufficient attention has so far been given to the treatment of seed- ing and planting sites both before regeneration is begun and after the seedlings have established themselves satisfactorily. Extensive areas of forest land in certain parts of Pennsylvania are occupied by an in- ferior woody growth. That this undesirable growth should be replaced by satisfactory stands of valuable timber trees cannot be questioned, but the proper method of treatment to be used in accomplishing this recommendable conversion has not yet been developed. A number of experiments, however, have been established during the past decade for the purpose of formulating a practical plan of procedure to over- come this undesirable hardwood growth. An outline of a few of the experiments laid out and the lessons learned therefrom follow : FOREST CONVERSION EXPERIMENT I An area located on the Mont Alto State Forest and stocked princi- pally with hypermature chestnut and rock oak and a few other species common to the mountain slopes of southern Pennsylvania was lum- bered during 1908 and 1909. In the spring of 1910 the lumbered area PRELIMINARY REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA 305 and two adjoining small tracts were planted with 8,000 2-year white- pine seedlings. The planted trees established themselves satisfactorily, but thrived for only a few years, because the sprout growth which fol- lowed in the wake of the lumbering operation grew rapidly and became very dense in spite of the omnipresent chestnut blight. In 191 5 it be- came quite evident that the plantation could not succeed unless liber- ated. Plans were immediately prepared which covered not only the liberation of the planted trees, but also a series of experiments which embraced two adjoining small areas in addition to the lumbered tract. One of the adjoining areas was practically free from any existing growth and the other was occupied by a 68-year-old stand of almost pure chestnut, with a .8 density. Both of the adjoining areas were planted at the same time as the lumbered tract and with similar planting stock. The plans for the experiment called for a division of the aggregate area into the five following plots : Plot I. Practically no existing tree growth present at the time of the establish- ment of the plantation, which consequenth- has been developing un- hindered. Plot II. Occupied by a 6S-year-old stand of almost pure chestnut, with a .8 density and no subsequent cutting. Plot III. Comprises a small part of the lumbered area upon which the resulting sprout growth has not been removed. Plot IV. Comprises almost half of the lumbered area upon which a complete re- moval of all the native growth which followed the lumbering opera- tion took place during July and August, 1915 — that is. after the sea- son's growth was completed. Plot V. Comprises about half of the lumbered area upon which an incomplete removal of the natural growth which followed the lumbering opera- tion took place during July and August, 1915. A small number of the best sprouts, usually one to three on each stump, were left uncut. The contemplated probable benefits to be derived from such a pro- cedure were : 1. The remaining sprouts would shelter the young white-pine trees. 2. The transition from a dense shade to a partially sheltered con- dition would be less extreme than in the case of a complete recut. 3. The continuous development of the favored sprouts would re- tard the origin and development of a second generation of sprouts which always follows. 4. In case of the necessity for a subsequent recut, the favored first generation sprouts might have reached a marketable size, while no returns could be procured from second-gen- eration material. 306 JOURNAL OF FORKSTRY The results of the experiment are already extremely instructive and will help in projecting a rational course of procedure for future oper- ations. The height growth of the planted white-pine trees on the five plots may be used as an indicator of the degree of suppression pro- 6 191* 7 '^'^ 8 1917 \Q 1311 11 AGE IN YEAR5 • M> existing sprout arowth ^sSprouf (growth cut in 1915 ~° Sprout ortMfh not cut •*o Under middle-aaea chestnut duced by the different conditions of the cover growth. The accom- panying chart gives the average current height growth and the average total height of the trees of each plot. The preliminary results so far attainable from the experiment sugT- gest the following provisional conclusions : PRi:LIMIXARV report of EXPKRIMKXTS in PENNSYLVANIA 307 1. Most conifers planted upon clear-cut hardwood areas, particularly where chestnut predominates, will not develop into satisfactory stands unless assisted by removing the interfering sprout growth. 2. The best time to make the first assistance cutting is about the third to fifth years after the establishment of the plantation. 3. A plantation is suppressed beyond satisfactory recovery at about the tenth year, if not assisted. 4. A second assistance is usually required and should be carried out about the eighth to twelfth year of the plantation. As a rule, the second assistance cutting need not be so complete as the first. Limiting the cutting to the growth which immediately surrounds the desirable trees may suffice. After the second assist- ance cutting the plantation will usually be bej-ond the damaging influence of the surrounding hardwood growth. 5. Incomplete cutting of sprouts — that is, leaving a few dominant sprouts of each stool — is silviculturally and economically recommendable. FOREST CONVERSION EXPERIMENT II In the spring of 1912 a companion experimental planting was estab- lished on the Caledonia State Forest for the purpose of ascertaining the best method of replacing with valuable timber trees the inferior scrub-oak growth, which occupies extensive areas in certain parts of* the State. The area selected was covered with a dense growth of scrub oak, overtopped by a scattered growth of aspen and a few^ pitch pines and oaks. Three adjoining plots of one acre each were carefully laid out. clearly demarcated, and securely monumented : Plot I. Was clear-cut of all existing woody growth except a few pitch pine and planted with 2,650 2-year white-pine seedlings. The brush material derived from the clearing operation was removed from the plot and burned. The cost of cutting, removing, and burning the brush was $18.92. The planting cost, exclud- ing the cost of the seedlings, was $10.84. Plot II. Was only partially cleared of its woody growth and planted with 1,825 2-year white-pine seedlings. Scattered pitch-pine trees 10 inches in diameter and about 50 feet high were left, and a rather evenly distributed growth of aspen 2.5 inches in diameter and 35 feet high was also left uncut. The dense stand of scrub oak beneath the two foregoing stories was completely removed, except an occasional dominant shoot on a stool. These shoots were left primarily to reduce subsequent sprouting. This object was fully accomplished, for in 1918 — that is, after a period of seven growing seasons — only a sparse growth of scrub oak is present. The cost of cutting, removing, and burning the brush was $19.89 and the cost of planting $8.31. Plot III. Received no treatment prior to planting. The 2-year white-pine seed- lings. 1.900 in number, were planted beneath the scrub oak, overtopped with a story of aspen, and another of pitch pine and oak. The cost of planting was $9.89. 308 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Seven growing seasons have now passed since the estabhshment of this experimental planting, and a careful survey of the three plots gives the following results : 1. The height growth of the white-pine trees has been best, and the mortality lowest on the plot from which only a part of the existing growth was removed. 2. The mortality was highest on the clear-cut plot, due to the unsheltered con- dition during the first year and the subsequent dense shade produced by the low and thick sprout growth which followed the original clearing. 3. Partial cutting of existing growth, if properly done, reduces the origin and development of subsequent sprout growth. 4. Partially cleared plots are the safest from a protective point of view, except- ing damage by deer. 5. White-pine trees will not come through on any of the three plots unless as- sistance is given to them. At the end of the 1918 growing season, when the trees were 9 years old, their average total height on plots I, II, and III, respectively, was only 16.5, 19.8, and 15.9 inches. Open-grown white-pine trees on a similar site at this age would have attained a height of approximately 60 inches. The foregoing experiment is but one of a large number Avhich have been established throughout the State for the purpose of ascertaining "the best and most practical exterminative measures for overcoming scrubby growth, such as scrub oak. In these experiments different species of timber trees were given a trial, the principal ones being white pine, red pine, pitch pine, bull pine, Scotch pine, European larch. Nor- way spruce, Douglas fir, red oak, and sugar maple. The study not only embraced a large number of different species of trees, but also covered a wide range of methods of treating the existing growth on the planting sites. These methods may be classified as fol- lows : A. Methods of Trcatuicnt Before Planting: 1. Intentional burning over of planting site. 2. Clear-cutting of existing growth, followed by piling or broadcasting of cut material. 3. Clear-cutting and burning of existing growth, followed by: a. Grubbing out of stools and roots. b. Sculping ofif of stools. c. Covering of stools with ground. 4. Partial — that is, selective — cutting of existing growth. B. Methods of Treatment After Planting: 1. Clear-cutting of hindering growth. 2. Partial — that is, selective — cutting of interfering growth. In the light of these experimental plantings, post-planting treatment should be emphasized and preparatory or preplanting treatment min- imized. Intentional burning of the site preparatory to planting is a rRELI.MIXARV REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA 309 destructive, if not a criminal, procedure. The ultimate loss suffered therefrom more than overbalances the apparent temporary benefit. Fur- thermore, such 'a procedure tends to strengthen rather than weaken the already too prevalent popular opinion that forest fires under certain conditions are justifiable. The clear-cutting of existing growth, irre- spective of whether or not the resulting material is burned, the stools grubbed out, sculped ofif, or covered with ground, is too expensive an operation and frequently the resulting growth conditions are still unsat- isfactory. Partial — that is, selective — cutting prior to planting is more recommendable than the former methods, but even this is more expen- sive than necessary. Schlich* states that "all outlay on young woods has a serious bearing on the financial result by the time the wood is harvested ; hence it should be kept as low as is compatible with effi- ciency." The writer wishes to submit the following method of procedure as silvicultu rally satis factor}- and economically recommendable : 1. Minimize and, if possible, avoid preplanting treatment of the planting site. 2. Plant not more than 600 to 1,000 seedlings, preferably 2-year stock, under- neath the existing shrubby growth. It is better to use the difference in cost between seedlings and transplants in tending the trees after the}- are established on the planting site than to spend it in the nursery. Our planting records show that 2-year seedlings establish themselves as satisfactorily as any transplants. They cost less, are transported more cheaply, handled easier in the brush, and planted more readily than the larger transplants, the latter requiring almost equal assistance to get "over the top." 3. About two or three j-ears after the establishment of the plantation assistance cuttings should begin. 4. The first assistance cutting may take the form of a partial — that is, selec- tive— cutting. All the sprouts, except one to each stool, should be cut. The uncut sprout will retard subsequent sprouting. The removed sprouts should be cut low, for the planted trees have not yet attained a great height. 5. A second assistance cutting is usually required. This should be less com- plete and may be at a higher level than the former. In many instances lopping off the interfering branches will suffice. In case the existing growth is unusually vigorous, a third assistance cutting may be required. This, however, is rarely necessary if the first two arc properly timed and carefully executed. The foregoing outline insures a satisfactory establishment and early development of valuable timber trees on areas now occupied by worth- less shrubby species, and promises that the accomplishment thereof will not require an excessive expenditure of money. Schlich's^ supporting point of view justifies being quoted. He writes that "in considering * Schlich, Sir William : Silviculture, 4th edition, p. 293. ^ Schlich, Sir William : Silviculture, 4th edition, p. 292. 310 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the degree to which noxious plants require to be cleared away, it must be remembered that in moderation they may act beneficially by shelter- ing the very young trees ; hence, interference is not called for until they actually become noxious. FOREST CONVERSION EXPERIMENT III The previous experiments concerned themselves with the removal or overcoming of a growth which was not marketable. Experiments have also been conducted in large-sized material. In 1911 a plantation of 34,000 white pine and 8.000 Scotch pine, covering an area of 30.8 acres, was established on the Chatham State Forest, located in Tioga County near the northern boundary of the State. The area at the time of planting, was preoccupied by a scattered growth of sweet birch, paper birch, trembling aspen, and large-toothed aspen. This natural advance growth formed an excellent shelter for the young seedlings. Nature supplied a protective cover gratuitously for the young trees, in many respects similar to that which European foresters develop artificially at a considerable expense. At the end of the 19 15 growing season the planted trees had attained a height of 3 to 4 feet. It then became apparent that the shelter growth which heretofore was a benefit to the planted trees was now becoming a hindrance to their development. The reduced height growth and the suffering appearance of the trees convinced Thomas Harbeson, the for- ester in charge, that they needed immediate assistance. The major question involved, however, was how to furnish this needed help with- out an excessive expenditure of money, which was neither available nor recommendable to use, if available. The trees comprising the ad- vance growth had now reached a diameter of about 6 inches, and no market existed for the products of the contemplated cutting operation. What, then, was the forester to do? A number of possibilities suggested themselves, but only one of them was feasible enough to be worth fol- lowing up. This one implied the creation of a market. Following up this lead, the forester made a provisional survey of the wood-using industries of the region, and while thus engaged learned of a farmer who was familiar with the distillation of birch oil, having been engaged in the business during his boyhood days. A conference between the two men, a study of the market for birch oil, and an inspection of the working field resulted in a contract in which the man agreed to remove the sweet birch and pay 50 cents stumpage per still of 216 cubic feet for all material removed. Operations began early in autumn and by PRELIMINARY REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA 311 March the job was finished. The forester did not only succeed in hav- ing the hindering advance growth removed, but he reaHzed a net return of more than $2 per acre. This was a commendable accomplishment and in a measure assisted the struggling plantation; but the paper birch, trembling aspen, and large-toothed aspen still remained. During the survey of the wood- using industries the forester learned of six celery farms, located about six miles from the plantation, which used about 30,000 crates annually. An interview with the celery growers was arranged for, with the result that they agreed to use local wood instead of buying it from southern lumber companies, providing it nailed easily, held nails well, and did not warp too badly. A hasty investigation proved that the wood of paper birch and the two aspens gave satisfactory results. A market had been created for the material, but there was still a missing link. The raw material must be prepared for the market. The forester con- tinued his survey and soon found a local sawmill operator who was willing to manufacture the crating material and contract for the ad- vance growth at 25 cents per 2-foot cord stumpage, an equivalent of 50 cents per standard cord. Thus the plantation was not only freed from the interfering advance growth free of any cost, but a net stumpage price of almost $4 per acre was secured for the celery-crate and birch- oil material. This successful experiment is offered as a good and practical example of applied silviculture. MEASURING CORDWOOD IN SHORT LENGTHS (Contribution from School of Forestry, Yale University, No. ;) By R. C. Hawley Professor of Forestry, Yale University In connection with the recent wood-fuel campaign the writer had occasion to serve under the United States Fuel Administration in charge of cordwood for the New Haven district. This work brought rather forcibly into view certain features relating to the distribution and sale of cordwood. It is to be hoped that as a consequence of the high prices and scarcity of coal during the last two years and the spread of knowledge regard- ing wood fuel that there may be a permanently increased use of cord- wood. This is a matter of the greatest importance in making possible a wider and more intensive application of forestry. Anything which will assist in putting the cordwood business on a sounder and more dignified basis should interest foresters. The appointment of special men to have charge of wood fuel was not initiated in southern New England until 1918. In the New Haven dis- trict organized work began late in September of that year. After a rapid survey of the situation, it was evident that several lines of activity were necessary — either to increase the supply of wood available, to facilitate distribution, to increase the use of wood, or to stabilize prices. It is not intended to describe what was accomplished along all these lines. Let it suffice to say that for New Haven the most interesting problem was the control of wood prices. This article treats with cer- tain points developed in dealing with price control. The L^nited States Fuel Administration had no legal power to fix W'Ood prices. But it was early seen, in Connecticut at least, that under war conditions the force of "moral suasion," as judiciously exercised by representatives of the Fuel Administration and the State Council of Defense, had power, as shown in results secured, comparable to law. Wood prices in New Haven had risen from $8 per cord, delivered, for hardwood in short lengths, in 1914. to $14 a cord in the first half of 1918, and appeared to be still moving upward. For the purpose of holding prices down to the level then existing, a schedule was drawn 312 MlvASURING CORDWOOD IN SHORT LKXGTIIS 313 Up and issued. This price schedule involved three factors : The price per selling unit, the size (contents) of the selling unit, and the grade of the wood. Classification into grades ofit'ered no difficulties. Prices per selling unit were fixed at about those prevailing at the time the schedule was issued. When it came to specifying the size or contents of the selling unit, wide dififerences of opinion were encountered. The cord containing 128 cubic feet was the commonly accepted stand- ard of measurement. No Connecticut law or city ordinance could be found which specified the dimensions of the cord, particularly the length of stick, or even designated it as the unit of measurement for cordwood. So there seemed to be no legal basis for fixing the selling unit. The city sealer of weights and measures contended that 128 cubic feet of piled wood, regardless of length of stick, constituted a cord. He had for years helped settle complaints against wood dealers for short measure on this basis. The fact that he had succeeded in doing so may be due largely to the ignorance of the dealers as to the law and to their unwillingness to go to court. ' Notwithstanding this attitude on the part of the sealer of weights and measures, the common business practice of the wood dealers has never been to include 128 cubic feet of piled wood of short lengths in what is sold for a cord. Instead a cord has been taken by the dealers to mean either (i) a pile of 4 or 5 foot wood 4 feet high and long enough to contain 128 cubic feet (8 feet for 4- foot wood and 6.4 feet for 5-foot wood), or (2) the wood sawed into short lengths which can be secured from 128 cubic feet of 4 or 5 foot wood (obviously when sawed into short lengths and piled this wood will not measure 128 cubic feet), or (3) the wood which thrown in loose will fill a wagon box 4 by 4 by 8 feet. The wise dealer in selling wood in short lengths under either of the last two systems quotes and bills his customers not for a cord, but for a "box cord" or "loose cord" or "load" of wood. When this is done he cannot be required to give 128 cubic feet or any other fixed amount of piled wood. Only a small percentage of people buying cordwood actually measure the wood received. When a person does measure his wood, uncertainty as to the amount that he should receive often pre- vents his making a complaint. Consequently the retail wood dealer has been able to conduct his operations about as he pleased. Probably in 50 per cent of the cases at the lowest estimate dealers deliver to their customers (who think they are buying a cord of wood) 31-t JOURNAL OP FORESTRY less solid wood than is actually contained in the average, cord of 4 or 5 foot wood. In deciding on the unit to be used as the basis for prices it was ad- visable either (i) to require that 128 cubic feet of piled wood cut any length be delivered for one cord/ or (2) to accept business practice and define the unit (cord) as containing the wood sawed in short lengths which came from a pile of 4 or 5 foot wood containing 128 cubic feet.- Number (2) was taken as the better unit, both because it followed business practice and would therefore cause the least interference with methods of doing business and because it is considered to be the more logical selling unit. It then became necessary to fix the amount of wood of different lengths which came out of a cord pile of 4 or 5 foot wood.^ The wood dealers preferred to have these amounts fixed for wood thrown in loose into a wagon body. This method would make it diffi- cult and often impossible for the purchaser to measure the wood re- ceived. If the unit was established as a stated number of cubic feet of piled wood of a given length, the purchaser could easily ascertain whether he had the full amount. For this reason it was decided to ex- press the amount of wood secured from a cord of 5-foot wood in stacked cubic feet. In tests in Massachusetts the measurement of the amount of wood in short lengths which comes out of a cord of long wood has been ex- pressed in cubic feet of wood thrown loose into a wagon body."' This evidently admits of less accurate measurement on the part of the pur- chaser than a method based on cubic feet of piled wood. Furthermore, from the dealer's standpoint, it should be noted that wood thrown in loose packs together and settles in transit, and when presented for the purchaser's inspection would occupy a smaller space than when first thrown in. Cook admits (see quotation given below) that for 24-inch wood measurement by throwing in loose gave too variable results. ^ The State of Vermont adopted this system, as is shown in the following quota- tion from a regulation of the Department of Weights and Measures. State of Vermont, issued September 11, 1918: "A cord shall contain 128 cubic feet of wood ; a cord of 16-inch wood shall contain the equivalent of three piles of wood 4 feet'high, 8 feet long, and 16 inches wide; a cord of 12-inch wood shall contain the equivalent of four piles of wood 4 feet high, 8 feet long, and 12 inches wide, and no cord of any length wood shall contain less than 128 cubic feet of wood." " A bill is before the Massachusetts State legislature which as now drafted follows this principle. . , , Mn the New Haven district both 4 and 5 foot wood are cut, with the latter length as the more customary. For this reason 5-foot wood was used in the tests. MICASURIXG CORDWOOD IX SHORT LliXGTIIS 315 ""We soon found that the 2-foot wood piled so irregularly that it would tiot be possible to establish a standard relation for it." * This being the case, it seems much more logical to employ a system which can be applied with ease and accuracy to any length of wood. Tests were made, with the assistance of City Forester George Cromie, at two woodyards. A pile of 5-foot wood 4 feet high and 6.4 feet long containing 128 stacked cubic feet of wood was made; the wood was sawed into short lengths, repiled, and the cubic contents of the piles calculated. Two tests, when the wood was sawed into 12-inch lengths, gave 98 cubic feet^ as the contents of the pile of short wood. This is a shrinkage of 29.5 cubic feet, or 23 per cent of the volume of the original cord. One test where the wood was sawed 20 inches long gave 103.9 cubic feet — a shrinkage of 24.1 cubic feet, or 18.8 per cent. Sufficient time was not available, nor did the situation warrant making a complete set of tests to get averages on each short length. Finally a figure of 90 cubic feet for short wood 16 inches or under in length and 105 cubic feet for short wood over 16 inches and less than 4 feet in length was adopted. Below the schedule issued is shown. The wood dealers as a whole considered 90 cubic feet an amount which they should be willing to deliver, but felt that anything over 96 cubic feet was higher than could be secured from the wood. For 12- inch wood, the commonest length sold, 90 cubic feet was thought to be the average output of the long wood handled in the region around New Haven. In the crisis then existing it seemed best to set the amount reasonably low and expect the dealers to live up to it fully. An added argument was that the previous experience of the writer had shown * Measurement of Fuelwood, by H. O. Cook. Journal of Forestry, Vol. XVI, pages 920-921. Information received from Mr. Cook since the publication of his article indicates that he favors expressing the volume of short length wood com- ing from a cord of long wood in terms both of cubic feet of wood thrown in loose and also in stacked cubic feet of piled wood. " Compare the results of these tests with the figures given in Graves' Forest Mensuration, page 104. Graves' figures as they stand do not give directly the shrinkage in space occupied in sawing long wood into short lengths, but can easily be presented in a slightly different manner to show this relation, as follows : Shrinkage in Space Occupied by izS Cubic Feet of Piled 5-foot Wood n'lien it is Sawed into 12-inch Lengths and Repiled Shrinkage in cubic feet Shrinkage in per cent Straight sticks Crooked sticks Knotty sticks I3-I 10.2 21 . 1 16.5 29.3 22.9 The figures for the knotty sticks almost coincide with the values secured in -the tests. However, the wood used in the tests was not particularly knotty nor crooked. Hence it is believed that the figures in Forest Mensuration show too little shrinkage to apply in southern Connecticut. 316 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY that less than 90 cubic feet was commonly delivered by dealers as the- equivalent of a cord of long wood. If the standard of delivery could be raised to this amount an improvement over existing conditions would ensue. For a permanent standard for futvire use the amount, should be between 95 and 100 cubic feet for 12-inch wood. Maximum Retail Prices and Specifications for Cordwood for the New Haven District To Apply from October 15, 1918, until Further Notice Longf wood, 4 to 5 Wood over 16 inches Short wood, 16 in- foot lengfths. Per and less than 4 feet ches or under in length. Per load containing 90 cu- bic feet of stacked wood, Grade.. cord containing long. Per load con- 128 cubic feet of stacked wood. taining 105 cubic feet of stacked wood. Hardwood $11.00 *$12.00 to $14.00 *$ij.oo to $14.00. Principally hard- wood, but may con- tain not over 5 per cent of the chestnut grade. Mixed $10.00 *$II.OOtO$I2.50 *$ii.oo to $12.50 Contains 40 per cent or more of the liardwood grade. Chestnut $9.00 $11.50 $11.50 Principally chest- nut, Imt may contain a large percentage of other woods. Slabs $8.50 $11.00 $11.00 * Maximum price allowed shall depend on quality. Dealers should have their wood examined and listed as to quality. This schedule enabled the purchaser of wood to easily check up the dealer and ascertain whether he had the proper measure. The dealers, of course, could not afford to pile up and get the stacked cubic contents of every lot of wood delivered. For them the easiest ])rocedure was to have a wagon or truck body into which the wood could be thrown loose. This had been their custom in the past. Hence no change in method was required. Most dealers had been in the liabit of assuming 128 cubic feet of wood thrown in loose as equivalent to the wood which came out of a cord of 5-foot wood. This is too low. A few tests indicated that 90 cubic feet of 12-inch wood piled, when thrown in loose into a truck body. occu])ied 140 cubic feet of space, and that 105 cubic feet of 2oinch wood occupied 170 cubic feet of space. These figures compare closely with those secured in Cook's experi- -MKASLRIXG CORDWOOD IX SHORT LKXC.TIIS HI? ments,® where the average for 12-inch wood was 145 cubic feet and for 16-inch wood 160 cubic feet. No experiments were made by him with 20-inch wood. As a result of the wood-fuel work certain conclusions, which are summarized below, have been formed : 1. A method of measurement for cordwood should be adopted which would enable the purchaser to accurately and quickly determine the measure received. 2. To accomplish this, the unit should be expressed in cubic feet of piled wood of a given length. 3. Such a method of measurement already is in common use for long (4 or 5 foot) wood; a pile containing 128 cubic feet of piled v.'ood constitutes a cord. 4. Following as closely as possible the system used for 5-foot wood in measuring wood in short lengths, either (i) the number of cubic feet of space (128) occupied by the 5-foot wood may be accepted as the unit or (2) the amount of solid wood contained in the pile of 5-foot wood may be taken as the unit, and the space occupied by this solid wood when sawed into various short lengths and piled be determined and taken as the standard number of cubic feet of piled wood, equiva- lent for that length to one cord of 5-foot wood. Both methods have an equally sound basis, but the latter is the better, since it follows more closely accepted business practice. 5. The actual amount of piled wood of a given length secured from sawing up a cord of 5-foot wood will vary with the character of the wood ; to what extent is not definitely known. 6. Hence the standard amounts should be derived and applied re- gionally. 7. For southern Connecticut the standard amounts should probably be placed between 95 and 100 cubic feet for 12-inch wood and between TOO and no cubic feet for 20-inch wood. 8. Retail wood dealers are not likely to live up to any selling unit until a unit is established which will make it easy for the purchaser to measure accurately cordwood in short lengths. ' Measurement of Fuehvood, by H. O. Cook. Cook's experiments were made with 4-foot wood. As a cord of 5-foot wood contains only about 95 per cent of the solid contents of a cord of 4-foot wood, it is to be expected that a cord of 4-foot wood sawed into short lengths and thrown into a bin loose will occupy more space than a cord of 5-foot wood similarly treated. REVIEWS Annual Report of the Department of Conservation and Development of the State of New Jersey for the Year Ending October ji, ipiy- Union Hill, N. J. 1918. Pp. 141. This report deals with a great variety of subjects, the department being a consolidation of a number of State commissions, the State Forester, Mr. Alfred Gaskill, being also Director for the Board of Conservation and Development and transmitting the report to the Governor. Taking up the section devoted to the report of the State Fire War- den, on 33 pages, with ample tabulations, we find that in the direction of protecting the two million acres (nearly) of forest area success is only very partial. A table recording fires for seven years before a fire service was organized and for eleven years after organization allows ready comparison. Striking is the very considerable increase in num- ber of fires during the latter period, which may, to be sure, be due to more careful reporting. While during the first period (incompletely reported) the number of fires remained considerably below 100, in the last eleven years the average was over 600 and in the last year 871 ; but the acreage burned over is nearl}' the same in both cases, around 70,000 acres, in the last year over 92,000 acres. The losses, however, are figured only little less than $80,000, as against $500,000 without pro- tection. A good idea is used in the tabulation by reporting "embryo" fires separately (those burning over less than 5 acres). The cost of extinguishing fires is stated as below $12,000, paid in nearly equal parts by State, townships, and ofifenders. The organization of the service consists of 5 State fire wardens, 145 township fire wardens, 186 district fire wardens, 9 patrolmen, and 3 lookouts. The lookout system seems not yet fully developed. Lack of funds is responsible for this deficiency, some $20,000 being devoted to this fire service, in addition to a $2,000 contribution by the Federal Govern- ment, and around $8,000 for the State Forester's office. Hopeful words are used regarding the improvement in forest condi- tions and the application of silviculture in proportion to the increase in .safety from fire and to the advice given to woodlot owners ; but the State Forester, being charged to propose plans for utilizing undevel- 318 Ri:\[]%\vs 319 oped lands, is bold enough to say that "Xcw Jersey must have less forest rather than more." He also conceives the seven small State for- ests, comprising 15,677 acres in all, as experimental grounds, demon- stration forest, and outing places ; in some cases to accommodate insti- tutions, like colonies for the feeble-minded, who could be employed in forest work. The Forester is also in charge of shade-tree interests throughout the State, which are maintained through municipal shade-tree commissions, some 89 at present, with resources aggregating around $284,000. For this service the appointment of an "arborist" is asked. In this connection the status of tree pests is reported. With the chestnut blight "there are some indications that its rate of progress is slowing up." The white-pine blister rust is fully established, but the interest of the State is more strongly taken up with saving the berry hosts than the tree hosts. The most interesting part of the report, in these times of reconstruc- tion, is that concerning the proposition for the development of unde- veloped lands, on which prison labor is to be utilized — a proposition coming from the Governor. It does not find a sympathetic reception by the Commission, and the Forester is to be congratulated on the sane argumentation against the proposition. "With 400.000 acres of unused (abandoned) farm land, it is appar- ent that the State's present need is farmers — not farms." If the 600.000 acres of upland still wooded, although stocked with forest, were made into farms, they would be merely in competition with these abandoned ones. There are. then, only left to consider 270,000 acres of tide marsh and 110,000 acres of fresh-water swamp, which if drained would yield superior farm land, but would have to carry a charge for drainage of upwards of $200 and, ^\•hat is most important, would require farmers specially skilled in farming such lands. Incidentally, reference is made to the reclamation by the Dutch of the 520,000 acres of Zuyder Zee at a cost of $363 per acre. The Forester then gives four pieces of advice as to what the State can do, namely, eradicate the mosquitoes, for which prison labor is very well adapted ; advertise State resources ; maintain a labor bureau to overcome the present shortage of farm labor; maintain a farm agency to help make farm life and farm management more attractive, with road improvement and educational extension as collateral. An esti- mate of cost and returns is made : $750,000 for mosquito extermina- tion and $300,000 annually for the other work. An increase in property 320 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY values of not less than $900,000,000 is promised as a result of this expenditure and an increase in tax income of 13.5 million. B. E. F. Luinhcr Prices, Report to the Price-Fixing Committee. Price Sec- tion, Division of Planning and Statistics, War Industries Board, No- vember, 1 91 8. Pp. 247. In this report, published in multigraph, average lumber prices for various species in different materials and grades are summarized over the period from the beginning of the year 19 13 to about the middle of 1918. The summaries are shown both in tabular form and in charts, giving relative prices on the basis of the average quoted prices for July, 1913, to June, 1914. Three sources of lumber prices are considered, namely, (i) Trade Papers, (2) Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Federal Trade Com- mission, and (3) the United States Forest Service. The first are de- clared to be unreliable, and none of the published quotations are used except from the Commercial Bulletin of Boston, which alone was found to carry lumber-price quotations of a reliable character. The quota- tions secured from the second source are limited in extent and much of the information originally furnished was disregarded, as it was based on trade-journal reports. The bulk of the report consists of a summary of the information contained in the quarterly bulletins of the Forest Service, which give the average prices f. o. b. mill of a great variety of lumber from mills in all parts of the important lumber-pro- ducing sections. These bulletins are based on direct reports from mills of actual lumber prices, and, although there is considerable irregularity noticeable in the material available for these reports from period to period, this has, so far as practicable, been eliminated in the summaries. In all, seventeen different species are reported upon and prices for various products and grades for each species are given, there being, in the case of southern yellow pine, twenty separate materials dealt with. The author discusses briefly the major swing of lumber prices be- tween 1873 and 1918, showing the general and rapid upward movement which took place between 1890 and 1907 — an increase of 94 per cent, as compared to a 14.6 per cent advance in general prices of all com- modities. The trend of prices since 1907 is best indicated in the following quotation from the report : "The actual fluctuations in lumber prices since 1907 show the effect of the fundamental factors that have checked advances in lumber prices. It was not REVIEWS 321 -until 1912 tliat lumber prices had reached the level of 1907, and then, because of the slight business depression in 1914 and 1915, prices again broke sharply. The general upward trend of prices, which began as early as the fall of 1915, did not permanently influence lumber prices until the fall of 1916. The rise in lumber that has taken place since has been greatly stimulated by Government orders and the enforced curtailment of production on account of the labor shortage. In ■spite of these aids lumber prices have not risen quite so much as the average prices of 'all commodities.' " W. N. M. Manual of Tree Diseases. By W. Howard Rankin. The ]\Iacmillan Co., New York. 191 8. Pp. 398. , This first wholly American work in book form on the diseases of forest trees is one of "The Rural Manuals'' edited by Prof. L. H. Bailey, and in conformity with the general plan of this series has been written primarily for the general public. Insect and other animal in- juries are not included. The treatment of the subject throughout is simple and direct; the diseases are concisely described and methods of control indicated. The first four chapters deal with such maladies of biotic and abiotic origin as are common to many kinds of trees and are respectively entitled "Seedling Diseases and Injuries," "Leaf Diseases and Injuries,"' "Body and Branch Diseases and Injuries," "Root Dis- eases and Injuries." Chapters \" to XXXII are devoted to an account of the more "specific diseases," one chapter to each generic host group, beginning w'ith the alders. The arrangement of the chapters is alpha- betical, according to the English host group names. Two chapters follow — one on "Tree Surgery," the other on "Spraying and Dusting for Leaf Diseases." The book is equipped with a glossary, a general bibliography of tree diseases, and an excellent index. This work, though not intended as a text-book, will be welcomed by all students of plant pathology, because it is the only summary avail- able of the diseases of the forest trees of the L'nited States and Canada and because it includes many classified references to the literature. The writing of the book reveals the limitations of forest pathology in America ; the number of workers in this field has been small, the sub- ject-matter is as yet largely unexplored, and the applications of the results so far attained have been restricted. The author clearly recog- nizes these facts and does not fail to point out the direction investiga- tions should follow ; in so doing he makes a contribution of prime importance. T. H. F. 322 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Xotc on the Preparation of J^iirpcutinc, Rosin, and Gum from Bos- zi'cUia scrrata (Ro.vb.) Gnm-olco-rcsin. By R. S. Pearson, Forest Economist, and Puran Singh, Chemical Adviser of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dmi. The Indian Forest Record, Vol. VI, Pt. VI, pp. 303-345, 1918. Superintendent, Government Printing, Calcutta, India. Price, IS. 2d. This paper contains the results of field and laboratory investigations for the purpose of determining the best method of obtaining the crude gum-oleo-resin of the Indian tree Boswellia serrata, and also of sepa- rating and determining the commercial uses and value of its chief com- ponents— gum, rosin, and turpentine. Plans of a plant are added for obtaining these products on a commercial scale. The study also in- cludes a determination of the number of trees available in Indian Gov- ernment forests for exploitation. The experiments extended over a period of 5 years (1908- 191 2). Boswellia serrata is one of some 18 species now known belonging to- the family Burseracea, a group of plants which is in no way related to the conifers yielding the world's supply of naval-stores products. Most of the species of Boswellia occur in tropical Africa and India. Bursera simaruba, a south Florida tree of the same family, is the only member" of this family represented in the United States. Unlike the pine trees, which yield oleo-resin only from the living wood, Boswellia and its family relatives yield gum-oleo-resin only from the living bark. ]\f ore- over, the exuding gum-oleo-resin of Boswellia quickly congeals when exposed to the air, while the oleo-resin of pines flows continuously for several months, only at the end of the turpentine season becoming solidified on the scarified "faces" of the trees. The crude gum-oleo- resin of Boswellia has long been known and locally used in India as a frankincense and for medicinal purposes. It is now said to be equal in quality as a substitute for the Arabian and African frankincense. Boswellia serrata is a medium to large sized deciduous tree, with thin scaly bark, common on the driest and most exposed slopes of hills throughout India, often forming pure, open forests of considerable ex- tent. The 24 different government forest divisions contain 42,694,oi6' trees suitable for tapping, or an average of 1,777,917 trees to each for- est division. In terms of the American turpentine "crops" of turpen- tine timber (8,000 to 10,000 trees), this number would amount to from 4,269 to 5,336 "crops." The method of "tapping" finally recommended for Boswellia serrata consists in blazing or shaving ofif a 6-inch-wide girdle of living bark to- REVIEWS 323 a depth of about one-half the thickness of the bark and at a height from the ground of from 2 to 2^ feet. Within from 4 to 6 days the wound is "freshened" by shaving off a very thin layer of bark from the old blaze down to within an inch of its lower border, and also about one inch in height of new bark on the upper edge of the original wound. The hardened gum is scraped from the wound with a dull knife before each retapping operation, the tappers and scrapers working in pairs. The average yield of gum per tree per year is about 2^4 pounds. In terms of our turpentine "crop" (8,000 to 10,000 trees), the yield would be from 18,000 to 22,500 pounds of gum per season — a far less quantity than our turpentine pines yield. The total yield of turpentine from this crude gum-oleo-resin is estimated at 7 per cent, or about 157 to 197 gallons for 8,000 to 10,000 trees, the remaining yield consisting of nearly equal proportions of resin and gum, which are separable by treatment with solvents. It is not apparent, except for the greater comfort of the chipper, why the first blazing should not be begun at about 6 inches above the ground, which would afiford a much greater length of workable trunk surface and a greater total yield per tree. The tapping is begun in November and terminated within 5 or 6 months — a period which corresponds in length with our pine turpentining season. Trials showed that it is not profitable to tap trees under 30 inches in diameter. The total number of years Boswellia serrata can be worked is not stated. Tapped continuously, as is the native custom in some forests, probably the period would be about 5 or 6 years. It. is recommended, however, that each year's tapping be followed by 2 years' rest, fixing the rotation at 3 years. The effect of tapping on the vitality of the trees, it is said, need cause no serious apprehension. The physical ap- pearance of a trunk after complete working and healing of the wounds presents a conspicuously gnarled and lumpy surface. Whether or not the intention is to rework such trees is not stated. Owing, however, to the exceedingly uneven surface of these trunks, it would seem very difficult, if not entirely impracticable, to again work the trees. The three commercially valuable constituents of Boswellia gum-oleo- resin are gum, rosin, and turpentine. The gum is obtained bv treating the mass with a solvent, while the turpentine is extracted by steam dis- tillation, the residual product being rosin. It is of interest to note in this connection that 89 per cent of the turpentine from Boswellia ser- rata is distilled at temperatures of from 153° to 160° C, while 85 per cent of American turpentine distils between 155° and 163° C, and 85 32-t JOURNAL OF FORESTRY to 90 per cent of French turpentine passes over between 155° and 165°. Commercially considered, a very interesting result of these experi- ments is the trade estimate made of the quality of turpentine obtained from Boswellia serrata compared with American and European tur- pentines produced from pine resin. The general statement is made that Boswellia turpentine, consisting mainly of dextro-pinene, is as good as the best American and French turpentines. Submitted to manufac- turers of varnishes for practical trial, it was found to dissolve colo- phony, dammar, sandarac, and soft copal as readily as pine turpentines. The "drying face" of varnishes made with Boswellia and other turpen- tines were practically identical, but Boswellia varnishes dried more rapidly than others and were uniformly dull, those made with Amer- ican turpentine remaining bright. As a substitute for the American product it is said that Boswellia turpentine would probably be placed between the French or Spanish and the Swedish or Russian oils. Boswellia rosin is similar to pine rosin in physical characteristics and, except for soap-making, can be used for the other purposes to which pine rosin is put. Its color corresponds with grade "G" of pine rosins (golden brown), the highest grade of which is nearly as clear as win- dow-glass. Boswellia gum. in appearance not unlike gum-arabic, was tried as a base in the manufacture of sizing for textiles, etc., but owing to lack of complete solubility in water, due to the presence of resin, it cannot be used for these purposes without special treatment. G. B. S. Annual Progress Report upon State forest Administration in South Australia for the Year iQiy-iS. By W. Gill. Woods and Forests De- partment. Adelaide, S. A. 1918. Pp. 13. This is a well-illustrated report. The forest reserves and plantations of the State comprise around 154,000 acres, 22,300 of which are fenced in for planting and natural regeneration. In spite of a dearth of labor and the difficulty in importing plant material, 582 acres were planted in 191 7. The plantations are mainly of Finns insignis for boxboard, and, due to the difficulty of importing softwoods, a good home market for home-grown material developed. Altogether the financial showing is gratifying, the revenue being $20,000 ahead of the previous year, the total being over $70,000, against $107,000 expenditures. Since the beginning of the forest department in 1876, the expenditures have amounted to over $2,000,000, while the REVIEWS 325 returns so far amounted to only $1,100,000; but the permanent im- provements are estimated at near $600,000. Over a quarter million trees were distributed free of charge, such distribution having during 36 years disposed of nearlv 10 million trees. B. E. F. Report on White Pine Blister Rust Control, ipi8. Bulletin 2, Amer- ican Plant Pest Committee. Boston, Mass. 1919. Pp. 16. In 191 5, as a result of a conference of foresters and pathologists, a committee on the suppression of the pine blister rust in North America was formed. This committee was reorganized in 1918 as the American Plant Pest Committee at the fourth annual meeting at Boston in No- vember, 191 8. It is a large international committee, composed of four members from each State and Canadian Province, as far as possible consisting of officials having to do with plant pests, namely, commis- sioners of agriculture. State foresters. State entomologists, and State horticulturists. Its purpose is mainly educational and to secure meas- ures for plant pest control. The present publication covers very fully the situation of the efforts to control the blister rust of the white pine, and. we may say at the start, takes an entirely optimistic attitude as regards the possibility of its eradication. It takes, also, the position that the responsibility of control must finally rest with the forest owner. This, in our opinion, although the response is reported very satisfactory, is a dangerous con- clusion, since one owner's neglect in such cases frustrates the eft'orts of all others. The committee recognizes this result, however, and, not to lose the momentum gained by State enterprise, urges continuous appropriations for the purpose. We are specially assured that "commercial planting of zvliite pine is practicable, if care is taken to secure uninfected planting stock, and if all currants and gooseberries are destroyed in and around the planting area to a distance of not less than 200 yards, and preferably to at least 500 or 600 yards." The removal of all Ribes (cultivated or wild) is declared to be the only practical remedy, and it is found that this can be done cheaply enough in most cases. On the demonstration control areas the costs ran from 17 cents to $19.16 (in swamps), but the aver- age in all types remained mostly below one dollar, running from 25 cents to $2.47 per acre. This with the high w^ar labor cost. Detail accounts are given for the Northeastern States and Canadian Provinces. Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and farther Southern and Cen- 326 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY tral States are practically free from the disease or under control. The same may be said of the Lake States, although isolated infected locali- ties were found. The Western States are still intact. In Canada the two infected provinces of Quebec and Ontario admit the rust to be ineradicable. There have been three control areas estab- lished, however, to determine whether white pine can be grown success- fully in areas where the disease is present — to be sure, after eradicating Ribes on the area (1.44 to 9.6 acres per man). The demonstrated fact that the distance of spread of the disease from the currant is rather less than had been supposed (say, 200 yards) countenances this experiment, but the spread from the pine reaches for miles, as determined by observation in Dr. Spalding's contribution to the bulletin. Experiments with sprays, reported in the bulletin, give promise of cheapening the process of eradication, fuel oil seemingly being most effective. Altogether it would appear that the combat against blister rust is not as hopeless as was feared. B. E. E. PERIODICAL LITERATURE BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY The preponderance of spruce in north-central Root Habits Canada is usually ascribed to its greater tolerance of Trees in of* low temperatures than that of the predominat- Northern Canada ing trees of the more temperate climates. It is frequently inferred that the direct effect of tem- perature upon physiological processes controls plant distribution in the far north. Howard E. Pulling shows how low temperatures may re- tard the growth or limit the size of certain arborescent species in an indirect way. The root habits of Picca mariana, Pimis banksiana, Larix laricina, Betitia papyrifera, Populiis balsamifera, and Pinus strobus were studied in the province of Manitoba between latitude 55° N. and 56° N. and longitude 96° W. and 98° W. in a uniform clay soil and in a sandy soil, near the south shore of Lake Superior, in Douglas County, Wis. The main characteristics of the root systems are exhibited in dimen- sioned figures. The soil was found to be generally shallow and frozen at depths ranging from 2 meters on the exposed south slopes to 3 cm. on flat benches, with a northern exposure which acted as a mechanical barrier to root penetration. These trees were found to dififer not only in their root habits, as they do in their top habits, but also in the rigidity with which the habits are maintained under varying environmental conditions. This investiga- tion is summarized as follows : Root systems may be classified as deep when the habit is centered about a main deeply penetrating tap root and shallow when such a tap root is absent, and the roots remain near the surface of the soil. Various degrees of transition may be recognized, but the important point is that some trees have a very rigid root habit, while with others it is more flexibe. Deep root systems of an inflexible nature cannot produce large trees in shallow soils, whether the shallowness is caused by rock or ice. Trees whose root systems are flexible and are not too deep rooted in deep soil may endure shallow soils. The degree of flexibility of habit and the degree of penetration in deep soils may determine the northward distribution of many plants, regardless of relations between the plant and its environment that may exclude other species from those 327 328 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY regions. Of the species studied, black spruce, tamarack, and birch are classed as having a rigid, shallow root habit; white spruce a flexible, shallow root habit; balsam poplar a deep, flexible root habit; jack pine and white pine a deep, rigid root habit. C. F. K. Root Habit and Plant Distvihntion in the Far North. The Plant World, vol. 21, pp. 22^-232, September, 1918. Foresters as well as plant physiologists and Life forms, ecologists should welcome recent summaries and Leaf Si::e, and somewhat abridged English translations of the Statistical Methods important works of C. Raunkiaer, which, because in Phytogeography of their publication in the Danish language, have received very little attention until recently. He emphasizes the need for greater exactitude and the use of more precise methods in the quantitative study of vegetation in order to place plant geography and ecology on a firmer scientific basis. The same also applies to forestry and especially to forest research. William G. Smith^ has reviewed a number of Raunkiaer's papers oh his system of correlating the vegetative organs of plants with their environ- ment through "biological types" or "life forms" and their application in phytogeography. Raunkiaer uses the plant itself as the criterion of the biological value of the climate. He selected the adaptation of plants to the critical or most rigorous season as shown by the nature and the degree of protection possessed by the dormant perennial shoot-apices. The Raunkiaer system distinguishes the following life-forms: "Phancrophyfes have their dormant buds on branches which project freely into the air; they are the trees and shrubs. Several modifications of these are recog- nized: (a) According to degree of protection, evergreens, with naked or with ^ Smith, William G., Raunkiaer's life forms and statistical methods. Jour. BcoL, vol. I, pp. 16-26, 1913. In review of the following papers by C. Raunkiaer: "Om biologiske Typer, med Hensyn til Planternes Tilpasning til at overleve ugunstige Aarstider." Bot. Tidskrift, 26, i904-_ "Types biologiques pour la geographic botanique." Bull. Acad. Roy. d. Sci. de Dancmark. 1905, pp. 347-437. 4i figs. "Planterigets Livsformer og deres Betydning for geografien." Kjobenhaven, 1907, 132 pp., I plate, yy figs. "Livsformernes Statistik som grundlag for biologisk Plant geografi." Bot. Tidsskr. 29, 1908, pp. 42-83, 34 tables. (Translation by G. Toblcr in Bcih. Bot. Centralbl. 27, Abt. 2, 1910, pp. 171-206.) "Livsformen hos Planter paa ny Jord." Mem. Acad. Sci. de Danemark, 8, 1909, 70 pp., 29 figs. "Formationsundersogelse og Formations-ststistik." Bot. Tidsskr., 30, 1909, no pp., 20 figs. "Measuring apparatus for statistical investigations of plant formations." Ibid., 33, 1912, pp. 45-48, I fig. PERIODICAL LITERATURE 329 covered buds, and deciduous species with covered buds can be distinguished; (b) According to size, since this is determined by the relation between the plants and the humidity of the environment: (i) mcgaphanerophytcs, with a stature over 30 meters; (2) mcsophanerophytes, 8 to 30 m. ; (3) microphancrophytes, 2 to 8 m., and (4) manophancrophytes, less than 2 m. high are distinguished. "Chamcuphytes include those plants with their buds or shoot-apices perennat- ing on the surface of the ground or just above it (not exceeding 25 cm.), so that in countries with snow they will be protected in winter, while in other countries with a dry season some protection will be afforded by plant remains. The buds are better protected than in phanerophytes. The chamaephyte types include (i) active chamaetypes, with shoots diageotropic and persistent throughout their whole length ; (2) passive chamaephytes, with weak stems which lie on the ground; (3) suffruticose chamasphytes in which the perennating parts remain on the surface of the ground after the herbaceous parts have died away on the ap- proach of the critical season; (4) cushion plants. "Hemicryptophytcs have their dormant buds in the upper crust of the soil, just below the surface; the aerial parts are herbaceous and die away in the crit- ical period, so that they form an additional protection to the earthbuds. The perennating parts may be long or short, laterally extended or forming compact root-stocks; hence, the group includes a large number of our native woodland and hedgerow species and many rosette or half-rosette species. "Cryptophyfes includes plants with their dormant parts subterranean in the case of geophytes, with bulbs, rhizomes, tubers on stem, and root and root-buds. Another division is ch'^racterized by semi-aquatic dormant buds, helophyfes and hydrophytes. The helophytes, or marsh-plants, do not include all so-called marsh species, but only such cryptophytes as have their buds at the bottom of the water on in the subjacent soil. The hydrophytes have either perennating rhizomes, etc., or winter-buds. "Therophytes, or plants of the favorable season, live through the unfavorable season as seeds ; hence, they are annual plants. They are characteristic of deserts and of regions under high cultivation. In temperate regions, two divi- sions are recognized; (a) summer-flowering annuals, (fc) winter-flowering an- nuals, which pass through the winter in a vegetative condition." In the majority of his analyses, Raunkiaer uses the following ten life-forms : 1. S = Stem-succulents. 2. E = Epiphytes. 3. MM = Megaphanerophytes and mcsophanerophytes. 4. M = Microphancrophytes. 5. N = Nanophaneropliytes. . 6. Ch = Chamsephytes. * 7. H ^ Hemicryptophytcs. ^ ''"" "^ 8. G =: Geophytes. 9. HH = Helophytes and hydrophytes. 10. Th = Therophytes. Such analyses are termed biological or phyto-climatic spectra. The basis of comparison is the normal spectrum, which is based on careful studies of from 400 to 1,000 representative species. 330 JOURNAL 0I-' Fokl-STRY With the Northern Hemisphere, Raunkiaer recognizes three princi- pal regional chmate-zones : (A) A tropical area with uniform and high temperatures, but a varying hu- midity ; (B) To the northward an area of decreasing warmth correlated with an in- creasing difference between summer and winter, but with a precipitation suitable at most times for plant life; (C) Warmth decreasing from equator to pole, as in B, but with decreasing precipitation, at least in summer. These climatic zones are characterized by biochores or plant-climate boundaries. From this series three types of climate are suggested: (i) phanerophytic, (2) hemicryptophytic, and (3) chamaephytic. To facilitate the comparison of different climates, Raunkiaer devised "hydrothermic figures," by representing in a single diagram the curve of the monthly averages of temperature and that of the monthly aver- ages of rainfall ; then, by determining the biological types or combina- tions of types corresponding with the hydrothermic figures, he obtained the "biological expressions" of the various climates. These methods are also applicable to altitudinal zones. Fuller and Bakke'^ have prepared somewhat abridged translations of two of Raunkiaer's subsequent papers. Raunkiaer proposes another quantitative method of much promise in the analysis of vegetation, in so far as this unit is an expression of the biological value of a cli- mate. He considers the size of the leaf as being physiologically impor- tant, and, using the simple leaf as a standard, has suggested a system of leaf classes. In his scheme there are six different classes: (i) leptophyll, 25 sq. mm. ; (2) nanophyll, 9 x 25 sq. mm. =: 225 sq. mm. ; (3) microphyll, 9" x 25 sq. mm. = 2,025 sq. mm. ; (4) mcsophyll, 9^ x 25 sq. mm. = 18,225 sq. mm. ; (5) macro phyll, 9* x 25 sq. mm. = 164,025 sq. mm. ; (6) megaphyll, limited only by the upper limit of macrophylls. In order to facilitate the correct grouping of the leaves, the translators have reproduced the graphic representation of the various limits of sur- face area of the scheme. With this method Raunkiaer maintains that the biological factor for climate, in so far as it influences leaf size, may be obtained. Compari- sons may be made readily between two climates which have varying ' Fuller, George D., and Bakke, A. L. : Raunkiaer's "Life Forms," leaf-size classes and statistical methods. The Plant World, vol. 21, pp. 25-37, 57-63, Feb- ruary and March, 1918. In review of: Raunkiaer, C. : Om Bladstrrelsens anvendelse i den biologiske Plant geografi. Bot. Tidsk., vol. 33, pp. 225-240, 1916. Raunkiaer, C. : Om Valensmetoden. Bot. Tids., vol. 34, pp. 304, 311, 1917. PERIODICAL LITERATURE 331 'effects. Raunkiaer has shown the utihty of such a scheme by analyz- ing several European evergreen shrub formations. He states that his leaf size classes are not the only quantitative units to be employed, but proves their adaptability to statistical methods. Raunkiaer's valence method offers a good means of studying a for- mation by differentiating its species according to their frequency ex- pressed numerically, which serves both as a means of comparing closely related formations and also as a basis for an ecological comparison. The frequency is determined by taking a number of sample plots of a certain :size and expressing numerically for each species the percentage of plots on which it occurs. The necessary number of plots is obtained as soon as the result becomes practically unchanged with the addition of more plots. Raunkiaer found that o.i sq. mm. was a suitable size, and gave fairly constant results with from 25 to 50 plots. All who are interested in the details of the methods and unable to read Danish should consult the English papers cited. The latter trans- lation is concluded with the following paragraphs, which speak for the merits and utility of these statistical methods in ecological work with vegetation, including forest investigations : "The above is a system of formation analysis into primary divisions so funda- mental that the biological and physiognomical coincide and are both emphasized. Within its limits there is a place for offshoots, or subdivisions of larger or smaller extent, expressing characters of special biological significance which re- quire special biological (ecological) characterization in the systematic analysis of a narrowly limited formation. "By more intensive studies of climatic factors, of soil chemistry, of physical and biological conditions, and by a wide investigation of the morphological, ana- tomical, and physiological nature of plant species, ecology will be able to reach .an understanding of the place of each individual species in a formation." C. F. K. SOIL, WATER, AND CLIMATE In studying the effect of the precipitation factor Redwood in limiting the distribution of the redwood i,Sc- Distrihution qiioia scrnpervirens) in California, William v^. in California Redwoods Cooper secured measurements of pre- cipitation at 22 stations in the Santa Cruz Moun- tains and in the Santa Clara Valley. Certain areas, not differing ma- terially in topography and soil from adjacent areas supporting luxuriant redwood forests, are practically treeless, except for scattering speci- mens of Quercus agrifolia and Q. lobata. He shows that heavy winter rainfall is necessary for the development of the redwood forest. The 332 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY author also found that the precipitation itself is effective only when- accompanied by abundant summer fog, which greatly reduces transpira- tion and evaporation. In securing the precipitation records, a type of rain gauge was used in which kerosene was employed to prevent evapo- ration of the precipitation, making possible the summation of rainfall, records covering long periods. C. F. K. Rainfall and Fog. The Plant World, vol. 20, pp. 179-189, June, 191 7. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION Mr. Swaine calls attention to the enormous Balsam losses occasioned by a combination of insect and Fir fungus pests in balsam fir in certain sections of Diseases Quebec, losses which exceed the losses by fire. "We have a most disheartening example of com- bined insect and fungus destruction sweeping through the balsam for- ests of eastern Canada at the present time. Upon hundreds of square miles of forest the balsam has been very seriously injured or killed within the last eight years, and on large areas of this practically all the balsam is already dead." Eight years ago the spruce budworm began the work on both spruce and balsam, but in three of four years died out. The spruce usually survived the attack, although tops were killed and increment lost. The injury to the balsam was very much more severe, and was followed by two rot fungi, a bark beetle, and a weevil to finish the destruction. The red rot {Poly poms schzvciuitaii?), common in eastern balsam,, has run riot in the budworm-infested trees. "Injured trees die gradu- ally from the bottom of the crown upward, showing here and there dead branches, the foliage generally thin, and the trunk and branches bearing an abundant growth of pale green lichens, or 'moss.' " The second fungus is a sap rot, which, when its mycelium reaches and surrounds the base of the tree, checks the sap flow, killing the tree rapidly, and is responsible for the red top, as is also the bark beetle, which finds in slash and fire-killed trees a satisfactory breeding ground. "The second bettle is a snout-beetle, or weevil, which may be called the eastern balsam weevil, one-third of an inch in length and grayish in color. Its eggs are laid in the green or dying bark individually in groups of punctures. The punctures bleed and the balsam drying- on the bark in whitish glistening patches betrays the disease. The injury is new to this province. It was found to be spreading rapidly in green timber in some localities this summer and will prove without doubt a serious enemy to the balsam." PERIODICAL LlTERATURK 333 As remedial action the author suggests the timely utilization of threatened balsam. "The dying trees, like the fire-killed timber, are attacked by the large boring grubs and the timber entirely riddled, at latest by the end of the second season following the death of the trees ; so that i)rompt utilization is necessary if the dying timber is to be saved. There appears to be only one practical method by which we can hope to accomplish anything definite toward checking the spread of the dis- ease, and that is by burning the balsam slash. Slash-burning will not only check the injury in and near the diseased areas, but it will greatly , improve the conditions for the next crop. . . . As a preventive and insurance against insect and fungous troubles, the slash should always be burned." Thirdly, cut out absolutely all the balsam of pole size and over, so as to increase relatively the spruce. The Balsam Injury in Quebec and Its Control. Agricultural Gazette of Canada, March, 1919. MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT Huffel describes at length in a rather captious Forests of mood the forest conditions of these two provinces Alsace-Lorraine and the changes which were made in their con- iinder German ditions during the German occupation. The for- Ma>iagement est area comprises somewhat over one million acres, or 30.3 per cent of the total area and only .59 acres per capita, requiring, therefore, wood importation. Lorraine is considerably less wooded than Alsace, namely, only 26.4 per cent of the forest area of the two provinces, three-quarters of the Alsatian Mountains, being covered with the celebrated fir forest. Prac- tically the extent of forest area has remained the same under German rule, the few thousand acres cleared for special purposes being com- pensated by waste-land planting and, as far as State forest is concerned, by purchases. The forest is very varied in composition and conditions. In the valleys, broadleaf trees, oak, beech, elm, poplar, etc., and Scotch pine (natural growth) ; in the mountains, silver fir, with beech, Scotch pine, ash, and in very limited areas Norway spruce. The Scotch pine here becomes a mountain species and finds its southwest limit. Two-thirds of the forest is deciduous. The State forests are richer in oak, while the communal forest is richer in fir. In Alsace, communal forest ; in Lorraine, State forest predominates. Altogether. 45 per cent (in one section 67 per cent) is municipal forest and 20 per cent private, leaving over 30 per cent to the State ; the details of distribution of ownership 334 JOURNAIv OF FORESTRY are given in a table and the property changes are historically traced. The majority holdings of the municipalities lie between 50 and 500 acres in size. The private forests originate mostly from sales of State property and are mostly small, over 90 per cent less than 25 acres. The organization of the German State forest administration is then described, this being the only forest of which the empire as such was owner. A Landesforstmeister, three Oberforstmeister, or district offi- cers, with a council of Forstrate, and a bureau of working plans ; 64 Oberforster in charge of the rangers, increased in number over the French regime from 46, averaging about 10,000 acres; assistants 16 (Revierforster), Hegemeister 43, and 720 guards formed the per- sonnel— altogether around 900 officials to manage, say, 350,000 acres. The methods of administration are elucidated, and especially the fact is accentuated of the avitonomous position which the Oberforster (super- visor) occupies. This decentralization the author considers desirable and to be envied, as also the right to the chase of small game, which the French foresters do not have. Another advantage of the German administration is that the logging is done under the direction of the forest officials, doing away with a lot of undesirable regulations, which hamper the French administration ; but, to be sure, also inviting some risks which the author recognizes. The most interesting part is the account of silvicultural management and changes accomplished. Under the French regime there were still 65,000 acres of coppice in the State property, 40,000 of which in con- version to timber forest. By 1898 it was all converted, but the author claims that, due to ignorance of proper conversion methods (namely, by planting instead of gradual change by natural regeneration), these converted areas have become lamentable failures, mismanaged coppice rather than timber forest. A subdivision into compartments according to Prussian method, in plain rectangular, in mountain following contours, and doing away with the French multiplication of small felling series, the author ap- proves, as well as of the abandonment of a strict annual sustained yield management for each small unit. But an "absolutely deplorable" innovation the author finds in the almost general abandonment of natural regeneration and adoption of the "Prussian" system of clear cutting and planting, which naturally gives preponderance to pine and spruce over the hardwoods, and, in order to meet the cost of this method, has led to a reduction of the wood capital by lowering the rotation and to the cutting of the reserves of old oaks, which the French are proud to accumulate. The author admits that in the fir forest of the Vosges these accumula- PERIODICAIv LITERATURE 335 tions had been excessive, but thinks even here the cutting has been too severe and the procedure "robbery." The communal forests of Alsace are mostly in timber forest, while those in Lorraine are coppice with standards, of which the "Prussian Oberforster had not heard before" and certainly will not have im- proved them. The production of all forests in Alsace-Lorraine was estimated in 1900, in the absence of definite data for private and communal forest. at 52 cubic feet timberwood, of which 45.8 per cent was workwood. The exact statistics of the State forests for the first 25 years of Ger- man occupancy show an output of almost 60 cubic feet, with a work- wood per cent of 70 and a sawlog per cent of t,t,, which later rose to 45 and 48. The money returns from 1872 to 1893 varied between $3 and $4.30 gross per acre and year; in 1908, it had passed the $5 mark, of which 57 per cent for expenses (in 1910 48 per cent), and shortly before the war this represented 11 per cent of the total State revenue of the two provinces as against 3.9 per cent for Prussia and 9.5 per cent for Bavaria, and hardly 7 per mille for the French State forests. The aver- age price for wood came in 1908 to nearly 9 cents per cubic foot. The author complains of the generous salary list and general extrava- gance of the administration at the expense of the provinces ; the per- sonnel in 1908 took 29.1 per cent of all expenses as against 15 and 18 per cent for the Bavarian and Prussian services. In the final section of the article the author gives advice how to reorganize the forest administration of the returned provinces. It is interesting to note that most of the administrative changes made by the Germans are thought to be acceptable. In this connection we trans- late verbatim the interesting characterization which Huffel gives of his compatriots and their peculiar democracy : "Order and clearness are eminenth' characteristic qualities of the French spirit. The passion for uniformity, the centralization to the utmost are deformi- ties of these beautiful qualities. The forceful hand of Richelieu and of Colbert, and that still mightier and more t3Tannical one of Napoleon, have made of our dear France the most centralized, the most uniformed, the most autocratically governed country in the world." The author deplores this and constructs an administration in sem- blance of the Prussian democratic one, in which the supervisor has the management really in his hand. The clearing and planting of conifers, to be sure, is anathema and must be abolished ! Les Forets de V Alsace-Lorraine. Revue des Eaux et Forets, December, 1918, pp. 265-280. EDITORIAL COMMENT Correction An error unfortunately occurred in the editorial entitled "Is Public Purchase of Private Timberlands the Only Solution?" published in the February Journai, of Forestry, which we hasten to correct. The resolution upon which the editorial comments, as originally written and debated, contains the word "saw" material — not "raw" material, as printed, in the Journal. The typographical error occurs both on page 192 and again at the top of page 222. This typographical error, how- ever, does not afifect the validity of our argument. S11.V1CULTURAL Problems Several contributions in the recent issues on silvicultural problems exhibit strikingly the modern method of approaching their solution by painstaking detail statistical inquiry. When 150 years ago Oettelt proved the thesis that "mathematics could be made useful to foresters," he probably hardly realized that this truth extended even to silviculture. Wholesale observation and judgment were then the guides of the silviculturist, just as in medicine and all other art and business that had to do with nature, and although exact research has advanced these arts, no doubt, general observation and judgment must still form a large share of the equipment of the practitioner. While we welcome the precise methods of the plant ecolo- gist, which seek to establish the sure basis for the practice of silvi- culture, we must caution him against the danger of omitting the ob- servation of factors in the problems which are historical and hence W^ithdrawn from his direct observation and of premature deductions. There are, for instance, two such factors in natural regeneration which may explain the result or tw^o unlike results under otherwise precisely similar conditicms. The one is the occurrence or non-occurrence of a seed year ; the other is the weather at the time of germination and for the first two or three years. Especially the latter factor, varying from one locality to another, and, moreover, varying in its importance, is difficult to give proper values for co-ordination. This explains, also, the observation of Dr. 336 EDITORIAL COMMENT 337 Howe, that foresters — and physicians do the same — differ as to best methods for given cases and are opinionated about it. The writer belongs to the same guild of opinionated silviculturists when it comes to a proposition of treating the hardwood-conifer type ■of the Adirondacks, and does not need the exact proof that if in a mixed herd of cows and pigs you slaughter only cows, pigs remain. It ■only needs common sense to see that tlie competition of the hardwoods must curtail the chances for the conifers. The writer has seen no reason for changing the language he used in 1903 : "There is one fact on the silvicultural side which the experiment has demon- strated to the satisfaction of the writer, namely, that in the hardwood forest of the Adirondacks, where the pine and spruce have been severely culled, the only practicable method, both from financial and silvicultural points of view of secur- ing a desirable new crop, is a clear cutting system, followed by artificial regen- •eration of the conifers, leaving only enough of the hardwoods to produce an ad- mixture by natural regeneration, and saving only so much of the promising volun- teer growth of young hardwoods and conifers as is not liable to be thrown by the winds." This was said in challenge of the propositions detailed in "Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks," which has proved such a bad prognos- ticator, although it had its value as an educator. Timber's Horn of Plenty Under the above caption, a writer in the Hardzvood Record tries to •discredit the idea of shortages in timber supplies, charging to bad guess- ing the continuance of certain supplies that had been predicted as soon to give out, black walnut and white pine in particular. He fails to mention that to find the necessary amount of walnut for gunstocks a ■close hunt in fence corners and ornamental grounds was necessary, and that at the same time substitutes were assiduously sought for and used. He fails to mention that the cut of white jjine has dwindled from over '8 billion feet to less than 3 billion and the price for the best grades has more than quadrupled in a short time — a sure sign of the exhaustion of supplies ; and we could explain why the whole white-pine business has not yet gone entirely out of existence, and that the guessers were not so wrong after all ! The writer also says it was a surprise to find in France and England timber supplies enough to keep the Canadian and American forestry battalions busy. There was, of course, nothing surprising or unknown to the French ■regarding their timber resources, and a country which imports annually 338 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY from 30 to 40 million dollars' worth of lumber is not likely to be over- stocked with timber. As a matter of fact, of the 23 million acres of forest in France only 25 per cent is what is called timber forest; the- rest is coppice, good for fuel and small dimension, though about one- half of this contains also dimension timber (standards). Now, the bulk of the timber forest is in government hands, and the government practices a "sustained-yield" management. The cautious French, in. addition to having all the age classes needed for such a management, are conservative and leave 25 per cent of what they would be entitled' to cut vmder this management as a reserve against an evil day, such as fires, insects, windfalls, or perhaps war may bring. It is this reserve that has fallen under American and Canadian axes, and, in addition, the older age classes below the 100 or 120 years, perhaps down to 80 or even 60 years, which can be made useful. In a special case, in which the mill was run by one of our professors in the forestry battalions, he ascertained that they were anticipating the cut of 20 years, and, more- over, most of the cut was fuel wood. The sustained-yield management is badly crippled in all French forests by these anticipated harvests.. The expectation of the writer that home supplies will suffice for recon- struction purposes is probably a futile guess. A writer in the Revue dcs Bans ct Forets (1918, p. 244) discusses what has become of the pineries of France, which are mostly the result of planting up waste lands (some 2 million acres) in the following language : "The irreparable damage caused (by the clear cutting) in our pineries has ruined for a long time the effort and work of two or three generations, and in any case has created a disquieting situation for the future. . . . The realiz- able, accessible timber has been cut. The requirements still necessary to satisfy will take the younger stands which have not yet fulfilled their role." Future of Cut-over Pulpwood Lands in Quebec During the summer of 1918 Dr. C. D. Howe, for the Canadian Com- mission of Conservation and in co-operation with the Riordon Pulp' and Paper Company, began an investigation into the conditions of some of their cut-over limits. On some 130 acres of sample areas in five forest types, lightly, moderately, and severely culled of spruce and balsam, careful count of the remaining smaller growth of these species was made and tabulated in three diameter classes, namely, 12 inch and over, 8 to II inch, and 4 to 7 inch. The legal diameter limit being 12 inch, the next cut would come from the 8-inch trees in 30 years, ac- cording to the ascertained growth rate. EDITORIAL COMMENT 339 While this investigation is to be continued, it is already possible to foreshadow conclusions. "It is a common belief among lumbermen that the logs they get on cut-over lands come from the trees which were too small to take at the previous cutting; that they can go back to an area every lo or 15 years and get a profitable cut from what has accumulated by growth during the interval. These growth studies indicate that this is a mistaken opinion, since in the mixed forest it requires about 60 years for a spruce tree 4 inches in diameter to reach a diameter of 12 inches, the legal sawlog size. In addition to this, the tables conclusively show that with each cut the lumberman takes an increasingly large proportion of the smaller spruce trees. During the past five years a large percentage of the cut, so far as the number of trees is concerned, has been below the legal diameter limit for spruce. The tables also show that with each cutting a larger proportion of balsam was taken."' A Policy that Pays In these troublous times of industrial uncertainty and labor turnover, it is refreshing to find among lumber operators those who are able to maintain their forces through social service. The Nippon Lumber Company, adjacent to the Snoqualmie Forest, is the latest of these to come to our attention. Hampered as they are by the fact that there is no possibility of a permanent community being developed and of the men establishing permanent homes because of the elevation and cli- matic conditions, the company is making the most of its opportunities. As many married men with families as possible are employed, and a general policy of paying wages slightly higher than the average attracts and holds the best labor available. This has resulted in building up a force of nearly permanent employees, with an exceedingly small turn- over. An annual dinner and dance are given by the company every winter, and an attractive annual booklet is published, which is well illustrated and gives a calendar of the events in the community, work and activities of the various clubs and organizations which are encour- aged by the company, the organization of the force of employees, the pupils in the school, and other similar interesting features. That this work is a decided success is attested by the fact that it is now in its ninth year. The company has adopted as its creed : "We believe that under a free and full competition every worker of every degree will receive all that he produces, and we believe that he should receive the full amount of that production without deduction and without division." 340 journal 01' forestry Western Australian Forestry Western Australia has entered the forestry world with most radical legislation as a result of a short period of propaganda by a committee and the conservator, Lane Poole. The striking features of the legis- lation are the removal of the forest branch to the Department of Mines from the Department of Lands, the former being supposed to act more disinterestedly in questions of land matters. The Conservator of Forests is placed in office for seven years, re- movable only by a vote of both the lower and upper chambers of the legislature. He is given all powers of a commissioner over all West Australia forests, now estimated at 3,000,000 acres, of which 1.300,000 acres have been cut over and 1.500,000 acres are under lease. The conservator is furnished with a definite source of revenue, with- out the necessity of each year going before the legislature, in that one- half the forest revenue is each year set aside for forest work under his direction. This will amount to about $135,000 annually, as com- pared with about $60,000 expended in 19 14- 15. As the program de- velops, it is anticipated that additional funds will be provided. The setting aside of forest reservations by the conservator and elabo- ration of working plans are to have force of law for ten years and the conservator is empowered to organize his own department. A plant- ing campaign on the waste lands is also provided. Further details may be found in the Canadian Forestry Journal, February, 1919. The report of the forestry subcommittee of the Reconstruction Com- mittee, contained in that of the Development Commissioners of Great Britain for the year ended IMarch 31, 1918, has been issued. The com- missioners had set forth the advantages of leasing and proceeds-shar- ing in their scheme of reforestation as compared with a system of land purchase, and these methods have been approved by the reconstruction subcommittee, with a view to reducing expenditures necessary in case of acquiring land by purchase. The extensive felling of forests during the war has emphasized the national importance of home-grown timber supplies, and the commissioners urge the importance of the immediate preparation of afforestation schemes. They recommended grants for extension of State forest nurseries, for preliminary arrangements for leasing and other proposals for afforestation of privately owned land, for survey work, and for salaries of forestry officers for advisory sur- vey and research work. Carrying out the suggestion that they con- sider the suitabiHty of the areas for schemes of economic forestry and submit definite proposals for areas for which the department is pre- ED I TORI AL CO .M M K XT oil pared to frame and carr}' out schemes, the department states that about 10,000 acres have been cleared during the last four years on private estates and on the department's forest lands, and that 750,000 seedlings (a bagatelle!) are in hand, in addition to the product of the sowings in the season 1918. In case there should be a deficiency when planting operations on a large scale will become operative, attention is being given to the provision of nursery stock. It is estimated that 40,000,000 seedlings were produced by the close of 1917, and about one-third of the total growing stock is available for the afiforestation of some 5,000 or 6,000 acres. Application has been made for a grant to aid in cost and maintenance of a proposed school of forestry in central Scotland. The commissioners, though sympathetic with the proposal, were not prepared to recommend the advance under existing circumstances. The commissioners were informed that the Secretary for Scotland, looking in particular to the felling of Scottish forests during the war, was satisfied that Scotland was ripe for definite afiforestation schemes. NOTES A Handy Relation American foresters in France were, of course, much interested in French stumpage vahies. So many francs per cubic meter for the stand- ing trees meant nothing to us ; we wanted to know in the units of vol- ume and value that we were used to, so that we might compare French with American timber values. Many pencils were sharpened to make the translation, and the differing results sometimes brought on warm disputes. The writer, like many others, no doubt, finally found an easy rule of thumb to simplify the difficulty. One cubic meter of round material, of the sizes which ordinarily occur in trees from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, contains approximately one-fifth of 1,000 feet board measure log scale. One franc has a value of approximately one-fifth of one dollar. Hence stumpage valued at 20 francs per cubic meter is worth approximately $20 per 1,000 feet board measure. Southwestern Supervisors Hold Conference How to obtain an accurate inventory of the timber of the South- western National Forests, to determine the extent of past cuttings, to secure growth and yield figures ; in short, to lay a better foundation for scientific management of the forests, was one of the chief topics of discussion at a meeting of 15 supervisors and the district officers of the x\rizona and New Mexico Forests, held in Albuquerque, New Mex- ico, during the week beginning February 10. A workable scheme for an extensive program of silvicultiiral management was presented and approved. Many other problems of forest administration, particularly those dealing with publicity, land classification, education, game, fire protection, and grazing, were debated. The timber-sale business in the Southwestern district is large. In the fiscal year 1918, 121 million feet were cut under sale contracts, having a value of $273,500. At this meeting was displayed a device for more accurately deter- mining the. location of forest fires, invented by W. H. Gill, of the Albu- querque office of the Forest Service. The device, called a cameragraph, is a proposed substitute for panoramic maps which have been exten- .342 NOTES 343 sively us.ed in both eastern and western forests, especially in connection with the Osborne "fire-finder" in the northwestern forests. Canadian and American Forestry Battalions From an interesting account of the forestry work of the Canadian and American forestry battalions overseas by Major Barrington Moore, second in command of the United States Forestry Corps, before the Canadian Forestry Association, we quote in full the following account of the operations: The organization of the American forestrj' section was patterned largely after that of the Canadian Forestry Corps. When Colonel Graves and I landed in France, in June, 1917, we went first of all to the British Forestry Directorate at La Touquet. General Lord Lovatt received us with the greatest friendliness and gave us complete data, which he had prepared in advance, covering his entire organization and equipment. Then, after a trip to the Canadian operations under Colonel Johnson on the Government forest of La Joux, in eastern France, and after working over the information collected, we drew up a cable, outlining the organization of the forestry troops required by the A. E. F. We based our re- quirements on an army of two million men, and asked for 18,000 forestry troops, of which 7,500 were to be skilled lumbermen, about 4,500 engineer troops for road and camp construction, and about 6,000 unskilled labor. At the same time we requested 12 officers to come over at once for our overhead organization. These officers we asked for by name. They arrived in about tw'o months, in time to be of great service in acquiring standing timber and other preparatory work. The unit of the Canadian Forestry Corps is the company. We made ours the battalion, on account of our army regulations. It was hard at first to make our superiors see the need for elasticity. Forestry troops were an entirely new ven- ture. The number of men in the actual operations depended entirely upon the needs of the case. Sometimes only 50 men would work together, and then again we would have a thousand or more. The standing timber was all bought through an interallied committee com- posed of French, British, and Americans ; later the Belgians were represented. We ourselves selected each forest, in company with a French officer, and then laid it before the committee. The negotiations with the owner and purchaser were done by the French. The French possessed the right of requisition, and used it efifectively, saving millions of dollars and defeating the swarms of specu- lators which buzzed around us like flies around the honey, pot. By persistent efforts we managed to acquire timber enough to keep ahead of the operations. But toward the end it was becoming more and more difficult to find reasonably accessible tracts. Accessibility was of prime importance in selecting timber, be- cause of the need for rapid production. If the war had lasted we would have been in a difficult position. When it ended, we were planning to do railroad logging in the mountains. Logging conditions varied greatly. The southwestern pineries are as level as a table, except for the dunes along the edge, and resemble our southern long- leaf pine country. Central France is level or rolling, the chief obstacle being 344 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the hcav}-, sticky clay. Here the forests were mostly oak, which we cut into ties, wharf timbers, and road plank. The silver-fir forests of eastern France were in the mountains. Our chief trouble there was the narrow-gauge railroads, which never had enough cars or engines. The same kind of narrow-gauge railroads bothered us in other regions as well. When we consider that the modern army is helpless without wood, I think it is safe to say that the French forests were one of the big factors in winning the war. The Journal of Heredity for October, 1918. contains an account of oak hybrids raised by the horticulturist to the Texas Experiment Sta- tion from the overcup oak (0. lyraia) and the live oak (Q. virgiiiiana) , the latter being the mother. Both belong to the Lepidobalanus sub- divisions of the genus, though differing widely in a number of features. The hybrids were very uniform. In general habit the father, with its pyramidal form and straight shoots, was dominant. The leaves were intermediate in size, but resembled those of the father in being lobed. The form of the acorn, however, was very much like that of the live oak, though larger in size. The leaves of the hybrids commenced to fall in the winter, but many of them remained green until the spring. In this feature, therefore, the hybrids were intermediate. An interest- ing point is that hybrids like these have been found sometimes growing in the natural state, and were described recently by Professor Sargent under the name of Q. couiptoucc. They grow rapidly, the earliest raised having reached a height of 16 feet in 8 years from the time of sowing, with a diameter of 5 inches a foot from the ground. Owing to the density and luster of their foliage, they are superior to both of their parents as ornamental trees. The wood is very hard, close- grained, and tough. A supervisors' meeting was held in Missoula, Mont., from February 10 to 15. Twenty-four of the twenty-six supervisors in the district were present, as well as members of the district office. The object of the meeting was a careful study and analysis of organization and per- sonnel problems. The preponderance of opinion was that authority and responsibility should be placed close to the ground and tiie per- sonnel in the woods be both increased in number and strengthened in quality. "Forester" was the title thought to be most appropriate for the officer in charge of the basic field unit. If the Forest Service adopts the recommendations of the supervisors, a material reduction in the overhead organization will be possible. A banquet was enjoyed at the Florence Hotel on the evening of the i^th. Seventv-five were ]ires- NOTES 345 ent, including forest officers and friends and those employed in related activities. A new branch of the Canadian Forestry Association, to be known as the standardization committee, was authorized at the annual meet- ing at Montreal. The committee's work is primarily to endeavor to standardize fire laws and regulations, forms and reports, fire-warning posters, publicity literature, etc., tools, equipment and supplies, me- chanical equipment and accessories; also to seek, encourage, experi- ment with and develop new ideas, methods, and apparatus — all in con- nection and allied with the profession of forest-fire protection. Wher- ever standardization can be arrived at, it is suggested that one of the benefits protective organization can secure is a reduction in the cost of such items as posters, publicity literature, tools, mechanical apparatus and accessories by combining their orders for such items with those of other organizations. J. A. Larsen, in charge of the Priest River Experiment Station, has made some further contribution to the subject of the occurrence of tree seed in the duff. Thirteen samples of two square feet each were taken from an area bearing a heavy stand of white pine and species common to the type. The seed were sifted out from each sample of dufif and counted. Using the figures obtained, the number of apparently good seed to the acre is estimated as follows: White pine, 192,635; Douglas fir, 5,027; western larch, 88,807; western hemlock, 5,027; western cedar, 1,892,000; white fir, 62,842; Engelmann spruce, 1,676. The seeds taken from the samples of duft will be tested for germination to secure a basis for determining the seed per acre which are capable of growth. A fire conference was held in Spokane. Wash.. January 13, 14, and 15. Thirty-nine were present, which number included members of the district and supervisors' offices, representatives from the Idaho pro- tective associations, and several visitors from neighboring districts. Fire plans were discussed with reference to the experiences of the past several seasons and needed revisions made in policy and procedure. Detection, suppression, co-operation, publicity, and revision of forms were among the subjects discussed. Through the assignment of major subjects to committees, which prepared reports and recommendations for the approval of the meeting at large, the entire ground was covered in a relatively short time. 346 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY The U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, at Madison, Wis., has devel- oped a method of making laminated gunstocks which would without reducing the strength permit the use of the small pieces of walnut not suitable for single-piece stocks. This would facilitate production and result in appreciable saving in costs and material. The application of laminated construction to many articles of trade is a development worthy of close study. Work is being done at the laboratory on the drying of willow for artificial limbs. While air-seasoning takes from^ three to five years, experiments seem to indicate that the drying can be done in kilns in from 60 to 70 days. A bill which provides for the acquiring of land by the Government through exchange with private owners holding land or timber within two miles of the present Lolo, Missoula, and Bitterroot National For- ests is now pending in Congress. Only such land as is chiefly valuable for forest purposes is considered for acquisition by the Government, and provision is made for the giving of agricultural land, timber, or certificates redeemable in timber, in exchange. Timber purchased on certificates is to be removed under the Forest Service timber-sale regulations. The Dominion parks of Canada, which are maintained as wild-life sanctuaries, include an area of 7,927 square miles, or more than 5,000,- 000 acres, nearly equal to one-half the total area of Switzerland, almost as large as Belgium, and nearly 1,000 square miles greater than the area of Wales. Jasper Park alone, which includes 4,400 square miles, is larger than Montenegro and almost twice the size of Prince Edward Island, as shown by data furnished by the Dominion Parks Branch, Department of the Interior. The Governor of Idaho is favoring a reorganization which embodies a change in the method of administering the State forests. There is an opportunity for the formation of a strong and progressive administra- tive body which will co-operate to the best advantage with the several protective associations of the State and the Forest Service. The or- ganization of a non-political State forestry board and the appointment of a competent State forester are contemplated. New regulations issued by the Federal Horticultural Board of the United States Department of Agriculture governing the importation of plants, etc., into the United States, coming into force on June i next. NOTES 047 are of a most drastic nature, going so far as to exclude the importation of all nursery stock, with the exception of "certain bulbs, rose stocks, fruit stocks, cuttings, scions and buds, and seeds of nut. fruit, forest, and other ornamental shrubs," for which permits must first be obtained. When the president of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association at the meeting of the Canadian Forestry Association takes up the ex- travagant estimate of pulpwood to be found in the Proyince of Quebec, made in 1904 by Langelier, inspector of forest rangers, and by making proper allowances for loss and increased cut, comes to the conclusion that the province may not be able to supply the requirements for 25 years, the situation must be indeed alarming. Norway is to help France restore her forests in the devastated areas in the north, from Ardennes toward the Belgian frontier behind Arras. The plan is to plant 250 acres annually for five years, using mainly Norwegian forest trees, the work to be done by Norwegians, fully equipped with material, tools, stores, etc. The money to finance the scheme is now pouring into Consul Heiberg, at Christiania. A recent policy formulated by the district and Washington offices prohibits the grazing of stock on forest land classed as white-pine type. The ruling applies particularly to burns within the white-pine type where grazing tends to prevent or injure reproduction. Where the grazing of such areas is already being carried on, an adjustment period wall be allowed within which to remove the stock. With the return of a number of men from France, the timber-survey work which was discontinued in 19 17 in Montana and Idaho, it is hoped, will soon be resumed. Even with the return of all men now in the Army, the number of experienced men will be below normal, and it will be necessary to build practically a new organization, using stu- dents and available forest-assistant material. Supervisor R. P. McLaughlin is investigating the paper and pulp markets in the Middle Western States. This work is being done to determine the advisability of encouraging the location of paper and pulp plants in the vicinity of the extensive spruce stands of northwest- •ern Montana. 348 JOUKXAL Ol' I'URKSTRY The State Forester of Montana has proposed a revised fire law for the State which is receiving favorable consideration. One of the im- portant points of the proposed law is the provision for a permit system and closed season. The Bureau of Standards has published "A Metric Manual for Sol- diers;' the aim of which is to give to the soldiers a grasp of the metric system, which will enable them to think and work in metric units. No- tables of equivalents need be memorized. A number of tables and a vocabulary are given for reference. The units are described by actual examples likely to be encountered in military work. At the annual meeting of the Canadian Forestry Association, in Montreal, on January 29. J. S. Gillies, of Gillies Brothers, Braeside, Ontario, was elected president for the year 1919; Clyde Leavitt, vice- president; P. B. Wilson, of the Spanish River Pulp and Paper Mills, a. new director, and Hon. E. A. Smith, territorial vice-president for New Brunswick. Figures recorded at the customs department of Canada show that the exports of maple sugar and sirup increased in 19 18 over those of" 191 7 by 20 per cent and in value by 76 per cent. The Canada food board hopes that producers will make even a greater effort this year,. natural production of all kinds being the duty of the day. The forest region of Ontario, covering an area of over 100 million acres, subjected to the forest fires prevention act, is divided into 35 districts, each in charge of a chief ranger, each of whom, in 191 7, was assisted by 34 deputy chiefs, the maximum number during the season' being 1,039. At the annual meeting of the woodlands section of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association, at Montreal, on January 30, the following- officers were elected : Chairman, R. P. Kernan, Quebec ; Vice-Chair- man, M. P. Small, Grand Mere ; Councillors, R. F. Kenny, Bucking- ham ; A. J. Price, Quebec, and Ellwood Wilson, Grand Mere. Maple trees are to be planted on the graves of Canadian soldiers in France and Belgium. For this purpose seedlings have been raised at the Royal Botanic Gardens, London. England, from seeds sent over- seas bv the Dominion Horticulturist. Ottawa. NOTES 349 John S. Baird has re-entered the Service as a himberman and is now employed on the Kootenai National Forest. Mr. Baird resigned in 1910 and was employed by a lumber company in northern Missouri. The Laurentide and Riordon Paper Companies have co-operated in buying 1,500,000 spruce trees to plant this spring, in addition to those from their nurseries. Major D. T. Mason has resumed his former duties as Professor of Forestry at the University of California. Forest Engineer, Queensland Applications are called from candidates qualified to perform the duties of forest engineer to the forest service, Queensland, Australia. The duties of the position include logging, engineering, and the general work of extracting timber and forest produce by machinery from Crown forests. References as to char- acter, administrative ability, and technical qualifications are essential. A portrait print should be furnished. State salary required. Applications close June 30th next, and should be addressed to W. GORDON GRAHAM, Under Secretary Lands Department BRISBANE, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE WITH WHICH ARE FEDERATED St. MichaeFs, Trinity, and Victoria Colleges FACULTIES OF ARTS MEDICINE EDUCATION FORESTRY MUSIC APPLIED SCIENCE DEPARTMENTS OF HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE SOCIAL SERVICE For information, apply to the Registrar of the University or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. LIDGERWOOD PORTABLE SKIDDERS BRING AT (oWEST GROUND SYSTEMS OVERHEAD SYSTEMS LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO. 96 LIBERTY ST.. NEW YORK Cfticeigo Seatttle WoodwaLfd. Wight & Co., Ltd.. New Orleacns* - - - ^V V T V ▼▼TVTVTTVTTVVTTVVVWVTV^ A A A A A I tAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA'^'^-*^^-^-^ CONTENTS Page The Work Ahead 227 Frederick E. Olmsted. The Organization of Finance in Forest Industry . . . .236 Burt P. Kirkland. Review of Lumber Industry Affairs 245 p. S. Lovejoy. Forest Research and the War 260 Earle H. Clapp. Some Aspects of Silvical Research as an After-the-War Activity 273 Clyde Leavitt. Need for a Unified Forest Research Program 281 J. W. Tourney. Some Reflections upon Canadian Forestry Problems . . . 290 C. D. Howe. Preliminary Report of Some Forest Experiments in Penn- sylvania 297 J. S. Illick. Measuring Cordwood in Short Lengths 312 R. C. Hawley. Reviews 318 Periodical Literature 327 Editorial Comment 336 Notes 342 Vol. XVII APRIL, 1919 No. 4 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE SOQETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS COMBINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND THE FORESTRY QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS AT 930 F STREET N. W. WASHINGTON. D. C. Single Copies, 50 Cents Annual Subscription, $3.00 Entered as second-class matter at the post-ofiBce at Wastainsnon. D. C, under the act of March 3. 1879. Acceptance for mailine at special rate of postagre provided for in Section 1103. ■ Act of October 3. 1917. authorized November 20. 1918. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY A professional journal devoted to all branches of forestry EDITED BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS EDITORIAL BOARD B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief Raphael Zon, F. E., Managing Editor R. C. Bryant, F. E., A. B. Rbcknagel, M. F., Forest Utilization, Forest Mensuration and Organization^ Yale University Cornell University B. P. Kirkland, M. F., H. D. Tiemann, M. F., Forest Finance, Forest Technology, University of Washington Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Barrington Moore, M. F., J. W. Toumey, M. S., M. A., Forest Ecology, Silviculture, New York, N. Y. Yale University T. S- WooLSEY, Jr., M. F., Policy and Administration The Journal appears eight times a year — monthly with the excep- tion of June, July, August, and September. The pages of the Journal are open to members and non-members of the Society. Manuscripts intended for publication should be sent to Prof. B. E. Eernow, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any member of the Editorial Board. Missing numbers will be replaced without charge, provided claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to the Journal of Forestry, Atlantic Building, 930 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Vol. XVII APRIL, 1919 No. 4 A NATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY^ Uipiuutv By Henry S. Graves BOTAMtt Chief Forester, U. S. Forest Service ftAtf#K The policies of the Government and the States during the next few years in matters relating to forests and lumber will be of far-reaching importance. Conditions created by the war present certain problems of urgent interest to the lumber industry that will require definite ac- tion by the Federal Government. Among them are problems of railway transportation, exports, ship-tonnage, taxation, labor relation- ships, and special questions relating to the orderly transition to peace- time conditions. There are other conditions and situations, however, which both from the standpoint of the lumber industry and of the general public welfare demand constructive action. VITAL INDUSTRIAL AND PUBLIC INTERESTS INVOLVED The fundamental economic situation that has heretofore kept the lumber industry in a state of unstable equilibrium still exists. Labor problems, in considerable part due to the unsound industrial situation, loom up with no permanent adjustment in sight. The dissipation of our forests goes on with no let-up, and still for the most part without any provision for the continuance of the forests after lumbering. Exhaustion of local forest supplies, the closing of industries depend- ent on them, the embarrassment for supplies of the pulp mills and other consumers using special classes of forest products, the generally mounting prices to consumers, are other factors which are calling sharp attention to the efifect of forest destruction, and are causing in- creasing public uneasiness. Lumbermen are giving thoughtful study to the needs of the indus- try; and they recognize that many things of a helpful and constructive ' An address delivered before the American Lumber Congress. April i6, 1919, at Chicago. 111. 352 JOURNAIv OF FORESTRY character can be done within the industry itself, in the way of cost accounting, adaptation of manufacture to the needs of the trade, sci- entific merchandizing, economies in manufacture, conservatism in finance, diffusion of information about production, markets, price movements, existing stocks and shipments, and so on. I judge that progressive steps are very generally under way in such matters, and that lumbermen are going as far as they can to improve the internal situation. There are other things that can be accom- plished through co-operation with existing public agencies, as in eco- nomic, industrial, and technical research, and in demonstration of technical methods. I believe that a great many valuable things for the lumber industry can thus be brought about. But neither the lumber industry nor the public can ignore the fact that the great fundamental problems, which not only involve the per- manence and stability of the interests dependent on our forests, but also gravely affect the national welfare, are not being solved. These problems fall into four general groups : those relating to the causes of over-production, those that concern the supply, character, well-being, and stability of labor, the problem of the continuance of private for- ests and of stumpage supply, and certain questions relating to our public forests. THE LUMBER INDUSTRY STIEE UNSTABLE We must frankly recognize the fact that the elements that caused the unstable condition of the lumber industry prior to the war still remain, and constitute a danger for the future. To recall the situation at that time and the principal cause of trouble would be only to re- peat the oft-told story of the speculative character of ownership of timberlands, the pressure to liquidate, the difficulties of financing stumpage, the excess mill capacity, the unorganized character of the industry, and various like matters ; all contributing to cause prema- ture cutting and over-production, with its depression, losses, failures, interrupted operation, intermittent employment, and other ills. We may be able to point out certain elements of strength that may tend to steady the industry for a time, but we still have a great factor of un- certainty in the existence of large bodies of timber which their owners are seeking every opportunity to place on the market, and in many cases will be forced even at a loss to manufacture, because of financial pressure. Whenever markets improve there is the inevitable tendency to increase production to utilize surplus mill capacity, and there are A NATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY 353 always interests ready to inaugurate new mill enterprises when im- proved transportation or other factors seem to offer a favorable chance for an undertaking. These are essentially the conditions that make for a periodic over- flow of production and create unstable conditions. Some persons may be so favorably situated in the matter of high-grade products, low-cost production, or other factors, that they can meet even the extraordinary fluctuations of industrial conditions. But for the industry as a whole there exists an element of uncertainty because of the urgent pressure of stumpage for production. I do not see how there can be a per- manent basis of conservatism, stability, and industrial strength so long as this condition exists. The public is concerned because of the injury and loss that accom- panies demoralized industrial conditions, and because under such con- ditions there is increased waste in lumbering, protection from fire is less efficient, and the difficulties in the way of forest replacement are intensified. Failures that occur at such times often result in a transfer of lands, thereby increasing the tendency to centralization that may operate disadvantageously to the public in the long run. THE LABOR PROBLEM Of far-reaching importance both to the industry and to the public is the problem of labor. It is the problem that is most insistently press- ing, and perhaps in some aspects the most perplexing of any before the industry. Some features are peculiar to the lumber industry, and the ultimate solution will doubtless require a program especially adapted to the conditions of the forests and the sawmills. Temporary adjustments will doubtless be found, but a final solution will come, I believe, only with the placing of the lumber industr}i on a basis of stability and permanence. THE PROBLEM OF WANING TIMBER SUPPLIES Any serious consideration of the conditions requisite to a sound lum- ber industry brings us face to face with the question of raw materials, the husbanding and careful use of existing supplies, and the renewal of our forests after lumbering. We have been lulled into a feeling of security in recent years because we have an estimated total quan- tity of standing timber in excess of twenty-five hundred billion feet. The very situation to which I have referred, of industrial instability due to the pressure of large quantities of stumpage for production. 354 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY adds to the impression that we have so much timber in reserve that we do not need to concern ourselves about supplies of forest materials. Not only the public, but many economists, have been misled by statistics showing the aggregate of timber still standing in the country. Forest depletion is injurious long before the last tree is cut, and long before all but the last center of production is exhausted. Often- times our minds are centered on total production and general markets, overlooking the relation of the forest and its industries to the life of the regions and the communities in which they are located. When local resources are so depleted that industries close, the question of vanishing supplies takes on a new significance. And that is exactly what is happening in hundreds of communities. The forest supplies are used up ; the chief industry, a sawmill, a box factory, or a wood- working establishment closes. Subsidiary industries dependent on the primary undertaking have to close also. And what is more, the land formerly producing the timber, if non-agricultural, is left in an un- productive condition and a burden for many years on the community. Many important wood-using industries are already embarrassed for supplies. Especially acute is the situation faced by the manufacturers of news-print paper in the Northeast, in the Lake States, and else- where. Enormous investments have been made in permanent mills, water power, and equipment. The local sources of supply of pulp wood are becoming rapidly exhausted. Because of this situation and because of the difficulties in obtaining raw materials from Canada we have seen the new construction of mills taking place only in Canada, largely with American capital. Other industries using special wood products are equally embar- rassed. Some are able to secure materials from a distance ; others have to cJose and move to new sources of supply. Because there is still an abundance of timber in the far West, the East and central West cannot complacently see the basis of their own industrial prosperity destroyed. In short, we have in many localities a very real problem of shortage of forest supplies, and very real con- sequences of forest depletion. FOREST RENEWAL NOT PROVIDED FOR The problem of supplies does not merely concern the amount and character of timber now standing. It concerns as well the production of new crops of timber by growth. I would have little concern about the amount of timber used if we were growing new stands in place of A NATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY 355 the old. We have enough non-agricultural land to produce for all time lumber in abundance, for ourselves and for export. But this would require keeping our forests in a productive state after lumbering. We are not doing that. Our forests are steadily deteriorating under cut- ting and fire. No effort is made for replacement after cutting. Fire protection is confined to old timber. Young growth and cut-over lands are not being protected. Accidental stands following cutting and fire are generally poor in quality and species, and of low prospective yield. We are still drawing for the most part on original sources of supply. Failing to replace these, we are steadily losing ground. We are actu- ally using up our forests, just as we would use up a deposit of coal, when we might have been renewing them. The question of forest renewal and growth is one that can no longer be ignored. It is not only of interest to the public, but it is of vital concern to the owners of timberlands. It may be said that reserves of timber ought to be held by the public, rather than by private owners. A good many assert that the growing of timber is wholly a public function : that as most timberland owners have bought their property to exploit their timber, not to grow trees, forestry and forest growth are not matters of private concern. But the fact remains that the bulk of the timber of the country is privately owned, three-fourths of it. It is an important fact, also, that the bulk of the land that must grow the timber of the future is privately owned. The transfer of the great bodies of timber from public to private hands was a grave mistake of public policy. It is not possible to con- ceive of a method better calculated to bring about a rapid dissipation of our forests than was actually used by the Government in disposing of its timberlands ; nor could a surer method have been devised to bring about a condition of industrial uncertainty. The lands were parcelled out as fast as possible in small lots and under conditions that inevitably encouraged speculation. It was only a question of time that every owner should undertake to dispose of his land or timber to realize on his speculation. We now see that a different method of administering the public forests should have been adopted. But the action was taken and we cannot undo it, nor can we ignore the prob- lems that are resulting from it. The custody of the bulk of our forest resources was intrusted to private owners. The burden of carrying the timber and properly caring for it was transferred from the public to private hands. Whether they like it or not, the private owners hav.^ the problem of the right handling of a large part of our forests actu- allv on their hands. 356 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY AN IMPOSSIBLE SITUATION On the other hand, the public has a very essential interest in the question of keeping the lands in a producing condition so as to render a maximum of service, in supporting industries and local communities, and in serving to support through tax levies public enterprises of vari- ous kinds. Even though the public has surrendered its direct owner- ship of the timberlands, it cannot afford to permit them to be handled in a way to be injurious to the welfare of the community. The various benefits required of forests, from their products, support of industry, etc., can be obtained only in part from the existing public forests. They are not extensive enough or widely enough distributed to meet more than a part of the public needs. We must continue to rely in considerable part on private lands, both for present supplies and for growing timber for the future. We have then a perplexing dilemma. On the one hand the public is deeply concerned that the private forests be handled in a way to pro- vide for forest renewal and growth. We have on the other hand the timber owners struggling under a responsibility that has never been fully sensed or accepted. The result is that while considerations of public interests demand that something be done, nothing substantial is actually being accomplished. It appears to me that the situation is an impossible one, that cannot long continue. Both the industry and the public have a definite decision to make. As I see it, either private owners must assume the full responsibility of properly caring for their timberlands, including protection and forest renewal ; or the public must take over the responsibility that it once had and surrendered ; or. the public must share with the owners both the responsibility and the burden of securing the objectives that are essential to safeguard the public welfare. IMy own view is that the last is the only fair and practical method from the standpoint of all concerned. PROBLEMS RELATING TO PUBLIC FORESTS But there is a fourth group of problems. Not all of the forest lands passed into private hands. When the policy of deeding away the public timberlands was at last found to be an unsafe one for the Nation, it was changed and the bulk of the remaining public timber- lands were withdrawn from private appropriation and segregated as National Forests. In this way about 155 million acres, nearly all in the western mountains, were reserved. For these public timberlands the public is doing what should also be done for the timberlands that A NATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY 357 passed to private owners. The public forests are being protected from fire, the timber is used as it is called for by economic conditions, and the cutting is conducted by such methods as leave the land in favor- able condition for the next crop of timber. There are definite policies of handling our National Forests and their resources. There is, however, no public or national policy that takes into consideration all the forests of the country and correlates their problems and development. This is true also of the regions m which the public forests are located. The manner in which the pubUc timber is handled may vitally affect the lumber industry. The problems of the lumber industry may affect the interests of the Government in the administration of its own forests. There remains yet to determine what shall become of the cut-over non-agricultural lands, to what ex- tent these shall be taken over by the public, especially those on critical water-sheds and on steep slopes. There are various other questions relating to public forests, their extension and use, that require to be considered in connection with any program that looks to the whole forest situation of the country. A BROAD PROGRAM NEEDED The problems which I have set forth touch many interests, both public and private. Their solution involves Federal and State legislation, and also involves co-operation between public agencies and the lumber industry. The different problems are closely interrelated one with another. jMoreover, action in one section of the country concerns the interests of other regions. These circumstances make it clear that for a final solution there must be a far-reaching program that will enable the Federal Government, the States, communities, and the industrial forces to unite in a common effort. Such a program should be comprehensive enough actually to accom- plish the objectives sought by the public and essential to the perma- nent wellbeing of the industry. Many efforts have been made to find a solution for some industrial features or some public features of the forest and lumber problems, and have failed because they left out of account some outstanding question that must be solved at the same time. Let me illustrate : REMEDIES HITHERTO PROPOSED INADEQUATE It has been suggested that the problem of periodic over-production could be met by modifying the Sherman Act in a way to permit agree- 358 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY ments to curtail production when justified by industrial conditions. You will recall that this was proposed when the Clayton Act was under discussion; and in 1916 the proposal! was put forward very specifically in a referendum from the U. S. Chamber of Commerce. It is out of place here to discuss in detail this proposal. There are, however, two defects that are pertinent to the present discussion. This suggestion was offered to the country as a conservation measure. You will recall the language of the referendum, that "There should be remedial legislation to permit co-operative agreements under Federal supervision in those industries which involve primary natural re- sources, on condition that the agreements in fact tend to conserve the resources, to lessen accidents, and to promote the public interest." The report of the Chamber indicates that the question of handling the forests — that is, forest protection and forest production — is not a part of the plan. This means that the only conservation, so far as lumber is concerned, would be the saving of a measure of waste made possible through the more stable and advantageous trade con- ditions. The vital object of the public to secure a continuance of the forests is wholly left out of account. A second serious defect is that it would not, in my opinion, be really effective in bringing about a condition of permanent stability. The forces that tend to throw an excess of lumber on the market are too strong. Lumbermen often say themselves that a lumber combina- tion could not really exist because sooner or later some one would be unable to stand the pressure, and the usual break of market would occur. This is doubtless true, and applies also to such an arrangement as that contemplated in the proposed change of the Sherman Act. In short, the proposal does not reach the real source of the diffi- culty and would not be of permanent benefit to the industry, aside from its failure to safeguard various general public interests. A second suggestion that has been made is that the public co-operate in the conservative financing of timber holdings through long-term loans at low rates of interest. Some have suggested a system of forest loans backed by the public credit, similar to the loans made to farmers under the Farm Loan Act. The theory is that the financial strength- ening of the stumpage holdings would act automatically to cause cur- tailment when the market is overloaded and prices are likely to fall. This proposal points directly to the greatest weakness of the industrial situation, but, like the previous plan, it is a half-way measure. It does not make any provision for the permanence of the forest. A XATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY 359 Still again, tax reform has been urged for a decade or more. On the ground that the present system tends to force premature cutting, it is proposed that there should be an annual land tax and a tax on the product when it is cut. The present tax system without question op- erates to discourage the holding of land for growing timber. But there are other forces much stronger that are causing premature cut- ting and that are preventing the owners from caring for the cut-over lands. Taken alone, tax reforms will not achieve either result. I can further illustrate the failure of half-way measures by reference to various proposals which have also been made regarding the protec- tion and reproduction of the forest. ]\Iost of these concern fire pro- tection, and largely leave out of account the question of forest replace- ment. Specific proposals, however, have been made to place legal restrictions on methods of operation in the woods. In a number of States such proposals have been widely discussed, bills have been offered in the legislatures, and there is behind them a very consider- able body of public sentiment. These have made little headway because for the most part they have not provided for meeting certain economic difficulties. Here again the industrial problems must be considered along with the proposals to secure forest renewal and growth. In approaching the question of a national lumber and forest pro- gram, involving perhaps some radical departures from the present principles of relations between the public and industry, we shall find, I believe, that the most important and fundamental questions relate to the speculative character of forest ownership. Such ownership means cutting as fast as possible and without reference to how the land is left after lumbering. What is needed is some strengthening influence that would make possible the husbanding of the resource and its con- servative use, as the public would use it if it had retained control over it, and at the same time provide for the continued productiveness of the land. If the public had retained title to forest lands, it would have been able to dispose of timber as it is needed ; it could have secured orderly development and built up permanent enterprises secure in a perpetual supply of raw material ; it would have been able readily to organize protection and to secure forest replacement. The public cannot recover the position it surrendered, yet it may be possible to bring about in a measure the objectives we have been discussing. 360 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY WHAT AN ADEQUATE PROGRAM SHOULD INCLUDE No single measure or action will meet all features of a lumber and forest problem. Each region will have a group of problems. Each region will require special consideration because of the peculiar local conditions. The required measures for the different regions, corre- lated for the whole nation, is the thing to be sought in the making of a national program. I can at this juncture only indicate what I believe should be the general objectives and the spirit of approach, and point a way to secure some definite action. I am ready to advocate a policy more far-reaching in all respects than has generally been offered. I would afford whatever public assist- ance is needed to make possible the conservative handling of our forests, and I would then make fire protection, conservative production of lumber, and right methods of removal a matter of requirement, with such public direction and control as is necessary to realize the aims desired by the public. Just what this action should be may vary in different regions. It may be a combination of several methods of public co-operation. It is possible that the principle of conservative financing with public co-operation may be applicable under some conditions. I would not hesitate to concur in such a principle provided it is a part of a plan that includes the accomplishment of the various public objectives of a broad forestry and lumber program. Circumstances will require a correlation of production with the economic needs of the country as one feature of a large program that guarantees the continuance of the forest. It should be under a system that makes the public a definite party to the undertaking and in a position to safeguard by direct action the various public interests. Still again, in some localities the tariff, or local taxation, may play a large part in the industrial and forest situation. In such a case, I would meet these problems in the light of the needs of the permanent industrial life of the region, not of a group of industrial interests alone. The adjustment of international relations, the reform of taxes, or other public measures taken to aid industry, should be considered in connection with the question of constructive handling of the tim- berlands. Already a number of lumbermen of the Northeast have stated to me that they would support a program that would make good forest practice a requirement, provided the public co-operated in removing the real obstacles now existing, and also provided that the A NATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY 361 requirements which might be imposed were made applicable through- out the region without discrimination. It is possible that where public and private lands are intermingled and ecnomically interrelated, as in the West, a still more far-reaching principle may be desirable — one that would co-ordinate all forest lands within economic groups so that they can be developed in a way best to meet the needs of the country and the communities. It has already been found necessary to co-ordinate and handle jointly all forest lands, regardless of ownership, with respect to protection from forest fires. A joining of hands of the public with industry in carrying out and ad- ministering the great private resources of timber so as to prevent the present waste and uneconomic over-production and at the same time to insure forest renewal is a distinct possibility. Under such a plan there would be public control of such features as concern the public welfare, and the industry would handle its part under conditions that would permit full play of individual initiative and enterprise. At the present time the mixed character of ownership tends to prevent an orderly development that builds up and sustains communities. In all regions there is needed a broad policy of forest development, a policy which makes for permanent mills and all that means to the employment question, which places timber on the market only as it is needed, which protects the present resource — a difficult matter now, even under the most earnest efforts to co-operate — and which classi- fies the lands, encourages agriculture, puts to its best use every acre, and secures tree growth on non-agricultural lands. Is not such an outlook worth while for the public? And is it not likely that the country would support such a plan if it could assure itself that the public benefits would be secured? Certainly it could afford to give its financial credit and authority, provided its interests are safeguarded by adequate control placed in public hands. These are suggestions made to indicate the character of the co- operation the public might lend, and the sort of requirements it should exact. I have discussed a few of the principles, aims, and problems of a national policy. I 'have emphasized particular points because of their importance and because they are the ones most likely to cause difficulty. A national program should include many other features, such as Federal taxation, export problems, legislation and co-operation in fire protection, economic and technical research, etc. One of the important problems is that of extending the public forests. There are many areas in our mountains which are so important from 362 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the standpoint of protection of the slopes and of water resources that they should be owned by the public. Private owners cannot handle them properly, even under the most favorable conditions. There are also large areas of cut-over lands that would render their best service in public hands. Most of this land has been badly injured and is now carrying but little forest growth of potential value. The public should acquire large areas of such land and gradually restore it to productive use. In view of the situation regarding cut-over non-agricultural lands and the steps that must be taken to restore them, I am in favor of a greatly enlarged program of acquisition on the part of the Federal Government and the States. The Federal Government has been ac- quiring cut-over and culled lands in the Southern Appalachians and White Mountains at the. rate of about two million dollars per year since 191 1, and the plan has worked out most successfully. Some of the States, too, are engaged upon programs of acquisition. New York State, with already a holding of nearly two million acres, has voted bonds for $7,500,000 to be expended for this class of lands. Cities also should undertake the acquisition of forest lands, especially those tributary to their city watersheds. This policy should be pursued until large areas of cut-over land, second-growth forest, and protective forest have been restored to public ownership. These publicly owned forests should be well distributed through all the forest regions. As these areas are acquired they should be organized as municipal. State, or National Forests. EARLY ACTION URGENT We may discuss these questions in meetings and conferences, and accomplish little. We have the problems to solve, and we cannot con- tinue to ignore them. I regard the industrial problems as very urgent. Some action is inevitable in regard to the question of better forest protection, of forest renewal and growth after logging. Public demand for action is increasingly insistent. Now is the time, therefore, to bring about action in accordance with broad constructive plans, rather than by piecemeal legislation by different States, uncorrelated with each other and with action of the Federal Government. I have taken it upon myself to ask for co-operation in laying the groundwork for a national policy. I have already initiated a series of conferences with forest agencies of the States and with representa- tives of interested institutions and organizations. I hope that the A NATIONAL LUMBER AND FOREST POLICY 363 lumbermen will concur in the need of such a movement as I am pro- posing, and will join in the undertaking to work out a constructive program. Specifically, I hope that there may be some official delega- tion of authority to representatives of the different branches of the industry to work with the Forest Service and other agencies in pre- paring a basis for the solution of our forest and lumber problems. A PROGRAM OF FOREST CONSERVATION FOR THE SOUTH.i Bv J. G. Peters Chief of State Co-operation, U. S. Forest Service. The obstacles to the progress of forest conservation in the South are chiefly (i) the character of ownership of forest land, (2) the gen- eral lack of public sentiment for keeping this land productive, (3) the lack of funds in the State treasuries available for expenditure in forest conservation, and (4) the lack of co-operation in a broad way from the Federal Government. Enormous areas which could not possibly be developed in a con- servative, wise manner by the population available, were thrown open to the public as a result of the States and the Federal Government disposing of practically all of their lands in the South. Very naturally, economic conditions have made it impossible to develop or exploit any but the better lands ; the poorer are left for a later day. Develop- ment has been in a large measure superficial and temporary, so that there are now in the South vast areas of waste land. The Atlantic States portion of the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont are still, for the most part, divided up into rather large plantations. The owners are frequently land poor, but for traditional reasons are averse to parting with any of it. Stumpage only is sold and with little thought of a future crop. Still the timber is regarded as a part of the plantation ; the owner is a permanent resident, as a rule, living either on the plantation or in a nearby town, who has some interest, however small that may be, in the conservation of the resources of his com- munity. On the other hand, the timber of the Southern Appalachians and the Gulf States is held in fee, for the most part, by the lumbermen themselves, who in most instances are non-residents. These owners have little interest in the future of these regions and practically none in the continuity of the forests. With few exceptions, the lumbermen of the Gulf States estimate that present stands wmII run their mills for about 10 years. The policy of most of them when cut out will be either to sell out and get out or to wait for the home-seeker. ' Read before a meeting of the Washington Section of the Society of American Foresters, February 13, 1919. 364 A PROGRAM OF FOREST CONSERVATION 3G5 The general lack of public sentiment for improving the situation is not astonishing. The South is still the center of lumber production of the country. The effect of the decrease in the supply of timber has scarcely begun to be felt, nor will it be until the center of produc- tion shifts to the Pacific Coast, with an accompanying heavy increase in the price of the product. Furthermore, damage to the forest from fire is scarcely recognized by the southern timber owner. The southern forests, unlike the northern, are not, as a rule, destroyed by fire. But the burning up of young growth, deterioration of the soil, effects of erosion, and other losses, enormous in the aggregate, are not gen- erally given serious consideration. As for the actual practice of forestry, that, of course, amounts to almost nothing. When the question of expending funds for forest conservation is put up to the southern legislatures, they generally have several objec- tions to offer, particularly the lack of funds and the desire to pass the burden on to the land-owners themselves. Furthermore, the average southern legislator is an exceedingly practical politician, and many a worthy appropriation receives no attention because he can not have a say as to its disposition. The Southern States, though rich in nat- ural resources, are financially poor, because of lack of development of these resources and a consequent small amount of active capital available for taxation. In consequence, by reason of their inability or reluctance to provide funds they often feel that if forest conser- vation is put into eft'ect it should be paid for entirely by the owners concerned. There is often an utter lack of appreciation of the State's responsibility, of the large indirect benefits that would accrue to all of its people. The practical measure of the progress of forest conser- vation in the Southern States is shown by the present aggregate an- nual appropriation of so inadequate a sum as $60,000. Each State must decide whether it wants to grow enough timber constantly to meet its own demand or whether it will be content to go outside, to the Pacific Coast most probably, and pay in addition to the cost of the lumber a tax in the form of freight rate. More im- portant still is the question, shall the State allow large areas of waste land to remain idle and unproductive — shall the State allow its in- dustrial prosperity thus to be checked ? Until the effect of high lumber prices makes itself felt, little if any impression is going to be made on public sentiment in the South by statements as to the amount of timber now standing and the probable rate of decrease in the future ; as to what the lumber industry means to the South ; as to the damage from forest fires and erosion ; as to 366 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the area of waste land and the increase in its extent, and the like, unless such statements can be backed up by evidence based on fact. We are not in possession of the facts ; our statements are mere opinions. The only way we can obtain the facts is through survey and investigation. Funds to carry on such work on an extensive scale are urgently needed from both the States and the Federal Government. Until the State foresters of this region and the Federal foresters who have to do with it have something to show that can be relied on we shall continue to talk in glittering generalities, be considered as ideal- ists, and not get very far because we are not taken seriously. It is high time for us to begin to consider a question of such importance on a practical, businesslike basis, and make a strong, combined effort to secure the necessary funds for such survey and investigation from our State and Federal governments. All the available data in the possession of the several States and the Federal Government, of which there must be considerable, should be brought together, and with these as a foundation a plan of action should be outlined which would be placed before the legislatures and the Congress. As a means of furthering this aim, so far as the Southern States are concerned, I suggest the formation of a committee composed of the several State Foresters, a representative from each State having no State Forester to be selected by the Agricultural College of the State, a representa- tive from each lumber association, and three representatives from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, one each from the Forest Service, the Bureau of Soils, and the Bureau of Plant Industry ; the repre- sentative from the Forest Service to act as secretary of the commit- tee and its executive officer. But what is to be done in the meantime ? Although we do not have anything like the information we should, still we do know in a general way what the States and the Federal Government ought to do. This, it seems to me, should follow four lines: (i) Classification of lands, (2) Acquisition of cut-over and waste land, (3) Co-operation with private owners, and (4) Research. These are big public questions and involve large outlays of money. Therefore, they deserve very careful thought and consideration. The acquisition of land will eventually bring in a financial return ; the State forestry department will, in consequence, be self-supporting, and will become, as it should, one of the most important of all the various State departments. Other activities will not show a direct return, but their indirect benefits to the State's general welfare will be large and valuable. A PROGRAM Ol' FOREST COXSERXATION 367 Land classification is an essential to any extensive and well-rounded policy of forest conservation — acquisition, reforestation, protection, taxation, and other activities. It is absolutely necessary for a working basis. Furthermore, we are not going to convince Congress and the legislatures that it is beneficial to the Government and the States to spend large sums for acquiring land, unless we can classify it and demonstrate to them in a practical fashion that the land we propose to purchase is the best for the purpose and is necessary to be held by the public for the general welfare. The same might be said of refor- estation. Let me illustrate by an example. Recently at Concord, N. H., a conference of forest users and those interested in the devel- opment of forestry in that State was called for the special purpose of considering a reforestation policy. The feeling was pretty general that there was much waste land in the State, more particularly in the white-pine section, but just how much no one could say. On the other hand, the portable sawmill men felt that they could not keep up with the fast-growing young stuff. Therefore, a resolution was adopted requesting the legislature to provide a fund sufficient to enable the forestry commission to make a survey of the situation and to classify or determine the extent of the waste lands of the State so that the information could be used as a basis for a plan of reforestation. Fire protection, also, in some instances, will have to be worked out on a basis of land classification. Some areas we are going to have to burn, as for example, the longleaf pine lands where black-jack oak tends to come in heavily and keep out pine reproduc- tion and forage grasses. An equitable system of forest taxation will depend absolutely on a classification of the land. Of course a detailed classification of land is not practicable at present, but much neverthe- less can be done in the way of classifying forest growth and deter- mining especially the quantity of standing timber and the amount of young growth on which to base estimates of future timber supplies. Every one of the Southern States should have in time an extensive policy of forest land acquisition. Purchase would, of course, be confined to cut-over and waste lands. Obviously, on account of the enomous area of such lands and the limited funds available for the purpose, the beginning will be in a small way and progress will be slow. Some idea of the extent of the acquisition problem may be had from the estimate of the area of cut-over lands in Secretary Lane's report for 1918, which shows for the Southern States an aggregate of about 150.000,000 acres, or nearly 70 per cent of the estimate for the entire country. This figure might be the best guess that can be made, but it 368 JOURXAL OF FORESTRY is only a guess. As for the portion of this area which is waste land and should receive attention first no one knows its extent. It can be determined only through a classification. But even if it is as low as 5 or ID per cent, it will be seen that the outlay required, at $5 an acre, will be from 38 to 75 million dollars. Of course no such appropria- tion for this purpose is going to be seriously considered at present by Congress and the southern legislatures. The Federal Government, itself the largest purchaser, has expended in eight years in acquiring less than one and three-quarter million acres only $11,000,000. There- fore, it is clear that no considerable progress in forest land acquisition can be expected for some time to come. Along with the acquisition of lands, and co-ordinating with it, should go the co-operative work with private owners directed so as to offer substantial encouragement to the practice of forestry. The policy in co-operation should be distinctly to make the effort mutual. The first co-operative activity would, of course, be protection from fire. The method of organization will vary with conditions in the several States. Thus in the mountains of West Virginia and, to a limited extent in North Carolina, the private owners are organized into protective associations supported by a levy on the lands repre- sented. The State and the Federal Government co-operate with these associations and expend funds for the various protective needs. Virginia, in co-operation with the Government, directs its protective efforts primarily to the counties, and has met with really remarkable success in securing their active participation and financial aid. Ken- tucky, Texas, and Louisiana have, on account of very limited appro- priations, adopted an extensive plan which is almost exclusively edu- cational ; patrolmen, some paid by the State and some by the Govern- ment, are given large districts of from 500,000 to 1,000,000 acres each, and they endeavor through propaganda to impress upon the public the need for keeping fire out of the woods. In Louisiana re- cently a unique protective organization was formed of timber owners, farmers, and stockmen, having in view not only the protection of the forest, but especially of crops and forage. If Florida, at the coming legislative session, authorizes a protective system it will probably be based on local option ; the counties will be authorized to vote on whether or not they want protection from forest fires. These ex- amples will give some idea of how the work may be done, in fact in a number of cases is being done though in a very limited and inade- quate way. After protection will come reforestation. This should consider A PROGRAM OF FOREST CONSER\ATl()N 369 first the reclamation of waste lands. An excellent example of work of this character on a small scale is that done by Tennessee, where the forestry department co-operates with the owner to the extent of supplying the young trees at cost, supervising the planting, and keeping in touch with the work done through such inspections as might seem necessary. On the other hand, a State might merely supply the plant- ing stock, either at cost or without charge except that of transporta- tion. It would seem, however, that the best results may be looked for from a plan similar to that of Tennessee, by means of which the State would insure the success of the work by having its experts do it. Working plans for the management of forest lands would also be included in any policy of co-operation. These and other co-operative activities are going to require large expenditures if we are to get anywhere in forest conservation, bear- ing in mind that practically all of the forest land in the South is in private ownership. The question is to adopt the fairest and most practicable method of financing them. Until the growing of a forest crop becomes profitable it would seem that the private owner can- not be looked to to make the necessary expenditure to keep waste lands productive. Under present economic conditions it is difficult to see how else to secure the funds, in large part at least, than from public agencies such as the State, the county, the town, and the Federal Government. The private owner should, of course, be expected to share the cost. He should be enabled to obtain the money under easy terms through credit unions such as those recently organized in North Carolina, the Farm Loan Bank, and the like. It might be found necessary to enact legislation requiring him to con- tribute. A step in this direction has been made by Louisiana, which imposes a so-called severance tax on every thousand feet of timber cut in the State, which goes, in part, for the support of the forestry department. Special taxes of this character might be imposed from time to time, but it is probable that the State and the Federal Govern- ment will be the chief contributors for years to come. And why not? Both spend enormous sums keeping agricultural lands productive and securing improved methods of agriculture. Why not give forest lands and forestry relatively the same attention? Either some co-operative plan will have to be worked out or regu- lations will be imposed, if the waste lands are to be kept productive. Such regulations might include for the higher mountains, at the head- waters of important streams, the designation of certain areas as pro- 370 JOURNAI, OF FORESTRY tection forests where no cutting whatever would be permitted, and for the lower areas a system of cutting for continuous production to be prescribed by the State forestry department, an adequate system of protection from fire, the planting of certain areas, and such other requirements as might seem necessary. Forest taxation at present is not a problem in the South. Eventu- ally, however, the yield tax principle may be adopted, and if so, its application should be made obligatory, which would tend to prevent the shifting of taxes from the forest land to other property of the same owner. Last, but really of first importance, is research. I say last, because it is not necessary to hold up the activities mentioned above until the results of research may be known. On the other hand, without research we can only reach a certain stage beyond which we shall be groping in the dark. The South offers practically a virgin field. It would seem that the States and the Federal Government should con- duct the work on a co-operative basis, along some such lines as those suggested recently by Leavitt and Toumey. I agree with them that the Government should make a specific appropriation for forest research in co-operation with the States. In this brief paper I have endeavored to give some idea of forest conditions in the Southern States, the obstacles to be overcome, and the activities which should be undertaken. I have not attempted, for lack of space, to go into the details which would be involved in putting the program into effect, the various methods of co-operation, and the like. The point to be borne in mind is, that since the States and the Federal Government in the first instance made the mistake of dis- posing of their lands to such an extent as to make it absolutely im- possible for the small population of these States to develop adequately and use the land, and since as a result large areas are now lying un- productive, the States and the Federal Government have certainly some obligation in the matter, or at least until the owners can reason- ably be expected to handle the land properly, and should at once endeavor jointly, with the owners, to remedy the harm done. The thought I wish particularly to leave with you is the hope that some dav the Federal Government will recognize in a big way its obligation in helping to solve the forest problems of this region, as it is helping to solve the agricultural and road problems, by taking the lead and joining with the States and the private owners in a concerted effort to make and keep productive the enormous areas of waste land. TROPICAL RECONNAISSANCE WITH SPECIAL REFER- ENCE TO WORK IN THE PHILIPPINES AND BRITISH NORTH BORNEO By D. W. Matthews Conservator of Forests, British North Borneo Before any useful reconnaissance of any forest tract can be accom- plished it is, of course, necessary that the forester undertaking it be acquainted with at least the principal species of commercial importance. In temperate regions, where the important species are few in number and where most of these are fairly well known, no extensive prelim- inary work is necessary before the reconnaissance proper can be taken in hand. Tropical forests, on the other hand, present the diffi- culty of great complexity of species combined with little or no silvical data regarding any but the most important species, and practical recon- naissance work has necessarily had to wait upon a vast amount of preliminary work leading to the identification and description of genera and species. But even these difficulties cannot account for the astonishingly small amount of accurate data which has been col- lected as to the volume stand of timber per acre in the tropics. The study and management of tropical forests is not a new thing. Definitely planned work has been going on, especially in India, ever since the mid- dle of the last century, and vast amounts of data leading to the identification of genera and species and the habits of growth of the more important species have been collected, but the collection of any considerable amount of data as to volume stand per acre has lagged far behind this other work. The reasons for this seem to be chiefly the following: (i) The older tropical forest services have interested themselves chiefly with species of high commercial value and have especially studied only relatively small areas where these species form a fair percentage of the total stand ; and (2) Modern methods of logging, which call for heavy initial in- vestment and complete utilization, are only just being established in the tropics. The forest services of British India and the Netherlands East Indies have prepared working plans for special areas and as a basis for these plans have made detailed tree enumerations of the principal species 371 372 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY dealt with, but even for these special reserved areas no data are given as to total stand per acre. The Netherlands East Indies classify their forests as "teak forests" and "wild timber forests." and of the latter they say, in The Yearbook of the Netherlands East Indies for 1916: "The outlying possessions, by which is understood all the islands of the archipelago except Java and Madura, have a total area of 180,000,000 hectares (690,000 square miles). According to a rough estimate, 50 per cent of this area is covered with wild timber forests which, as in Java, are composed of numerous varieties of trees intermingled one with the other. * * * The ex- ploitation of the woods by private parties may only be done after a special forest concession has been obtained. Although a great number of requests for these concessions have been granted and private enterprise has increased considerably during recent years, very little importance must be attached to it. As long as a country maintains this attitude toward one of its largest assets, it is not probable that we can expect any great development of this asset by private enterprise. . In the Philippines, with the advent of modern systems of lumbering, we have had the first attempt to obtain accurate estimates as to the stand per acre in tropical forests. This is the logical outcome of ap- plying American systems of forestry and lumbering in the tropics. In the States we are accustomed to think of our forests in terms of so many thousands of board feet per acre, and when we came to deal with these new forests we at once started to gather data which would enable us to compare them with stands of timber with which we had previously been working. Furthermore, American systems of logging had developed along lines entirely different from those in use in other countries and the stand per acre bears a much closer relation to the cost of extraction in our systems of concentrated working than it does where the forest is worked by a system of small coupes dis- tributed over a large area. Before the American lumberman could be induced to invest his money in the development of these forests, these data as to stand per acre had to be acquired, and thus we have had the beginning of volume estimates for tropical forests. At first the work went forward very slowly. Administrative duties claimed a large portion of the time of the officers qualified to undertake the work and much preliminary data had to be acquired as to the extent and composition of a large and little-explored forest area. At first very little actual measurement of stand? was attempted. It was necessary to cover a large area and estimation was based on ocular examination and comparison with stands of known density at home. Unfortunately this tendency to report on as large areas as possible RECONNAISSANCE IN PHILIPPINES AND BORNEO 373 with the minimum of time and expense persisted even after the loca- tion of the most valuable and accessible tracts had been completed. Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, formerly Chief of the Division of Investigation, Bureau of Forestry, P. I., pointed this out in a report prepared during the latter part of 1916, In a summary at the end of his report he lists 26 detailed reconnaissance reports which were prepared by va- rious officers of the Bureau between 1901 and 1916. These reports deal with a total of 3,473,748 acres and the estimates of stand are based on only 5,203 acres of valuation survey, or approximately 0.15 per cent of the area reported on. In only six instances were estimates based on over I per cent of the area prepared. It is not my intention to decry the usefulness of these reports. They have served their purpose and served it well, as the expansion of the lumber industry of the Phil- ippines abundantly testifies. The data which appears in these reports and the knowledge of forest conditions which the writers acquired in their preparation have made possible the publication of the many valuable bulletins of the Philippine Bureau of Forestry which serve as the foundation for similar work elsewhere. They have also helped to make possible the general estimation of the timber resources of the tropics such as was given by Whitford in his article, "Tropical For- ests and the War," which appeared in the May, 1918, number of this Journal. But data such as the above must be considered as only the founda- tion for the acquisition of more detailed and accurate data. Whitford's estimate of 6,150 billions of board feet as the standing timber of the tropics is of great value from a broad economic standpoint. It shows us what we can eventually expect to draw from the tropics and conversely gives a lead toward the conservation of our home supplies. We have satisfied ourselves that the tropics contain vast supplies of merchantable timber, but this is only the beginning of the work. The utilization of this wealth is a vastly larger problem and it cannot be proceeded with until accurate data as to many accessible forest tracts are at hand. No investor can be induced to undertake the promotion of a lumber company in the tropics upon the mere assurance that the total stand runs into the thousands of bilHons of feet. His interest will be awakened, perhaps, but he will desire definite facts and figures and these data can only be obtained by intensive reconnaissance. The time for extensive hasty examination only is passed, and if the work which has already been done is to achieve its purpose we must proceed with more detailed and costly surveys. 374 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY The wide utilization of the less rare tropical timbers will be slow in coming, but a start has been made and both the Philippines and Borneo have been successful in placing their "ordinary timbers" on outside markets. British North Borneo has been exporting construction tim- bers as well as the rare hardwoods ever since 1881, and just prior to the war was achieving considerable success in placing the softer but well-colored woods on markets in the United Kingdom and Australia. In 1913 the Government of British North Borneo decided that their forest resource was an asset which merited attention, and early in 191 5 a definite program of forest exploration was inaugurated. By the end of that year the work had proceeded far enough to indicate that the timber supplies of the State were one of its principal assets, and in 1916 the Forestry Department was definitely organized as a permanent government institution and the work of exploring and classifying the timbered areas of the State and administering the de- velopment of the resource entrusted to it. North Borneo lies directly south of the Philippine Archipelago and at no great distance from the islands of Mindanao and Palawan. As is to be expected from its geographical location, the forest is very sim- ilar in character to that of the Philippines, and although some species, such as Billian (Busideroxylon zzvageri) and Borneo camphor (Dryo- balanops spp.), are found in abundance in Borneo, but only rarely or not at all in the Philippines, the bulk of the important species are closely related to or identical with those of the Philippines. This for- tunate circumstance has enabled reconnaissance work in Borneo to proceed with a rapidity and accuracy which would not have been possible had not the experience and data gathered in the Philippines been available as a basis to start from. As the work in Borneo has so recently started, the forest staff is small, consisting of two American foresters and three trained Philip- pine rangers. Provision has been made for the enlargement of the ■staff, but as yet it has been impossible to obtain the men. The area of the State of North Borneo is approximately 31,000 square miles and the total forested area is at present estimated to be 19,000,000 acres, -of which probably 13,000,000 acres carry commercial forest. With a forest area as vast as this to deal with, it was clearly impossible to aim at any accurate estimation or classification of the timbered area as a whole. It was therefore decided to run intensive surveys at points where the forest was accessible from harbors or navigable rivers, and where the timber seemed to be at least as good as the average. It was hoped that work such as this would lead immediately to the location RECONNAISSANCE IN PHILIPPINES AND BORNEO 375 of at least some areas carrying stands heavy enough to warrant de- velopment on a large scale. The detailed data thus acquired would then be of immediate use when such areas were opened up, and, al- though there were was the possibility of running unnecessarily detailed surveys in areas which would eventually turn out to carry too low a stand to make the area commercially valuable, this policy has been adequately justified by results. The v/ork has now been under way four years and, excluding explorations which have been of a prelim- inary character, fifteen detailed surveys have been completed. Of these, twelve have resulted in the location of commrecial stands easily accessible from navigable rivers or harbors, the great bulk of the timber lying within five miles of tide water. The total area covered by these twelve surveys is 185,136 acres and the total estimated stand of timber 333,889,000 cubic feet. The estimate has been based on 5,420 acres of valuation survey, or 2.92 per cent of the area covered by the surveys, and the average stand per acre works out at 1,803 cubic feet. The close relation of Bornean forests to those of the Philippines is shown by the following comparative table, which gives the stand per acre and percentages for the important Borneo species and for identical, or closely related, species in the Philippines : \ Stand per acre Stand per acre in Per Species. in Borneo, Per cent. Philippines. cubic feet. cubic feet. cent- Seriah (Sliorea spp.) 554 30.73 490 20.50 Kruin (Dif^tcrocarpjis spp.). 265 14.70 471 19.72 Uratimata ( Parashorea spp.) 189 10.38 413 17.30 Selangan batu (Slwrea, Hopea, and Isoptera spp.) 114 6.38 73 3-o6 Kapor (Dryobalaiwps spp.) . 109 6.05 not represented Selangan kacha (Shorea spp.) 72 4.00 66 2.77 Billian (Ensideroxylon sivag- eri) 72 4.00 not represented Mengaris (Koompassia ex- celsa) 70 3.89 rare Identified species of com- mercial value not occur- ring in large quantities... 158 8.77 446 18.65 Unidentified miscellaneous species 200 1,803 II. 10 430 2.389 18.00 Total 100.00 100.00 The Philippine data for the above table were compiled from Fox- worthy's resume of reconnaissance work done in the Philippines, two pieces of work covering 2,225,000 acres being excluded because the 376 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY percentage of the area covered was too small to be reliable, being less than 0.038 per cent. The Philippine figures are drawn from work covering 1,248,832 acres and based on 4,365.62 acres of valuation survey, or 0.35 per cent of the area. The Bornean figures refer to 185,- 136 acres only, based on 5,420 acres, or a 2.92 per cent survey. An interesting fact brought out by the above comparison is that the five timbers of the family Dipterocarpaceae, which occur in quantity in both countries, make up 62.59 per cent of the stand in Borneo and 63.35 per cent of the stand in the Philippines. Of these five timbers all except selangan batu (Philippine yacal) are relatively soft woods. Tanguile {Shorea polysperma) occurs in the Philippines in much greater abundance than in Borneo and kapor (Dryobalanops spp.) is not represented in the Philippines. Both of these are softwoods.^ Adding the percentage figures for these two timbers and excluding selangan batu, we find that in the Philippines 67.29 per cent of the total stand is composed of timbers which are relatively softwoods, suitable for general construction purposes and interior finish, while in Borneo 62.36 per cent are of similar character, if not identical. The lower percentage of softwoods for Borneo is due to the fact that billian, the Borneo ironwood, occurs in quantity and that selangan batu is more abundant in Borneo than in the Philippines. Otherwise, from the commercial standpoint, the close relation of the forest in these two regions is remarkable. As to total stand, the figures thus far at hand indicate a heavier stand per acre in the Philippines than in Borneo. I am not inclined to think that this is the case. Philippine figures are based chiefly on the sample-plot method, plots being located in typical areas and then a guess made as to the total area to which any plot or series of plots could be referred. In any work such as this the unconscious tendency is to locate plots in areas which are a little better than the average. As it was possible to work on a much more intensive scale in Borneo, the strip method has been used in every case and the results could, therefore, be applied directly to the whole area under consideration. With this method there is much less likelihood of overestimation. On the other hand, the results thus obtained cannot safely be used as a basis for estimating the total stand of timber except in the coastal belt, ' The word "softwood" as applied to tropical timbers is only relative. Kapor and kruin would probably not be considered softwoods in extra-tropical forests. They are neither as soft or as light as the seriahs, but when compared with dense and heavy woods such as billian and selangan batu the term "softwood" can be legitimately applied. RECONNAISSANCE IX PHILIPPINES AND BORNEO Oi7 where practically all of the work has been done. The vast interior of the State is still, from a forest standpoint, unexplored. However, as the development of the interior must wait upon that of the more accessible areas, there seems little present need for an attempt to de- termine the total stand. With the data so far gathered it would be impossible to make a complete comparison as to total stand in the Philippines and Borneo, but as most of the work that has been done in the Philippines has been in areas which it was hoped would be later developed, the figures given above may be of use as indicating the re- lation between commercially accessible forest areas in the two countries. It is certain that these two regions, and probable that all Malaysia, contain large accessible areas carrying stands of timber so closely related in character as to permit it to be marketed under a few trade names and dense enough to warrant large capitalization and intensive logging methods. Much more detailed reconnaissance work is required before even a small percentage of this vast potential supply can be realized, but it is apparent that the development of tropical forests is on the eve of a vast extension, and Whit ford's prediction that "* * * some tropical regions will become practically independent of foreign supplies and will be furnishing their next-door neighbors * * * " jg in a fair way of realization. RESULTS OF CUTTING AT NE-HA-SA-NE PARK, IN THE ADIRONDACKS ^ By B. a. Chandler Assistant Professor of forest Utilisation, Cornell University This study of the results of old cuttings on spruce growth and repro- duction grew out of the sample-plot work which the sample-plot com- mittee of the New York Section of the Society of American Foresters- undertook last year in co-operation with Cornell University. The work was conducted on the holdings of the Ne-ha-sa-ne Park Association at the invitation of its superintendent and forester, F. A. Gaylord. This park is the private hunting and fishing resort of Dr. W. S. Webb and was cut over fOr spruce some fifteen to twenty years ago, according to a general plan of management laid down by the present United States Forester. Col. Henry S. Graves. '^ The purpose of this study was to determine the practical results of this system of management. The data were collected this past summer by the strip-survey method, combined with growth studies of individual trees where cutting was in progress. The study was confined to the hardwood type, because it is there that the most difficult problems of spruce management are found. Two areas were studied: one lying southeast of the southerly portion of Rock Lake and bounded by the lake, its outlet, and the southwest line of the park. The other lay north of said lake and between the inlet to Beaver Dam Pond and the westerly edge of a spruce cutting which was in progress. Ten per cent of each area was covered by strips, making 21.5 acres actually calipered on the first area and 15 acres on the second. In the field-work I was assisted by H. W. Maier and others. J. A. Dimock assisted in the computation and preparation of the manuscript. F. A. Gaylord generously assisted in the expense of carrying on this work. Graves' object, as stated in his own words, was "to obtain for the owner a large revenue from the timber, but at the same time leave the ^ Paper delivered before the New York Section of the Society of American Foresters, at Albany, January 22, 1919. ■ See Journal of Forestry, Vol. XVI, No. 8, pp. 922-927, December, 1918. ' Graves, Henry S. : Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks, U. S. Forest Serv- ice, Bull. 26, 1899. 378 CUTTING AT NE-HA-SA-NE PARK, IN THE AUIRONDACKS 379 Fig. I. 380 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY forest in a condition to produce a second crop in a short time, and to reseed the openings made in the kimbering with young growth of val- uable species." Undoubtedly the spruce cut fifteen years ago provided for the owner "a large revenue from the timber." The "second cut" to which Graves referred is our present stand of spruce ten inches and over in diameter breast high. THE PRESENT STAND Within the limits of error caused by slight possible differences of opinion as to what constitutes the hardwood type and the inherent in- SPRUCE VS TOTAL HARDWOODS 100 Fig. accuracies of the strip-survey method, the present sample acre may be compared with that of 1898. Figure i shows that in 1898 the sample acre of the hardwood type for trees ten inches and over in diameter contained 36.8 per cent of spruce. Today only 16.4 per cent of these trees are spruce. This means a decrease of 55.4 per cent in spruce and a corresponding in- crease of 70.7 per cent in beech and of 47.9 per cent in yellow birch. This 16.4 per cent of spruce, representing 930 board feet, cannot be compared with the yield predicted by Graves because his "yield" tables CUTTING AT XE-HA-SA-NE PARK. IX THE ADIROXDACKS 3S1 were not classified by types. However, the data regarding the rate of growth and mortality of spruce, given below, make it difficult to see how this yield from the present stand can be as great as predicted. THE PROSPECTS FOR THE XEXT CUT The prospects for the next cut, or third cut, of spruce are not encour- aging. The hardwoods are fast dominating the stands. As figure 2 shows, in the two-inch class both areas have about 50 per cent of spruce and of hardwoods. From two to ten inches the per cent of hardwoods is almost uniformly greater than that of spruce. Above ten inches the per cent of hardwoods increases rapidly and in the higher diameter classes the hardwoods are completely dominant. Not only are there more hardwoods than spruce in practically every diameter class, but the inevitable decrease in number with increase in diameter is less rapid for the hardwoods than for the spruce. On the first area in the two-inch class there are 25.8 spruce and 25.5 hardwoods, or practically an equal number of each. In the ten-inch class the hardwoods are nearly double the spruce, for there are 8.0 hardwoods and 4.3 spruce per average acre. This numerical decrease is not necessarily due to mortality. How- ever, above ten inches the rapid increase in the per cent of hardwoods shows that there is no mortality among the hardwoods comparable to the decrease caused by the axe in the spruce. A comparison of the number of hardwoods and spruce w^hich have died, apparently since the last cut, also indicates a greater mortality among the spruce (see figure 2). Since the number of hardwood trees above ten inches has greatlv increased since 1898; since the hardwoods are dominating practically all diameter classes in the present stand, and since the death rate of the spruce is apparently greater than that of the hardwoods, the young spruce growing up from the lo\ver diameters have, evidently, a hopeless fight against an overtopping mass of large hardwoods. The condition of the spruce, moreover, makes the situation even more hopeless. CONDITIOX OF THE SPRUCE On the first area over 60 per cent of the spruce below seven inches are suppressed. This per cent drops, due probably to the death of a large number of the suppressed trees, to 29.2 per cent at ten inches. On the second area the per cent of suppressed trees runs a little higher. The question as to whether these suppressed trees can recover is a 382 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY debatable one. Howe* suggests that there may be such a thing as "in- herent dominants" among spruce. Due to the numerical dominance of the hardwoods, few of the suppressed spruce will get the chance to pppfi^ilil teMPie recover. That not all of them have the ability to recover is evidenced ' Howe, C. D. : Forest Regeneration on Certain Cut-over Pulpwood Lands in Quebec. Ninth Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation of Canada, 1918. CUTTING AT XE-HA-SA-NE PARK, IN THE ADIRONDACKS 383 by two conditions observed while taking growth data in connection with this study. Several spruce suppressed by trees cut fifteen years ago had not recovered, in spite of the fact that they had had plenty of room ever since. Also several spruce, although seemingly freed by the same cutting, actually showed a retarded growth. On the other hand, the surrounding hardwoods showed an accelerated growth. In these cases the hardwoods had taken very good advantage of the openings made by the cutting and are presumably responsible for the retarded growth of the spruce. To what extent spruce growth has been retarded by situations of this kind cannot be determined without more study. The fact that the average current annual diameter breast high growth curve obtained from this study is considerably lower than that obtained by Graves indicates that spruce growth may have been considerably decreased by the acceleration of the hardwoods (see figure 3). Since the suppressed spruce has little chance of making even a good fight, the real struggle lies between the free spruce and the total hard- woods. The unevenness of the fight may be seen by comparing the curve representing the per cent of free spruce of all live species with the per cent of hardwoods of all live species (see figure 2). Because of this overpowering domination of the hardwoods over the free spruce, the prospects for large future cuts of spruce seem to be very poor. SPRUCE REPRODUCTION The conditions which have been observed are not favorable for the development of spruce seedlings if present silvicultural ideas along this line are correct. Even if a large percentage of the seedlings were spruce, only a few of them could hope to mature. However, only 12.8 per cent of the seedlings on the second area and only 8 per cent on the first area are spruce. Thus spruce seems to be doomed to a continually decreasing position in the stand. A LOOK FORWARD TO 1 934 Data are not available for accurate predictions about the condition of these areas fifteen years hence. It seems evident, however, that after any cutting of spruce the remaining spruce and other species make a competitive fight for the space thus left in the forest. Assuming that the sample acres for 1898 and 1918 are comparable, and that the com- peting species will divide among themselves the space left by the cutting i{84 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY of 1919 in the same relative proportions into which they divided that of 1903, only 7.3 per cent of the stand above ten inches will then be spruce. This is probably a conservative estimate, for it seems evident that the fighting ability of the spruce has been greatly diminished since the past cut. But aside from the above assumption, the data would indi- cate that it will not take very many cuts of spruce on the diameter-limit basis to eliminate spruce as a commercial species from these areas. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS In applying data of this kind, collected on restricted areas, one must be careful not to apply the conclusions too generally. Therefore the term "hardwood lands" in the discussion of the practical application of these data should be understood as referring only to hardwood land where conditions exist similar to those observed on these two areas. These data indicate that hardwood lands when managed for spruce require more intensive methods. The first step in this direction is to "scrap" the diameter-limit idea. The diseased spruce — spruce which will not be freed by the cutting and spruce which have been so badly suppressed that they probably will not recover — should be cut to the lowest possible size. As much of the hardwoods should be cut as the market conditions will permit. As many small and medium, well topped, free spruce should be left as lum- bering conditions and the danger from windfall will allow. In other words, the timber should be marked by a man who knows all that is known about the silviculture of this type of forest and who at the same time knows the market conditions with which he is contending. It should be kept in mind, however, that these are only temporary measures, and that possibly no satisfactory system of managing hard- wood land for spruce can be found short of clear cutting and planting as put into practice by Fernow at Axton.^ Most companies are now getting their supply of spruce from remote areas. It would not be good business policy for these concerns to plant these remote areas before all those near at hand had first been reforested. It therefore follows that a company may be practicing the best of forestry if it disregards for the time being spruce growth and reproduction on its far-away lands, provided, however, that in lieu of the outlying districts it re- plants those lands within easy distance of its mill. Systematically pur- ^ Silviculture at Axton and in the Adirondacks Generally, by R. C. Bryant, Journal of Forestry. Vol. XV, No. 7, pp. 891-895, November, 1917. CUTTING AT XE-HA-SA-NE PARK, IX THE ADIROXDACKS 385 sued, this will provide future crops which can be harvested with the least possible cost." It may even be necessary, in order to develop a market for hardwood, and thus make possible the clearing of land for planting purposes, that spruce concerns become hardwood operators.'' CONCLUSION The conclusion to be drawn from these investigations is strongly suggestive that the expectations of the Forester will not be realized on these areas at Xe-ha-sa-ne Park. The hardwoods have taken advantage of the openings ; they have reseeded themselves in large numbers ; the crowns of the older trees have already spread out over the unused spaces, and the spruce factor is dwindling with each cut. Every time that a conifer is removed, fur- ther advantage is given the hardwoods, for they are left in possession of the field. The young spruce which is expected to restock the forest meets more and more opposition. Apparently only the free class can be depended upon to fight its way through to maturity. The young spruce has to bear the competition of its own species ; it has to meet the hardwoods, as seedlings, as saplings, and, finally, as a complete canopy over the whole area, for the hardwood trees of the big-diameter classes will soon make a complete cover. At every stage of its life the young spruce is compelled to meet over- whelming odds, and if by a miracle it happens to reach the ten-inch class there awaits it the forester with his axe ! * Chandler, B. A.: Are We Willing to Pay the Price? Xezv York Forestry, Vol. V, No. I, April, 1918. ' The Laurentide Paper Co., Ltd., Grand Mere, Quebec, is beginning to develop a policy similar to this. OBSERVATIONS ON UNBURNED CUT-OVER LANDS IN THE ADIRONDACKS^ By E. F. McCarthy Professor of Forest Utilization, New York State College of Forestry The following observations were made during the summer of 1917 in carrying out investigative work planned for that year under the direction of The New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y. The fundamental assumption which led to this method of silvicul- tural investigation is that all immediate problems of reproduction which can be worked out upon sample plots can now be observed on cut-over lands in the Adirondacks, providing the history of the stands can be determined with certainty. INFLUENCE OE TYPE It soon became obvious that a clear distinction of type in the Adiron- dacks is essential to any silvicultural investigation, and that this type distinction must be much sharper than that employed in previous studies on virgin timberland. In going over the literature it was found that no particular effort had been made to segregate types in the preparation of stand tables for prediction of yield ; that the studies of type made by Pinchot and Graves had formed the basis of practically all investigations. In spite of the thoroughness of the work done, the stand table upon which future yield was predicted below 10 inches d. b. h. was constructed without reference to type, one stand table representing all types on the area. There resulted from this method of prediction of future yield an exaggerated representation of softwoods on the hardwood type in diameter classes below 10 inches. This is necessarily true because of the larger number of small diameter softwood trees found on swamp acres and upper slope acres than that found within the hardwood type. The definitions of type used herein follow the plan prescribed by the original Bulletin 26^ study and retain the same names and gen- * Delivered before the New York Section of the Society of American Foresters, at Albany, N. Y., January 22, 1919. ' Graves. Henry S. : Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks. U. S. Forest Serv- ice, Bui. 26, 1899. 886 UNBURNED CUT-OVER LANDS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 387 eral characteristics. The types recognized are : (i) swamp, (2) spruce, flat or lower slope, (3) hardwood, and (4) upper slope. It becomes necessary for any further silvical studies to draw the lines of boundary quite sharply and any studies undertaken by the New York section of the Society of American Foresters should make the delineation of type boundaries its first task. The edge of the swamp type is marked by the disappearance of the spongy forest floor and establishment of deeper drainage. Birch and soft maple found in the next higher type also mark the edge. The upper boundary of the spruce flat type was drawn where balsam begins to disappear from the stand and where beech enters. The upper boundary of the hardwood type was accepted as defined by the study of Township 40^ with the qualification that small areas of typical upper slope forests are found on ledges appearing within the hardwood type. Where these areas are sufficiently large, they should be eliminated. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SWAMP AND SPRUCE FLAT TYPES. Only a brief statement will be made with regard to this. The result of studies, some data on which are presented in "Production of Pulp on Balsam Lands, "^ makes it obvious that we may expect a future crop of softwoods upon the two lower types within a comparatively short rotation following present cutting, because of the excellent reproduc- tion that occurs on swamps, and the comparatively good softwood reproduction that occurs on flats. It will probably be necessary to remove from the balsam flat type the larger hardwoods, and cutting will probably reduce the area of the balsam flat type by favoring the encroachment of hardwoods, especially yellow birch, from the hard- wood lands toward the swamp. HARDWOOD TYPE Lumbermen and foresters are willing to admit that the chief problem of management of the x\dirondack forest is centered in the hardwood type and the data herein presented have to do largely with this type. It has been observed by lumbermen that the hardwoods are inclined to dominate the forest after the cutting of softwoods to a diameter limit. It is a mistake for foresters to assume that the study made on Nehasane Park has not influenced logging in the Adirondacks. because ' Hosmer, R. S., and Bruce, E. S. : A Forest Working Plan for Township 40. U. S. Forest Service. Bui.. 30, 1901. * Paper, Vol. XXIII, No. 7, October 23, 1918, pp. 14-18. 388 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY private lumber companies have given this diameter hmit method of cutting a very thorough trial with the intention of maintaining soft- wood production upon their lands. Many of these private companies have since gone over their lands the second time and picked up the wind fallen spruce and continued the cut down to the merchantable limit for pulp because of the heavy loss from windfall. The only motive which seems to have actuated pulp operators to give up the diameter method of cutting has been the damage from windfall, which cannot be denied, especially on exposed situations. Sufficient time has now elapsed since the first cutting by the diameter-limit method to answer the questions presented as to the silvicultural fea- sibility of this method of management of the Adirondack forest. ACCELERATED GROWTH OF SPRUCE I wish to present data taken from an area which had been cut to a diameter limit 20 years previous to the study on the Brandreth Estate immediately south of Nehasane Park, and to make the statement before presenting figures that in my judgment the hardwood crown has closed over the spruce trees remaining after the first cut so quickly as to have made their recovery brief and to have added very little extra volume to even the larger diameter classes and almost none to the lower. An examination of the data presented will show plainly that the increase in rate of growth after the first lumbering operation was not greatly in excess of what might be expected from the virgin stand untouched. The crown cover of the forest shows every evidence of complete closure in the lapse of 20 years after the first logging operation to a 12-inch diameter limit. The following facts may be deduced from Table i and figure i. 1. Diameter growth on the stump shows practically no acceleration over the normal rate of growth even in the first ten years and less in the second, especially in the 8-inch class. (Attention is called to p. 445 of U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 26, which shows acceleration in diameter growth greater at the stump than at the top of the first log.) 2. Mean height growth was least in the tallest trees and shows a falling off in the lower two classes. 3. Eight-inch trees are 167 years old, with no visible means of short- ening this period materially under the shade of hardwoods. In the matter of volume of second cutting, it is true that a compar- atively good cut has been obtained after a lapse of 20 years, but this UNBURNED CUT-OVER LANDS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 389 Fig. 1, 390 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY was increased by the addition of softwoods as follows : Swamps which were not previously cut were cut this time; hemlock which was not previously cut was cut this time ; the present cutting of spruce was ex- tended to a lO-inch diameter limit on the stump one foot from the ground, where previous cutting had only reached 12 inches breast-high. These three sources would have made a considerable cut immediately following or preceding lumbering operation and must not be confused with increment during the lapsed period of 20 years. STAND AND REPRODUCTION General data on stand and reproduction are included, as taken and averaged for two areas. The first area was selected from the extreme southern part of St. Lawrence County, and represents a type of lum- bering which gave no thought to future production, while the second area is a portion of the Whitney estate on which a plan of forest man- agement was put into operation twenty years ago, with the purpose of securing successive cuts of pulp. A caliper record was made for each area, taking the trees down to the two-inch class (that is. down to i^^ inches), breast-high, on ten per cent of the total area. In addition to the caliper record, reproduc- tion counts were made on three sample plots per acre, established at regular intervals. These plots were i rod square and marked on the boundaries by a 66-foot tape with pins fixed at 16^-foot intervals. All reproduction that had produced branches and was less than i^^ inches in diameter at breast-height was counted. Mortality of the younger seedlings was considered too high to give results of value. The column marked "Cull" in the hardwood caliper record includes all mature trees that would not be worth cutting now and all trees of less than merchantable sizes, which because of decay or crook give no promise of production of marketable timber in the future. The areas selected are fairly representative of the natural type as modified by the logging operations. Whether or not they are average for the type throughout the Adirondack region, certain facts may be pointed out which will keep their relative importance regardless of the varia- tions in the composition of the type. From the study of the area selected from the Whitney estate, where the spruce was cut to a diameter limit of 10 inches in 1898 the fol- lowing deductions are made : I. The crown cover of the hardwoods has become re-established during the twenty years that have elapsed since the cutting. UNBURNED CUT-OVER LANDS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 391 O J n hf) J^ IT) ■ » u ■5 J2 tN. O bn ^ t^ 03 ^ 3 03 ■ 3 >% o ^ -5 JC O w o •u -*-* hJ o u '» I n tj T) •< rt c t^ -a 03 u CQ o t: rS r>^ S "a tn C 03 03 s « = E Oh C/i •saqoui 'jaiaujEip rri PO 0) fo o 01 ^ )U3ai3J3U! IBnUUB UB3I^ ■ •J33J 'HJMOja t^ ID ■o as ND -I- a iqSiaq jEnuue UBaj^ o) T •laaj 'doi }o mSnaq -T 00 fO \o o 0< rt O. o )-4 PI Q On J3 ^- I-* >—> ►—1 o b fO 00 00 t^ 0< 00 •SJB3.< ui 'aSv lO ■* ^ ID 00 NO 2; OJ M 0) N ot 01 'T) U-) O ON o •saqoui UI snipB^ "9. ^O t~^ t^ NO in o -s CO 00 o o 8 00 oo ^ \o \o I^ r^ 00 00 « E o '^ Tt M -t 00 1^ m o^. On in CO c VO t^ t^ 00 ON On a, 0, « i cs S o CM a o 01 a o ^ « ° t-N oc 00 On o O «5 '■C ~ o O o •3 o in O fO ^ ^ 1) o\ C\ o i-i 01 fO s ^ <: (N Tf oo -t Q PI oc OS 00 o 00 6 o « 01 -^ 4 t^ o „ On in On •dtunis ;b 93v o l^ oo 00 On On •doinis VT) I^ t^ Tf VO iri snid 'q}J3U3i 3iqB)aBq3J3}( "2- oc 1— m "9 p T NO u^ 01 On m O o o t^ •;3aj -jqSiaq ibjox ID ro t^ 1^ ON m in \o VO -o NO rx O 00 On 00 1 "^ •S33J} JO jaqmnjvi ID C". 00 ^ 0) CO •ssBp jajatneia 00 ON o ^ M fO ON ro VO VO NO 0< •saqoui UI 'iqSiaq doinjs - - rr lO lO tx •3iaBq apisni 'h a Q s 0\ j:? fO 00 s 00 t^ X On o ;^ 0) 392 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY 2. There is not a sufficient representation of softwoods in each of the diameter classes to produce successive crops of softwood within reasonable intervals, while the proportion of softwood in the stand is being decreased by each successive softwood logging operation. 3. There is no evident increase in softwood reproduction due to logging. 4. The reproduction table (table 4, column i) shows a preponder- ance of beech and sugar maple (shade-enduring species), but the fact that a like increase does not show in the 2-inch class after twenty years is evidence that these are already suppressed. 5. The small number of yellow birch and the absence of black cherry in the reproduction is evidence of the crown density of the ma- ture stand, and a noteworthy index of the future character of the forest. On the area logged for both hardwoods and softwoods ten years ago the following facts are shown by the study : 1. All species were cut to a lower diameter than on the Whitney estate with the crown cover remaining open ten years after the log- ging- 2. The representation of the softwoods of all diameter classes is here less able than on the other area to maintain successive cuts of softwoods within reasonable intervals. 3. There is evidence of increase of spruce reproduction and of in- creased rate of growth since the logging, as is shown by the increase in numbers in the 2-inch diameter class. 4. There is also an evident increase in the number of hardwood trees in the 2-inch diameter class, especially yellow birch, the most prolific and rapid-growing of the hardwoods. 5. The preponderance of yellow birch in the hardwood reproduction and decrease of the more tolerant species, with the occurrence of black and fire cherry are the result of the open character of the stand. The chief significance of this heavy stand of rapid-growing hardwoods is the good average height growth (about ten feet for birch) which has been made since the cutting, and the straight clean growth. Birch and black cherry have established themselves in the lead and will dominate the stand. RECOVERY OE SMALL SPRUCE AFTER SUPPRESSION For the purpose of comparison of this rapid growth of hardwoods there is submitted a height growth diagram of red spruce based on 316 UNBURNED CUT-OVER I.ANDS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 393 trees taken from the area logged for both hardwood and softwood. All these trees have had top light since the logging operation, except as interfered with by hardwood seedlings which have started since the logging. The trees made no recovery from suppression for the first three years but at the end of seven years are growing at the rate of .79 feet per year. It is shown that two-foot trees recover more quickly and grow faster than ten-foot trees. (See fig. 2.) SUMMARY Either method of logging increases the percentage of hardwood. Logging to a diameter limit, while it leaves the woods clean, and com- paratively free from fire risk after a decade, makes no progress toward future softwood production, or the disposal of the poor grade of hard- woods which are taking space and making no timber growth of value. Any heavy cutting of hardwoods will make a large amount of slash, increasing the fire risk until the crown cover has become dense enough to retain the moisture, and decay the slash. In the meantime a good growth of hardwood saplings will start on every area of this type if the woods are opened sufficiently, and fires are kept out. Freedom from overhead interference will cause a straight growth of hardwood sap- lings and produce a stand of hardwood much superior to that found in the original forest. Softwood trees, released by heavy cutting of hardwoods, will mature more quickly than under the shade of a diameter-limit cutting, but the slow growth and late recovery of spruce will necessitate subsequent cuttings of hardwoods before the spruce will make a free growth. If the production of a large percentage of softwood in mixture with hardwoods is to be the purpose of management of this type in the Adirondack forest, then the destruction of the bulk of the hardwood crown cover is essential. Whatever the ultimate method used to produce as large a number of softwoods per acre as possible, it must not be overlooked that a dense crown of hardwoods will damage se- verely the young hardwoods which succeed in starting, and that this type is primarily a hardwood type, and will for several rotations remain so in spite of all efforts short of cutting clean, burning, and planting. It is as much the purpose of management to produce good specimens of hardwoods in the mixture as to produce the largest possible per- centage of softwood. 394 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY I. i, " Jl U a li Fig. 2. Fig. 2. — Diagram showing the current annual height growth of red spruce for the past 15 years previous to 1917. Logged for both hardwood and softwood in 1910. Arranged by height classes according to height 15 years ago. UNBURNED CUT-OVER LANDS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 395 3 o o -r o U M u o, u bo ^ 2S 'o- 1-G O 3 ^2 u Cij 4> 5-S •00 -00 -VO -VO -lO -Mwi-iOi-iOOOOO 00 •00 ■ 10 •00 '■ « • U-) •M 0000000 • • 00 10 IN. • -1- • M • • t^ • fO t^ ■^ • C^ "-I • 10 • in •00 • 0 • l-l ■ Tj- 0 0 0 • \o M3 •00 • rr • cs • 0< . >-l li-> f^ • VT) • (N • 10 . tx • \n N OJOO U-) r»5 . . . VO t^ • fo • \0 •VO • t^ • irj . ro li-j 0 0 0 0 0 • • • \o Tf M l-H >- O 00 \o „ « o -H O «o)-+H o; o o ■^ be a; "O rs O rt ^ •^- in'" O (^2 CO -CJ-- ^ n S ^ 5 ^ ^ - rt J5 "O a; 5-= (nro-^OOrOOt^'fO-fO'f^ , • • O O " O 5 O O O • O ■ O • O 1 •;••••;;;;; • to CO 00 •* . ro hH hH l-< O t^ ■<3- in <*5 CO 0) '-' " O hH 01 W M h-t t-l l-l l-C l-( hH HH W t-H hH .hH " IN tX M 00 c»5 0\ 0\ ro tv. r}- w 0\ M ID ^1^ CO looooo hH m 8 o o CO • CO N 00 rf Tt M \n t^\o 00 in irj IT) r^ hH O o o lOhHoo^tnc^-rrcoc^ooihHhH hh u-) 0< hH M r^OO 0\ Tt O 0\ m 0\V0 CO co COVO 00 C3\0\cO'^>D'*'^cOhH hH O O hH hH t^u-)t^'.TtioOM3>-i>-i'-iOO oj OOOtOTJ-TfcoiNN'-H'-H O Eh PI rlL and 144 .785 X F X R But it is evident that n, although correct for any diameter for which it may be determined, will not be the same for any other diameter, unless F and R remain constant for all diameters — which they do not — ■ or unless the products of F and R for every diameter are approximately equal. It is here that an inspection of Table 2, and especially of columns F, R, and P (P = F X R). is interesting as showing the rela- tion between the form factors and the board foot-cubic foot ratios with change of diameter. As the diameter increases, the numerical value of the form factor decreases (though not very regularly), while the ratio increases, with the result that the range of values for P varies so slightly throughout the range of diameters for Rocky Mountain yellow pine (12 to 36 inches) that the average value for all diameters (3.213) may be used for each diameter class without involving an excessive error, and one which is compensating when applied to a fairly large number of trees. The greatest variation above the mean (that for the 34-inch class) is 12 per cent, and the greatest below the mean (for the 25-inch class) is 10 per cent, while for most diameter classes the differ- ence is much less. Substituting, therefore, the average value of P for F X R in the formula for n, we have for any diameter H4 571 •7»5 X 3-213 or, approximately, 60, which is close enough to use in the formula. The resultant formula, therefore, for Rocky Mountain yellow pine is': D^XL Bf = 60 In the Pikes Peak region, where practically all the merchantable yellow pine (exclusive of tie-timber) ranges between i6 and 30 inches d. b. h., I have used this formula with satisfactory results. The volumes obtained by it show an average variation of about 10 per cent from those 416 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY given in the- western yellow pine volume table for the San Juan and Montezuma Forests, compiled by Hoffman. They vary by about 12 per cent for the extreme lowest diameters and by 1 5 to 20 per cent for the extreme highest. For diameters below 24 inches, the formula gives values averaging higher than those given by the table, and above 24 inches values averaging lower. It will give results within 6 per cent of the table for nearly all diameters and log lengths if the following denominators be used : 70 for trees from 12 to 19 inches d. b. h., inclusive. 60 for trees from 20 to 29 inches d. b. h., inclusive. 55 for trees from 30 to 35 inches d. b. h., inclusive. 50 for all trees above 35 inches. The San Juan-Montezuma table gives volumes for trees up to 43 inches. In estimating small to medium-sized timber, such as the yellow pine of the Central Rockies, it is considerably more accurate to use a shorter unit of length than even the half-log (8-foot sections). I have found that estimating to the nearest "quarter-log" and also to the nearest 5 feet of merchantable length to give very accurate results. With such a formula as the one here given, the volume for any merchantable length may be computed. Heights can be obtained quickly and with suffi- cient accuracy by using a home-made hypsometer, constructed on the principle of the one on the Biltmore stick or on that of the Christen Height Measure. The basic formula j,f _ 785 XD^XLXFXR 144 can, of course, be used for other species than yellow pine, but the appropriate data must be collected and worked up for each species, as in making volume tables. In all probability the value (or values) of n will differ for different species. Data have been collected for the other important timber trees of the Central Rocky Mountain region — the lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, and Douglas fir — but have not yet been worked up. It may be found that this formula will not give sufficiently accurate results for very large timber, such as that of the Pacific Northwest; or it may do so if several values be used for n, each applied to a certain diameter group. II. THE CONSTRUCTION OF VOLUME TABLES BASED ON THE FORMULA After deriving the formula it was perceived that a volume table, based on the d. b. h. and any chosen unit of merchantable length, could A FORMULA METHOD FOR ESTIMATIXG TIMBER 417 be constructed from the data as arranged in Table 2, which should give much more accurate results than the formula, and perhaps more accu- rate than volume tables made up in the ordinary manner. The usual method in constructing tables based on diameters and log lengths is to plot on one sheet a; set of curves — each curve for a given length of tree. When a table is constructed, even for half-log lengths (to say nothing of shorter length units), the curves as plotted are generally very irregular, crossing and recrossing one another in a tangled net- work. Of course, they can be straightened out by the process of "even- ing" and "harmonizing," but after that has been done the most com- petent and conscientious compiler may seriously question whether he has not "evened out" a large percentage of their accuracy. By the following method that disadvantage is overcome, for only one curve need be drawn in constructing the entire table. From the basic formula (see page 416) the following equation may be deduced : ^ ^ .785 X D^ X F X R ^ .785 X D- XP 144 144 b being a factor which, when multiplied by the merchantable length, will give the board- foot contents of the tree, as expressed by the equa- tion Bi = bXh The value of b must be determined for each diameter class, and these values can then be plotted and evened with a curve. Values for b may also be derived from the formula Bf=P'XL n by dividing the square of each diameter by n. But a table of values thus derived will exhibit the same defect as the formula, namely, that with increasing size of the tree the true variation in contents from diameter class to diameter class is not determined. Figure i shows the curve (solid line) for the values of b; also, for comparison, the curve (broken line) which is obtained by plotting the points for each diameter as derived from the equation b'^ = D-/57. The exact value of n (disregarding the fraction) has been used in this case instead of the round number 60. The curve thus derived is, of course, a perfectly even curve, giving values partly higher and partly lower than the curve 418 JOURNAL OP FORESTRY produced by the more exact method. The values for b, as read from the curve, are given in the column headed b in Table 2. Table 2 D. b. h. No. of trees. Total length. Total scale. Total volume. 12. 13- 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. 25- 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31- 32. 33- 34. 35- 36. 30 34 58 56 S6 39 39 30 29 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 29 30 30 30 30 17 20 18 1,037 2,830 1,322 3,760 2,414 8,660 2,558 10,430 2,480 11,370 1,920 9,890 2,160 11,960 1,694 10,290 1,708 11,415 1,774 12,550 1,863 14,470 1,920 16,330 2,011 18,485 2,078 20,160 2,077 25,710 2,127 28,040 2,078 30,330 2,128 31,895 2,194 35,200 2,288 39,085 2,171 41,035 2,177 44,940 1,241 28,490 1,448 31,520 1,448 32,035 586 804 1,781 2,077 2,278 1,898 2,256 1,886 2,083 2,227 2.542 2,839 3,152 3,373 4,111 4465 4,722 5,034 5,398 5,957 6,165 6,643 4,181 4,757 4717 Average value for column P 3-213 .72 4.8 .66 4.7 .69 4.9 66 5-0 62 5-0 63 5-2 59 5-3 57 5-5 56 5-5 52 5.6 52 5-7 51 5.8 50 5-9 48 6.0 54 6.2 53 6.3 53 6.4 52 6.3 50 6.5 50 6.6 51 6.7 SI 6.8 S3 6.8 40 6.6 46 6.8 3-456 3.102 3.381 3-300 3.100 276 127 135 080 912 2.964 2.958 2.950 2.880 3-348 3-339 3.392 3-276 3-250 3-300 3-417 3-468 3-604 3-234 3.128 2.6 3-0 3-5 4.0 4-5 5-0 5-5 6.0 6.6 7-2 8.0 8.7 9.6 10.5 11-5 12.6 13-8 15-1 16.4 17.8 19. 1 20.4 21.4 22.2 22.7 The number of trees of each diameter class, upon which the computations are based, is given in the second column; the total merchantable length of the trees in feet, in the third column ; the total scale by the Scribner Decimal C rule in the fourth column ; and the total volume computed to the nearest whole cubic foot in the fifth column. Column F gives the merchantable form factor for each diameter, which is obtained by dividing the total volume by the volume of a cylinder having the same diameter (column i) and the same total length (column 3). Column R shows the ratio of board feet to cubic feet for each diameter class, obtained by dividing the total scale (column 4) by the total volume (column 5). Column P gives for each diameter the product of F and R, and column b gives the board-foot form factor, as read from the curve (see Figure i) and explained in the text. In all computations the decimal 0.785 was used as one-fourth of ir. Having obtained the values for b, volume tables based on d. b. h. and merchantable length (log-lengths, etc.) can be readily constructed by using the equation Bf = & X L. For the most precise estimating possi- ble, a table of merchantable lengths in two-foot classes could be made. The values obtained may be rounded to the nearest five or ten board feet. A FORML'LA METHOD FOR ESTIMATING TIMBER 419 III. THE BOARD-FOOT FORM FACTOR But it will be observed that, no matter what unit of length be used in estimating, the tally sheets may be worked up without using any volume table. All that is necessary is to compute the total length of the trees tallied in each diameter class and multiply that sum by the cor- responding value of b, which will give the total volume in board feet for the trees of that diameter. Column b in Table 2, therefore, is in itself a table of what may be called board-foot form factors. In collecting the data it is unnecessary to measure the height of stump or the top of the tree beyond the upper cut (or the point that is taken as the upper limit of the merchantable bole if that should not coincide with the upper cut). The only measurements necessary to take on each tree are the length of each log to the nearest whole foot and the diameter inside bark of the stump and top end of each log, rounded to the nearest whole inch, as is the practice in scaling. Greater refinement is wholly unnecessary for any volume-table work. It is necessary to 420 JOURNAL OP FORESTRY obtain the stump diameter in order to cube the butt log. The measure- ment may, of course, be taken either on the stump or the log itself, but in the field-notes it is convenient to record it as the diameter of the stump. Table 3. — Twenty-inch Trees Tree No. Stp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lengfth. Scale. Volume. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 21 20 21 22 21 20 21 21 20 20 16-17 12-19 16-18 16-19 16-17 16-15 16-18 16-17 16-19 16-18 16-16 16-16 16-16 16-16 16-15 16-13 16-16 16-15 16-15 12-17 16-12 16-13 10-14 16-13 16-II 16-10 16-12 16-12 14-12 18-14 8-8 14-8 10-8 12-9 12-8 12-8 20-8 18-8 18-10 14-10 8^ 8^ 56 S8 52 68 60 60 68 66 72 60 430 460 460 510 420 320 480 430 520 520 77 80 77 94 75 60 86 80 88 82 For recording the field data, I have found a book with a large page, such as the ordinary "day book," bound in stifif boards, to be the most convenient. One page is allotted to each diameter class, and one line is usually enough for recording the data on one tree, so that thirty or more trees can be recorded on one page. The form of notes which I have found very satisfactory is illustrated in Table 3, in which is re- corded the data on ten trees of the 20-inch class. In the first column is the number of the tree measured, in the second (Stp.) the d. i. b. of the stump. The columns headed by numerals are for the log meas- urements, column I containing those for the butt log. For each tree the first number in each column is the length of the log in feet and the second is the top diameter in inches. The columns for length, scale, and volume need not be filled out in the field, but it is convenient to have such columns in the field book if there is room for them. The sum of each of these columns will be, respectively, the total length, total scale, and total volume for the trees of that diameter class, which totals may then be transferred to their respective columns in a table similar to Table 2. Using the same data (given in Table 2), I have drawn curves based upon only a few diameter classes or diameter groups — as, for example, fourth or fifth diameter class — and find that the resultant curves are almost identical with the one based upon all diameters. It therefore seems reasonable to assume that accurate results may be obtained from the data of a comparatively small number of trees, provided a number A FORMULA METHOD FOR ESTIMATING TIMBER 421 of trees each of a few diameter classes be selected, the classes represent- ing, respectively, the smallest, medium, and largest sized trees of the timber in question. The curve for b could then be plotted upon these points and the intermediate values obtained from it. The method would involve a minimum of both field-work and computation. Whether this method will give accurate results when applied to the large timber of the Pacific coast may depend chiefly on whether one merchantable form factor will serve for each diameter class, irrespec- tive of length. If the form factor varies considerably with length, then several values of b for each diameter class would have to be com- puted. But very little opportunity has as yet been afiforded for testing the ac- curacy of this method, but it is presented as possibly possessing some merit and perhaps susceptible of improvement. I would consider it a favor to receive suggestions, and would be very glad, if any foresters in other regions care to try it, to be informed of the results obtained. Comment on Professor Terrv's Article By W. N. Sparliawk The purpose of the board-foot form factor proposed by Professor Terry appears to be to simplify the work of computation in working up timber estimates by doing away with the use of volume tables. It is evident that the use of b for all trees of a given diameter, regardless of their heights, by making separate consideration of the different height classes unnecessary, will considerably shorten this work. I believe, however, that the method of computing b can be very much simplified without any sacrifice in accuracy. Dividing the values in column 4 (Table 2) by corresponding values in column 3, we get the following values for b: D. b. h. D. b. h. (inches) b (inches) b 12 2.7 24 9.2 13 2.8 25 9.7 14 3-6 26 12.4 15 4-1 27 13.2 16 4.6 28 14.6 17 5-2 29 15.0 18 5-5 30 • 16.0 19 6.1 31 17. 1 20 6.7 32 18.9 21 7.1 33 20.6 22 7.8 34 23.0 23 8.5 35 21.8 36 22.1 4:22 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY These values, which are substantially the same as those obtained by Professor Terry's method (maximum difference is 7 per cent), can, of course, be smoothed out by means of a curve, when they will be almost identical with his. The only field measurements needed for preparation of a table of board-foot form factors would be (a) d. b. h. outside bark; (6) length of each section and diameter inside bark at top of each. The only office computation required would be: (a) grouping by d. b. h. classes; (b) computing board-foot scale for each tree from the top diameters and lengths of the separate sections; (c) division of total scale for trees in each diameter class by the sum of the lengths of trees in the respective classes; (d) evening off the resulting quotients, "b," by a curve. This does away with computation of cubic foot volume, of F, of R, and of P in Terry's method. THE CONTROL OF FLOOD WATER LN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. Edw. N. Munns Forest Examiner, U. S. Forest Service. The control of floods has received more definite consideration in southern CaHfornia than perhaps any other portion of the country, and control work used abroad, tackling the trouble at its source, has been applied here on a scale sufficiently large to show its worth. This thorough consideration of the water problem is due to the floods and the large quantities of silt and debris brought from the mountains by the storm waters during the rainy season, causing much loss to the fertile valley fields. Much of this material comes from the small tributary canyons at the headwaters of the streams, where grades are steep and the precipitation heavy. This detritus is deposited in the stream bed with the decrease in the velocity of the water, the coarser, heavier parts dropping near the mouth of the canyon, Ijuilding up a debris cone, while the finer parts travel with the stream even to the point where the waters are finally discharged into the ocean. xA.s a result, during very heavy storms the harbors are badly silted, and even during normal years considerable debris is deposited in the channels between the canyon mouths and the sea. This filling gradually in- creases the height of the stream bed and causes frequent shiftings in its location, the new channels often being through fertile, valuable lands, while the transportation systems, highways, and municipalities are badly damaged. A large proportion of the erosion damage is caused by the silting of these lower channels, resulting in a decrease in their carrying ca- pacity. As much of this debris is brought from the mountains, any- thing which would keep this soil in place aids greatly in the solution of the flood problem, for by restraining the water in its upper reaches the velocity is held below the point of excessive erosion. To this end check dams are used. Check dams are small obstructions usually built of stone so placed across the channel that the water, though able to percolate through them to some extent, collects in a basin behind the dam and then falls vertically, or nearly so, over its front face. If the height of this 423 424 JOURNAL OF fore;stry front face be made approximately three times the depth of the unob- structed stream it will cause the direction of the stream to be changed when it drops over the dam to a new one nearly at right angles to the one held originally. Thus at the face of the dam all motion in a forzvard direction is checked, and then this water is let vertically downward, so that by this process the elevation is overcome. The water during these drops attains a high velocity, but, as it is at no place in contact with the stream bed during its plunge, no erosion can take place and the energy of the fall can be dissipated upon an apron or water cushion at the foot of the dam. Thus water may be stepped down, so to speak, from one level to another, and if so built that the top of one dam is at the same level as the base of the next higher one there can be but little erosion. In the settling basins behind the dams debris, rock, and sand are deposited, and as time passes and repeated high waters bring the soil down from the canyon slopes, these settling basins receive and hold more and more debris and become storage reservoirs in addition to checking the velocity of the stream, holding back the water and per- mitting its escape gradually after the storms are over. This effect may quite possibly extend well into the summer months, or, as in those cases where there is an underground artesian basin, may permit this water to escape from the canyon bed directly into the artesian basin, where it manifests itself in the rise of the water in walls tapping the basin. HAINES CANYON AND THE SUNLAND DRAINAGE BASIN. The Sunland drainage basin, in which this work has been done, is an area of 6^ square miles, i^ square miles of which lies in the Angeles National Forest. This portion is in the Haines Canyon watershed, while the remainder includes, in general, open cultivated valley lands. From the standpoint of flood waters, Haines Canyon is the most important part of this drainage basin. It is a steep, narrow watershed running up from the valley floor, at 2,000 feet elevation, to the summit of Sister Elsie Peak, which has an elevation of over 5,000 feet, and was burned over by an intense fire in September, 191 3, the chaparral cover being completely destroyed. The soil is relatively deep, and is composed of a gravelly loam carrying considerable rock, varying in size from pebbles up to large angular fragments. The underlying rock, granite, is badly decomposed and much of the soil is derived from CONTROL OF FLOOD WATER IX SOUTHERN CALlFORNL\ 425 it. though there are occasional areas with a gravelly loam. In the canyon bottom the wash shows much evidence of high-water action in the past, and boulders, gravel beds, and piles of debris indicate the high-water points of many floods. At the mouth of Haines Canyon is a large debris cone which has been built up by the erosion from this area, and on which a colony has been established. Storms and Flood of 1914. Since the area was burned over, in 1913, there have been two very heavy storms, the heaviest known since the region has become so heavily populated, and hence the most destructive in their efifects. The first of these was from February 17 to 21, 1914. Most of the storm, which amounted to 7.04 inches, came in ten hours, one hour having 1.49 inches or 21 per cent of the total storm. ^ The damage occasioned was much greater than a storm of this character would have been because of the saturated condition of the ground and the high-water stage existing in the streams from previous rains. No precipitation stations were located in the mountains at this time, but it is certain that the fall was much greater than at Los Angeles, where the records here used were taken. An isohyetal map- prepared by the Weather Bureau for this storm gave the precipitation on this area of over 13 inches. After the storms the height of the flood waters of various streams was measured and the maximum discharge per unit area computed from the water-marks by engineers. Of all the streams so measured Haines Can}on had the highest intensity, the maximum discharge being calculated as 712 cubic feet per second per square mile^ and was the only one in which cover conditions had been reduced to a minimum. This flood from Haines Canyon caused a tremendous amount of damage. Breaking loose from the old channel, the stream threaded its way through the suburban site, destroying a number of lots, swept across orchards and meandered through vineyards and grain fields, eroding and depositing according to the velocity, and causing damage running well into the thousands of dollars. The roads were washed out, school dismissed until the stream had subsided so that it was safe for children to cross, and business was at a standstill. ^ Data from U. S. Weather Bureau Station at Los Angeles. ^ Ford, A. Carpenter : "Flood Studies at Los Angeles." Mo. Wea. Rev., 42 (1914), pp. 385-391- ' F. H. Olmsted in Report of Board of Engineers Flood Control of Los Angeles County, August, 1915. 43G JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Storms and Flood of 1915. In 191 5 there were no storms which caused much damage, though there was one storm greater in intensity than that of 1914. This storm produced 9.85 inches of rain at Sunland, one inch of rain faUing in an hour and fifteen minutes during the noon hour. Much water and considerable silt, rocks, eroded soil, and debris were brought down the stream and deposited in the wash of the stream, but the water failed to reach a volume which would cause damage to lands outside the canyon. During the year the check dams in the canyon were constructed, some of them being in time to catch this storm. The result and effect of these dams, installed in Empire Canyon, will be discussed later. Storm and Flood of ipi6. The storms of January, 1916, were much heavier than those of 1914 and the heaviest for which there is any record in this locality. The month began with a storm and the Los Angeles record for the first ten days was 2.91 inches. On the fourteenth the big storm began which lasted six days and produced a precipitation of 6.90 inches, followed by another storm four days later which gave a precipitation of 3.49 inches in five days. The first of these brought almost as much water as did the one of February two years previous, and did as much, if not more, damage, but the second storm caused by far the greater losses, as the ground was completely saturated and the streams were still at flood. The Effect of the Check Dams. In all, over five hundred dams have been constructed in this drain- age basin, the greater portion being built of rock, though where the bed of the stream was not stable brush fagots were used to prevent the movement of the soil and to check the velocity of the water. More of these dams were built in the upper reaches of the canyon than lower down in order to keep the soil movement as high up in the area as possible. The movement of small bodies of water down one of these small side canyons was studied,* and it was found that with six dams installed on a 23 per cent grade the velocity was changed to that of a slope of 5.2 per cent. * Report of F. H. Olmsted in Board of Engineers Flood Control to Board of Supervisors of Los Angeles County, 1915. CONTROL OF FLOOD WATER IxV SOUTHERN CALIFORNLX 427 The big storms of January, 1916, gave these dams a most severe test and the results show clearly the value of such work. Thus in 191 4 this Sunland drainage basin had a maximum discharge of over 700 second- feet per square mile, while in 191 5. during the peak of the storm, the water failed to reach the Tejunga wash, into which it emp- ties. At the mouth of the canyon there was a discharge which amounted to but eight second-feet and this water was clear and free from debris, while during the flood of 1914 the stream was exceedingly muddy, turbid, and was impassable. During the 1914 flood period no schqol could be held at Littlelands, as the children were unable to get to the school-house on account of the high water. In 19 16 children crossed the stream and assembled at the school-house during the storm, though, fearing a repetition of the flood of 19 1 4, the trustees closed the school. At no time since the dams were installed has this stream been impassable, nor has there been any damage caused by the high water, a statement which cannot be made of any other drainage area in this region. As mentioned before, but one small side canyon in the main drain- age had the dams in place during the second 191 5 storm. The first storm, which did not have near the intensity of the second, caused a large debris cone to be built up at the mouth of this canyon of twenty- two acres. After the dams had been built, during the second storm, no surface water reached the main stream, and where water was found in this canyon it was clear and free from debris which found lodgment in the basins behind the dams. All the other streams in this drainage were muddy and swollen and eroded their channels badly. Adjoining Haines Canyon is another area heading up on the same peak with an area of but half that of Haines and with a fairly heavy stand of chaparral throughout. During the flood of 1916 this stream did considerable damage to its channel and to adjacent lands, while with a storm in October, 1916, amounting to 3.40 inches at Littlelands, it discharged enough water to carry gravel to the county highways half a mile distant from its mouth, while during this same storm, in the adjoining canyon, there was no appreciable rise in the stream nor was the water dirty or muddy. In February, 19 17, a recording stream gauge was installed in time to catch the discharge from the heaviest storm of the season. The daily discharge in second-feet per unit area from this canyon is shown on figure i (in dark) for the period from February to Alay, 19 17. while there is also shown (in light) the discharge reduced to the same unit area on the same scale of the Little Santa Anita Canvon. which 428 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY has a very similar topography, altitudinal range, and characteristics, and geological formation. From the most casual comparison of the two areas the differences in the discharge is apparent. The hatched portion below the blocks indicates the amount of precipitation received, there being too little difference in the rainfall, either in intensity or in amount, to account for the great variation in the amount of water. Fig. I While there is an increase in the flow from Haines Canyon with each heavy precipitation, this increase is exceedingly slight when compared to the very rapid run-off and high discharge for the other canyon during the same period. It is to be noted, in addition, the rapidity of the fall from the maximum which occurs in the stream without the dams and the sustained high flow of the canyon with the dams, which CONTROL OF FLOOD WATER IN SOUTH KRN CALIFORXLX 429 up to the period of the chart is relatively constant. This flow likewise held up all during the past summer season, while the other stream dropped considerably when the hot weather commenced in earnest, though data is unavailable at this time. There is one other point which deserves much consideration and which was not considered when the work was first begun. It has been mentioned that the settling basins held more or less of the transported soil, which acted as storage reservoirs. Much of this water that is so held back does not get into the stream again, but sinks into the gravels and supplies the underground water basin. How much this amounts to probably can never be determined, for practically all of the valley floor is underlaid by a big artesian belt. At the lower end of the debris cone on which Littlelands is built and which is the debris cone of Haines Canyon are a number of wells, and since these dams have been installed the water-level in these has raised around 50 feet, in spite of a deficiency in the precipitation and the increased amount of pumping due to the lessened flow from the various canyons nearby, and to an increase in the acreage of improved lands irrigated by water from the pumping plants. From the work done it is easy to see the efficiency of these dams in reducing flood peaks, preventing soil transportation, and increasing the water supply. Such work is only the forerunner of much that is to be done and may be of as much value where rains are abundant, as in the Southwest, with its freakish and abnormal annual precipita- tions. REVIEWS The Available Resources of the German Forests. Les Resources Re- alisables des Forets Allomandes, G. Huffel, 15 pp. Professor G. Huffel, of the Nancy Forest School, proposes a scheme in a special brochure for utilizing the mature and near-mature timber of the German forests to meet the reconstruction needs of France and her allies. He estimates that France will need 32,000,000,000 board feet^ in the next five years to repair the damage of the war and that Great Britain must import during the same period 20 billion feet. Italy, Belgium and Serbia will need 10 billion more. So that the total requirements of the allies will amount to 62 billions. To this should be added the probable needs of Germany for the next five years. These are estimated at 64 billions, based on pre-war imports and home production. To meet this requirement of 119 billion feet Germany alone has over 67 billion feet of mature timber in her State forests, while the communal and private forests have 62 billions more, or a total of 130 billion board feet. To this could be added the forest resources of Austria, 8,500,000 acres cutting 240 board feet per acre, and those of Hungary with its 2,500,000 acres of State forests alone. M. Huffel's plan is to have the exploitation of this mature timber carried out by allied prisoners working under the direction of the commanders of the army of occupation, spreading the operation over five years. Germany would, of course, be charged a reasonable price for the lumber which she used. He is at considerable pains to explain that this appropriation of the German forest resources is fully justified under the circumstances and that unless some such scheme is carried out France will be greatly weakened. Her forest wealth is so depleted by the ravages of the Hun and the forced cutting to meet military demands that a century will be required to repair the damage. "Pour reconstituer une foret il ne faut pas seulement un sacrifice d'argent, il faut du temps." But the most interesting part of the brochure to the forester are the figures upon which is based the estimate of mature timber. There ' Figuring one cubic meter to make 200 feet board measure. This figure might be increased by 25 per cent. 430 REVIEWS 431 is not space to give these in full, but two tables follow which summarize the most important data. The figures are based on official German statistics of 1900. Apparently it is assumed that these are conservative and that the growth will offset any overcutting or neglect that may have occurred during the stress of war. The total forest area of the German Empire, excluding Alsace-Lorraine, is 33,500,000 acres divided as follows : Per cent Crown forests 2 State forests ^^2 Communal forests 14 Corporation forests 3 Private forests 49 100 8,800,000 acres are covered with mature timber which is divided into age classes, by species, as follows : Oak Beech Pine Spruce Fir Total Stands 61-80 yrs 2% 10% 20% 9% 1% 42% Stands 81-100 yrs i 9 13 6 i 30 Stands loi yrs. and over 3 8 11 5 i 28 6 27 44 20 3 100 The total stand of 130,000,000,000 board feet is distributed as follows among the upper age classes : Oak Beech Pine Spruce and Fir Total Stands 61-80 yrs 1% 5% 11% 9% 26% Stands 81-100 yrs i 7 10 10 28 Stands loi yrs. and over.... 4 14 15 13 46 6 26 36 2,2 100 The total stand on the State forests, 67 billion board feet, has a stumpage value of approximately $20 per thousand. K. W. W. Meddclandcn fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt. Hdfte 15, 1918. (Contribution from the Swedish State Forest Experiment Station, March 15, 1918.) A publication of unusual interest is the annual report of the Swedish Forest Experiment Station for 1918, which has recently appeared in print. A large portion of it is taken up by administrative reports of the various divisions. These are as follows : I. Forestry Division. II. Research Division. III. Entomological Laboratory. 433 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY IV. Division of Experimentation in Natural Reproduction in Norrland. The activities of each division during the year 191 7 and also for the triennial period 1915-1917 are outlined. The following articles are printed in full : Edward Wibeck : Widens kulturplog. Experiments with a plow designed for cultivation and seeding in the forest. Summary in German. Pp. 17-42. Gosta Mellstrom : Skogstradens frosJittning ar 1917. A survey of the seed crop of different species in Sweden, together with a discussion of climatic conditions affecting seed development. Such a report is prepared annually. Pp. 43-68. Summary in German. Ivar Tragardh : Skoginsekternas skadegorelse under ar 1916. A survey of insect damage during the year 1916, based mainly upon reports by field officers. The article also contains technical descriptions of the work of several of the important forest insects. Pp. 69-116. Nils Sylven : 1917 ars knackesjuka i norra Vastergotland. A pine disease which has done great damage to forest plantations in northern Vastergotland. Pp. 192-204. Summary in German. L. Mattson : Stormharjningen i norra Dalarna hosten 1917. An account of damage by a tornado in northern Dalarna in the fall of 1917. Pp. 205-220. Summary in German. Ivar Tragardh: Tallbocken (Monochamus sutor L.). A technical account of the activities of a pine borer which damages both living and dead trees. Pp. 221-232. Summary in German. Sven Petrini : Formpunktsmetoden och dess anvadning for formklassbestamning och kubering. A method of obtaining the form class and volume of single trees by the use of the form point, based upon spruce material. Pp. 233-274. Summary in English. An outline of the program for the period 19 18- 1920, inclusive, which is summarized in English as well as German, is here reprinted. I. THE PROBLEM OF FOREST REGENERATION (a) Seed Investigations. Pine and spruce seed from different parts of Norrland shall be investigated yearly so far as the supply of cones will admit (F^). The investigation shall begin in a seed year suitable for the determination of the best time for gathering cones (S) and for the storage of forest seed (S and F). The biology of germination shall be studied in the case of the most important forest trees, with especial attention to the conditions of germination offered by the soil ' The letters in the text have the following meaning : S, indicates the Forest section; N, the Physical section; E, the Entomological section, and F, the section for regeneration experiments in Norrland. REVIEWS 433 (N). The existing sample plots shall be re-examined, and the results published (S). New sample plots shall be gradually laid out further south (S), with North Swedish pines and, in co-operation with other Scandinavian institutes of experimental forestry, concerning beech, oak, spruce, and alder (S). One or more series of experiments shall be instituted at different heights above sea-level with pine seed col- lected from different adjacent levels (F). The productivity of the seed trees shall be investigated with the object of determining the lowest age in different districts of the country at which such trees can suitably be left (Sj. The total quantity of cones from certain selected trees shall be collected annually, and the quantity and the quality of the seed obtained therefrom shall be investigated (F). Cones shall be collected from old pines and spruces in Norrland, and the quantity and the quality of the seed obtained therefrom shall be investigated (F). (b) Special measures for securing natural forest regeneration. Existing experiments with different large clearings and gaps and thinnings shall be controlled and published (S). New experiments by means of thinning in accordance with Wagner's method, or by other methods of cutting shall be arranged when time permits; and in this connection attention shall be paid to the seed-producing capacity and success in regeneration attained by the margins of the stand at dift"erent points of the compass in the areas cleared (S). Areas intended to throw light upon the scattering of the seed, etc., on the tracts cleared in Norrland shall be laid out in four new series with a total area of about i6 hectares (F). Areas intended to compare the value of dif- ferent treatments of the ground soil shall be laid out in Norrland in five new series with a total area of about 12 hectares (F) ; and in ad- dition to this a few series of experiments in ground preparation shall be carried out in old spruce forests that have been thinned. Material shall be steadily collected regarding the effect of measures for refor- estation on the humus covering of the ground (N). (c) Silvicultural measures. The experiments instituted for de- termining the most suitable sowing time in Norrland shall be continued (F). Seven new series of plots, intended to compare different methods of sowing, shall be laid out in Norrland with a total area of about 2.3 hectares (F). Plots designed for investigating the most suitable age of the clearings for silviculture in Norrland, for which the laying out of two series has begun, shall be augmented by three new series (F). The course of growth in the roots of planted trees shall be investigated with a view to discovering the most suitable times of planting (N). 43-i JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Plots designed to compare different methods of planting shall be laid out in eight new series with a total area of about 2.4 hectares (F). Older forest cultures carried out by notch planting shall be investigated, so far as opportunity offers (S and F). Existing forest cultures of pine and spruce, with various distances between the plants, shall be revised if need be (S), and new ones shall be laid out in the south and center of Sweden in the experimental parks contemplated (S). In Norrland five new series of such sample plots shall be laid out with a total area of about 6.6 hectares, both the older plots and these being supplemented with auxiliary planting (F). Plots intended for in- vestigating the prospects of sowing and planting on different types of bog after draining shall be laid out in Norrland in twelve new series with a total area not exceeding 4.8 hectares (F). (See also 5^ below.) II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST STANDS (a) Productive yield of the forests and forest stands. The investi- gations instituted in order to study the stem form of forest trees, es- pecially pines, shall be continued (S). Material shall be collected and worked up for obtaining yield tables for pine and birch after a thorough low thinning (S). The oak shall be studied, especially on Visingso, in order to make out a preliminary stand survey of its development (S). Studies shall be made on the length of the growing period in the most common forest trees (N). (b) Measures for the care of stands. Existing sample plots shall be re-examined and thinned if necessary (S). New plots shall be instituted in different stands for studying the effect of thinning, es- pecially of pine and birch in Norrland, but so far as time permits also in mixed coniferous forests and spruce stands (S) ; and in these attention should be paid to the possibility of setting apart for purposes of comparison untouched areas. III. DISEASES AND INJURIES TO FOREST TREES (a) Injuries caused by adverse weather conditions shall be studied when opportunity offers, especially on the sample plots (S). (b) Diseases and injuries caused by fungi. Studies of rot fungi may also be eventually made (N). (c) Damages caused by insects (E). Investigations upon. Continued investigations shall be carried out, on the same methods as before upon the influence of the time of cut- REVIEWS 435 ting, the effect of the attacks on the crown on the growth and trunk formation, and the geographical distribution and rate of propagation of the two kinds of pine beetles in different parts of the country, and the best method of preparing trap trees. Investigations into bark beetles. Continued studies of the distribu- tion, biology, and importance of the different species in the various parts of the country. Studies of the development of the bark beetle in spruce and its connection with the climatic factors and the consequent importance of the time of cutting. The best method of preparing trap trees to be investigated. Investigations into insects injurious to spruce and pine cones. These shall be continued according to the same plan as before, supplemented by investigations into the cone fauna during the summer. Experiments on the possibility, by investigating spruce cones in the summer, of predicting the quality of the cones, and experiments in killing the larvae of the spruce-cone moth by hydrocyanic acid. Investigations upon insects injurious to forest-tree plants in nur- series. Investigations into saw flies and other injurious insects that may possibly occur. Other investigations. The investigations that have begun upon Bupalus ptniarius should be continued. Studies in the importance of Pissodes and Magdalis, especially on the pine heaths of Norrland. Studies in certain technical damage-doers, such as those done by the Lamia sutor and Tetropium and in means of fighting them. Commencement of studies in the sazv flies of pine and spruce trees. See also under 5^ and 6. TV. RACES OF FOREST TREES AND THE USEFULNESS OF FOREIGN TREES IN SWEDEN (a) Studies in races of spruce and pine. The cultures which have so far been or will be established of spruce seed collected for this purpose shall be followed and watched carefully (N), and, in addi- tion to this, experiments should be instituted in fertilization with pure races (N). (b) German spruce seed. Existing plantations, carried out by the forest authorities with plantings of spruce from different places in Central Europe, shall be sought out and registered (S). (c) Larch. The permanent sample plots shall be re-examined when necessary, and thinned, with the object of obtaining yield tables 436 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY for the larch species in Sweden (S). Experimental cultures are to be carried out with different races of larch (S). (d) The silver fir. Sample plots in existing stands of silver fir shall be laid out, to a limited extent, and thinning experiments shall be made with the object of investigating the growing capacity of those stands in comparison with that of the common spruce. V. INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING FOREST LAND (a) Types of soil. A detailed study shall be undertaken into the forms of humus in coniferous forests (N), and the studies of the proc- ess of podsolization shall be worked up for publication (N). After this the mould soils of the forest shall be made the subject of investi- gation ( N ) . Ling-heaths. The mapping already accomplished shall be prepared for publication (S) ; likewise also the experiments or valuations in forest culture that have been made on ling-heaths with the object of showing examples of their productivity for purposes of practical for- estry (S). Other studies of ling-heaths shall be continued (N). (c) The ivater-logging of the forests. The work begun on this subject shall be prepared for publication (N). {d) The freezing of forest grounds. The phenomena of freezing shall be studied, partly in combination with experiments in practical silviculture (N and F). (e) The conversion of moss lands into forest land. Experiments in draining that have already been carried out shall be studied with reference to the conversion of nitrogen (N). An examination of older ditching that has been effected in Norrland in connection with silvicultural experiments (F). See also under I (c). (/) Investigations into the influence of the life of lozver animals on the nature of the soil shall be carried out, in addition to other ways, by the survey of clearings and of undisturbed stands (N and E). VI. OTHER WORK The preparation of reports by Royal Foresters on the setting of seed of forest trees shall be continued (S). Annual reports shall be issued of the injuries done by insects in the forest (E). Minor in- vestigations which affect spheres of work in the different sections shall be carried out when opportunitv offers (S. N, E. and F). G. A. P. REVIEWS 437 Report of the Connecticut State Park Commission for the Tivo Fis- cal Years Ended September ^o, ipi8. Hartford, 1919. 36 pp., 12 plates. This report raises at once in the mind of the reader the question as to what constitutes the dividing Hne between a State Park and a State Forest. Since its creation in 19 14 the Connecticut State Park Commission has acquired an area of 3,150 acres, scattered through some 18 towns and inchiding mountain tops, woodlands, and river, lake, and seashore frontage. Of this area the State Forester estimates that approximately 3,000 acres are already forested or are suited for forest purposes. In other words, the forest land acquired for State Parks does not fall far short of the 3,702 acres now included in State Forests in Connecticut. Furthermore, nearly two-thirds of the State Park area is included in a single tract, most of which is covered with a stand of second-growth hardwoods. Appropriations for the State Park Commission and for the Forestry Department have so far not differed widely. During the last two years> for example, the Park Commission has received an appropriation of $25,000, $20,000 of which has been for the acquisition of land, while the Forestry Department has received an appropriation of $31,000, $10,000 of which has been for the purchase and maintenance of State Forests. The Park Commission, however, has ambitious plans, the accomplishment of which would leave the State Forests far in the rear. Two years ago it stated its belief that in the next decade the State should spend four or five million dollars for park purposes, and asked for a specific appropriation of $150,000 for the acquisition of lands, suggesting at the same time the wisdom of issuing bonds to cover such an appropriation. This year it is asking for an appro- priation of $200,000 for the purchase of land and of $170,000' for development work. The request is justified on the ground that an immediate demonstration is needed of what is meant by a State Park in its largest and fullest sense, since "a. park is not a park until it is used and enjoyed by the people to whom it belongs." On general principles it would seem to be better policy to devote the bulk of this money to the acquisition of State Forests. Areas now under consideration by the Park Commission could be secured and their recreational possibilities developed, while at the same time their forest resources could be improved and utilized under the direc- tion of the Forestry Department. The Secretary of the Park Com- mission defines State Parks as being "for the use and enjoyment of the 438 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY people of Connecticut." So far as forest lands are concerned, these requirements can be met satisfactorily by publicly owned forests administered by trained foresters, as has been amply demonstrated in the case of the National Forests and State Forests elsewhere. In Minnesota, for example, the State Parks are under the supervision of the State Forester, and in general are handled in the same way as State Forests, while in New Hampshire even the Crawford Notch Reservation, which was acquired primarily for scenic purposes, comes under the jurisdiction of the State Forester. The intimate relation that exists between State Parks and State Forests is evidently recognized by Connecticut through its action in making the State Forester an ex-officio member of the Commission, and in appointing another forester (H. H. Chapman) as a member of the Commission. It would seem preferable, however, to go much further than this and either to transfer the bulk of the work now being handled by the Park Commission to the Forestry Department, or at least for the Commission to turn over to the latter for administration such forested areas as it may acquire. With the possible exception of limited areas fronting on Long Island Sound, practically all of the tracts being acquired by the Park Commission could be used to ex- cellent advantage for forest purposes. The majority of these tracts could undoubtedly be made a paying investment, both from a recrea- tional and a purely business point of view, while mountain tops, to which the Park Commission appears to be very partial, could be used as fire lookout stations. Unless some such consolidation as that suggested can be made eflrective, there is almost sure to be more or less overlapping of the work of the State Park Commission and the For- estry Department and tying up of forest lands which could equally well be used for forest purposes without in any way interfering with their recreational value. PERIODICAL LITERATURE First of German Periodicals The first magazine literature from Germany that has reached us since the beginning of the war is made up of two issues of v. Tubeuf 's Naturzvissenchaftliclie Zeitschrift fiir Forst imd Landzvirfscliaft. Their dates give us an inkling as to conditions under which they are published ; the first being a double number for January-February, 1918, the second combining the months March to August under one cover (without explanation). War conditions are also reflected in a lengthy account of methods to gather beechnuts for their oil to eke out the scarcity of fats. It appears that 1916 was a beech mast, and, remarkable to tell. 19 18 promised even a better mast, which usually occurs only in periods of 4 to 7 years. One hundred pages are devoted to the distribution in Switzerland of the mistletoe and to the insects feeding on it. The most important contribution, and of interest to us, consists of a symposium on the production of rosin, needed in so many in- dustries and not obtainable by importation. It also covers around 100 pages in 12 articles by various authors, the outcome of studies, experiments, and practices under the direction of a war commission. The Scotch pine and Norway spruce are the species concerned. Various methods of tapping the trees are described and their re- sults compared. The "American" pot method and an improvement (?) by Splettstoesser called the "fishbone" method are found the most satisfactory, leaving the preference of these two undetermined. Briefs of the several articles will appear in the subsequent numbers of the Journal. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY Fischer, of the Berne botanical garden, re- Heredity ports an interesting proof of the heredity of of monstrosities or sportive forms. A specimen Spruce of Norwa}' sprvice- — Picea excelsa virgata Cran- Sports stonii Carr. — which developed without branches — a serpentine spruce — bore fruit in 1905. no attempt having been made to control pollination. The many seedlings 439 440 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY arising from the sowing showed the greatest variety of forms from normal to those showing from the start the serpentine type. The most striking, pictured, shows at the base a number of sparely twigged branches; from the year 1913 it has grown without any branches and for the five years following the annual shoots were 14, 16, 12, 14, 7 inches, the total height being 10 feet. Other measurements are re- corded, making the average annual shoot of the branchless plant 10 inches. (Since no precautions were taken to prevent cross- fertili- zation the Mendelian law could not be tested.) A specimen of pro- nounced serpentine spruce type was transplanted in 191 5, which changed its habit completely in that on main stem and branches densely bushy shoots developed ; the original specimen transplanted, also in 19 15, showed the same change, suggesting that the transplanting was the cause of the change. An account of branchless Abies is to be found in Forestry Quarterly, XIV, P- 323- Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, January-February, 1919, p. 10. Freda Detmers describes two new varieties of Acer Acer rubrum L. One, which he calls var. viride, rubrum is so called from its most striking feature, its Varieties greenness. The leaves develop early, from one to two weeks before those of surrounding trees, and are green as soon as they unfold. Samaras are also always green. The other variety , rubro carpum, seemingly based upon one specimen distinguishes itself, and making it conspicuous, even among red maples, by the deep red of the buds, young twigs, flowers, mature fruit, and unfolding leaves. Ohio Journal of Science, February. 1919, pp. 235-7. SOIL, WATER, AND CLIMATE R. F. Griggs gives an account of the effects Effect on vegetation of the eruption of the crater of of Katmai (situated in an uninhabited wilderness Volcanic in Alaska near Kadiak) in July, 19 12. Summar- Bruption izing the result of the tremendous cataclysm, we learn that 7,300 square miles were covered with ash so deeply as to destroy the smaller plants ; that rains bearing sul- phuric acid in such concentration as to destroy gardens occurred as PERIODICAL LITERATURE 441 much as 300 miles from the volcano ; that death-dealing blasts from the volcano killed trees 25 miles away, destroying the forest over an area of more than 1,500 square miles; that ashfall, so heavy as to ob- literate all herbaceous plants except on steep hillsides, etc., covered an area of about 970 square miles ; that mud flows so hot as to reduce to charcoal all vegetation with which they came in contact were poured out over an area of about 53 square miles ; that an area of about 39 square miles, in which there is no trace of former vegetation, was probably swept by fires of great intensity, making the total area in which all life was annihilated 140 square miles. The investigation into the exact causes of the character of the destruction in the different zones of destruction remained rather in- conclusive, whether in a given zone ashes or heat or acid, rain or hot blast or heated mud flow was to be held responsible could not with certainty be determined. The investigation reported was made three years after the eruption. The herbaceous vegetation was found to be partially restored on areas covered with ash to the depth of not more than one foot. Certain grasses and the scouring rush in great luxu- riance have overrun large areas. A river in flood in 191 5 washed away a mantle of ash from three to six feet deep and many plants which had lain dormant for three years resumed their vegetative activities. Explanations of the cause of this dormancy are again inconclusive. The trees suffered much more than the herbaceous vegetation, since they were not protected by the ash covering. In order of injury the author lists alder, birch, balsam, poplar, and willows. The latter have the advantage in putting forth adventitious roots in abundance in the new soil and go on with little apparent indication of disturbance. The alder was completely exterminated and the birch nearly so. Dormant buds protected by heavy bark from poisonous or scorching blasts have carried on the life of many poplar trees for three years, but it is ap- parent from the illustrations of the text that most of them will finally succumb. The Ohio Journal of Science, January, 1919, pp. 173-209. SILVICULTURE. PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION As a result of planting experiments instituted Forcstation in in November, 1909. with i -year-old seedlings, L. Central France Chancerel concludes that Q. paliistris, Q. rubra, O. phcUos. Betula nigra, Alnus cordifolia, Populus balsamifcra, and P. nigra (var. angnlata robiista for single trees) in 4:4:2 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the case of hardwoods; and Pinus niaritiiiia (var. corte) in mixture with P. sylvestris, Pseudotsitga douglasii (P. taxifolia, variety not men- tioned), Picea menziesii, and Cedrus deodara (for single trees) in the case of conifers, are to be particularly recommended. These conclu- sions are based on the assumption that it is desired to obtain the max- imum amount of woody material in the shortest time and to increase rapidly the value of the poor silicious soils in the region concerned. These soils, which are very dry in summer and wet in places in winter, present most unfavorable conditions for agriculture. The English and pedunculate oaks were found to be unsuitable be- cause of their very light foliage during the first years and their liability to injury from fungi. Q. phellos made the best growth of the oaks, reaching a diameter of 12 centimeters at one meter from the ground, a merchantable length of two meters, and a total height of five meters. On the basis of 5,000 plants per acre, it produced about 12 cubic meters per hectare in 10 years. Betula alba, B. populifolia, and B. papyracea (papyrifera) all grew well, but were surpassed by B. nigra, which reached a diameter of 24 centimeters and showed a production of 50 cubic meters per hectare in 10 years. Approximately the same production was attained by Alnns cordifolia. Of the poplars. Popiihis nigra Cvar. angnlata robusta) did the best, while P. balsamifera was also considered worthy of note, pro- ducing a large dense crown and having the power of reproducing by layers. Elm, maple, basswood, ash, hornbeam, chestnut, hickory, and walnut all did poorly. Among the conifers maritime pine is regarded as the most satisfac- tory species, several specimens obtaining a diameter of 24 centimeters, a height of 5 meters, and a production of 50 cubic meters per hectare in 10 years. The author believes that this species has suffered vm- justly in popular esteem because of the severe frosts of the winter of 1879-80, which killed a number of stands of maritime pine in Central France. He points out that temperatures as low as those of that winter are very rare, and that maritime pine has proved able to resist a tem- perature of — 16 degrees. If one does not care to plant it in pure stands, he recommends it heartily in mixture with other species, and points out that its growth during the first 10 years is extremely rapid. P. syhestris (var. riga and var. scotica) has done well, but is much slower growing than the maritime pine. Curiously enough jack pine, while exhibiting about the same rate of growth as the Scotch pine, is PERIODICAL LITERATURE 443 said to suffer from drought during the summer, as a result of which a number have died. Abies concolor is the only one of the firs that has proved to be vigorous. Cedrus dcodara, like the Atlas cedar and the cedar of Lebanon, is slow growing, but maintains its growth better than those species and is also ornamental. Picea excclsa has not done so well as P. mencicsii. Among the American conifers special mention is made of Psciido- tsuga douglasii (taxifolia) , which attains a diameter of i8 centimeters and a height of 4 meters. It is regarded by the author as a tree of the future which grows on the most unfavorable soils. S. T. D. Les Meilleures Essences de Boisement dans Region du Centre. L. Chancerel. Revue des Eaiix et Forets. February, 1919, Vol. 57, pp. 31-33. The preponderance of spruce in north-central Root Habits Canada is usually ascribed to its greater tolerance of Trees in of low temperatures than that of the predomi- Northern Canada nating trees of the more temperate climates. It is frequently inferred that the direct effect of tem- perature upon physiological processes controls plant distribution in the far north. Howard E. Pulling shows how low temperatures may retard the growth or limit the size of certain arborescent species in an indirect way. The root habits of Picea mariana, Pinus banksiana, Larix laricina, Betula papyrifera, Populns balsamifera and Pinus strobus were stud- ied in the Province of Manitoba between latitude 55° N. and 56° N., and longitude 96° W. and 98° W. in a uniform clay soil and in a sandy soil near the south shore of Lake Superior in Douglas Countv, Wisconsin. The main characteristics of the root systems are exhibited in dimensioned figures. The soil was found to be generally shallow and frozen at depths ranging from 2 meters on the exposed south slopes to 3 cm. on flat benches with a northern exposure which acted as a mechanical barrier to root penetration. These trees were found to differ not only in their root habits, as they do in their top habits, but also in the rigidity with which the habits are maintained under varying environmental conditions. This investigation is summarized as follows : Root systems may be classified as deep whtn the habit is centered about a main deeply penetrating tap root and shallow when such a tap root is absent, and the roots remain near the surface of the soil. 444 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Various degrees of transition may be recognized, but the important point is that some trees have a very rigid root habit, while with others it is more flexible. Deep-root systems of an inflexible nature cannot produce large trees in shallow soils, whether the shallowness is caused by rock or ice. Trees whose root systems are flexible and are not too deep-rooted in deep soils may endure shallow soils. The degree of flexibility of habit and the degree of penetration in deep soils may determine the northward distribution of many plants, regardless of relations between the plant and its environment that may exclude other species from those regions. Of the species studied, black spruce, tamarack, and birch are classed as having a rigid shallow-root habit ; white spruce, a flexible shallow-root habit ; balsam poplar, a deep, flexible-root habit ; jack pine and white pine, a deep, rigid-root habit. C. F. K. Pulling, Howard E. : Root Habit and Plant Distribution in the Far North. The Plant World 21 : 223-233, September, 1918. MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT M. Arnould cites an article by the President Forest of the Royal Scottish Arborcultural Society in Taxation the Society bulletin for July, 19 18, as proof that in England the increasing burden of forest taxation is not peculiar to France, but exists also in England. In the article referred to, the Duke of Buccleuch gives figures for two tracts owned by him, on the first of which the annual tax amounts to 122 per cent of the annual revenue, and on the other to 132 per cent of the revenue. Without the supertax imposed as a result of the war the other taxes in the first case would have absorbed nearly 86 per cent of the revenue, and in the second case nearly 100 per cent. Particular attention is called to the fact that forest products are the only kind of property forced to pay both the so-called "death duty," amounting to 21 per cent of the value of the products sold, and the income and supertaxes amounting to 5254 per cent. Figures are quoted from the report of the Forestry Subcommittee of the Recon- struction Committee to prove the impracticability of reforestation under such taxes as these. In the case of a Sitka spruce plantation, for instance, the net loss under these taxes at the end of a 70-year rotation at five per cent interest would be 285 pounds 18 shillings per acre, and at 2)/, per cent 29 pounds 7 shillings. M. Arnould concludes his paper with renewed emphasis on the injustice of present methods PERIODICAL LITERATURE 445 of forest taxation in England and France, and the hope that forest owners in England will be able to secure a revision of the income tax as applied to forests on a fair and rational basis which can be adapted to French legislation. S. T. D. Revue ties Eaux et Forets. January, 1919, Vol. 57, pp. 2-3. UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY In a review of Swiss conditions during the Siviss Notes war, Barbey refers to the large exportations of forest products for use of the American Army, which last spring brought the price of fir logs in the woods to 48 and 54 cents per cubic foot, which may be figured at $60 to $65 per thousand feet b. m. This astonishingly high price is exceeded for certain other species, e. g., white pine (our P. strobiis, which is a regular market article in Switzerland) for match manufacture, at 75 cents per cubic foot or over $90 per thousand feet. Railroad ties doubled in the last four years to about 50 cents a cubic foot or $2.50 per tie. Meanwhile, transport charges on railroads have increased 80 to 100 per cent. The Journal Forcstier Suisse also brings statistics on this subject. Standing timber of spruce and fir in another place was sold at from 20 to 38 cents ($25 to $36 per thousand feet board measure) with a cost of 3 to 4 cents for cutting and 8 to 14 cents for delivering at mill or railroad, so that the cost of logs may go up to $70 per thousand feet board measure. Comparison with prices of 191 7 shows increases of 30 to 40 per cent and more. The maximum prices fixed by the Department of the Interior for 1918-19 run from 40 cents to 58 cents per, cubic foot, free on board or mill. According to Barbey the problem of supplying the pulp and paper factories has become an important one. At one time these were on the point of closing because of the demand for firewood, and the industry was also threatened with paralysis because of the closure of the fron- tiers. The Cantons have just been forced to set aside a certain amount of wood for the paper mills, which will hereafter have to pay 32 francs per cubic meter for unbarked wood 10 centimeters and more in diameter delivered on the wagon. While the war has brought about intensive utilization of the Swiss forests, foresters are also devoting considerable attention to the ques- tion of better forest management. In 19 13 consumption exceeded 446 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY production by 700,000 cubic meters per year. Foresters have figured that this deficit could be wiped out by increasing the production of the 600,000 hectares of communal forest (67 per cent of all the Swiss forests) by i.i cubic meters per hectare per year. Foresters be- lieve that this increase could be brought about if the forests were placed under the exclusive direction of technically trained men, who would see to it that proper thinnings were made, that formerly unused spaces were utilized, and that the stands were maintained in full production by the application of the appropriate silvicultural system, the selection system apparently being the most generally favored. As an example of what can be done in the handling of communal forests the author cites the action of the Canton of Vaud. At the instigation of the Vaud Society of Foresters, the Canton Legislature in February, 1918, voted to reorganize the Forest Service. As a result of this reorganization the Cantonal Inspector now has a force of 20 local inspectors, each of whom is responsible for an area not exceeding 4,000 hectares, while previously there were only 11 such inspectors each responsible for an area comprising from 7,000 to 11,000 hectares. One of the first efifects of this change will be to make possible the decennial revision of working plans for the federal and communal forests, which comprise respectively 4 per cent and 67 per cent of the total forest area of the Canton. The author emphasizes the fact that such revisions of working plans ought to be undertaken by for- esters permanently in charge of the forest concerned rather than by foresters who visit the areas only occasionally for the specific purpose of revising the working plans. He expresses the hope that the example of Vaud may be followed by other Cantons throughout Switzerland, where the average acreage assigned to a forester now amounts to 8,579 hectares, which he considers altogether too large for even moderately intensive management. The author concludes his paper with an expression of joy at the signing of the armistice and of regret that it will mean the departure of the French foresters who have been interned in Switzerland. B. E. F. S. T. D. Chroiiique Suisse. A. Barbey. Revue des Eaux et Forets, February, 1919, pp. 21-24. Journal Forestier Suisse, Janvier, 191Q, pp. 31-32. PERIODICAL literature; 447 MISCELLANEOUS The strategic importance of forests in the pres- Forests ent war is pointed out in an interesting article by in the J. Demorlaine. He recognizes, of course, the War vakie of the forests as producers of wood of all sorts for military purposes and the tactical im- portance of small bodies of woods as shelter for machine guns, ob- servation posts, etc., but believes that the most important role of the forests in war is the protection afforded by continuous stands covering considerable areas. He points out that it was the great forests of Alsace, of the V'osges, and of Lorraine that enabled the French in 1914 to stop the advance of the German armies at the crest of the Vosges. It was the forests of Trois-Fontaine that enabled the French to save Saint-Dizier, an important nucleus of roads and rail- ways. Paris, both in 1914 and in July, 1918, was saved by the forests of Villers-Cotterets and of Compiegne. In 1918 the retreat of the Ger- mans was similarly favored by the great forests of the Ardennes and only the rapidity of the Allied offensive and the heroism of the Allied troops prevented the Germans from holding their ground in these forests much longer than they actually succeeded in doing. M. Demorlaine closes his article with a plea that the devastated forests be left to recover themselves in peace. He advocates making the Germans repay the French in kind for the forest products which they have destroyed and which they have forced the French to use in their own defense. It is interesting to note that a special plea is made to do away for good with the intensive hunting which formerly used to be carried on in these forest regions. Military operations are said to have driven out the rodents which formerly infested the forests, and the author believes that they can be prevented from again becoming a pest if hunting is prohibited. S. T. D. L. importance strategique des forcts et la querre. J. Demorlaine. Revue des Haux et Forets, February, 19 19, pp. 25-30. EDITORIAL COMMENT Why Not a Union for Foresters? We believe that Mr. Leopold has touched upon a very vital problem in his article entitled "Forest Service Salaries and the Future of the National Forests," which appears in this issue of the Journal. In our judgment there is no doubt that the present low salaries for foresters, outside as well as inside the Forest Service, constitute a very real obstacle to the progress of forestry in this country, if they do not indeed endanger the results already secured. Inadequate com- pensation is further aggravated by lack of freedom for the develop- ment of initiative, lack of public support, lack of recognition by other scientific workers, and lack of opportunities for the practice of the profession. In addition to increased salaries, we need to place forestry on a higher plane scientifically, and to secure unquestioned acceptance of the necessity for forestry as an essential element in the national life. In the consideration of ways and means to better the present situa- tion we should like to suggest one addition to the remedies mentioned by Mr. Leopold. We heartily approve of the Federal Employees Unions and agree with him that they merit the support of every for- ester in the Forest Service. But are these unions enough? They are composed of employees of every grade, from charwoman to bu- reau chief; taken as a whole they are more interested in improving conditions for clerical than for technical workers ; and their member- ship and field of activity are limited to the Government service. Would not the interests of foresters and other scientific workers, whether in public or private life, be served more effectively by an association organized along diflferent lines? Two examples that merit careful consideration in this connection are furnished by the American xAssociation of University Professors and the recently organized British National Union for Scientific Workers. The objects of the latter include: (i) To advance the interests of science — pure and applied — as an essential element in the national life; (2) to regulate the conditions of employment of persons with adequate scientific training and knowl- edge; and (3) to secure, in the interests of national efficiency, that all scientific and technical departments in the public service and all indus- 448 EDITORIAL COMMENT 449 trial posts involving scientific knowledge shall be under the direct control of persons having adequate scientific training and knowledge. Special objects deal with obtaining adequate endowment for research and advising as to the administration of such endowment, setting up an employment bureau and a register of trained scientific workers, and obtaining representation on the Whitley industrial councils. An appli- cant is qualified for membership if he or she has passed the examina- tion leading to a university degree in science, technology, or mathe- matics and is engaged at the time of application on work of a re- quired standard, though certain other qualifications are regarded as equivalent to university degrees and admitted in lieu thereof. Do we not need some such unofticial. all-inclusive organization of scientific workers in the United States? Certainly foresters should find it an instrument of the greatest assistance, both in improving con- ditions of employment and in advancing the profession by placing its scientific work on a higher plane and securing increased recognition for it. An organization of this sort would do much to bring about a new feeling of comradeship among scientific workers ; it would fix public attention on the importance of science in the national life ; and it would wield an influence which no combination of workers in any one profession or group of professions could hope to equal. We suggest that the President of the Society appoint a committee to consider the entire question from the standpoint of the foresters of the country. One of the first steps of such a committee would un- doubtedly be to get in touch with the American Association of Uni- versity Professors, the objects of which are similar to those of the British Union, and which might perhaps serve as a nucleus for a more inclusive organization. The latter would not, of course, interfere with the Federal Employees Unions, which cover a distinct field and have already demonstrated their usefulness. The Need of State and National Quarantines to Prevent Rapid Spread of Chestnut Blight to Southern St.^^tes Recent inquiries have been made to the Office of Forest Pathology for information concerning the spread of the chestnut blight. The chestnut blight may spread from infected regions to uninfected regions by natural agencies or through nursery shipments. It is this rapid spread southward through nursery-stock shipments that State and Federal legislation may prevent. In December. 191 7, the blight had already been found as far south 450 JOURNAI, OF FORESTRY as Bedford County, Virginia, according to R. C. Jones,^ the State Forester. Mr. Jones writes, "This disease is now quite prevalent in the northern part of Virginia, particularly in the Blue Ridge section, and has been found as far southwest as Bedford County. It is not at the present time known to occur at all south and west of Bedford County, but it appears to be spreading and will probably kill the chestnut trees throughout the State." Only a single county separates Bedford County from North Carolina. South of Virginia, the chestnut blight has been reported from but two places: first, on July lo, 1913, when H. R. Fulton, the Plant Pa- thologist of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station at West Raleigh, put out a Press Bulletin (No. 26) calling attention to the fact that the blight has been found in Guilford County. This was traced to a nursery and it had spread from the nursery trees to neigh- boring native chestnut trees in one woodlot. This infection was re- ported thoroughly cut out in early summer of 1913. Reports in the Plant Disease Survey at Washington for 1914 from North Carolina, however, show "continued spread in native chestnut and in nursery" in Guilford County. A later report to the Plant Disease Survey, dated 1916, shows blight present in small grove near Greensboro, only a few miles from Pomona, also in Guilford County. The second case of blight is in South Carolina at Society Hill. On Christmas, 1914, J. T. Rogers of the Federal Horticultural Board, Washington, D. C, purchased several small paragon chestnut trees from the Van Lindley Nursery, Pomona, Guilford County, North Car- olina, and planted them at his home at Society Hill, Darlington County, S. C, in the eastern part of the State. Mr. Rogers states that there is no native chestnut or any chestnut blight within a hundred miles of Society Hill. The disease seems to have incubated in these trees or to have escaped all notice for three years, for on December 31, 191 7, he discovered the blight on one of these chestnut trees. A specimen collected from this tree a year later, December 31, 1918. has been pos- itively identified by Dr. Neil Stevens of the Bureau of Plant Industry, as infected by the chestnut blight (Bndothia parasitica.) None of the southern States, North Carolina. South Carolina. Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, or Georgia, which are all in the chestnut range, have adopted quarantine measures for preventing blighted chestnut nursery stock from coming into their States. In Kentucky and Tennessee chestnut timber is quite a factor in the 'Jones, R. C. : Farm Forestry in Virginia, Bulletin No. 12, Virginia Geological Commission, Office of State Forester, pp. 54 and 55, December, 1917. EDITORIAL COMMENT 451 forest resources. The State Entomologist of Tennessee, Mr. George Bentley, has been approached regarding the advisability of establishing a quarantine preventing chestnut nursery stock being shipped into Tennessee from infected States, but as far as I know he has not taken any definite action. Mr. Maddox, Forester of Tennessee, writes that he is in favor of prevention of shipment of chestnut nursery stock from infected regions into the State. Tennessee, we know, has the power of establishing such a plant quarantine, as has North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Kentucky, however, does not have power of quarantine, nor can it pass a law permitting the State Entomologist to declare a quarantine on any nursery stock until the General Assembly meets in 1920. Both Mr. H. Carman, State Entomologist, and Mr. Barton, State Forester, are desirous of having the Federal Government establish a quarantine to protect Kentucky from infected States. This has already been taken up with proper authorities. California and Illinois have passed quarantine measures to prevent the chestnut blight from invading the States and infecting the small groves of planted chestnuts. I inspected the stock of a nursery at Beatrice, Nebr., and found the "blight present.- They had purchased the stock from a Pennsylvania nursery, and were acting as distributors to the whole country. The blight was also found on one of their shipments of chestnut trees in Lincoln, Nebr. Other nursery shipments of chestnut trees have been found diseased in California, Iowa, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, as ■well as in the generally infected States from Virginia northward. One of the large distributors of nursery stock is located at Paines- ville, Ohio. The blight has been present in this nursery since 1914, jet the State does not prevent them from shipping chestnut trees to points outside the State. While the nursery does attempt to control the blight by frequent inspections and removal of visibly diseased trees, yet they miss many small infections. The State Entomologist of In- diana reported the blight on shipment of trees shipped from this nursery in 1915. If foresters get back of a movement to have these Southern States, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee protected by State quarantines, and Kentucky by a Federal quarantine, the officials may act favorably and the blight will at least have been prevented from making long jumps on nursery shipments. These quarantines should be supplemented by adequate inspection of past shipments. Roy G. Pierce. • Pierce, R. G. : Chestnut Blight in Nebraska. Phytopathology 5 : 74, Feb., 1915. NOTES Forest Legislation in New York At the meeting of the New York State Forestry Association, Sep- tember 4, 1918, a committee was appointed to confer with similar com- mittees representing other associations and institutions for the pur- pose of formulating a mutually acceptable forest taxation bill. This committee consists of Geo. N. Ostrander, as chairman, and Professors Baker, Hosmer, and RecknageL Profiting by last year's experience, when failure to agree on a satis- factory bill resulted in the Governor's veto of the bills which did pass, the committee decided to have all interests agree on a bill first before introducing it into the legislature. Accordingly, suggestions were invited from all those interested, and on February 26 the conferees met in Albany to consider the revised bills as drafted by the committee. At this meeting these bills were approved, with certain modifications, and were thereupon introduced as com- panion bills in the Assembly by Mr. Everett, chairman of the Conser- vation Committee, on March 3 (Print Nos. 1051 and 1052, Intro. Nos. 951 and 952), and in the Senate by Mr. Kasson, member of the Con- servation Committee, on March 17 (Print Nos. iioo and iioi, Intro. Nos. 966 and 967). The first of these bills amends the existing conservation law by sub- stituting a new section 57 therein, to read as follows : 57. Classification of lands dedicated to continuous forest production. Lands of the area of fifty acres or upwards, which are unsuitable for agricultural pur- poses, may, in the discretion of the commission, be deemed to be dedicated to continuous forest production, and for the purpose of encouraging the growth of forest trees upon such lands the commission may, in its discretion, with the con- sent in writing of the owner thereof, classify such lands as lands dedicated to continuous forest production, and such lands shall thereafter be subject to the rules and regulations of the commission, failure to obey which shall be sufficient ground for the revocation of such classification by the commission. Such classi- fication shall be certified by the commission and duplicate certificates thereof, under its seal, shall be filed with the comptroller and with the county treasurer of the county in which the lands or any part thereof are located, which certifi- cate shall set forth a description of the lands, the area, the name of the owner thereof, the town in which the same are situated, and the certification that the land has been classified as land dedicated to continuous forest production. It shall be the duty of the county treasurer, upon its receipt, to file forthwith a certi- 452 NOTES 453 fied copy of such certificate with the town clerk of each town in which all or any part of the lands described in such certificate are located. Application for such classification may be made by an owner of such lands, and shall be in the form and manner prescribed by the commission. Every owner of land classified as land dedicated to continuous forest production shall, not less than sixty days before the cutting of trees thereon for commercial purposes, notify the commis- sion of the intended cutting and removal and, not less than thirty days before the removal of the product of such trees, shall report to it the amount in stump- age value of such trees. The commission may accept the report of the owner as to the amount and value of any such trees or in its discretion determine it from an independent inspection of the same. The commission shall assess, levy, and collect upon the gross stumpage value of any such trees, and the owner shall pay into the treasury of the State, upon the order of the commission and before the removal of such trees or of the product or products of such trees from the land, the following tax: if removed within ten years after classification, two per- centum ; more than ten and within fifteen years, four percentum ; more than fif- teen and within twenty years, six percentum ; more than twenty and within twenty-five years, eight percentum ; more than twenty-five and within thirty years, ten percentum ; more than thirty and within forty years, twelve percentum ; thereafter, fifteen percentum. Each such tax shall be a lien upon the lands and trees upon which it is levied from the time when it is payable until the same is paid in full, and the timber and timber products made therefrom shall be sub- ject to lien for unpaid taxes and amounts payable under this act. Any timber products removed from said lands upon which the full amount of tax has not been paid shall be liable to seizure by the State wherever found, and after due notice may be sold to satisfy said unpaid taxes and the expenses of seizure and sale. In the event that lands classified hereunder shall, in the judgment of the commission, cease to be dedicated to continuous forest production, or that the forest growth thereon be destroyed by fire or by any other cause, or that the owner of such lands shall have violated any of the provisions of this article, or the regulations of the commission in respect thereto, or that the public interest demands it, the classification may be revoked by the commission. Such revoca- tion shall be made by a certificate of the commission, under its seal, and shall be filed in the office of the comptroller and the county treasurer of the county in which the original certificate of classification shall have been filed. It shall be the duty of the county treasurer, upon its receipt, to forthwith file a certified copy of such certificate with the town clerk of each town in which all or any part of the lands described in the certificate are located. Land classified under this article may be withdrawn from classification by the owner at any time, upon giving sixty days' notice in writing to that efifect to the commission and upon payment into the treasury of the State of the sums herein- after provided for. In the event that the classification of lands hereunder shall be revoked or that they are withdrawn from classification by the owner, the owner of any such lands shall pay into the treasury of the State, upon the order of the commission, if such revocation or withdrawal is made within ten years after the date of classification, an amount equal to the amount of taxes with interest thereon at the rate of six percentum per annum, which may have been paid out of the treasury of the State or credited by the comptroller to the county treasurer for taxes upon the trees upon such lands under the provisions of the 454 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY tax law and such amount shall be and remain a lien upon the lands of the owner until payment shall have been made, and shall be collectable in the same manner as unpaid taxes, pursuant to the provisions of the tax law. Should such revoca- tion or withdrawal be made more than ten years after the date of classification, the owner shall pay into the treasury of the State, upon the order of the commis- sion, the rate tax prescribed herein upon the gross stumpage value of the trees then standing upon such land, as though the trees had then been cut ; or if said trees have been destroyed or injured by fire since classification, then the same rate tax on any stumpage value remaining and on any insurance which the owner may receive therefor to be collected in a civil action. Upon any such revocation or receipt of notice in writing of the desire of the owner to withdraw land from classification, the commission shall, if such revocation be made or such notice be received within ten years from the date of the classification of the lands, give the owner a statement of the amount due the State for taxes. The second bill amends the tax law and provides that land so classi- fied will be assessed and taxed separately from the growing trees thereon and at the same valuation and rate as are lands and real prop- erty of the same quality and similarly located. The growing trees on the land are assessed and taxed at the same valuation and rate as is other real property of the same character. The tax assessors, by August i of each year, file a copy of the assess- ment roll with the Conservation Commission. By September i the Conservation Commission must hear all complaints, advise the assessors regarding unfair or excessive assessments, and return the approved roll to the assessors. During the period of exemption, the taxes upon growing trees on land duly classified are credited to the treasurer of the respective county, and, in case it exceeds the State tax in such county, the comptroller pays the balance to the county treasurer. The comptroller is authorized to pass upon the correctness of the county treasurer's statement of all taxes assessed upon such original assessment roll upon growing trees upon lands classified as forest lands dedicated to continuous forest production. In their present form these bills represent a consensus of opinion and liave the approval of the Association for the Protection of the Adiron- 'dacks, the Camp Fire Club of America, the Conservation Commission, 'Cornell University, the Empire State Forest Products Association, the New York State College of Forestry, and the New York State For- estry Association. This would seem to insure their passage and enact- ment into law. New York will have taken another big stride forward in encourag- ing reforestation of private land if Assembly Bill No. 1459 becomes NOTES 455 law. This bill, introduced by Mr. Everett, is the result of joint effort by the Empire State Forest Products Association and the Conservation Commission. It provides that — "The commission may agree with the owner of non-agricultural land, of the area of not less than fifty acres, which is in need of reforestation, to provide for the reforesting of such land under such safeguards as the commission deems neces- sary to insure the establishment and proper protection of such a plantation, and may furnish trees from any of the nurseries operated by such commission, with- out charge at the nursery, providing the owner of the land will agree that the land shall be held for continuous forest production and that no trees so planted shall be cut, except in accordance with the regulations of the commission. Such agreement shall be recorded in the office of the county clerk of the county where the land is situated, and the provisions thereof shall be deemed to be and be cove- nants running with the land." The sum of $25,000 is appropriated as a starter, but it is realized that many times this amount may be needed in the future ; for there are probably 276,000 acres of privately owned, non-agricultural land in the Adirondacks alone in need of planting. xA.s an incentive to private forest management, this measure, coupled with the pending forest tax bills providing for deferred taxation until the crop is cut, marks a wise policy of encouraging private forest own- ers to practice forestry by making it economically attractive. A. B. Recknagel. Annual Meeting of the National Wholsale Lumber Dealers* Association At the twenty-seventh annual meeting of the National Wholesale Lumber Dealers' Association, in Philadelphia. March 19 and 20. J. Randall Williams, Jr., chairman of the Forestry Committee, made a report, the summary of which was as follows : "Your Committee on Forestry: First, calls your attention to the wonderful work done by our American woodsmen and lumbermen toward winning the great world war. Second, heartily endorses the plan of the American Forestry Asso- ciation to reforest the war-devastated countries abroad, and to plant memorial trees as a living tribute to those who have died for us. Third, we urge greater appropriations by the States for forest fire protection. Fourth, we recommend the Federal assistance in control of cut-over lands. Fifth, we recommend pri- vate ownership of standing timber." The following resolution on forestry was adopted by the same con- vention and is of particular interest in view of the movement inaugu- rated by the Forest Service to secure the adoption of a permanent tim- berland policy for the United States : 456 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY "Whereas the forestry measures now in effect in this country are recognized to be inadequate to guarantee the timber supply which the nation in the future will require. "Resolved, That the National Wholesale Lumber Dealers' Association believes that the time is here when a national program of forestry should be constructed and set up to express the aims toward which the nation should work in timber and forestry matters, and to direct and stimulate the Federal Government, the States, and the owners of timber and forest lands in practical lines of activity. The association hereby pledges its active aid in the formulation of a program of this kind and authorizes its officers to take the necessary steps to co-operate with the Federal Government, the States, and timber and forest landowners and lum- ber manufacturers' associations and the National Chamber of Commerce." Poison for Killing Trees In the Weekly News Letter of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for February 19 there appears an interesting note on arsenic as an effective poison for killing trees. In cleaning up pasture land or clearing new land for crops, it is often desirable to kill trees by some method surer and quicker than the old-time method of girdling. In dealing with the kinds of trees which sprout from the stump, such as the oaks, hickories, and red gum, a reliable method of killing is especially needed. For the purpose of poisoning trees, arsenic has been successfully used in both this and other countries, often killing trees in a few weeks or a few days which, by the simple girdling process, would require months. Useful directions for making up a poison solution for quick and effective work in all kinds of timber, together with the method of application, are given below, quoted from a recent number of the Australia Forestry Journal. In Australia, it appears, much investiga- tion has been carried on, and this method has been widely used with excellent results. Following is the formula : Arsenic, i pound ; washing soda, i pound, or caustic soda, ^ pound ; whiting, ^ pound ; water, 4 gallons. Since the ordinary white arsenious oxide of commerce is not soluble in water to any great degree, soda has to be used for the purpose. When large amounts of the poison are desired, washing soda will be cheaper, but for small amounts caustic soda will perhaps be found the handiest. To prepare the solution, first dissolve the soda (either form) in a convenient amount of water, using heat, if desirable, to assist and hasten it ; then slowly add the arsenic, previously made into a thin paste (as the housewife treats her corn flour), stirring all the time; NOTES 457 place on a strong fire, and after it has come to the boil, allow it to remain boiling for at least half an hour; stir from time to time, and be careful to stand on the side away from the fumes, as, being poisonous, they are apt to cause sickness. When the arsenic is thoroughly dis- solved, the solution may be made up to the required bulk by adding the remainder of the water, either hot or cold. The whiting is added merely to serve as an indicator of the trees treated, as it turns white on drying. The best time for carrying on the operation of poisoning is when the tree is dormant, or during the winter months. This will most surely prevent suckering, although trees can be killed practically any time of the year. In applying the poison, the tree is first girdled by a series of heavy downward strokes of the ax through the bark and well into the wood, leaving the chips protruding outward in a "frill" extending completely around the tree. It is necessary that this "frilling" process be thor- oughly done, which alone would ordinarily kill the tree after some time. A half pint for small trees to a quart for very large trees of the poi.son is then poured into the chipped surface, taking care to sat- urate the wood thoroughly. An old teapot or kettle with a spout serves well the purpose of pouring without needless waste or spilling down the tree. Suplings may be cut off low down and the poison applied over the stump by a swab stick. If this is done when the sap is down the tree will be completely killed and suckering prevented. Arbor Day Observance of Arbor Day by the planting of trees dedicated to those whose lives were sacrificed in the war is advocated by the Secretary of Agriculture in a letter to the governors of the States, as follows : "The observance of Arbor Day began soon after the Civil War. A distin- guished citizen of Nebraska, who later became Secretary of Agriculture, was the prime mover in securing its recognition within his State, where it first took root; and the Board of Agriculture of that State, on his motion, designated the first Arbor Day. From the beginning it has had a civic motive and an association of patriotism. "Another and greater war has come to its inevitable conclusion. The cause of righteousness, of liberty, of all that Americans hold dear, has prevailed. We shall seek many ways to perpetuate the memory of those who made the great sacrifice. The memorials will take many forms. The names of those who have fallen will be perpetuated by costly monuments and inscribed on enduring tablets. Great works that serve the needs of peace also will doubtless be dedicated to them. "But along with these memorials we can easily discover ways in which we may 458 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY simply and spontaneously pay our tribute to them. We can keep fresh our memory of what they gave, and we can perpetuate their names in familiar places. It has been happily suggested that we may do this by adorning with young trees, each named for a fallen soldier, our waysides, our yards, and our pleasure places. And in most of our States Arbor Day is at hand. This year we may give to that day a meaning more profound, a purpose more exalted, yet also an association more personal. "I conceive that, if the origin of the day be borne in mind, the invitation to our fellow-citizens to join in making it a day 'especially set apart and conse- crated for tree planting' may appropriately come from this department. I take the liberty, therefore, of suggesting that you commend to the citizens of your State, and particularly to those in attendance upon its schools, such as an observ- ance of Arbor Day as will secure a widespread planting of trees, dedicated to those whose lives have been sacrificed in the great struggle to preserve Ameri- can rights and the civilization of the world." Forestry Legislation in Michigan The planting of ornamental and memorial trees along the highways in Michigan, under the direction of the forestry department of the Michigan Agricultural College, is provided for in a bill recently intro- duced in the State legislature. Another bill provides for the extension of the territory under the jurisdiction of the forest fire department to include such areas in eleven counties of the States as may need forest fire protection. This action is taken because of the need of protection for the young stands and cut-over timberlands in those counties. If this bill is passed it will extend the region under the jurisdiction of the department considerably. An amendment in the forest-fire law is pro- posed which will require that persons setting fire for the purpose of clearing land between April i and December i must first obtain a per- mit from the State Game, Fish, and Forest Fire Commission, or from a deputy, or from supervisors of the township, when and wherever con- tiguous timber, slash, debris, or other combustible material liable to ignition exists on land adjoining that which is being cleared. Failure to do so is made a misdemeanor and punishable on conviction by a fine of not less than $5 nor more than $100, or by imprisonment in the county jail for thirty days, or by both fine and imprisonment. It is hoped that this will make the present law effective. Yellow Pine in Michigan The plantations of western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) which have been made in diiTerent localities upon the plains region of Michi- gan show varying results for this species. The growth of stock planted NOTES 459 by the State in Roscommon County, by the Government in Iosco County, and by private individuals at Indian Lake and Tawas Beach near East Tawas is very slow, the trees taking on a scraggly, bushy form, and are also frequently winter-killed. The trees are also affected by the Peridermium, which is native on jack pine (Pinits hanksianna) , and the State Forester found it necessary to dig up all the yellow pine which had been planted, because of this injury. A plantation made upon the Schmidt farm near Oscoda has, however, been very successful. These trees were planted as 2-1 stock in 19 13 and are now growing very thriftily. The soil of this particular site is a light sand mixed with varying proportions of fine gravel, which is damp for the ma- jority of the time except for the topmost soil. Pennsylvani.\ State Forest Statistics The following statistics are taken from Forest Leaves, February, 1919, p. 16: Total area, 1,029,023 acres. Total cost of land, $2,342,918.62. Average cost per acre, %2.2y. Number divisions known as State Forests, 53. Amount expended to January i, 1918, other than for lands, $5,339,946.29. Number of foresters in service before the war, 68. Number of rangers in service before the war, 93. Number of foresters now in service, 30. Number of rangers now in service, 89. Number of foresters now on State Forests, 26. Number of district foresters, 3; two of them also have forests. Total receipts from State Forests to January i, 1918, $147,713.82, of which three-fifths is for timber sales. Receipts for 1916, $21,459.97; for 1917, $21,569.69; to November 15, 1918, $19,- 382.02. Number leased camps, 417. Number temporary camps, 384 ; persons using same, 1,989. Buildings erected: steel towers on State Forests, 9; wood towers, 39; tree towers, 92. Miles of telephone lines built or owned by Department, 292. Miles of roads built, brushed, or repaired by Department, 3,500. Miles of boundary lines surveyed and brushed, over 2,000. Acres surveyed topographically and mapped out, about 300,000. Trees planted on State Forests, 31,534,556. Acres reforested, 19,425. Acres of nurseries, 25. Seedlings available for 1919 planting, about 9,500,000. Seedlings given to private planters, about 5,000,000. 460 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Present value of State Forest property : 300,000 acres of land at $20 $6,000,000 300,000 acres of land at 10 3,000,000 100,000 acres of land at 5 500,000 329,000 acres of land at 2 658,000 Buildings, telephones, and towers 325,000 Tools, equipment, maps, livestock, vehicles 92,000 $10,575,000 xA-t a recent meeting of the Board of Regents of the University of Washington, the name of the College of Forestry was changed to Col- lege of Forestry and Lumbering. While the term forestry, when viewed in its broadest sense, embraces lumbering, the work at the University of Washington has broadened out so as to cover practically every phase of the lumbering industry, and in this respect differs from prac- tically all other forest schools. In addition to the work ordinarily covered in the forestry curriculum. Washington offers opportunities for specialization in general forest products, logging engineering, and the business of lumbering, the latter including new courses in milling and marketing. Expansion along these lines was necessary to meet the needs of the industry in the Pacific Northwest. The courses in logging, engineering, and forest products have now become thoroughly estab- lished and won recognition in the industry to the extent that the de- mand for the graduates, particularly in logging engineering, has far exceeded the supply. It is expected that the same will be true in the course covering the business of lumbering as soon as this becomes well established. The American overseas army will soon find forestry exhibits in some of the Y. M. C. A. huts in France. Four special collections of models, bromides, etc., have been made up as part of the Department of Ag- riculture exhibits to be shown in co-operation with the Y. M. C. A., and these are being loaded on the steamer this week. C. A. Lindstrom is the Forest Service representative and will be in charge of one of the four circuits to be covered by the Department exhibits. The pur- pose of the work is to help in the back-to-the-soil movement and to give the soldiers an opportunity to learn something of the various phases of farming and forestry. The Forest Service exhibits show farm forestry, fire protection, erosion, windbreaks, and post treating. M. Thiery, one of the best known of French foresters, died on November 16, 1918, at the age of 'JJ. Some 33 years of his life were devoted to teaching at the National School of Waters and Forests at NOTES 461 Nancy, where he was greatly beloved. He was especially interested in applied mathematics and in the restoration of a forest cover in the mountains. While he wrote several treatises on mathematics and top- ographical surveying, he is especially well known in this country for his work on the restoration of the mountains, correction of torrents, and reforestation. He was retired from active service in 191 1, but retained his physical and intellectual powers and continued to take a keen interest in the work of the profession until his death. Eighty acres of virgin soil, much of it covered with timber, has been offered Michigan City, Indiana, for a war memorial park by Martin T. Krueger, former Mayor of the city. The proposal was made to the Chamber of Commerce of the city, and was unanimously accepted. In writing of the park former Mayor Krueger said : "This land is beau- tifully located; its virgin soil has never been touched by spade or plow, and is covered by a growth of white pine, white, red and yellow oak, maple, sycamore, poplar, cherry, elm, and basswood, and thickly set in spots with flowering shrubs, as dogwood and witch-hazel, and festooned with great spreading and sprawling grapevines. The land is rolling, well drained and free from every objectionable growth or feature." Egypt produces rice straw, papyrus, and other fibers which might well serve for the manufacture of paper. Experiments have been made with rice straw, and one variety of papyrus, called Bourdy, which grows on a large scale in the lake district of the Delta. No useful result has been obtained with the latter, which it appears does not possesss the qualities necessary for paper making. As regards rice straw, the experiments have been more satisfactory, and some good, practical results might be obtained. Egypt imported before the war annually about 25,000 tons of paper of all varieties. The quantity of rice-straw available is very considerable, some 250,000 to 300,000 feddans, pro- ducing 350,000 tons of rice, are annually cultivated, but the whole question is a highly technical one and requires very deep and extensive inquiry. It is understood that the matter is receiving the close at- tention of the Anglo-Egyptian authorities in all its aspects. There al- ready exists a paper factory in Alexandria. The new wood-testing laboratory of British Columbia, housed in a specially constructed building at the Provincial University, is now in operation. L. L. Brown, a former member of the Forest Products Lab- 462 JOURNAL OI' FORESTRY oratory staff at McGill University, being in charge, with several assis- tant. The laboratory was primarily established as a war measure for the testing of airplane spruce at the place of production. The labora- tory staff at McGill having almost been depleted, owing to the war, an arrangement was made to ship its entire equipment to British Colum- bia, thus advancing the work by the many months it would have taken to secure new machinery. If it is decided to discontinue the test of spruce, the laboratory will make a comprehensive study of Douglas fir in structural dimensions. The tests made at the laboratory cover bending, impact bending, compression parallel to grain, compression perpendicular to grain, hardness, shearing parallel to grain, cleavage, tension perpendicular to grain, etc. Abraham Gustaf Theodor De Broen, the dean of Swedish foresters, died on December 7, 1918, at the age of 88. His work was for the most part in the southern part of Sweden, not far from Stockholm, in one of the most productive regions in the country. He was especially noted for his success in securing satisfactory reproduction, both natural and artificial, and in this respect is said to be equalled by few Swedish for- esters of the present day. He did not, however, appreciate the im- portance of cultural measures in the stand after its establishment, and once remarked to the Director of the Swedish State Forest Experiment Station, in regard to a sample plot that had been thinned three times in 12 years, that if he continued much further in that way he would have nothing left but a stand of seed trees. De Broen was unusually fond of the chase and was famed as a mighty hunter of great physical prowess. The Reliance Lumber Company, of Seattle, was tried in the U. S. District Court for the Western District of Washington this spring for a fire trespass in 1917, starting from a donkey engine crossing from private lands over the Rainier National Forest boundary. The court rendered a verdict in favor of the Government of $685.87. the cost of fighting this fire and putting it under control, there being some con- flict of testimony as to the real value of the timber and undergrowth destroyed (valued at $248.91) and whether they were both actually destroyed by this fire. The Massachusetts Forestry Association has issued a pamphlet "The National Parks and Forests," giving outline of another tour to take place under their auspices June to September, 1919; business manager, NOTES 463 Travel Department of the American Express, New York City. The purpose of the tour is primarily educational. The itinerary will in general be a duplication of that of 1917, a choice of nine tours, varying in length from 25 to 58 days, being given. Start may be made from either Boston or Chicago, and the trip will include : Denver, Estes Park, Yellowstone, Glacier Park, Seattle, Mt. Rainier, Portland, Crater Lake, Klamath Lake, San Francisco, Yosemite, Los Angeles, San Di- ego, Riverside, Grand Canyon, with an extension, similar to that given in the previous tour, through Tusayan and Coconino National Forests. Paper soles can be made just as durable and waterproof as the best leather soles by the following process : Soak about 30 sheets of paper in oil of turpentine, and then glue together with the following composition : oil of turpentine, Spanish wire, resinous lac, and linseed oil, to which some litharge or protoxide of lead has been added. After being glued together, the packet of paper sheets is put under strong pressure, by which means a strong sheet of cardboard is obtained. The sheet is smoothed and trimmed, and then cut to shape, and makes an excellent substitute for a leather sole. Ranger Walter Jones, of the Siskiyou National Forest, has devised an eye protector for the use of lookouts. The device is simple. It is made of cardboard, painted black, fitting over the eyes, and has a long horizontal opening lined with narrow strips which prevent the entrance of light from the sides, also from above and below. A test will be made by several lookouts. Ranger Jones states that his device will successfully protect the eyes against the bright glare in the atmosphere at high elevations. Cascara bark stumpage on 800 acres in the Siuslaw is being adver- tised. It is estimated that the yield will aggregate 20,000 pounds of dry cascara bark. The upset price is three cents, being based on the current price paid last year on several small scales. Pealing of cascara bark is a home industry on the Siuslaw and is as a rule done by the settler, with the help of members of his family. Many small sales ag- gregating thousands of pounds, are made annually on the Siuslaw. A writer in the Revue dcs Batix et Forcts for February, 1919, ad- vocates the greatly increased use of automobiles as a means of building up the population in the country and in the forests. In his judgment 464 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY the State should take the lead in supplying cheap machines to forest workers as a means of increasing their efficiency and improving their living conditions. The manufacture of shoes in Germany from substitutes for leather, among which wood is the chief material used, has become an irnportant^ industry. Twenty-five large firms now manufac- ture such shoes with an estimated capacity of lOO million pairs per year. Beech is the principal species used, but all hardwoods, except oak, are utilized. Carrier pigeons used in fire protection on the Forests in Oregon and Washington is the latest. Forest Examiner W. J- Sproat will inaug- urate the experiment on the Deschutes Forest. He has five pairs of birds. Similar experiments will be tried on the Cascade. The plan is to use the pigeons as a means of communication in emergencies and for carrying fire reports. Last year, according to the report of C. J. Hall, Superintendent of the Provincial Forest Protection Service, there were 430 forest fires in Quebec, which devastated 23 square miles of forest out of 48,800,000 square miles, operated for forestry work, the total damage amounting to only $5,557. The splendid results achieved are attributed largely to the efficiency of the work of the private fire protective associations. On December 28, 1918, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences awarded a prize of 1,500 francs to M. Fabre, Inspector of Waters and Forests and Vice-President of the Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Belles-Lettres of Dijon, for his collection of "economic and sociological studies in the high French mountains." Prof. Raymond J. Becraft, formerly with the Forest Service, has been placed in charge of the department of range management just established by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. One of the first undertakings of the department will be to increase the carrying capacity of Utah ranges by scientific management. SOCIETY AFFAIRS Report of the Treasurer for the Year 1918 The outstanding feature of this statement is the excess of assets over liabilities of $1,017.32, as compared with $690.48 for the previous year and $581.15 for 1916. The factors which have contributed to this greater balance are: an increased number of members, an increase in the advertising receipts, and the larger balance brought forward on January i, 1918, over the previous year. It will be noticed that the figure given for the publication and dis- tribution of the Journal ($3,089.30) includes $328.80 paid for the last issue of the preceding volume. This, however, is just about offset by the expense of the last number for this year. In spite of the increased cost of printing and the large size of a few of the numbers, the average cost per copy has been about the same as for the previous year, or 32 cents a copy as compared to 34 cents last year. The business of the Society has grown so considerably since the combination of the Forestry Quarterly and the Proceedings that an increasing amount of time has been necessary to handle the bookkeep- ing, the collection of bills, etc. In view of the frequent change of treas- urers, it has been thought best to have all of this work handled by one person, who might be continued from year to year at the will of sub- sequent treasurers. The Society has been fortunate in securing the services of Miss Helen E. Stockbridge for this work. Although the excess of assets over liabilities is encouraging, it is very desirable that this balance should be further increased by the addition of new subscriptions to the Journal and the placing of additional advertising. More money should be appropriated for bringing the magazine to the attention of libraries and industries which might be interested in advertising. An estimate of receipts during 1919 follows: Annual dues, 350 at $5.00 $1,750.00 Subscriptions, 600 at $3.00 1,800.00 Sale of back numbers and separates 100.00 Advertising 200.00 Interest on bank deposit 25 . 00 $3,875.00 465 466 JOURNAL OF fore;stry RECEIPTS Balance on hand January i, 1918 $1,277.83 Annual dues, active members : 1917 $7-50 1918 1,567-20 1919 761 .00 $2,335-70 Subscriptions to Journal : 1917, Vol. 15 $0.70 1918, Vol. 16 : Student $12.00 Regular 1,529-82 1,541-82 1919, Vol. 17 443-20 1920, Vol. 18 4-00 1,989.72 Sale of back numbers and separates : Journal $39-00 Proceedings 28.25 Forestry Quarterly 45-75 Separates 23.50 136.50 Advertising : By commercial institutions $102.50 By educational institutions 93-75 196-25 Society pins 17-52 Miscellaneous : Interest from bank, July, 1917, to Dec, 1918. . $45 -80 Assessments due Washington Section 6.00 Refund for two half-tone illustrations 5.00 Bank deposit not accounted for in 1917 5.00 62.80 Total 4.738.49 Grand total $6,016. 32 DISBURSEMENTS Publication and distribution of Journal : Printing — Vol IS, No. 8 $328.80 Vol 16, Nos. I to 7 2,356.67 $2,685.47 Plates and line cuts 70-95 Proof-reading 120.00 Envelopes for mailing 101.15 Address stencils 5-36 TJibbon for addressing machine .75 Mailing 20.00 Postage 85 . 62 $3,089.30 Miscellaneous printing : Circulars and ballots 27 . 38 Stationery: Letter-heads $1-25 Postcards 3-25 Envelopes (window) 11.70 SOCIETY AFFAIRS -467 Envelopes (letter) 3.07 Index cards 8.20 Billheads 29.50 56.97 Postage (exclusive or Journal) 100.90 Clerical work and typewriting 136.00 Addressing notices, envelopes, etc 1 1 . 29 Express i . 84 Society pins 17.52 Miscellaneous : Refund to Washington Section $6.00 Refund on canceled subscriptions 8.50 Reprints (constitution and members) 10.00 Reprints (Forest terminology, Pt. 2) 32.50 57.00 Total $3,498. 20 Balance on hand 2,518. 12 Grand total $6,016 . 32 ASSETS Balance on hand $2,518. 12 Annual dues (17 members at $5.00) 85.00 Sale of back numbers «and separates 16 . 00 Advertising 42 . 25 Postal deposit 6 . 75 Total 2,668 . 12 LIABILITIES Annual dues paid in advance $761 . 00 Subscriptions to Journ.\l : 1919, Vol. 17 $443.20 1920, Vol. 18 4.00 447.20 Journal of Forestry, \ ol. 16. No. 8 : Printing $337-45 Distribution 9.65 Proof-reading: No. 7 $20.00 No. 8 20 . 00 40.00 387.10 •Clerical work and typewriting 22.25 Dr. Fernow (Quarterlies sold in 1918) 26.75 ^Miscellaneous printing 6 . 50 Total $1,650.80 Excess of assets over liabilities $1,017.32 Audited and found correct by W. B. Barrows. A. F. HA WES, Treasurer. 468 journal of forestry Hubert C. Williams In the death of First Lieutenant Hubert C. Williams, Co. D, 30th Engineers, who gave his life for his country on the battlefields of France (wounded September 10; died September 13, 1918), those interested in the cause of forestry lost a fellow-worker deeply imbued with faith in the principles underlying his chosen profession. But while his loss will be keenly felt in the ranks of the professional for- esters, both in and out of the Forest Service, the deepest sorrow, the greatest feeling of personal loss and lasting remembrance of his real friendship, will be shared by the lonely prospector, the trapper, and the isolated homesteader in the great mountain wilderness of central Idaho. There, as supervisor of the Idaho National Forest, Mr. Williams was known among those stern judges of human char- acter as a man among men, a friend of friends. His clean, moral standards, great physical strength and feats of endurance, willingness to always assume more than his share of the burden, and his charming personality created a love and respect for the m^n in the hearts of these mountain folk that will live beyond the present generation. Mr. Williams graduated from Sheffield Scientific School, Yale Uni- versity, in 1906. In the fall of the same year he entered the Yale For- est School, graduating in 1908 with the degree of Master of Forestry. Following graduation he worked from July, 1908, to 1910 for the Goodman Lumber Company of Goodman, Wisconsin. While in this position he was the first postmaster of Goodman. From April until December, 191 3, he was in the employ of the Cascade Lumber Com- pany at Cle Elum, Washington, and from December, 191 3, until April, 1914, was employed by Vitale & Rothery, cruising and mapping timber in Quebec on the holdings of the McLarsen Lumber Company. Mr. Williams entered the Forest Service May 8, 1911, as forest as- sistant. On November 16, 19 12, he was promoted to deputy forest supervisor, and served in this position until April, 1913, when he resigned to accept a position with the Cascade Lumber Company. Dur- ing this period he was employed on the Idaho National Forest. On April 15, 1914, he was reinstated in the Forest Service and assigned to the Payette National Forest, in charge of a crew detailed to estimate and appraise 100,000,000 feet of National Forest timber. On July I, 191 5. he assumed charge of the Wasatch National Forest as acting supervisor, and on June 2, 1916, was transferred to the Idaho National Forest, where he served in the capacity of forest supervisor until March 31, 191 7. SOCIETY AFFAIRS 469 jVIr. Williams was elected to senior membership in the Society of American Foresters, April 26, 1916. As an officer of the Forest Service, Mr. Williams held the utmost confidence and respect of both superiors and subordinates and his loss to the Government will be as keenly felt as his departure from the com- munities which he served in the Idaho region. Ernest C. Rogers In the death of Ernest C. Rogers the Society of American Foresters has lost a most loyal and capable member. From the time he entered the Forest Service, in 191 3, until his death, in Washington, on February II, Rogers had been engaged in reforestation research. He began his work at the Priest River Experiment Station with but few plans and precedents in American practice in forestation investigations. The practice now used and the thoroughgoing plans for investigations bear the marks of his early influence. He always stood firmly for a policy of thoroughgoing investigation of fundamental facts, even though it entailed the postponement of other urgent problems. A thorough and investigative student of research problems, he gave largely of his time and money to improve his knowledge of the various subjects bearing on reforestation. Having a working knowledge of French, German, and Scandinavian languages, he followed closely the forestation systems in those countries and adopted the knowledge so obtained to his own work. He was a graduate of the University of Minnesota, obtaining the degree of A. M. from Cornell University, and had nearly completed a course of study in plant physiology in Johns Hopkins University leading to the degree of Ph. D. At the time of his death he was engaged at Washington, D. C., in making a bibliography of European literature on forestation subjects. He had under way numerous research problems at the Savenac Nursery, Haugan. Mon- tana ; unfortunately, very little of his work had been completed at the time of his death. His modesty was perhaps responsible for the small amount of work published as the result of his studies. He was the author of two articles recently submitted to the Journal of Forestry — "A Preliminary Field Test of Age Classes of Western White Pine Planting Stock" and "Influence of Season of Transplanting Western White Pine Seedlings upon their Behavior in Nursery and Plantation.'' It may be said of Rogers that he had laid the cornerstone for the building of a career which would have been most fruitful of results in forestry had he not been prematurely called by death. Forest Engineer, Queensland Applications are called from candidates qualified to perform the duties of forest engineer to the forest service, Queensland, Australia. The duties of the position include logging, engineering, and the general work of extracting timber and forest produce by machinery from Crown forests. References as to char- acter, administrative ability, and technical qualifications are essential. A portrait print should be furnished. State salary required. Applications close June 30th next, and should be addressed to W. GORDON GRAHAM, Under Secretary Lands Department BRISBANE, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE WITH WHICH ARE FEDERATED St. Michael's, Trinity, and Victoria Colleges FACULTIES OF ARTS MEDICINE EDUCATION FORESTRY MUSIC APPLIED SCIENCE DEPARTMENTS OF HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE SOCIAL SERVICE For information, apply to the Registrar of the University or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. LIDGERWOOD PORTABLE SKIDDBRS BRING AT (oWEST GROUND SYSTEMS OVERHEAD SYSTEMS LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO. 96 LIBERTY ST.. NEW YORK ChicsLgo Sectttle WoodwaLrd. Witfht & Co., Ltd.. New OrlesLns' AAAAAAAAAAAAAA.AAAA.AAAAAAAAAA.AAAA.A.A.AA.A.AAAAAAAAAAAAAA.A CONTENTS Page A National Lumber and Forest Policy 351 Henry S. Graves. A Program of Forest Conservation for the South .... 364 J. G. Peters. Tropical Reconnaissance with Special Reference to Work in the Philippines and British North Borneo 371 D. W. Matthews. Results of Cutting at Ne-ha-sa-ne Park, in the Adirondacks 378 B. A. Chandler. Observations on Unburned Cut-over Lands in the Adiron- dacks 386 E. F. McCarthy. Forest Service Salaries and the Future of the National Forests 398 Aldo Leopold. Influences of the National Forests in the Southern Appa- lachians 402 William L. Hall. Forestry and the War in Italy 408 Nelson Courtlandt Brown A Formula Method for Estimating Timber 413 E. I. Terry. The Control of Flood Water in Southern California ... 423 Edw. N. Munns. Reviews 430 Periodical Literature 439 Editorial Comment 448 Notes 452 Society Affairs 465 Vol. XVII MAY, 1919 No. 5 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE SOOETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS COMBINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND THE FORESTRY QUARTERLY £. AMERICAN FORESTERS, I3Q0 ^^r^ PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS AT 930 F STREET N. VV. WASHINGTON, D. C. Single Copies, 50 Cents Annual Subscription, $3.00 Entered as second-class matter at the post-office at Washinerton, U. C„ under the act of March 3. 1879. Acceptance for mailingr at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103. Act of October 3. 1917. authorized November 20, 1918. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY A professional journal devoted to all branches of forestry EDITED BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS EDITORIAL BOARD B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Bditor-in-Chief Raphael Zon, F. E., Managing Editor R. C. Bryant, F. E., A. B. Recknagel, M. F., Forest Utilisation, Forest Mensuration and Organization Yale University Cornell University B. P. KlRKLAND, M. F., H. D. TiEMANN, M. F., Forest Finance, Forest Technology, University of Washington Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Barrington Moore, M. F., J. W. Toumey, M. S., M. A, Forest Ecology, Silviculture, New York, N. Y. Yale University T. S. WooLSEY, Jr., M. F., Policy and Administration The Journal appears eight times a year — monthly with the excep- tion of June, July, August, and September. The pages of the Journal are open to members and non-members of the Society. Manuscripts intended for publication should be sent to Prof, B. E. Fernow, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any member of the Editorial Board. Missing numbers will be replaced without charge, provided claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to the Journal of Forestry, Atlantic Building, 930 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. JOURNAL OF FORESTRY Vol. XVII MAY, 1919 No. 5 A PLEA FOR ASSERTION By Frederick E. Olmsted It is apparent that foresters are in for a struggle if forestry is to be something more than a thing talked about. It will be no more than that until privately owned timberlands in this country are kept pro- ductive. There is now ample evidence to show that we are entering upon a period of real national accomplishment, and that the country will welcome a definite constructive program aimed at the practice of forestry in the zcoods. Let me beg that we assert ourselves. First, we must agree among ourselves as to what should be done and how to do it. We must not argue only ; we must grapple with the problem from the ground up. For the past ten years we have acted as if we were afraid of our souls, declaring ourselves timorously or not at all. Let us not be di- verted from our course by an opposition which cries for facts involving long years of research. We already have such facts as are necessary to show that our forests are being destroyed, that it is a practicable matter to keep them reasonably productive, and that it is vital to the welfare of the country, both regionally and as a whole, that its forests should not be destroyed. Therefore, why not begin to apply forestry throughout our principal forest regions ? Let us, without question, enter upon a program of thoroughgoing and well co-ordinated research in order that we may know precisely how best to handle each forest type in years to come, to the end that the greatest and most desirable yields of wood may be obtained; but let us not confuse. the need for research with the need for immediate action of an economic and po- litical nature. If we should become unduly immersed in research, it might happen that by the time our investigative work was concluded we should find ourselves without forests upon which to apply our findings. Let us afiirm what we already know. The profession of forestry in this country has been kept upon a particularly high, clean plane, and will bear strict comparison with any other of the leading professions. For the past twenty years we have worked with good results in many differejst fields of endeavor and have accumulated technical, economic and political knowledge of distinct value. We have failed, however, properly to assemble this knowledge, rightly to place it before the public, and energetically to put it to practical use. Let us. by all means, secure co-operation in our work from all possible sources ; but let us not forget that co-operation which is worth anything, real rather than lip co-operation, will come only after we have fought for and created it. W^e lack aggressiveness, not confidence. Let us change our passive attitude to one of vigorous assertion. 471 PRESENT STATUS OF FOREST TAXATION IN THE UNITED STATES By M. K. McKay, Ph. D. Department of Ecoiioiiiics, Neiv Hampshire College INTRODUCTION That the development of the relation between forestry and taxation has not, in most of our States, received the attention at the hands of legislators which it so justly and so urgently deserves still remains true. Economists and those conversant in matters of taxation, and indeed the rank and file in general, are cognizant of the fact that the relationship between the taxation and the proper development and con- servation of forests is a very significant one. In spite of this knowl- edge and in spite of the reports of many special commissions appointed to investigate the subject, the majority of our States continue to tax forest property in the same manner as other property is taxed, giving little or no attention to its peculiar and inherent characteristics. Fair and equitable treatment of timber property in matters of taxa- tion involves many difficulties, perhaps more than in the case of any other natural resource. Here both development and subsequent conser- vation are closely associated with taxation. Most of the Common- wealths continue to use the general property tax in making levies upon forest properly. This practice (by those conversant with the problems of taxation) is known to be wrong and can be defended neither in theory nor in practice. Its defects are too well known to need lengthy comment in this article. Prof. Fred R. Fairchild, of Yale University, one of the leading authorities in forest taxation, has this to say regard- ing the general property tax as applied to forests: "A property tax strictly enforced must inevitably place an excessive burden upon for- ests as compared with ordinary investments yielding a regular annual income. It might easily take away from one-third to one-half of the entire income and very much more under certain conditions. This answers what the law clearly requires : that the forests be taxed each year on their true value, land and timber together. Forestry should not be subjected to such an unjust burden." There would appear to be no injustice in taxing forest lands as other 472 PRESENT STATUS OE FOREST TAXATION 473 unimproved lands are taxed. To the writer, it is clear that the tax on the timber growth should be based on a value approximating at least the annual increase. As far as possible, therefore, the taxes should be collected as near to the time the crop is harvested as can be conve- niently done. In other words, the tax should be collected when the timber is cut. To the extent that this is done, we will be acting in con- formity with Adam Smith's well-known canon of taxation: "Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the manner, in which it is most likely to be convenient for. the contributor to pay it." The levy on the cut, we believe, should be the principal tax, but it should not be the only tax levy made. If the levy on the cut were the only tax, the result would be that many valuable lands would be exempted, and therefore land speculation rather than timber culture would be encouraged. If the tax on the crop when harvested were the only levy made, lands which are more valuable for other purposes, such as agricultural, might be held for forestry. Again, if such a method of taxation were intro- duced, many localities would be robbed of a considerable amount of revenue, which would either have to be made good through higher levies on other kinds of property or the State would have to make good the deficit, depending possibly upon subsequent reimbursement when the tax is collected on the cut.^ Such a plan does not appear best or even advisable. However, when States reserve lands for forest pur- poses, the practice is sometimes adopted of paying annually certain specified sums to the local communities. Thus the State of Pennsyl- vania, which owns about 1,000,000 acres of forest reserves, pays to the local divisions in which the lands are located two cents per acre for school and two cents per acre for county or road purposes. To the writer, the only logical and equitable course to pursue in re- gard to the taxation of forests, especially commercial forests as dis- tinguished from farm forests, is to treat them as business propositions requiring no special favors. This class of property is capable of bear- ing a portion of the financial burden and should be taxed. It should be treated, however, in accordance with the inherent facts and condi- tions. Those engaged in commercial forestry should not be considered objects of charity nor should they be entitled to a bonus, but they should be treated simply as are other undertakers engaged in business for business profits. We do not wish to convey the impression that the problems of forest development and conservation can be solved through taxation alone. ' Report of the Massachusetts Commission on "The Taxation of Wild or Forest Lands" (1914). 474 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY We simply maintain that much can be done in this direction through pubHc and private co-operation in taxation. "A more stable kind of forest ownership, divorced from manufacture to a larger degree than now, must come about before the ills of the lumber business can be permanently cured. . . . The extension of public forest ownership, State and national alike, should have a large part in bringing this about."- "Only by the efforts of the Federal Government in getting control of a sufficient area on which to grow forests, as the European nations are doing, and in this way to compete with the private holders of forest lands, can we hope that the concentration and private control of timber land will be broken.'' •' It appears, therefore, that taxation is but one of the complex forces to be considered, and that ownership is also of, great significance in the proper solution of the problems of forest development and conservation. FARM WOODLOTS Farm woodlots present a somewhat different problem from that of forests held primarily for commercial purposes. The timber on farm woodlots is held or should be held for the most part not for exploita- tion for profit, but rather for the purpose of supplementing the lumber and fuel supply consumed on the farms. At the present time the pos- session of such a supplementary supply is a matter of no little impor- tance to the farmers. These considerations, coupled with others, lead one to the conclusion that farm woodlots should likewise receive care- ful attention in matters of taxation, and that there may even be some justification in applying to them a different method from that used in levying upon commercial forests. In the case of farm woodlots, there- fore, which are to be retained permanently as a part of the farm, we are of the opinion that they should be taxed as unimproved lands, and that the timber thereon should be exempt. Only recently was there brought to the attention of the writer a case in which the farm owner had decided to clear his woodlot because, "everything considered, taxes and all," the land was worth more to him for other purposes. At the same time both the owner, a city resident, and the tenant on the farm were experiencing great difficulties in securing a sufficient supply of coal for domestic consumption. That the exemption from taxation of the timber growth on farm woodlots will- prevent the destruction of the timber we are by no means certain, but we are sure that it will tend in that direction. Bulletin No. 114, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 5. Scheftel : The Taxation of Land Value, p. 419. PRESENT STATUS OF FOREST TAXATION" 475 EXEMPTION AND BOUNTIES Some States have not only exempted forest property from taxation, but have also subsidized the owners of forests in the interest of devel- opment and conservation. Experience has proved, however, that neither exemption nor bounties have led to any marked increase in timber culture, l^iounties need not demand our serious attention, for they have no place in a discussion on taxation. Concerning bounties, how^ever, the following- statement of the IMassachusetts Commission is conclusive : "We believe that, except in unusual cases, bounties are wrong in principle. To secure the reforestation of mountain slopes that need to be kept under permanent forest cover, a government may be justified in offering pecuniary inducements ; but under ordinary con- ditions timber production no more needs, nor should receive, a bounty — or exemption from forest taxation — than the production of any crop. Forests can and should be taxed, and other countries have made them a reliable and productive source of revenue." We are of the opinion, however, that certain other caftditions and circumstances may justify bounties, especially if it is found that they will actually stimulate tree- planting. Such conditions apparently obtain in some of our Middle Western States, which are almost totally devoid of timber. As observed above, the exemption of forest lands for a period of years during the early growth of the trees has for the most part been ineffectual in stimulating forestation. The revenue thus lost through the exemption of this class of property is frequently made up by in- creasing the levy on other classes of property. Even if this is not done, exemption for a brief period of years affords but little inducement to plant trees, so long as the more mature crop is later subjected to the burdens of the general property tax. RECENT CHANGES IN FOREST TAXATION With these preliminary observations, we will now turn our attention to the examination of the methods of forest taxation prevailing at the present time. Six States have more or less recently enacted laws pro- viding for more scientific and more equitable methods of taxing timber property. These are IMassachusetts, Connecticut, A'ermont, Xew York, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. In these States the general tendency is to substitute for the annual tax on growing timber a tax to be levied and collected at the time the timber is cut. There is therefore a for- midable beginning of a tax reform relative to the taxation of forests, which recognizes the difference between levying an annual tax on prop- 476 jouRNAi, OF fore;stry erty yielding an annual income and levying a tax on property which yields an income only after a long period of years. We will first direct our attention to the Massachusetts law, entitled "An Act to Provide for the Classification and Taxation of Wild and Forest Land." This law was approved June 2, 1914. In accordance with its provisions, owners of woodland or land suitable for forest planting may have such lands classified for taxation purposes under the following designation : ( i ) Land with trees of merchantable value, known as woodlot. (2) Land without trees of merchantable value, known as plantation. These classifications are limited to tracts of three or more acres, except when tracts of smaller area are to be consolidated with other tracts. Owners desirous of having their lands classified, provided such lands are suitable for classification either as woodlot or plantation, are re- quired to make application to the clerk of the city or town in which the land is located. The application must be accompanied by a description of the lands and shall state whether or not the land is encumbered, and, if so, the written consent of those holing claims against the property must be presented. The application having been made, the clerk of the city or town must notify the assessors at once, who, in turn, shall forth- with determine, after examination, whether the lands are suitable for classification. If, in the assessor's judgment, the lands are suitable for classification, they shall make separate valuation of the land and of the trees growing thereon, which value shall be the fair cash value of the trees on the stump. If, however, after careful examination of the lands, the assessors are of the opinion that the lands are not suitable for classification, the owners shall be notified and they may then appeal from such decision to the State forester. The valuations, having been made, are submitted to the owner for his acceptance. If he accepts the valuations, notification is given to the clerk of the city or town, who records the same and issues a certificate of classification. Lands classified under the provisions of the act are subject to the forest land tax, and lands classified as woodlot are subject to the forest commutation tax, levied in the following manner: (a) The assessors are required to open an account of all lands classi- fied as woodlot on or before the first day of April, 19 19, which account must show the sum of the taxes assessed upon such lands, exclusive of buildings thereon in the year 1913. (b) From this sum there shall be deducted for each year of the five- year period the total forest land tax assessed for that year, and the remainder shall constitute the amount of the forest commutation tax for that year. PRESENT STATUS OF FOREST TAXATION 477 (c) The amount of the forest commutation tax for each year of the five-year period is apportioned to the various woodlots in proprtion to the stumpage value of the trees growing thereon at the time of classifi- cation, and the several amounts constitute the forest commutation tax for which the respective tracts are liable for that year. (d) Except for certain reductions as a result of destruction by fire or otherwise, each tract of woodlot classified on or before April i, 1919, shall thereafter be liable for the same amount of forest commutation tax as was levied in the year 19 19. (e) Upon tracts classified as woodlot after April i, 1919, the annual forest commutation tax shall be the amount of tax assessed and levied upon such tract, exclusive of the buildings thereon, in the last levy prior to the date of classification, less the amount of forest land tax assessed and levied in the next assessment subsequent to the date of classification. Forest Product Tax Lands classified as above noted are subject to a forest product tax which is levied and collected as follows : (a) Owners of classified lands are required to report annually to the assessors the gross amount and stumpage value of all wood cut from the land during the year, as well as the gross amount of all other prod- ucts of the land and such other income derived from the land as does not constitute an element in determining the value of the land for the purpose of assessing the forest land tax. (b) In case of the cutting and subsequent removal of timber or wood in excess of an amount valued at $25, owners are required, at least ten days before the removal, to notify the assessors of the in- tended removal and to give the amount and stumpage value of the same. The assessors may then examine the wood and estimate its value. In. case of disagreement concerning the value, the matter may be adjusted by the State forester, or upon request shall be arbitrated by three disinterested persons — one chosen by the owner, one by the assessors, and the third by the two thus chosen. Notification of as- sessors is not required for the removal of timber to the amount of $25 by owners other than corporations, provided the wood is for personal use or for the use of the tenant of the land on which the timber is located. (c) Forest product taxes are levied and assessed annually upon the gross value of all wood, other products and other income as above as- certained, at rates varying from one per cent for the period prior to 1919 to five per cent for the five-year period, 1934-1939. For each 478 JOURXAL OF FORESTRY five-year period intervening between the years 1919 and 1934 the rate increases one per cent over that of the preceding five years. On and after the year 1939 the annual rate shall be six per cent. Collection of the tax is assured by a provision of the law whereby the tax is made a lien upon the land in respect of the product or income from which it was assessed. Furthermore, the assessors are empow- ered to require of the owner either a cash deposit of the amount of forest product tax as estimated by the assessors or, at his option, a bond, with good sureties, conditioned upon the payment of the tax when levied. Forest product tax shall also constitute a lien upon the wood or other product for so long as they are in the possession of the owner of the land from which it was produced, or of a person taking the same with knowledge that the assessors have acquired security for the tax. We should make mention of the fact that provision is made whereby the owaier may, under certain conditions, withdraw his lands from the classified list. No less important than the foregoing provisions relative to the taxa- tion of the classified lands are the provisions relating to the adminis- tration and supervision of the lands so classified. The general regula- tions for seeding or planting the classified lands to forest trees are under the direction and supervision of the State forester. Owners of the lands classified, in accordance with the provisions of the law, are required, within three years after classification, to seed or plant all parts suitable for seeding or planting and have not been naturally re- stocked. However, with the written approval of the State forester, the time may be extended. On clearing any tract of classified land equal to or in excess of three acres, the owner must either leave a suitable number of trees to provide for reseeding or must reseed or plant the cleared tract in accordance with the regulations mentioned above. Connecticut. — In Connecticut woodland and land suitable for forest planting not less than five acres in area and not exceeding in value $25 per acre, exclusive of timber growing thereon, may, upon application, be given special classification as forest land for purposes of taxation. Owners of such lands, desirous of having them classified, must file with the State forester an application, accompanied by a sufficiently accurate description, and by the sworn statement of the town assessors, giving the true value of the land alone and the true value of the timber thereon. The State forester thereupon examines the lands, and, if satisfied as to their suitability for forest planting or as to their right to be classified as woodland, issues a classification certificate. The law PRESENT STATl'S OF FOREST TAXATHjX 479 was so amended in 191 7 as to permit the owner to appeal to the superior court for the county in wliich the land is situated from the valuation of the assessors, both with respect to land and timber. Similar privilege was extended to owners to appeal from the decision of the State for- ester for refusing classification. Lands bearing timber of more than ten years growth, the timber having a taxable value, may be classified as forest land, and, after such classification, shall be taxed at the local rate, but in no case to exceed ten mills upon the true actual value of the land and timber separately as established by the assessors at the time of classification. After the lapse of a period of fifty years there must be a revaluation of both the land and timber, and for the succeeding fifty years the local rate of taxation shall be applied to the newly determined valuation, but in no case shall the rate exceed ten mills. At the end of the second fifty- year period, provided classification has been maintained, new valuations shall be made as often as necessary, and the local rate of assessment, disregardless of amount, applied thereto. In addition to the levy cited above, there is the yield tax. When a cutting is made, the material removed is subject to a graduated yield tax at the following rates on the value: i to lO years. 2 per cent; II to 20 years. 3 per cent; 21 to 30 years, 4 per cent; 31 to 40 years, 5 per cent ; 41 to 50 years, 6 per cent ; 50 years, 7 per cent. Lands fully stocked with forest trees not over ten years old, except the scattered older trees ; lands incompletely or partially stocked with forest trees not more than ten years old, when planted with a sufficient number of approved additional trees to insure a spacing of approxi- mately 6 feet by 6 feet over the entire area, and open lands planted with not less than 1,200 forest trees to the acre, provided the trees are of approved kinds, may be classified as forest lands in the same manner as above noted, and taxed at the local rate on the land valuations as established by the town assessors. In no case, however, shall the rate exceed ten mills. When a cutting is made on such lands, the material removed is subject to a flat rate yield tax of 10 -per cent of the value. \\'hen a timber crop is removed and the lands are reforested, either naturally or through planting, the reforested lands may be reclassified or the existing classification continued and taxed on the established value for the remainder of the uncompleted period. If the existing valuation is continued, a revaluation shall be made at the end of the uncomplete period. Classification once established shall be continued as long as proper forest conditions are maintained. L^pon request of the local assessors 480 JOURNAL OF FORESTRY or upon his own initiative, as often as he deems advisable, the State forester shall examine lands under classification to see if the provisions of the law are being complied with, and, if not, he shall cancel the classification and thereafter the lands shall be taxed as other land. In order to prevent the owners of such lands whose classification is can- celed from escaping their just share of the tax burden, the assessors when the classification is canceled are directed to deduct the valuation of both land and the timber thereon, as established at the time of classi- fication, from the then value of land and timber as assessed for future taxation, and on the excess value thus determined there shall be col- lected an annual tax of five mills for each year of the period the land was under classification. This tax is to be in addition to any annual tax or yield tax which may have been paid. When a cutting is made, the owner, before any timber is removed, is required to file a sworn statement with the local assessors and with the State forester of the quantity or stumpage value of all timber cut. If, in the opinion of. the assessors, the cutting is insufficiently valued, they may determine the value. The owner, however, if not satisfied with the valuation as determined by the assessors, may have the matter re- ferred to a special board, consisting of the first selectman, the town clerk, and the State forester, whose decision is final. Material cut for domestic use, limited to fuel, fencing, building, or other improvements which tend to develop the property of the owner and to increase the taxable value of the same, is exempt from the yield tax, provided such material is used by the owner or by the tenant of the owner living in the same town in which the land from which the material is removed is located. Vermont. — Vermont's law, with respect to forest taxation, which is very similar to that of Connecticut, dates from the year 1913. Here, as in Connecticut, owners desiring to have lands classified as forest lands are required to make application to the State forester. Cut-over land fully stocked with forest trees not over fifteen years old ; except scattered trees which do not increase the assessed value of the property ; cut-over or other land incompletely or partially stocked with forest trees not over fifteen years old, when planted so as to insure a spacing of approximately 6 feet by 6 feet ; and open land planted with not less than 1,000 trees of approved variety to the acre, provided such lands are outside the limits of a city or village, shall be classified as forest land and shall thereafter be taxed annually at the local rate on a valu- ation of the land alone. This valuation is established by the listers at the time of classification, but in no case shall exceed $3 per acre. This PRESENT STATUS OF FOREST TAXATION 481 valuation shall prevail till the year 1950, at which time there shall be a revaluation, but without any maximum prescribed limit, and this newly determined valuation shall prevail for fifty years and be subjected to the prevailing local rate of taxation. Classification, once having been made, shall continue as long as proper forest conditions are maintained to the satisfaction of the State forester. In case a classification is canceled, the owmer of the land is required to pay on the stumpage value of the standing timber one-half of one per cent per year for the entire number of years under classifi- cation. These levies are in addition to any annual or yield tax which may have been paid or may be collectible. Owners desiring to cut, except for domestic purposes, are required to file with the local listers and the State forester a sworn statement of the value of the timber to be cut. If either deems the valuation too low, the State forester shall decide, subject to appeal to a board of three, consisting of the first selectman, the town clerk, and the State forester. Upon the gross valuation thus finally determined there is levied and collected a tax of lo per cent. In addition to the foregoing provisions regarding classification, owners of waste, partially denuded or wild forest lands of five acres or more, outside of villages or cities, occupied wholly or in part by a natural or planted growth of trees of more than fifteen years, or by both, which lands are not suitable for cultivation, may apply to the listers of the town to have such tracts separately classified for taxation purposes. Upon receipt of the application for classification, the listers shall ex- amine the lands, and, if satisfied that they are suitable for forests, shall designate them as forest lands and set them in the grand list at the valuation fixed at the last quadrennial appraisal. To this valuation the annual local rate shall be applied until 1950, at which time a new valu- ation shall be made of both land and timber, and this new^ valuation shall be subject to the annual local rate of taxation for a period of fifty years. Owners desiring to cut timber from such classified lands other than for domestic use must give the listers at least thirty days' notice. After the cutting is done, the owner must make an accurate measure- ment or count and file the same with the county clerk. Then the listers shall appraise the stumpage value, and before the removal of any of the timber the owner shall pay to the town treasurer one-tenth per cent of such value for each year that the land has been classified, but in no case shall the tax exceed 7 per cent of the valuation. When, in the opinion of the listers, the trees growing on such land are mature or 4