sy GF) if i i AY) ‘ite a AN wae ih UNtie 4) 4) 9 PA a i AON RO de naN OU N WN) Saunt a ta ‘ a iW aN i oat a i esl yan HOUMA Ett A i i esta, Gh Vaan i aM i a it in i a a Cin, AS na a Se Sa2e J Pet oe aoe nea ae Soest nn Ru : (ua On HN al i UR vei vi NN ate Nie Mia Dt Wels ‘ My su) Nea AAI DS ANE AGt AGW ag Ai a 4 Ny ‘ \ i Rua ANNAN } ft able ‘ ( ( My Hf eit = ian Saas teeee == = S = 2 = i = 2G aia y eH (i SOP RN? \ Ay anh i i TGA Pa i Pa ilatyeny ae vip nt i i Cen a lt f ‘ Ny ay) i Wi 30 Mi ce Siete Se == =X = es Rac tose a es Pe Xp i feat o Hs t aN erecta Nite a AO AP) Laney j Seat aan Wak A j oe ie a ae aera i Wy } : a ie fN he eke Uae aN ce eae Rue tateh “ io eyelid RA ‘ aor anes rae debs anti dn a tl iu ane Cie! SS ae SPURS tee Tt en laa) \ 4 } TOURNAL OF GEOLOGY YUL VaAUGUSE. 1807. te sORIGIN, OF THE OLDEST. POSSIES AND? THE DISCOVERY OF THE: BOTTOM. OF THE OCEAN. In the Origin of Species Darwin says that the sudden appear- ance of species belonging to several of the main divisions of the animal kingdom in the lowest known fossiliferous rocks, ‘is at present inexplicable and may be truly urged as a valid objection to his views. If his theory be true, he says that “it is indisputable that before the lowest Cambrian stratum was deposited long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than the whole interval from the Cambrian age to the present day; and that during these vast periods the world swarmed with living creatures. ‘ Here,” he says, ‘‘we encounter a formidable objection; for it seems doubtful whether the earth, in a fit state for the habitation of living creatures, has lasted long enough.” ‘To the question why we do not find such fossiliferous deposits belonging to these assumed earliest periods prior to the Cambrian system I can give ‘ no satisfactory answer.” | On its geological side this difficulty is even greater than it was in Darwin’s day, for we now know that the fauna of the lower Cambrian was rich and varied; that most of the modern types of animal life were represented in the oldest fauna which has been discovered, and that all its types have modern repre- sentatives. The paleontological side of the subject has been ably summed up by Walcott in an interesting memoir on the ~ oldest fauna which is known to us from fossils, and his collection VoL) HNO. 5.2 455 456 THE JOURNAL (OF GEOLOGY, of 141 American species from the lower Cambrian is distributed over most of the marine groups of the animal kingdom, and except for the absence of the remains of vertebrated animals, the whole province of animal life is almost as completely covered by these 141 species as it could be by a collection from the bot- tom of the modern ocean: Four of the Amencan: speciesyance sponges, two are hydrozoa, nine are actinozoa, twenty-nine are brachiopods, three are lamellibranchs, thirteen are gasteropods, fifteen are pteropods, eight are crustacea, fifty-one are trilobites, _and trails and burrows show the existence of at least six species of bottom forms, probably worms or crustacea. The most nota- ble characteristic of this fauna is the completeness with which these few species outline the whole fauna of the modern sea- floor. Far from showing us the simple unspecialized ancestors of modern animals, they are most intensely modern themselves in the zodlogical sense, and they belong to the same order of nature as that which prevails at the present day. The fossiliferous beds of the lower Cambrian rest upon beds which are miles in vertical thickness, and are identical in all their physical features with those which contain this fauna. They prove beyond question that the waters in which they were laid down were as fit for supporting life at the beginning as at the end of the enormous lapse of time which they represent, and that all the conditions have since been equally favorable for the preservation and the discovery of fossils. Modern discovery has brought the difficulty which Darwin points out into clearer view, but geologists are no more prepared than he was to give a satisfactory solution, although I shall now try to show that the study of living animals in their relations to the world around them does help us, and that comparative anatomy and compara- tive embryology and the study of the habits and affinities of organisms tell us of times more ancient than the oldest fossils, and give a more perfect record of the early history of life than paleontology. While the history of life, as told by fossils, has been slow and gradual it has not been uniform, for we have evidence of the THE ORIGIN-OF THE. OLDEST FOSSILS, ETC; 457 occurrence of several periods when modification was compara- tively rapid. We are living ina period of intellectual progress, and, among terrestrial animals, cunning now counts for more than size or strength, and fossils show that while the average size of mam- mals has diminished since the middle Tertiary, the size of their brains has increased more than one hundred per cent.; that the brain of a modern mammal is more than twice as large, com- pared with its body, as the brain of its ancestors in the middle Tertiary. Measured in years the middle Tertiary is very remote, but it is very modern compared with the whole history of the fossiliferous rocks, although more of brain development has been effected in this short time than in all preceding time from the beginning. The later paleozoic and early secondary fossils mark another period of rapid change, when the fitness of the land for animal life, and the presence of land plants, brought about the evolu- tion of terrestrial animals. I shall give reasons for seeing, in the lower Cambrian, another period of rapid change, when a new factor, the discovery of the bottom of the ocean, began to act in the modification of species, and I shall try to show that, while animal life was abundant long before, the evolution of animals likely to be pre- served as fossils took place with comparative rapidity, and that the zodlogical features of the lower Cambrian are of such a character as to indicate that it is a decided and unmistakable approximation to the primitive fauna of the bottom, beyond which life was represented only by minute and simple surface animals not likely to be preserved as fossils. Nothing brings home more vividly to the zodlogist a picture of the diversity of the lower Cambrian fauna, and of its intimate relation to the fauna on the bottom of the modern ocean, than the thought that he would have found on the old Cambrian shore the same opportunity to study the embryology and anatomy of pteropods and gasteropods and lamellibranchs, of crustacea and meduse, echinoderms and brachiopods that he now has at a 458 THE JOURNAL OF, GEOLOGY. marine laboratory ; that his studies would have followed the same lines then that they do now, and that most of the record of the past which they make known to him would have been ancient history then. Most of the great types of ancient life show by their embryology that they run back to simple and minute ancestors which lived at the surface of the ocean, and that the common meeting point must be projected back to a still more remote time, before these ancestors had become differential from each other. After we have traced each great line of modern animals as far backwards as we can through the study of fossils, we still find these lines distinctly laid down. The lower Cambrian crustacea, for example, are as distinct from the lower Cambrian echino- derms or pteropods or lamellibranchs or brachiopods as they are from these of the present day, but zodlogy gives us evidence that the early steps in the establishment of these great lines were taken under conditions which were essentially different from those which have prevailed, without any essential change from the time of the oldest fossils to the present day, and that most of the great lines of descent were represented in the remote past by ancestors which, living a different sort of life, differed essentially, in structure as well as in habits, from the representa- tives of the same types which are known to us as fossils. In the echinoderms we have a well defined type represented by abundant fossils, very rich in living forms, very diversified in its modification and therefore well fitted for use as an illustration. This great stem contains many classes and orders, all constructed on the same plan, which is sharply isolated and quite unlike the plan of structure in any other group of animals. All through the series of fossiliferous rocks echinoderms are found, and their plan of structure is always the same. Paleontology gives us most valuable evidence regarding the course of evolution within the limits of a class, as in the crinoids or the echinoids ; but we ‘appeal to it in vain for light upon the organization of the primi- tive echinoderm, or for connecting links between the classes. To our questions on these subjects, and on the relation of the EEE VORIG ING OP: LiL OLDEST OS SLITS aad C. 459 echinoderms to other animals, paleontology is silent, and throws them back upon us as unsolved riddles. The zoélogist unhesitatingly projects his imagination, held in check only by the laws of scientific thought, into the dark period before the times of the oldest fossils, and he feels absolutely certain of the past existence of a stem, from which the classes of echinoderms have inherited the fundamental plan of their structure. He affirms with equal confidence that the structural changes which have separated this ancient type from the classes which we know from fossils, are very much more profound and extensive than all the changes which each class has undergone from the earliest paleozoic times to the present day. He is also disposed to assume, but, as I shall show, with much less reason, that the amount of change which structure has undergone is an index to the length of time which the change has required, and that the period which is covered by the fossil- iferous rocks is only an inconsiderable part of that which has been consumed in the evolution of the echinoderms. The zodlogist does not check the flight of his scientific imagination here, however, for he trusts implicitly to the embryo- logical evidence which teaches him that, still farther back in the past, all echinoderms were represented by a minute floating animal which was not an echinoderm at all in any sense except the ancestral one, although it was distinguished by features which natural selection has converted, under the influence of modern conditions, into the structure of echinoderms. He finds in the embryology of modern echinoderms phenomena which can bear no interpretation but this, and he unhesitatingly assumes that they are an inheritance which has been handed down from generation to generation through all the ages from the prehistoric times of zodlogy- Other groups tell the same ‘story with equal clearness. A lingula is still living in the sand bars and mud flats of the Chesapeake Bay, under conditions which have not effected any essential change in its structure since the time of the lower Cambrian. Who can look at a living lingula without being 460 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. overwhelmed by the effort to grasp its immeasurable antiquity ; by the thought that while it has passed through all the chances and changes of geological history, the structure which fitted it for life on the earliest paleozoic bottom is still adapted for a life on the sands of the modern sea floor? The everlasting hills are the type of venerable antiquity ; but lingula has seen the continents grow up, and has maintained its integrity unmoved by the convulsions which have given the crust of the earth its present form. As measured by the time-standards of the zodlogist lngula itself is modern, for its life-history still holds locked up in its embryology the record, repeated in the development of each individual, of a structure and a habit of life which were lost in the unknown past at the time of the lower Cambrian, and it tells us vaguely but unmistakably of life at the surface of the primi- tive ocean, at a time when it was represented by minute and simple floating ancestors. Broadly stated, the history of each great line has been like that of the echinoderms and brachiopods. The oldest pteropod or lamellibranch or echinoderm or crustacean or vertebrate which we know from fossils exhibits its own type of structure with perfect distinctness, and later influences have done no more than to expand and diversify the type, while anatomy fails to guide us back to the point where these various lines met each other in a common source, although it forces us to believe that the common source once had an individual existence. Embry- ology teachés that each line once had its own representative at the surface of the ocean, and that the early stages in its evolu- tion have passed away and left no record in the rocks. If we try to call before the mind a picture of the land surface of the earth we see a vast expanse of verdure, stretching from high up in the mountains over hills, valleys, and plains, and through forests and meadows down to the sea, with only an occasional lake or broad river to break its uniformity. Our picture of the ocean is an empty waste, stretching on and on with no break in the monotony except now and then a TE LORIGIN, OF LHE OEDEST FOSSILS! ET. 401 flying fish or a wandering sea bird or a floating tuft of sar- gassum, and we never think of the ocean as the home of vegetable life. It contains plant-like animals in abundance, but these are true animals and not plants, although they are so like them in form and color. At Nassau, in the Bahama Islands, the visitor is taken in a small boat, with windows of plate-glass set in the bottom, to visit the ‘‘sea-gardens”’ at the inner end of a channel through which the pure water from the open sea flows between two coral islands into the lagoon. Here the true reef-corals grow in quiet water, where they may be visited and examined. When illuminated by the vertical sun of the tropics and by the light which is reflected back from the white bottom, the pure transparent water is as clear as air, and the smallest object forty or fifty feet down is distinctly visible through the glass bottom of the boat. As this glides over the great mushroom-shaped coral domes which arch up from the depths, the dark grottoes between them and the caves under their overhanging tops are lighted up by the sun, far down among the anthozoa or flower animals and the zoophytes or animal plants, which are seen through the waving thicket of brown and purple sea fans and sea feathers as they toss before the swell from the open ocean. Mhere. are miles of these. ‘sea gardens’ in the:lagoons of the Bahamas, and it has been my good fortune to spend many months studying their wonders, but no description can convey any conception of their beauty and luxuriance. The general effect is very -garden-like, and the beautiful fishes of black and golden yellow and iridescent cobalt blue hover like birds among the thickets of yellow and lilac gor- gonias. The parrot fishes seem to be cropping the plants like rabbits, but more careful examination shows that they are biting off the tips of the gorgonias and branching madrepores or hunting for the small crustacea which hide in the thicket and that all the ap- parent plants are really animals. ~The delicate star-like flowers are the vermillion heads of 462 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. boring annelids or the scarlet tentacles of actinias, and the thicket is made up of pale lavender bushes of branching madre- pores, and green and brown and yellow and olive masses of brain coral, of alcyonarians of all shades of yellow and purple, lilac and red, and of black and brown and red sponges. Even the lichens which incrust the rocks are hydroid corals, and the whole sea garden is a dense jungle of animals, where plant-life is repre- sented only by a few calcareous alge so strange in shape and texture that they are much tess plant-like than the true animals. The scarcity of plant-life becomes still more notable when we study the ocean as a whole. On land herbivorous animals are always much more abundant and prolific than the carnivora, as they must be to keep up the supply of food, but the animal lite of the ocean shows a most remarkable difference, for marine ani- mals are almost exclusively carnivorous. The birds of the ocean, the terns, gulls, petrels, divers, cor- morants, tropic birds and albatrosses, are very numerous indeed, and the only parallel to the pigeon roosts and rookeries of the land is found in the dense clouds of sea birds around their breeding grounds, but all these sea birds are carnivorous, and even the birds of the seashore subsist almost exclusively upon ani- mals such as mollusca, crustacea and annelids. — The seals pursue and destroy fishes; the sea-elephants and walruses live upon molluscs; the whales, dolphins and_ por- poises and the marine reptiles all feed upon animals and most of them are fierce beasts of prey. : There are a few fishes which pasture in the fringe of seaweed which grows on the shore of the ocean, and there are some which browse among the floating tufts of alge upon its surface, but most of them frequent these places in search of the small animals which hide among the plants. In the Chesapeake Bay the sheepshead browses among the algze upon the submerged rocks and piles like a marine sheep, but its food is exclusively animal, and I have lain upon the edge of a wharf watching it crunch the barnacles and young oysters until the juices of their bodies streamed out of the angles of DTELORIGING OF THT OLDESTEFOSSTILS, ETC, 463 its mouth and gathered a host of small fishes to snatch the fragments as they drifted away with the tide. Many important fishes, like the cod, pasture on the bottom, but their pasturage consists of molluscs and annelids and crustacea instead of plants, and the vast majority of sea fishes are fierce hunters, pursuing and destroying smaller fishes, and often exhibiting an insatiable love of slaughter, like our own blue fish and tropical albacore and barracuda. Others, such as the herring, feed upon smaller fishes and the pelagic pteropods and copepods; and others, like the shad, upon the minute organisms of the ocean, but all, with few exceptions, are carnivorous. In the other great groups of marine animals we find some scaven- gers, some which feed upon micro-organisms, and others which hunt and destroy each other, but there is no group of marine ani- mals which corresponds to the herbivora and rodents and the plant-eating birds and insects of the land. There is so much room in the vast spaces of the ocean, and so much of it is hidden, that it is only when surface animals are gathered together that the abundance of marine life becomes visible and impressive; but some faint conception of the bound- less wealth of the ocean may be gained by observing the quick- ness with which marine animals become crowded together at the surface in favorable weather. 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At all events it seems to me more probable than his suggestion that the two forms may occur in Brazil. As stated in my paper, the Brazilian specimens differ somewhat from the gen- erality of those seen from North America, while their correspond- ence, especially in internal characters, with those from the Salt Range, fully justifies Dr. Waagen’s opinion of their identity. Athyris sublamellosan—Some years ago I saw in the National Museum, at Washington, shells from various western localities variously referred to A. royssil, Eveille, A. dursuta, Hall, and A. orbicularis, McChesney, that I could not, from the external char- acters seen, distinguish from the Brazilian and that occurred in the same association, which is not the case with the original A. sublamellosa. Athyris ? sp.—A thick shell from Praia Grande, Rio Curua, with acute umbonal ridges, giving it something of a Centronella aspect, is here referred, on account of its resemblance to a form from Spergen Hill, which is clearly an Athyris (Spirigerella of Waagen). Spirifer camaratus.—An examination of specimens from Lake Titicaca (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl. No. 12, p. 279) establishes the identity of the Bolivian form (.S. condor, d’Orbigny) with the Brazilian. Dr. Waagen separates S. condor and S. musakheylensis from the Salt Range, India from the North American form prin- cipally on account of the prominence of the concentric lamelle. On well preserved Brazilian specimens these are as strong as on the Bolivian shells, and if they prove to be absent from equally well preserved specimens of the North American form, the Bra- zilian shells may have to be referred to the Bolivian or Indian type. Spurifer rockymontanus.—S. opimus in my paper. Dr. White has shown that Marcou’s name has precedence over that of Fall. Spirifer (Martina) perplexa—Dr. Waagen, who adopts Mc- Coy’s name Reticularia for shells of this type, is also of the opin- 492 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. ion that the North American and Brazilian form is distinct from the European S. /éneatus, Martin. | Rhynchonella pipira—The distinct truncation of the beak of this species would appear to place itin Waagen’s genus Jerebrat- woidea. The internal characters are unknown. Camaraphoria sp—A small smooth species of this genus is quite abundant in white decomposed chert from Lake Arapicu, Rio Trombetas, and rare in the Itaituba limestone, being at both places too imperfect for determination. Orthis morganiana.—Specimens from New Mexico referred with doubt to O. resupinoides, Cox, by Dr. White, are possibly identical, in which case that name will take precedence. They are smaller and casts do not show the prominent dental lamelle and septum of the Brazilian form, but the material is too poor for a satisfactory comparison. Specimens from Old Baldy near Vir- ginia City, Montana, in the National Museum at Washington, labeled O. resupinata, Martin, by Mr. Meek, are almost certainly identical. Dr. Waagen describes a closely allied form from the Salt Range under the name of O. derby. Streptorhynchus.—According to Dr. Waagen’s arrangement, based on well defined internal characters of this perplexing group, S. correianus takes the name of derbya, S. haltanus remains with that of Streptorhynchus, while S. tapajotensis becomes orthothetes. The specimens from the shale of Pacoval, Rio Curua, referred to S. (derbya) corretanus, are more depressed and less irregular than those from Itaituba, but for the most part attain as large a size and present the strong ventral septum of that species, though possibly some of the smaller specimens not showing internal characters may belong to Orthothetes. Chonetes glabva—Some of the specimens from Pacoval, Rio Curua, referred here are larger than those from Itaituba and have the mesial sinus very indistinct, or lacking, thus approaching the characters of C. amazonica, which possibly may prove to be iden- tical. Productus semwreticulatus.—Specimens from Lake Titicaca that AMAZONIAN UPPER CARBONIFEROUS FAUNA. 493 undoubtedly represent P. zmca, d’Orbigny, prove that the Boliv- ian form does not belong to P. semzreticulatus, as usually referred, but rather to the P. costatus group, though probably distinct from the European form. Productus cora.—In the argillaceous strata of the Curua and Trombetas the forms here referred become very large and take on extravagant shapes from irregular marginal expansions, but no good characters could be found for separating them from the more symmetrical forms from Itaituba. The material brought from Lake Titicaca by Prof. Alex. Agassiz, though rather unsatis- factory for this type, appears to prove the complete identity of the Brazilian shells with the original Bolivian type of P. cora. Productus chandlesst.—A single specimen from Lake Titicaca shows that this form occurs also in Bolivia and thus renders it probable, notwithstanding the differences in the figures, that d’Orbigny’s P. peruvianus is identical, in which case that name will of course take precedence. Productus batestanus—The specimens from the localities on the north side of the Amazonas, referred with doubt to this spe- cies, may possibly be distinct. If identical, those from Pacoval and Cujubim represent a dwarf and less distinctly sinuated variety; those from Lake Arapict agree more nearly with the typical form from Itaituba but are larger. Productus rhomeanus. — North American forms apparently identical with this are referred to P. longispinus, Sow., by Meek & White, from which, however, it seems to me to differ by im- portant internal characters. Productus wallacianus—A small Productus extremely abun- dant in the shale of Pacoval, Rio Curua, is either distinct or a dwarf variety of this species. This type, which appears to be rare or lacking in the North American beds, is represented in the Salt Range by P. opuntia, Waagen. Productus clarkeanus.—This is probably identical with P. per- tenuis, Meek. 494 THE JOURNAL OF ‘GEOLOGY. Productus nebrascensis—A specimen from the limestone at the base of the Serra de Tajauri, is almost certainly identical with the North American shell ; those from other localities are too imper- fect for positive identification. Productus punctatus (?).—A specimen from Pedra do Barco, is identical with the North American shells usually referred to P. punctatus but which have been separated by Dr. White under the name of P. nevadensis. Discina.—Two or more species probably occur. One of these is very similar to D. missouriensis, Shumard. Entolium aviculatum (?).—The doubt in regard to this species is due to imperfection of the material. So far as the characters can be made out the agreement with the North American type is complete. Lima retifera.—In a direct comparison with Nebraska City specimens no difference of importance could be detected, as these show a grouping of the ribs in pairs very characteristic of the Bra- zilian shells but not represented on most figures of this species. Aviculopecten occidentalis —The material here referred shows considerable variability, but no constant characters could be found for distinguishing more than one species, or for separating this from the North American form which appears to be equally variable. The more typical forms with subequal ribs and furrows are from Itaituba, while those from the Curua have furrows wider than the ribs, giving these an alternating appearance. Aviculopecten carboniferous.—So far as can be made out from a comparison of left valves alone the Brazilian specimens agree perfectly with those from Nebraska City. Aviculopecten neglectus—The hinge line shows obscurely a row of cartilage pits such as are represented by Meek & Worthen on specimens from Illinois. Aviculopecten coxanus.—Compared with figures of this species the Brazilian shells appeared to differ in the greater length of the posterior sinus and by the shortness of the hinge line but they AMAZONIAN UPPER CARBONIFEROUS FAUNA. 495 agree in these respects with authentic specimens from Nebraska City. Aviculopecten sp.—A large coarsely ribbed left valve and a smooth right valve, ribbed on the posterior ear, are presumed to belong together. A Kentucky shell described by Cox under the name of A. providencesis agrees in size and some other characters but no close comparison can be made. Aviculopecten ( Streblopteria) hertzert.—The Brazilian specimens agree very well with the figures and description of the Ohio shells. Avicula, five sp——The general character of the aviculoid forms of the fauna is indicated by the comparisons of the above table. All were regarded as new, though on direct comparison of authen- tic specimens the first, and possibly the second, may prove iden- tical with A. longa, from which, however, it appears to differ in its larger size, less attenuated form, shallower sinus and smaller ear. The three last species have the general appearance of Bakewellia but the hinge characters are those of Avicula, Pseudomonotis sp.—Apparently identical with specimens from Nebraska City, referred with doubt by Meek to P. radialis, Phil- lips, but thought to be really distinct. Posidonomya (?).—A peculiar type with the surface ornament- ation of Posidonomya and the form of Avicula. Avicula acosta, Cox, from Kentucky, is perhaps congeneric, but differs in: the Character of the ‘ears. Pinna peracuta—Fragments from the Curua indicate a length of about 20 centimeters. The material is too fragmentary for satisfactory comparisons, but appears to be identical with frag- ments from Kansas, referred to Shumard’s species. Myahna kansasensis—Compared with Kansas specimens the Brazilian form seems never to have attained so great a thickness in the cardinal region, but otherwise they present no differences of consequence. Small specimens with a well developed lobe have the aspect of JZ. szwallow:, McChesney, but are connected by insensible gradations with the larger more typical forms. 496 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. Myalina sp.—Similar to M. subguadrata, Shumard, but proba- bly distinct. Modiola, two sp.—Yhe two forms differ materially in aspect, but the differences are due to the character of the material in which they are preserved. That from the shale of Pacoval is similar in many respects to M.(?) subelliptica, Meek, from Nebraska, but the latter is narrower with a less inclined hinge line. The Itat- tuba specimens are more gibbous than any known to me from elsewhere. Yoldia sp——Too badly preserved for identification, but very similar to Y. subscitula, Meek & Hayden. Nuculana sp.—Similar to NV. obesa, White, but too imperfect for a satisfactory comparison. Macrodon, two sp.—The smaller is identical with specimens from Leavenworth, Kansas, labeled JZ. carbonarius by Mr. Meek, but considered by Dr. White to be W/. tenuilineatus. The larger one resembles somewhat JZ. carbonarius, Cox, but has coarser ribs and is apparently distinct from any described North American species. Solenomva sp—A single specimen occurs in chert from Bar- reirinha on the Tapajos above Itaituba, where it is associated with Productus cora. It resembles somewhat some figures of S. hiammica, de Verneuil, but differs from the generality of figures of that species and is probably distinct. Solenopsis sp.—Referred to this genus from a general resem- blance to S. solenoides, Geinitz, from which it is distinguished by being wider posteriorly than anteriorly. Schizodus, four sp—No.1 is referred with doubt, due principally to imperfection of the material, to S. wheelert1; No. 2 is appar- ently identical with the Nebraska shell referred by Mr. Meek with doubt to S. voscus but thought by him to be really distinct ; No. 3 is of the type of S. wheeler, but is different from any North American shell with which it has been compared; and No. 4 is possibly a dwarf variety of No. 3, but is regarded as more probably distinct. AMAZONIAN UPPER CARBONIFEROUS FAUNA. 497 Conocardium sp.— Too imperfect for positive identification but apparently new. The ornamentation is similar to that of C. obliquum, Meek & Worthen. Astartella (?) sp—A shell agreeing in hinge characters with Hall’s type, A. vera, from Iowais quite abundant at Itaituba and Pacoval. A Nebraska shell described by Geinitz as Astarte neb- vascensis, but thought by Meek to be an Edmondia or Cardiomorpha, is similar in form and ornamentation but probably generically dis- tinct. In the National Museum at Washington there is a shell from Lake Titicaca showing the hinge, which is identical with the Brazilian forms. This is very likely the Zrigoma antiqua of d’Orbigny. Pleurophorus.—Two species occur, one of which is apparently identical with P. tropidophorus, Meek, though no direct compari- son of specimens could be made. The other and larger form is apparently new, though resembling somewhat an undetermined species figured on plate XXVI., fig. 6b, of vol. V. of the Illinois report. Allorisma subcuneata—Compared with authentic specimens from the western United States, the Brazilian form appears iden- tical. Allorisma sp.—Possibly a variety of the preceding but prob- ably distinct. Allorisma (?) sp—Similar in form to Edmondia? glabra, Meek, but appearing to have a sinuated pallial line which, if not a deceptive appearance, would place it in Allorisma. Sedgwickia (?) sp—A large pyriform shell with a double umbonal ridge is here referred. Nothing like it has been seen from North America. Chaenomya (?) sp.—A large shell of the general type of C. coopert, Meek & MHayden, but probably distinct from that species. Pleurotomaria.—The general character of the Pleurotomarias of this fauna is indicated by the doubtful identifications and com- 498 HE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. parisons of the above table. As the comparisons have only been made from figures it is quite possible that the first five forms may prove to be representatives of North American types. The sixth by the circular form of its whorls and central position of the smooth spiral band differs from any species known to me. Murchisona.—Two of the species belong to the section of the genus characterized by a strong angular carina represented in North America by JZ. copel, White, and WZ. nebrascensis, Geinitz, with the former of which one of the Brazilian forms may prove to be identical. The third resembles in form and ornamentation Turetella (?) stevenson, Meek & Worthen, but has the spiral band of Murchisonia. Loxonema sp.—Similar to but probably not identical with ZL. scitula, Meek. Achs sp.—Similar to but probably not identical with A. sée- vensana, Meek & Worthen. Naticopsis nana, Meek & Worthen. The Brazilian specimens are larger than those figured in the Geology of Illinois but show no essential differences from specimens from other North American localities. Naticopsis (?) sp.—A peculiar little shell with a form like Ampullaria and indistinct indications of a spiral band which, if not deceptive, would place it in Pleurotomaria. Polyphemopsis sp. A medium sized shell with a deep suture and elongated volutions, giving it the aspect of certain Silurian forms for which Conrad proposed the name of Swdulites. Polyphemopsis sp.—An elongated form somewhat similar to P. peracuta, Meek & Worthen, but too imperfect for identification. Polyphemopsis (?) sp.—A subglobose form resembling P. znor- nata, Meek & Worthen, and which may prove to be Machrocheilus. A small specimen in chert shows traces of color. Euomphalus.—Two species occur. One with angular whorls is of the type of 4. pentangulatus, Sow.; the other with elevated AMAZONIAN UPPER CARBONIFEROUS FAUNA. 499 spire and rounded whorls perhaps does not belong to this genus. Platyceras nebrascensis.—A single small specimen agrees with Dr. White’s figure of this species in Wheeler’s report. Dentalium sp—TYoo imperfect for positive identification. Ornamentation like that of D. meekianum, Geinitz, but larger and more rapidly expanded. Lellerophon.—Of the three species of this genus, one, from a direct comparison of specimens from Danville, Il., can be posi- tively identified with 4. carbonarius, Cox ; another is probably identical with B. crassus, Meek & Worthen, while the third, a beautifully cancellated, non-carinate little species, is apparently new. Polyzoa.—All the identifications in the above table are given with doubt, because no opportunity has been had for a compari- son with specimens nor, in some cases, with figures. The specimens referred to Synocladia biserialis, Fenestrella shumardi, and Glau- coneme trilineata agree well with the figures seen; those referred to Polypora submarginata are probably distinct if that species is correctly figured; Senestrella intermedia and Ptlodictya carbonaria are identified from descriptions alone, while a species of Polypora and of Fenestrella cannot be referred satisfactorily to any described form known to me. The former-bears considerable resemblance to Synocladia virgulacea as illustrated, but appears to differ generically, while the latter is somewhat like a species from the Ohio Corniferous (P. gilbert, Meek). A species of Fenes- trea agrees well with some from Nebraska referred to, but prob- ably not identical with, /. plebeja, McCoy. ‘A peculiar ramose form closely resembling, in general appearance, Rhombipora lepi- — dodendroides, but with Escarella-like cells which show it to be a Polyzoa, cannot be satisfactorily referred. Campophyllum sp—The Brazilian specimens appear to be identical with a small undetermined coral from Kansas City, Mo., and also with a Subcarboniferous form from Marion Co., Iowa, that has been referred to Zaphrentis spinulosa, Hall. 500 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. Lophophyllum sp—Small specimens are somewhat similar to L. proliferum, McChesney, but the species cannot be satisfactorily referred to any described North American form. Stenopora sp.—This form is apparently new. Michelinia sp—With smaller cells than any described form known to me except JZ. concinna, Longsdale, from Russia. Fistulipora nodulifera (?).—Not identical if well preserved North American specimens.are without spines as described. This may prove to be a Monticulipora. Rhombipora lepidodendrotides—Well determined by a direct comparison with authentic specimens of the North American type. Aulopora sp—tThe long straight cells give a greater resem- blance to Syringopora than to the usual small creeping forms of Aulopora, but the tabula and connecting tubes of the former genus are lacking. Monticulipora sp—Dr. White informs me that an identical form occurs in North America, where it has been referred to an European species. Polycoclia sp—No American form of this genus has been described, though Shumard mentions one from Texas. Eocidaris hallianus (?), Geinitz.—Water worn spines agree with this species so far as their character can be determined. Archeocidaris—Three, or perhaps four, species are represented by material too imperfect for positive determination. A. drangu- latus and A. triserratus are perhaps represented together with another type of spine that cannot be satisfactorily referred. A single interambulacral plate from Praia Grande, Rio Curua, may belong with one of these three types of spines. Erisocrinus (?) sp—A single calyx appears to belong to this genus. It is distinguished by great concavity of the base and by ridges along the joints rising into spines at the angles. An undetermined genus of crinoid is represented by a hexagonal, AMAZONIAN UPPER CARBONIFEROUS FAUNA. 501 spinose radial plate with two facets for arms, and columns of at least two generic types occur. Trilobites —Two, or perhaps three, occur representing the genera Phillipsia and Griffithides, which appear to be distinct from any of the described species. Fusulina.—fA few water-worn specimens have been found on the beach at Itaituba. A few fish teeth and two species of cephalopods also occur, but the notes regarding them have been lost. One of the ceph- alopods is mentioned by Prof. Hartt in his description of the Tapajos section, which from its position is now thought to be probably of Devonian age. ORVILLE A. DERBY. Sdn Paulo, May 23, 1894. GEOLOGICAL. SURVEYS OF: OHO: But little was known of the geology of Ohio so long as its surface was covered with the primeval forest. Bedded rock, suitable for use as building stone, was found, if at all, by the early settlers in the valleys of the principal streams. In many districts such stone was hauled a dozen miles or more where now as good or better can be found in every mile of the interval. The clearing away of the forest, the drainage of the swamps and the straightening of the channels of the streams have increased the efficiency of the floods to such an extent that scores or hundreds of exposures of rock are now found where a hundred years ago there was but one. The presence of coal inthe southeastern quarter of the State was not unknown at an early date; but it is surprising to find at how few points it was noted by the early occupants of the country, and how completely the most important seams, as we now know them, were concealed ‘from view. The earliest scientific observations extant on the geology of the State, which I have been able to discover, are to be found in Silliman’s Journal. In Volume I., 1818, two communications appear from the pen of Caleb Atwater, Esq., of Circleville, one on the Origin of the Prairies and Barrens of the West, including northern Ohio, and the second on the Scenery, Geology, Miner- alogy, etc., of Belmont County. Between 1820 and 1835 numerous notes and papers appeared in the same journal on the geology of Ohio, some of which were of extreme interest and value. Three articles in particular, written by Dr. S. P. Hildreth, of Marietta, and published respectively in 1826, 1828 and 1832, deserve special mention as by far the best statements that had appeared up to this date on the geological order of the Coal Measures of the State. Many important facts concerning their stratigraphy and structure were clearly recog- nized and stated, and very interesting information was furnished 502 GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF O7//O. 503 as the facts and conditions of the occurrence of salt water, petro- leum and natural gas in the Muskingum Valley and in southern Ohio, generally. | The discovery of cannel coal for the first time in the United States was announced in a letter written by Hon. Benjamin Tap- pan, afterwards United States Senator from Ohio, to the Ammeri- can Journal of Science (previously Silliman’s), published in Vol- ume 18, 1830. The coal was found near Cambridge, Guernsey county, and came from a seam that has been found to be alto- gether worthless, while valuable cannel has since been discovered in many other localities in this State, as well as elsewhere in the country, but the discovery named above awakened great interest at the time. The subject of state geological surveys was being considered about this time, and some of the articles already referred to were written in the apparent interest of such a survey of Ohio. The first official suggestion of a geological survey of Ohio is to be found in the annual message of Gov. Robert Lucas, to the Legislature of the State, dated December 8, 1835. Hon. A. G. Thurman was private secretary of the Governor, and was credited by those conversant with the facts with the probable authorship of this portion of the message. The Governor’s recommendations, which were very earnest and cordial, were referred to a select committee of the State Senate, who subse- quently reported a joint resolution appointing Dr. S. P. Hildreth, John Locke, J. S. Riddell and Mr. I. A. Lapham a committee to report to the next Legislature the best method of obtaining ‘‘a 5) complete geological survey of the State” and an estimate of the probable cost of the same. The committee made an elaborate report in due time, and, in accordance with its recommendations, an act was passed by the next Legislature, viz., in March, 1837, providing for ‘‘a complete and detailed geological survey of the State,” which should also include the chemical analysis of soils, ores, marls, saline and other mineral waters, the construction of a geological map of the State, and the collection of the organic remains of the various formations and the supplying of sets of 504 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. the same to the leading institutions of learning of Ohio. In their estimate of expenses, the committee recommended an annual appropriation of twelve thousand dollars ($12,000) for four years as adequate to cover the work above outlined. The report further recommended that for the prosecution of the survey there should be appointed ‘‘a skilled geologist” with not more than four assistants, one of whom was expected to be a naturalist. It was also recommended that a topographical engineer should be added to the corps. In pursuance of this action the Governor appointed Prof. W.W. Mather principal geologist and Drs. S. P. Hildreth and John Locke and Professors J. P. Kirtland and C. Briggs, Jr., as assistants, and Col. Charles Whittlesey as topographical engineer. Professor Mather was a graduate of West Point and was, at this time, engaged in the geological survey of New York, having charge of the work in the southeastern portion of that State, an experience which brought him great prestige in Ohio. Dr. Hildreth was unable to continue in the active work of the survey by reason of the infir- mities of age, and retired, after a service of a few months, during the summer of 1837. Col. J. W. Foster, of Zanesville, was added to the corps during the first summer. Prof. J. P. Kirtland was the naturalist of the survey, and it is safe to say no man in the State was so well fitted for this place as he. Dr. John Locke, an Eng- lishman by birth, and at the time professor of chemistry in one of the medical colleges of Cincinnati, brought to the service of the State good powers of observation and sound scientific train- ing, though it does not appear that before this time he had devoted special attention to geology proper. Col. Whittlesey was, like Mather, a graduate of West Point, and had been con- nected for a long time with the army. While in this service he had had opportunity to make important geological explorations around the south shores of Lake Superior. He was, in fact, one of the first to report upon the mineral wealth of the now famous districts of Marquette and Keweenaw Point. Professor Charles Briggs, Jr., was a resident of Massachusetts, but had been specially trained in the geology that was known at this time. He GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF, O7TO: 505 was a modest, unpretending man, but very clear and decided in his opinions and judgments on the geological facts with which he had to deal. The first survey had thus brought together some of the best scientific talent and training of the State. Its work was begun in 1837, but so late in the season as to preclude extensive inves- tigations. Still, a report of much value and interest was furnished to the Governor in December of that year, and issued by the State early in 1838 under the designation, ‘“ First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of the State of Ohio, by W. W. Mather, Principal Geologist, and the several Assistants.’ It consisted of 134 pages, and contained reports from Professor Mather, Drs. Hildreth and Kirtland, Professor Briggs and Col. Whittlesey. Professor Mather gave special attention to the coal of the State, endeavoring to convince his readers of its practical value and comparing it with charcoal in iron manufacture. He also dis- cussed our native ores with reference to the iron supply of the State, and called attention to the soils of Ohio. The services of a geological survey to agriculture had been strongly insisted on, in the discussions leading to the organization. Dr. Hildreth also discussed the Coal Measures of Ohio, and pointed out partic- ularly some of the leading stratigraphical elements in the series. He also discussed at some length the sources of salt that were known in the State. Professor Kirtland pointed out the advan- tages to be derived from botanical and zodlogical knowledge, calling special attention to the possible medicinal properties of our native plants. Professor Briggs gave the results of a recon- noissance of the country between the Hocking and Scioto rivers, in which, among other things, he pointed out the geological order of what we now know as the Subcarboniferous System. Col. Whittlesey’s report was confined to questions pertaining to the mapping of Ohio. The next summer, viz., that of 1838, found all the members of the geological corps promptly in the field, and busy, each with the task that had been assigned to him. A chemical laboratory had been equipped by Dr. Mather, and analysis of 506 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. minerals and soils was begun by him. This year proved to be the last of the organization, and if this fact had been foreseen a somewhat different direction would undoubtedly have been given to the work of the corps. But as it was, the time was turned to good account. The second annual report, made to the Governor in December, 1838, consisted of 286 pages, and comprises papers from Prof. W. W. Mather, Col. C. Whittlesey, Gol. J. W. Foster, Prot. ©: Briggs)ijns, Drs: Je Kirtland tama John Locke. Dr. Mather’s report gives the results of a reconnoissance, extended to all the principal divisions of the State, and that gave apparently for the first time a clear view of the entire geological column of Ohio. He also continued the discussion of the soils of the State, to which he had referred in his previous report, and published the system of analysis which was to be applied to the coals and ores of the State. Colonel Whittlesey confined him- self mainly to the topography of the State, but discussing at some length the variation of the magnetic needle and giving a general section from Cleveland across the Western Reserve. The most important part of his report was the determination of the dip of the strata in central and southern Ohio. Colonel Foster described the geology of Muskingum and Licking coun- ties and the adjacent regions. Professor Briggs’ report covered a brief examination of very distinct districts of the State, viz., Wood and Crawford counties in the north, Athens and Hocking in the south, and Tuscarawas in the central portion of the State. The most valuable part.of his report pertains to the Coal Meas- ures, the order of which was coming to be quite clearly seen. Professor Kirtland published a report of great value on the zoblogy of Ohio, which is still regarded with interest by all students in this field. Dr. John Locke’s geological report on the formations of southwestern Ohio and particularly of Adams county, Ohio, is a paper of great interest and permanent value. The financial stress that began to overspread the entire country in 1837 was the principal cause of the abrupt discon- GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF O#TO. 507 tinuance of the geological survey at the close of 1838. The demand for economy in the State administration was urgent, and the expenditure in scientific work, small though it was, was natu- rally the first to be cut off. Probably there was some reaction from the extravagant claims that had been made as to the immediate practical results of the survey, and there was also a measure of criticism directed against certain members of the corps. These facts may have had some influence upon the action of the Legislature. Up to the close of 1838 there had been expended $16,000 in field work, and eleven counties had been reported upon. The State had also made a small outlay in the publication of the reports. Professor Mather’s estimate of the amount required to complete the survey was, at this time, $50,000. As to the valuable results of this work there can be no ques- tion. The State never received larger returns from any other equal expenditure than from the $16,000 used in the first geo- logical survey. The increase of wealth in a single county, through the development of mining industries, largely based on the work of the survey, was asserted to be many times more than the entire expenditure which the State had made in its support. The most important points established in its brief duration were the following, viz. : I. The oldest rocks of the State are the so-called blue lime- stone formation of southwestern Ohio. 2. The newest bedded rocks of our column are the Coal Measures of southeastern Ohio. 3. A very gentle southeasterly or southerly dip prevails throughout Ohio, a proper understanding of which renders all its stratigraphy intelligible. 4. Some interesting notes on Pleistocene and Paleozoic paleontology were introduced into the several reports. Colonel Foster, for example, gives the original description in his report of 1837 of Castoroides ohioensis (2d Rept., p. 30). Professor Briggs furnishes interesting data as to the Mastodon remains 508 THE JOORNALAOFNGPOLOGV: found at Bucyrus (2d Rept.) p. 127). Doctor Locke yaavera restoration of Asaphus megistos (2d Rept., p. 247), and many valuable references to fossiliferous strata and good localities for collecting fossils are to be found in the several reports. 5. Ohio archeology received more or less attention in many of the reports. A decided impulse was given to the study by the work of the survey. Doctor Locke gives a good account, accompanied by a map, of Fort Hill, Highland county. The two reports of the first survey were limited to a few thousand copies each. The volumes are eagerly sought for at the present time, and command a good price whenever found in the market. The discontinuance of the survey was a source of regret and mortification to the more intelligent citizens of the State, and efforts presently began to be made looking to its revival and to a completion of its work. It became quite the fashion with suc- cessive governors to call attention to the great desirability of prosecuting the survey, and bills were introduced into successive legislatures having this end in view. One such bill was intro- duced by Gen. J. A. Garfield, while a member of the State Senate in 1860. Nothing came of these efforts, however, until the legislative session of 1869. At that time, inspired by the cordial recommendation and aided by the hearty codperation of Gov. R. B. Hayes, a bill was passed ordering a geological survey of the State on the lines that the present state of the science demanded. The law authorizing the survey was, before passage, approved, in most of its details at least, by several of the leading geologists of the State, and particularly by Dr. J. S. Newberry, who was subsequently put in charge of the work thus inaugurated. The support of the agricultural interest of the State was again invoked in behalf of the geological survey, and the unwarranted expectations of 1837 were again encouraged, of large and immediately valuable results to be derived from the analyses of soils and mineral fertilizers. This interest found expression in the requirement of the survey, that one of the GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS: OF; OHTO, 509 three assistants should be a “skillful analytical and agricultural chemist.” By the organic law the survey was to be completed in three years from the time of its organization, but, it may be added, that a longer tenure was anticipated by the friends of the survey, both in and out of the Legislature. Governor Hayes appointed rot. J. 5: Newberry Chief Geologist, Professors... B. Andrews and Edward Orton, assistants in geology, and Hon. J. H. Klip- part, assistant in agriculture. Mr. Klippart had been for a num- ber of years secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and was one of the most conspicuous exponents of scientific agriculture in the State at this time. His connection with the survey lasted but a year or two, and his only report is one that appears in the heport of Progress for -1870.:. Prot..T. G.Wormley, a.distin- guished chemist, was made analyist of the survey, and a num- ber of local assistants were brought into the field, some of whom began their field work here. In the hst of local assistants may be found the names of geologists that have since become dis- tinguished, such as R. DD: Irving, Henry Newton, G. K. Gilbert, IMAGreweroNerwood,, VW... Fotter, “))-|i/ Stevenson, and: JN.) Hk Winchell. : Professor Newberry was, at the time of his appointment, professor of geology in the School of Mines of Columbia Col- lege, New York. This position was an important and permanent one, and he did not feel that it was wise to resign it for an office the tenure of which was not only uncertain, but which must be short at the best. He therefore undertook to carry on the duties of both offices, making compensation to the State for such time as was used in the New York professorship by the employment of assistants at his own charges. The arrangement proved, in some respects, unfortunate. If Professor Newberry had been able to devote all his time and energy, even for three or four years, to the survey he would have found plain sailing and could have had everything from the legis- lature which he could reasonably ask, for the feeling of the State was thoroughly favorable to the survey at the outset. But the 510 THE JOURNAL OF {GEOLOGY non-resident feature of the Chief Geologist’s appointment exposed him to constant criticism and attack. His absence from the State during at least half the year, while the Legislature was in session and while laws in regard to the survey were in process of enactment, was the cause of numerous mistakes, particularly in the publication and distribution of the reports. It was undoubt- edly this feature of the survey that led to its premature suspen- sion. ) Of Dr. Newberry’s ability as an all-round geologist nothing now needs to be said. Active and thoroughly trained in field work, a brilliant and sagacious paleontologist, alive to all the demands of the economic interests involved, of the widest opportunities for observation and study, capable at once of minute observa- tion and broad generalization, and master at the same time of a style that was a model in respect to simplicity, lucidity and ele- gance, he was easily the foremost geologist that Ohio has pro- duced. Admirable as is his best work in the survey reports, many of his friends feel that he has left nothing that adequately and fully represents his great ability aS geologist. It is unnecessary to describe in detail the contents of the various reports of the survey. A list of all its publications will be found at the end of the present paper. Professor Newberry’s original plan was a comprehensive one. He aimed to cover the entire stratigraphy and paleontology of the State in a series of parallel reports, and at the same time he proposed to meet the demands of the people for practical guid- ance in dealing with their great mineral staples by the prepara- tion of a volume on economic geology proper. In this last work he was from the first deeply interested. His plan also contem- plated a fourth volume, to be entitled ‘Agriculture, Botany, and Zoology.” The fortunes of the second survey must be briefly traced. At the end of the three years assigned for its completion, not more than half the counties of the State had been reported upon; but no strenuous objections were made to its continuance, even with increased appropriations, for several succeeding years. In GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF OHIO. 511 1873, the first of the so-called final volumes of the survey was published. As already noted, the volume was planned to appear in two parts, one on geology proper, and embracing as many of the county reports as practicable, and the second part to be devoted to paleontology. For the preparation of this last named volume, the service of the distinguished paleontologist, F. B. Meek, had been secured. The so-called parts of Volume I. differ in size and quality of paper, through an unfortunate over- sight and miscalculation of the Chief Geologist. An edition of five thousand copies was recommended by the Chief Geologist. The Governor expressed himself in favor of twice this number and the State Legislature authorized an edition of twenty thousand copies, the cost of the publication of which exceeded $80,000. The plates alone of the paleontological part cost $34,000. Volume II., also published in two parts, followed in the next year, viz.,1874. The inequality in the size of the two parts that was introduced, as before explained, by an oversight in Volume I., was continued in Volume II., as the result of a choice between evils. When these two volumes had been published, it was found that the local reports of the counties would demand another volume, and consequently the Legislature extended the life of the survey through 1874 and made provisions for the preparation of Volume III., also in two parts, viz.: Geology and Paleontology. The first part, Geology, was published in 1878, and in it the remainder of the county reports found place. It was announced at that time that the corresponding part on Paleon- tology would be in readiness for presentation to the Legislature in the succeeding winter. But the State was beginning to experience a financial pressure from which it has never since emerged, and the legislatures of the next, succeeding years found it impracticable to undertake the large outlays ($50,000 or more) required for the paleon- tological part of Volume III., although a considerable outlay had already been made in its preparation. A principal section of the paleontology prepared for this volume was held in manuscript 512 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. for several years by its author, Professor R. P. Whitfield, and was then published with the consent of Professor Newberry, in the annals of the New York Academy of Science. There now remained to be prepared and published two of the volumes embraced in the original plan of the Chief Geologist, viz., the volume on Agriculture, Botany, and Zodlogy, designated Volume III., and that on Economic Geology, designated Volume IV. ‘The first of these, which it was now necessary to call Volume IV., was published in 1882 with a title abbreviated from the original plan, and which the facts of the case required to be still further shortened. No special report had been prepared upon the subject of Agriculture, though more or less material bearing upon this subject is to be found in the separate county reports, and, by what has proved to have been a fortuaate accident, the manuscript of the botanical list which had been prepared was mislaid and could not be found in time for the printer. The volume, therefore, is entirely confined to the sub- ject of Zodlogy, and, even in this, only the leading divisions of the animal life of the State are included. The volume that was to be devoted to “ Agriculture, Botany, and Zodlogy,” and which appears under the title Zodlogy and Botany, thus turned out to be a report on the Vertebrates of the State. Dr. Wheaton’s list of the birds of Ohio may, however, be noticed as especially com- plete and authoritative. Professor Newberry had by this time virtually withdrawn from actual connection with the survey, being hopeless of securing the appropriations necessary for the execution of his plans. In 1882, however, the Legislature, which looked with special interest to the volume on Economic Geology, made provision for its publication, but put the work into my charge, Professor Newberry turning over such matter to me as he had accumulated for this purpose. In 1884, the long-delayed volume, now entitled ‘““Volume V., Economic Geology,’’ was issued. Just at this time the remarkable discoveries of gas and oil in the Trenton limestone of northwestern Ohio were in progress, and were awakening a greater interest in geological questions GEOLOGICAL-SCORVEYS OF OHIO. 513 throughout the State than there had ever been before. The Legislature was, therefore, easily persuaded to extend the investigations on the economie geology of the State so as to include these recent discoveries. As a result, a ‘ Preliminary Report on Petroleum and Inflammable Gas” was published in 1886, and in 1888 the completed volume, entitled Volume VI., Economic Geology, was issued. The work of the second survey was thus being gradually merged in the work of a new organization ; and, in 1889, formal provision was made for carrying on geological work henceforth on a new basis, which may be called the Third Geological Survey of Ohio. Continuous work on a small scale was pro- vided for, or rather, it was made possible for the State Geologist to keep the track of such development as was going forward and to present the facts in annual reports. The first report under this plan was published in 1890, and is entitled ‘ First Annual Report, Third Organization.” Before the second report was due, I was disabled by illness to such an extent that I could no longer carry on the active duties of State Geologist. Considerable material had, however, accumulated in my hands during the preceding year, and there were also several unfulfilled promises and obligations of the Second Geological Survey which it was now found possible to execute. Accordingly there has -been printed, and is now in the binder’s hands, a volume entitled Volume VII., the first.part of which is devoted to Economic Geology, and which may be considered the equivalent of the second and third annual reports, and the second part of which is mainly occupied with the fulfillment of pledges to the State made by the Second Geological Survey. This part contains a chapter on the Archeology of Ohio, which was repeatedly promised by Dr. Newberry, and also the “Botany” mentioned above, viz., a list of the plants of the State, immensely superior to the list that was lost ten years ago; and also two chapters on Paleontology which were prepared for Volume III., but which, as will be remembered, the Legislature had refused or failed to publish. Several other chapters in the same general line have 514 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. been added to the volume. A small edition of the first part of this volume (economic) was issued separately in December, 1893, but it is also included in the volume that is now in the binder’s hands. Among the principal results thus far obtained in the investi- gation of the geology of the State at the public expense the following may be named: 1. The order, mineral composition and thickness of the leading elements of our scale have been determined, and _ their outcrops have been mapped with all needful accuracy. 2. The salient features of the geological structure of the State have been brought clearly to light. 3. The paleontology of the State, while it has not been treated systematically or symmetrically, has still received a con- siderable measure of attention and expenditure. Hall, Meek, Whitfield, Newberry, and Cope have made contributions of great value to our knowledge of the fossils of our series. 4. A great deal has been done in the interests of our eco- nomic geology. Chemical analysis has been applied to our lime- stones, cement rocks, clays and building stones, by no means exhaustively, but still fully enough to furnish safe, practical guidance to our people in every section of the State. But it is to the coal fields of Ohio that the largest measure of service has been rendered. The several seams have been carefully mapped so that the areas of each above drainage are known (Vol. VII.), the order of the seams has been definitely settled with a few unimportant exceptions, and correlations have been established with the Coal Measures of Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and West . Virginia. The analyses of our coals have been made on a system that renders the figures fairly representative, and they accord- ingly command universal confidence in the markets of the coun- try. The mode of occurrence of oil, gas, and salt water in the State has been carefully studied, and the search for these ele- ments of mineral wealth has been aided and rationalized thereby, to some extent. As to what remains to be done, it is not necessary to speak. GEOLOGICAL. SURVEYS OF OfF/O. 515 Every road in science leads to the end of the world, and the fur- ther we advance, the deeper the problems that arise. As to the expenditures, by which all this work has been accomplished, exact figures cannot be furnished for the reason that the publication of the various reports has been made by the State printer, and in many instances the several items of expense— paper, printing, binding—have been included in general appro- priations, from which they could be separated only with diff- culty. The amounts belonging here are not large. For the later reports, full provision for publication has been made in the survey appropriations. First Survey, 1837-8, - - - $16,000.00 Expenses attending the same, cost of publica- tion not included, - - - - 700.00 Second Survey, 1869-1890, - - 280,000.00 Cost of publication mainly included. Third Survey, 1890-1894, - - - 11,000.00 Cost of publication mainly included. $307,700.00 PUBLICATIONS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF OHIO. FIRST SURVEY. DATE. NO. PAGES. NO. COPIES. GEOLOGIST IN CHARGE. First Annual Report. 1838 134 6,000 Mather. Second Annual Report. 1838 286 6,000 “s SECOND SURVEY. m Report of Progress. 1869 176 14,500 Newberry. Report of Progress. 1870 568 14,500 i Report of Progress. 1871 8 300 - Geology of Ohio, Vol. I. Part I. 1873 680 20,000 ‘ Part Il. 1873 401 20,000 ss 49 plates Geology of Ohio, Vol. II. Rartel 1874 701 20,000 - Part II. 1875 431 20,000 af 59 plates Geology of Ohio, Vol. III. Part I. 1878 958 | 20,000 au Geological Atlas. Scale 4ms=trinch. 1879 5,000 Geology of Ohio, Vol. IV. Zoology and Botany. 1882 1,070 20,000 516 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. Geology of Ohio, Vol. V. Economic. 1884 1,124 10,000 Orton. Preliminary Report on Petroleum and Gas. 1886 70 2,500 Geology of Ohio, Vol. VI. 1888 831 15,000 ss THIRD SURVEY. First Annual Report. 1890 323 10,000 * Geology of Ohio, Vol. VII. Partials 1893 290 2,500 ss Geology of Ohio, Vol. VII. Parts I. and II. 1894 ee 7,500 rm 55 plates Maps, plates of sections, etc., accompany many of the volumes. The disposition of the reports has been made almost exclu- sively by the State Legislature, the members of each General Assembly dividing among themselves for gratuitous distribution the full edition of the volume or volumes of which they had authorized the publication. Not the slightest reference was had to the, maintenance of complete sets of the’ reports. ltjis scarcely credible that after such large outlays in publication, the volumes should have been scattered in this reckless way. By attention at the times of issue of the several volumes, those specially interested were generally able to complete their sets. Of the later volumes copies have been left on sale, at cost of publication, in the hands of the Secretary of State. He is the only State officer who is able to supply any of the volumes. The reports find their way, however, to bookstores and, owing to the increasing interest of the last few years, hundreds of sets have been thus completed. EDWARD ORTON. STUDIES FOR STUDENTS: PROROSED- GENETIC: CLASSIFICATION: OF "PLEISTO- CENE. GLACIAL FORMATIONS. Pleistocene formations that are not either directly or indi- rectly of glacial origin are not embraced in the classification herewith proposed. There are at least three appropriate modes of classification of the Pleistocene glacial formations : (1). A classification based upon the structural characteristics of the deposits. (2). A classification based upon the origin of the formations. (3). A classification based upon the time relations of the deposits. Only the second will be here considered. A purely struc- tural classification has an indispensable value, and is a fit subject for more and more critical consideration as our knowledge of the glacial formations increases. The classifications of the past will doubtless continue to need extension and more precise def- inition as glaciology advances. Nevertheless, our structural classifications do not seem to be so lacking in exhaustiveness, norso defective in discrimination as our genetic classifications, and as time will not permit an adequate treatment of the three forms of classification, it has seemed best to pass the first by with a mere mention. A chronological classification of the Pleistocene formations possesses the highest interest and constitutes one of the two great goals sought by glaciology. One of these is to ascertain how the formations were produced, the other, the times and sequences of their production. But it is too early yet to fix upon a satisfactory chronological classification. The data are not yet sufficiently gathered nor have they been tested with sufficient Sy 518 LTE VOOKRINA LE OP AGE OLOGN: severity, to admit of satisfactory correlation of the successive glacial stages even within the limits of a single province. How much less, then, those of different continents. While recognizing, therefore, the supreme interest that attaches to a chronological classification, I am impressed with the feeling that it is best to postpone a formal attempt to establish such a classification until the data shall be more adequately developed. It is believed that the development of a more satisfactory genetic classification will be a step toward a more satisfactory chronological classifica- tion. The following outline is submitted for discussion: Six general classes are proposed. A. GENERAL CLASSES. 1. Formations produced by the direct action of Pleistocene glaciers.— As very much of that which is commonly embraced, for conven- ience, under the general phrase glacial formations is not the direct and simple product of glaciers, but springs in part or in whole from accessory agencies, it is thought serviceable to discriminate the simple from the complex formations. In this classification glaciers are assumed to be the primary and chief agency in the production of the formations classified, but the secondary and associated agencies are very important, and often the final expression of the deposits is due chiefly, and sometimes wholly, to these auxiliary agencies. Il. formations produced by the combined action of Pleistocene glaciers and accompanying glacial drainage.—A\ll of the ice of the glaciers except that portion which was transformed into vapor passed away in the form of glacial waters, and to this there was added the rain precipitated upon the glacial expanse. The com- bination of the work of this large volume of water with that of the ice gave rise to results which neither the ice alone nor the water alone could accomplish. These constitute a distinct class of deposits. Ill. formations produced by glacial waters after their issuance While the glacial waters were acting from Pleistocene glacters. STUDIES FOR STUDENTS. 519 on the glacier, or more especially in tunnels within or under the glacier, they were constrained by the presence of the ice walls and forced into modes of action that they would not have assumed of themselves on free and open surfaces of the land. The formations of free glacial waters after their issuance from the ice are thus distinguishable from the confined glacial streams of the ice-body itself. The products of glacial waters after their issuance differ from the products of ordinary surface waters in the fact that they were overloaded with detritus in an extraor- dinary and peculiar way, and in the fact that this detritus differs from ordinary land waste. This difference furnishes one of the most valuable criteria in the discrimination of Pleistocene forma- tions. IV. Formations produced by floating ice derived from Pleistocene glaciers —Assuming that the greater mass of the glacial deposits 5 of Pleistocene age were formed by the primary agency of glaciers, it nevertheless remains important to distinguish the secondary products that were formed through the agency of floating ice derived from these glaciers. Just as the waters from the melting glaciers bore away and deposited a certain constitu- ent of the material that had been wrought at first hand by the glaciers, so icebergs bore off and deposited in a fashion of their own another portion. The two classes are secondary and dependent upon the original glacial action, and some of the characteristics of the material must be sought in the original glacial action, but in their final stages the deposits take on character of their own. V. Formations produced by shore ice and ice-floes due to low Pleistocene temperature but independent of glacial action—TVhe pres- ence of the great ice sheets and the glacial conditions that pro- duced them appear to have given rise to a class of independent ice deposits that may fittingly be put in this classification. These are believed by some writers to attain great importance. What- ever their extent, they need to be scrupulously discriminated from the products of both glaciers and glacier-derived icebergs. 520 THE JOURNAL OF (GEOLOGY. VI. Formatons produced by winds acting on Fleistocene glacial and glacio-fluvial deposits under the peculiar conditions of glaciation. —It is not unreasonable to suppose that the tracts bordering the great glaciers, especially those recently abandoned by them, were exposed to very effective wind action. The differences of temperature between the ice-clad fields and the adjacent ice-free lands may be supposed to have induced strong wind currents. Between their strength and the facilities offered for their action by bare surfaces of recently-formed incoherent material, there is ground for the belief that eolian deposits of more than usual magnitude and of peculiar characteristics were formed. So also, it is highly probable, if not certain, that some of the rivers of glacial times were accompanied by broad flats which they had themselves built up, and which they alternately flooded and left exposed, and that here the winds found a special field of effective action. Such eolian formations as resulted from these agencies are probably not so important in themselves as in the erroneous inferences to which they are likely to lead, if unrecognized. Such wind-blown sands and silts might easily be borne up to high levels and lodge there. If these are attributed to water action (which seems the natural alternative) they lead to hypoth- eses of flood-heights or of submersion of much magnitude; and these lead on to other conclusions of much consequence. The recognition of the class, especially in framing working hypoth- eses and interpretations, is thought to have some importance. With the foregoing general statements, we may turn to the more special consideration of the several classes indicated. B. SUB-CLASSIFICATIONS. I. Formations produced by the direct action of Pleistocene glaciers. —Under this head may be recognized three sub-classes : 1. Formations that gathered at the bottom of the glaciers. 2. Formations derived from material borne on the glaciers and within them (but not at their basal contact) and deposited at their margins, or let directly down by their melting, when stagnant. SLUDTIES FOR, STUDENTS. 521 3. Formations produced by the mechanical action of the edge ot the ice. 1. It is believed that the base of the glaciers was the great seat of action; that here took place the disrupting of the mate- rial and the larger part of the rubbing, grinding and crushing to which it was subjected in transportation. All of this material, however, did not come to final rest beneath the ice. A portion of it was borne away by the glacial drainage, a portion was thrust up into the ice and borne along to its edge and there deposited as superglacial material, and a portion may have once been uncovered by the retreat of ice and have been subsequently plowed up by a re-advance and so have taken on a new form of aggregation. There is, therefore, a discrimination to be observed between material that was*froduced at the base of the glaciers and that which was finally deposited at their base. It is only the latter class that is included here. Of deposits originating under the ice the following sub-classes are distinguished. (1). Swbglacial sheets of tll—These constitute one form of ground moraines; the form which is perhaps most commonly recognized. There are to be embraced here those broad sheets of till which were spread out under the ice and left, on its retreat, as a blanket mantling the surface of the land. These sheets are not uniform in thickness nor universal in their presence. In this classification it has been thought best to separate all distinct and special forms of aggregation from the more nearly uniform sheets of till, and to place them in the following sub-class. This is done in the belief that the causes of these special aggrega- tions were somewhat special and peculiar, and that these forms are worthy of distinction for working purposes until their final significance and classificatory value shall be determined. (2). Subglacial aggregations of till—These admit of subdivi- sion into two varieties, between which there is no sharp dividing line and which are perhaps separated from each other genetically only by the degree of their development. These are a. Drumlins. b. Aggregations not strictly drumloid in form. 522 THE JOURNAL OP NGHOLOGY. a. Of the drumlins, four sub-varieties may be recognized, and it may prove serviceable to distinguish these and treat them as distinct varieties until the mystery of the drumlin formation shall be solved and the importance, or otherwise, of these distinctions be determined. (a) Lenticular or elliptical hills —These are the typical variety of drumlins and consist of very remarkable aggregations of till in hills of dolphin-back form whose longer axes are two or three, or at most a few, times longer than their transverse diameters, The longer axis lies in the direction of glacial movement. This is the most familiar form. (0) Elongated ridges—These have the same constitution as the preceding and have similar terminal contours. The body of the hill is, however, elongated to the extent of two or three or occasionally several miles. These elongated ridges com- monly lie parallel to each other, giving a markedly fluted char- acter to the surface. They are thought worthy of being distin- guished for the present, because the elongation of their forms may prove a significant feature, and lead to the recognition of some of the essential conditions of drumlin formation. (c) Mammillary hills —These have the same constitution as the previous types. but differ from them in the extreme short- ness of the axis. This, in some instances, is scarcely longer than the transverse diameter. These are thought worthy of being distinguished, because they emphasize more than either of the preceding varieties the vertical element of the constructive process. I know of nothing more extraordinary in glacial forma- tions than the building up of these domes to the height of 50 to 60 or more feet with such steep sides and on so circum- scribed and so nearly circular a base. There are no cases, so far as I ‘am aware, in- which the base is strictly circular. There seems always to be an element of elongation in the direction of glacial movement. (da) Till tumuli—These are low mounds of more than usually stony material (so far as I have observed). They have not gen- ‘erally assumed the drumloidal curves of contour and profile, but SEOUDIES FOR STUDENTS. 523 their nature is such as to have suggested that they are the im- mature nuclei of drumlins. Further investigation is proposed, and they are here introduced tentatively. b. There are several classes of aggregations of till that are not strictly drumloidal in form but which are thought to deserve recognition, for the present, as varieties, for their possible sug- gestiveness respecting the physical processes of subglacial accu- mulation. (a) Crag and tail—These embrace the well known accumula- tions of till in the lee of rocky crags or embossments. (6) Pre-crag—These embrace the less well recognized accu- mulations of till in front of crags or embossments of rocks. These two forms may co-exist in connection with the same pro- tuberance of rock and may coalesce. From this has arisen the suggestion that their coalescence might initiate a drumlin. In support of this, it is cited that many drumlins have a core or pedestal of rock. Against this is cited the fact that many drum- lins have no such nucleus of rock so far as observation can dis- cover. (c} Veneered hills —These are hills of rock, coated somewhat uniformly with till, the surface conforming approximately to that of the underlying rock. These differ from the crag-and-tail and pre-crag accumulations in the genetically significant fact of a much more uniform distribution of the till over the rock emboss- ment and in the subordination of veneering to the pre-existent contour rather than the formation of a new contour. (d@) Till billows.—TVhere is a class of drift accumulations which take on a billowy surface. They differ from the drumlins in their want of conformity to axes lying in the direction of the drift movement. The drumlins are also usually separated from each other by low flat ground. The till billows, on the other hand, are arranged more closely together, are disposed more irregularly, and are connected with each other by saddles or cols. Between these billows are frequent undrained basins. The type, it will be observed, graduates into, if it does not strictly belong to, the class designated below as submarginal moraines. Tracts 524 THE. JOURNAL OF “GEOLOGY. of these till billows are usually distributed parallel to the margin of the ice, and to that extent conform to the habit of terminal accumulations. I have thought that they might be an inter- mediate form between submarginal moraines and drumlins, but, while they unquestionably graduate into the former, I have never observed their graduation into the latter. It seems, therefore, probable that they should be removed from this division and placed below. (e) Lrregular till hills-—Besides the above forms which show a tendency to some definite law of development, there is a con- siderable class of aggregations of till that seem to pay no respect to laws of symmetry or to systematic principles of growth. At present no classification seems tenable except one based upon their very irregularity. (3). Submarginal ridges of till parallel with the ice border—Both the till sheets (1) and the subglacial aggregates (2) that have been described above occupy territory extending for considerab'e distances back from the border of the ice, indeed, ideally the first class may be regarded as covering the entire territory occupied by the ancient glacier. On the contrary, the ridges of till here considered le along what was the immediate border of the ice at certain of its stages. They are thought to have been formed under the edge of the ice, but it remains to be deter- mined to what an extent they were accumulated under the im- mediate border of the ice and to what an extent they were deposited at the distance of one, two, or three miles from the precise edge of the glacier. It does not seem at present possi- ble to determine,, or at least it does not seem to have been determined, whether the whole of the accumulation was built up simultaneously throughout its entire breadth, or whether the outer portion was accumulated under the immediate edge of the ice and the inner portions built up a little later in like manner under the edge of the ice when it had withdrawn somewhat. These ridges are from one to a few miles wide, are composed essentially of till (though assorted material may form a greater or less constituent), possess in the main a gently flowing contour SHOUDIES FORSSLUDEN TS. 525 which distinguishes them from the rougher ridgings and sharper contours of frontal moraines formed by the mechanical thrust of the ice, or by the dropping of superglacial material at its edge. (a) Submarginal or lodge moraines (a variety of terminal moraines).—Yhe most important form falling under the above head may be designated submarginal or lodge moraines. They are designated submarginal, not so much because they are believed to be formed near the edge of the ice and not abso- lutely at its edge, as because they are believed to be formed under the margin of the ice. Three varieties of moraines, all of which may be called terminal, are recognized, being produced in three distinct ways. The first are formed from material borne on or in the ice (the latter being brought to the surface by ablation before reaching the edge) which is dropped at the terminus of the ice and which, when the ice remains stationary for a sufficient period, grows into a bordering ridge. These may be given the rather homely but expressive name dump moraines. The second is formed by the mechanical thrust of the ice when it advances against any incoherent material that lies in its path. These may be designated push moraines. The third variety consists of that under consideration, and which may be designated lodge Moraines, from the conviction that the material, instead of being carried or pushed or dragged forward to the extreme edge of the ice, is permitted to lodge under its thin border, and constitute a sub- marginal accumulation. The lodge moraine is not in its nature or material radically different from the ground moraine which lodged farther back from the edge of the ice, and constitutes the subglacial till sheet. It differs from it, perhaps, only in the fact that the thinned and weakened edge of the ice presented con- ditions specially favorable to deposition, and that, as a result, a thickened belt of drift formed under the border of the ice when it remained approximately stationary for a sufficient period and took on the special billowy contours above described. The sub- marginal moraines were doubtless subjected to more or less mechanical action of the ice as it oscillated forward and back- ward. This action is thought to have been of the nature of an 526 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. over-riding or an over-sliding of the ice rather than of a pushing or plowing up by the edge of the ice. It is my growing convic- tion that this form of the terminal moraine is the predominant one in the great American glacial field. I incline to the opinion that the broad complex tracts of thickened drift that mark the border of the ice sheet at several of its stages were chiefly formed in this submarginal way, and that, while there is usually present a constituent dropped from the surface of the ice and a con- stituent formed by the mechanical thrust of the ice, the great mass of these moraines, in general, accumulated by lodgment under the border of the ice but near its edge. (0) As only those ridges which have some measure of per- sistency and which mark notable stages of the ice action should be formally designated terminal moraines, it seems advisable to recognize under a different head local tidges of till arranged transversely to glacial movement. These are to be contrasted with the drumlins which are elongated ridges of till whose axes lie in the line of glacial movement. These transverse local ridges are in some cases perhaps of the same nature as the sub- marginal moraines except that the action was limited. But for the greater part they may be presumed to have sprung either from. exceptional conditions of accumulation, which led to exceptional deposition when the force of the ice was weakened, or to exceptional conditions favorable to deposition, the con- ditions in both cases determined by local agencies. They are thus distinguished from the products of those general agencies that produced the persistent submarginal moraines. 2. Formations derived from material borne on the glaciers and within them (but not at their basal contact) and deposited at thew margins or let directly down by their melting when stagnant. (1) Dump moraines (a variety of terminal moraines).—In various well known ways a certain amount of material finds lodgment on the surface of a glacier, and a certain additional amount becomes incorporated within its body. Leaving out of consideration such part of this as finds its way to the bottom, both the englacial and superglacial material is carried SRO DLT Se TORN Si DIGIN IES, 527 forward and by ablation is at length brought to the surface of the ice and is carried on to its edge and dropped there. If the material is considerable and the border of the ice remains stationary tor some time, notable accumulations may result in the form of border ridges constituting the variety of terminal moraines designated as dump moraines. When the englacial and superglacial material is inconsiderable in quantity the deposit may not amount to a ridge but may yet constitute a very definite and distinctive belt of material. The bowlder belts of several of the interior states are classed here. They cannot be said to be moraines in so far as that term implies ridging, but they are terminal border deposits that have much the same significance as terminal moraines and belong to the same general genetic class. (2) Englacial or superglacial till (‘upper till’’).—When this englacial and superglacial material is let down over the whole territory of the ice, either during its successive stages of retreat or by being let down directly through the melting of the glacier when it becomes stagnant, it forms a superficial sheet quite analogous to the subglacial sheet already considered. This was some years ago designated “upper till’? by Torrell, Hitchcock, Upham, and others, but because the term upper till was also used to designate a re-duplication of the subglacial till sheet by many other geologists, it was thought best to propose the term englacial or superglacial till. There still exist differences of opinion as to how much of existing deposits is to be referred to englacial and how much to subglacial till, and the criteria for discriminating between these are still under discussion, but the importance of the classification and the significance of its bearing upon the interpretation of glacial action and of glacial history seems beyond question. (3) Medial moraines—These familiar forms of glacial deposits. do not call for remark,, further than to ‘note that they merge into dump moraines at the frontal edge of the ice and into superglacial till in cases in which they are let directly down by melting without being carried on to the terminus of the 528 LE JOUOLINATE OF AGROLOGN, glacier, and to observe further that they are very subordinate elements in the great Pleistocene glacial deposits. 3. Products of the mechanical action of the edge of the ice. (1) Push moraines (a variety of terminal moraines).—The distinctness of this familiar variety will doubtless be sufficiently recognized without further remark. It is perhaps, however, worthy of note that two sub-varieties may be recognized based upon the glacial or non-glacial character of the material involved, since the latter variety is sometimes overlooked. a. The first and common variety is formed of glacial material which may belong either to the subglacial, englacial, or super- glacial variety, or it may be formed of glacio-fluvial or glacio- natant material. It must, however, be presumed to have been previously brought forward to the edge of the ice or beyond it, and to be thus subject to be plowed up or pushed up into ridg- ings by the thrust of the advancing ice, which is the essential factor in the formation. 6. The second variety embraces local material of any kind that lay in the path of the advancing edge of the ice and was pushed into ridges by it. It is non-glacial material except in the simple fact that it was ridged by ice action. It is entitled to be regarded as a moraine so far as its origin as a topographic form and a re-arranged formation are concerned. In other senses it is not. (2) Lateral moraines.—These familiar forms need no dis- cussion. N. B. Interlobate moraines form a variety of terminal mor- aines and not, as is quite often stated erroneously, a variety of lateral moraines. They are produced along the line of contact of adjacent glacial lobes, but the direction of ice movement is perpendicular or approximately perpendicular to the moraines, and not parallel with them. The mode of ice action involved in their production, and the nature of the morainic aggregation resulting, is that of the terminal and not that of the lateral moraine. These interlobate moraines may belong to either of the three classes above designated—the dump, the push, or the lodge moraine, or they may be formed of the three combined. STUDIES FOR STUDENTS. 529 Il. Hormatons produced by the combined action of Pleistocene glaciers and glacial drainage (assorted drift) —The iarge amount of water derived from the melting of the ice, and the added amount contributed by rains, constituted a very important aux- iliary agency and gave rise to much assortment and re-arrange- ment of the drift. Three classes of deposits may be discriminated, those that are the products 1) of subglacial streams, 2) of superglacial streams, and 3) of marginal waters. 1. Deposits of subglacial streams. Subglacial waters may be classified in two groups, the first embracing those which flowed in well established tracts or tun- nels formed in the base of the ice, the second embracing those which flowed in a more diffuse and irregular way under the ice. These appear to have given rise to corresponding deposits. (1) Osars (asar) or eskers (kames of many authors).—I\t is thought to be now beyond question that trains of gravel accumu- lated in tunnels formed by subglacial streams and that these, on the disappearance of the ice, formed ridges. The course of these seems to have been conditioned partly by the slope of the land and partly by the direction of glacial movement. They are best developed where these approximately coincide. It can scarcely be said, however, that osars are limited to such coinci- dence. The more extensive, branching and typical forms were probably also conditioned by stagnant or approximately stagnant states of the ice in its vanishing stages. The Scandinavian term asar seems entitled to precedence both because these remarkable forms are typically developed there, and because they first received notable attention there. The term eskers is coming to be used somewhat freely by many American writers as a synonym and is preferred by some for phonic reasons, while the term ames is being used for a cognate variety of gravel accumulations, to *It is to be noted that only that assortment of the drift which was cortemporaneous with the ice epoch and connected with the ice action is here taken into consideration. Modifications of the drift that took place subsequent to the disappearance of the ice, or independent of it, belong to a class quite distinct from that under discussion here. 530 THE JOORNA LIOR NGEOLOG NV: be mentioned below. Whatever the terminology, it seems important to distinguish the long branching gravel ridges that represent the longitudinal drainage of the ancient glaciers from those gravel accumulations that are associated with terminal moraines, and that appear to be the debouchure deposits of glacial waters. A variety of osars or eskers may have been produced by superglacial streams, as will be recognized below. (2) Semple tracts or patches of drift formed by subglacial drain- age.—Thin sheets and lenses of sand and gravel in the midst of subglacial till are common phenomena and, while they may in many cases be produced by streams running in tunnels which afterward shifted their position and left no other mark than these patchy deposits, it seems probable that many of these detached sheets and lenses were produced by a diffuse and local drainage developed by any one of several combinations of conditions while the ice was still present and continuing its deposition of till. Similar patches on the surface were perhaps produced in a sim- ilar way. 2. Deposits of superglacial streams. For the most part superglacial streams, after short courses, descend through crevasses or moulins and become englacial or subglacial. This was doubtless true of the Pleistocene glacial streams, and the material which they bore along found its final deposition either in connection with subglacial streams or with the glacial waters after they had emerged from the ice. Never- theless, there are two forms of deposition by superglacial streams that probably find some representatives among Pleistocene forma- tions. The first embrace those which were carried along by superglacial streams that succeed in reaching the edge of the ice or a channel which they cut back into the margin of the ice. In the one case it probably took the form of delta cones, in the other of narrow ridges formed through the restraining aid of the channel walls. The other variety is presumed to have been formed from deposits which gathered along the course of superglacial streams and were let down by the melting of the ice after the glacier became stagnant, retaining essentially the form of their original SOODIESHHORNS LODE NIE: 531 accumulation in the superglacial channel, except so far as they were sdisturbed’ in. the process of; descent. Of these there are perhaps two varieties. (1) Superglacial osars (asar) or eskers (kames of some authors). —Under this head are to be classed such channel-deposits as retained their elongated form and became ridges, and hence fall under the Scandinavian type. In the earlier studies of the sub- ject a considerable number of specialists would have inclined to classify most osars under this head, but opinion appears to be inclining toward the reference of the greater part of the osar ridges to subglacial agencies. (2) Superglacial kames.—Sheets or pockets of assorted mate- rial gathered on the surface of the ice were doubtless subjected to much disturbance and re-arrangement in the process of descent. The resulting deposits would constitute undulatory tracts of drift or groups of hillocks for which there is perhaps no specific name, but which may be thrown under the general class kames for the present. 3. Marginal deposits. Under this class are embraced all those deposits of glacial streams that were made at the margin of the mer de glace, and whose forms were dependent upon the conditions that obtained at the margin. The following classes are recognized: (1) Kames.—Yo this class I refer irregular heapings of assorted drift generally arranged in lines or tracts transverse to glacial movement. They are often closely associated with and merge into terminal moraines of till. Sometimes they largely constitute the terminal moraines, the action of glacial waters being so great as to assort nearly all of the material brought forward to the edge of the ice. In such cases the morainic factor (in the genetic sense) is found in the mechanical action of the ice in restraining the action of the waters, in controlling the nature of the heapings and in pushing of the accumulations, distorting and modifying them. Irregular heapings of assorted drift of this variety are not, however, wholly confined to border. tracts, but occur irregularly distributed over the area abandoned by the ice. 532 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. They differ from the osar type in their marginal relation to the ice and their transverse arrangement. There is, however, a gra- dation between the two, and no sharp line of demarkation has yet been found; probably none exists. But there appears to be this important genetic difference: the typical kames appear to be the products of relatively active vigorous glaciers, while the typical osars appear to be the products of extremely inactive, if not stagnant, glaciers. This important difference of significance is thought to amply justify the recognition of the two classes whatever may be the difficulties in sharply separating them. The difficulties of sharply discriminating between the osar type and the kame type are increased by the fact that there is a class of gravel ridges having forms precisely like the typical olacial movement. 5 These yet await thoroughgoing investigation, but I incline to osars, that lie more or less transverse to the the belief that they are to be regarded as true osars, and that they were formed during the stagnant conditions of the ice just before its disappearance, their transverse course being due to the control of the underlying topography. It has been stated that the course of the osars was conditioned partly upon the direction of the ice movement and partly upon the topography of the land surface. In this instance, it appears that the land topography dominated the osar formation, and that the movement of the ice became uninfluential. In support of this view it may be added that some osars on reaching the border of the ice turn to a course nearly parallel with it.t (2). Osar (esker) deltas or fans—It appears that when the glacial streams reached the border of the ice sheet and were free from bounding ice walls, they spread themselves out widely and dropped a large portion of their burden in the form of deltas or fans. These are not uncommon in the interior as well as in Maine, where the osar phenomenon has its most remarkable development in America. These deltas are very significant both ‘Dr. Lundbohm has directed my attention recently to the fact that this is a not uncommon phenomenon in Sweden, as shown by the geological maps of the Swedish Survey. SHRODIES FOR STUDENTS, 53 io) in respect to the method of formation of the osars and in respect to the position and restraining functions of the ice sheet at the time of their formation. (3). Overwash aprons—\When terminal moraines grew to constitute notable barriers along the border of the mer de glace, and when the ice pressed against these moraines so as to obstruct the transverse flow of the glacial drainage along their inner bor- der, the waters derived from the ice crept over the moraines in numerous small streams, which deposited gravel, sand, and silt on the outer flank of the moraine. These deposits are often distributed along the moraines for great distances and constitute a fringe of assorted material to which Shaler has given the apt name ‘‘apron.”’ These constitute one of the most satisfactory demonstrations of the marginal character of the moraines and of the relations of the iceto them. The material varies widely in coarseness according to the conditions of formation, and a struc- tural sub-classification may be based upon it embracing (a) gravel—(0) sand—(c) silt-aprons. Immediately next to the moraine the material is sometimes exceedingly coarse, constitut- ing little less than a boulder belt. At the other extreme of the series the silt sometimes forms a clay deposit and sometimes it takes on that peculiar assortment which constitutes loess. The class of aprons ‘here described are depetidencies of definite terminal moraines. There were, however, tracts of assorted material formed by waters outflowing from the ice where no definite terminal ridging took place. Such forms may be designated outwash aprons in distinction from overwash aprons. This class is usually made up of sand or silt. In the latter case there are gradations into the great flanking tracts of loess which appear to have arisen in the manner indicated on very low slopes with prevailing slack drainage. (4). Pitted plains (in part).—Both the osar deltas and the overwash aprons are characterized in certain regions by a sur- face marked with numerous depressions, sometimes symmetrical (kettles), sometimes irregular, with undulatory bottoms and embracing knobs and sub-basins, giving the surface an expres- 534 TLE YJOORNATLEV OLS GHOEOGY2 sion resembling the kames. A part of these pitted plains seem to be intimately connected in origin with the ice edge and to be due to marginal conditions, among which it has been thought that the incorporation of ice fragments, the grounding of ice blocks, the movement of the ice edge, and the development of underground ice sheets were among the special agencies, but the full explanation of the pitted plains can scarcely be claimed to have been reached. Ill. Formations produced by glacial waters after their issuance trom the Pleistocene glaciers. 1. By glacial rivers. One of the most familiar facts of glaciology is the detritus- laden condition of the icy streams as they issue from the body of an active glacier. A portion of this material is thrown down immediately at the margin under the special conditions there presented and constitutes the formations classified above, but the larger portion is borne onward to varying distances and deposited quite independently of the agency of the ice. Two varieties of this class of deposits are worthy of being specially recognized. (1). ‘Valley drift.’—In those cases in which the previous surface agencies had developed a definite drainage topography, and in which the gradient was favorable, the detritus was borne down the valleys leading away from the ice border in trains of gravel and sand. As the glacial streams were usually greatly overloaded with detritus at the outset, they built up their valley bottoms by depositing material from bluff to bluff constituting a valley plain, out of which subsequently beautiful systems of terraces were often cut. The most notable class of this type consists of those gravel valley-plains which head in a terminal moraine or, more strictly speaking, in the overwash apron of a terminal moraine. Sometimes the apron gathers in for many miles on either side giving a very broad expanded head to the valley tract. As these valley tracts may, head on successive moraines and may be traceable far down their valleys, they afford SLUDIES FOR STUDENTS. 535 most admirable means of working out glacial history by deter- mining the intervals between the successive moraines and the topographic conditions under which they were formed. As the gradient of the streams that formed these valley tracts may be estimated, they afford valuable criteria for determining the altitude and the attitude of the land at the time of their formation. (2). Loess sheets——The above valley tracts grade from the coarsest gravel through sand to the finest silt. So long as they are confined definitely to the valleys, a sub-classification of them on the basis of coarseness or fineness of material would be rather structural than genetic though carrying a genetic significance. But when the waters spread widely beyond the immediate vicin- ity of the valley and the material took on a peculiar and dis- tinctive assortment, there seems to be sufficient ground for recognizing a second genetic class. The great tracts of fluvial loess (not all varieties of loess) are placed here. These are valley phenomena, in part. They have for their axes the great valleys of the region and their thickest deposits are along the valleys. They, however, spread widely over the adjacent country so that conjointly they mantle the whole region. They also coalesce with the great fringing sheets of loess that are classed above as outwash deposits. The class graduates into typical valley deposits on one side, into typical fringing deposits on another, and, apparently, into wind deposits of loess on a third side. 2. By fringing lakes. This class obviously embraces deposits of suspended material brought out from the ice into bordering lakes by glacial streams and spread over their bottoms, being generally of the clayey type, sometimes bearing lacustrine fossils, sometimes not ; some- times commingled with stony material dropped by floating ice derived from the edge of the glacier, sometimes not, at least not in notable quantities, and always more or less commingled with wash from the adjacent land not covered by ice. Theoretically, the type is characterized by the peculiar border of the deposit 536 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. next the impounding ice. Practically, this characteristic is not always readily demonstrable. 3. By bordering séas. This class differs from the preceding in the fact that the waters were not impounded by the ice (as they usually, but not always, were in the preceding case), and in the fact that the deposits are commingled with oceanic sediments, marine fossils, and impregnated with saline waters, which may or may not have been wholly removed subsequently. IV. Formations produced by floating ice derived from Pleistocene glaciers. The type of this class is glacio-natant till, in which the con- stituents are identical with those of glacial till except when formed under the action of currents which induced secondary modifications. Two sub-classes are to be recognized : 1. Local-—In general these are lacustrine but may be oceanic. Commonly the deposits took place in glacier-fringing (usually glacier-formed) lakes and constitute only a secondary phase of glacier formation. In cases in which the ice entered an arm or bay, or even the border of the ocean, and the deposit took place | in the immediate vicinity, the deposit remained essentially a local one. If marine fossils or marine sediments were commingled, or if the marine factor is for any reason regarded as important, a sub-classification distinguishing between lacustrine and marine glacio-natant local deposits is justified. 2. Foreign—These are essentially marine glacio-natant deposits and are due to icebergs derived from distant glaciers bearing to the point of deposit material wholly of foreign origin. Among the genetic conditions involved in this case are the sub- mergence of the land beneath the ocean at the time of the deposit and its subsequent elevation. Local lacustrine glacio- natant deposits may be formed at various heights above the ocean level and subsequently exposed by the drainage of the lake without involving oscillations of the crust or the sea level. In the case of the great lakes, iceberg material borne from one STUDIES HOR“STUDEN TLS. Seve side and deposited on the upposite and distant side might con- stitute a recognizable sub-class under this head. Such deposits have been described. V. Formations produced by shore-ice and ice-floes due to low Pleistocene temperature but independent of glacier action. 1. Shore ridges due to ice push.—tIn northern latitudes the shore action of ice (not including icebergs) is very notably, producing shore ridges of unusual strength, configuration, and importance. It is held by some writers that much of the phe- nomena placed on the above classes is referable to this. Without conceding this, it seems beyond question that this class of deposits need special recognition in the study of the Pleistocene formations. 2. Littoral deposits —lf we confine the above class to those ridges which were pushed up on the shore above the reach of the waters, we need also to recognize a class which was deposited beneath the border of the body of the water. These differ from ordinary littoral deposits in the special contribution resulting from the ice action. 3. Off-shore deposits —These embrace the material of the ice action of the shore borne back in suspension or by ice floes into still waters and there deposited. They must, in the nature of the case, very closely similate the formations produced by floating ice derived from glaciers. VI. Formations produced by winds acting on Pleistocene glacial and glacto-fluvial deposits under the pecuhar conditions of glaciation. Recalling what was said under this head near the opening of this discussion, it may suffice here to simply indicate two classes that may be recognized under this head. 1. Dunes.—These differ in no important respect from ordi- nary dunes, except that the material is made up in part of grains formed by glacial grinding instead of disintegration and wave wear, and in their correlation with the ice border and the glacial waters that issued from it, rather than with the sandy shores of lakes and seas. 2. olian loess —While the larger part of the loess found in 538 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. the glaciated region of North America is believed to be the product of glacial waters, it still remains, in my view, probable that certain parts of it were deposited by winds. This part is believed, in general, to have been derived from the water- deposited portion, but perhaps this is not universally true. Along the leeward side of the Mississippi river, for instance, we find dunes of sand and dune-like accumulations of loess that seem in both instances to have been derived by winds from the flooded flats of the river below. In like manner, there seems ground for the belief that in Pleistocene times, the glacial floods alternately extended and withdrew themselves, leaving great silt- covered flats exposed to wind action, and that from these silt was swept up and deposited over adjacent and perhaps somewhat distant highlands. It seems also not improbable that the con- ditions of the surface may have been such as to permit the lodg- ment of this more uniformly over the surface than is the habit with dunes. There seems ground for this in the distinction between the formation of dunes and the supposed deposits. Dunes are formed from sand driven along the surface by winds, but not in any notable degree carried by the winds in full sus- pension. The supposed silt deposits, on the other hand, are presumed to have been formed by silt borne in free suspension until, by contact with the earth, it was lodged. Such contact might obviously be widespread and the lodgment product might have a wide and measureably uniform distribution. While, there- fore, coinciding with what seems to .be the majority opinion among American geologists that the loess deposits of the glaciated region are chiefly water-lain, it appears to me prudent, if not important, to recognize the xolian class, and to search diligently for criteria of discrimination between the two classes. The foregoing classification is consciously incomplete. In some instances the bases of distinction border closely upon the structural rather than the genetic, but it is believed that there is involved in every case an important genetic factor, though it may sometimes be most conveniently expressed in structural terms. T. C. CHAMBERLIN. TA DLEORTA ES. WirH profound sorrow we announce the death of our col- league, Dr. George Huntington Williams, Professor of Inorganic Geology in the Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore. Tidings of his death came to most of us like a sudden flash of lightning from a cloudless sky. In the midst of ceaseless activity, and at the height of ever-increasing effectiveness, he has been cut off. To those who for three weeks watched the rising fever, and endeavored by every means known to medical science to avert a fatal crisis, his death was almost as unexpected. Subsequent examination showed the presence of an organic disorder which had rendered his system incapable of withstanding the attack of typhoid: Truly “in the midst of life we are in death.” To those of us who have been intimately associated with Professor Williams, his death comes as a personal bereavement, for his amiable disposition, his generous sympathy, and his unselfish interest in his friends bound them to him with ties of lasting affection. To those who were fortunate enough to study under his guidance, his death must come with peculiar force, for he possessed in a high degree those qualities which render a teacher powertul. His learning was broad and deep, and his reading extensive. He was gifted with a memory that was not only strongly retentive, but had the rare trait of storing up the kernel of a matter, and letting go the chaff. His speech was clear, graceful and vigorous. The enthusiasm with which he attacked every subject in the varied range of his work communicated itself through his words to his hearers. His successful labors in the field of original research not only added to the sum of knowledge in general, but served as an example and powerful incentive to those who were following his teachings. His pupils will indeed be fortunate if they have caught anything of the 539 540 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. spirit of his inspiration, or have learned to follow in his foot- steps. The science of geology has lost a strong and able advo- cate and promoter, and geologists of all countries have lost an illustrious associate. The Journal of Geology in particular sustains a heavy loss, for Professor Williams has taken an active part in its establishment, contributing materially to its support in various directions. It will be our privilege to publish at some future time a fitting sketch of his life work. Velen J Tue Peary Relief Party left Brooklyn, N. Y., on the 20th of June, taking passage on a regular steamer plying between New York and St. Johns, Newfoundland. The party stopped at St. Johns until the 7th of July, when they sailed for Peary’s head- quarters. The vessel which carried the party from St. Johns, the Falcon, is a German-built steam sealer, made with especial reference to voyages in polar seas. She is under the charge of Captain Bartlett, who took the Peary party to its destination last year, and who, during that trip, made the quickest passage of Melville Bay on record. The party consists of seven mem- bers: Elenry G. Bryant, leader; Professor 0., G2 Chamisenlin University of Chicago, Geologist; Professor W. Libbey, Jr., of Princeton, nee Mr. H. C. Bridgeman, of Brooklyn, Historian ; . Olef Ohlin, of Sweden, Zodlogist; Mr. Amiel Debitsch ee Peary’s brother), Civil Engineer, and Dr. H. E. Wetherell, Surgeon. It was the plan of the party to make several stops before reaching Peary’s headquarters. The first of these was to be at Disco Island, the second in Waigat straits, the third at Cape York, and the fourth at the Carey Islands. It is possible that it will be found necessary to omit some of these. The stop in Waigat straits, if made, will be for the purpose of studying the Tertiary formations there exposed. From Cape York, if time and circumstances favor, a short excursion will be made inland. The stop at the Carey Islands is planned for the purpose of securing, if possible, information concerning the two Swedish EDITORIAL. 541 naturalists who were wrecked there two years since. From the Carey Islands the party will proceed direct to Peary’s head- quarters on Bowdoin Bay, a dependency of Inglefield Gulf, lati- tude about .77 30°. If the conditions are favorable, six of the party will occupy the interval between the arrival at Peary’s headquarters and the date of the return, about September Ist, in the exploration of Ellesmere Land and Jones Sound. Instead of accompanying this party, Professor Chamberlin will remain in the vicinity of Inglefield Gulf. While incidental attention will be given to other geological questions, the work of the ice will constitute his principal study. This locality has been chosen for the special study of glaciation, since it is the testimony of those who have seen it, that glacier ice in all stages of activity is here accessible, and that it occurs in a great variety of topographical situations and relations. Attention will be especially directed to the basal contact plane of the ice. A serious effort will be made to find out as exactly as possible what is taking place at this horizon. The margin of the ice, and the territory recently abandoned by it, will furnish the chief field for this study. By indirect means it is hoped that the studies along the margin of the ice will throw light upon the questions of ice activity back from the margin. All possible phases of glacial deposition, as well as all drainage phenomena of the ice will be studied in as much detail as time and conditions permit. It is hoped that data may be secured bearing upon the question of the rise of material from the basal to the superficial portions of the ice, and so upon the general question of superglacial drift, about which there is so much difference of opinion. It is hoped also that the phenomena to which stagnant ice gives rise may be found in process of development. Fiord glaciers, which have received attention from many glacialists heretofore, will have but a secondary place in Professor Chamberlin’s studies. The same may be said of the upper surface of the mer de glace. It is planned, however, to make one or more excursions back from the edge of the ice. It is most fortunate for the science of geology that one so 542 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY, well equipped for this work as Professor Chamberlin was able to undertake it. Lieutenant Peary’s plan was to carry his outfit and provisions to the summit of the ice during the winter, and cache it at advanced points, so as to save time and labor when the spring opened. He expected to start early in the spring, and to follow very nearly his previous route northeasterly across the ice to the East Greenland sea, latitude about 81°30’, longitude about 34° west. Here his party was to divide. One division was to trace the east coast southward to the point previously reached by explor- ers from the south, and then strike westward across the inland ice to headquarters. ‘This route will carry the explorers across the broadest part of the great mer de glace, and, if successful, should give important data concerning the maximum height of ice and snow accumulation, and concerning the conditions of accumulation under these extreme conditions. Lieutenant Peary himself, with one or two aids, expected to trace out the insular land lying beyond the point previously reached by him. His route was to be controlled more or less by what he found, as well as by local conditions favoring or preventing progress. Should both these parties be as successful as hoped, they will bring back an essentially completed outline of Greenland, and its northern insular dependencies. The Peary parties expect to reach headquarters on Inglefield Gulf by the Ist of September. The ship’s party will have returned by that time, and Professor Chamberlin’s work at Inglefield Gulf will cease when the party is ready to start homeward. * THE polar expedition of which Captain Cook has charge, was obliged, on the point of starting, to change vessels. Among those accustomed to northern seas, there was unfavorable com- ment concerning the vessel—the Miranda—in which this party sailed. They seem to have reached St. Johns, Newfoundland, in safety. From this point they started northward. It is reported that when 57 miles west of Belle Isle, the Miranda collided with an iceberg, and was compelled to return to St. Johns for repairs. EDITORIAL.. 543 The accident occurred on the 17th. According to the reports which are at hand, no one of the party was injured, and the vessel was not so seriously damaged but that she could be repaired without great delay. The exact course of this expedi- tion is not known to the writer. * AT about the same time that the Peary expedition left St. Johns, an English polar expedition started, under the direction of Mr. F. G. Jackson. Mr. Jackson expected to leave London on the 11th of July, in a vessel of four-hundred-tons yacht meas- urement. The party was to call at Archangel, where a Russian hut, built in sections, and thirty dogs of West Siberian breed, were to be taken on board. Thence Mr. Jackson intends to pro- ceed tO Franz Josef Land. Here the party will disembark, establish their principal depot, and send their vessel, the Wind- ward, home. This is expected to be accomplished by the end of August or the beginning of September. The winter will be Spent at the “depot, and about the end of March next -Mr.: Jackson hopes to be able to push northward up Austria Sound to Cape Flagely, latitude 82° 30’, the most northern point yet reached by Europeans. At intervals of thirty or forty miles depots for the storage of provisions will be formed, so that there will be no lack of food on the return. Mr. Jackson will endeavor to reach Petermann’s Land, and to go as much further as may be possible. Sufficient food was to be taken to last four years, on the estimate of six pounds three ounces to each man per diem. The main considerations which induced Mr. Jackson to select Franz Josef Land as the first objective point of his expedition were: 0. The accessibility of Franz Joset Land late im the summer, when approached along the meridian of 45° east, or some meridian between that of 45° and 50° east. 2. The north- ward extension of Franz Josef Land to a latitude as high as 82° 30’ at Cape Flagely, the long stretch of land forming a safe route for advance and retreat, and providing all that is needed in 544 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. the way of sites for depots and cairns. 3. Standing on Cape Flagely, Payer saw, 60 or 70 miles to the northward, the highest outlines of an ice-covered land of apparently large extent. This he called Petermann’s Land, and that land lay undoubtedly in a latitude as far north as any yet reached. It is this land which Mr. Jackson and his party will try to reach next spring, after having marched over the ice of Austria Sound. 4. The great abundance of animal life on the southern shores of Franz Josef Land during the winter, and all over the known country in the summer, make this a desirable starting point. A specially constructed aluminium boat, each section of which will float by itself, a copper boat, and three Norwegian boats were taken by Mr. Jackson; eighteen sledges, each of which is capable of carrying one thousand pounds, are among the articles of equipment. These will be drawn by the Siberian dogs. The party will take with it a complete set of meteor- ological and other instruments for scientific work, and Mr. Jackson hopes to be able to add much to geographical knowledge, as well as to our imperfect information concerning the natural his- tory) of the Arctic resions. ~ ihe, expense or-the expedition headed by Mr. Jackson is borne by Mr. Alfred C. Harmsworth, and is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth Polar Expedition. RY ID. S- Te EV PEE Ss The lron-Bearing Rocks of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota. By j;ehDWARD SPURR; *Bull) No. .X., of the, Geol... and Nat: Hist. Surv. of Minn. Minneapolis, 1894, pp. 259, 10 plates and figures in the text. While this volume presents nothing new in general results, it is an interesting expansion of the summary given in the American Geologist for May, 1894, and forms a valuable supplement to Bull. No. VI. on the Iron Ores of Minnesota, and ¢he Mesabt lron Range by H. V. Win- chell in the 2oth An. Rep. of the Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn. Part of the bulletin is devoted to a detailed description of the strat- igraphy and the megascopic and microscopic study ot the different classes of rocks which serve as a basis for several chapters of more general scientific interest in which such questions as the Process of Metasomatosis; Metamorphic Agents; Prismatic Jointing; Slaty Cleavage; Banding and Bedding; the Origin of the Iron-Bearing Rock; and the Formation and Structure of Ore Deposits are dis- cussed. Mr. Spurr makes the following classification of the iron-bearing rocks : 1. The normal class including (a) the primary spotted-granular rocks, (6) the, ferruginous spotted-granular rocks, (c) the siliceous spotted-granular rocks. 2. The oxidation and concentration class, including (a) the leached rocks and (d) the ferrated rocks. 3. The shearing class including (a) the magnetite-hematite slates, (2) the chlorite actinolite slates, (c) the silica slates. 4. The impregnation class. _5. The shearing impregnation class. As the underlying and overlying rocks show very little metamorph- ism, the writer concludes that the metamorphic agents could not have been heat or mechanical disturbance, but were oxygen, alkalies, and acids carried in by the surface waters. 545 540 THE JOURNAL OF GECLOGY. After discussing the eruptive origin and theory of chemical deposit which have been advanced to explain the occurrence of these ores, the writer argues that they are formed from beds of glauconite, and gives a rather lengthy discussion of the occurrence, structural features, and decomposition products of glauconite. He sums up his conclusions as follows: 1. At the beginning the rock was probably of sedimentary nature, consisting mainly of glauconitic grains with probably some associated calcareous and siliceous matter. 2. The elevation of the beds exposed them to atmospheric agencies which decomposed the glauconite into silica and iron oxide. 3. The various stages of decomposition and certain reconstructive processes have produced the present phases of the iron-bearing rock. 4. The iron is concentrated in the regions of greatest oxidation ; the silica in the regions of least oxidation. Gl E5 Islowicins. The Mineral Industry, its Statistics, Technology, and Trade in the United States and Other Countries, from the Earliest Times to the ena of Fé93. , Annual, -Vol Al.) pp. 8094 \-- srs, amelgsips plates. Price $5: R. P. Rothwell, Editor, Scientific Pub- lishing Co. N.Y. Volume II. of the Mineral Industry, while following the general plan of the first volume, covers several new topics and discusses some of them at greater length, so that there is increase in size of more than a third over the first volume. The fact that but little of the fmnst volume is repeated in the second, makes both necessary to those interested in the mineral industry from either a commercial or scientific standpoint. To the economic geologist they are indis- pensable. “Its statistics, technology, and trade” describes the aim of the work, but these terms hardly stand in the order of their relative importance as treated in the volume. As it takes the place of the ? annual statistical number of the Lxgineering and Mining Journal, it is probable that statistics was the primary object in the mind of the editor. But in the two volumes published the statistical feature is overshadowed by the others; this, however, is not to be regretted, as, instead of being merely reference tables of production, they form convenient handbooks to which the scientist as well as the tradesman REVIEWS. 547 turns for information on any of our mineral products. A good index and table of contents add to its value as a work of reference. The following subjects are treated by able specialists, many of them in the form of condensed up-to-date monographs : Carborundum, Aluminum, Arsenic, Asbestos, Asphaltum, Bauxite, Cadmium, Cements, The Chemical Industry, Clay, Coal, Copper, Feldspar, Fluorspar, Iron and Steel, Lead, Limestone, Marble, Lime, Lithographic Limestone, Manganese, Marls, Mica, Onyx, Ozokerite, Phosphate Rock, Pyrites, The Rare Elements, Sulphur, Talc and Soaptone, and Zinc. Some of these topics are each treated by several specialists, thus on copper, for example, there are articles by five different writers besides the editor. Besides the above there are articles by the editor on Abrasive Materials, Alum, Antimony, Barytes, Bismuth, Borax, Bromine, Chrome Iron Ore, Copperas, Cryolite, Gold and Silver, Graphite, Gypsum, Iodine, Magnesite, Magnesium, Nickel, Peat, Petroleum, Phosphorus, Precious Stones, Quicksilver, Salt, Slate, Sodium, Tin, Tungsten, Whetstones, Scythestones, and Grindstones. There are also valuable summaries of the condition of the mineral industry in the following foreign countries: Australasia, Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Canada and other British Colonies, Chile, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden. A chapter on Miscellaneous Statistics gives the imports and exports of Denmark, 1884-93; Holland, 1880-92; Roumania, 1882-93 ; Switzerland, 1885-93; and the imports of Egypt, 1881-93, and Shanghai, 1889-93. The mineral production of the United States, 1880-93, and of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 1860-92, is tabulated in a convenient form. In the United States five products show a yearly value exceeding $40,000,000, as follows : 1892. 1893. SOAP UMIIMOUS aca tre tase ws. « ola hin obs a's tesa. $124,230,532 $118,595,834 Coalmanthracites cies css Sie erste) eeere oa a 2 oh OOS 275002 93,091,670 eg a AICO Ta yer Wel sateeses ee ei cus eneh tec ai ane Slee Maeda Sa! ag 134,668,035 93,888,309 SUVET ACOMMMS AW aAlUCHs ct 14.04s ole wie aieersiecwis eles 84,038,500 78,220,450 SCI SNStOMES wets crete ete 5 cuaa tase lesan ace areal e ih 44,589,500 40,000,000 Votal value of all-mineral products........... 724,821,009 645,084,730 Nearly all the products show a decrease in value in 1893 from the production in 1892, the total decrease being $79,736,279. In tabular form are given the assessments levied by mining com- 548 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. panies 1887-93. The conditions and fluctuations of the stock market at New York, Boston, and London are given in condensed form. A new addition to the present volume is a chapter on the Mining Schools of the United States and Carada, in which twenty-four mining schools in the United States and two in Canada are described. State Geological Surveys are given a half page of generalization, which might well be extended to some length, giving specific information of interest and value, or else omitted entirely. Chapters on the Progress in Ore Dressing in 1893, The Develop- ment of Views on the Origin of Ores, and Advance in Methods of Stone Quarrying, all by prominent specialists, complete the contents of the volume. The portraits and the biographical sketches of some of the leading contributors in the introduction is not the least interesting part of the work. We see nere the familiar features of many prominent workers in economic geology. The one hundred and eleven pages of advertisements are not an attractive feature, and detract from the convenience, appearance, and dignity of the work. The defect might be overlooked if it is only by this means the publishers are enabled to give us so valuable a work of reference, but we surely find no excuse for the nineteen pages of com- plimentary notices bound up in the volume. While the second volume did not appear so promptly as the first, . yet when one considers the size and varied contents of this volume and the vast quantity of statistical matter collected from all quarters of the globe, he cannot help but marvel at the promptness and dis- patch with which Mr. Rothwell, the editor, and Mrs. Braeunlich, the business manager, have put this work on the market. It is practically an up-to-date handbook on the subject, and as such is without a rival in the field. T. C. Hopxrns. (Bela MOURNAL OF GEQGLOGY SmPITEMBER-OCTOBER, 1504: Tie ChNOZOIE“ DEPOSITS OF Tix As. The purpose of this paper is to give a brief account of the Cenozoic deposits of Texas as they are now understood, and to make such correlation of the various horizons as may appear to be warranted by the stratigraphical position and fossil contents. The statements are based, partly on my own field work, partly on that of other members of the survey, and the paleontological studies of Cope, Harris, and Cragin, the details of which have been given in previous publications or will appear in the Fifth Annual Report of the Geological Survey. EOCENE. So far as known, all of the deposits referable to the Eocene Tertiary in Texas are confined to the Coastal Slope. They have been divided as follows: 3a Frio clays. 3¢ Fayette sands. 36 Yegua clays. 3a Marine beds. 22 lignite: beds: 1 Will’s Point or Basal clays. Basal Clays—tThe basal beds of the Eocene consist of stiff laminated clay, yellow, red, blue or bluish green in color, with some laminz and beds of sand, boulders and indurated strata of calcareous material, containing in places many fragments of shells. The boulders are irregularly distributed through the clay, and sometimes form continuous bands for considerable dis- tances, as in the vicinity of Tehuacana. Another phase assumed VOW. LENO }30: 549 550 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. by the lime is the small cauliflower-like concretions which abound in certain beds. Gypsum crystals are also plentiful. In areal distribution the Basal clays are principally found north of the Colorado river, and, although a few localities are known south of that stream, the beds are, for the most part, obscured by overlap. Typical exposures of the beds can be found in the vicinity of Elmo, Will’s Point, Tehuacana, and on the Rio Grande near the Maverick-Webb county line. The fossils, which occur in pockets, have been determined by Harris, who assigns the beds to the horizon of the Midway stage of Alabama. Characteristic fossils are: Ostrea pulaskensis Havr., Cucullea macrodonta Whitt., Yoldia eborea Con., Crassatela kennedyt Har., Pleurotoma ostrarupis Har., Volutilithes rugatus Con., V. limopsts Con., Pseudoliva unicarinata Ald., Aporrhais gracilis ? Ald., Enclimatoceras ulricht White. Lignitic Beds.—TVhese beds are composed, for the most part, of siliceous sand of various colors, usually much cross-bedded, micaceous and often containing specks or grains of glauconite. Clays of various colors occur, laminated, as interbedded and interlaminated sands and clays, and in massive beds. Lime is present in the form of nodules, concretions and beds of siliceous limestones. Gypsum is also found in places. Brown coal and lignite beds, varying from a few inches to ten and twelve feet in thickness, are of frequent occurrence, and traces of oil and gas are found. Silicified wood is common. Iron occurs in the form of pyrites, and also in nodules, strings and small seams of clay ironstone. The upper portion of the beds is composed of a series of red ‘and white sands and white clays—the Carrizo sands of Owen and Queen City beds of Kennedy. The lignitic beds are well marked from the eastern limit of the state to the Rio Grande, forming, as a usual thing, gently rounded hills covered with forests of oak. Typical exposures may be found at Athens, Calvert Bluff, Rockdale, Lytle, Carrizo Springs, etc LHe CENOZOLG, DEPOSITS OF TEXAS, 551 The fossils, which, according to Mr. Harris’ determinations, are those characteristic of the Lignitic of Alabama, include the following : Dentalium muicro-stria? Heilp., Pleurotoma mooret Gabb, and numerous others which are common to these beds and those underlying or overlying them. In addition to the invertebrate forms these beds also contain a varied and well preserved flora which has not yet been studied. Marine Beds—TVhe Marine beds are composed of sand, with considerable amounts of glauconite, clays and iron ores, and are the principal fossil-bearing beds of the series. The lower beds contain extensive deposits of ferruginous sandstones and lami- nated iron ores, while the upper comprise brown fossiliferous sand, green sand marls, stratified black and gray sandy clays and green clays, and are the principal fossil-bearing beds of the sub- stage. Thin beds or lamine of carbonate of iron occur through- out the entire section, but the heavier beds or ore deposits are found toward the top of the lower beds. The lower ores are laminated, while those above are nodular. The surface exposure of the Marine beds forms a broad ridge or range of hills crossing the state from the east, where it forms the greatest elevation of that portion of the Eocene belt, to the southwest. Its topography is the consequence of the resistance of the iron ore caps of the eastern plateaux or hills to erosive agencies, and the similar service of the brown sandstones of the west. In areal extent this is the most widely distributed of the sub-divisions of the Eocene. In elevation it varies from 375 to 700 feet above sea level. The fossils are very abundant and well preserved, and among those characteristic of it may be noted: Ostrea alabamiensts Lea, O. sellaeformis Con. var, divaricata, Lea, Anomia ephippiordes Gabb, Modtola houstona Harris, Yoldia clai- bornensts Con., Venericardia planicosta Lam., Semele linosa Con., LTerebra houston Uar., Cancellaria gemmata Con., Marginella semen Lea, Terebrifusus aments Con., T. costatus Lea, Levifusus trabeatoides Har., Nassa texana Gabb, Murex vanuxemi Con., Dis- 552 THE JOURNAL OP (GEOLOGY tortvix septemdentata Gabb, Mesaha claibornensis Con., Turritella nasuta Gb., Natica limula Con., Sigaretus dechivis Con., S. tncon- stans Ald., Belosepia ungula Gb. Yegua Clays.—This sub-division was proposed to include the gypseous and saliferous clays, lignites and sands lying between the Marine beds and the sandstones of the Fayette with which they were united in the first use of that name. The area occu- pied by them is, for the most part, only gently rolling, except toward the southwest, where it sometimes happens that consid- erable hills occur, the summits being capped by the harder sandstone or quartzite of the Fayette beds. The clays are dark blue, weathering to a dirty yellow, with a profusion of crystals of gypsum. In places the clays are mas- sive, at others laminated. The sands are gray and white, often laminated or cross-bedded, but sometimes massive. The fossil wood contained in them is simply silicified and not opalized, as in the succeeding beds. The brown coal and lignite deposits of this sub-division are as extensive as those of the Lignitic stage, beds with a measured thickness of sixteen feet having been observed on the Colorado. While the lithological characters of the Yegua clays are clearly marked and plainly traceable entirely across the state, its fauna connects it directly with the Marine beds. Typical expos- ures of the beds may be seen near Alto and Lufkin, on the Yeguas in Lee county, and between Pleasanton and Campbellton. In addition to the many forms common to this and the Marine beds, the following seem to belong exclusively to the Yegua: Tellina mooreana Gabb var., Turritella nasuta var. houstonia Har., Natica recurva Ald. Fayette sands —TYhis name was originally applied by Penrose to the entire series of deposits between the top of the Marine beds and the base of the Coast clays. It is used here, with a greatly restricted significance, for that sub-division of the Ter- tiary to which the name is most applicable. This is a series of sands and sandstones with some clays, which contain a large amount of opaline and chalcedonic materials. The sands are THE CENOZOTE DEPOSITS OF TEXAS: 553 usually coarse, angular to rounded in shape, forming sandstones of variable degrees of hardness, highly quartzitic in places, and cemented by an opaline matrix at others. Large quantities of opalized wood occur, and chalcedony is abundant, especially in the southwest, where it forms the centers of geodes, the septa of septaria, and even fills crevices in the sandstone. Beds of vol- canic dust and siliceous sinter also occur interbedded with the clays and lignites. In the Nueces valley cone-in-cone structure is widely developed, and considerable aragonite occurs in the basal portion of the bed. Many of the clays are white, and of sufficient purity to be valuable for the manufacture of the finer grades of earthenware. The beds of lignite are, for the most part, small and unimportant. There is no sharp line of demarkation between these beds and the Yegua clays below, but the change in the character of the sediments has caused a corresponding change in the topog- raphy. The gently rolling area of the Yegua clays is bordered on the south by a disconnected range of hills, whose northward- facing scarps and bluffs (often 150 feet in height) can be traced from Rockland, on the Neches, westward, by Riverside, Mul- doon, and Tilden, to the Rio Grande. Southward from this scarp the descent is more gradual. The influence of these beds of sandstone on the course of the rivers which cross them is very marked, producing a sharp east or northeast deflection, such as that of the Trinity on the northern boundary of Walker county. While. the Fayette beds of the eastern part of the State are almost without invertebrate fossils, so far as determined, the fauna increases toward the Rio Grande, and on that river includes large beds of immense oysters. The forms specially character- istic of it are: Ostrea alabamiensis var. contracta Con., Siliqua simondsi Har., Ceroma singleyt Har., Cornulina armigera var. heilpriniana Har., Cerithium pliciferum Heilp. It is connected with the underlying beds by such forms as Nucula magnifica Con., Venericardia planicosta Lam., Corbula ala- 554 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. bamiensis Lea., Levifusus trabeatoides Uar., Pseudoliva vetusta Con., Calyptrophorous velatus Con. The flora of this sub-stage is quite varied, and some of the forms very well preserved, but up to the present no study of it has been made. Frio clays —YVYhe Fayette subdivision passes upward into a series of gypseous clays with sand and sandrock, differing greatly lithologically from the underlying beds. This subdivision is therefore proposed for them. According to Kennedy, they are not present (in this form at least) on the Neches river, but I found them well developed on the Frio and Nueces. The clays are dark colored, greenish gray, red or blue, usually massive, with quantities of gypsum and with calcareous concre- tions arranged in lines, giving them a stratified appearance. The sandy clays are laminated and bedded, green, red or blue in color, and interbedded with brown and green sandstone, which is concretionary and, in places, highly indurated. Brown sands overlie these, and are followed by laminated chocolate clays containing concretions of crystalline limestone with manganese dendritions. These clays weather white, as at the mouth of the Frio. Typical exposures: Between Weedy creek and Oakville on Atascosa and Frio rivers, and on the Nueces south of Tilden. While the fossils are not very abundant, enough were found to determine its close relationship with the underlying beds. The Ostrea, Corbula, etc., are distintly lower Claiborne forms. So far as our observations go, this is the highest bed refer- able- to the Eocene and: from the evidence now before us it appears that there are no deposits in the State belonging either to the Upper Claiborne, Vicksburg, or Jackson, since no fossils characteristic of either of these stages have yet been found. The Texas Eocene, as a whole, is therefore composed of a series of comparatively shallow water deposits, laid down during a period of slow and gentle oscillations. Numerous local uncon- THEN CENOLOLEG DEPOSTTS OF TEXAS: 555 formities exist between the several subdivisions, and even among the beds of the same subdivision. The Carrizo sands show a more or less wavy structure throughout their extent, and this is continued upward into the Marine beds. Some portions of the Marine beds seem to have been subjected to erosion before the deposition of the Yegua clays, and faults of slight throw are quite common. As awhole the beds thicken from the Colorado- Brazos divide to the eastward and toward the Rio Grande and are also more indurated in the latter region. The general dip is south to southeast 10 to 50 feet per mile, although reverse dips are common in places. The fossils which these beds hold in common with deposits of similar age of the Pacific slope, some of which are not found in the Tertiary of the Atlantic coast, bear evidence to the fact that the Gulf of Mexico was at that time connected with the waters of the Pacific. The fossils common to these deposits. and the Tejon beds are, according to Harris :* Whitneya (Strepsidura) ficus Gabb, Natica etites Con. equiv. to Nevireta secta Gabb, Solarium alveatum Con. equiv. to Architecto- nica cognata Gabb, Solarium amaenum Con. equiv. to Architecto- nica horn Gabb, Cardita hornit Gabb equiv. to Venericardia plani- costa Lam. - The influx of large amounts of hydrous silica, beds of silice- ous sinter and volcanic ash, and the development of cone-in-cone structure in the upper portion of these deposits is worthy of note as indicating the manner in which these Tertiary deposits became a land area. NEOCENE. Beds of Neocene age are found both in the Coastal slope and on the Llano Estacado. They probably exist in the trans- Pecos district also, but have not as yet been positively identified. The deposits include beds both of Miocene and Pliocene age, and the following division is proposed: tScience, August 16th, 1893. 556 LHE JOURNAL OF GEHOLOGY. Coastal slope. Llano Estacado. 2 b Reynosa Pliocene 2a Lagarto 2 Lapara Blanco Miocene Iara Goodnight 1 Oakville Loup Fork MIOCENE. The Loup Fork beds of the Llano Estacado are com- posed of alternating beds of bluish and almost pure white sand, capped by a conglomerate of siliceous pebbles in white sand matrix. In areal extent they are found overlying the Trias- sic of the Plains throughout its northern portion, but extending to the south only as far as Mulberry canyon. The fauna, as described by Cope,’ in addition to a number of species hitherto found only in beds of the Loup Fork terrane, and thus fixing the age of the Texas bed, contained two new forms: Protohippus pachyops, Cope, and Procamelus leptognathus, Cope. On the Coastal slope the Frio beds of the Eocene are suc- ceeded by a series of deposits, which in a general way resemble the underlying Fayette sands, and have hitherto been regarded as a part of those beds. While it is possible to distinguish between them, the differentiation is complicated in many instances by the overlap of still later beds largely derived from both these and the Fayette, and therefore bearing a very close resemblance to them lithologically. The deposits are those of rapid currents of shallow water. Grits and coarse sand, cross-bedded,3 with some beds of clay but oftener with balls, nodules or lenses of clay imbedded in the grit. Some of the sand forms a sandrock which is apparently firm and hard, but much of it is so feebly coherent as to fall apart ona * Fourth Annual Report, Geological Survey of Texas, Part II., pp. 18-40. ? Professor W. B. Scott regards these beds as equivalent to the Archer beds of Florida, which Dall, for stratigraphic reasons, places in the Pliocene. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. ii. p. 595. 3 Cf. Loughridge, Tenth Census of the U.S., Cotton Production of the State of Texas, p. 21. THE CHNOZOTC- DEPOSITS OF TEXAS. 557 slight blow of the hammer. Local beds of conglomerate occur, and, on the Nueces, a heavy bed of black flint gravel was traced from its outcrop until the dip carried it below the water line. As I now understand this division, the base is: found at La Grange bluff, described by Penrose,t and it embraces the beds from which the fossils came which were reported by Shumard (Trans. St. Louis Academy, 1863, p. 140) and determined by Weidy (Proc. Phil Ac. Nat. 5e.; 1805, p. 170, and 1868, p. 231; te: )), : Mill creek, between Brenham and Burton, marks a lithol- ogical change, the rocks west of that stream, which are the lower, being more compact than those east, which at Brenham have the character of cross-bedded grits with pebbles of clay, containing water-worn cretaceous fossils, as well as numerous fragments of the bones of vertebrates. A similar division was noticed east of La Grange. On the Nueces the beds, which are here highly saliferous, are well exposed from Oakville to Fort Merril, at which place they are overlaid by the Pliocene. Here begin the silicifications of portions of the materials, which becomes a more and more prominent feature of the deposits further west. Among these silicifications may be mentioned the rocks, known as Las Tiendas, on the road between San Diego and Tilden. On the outside these rocks resemble masses of light- colored flint, the surface of which is highly polished by blown sands. Closer examination shows that they are simply portions of the interbedded clays and sands of the Oakville beds, which have become silicified without destroying the original structure of the beds. Thus the bedding and lamination is apparent in portions of the mass, and the siliceous pebbles, so common in the unaltered beds, are found in these masses also. To the same age as the Oakville beds I have also referred the range of hills in the valley of the Nueces, known as the Picachos. These hills, running northwest and southeast, are nowhere ™ First Annual Report, Geological Survey of Texas, p. 54. 558 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. over 100 feet higher than the valley in which they stand, but their serrated tops give them the appearance of a range of eruptive hills. The beds here, unlike those at any other place in the Texas Tertiaries, stand at high angles, and have a dip of 75 to 80 degrees to the southeast. The materials of which they are composed are claystones interbedded with porcelaneous and siliceous rocks, partly flinty, partly opaline, with bands and network of chalcedony and with seams of ferruginous material. A few seams of calcite, in the form of dog-tooth spar, and a bed of aragonite, 20 feet in thick- ness, banded in brown and white and much knotted and twisted, are found. The true opaline character of the rock was shown by an analysis by Dr. Mellville, and the present condition may be regarded as the result of infiltration of hydrous silica in hot solution into the Tertiary marls, and their consequent alteration. A number of specimens collected show that the marl was cracked in every direction, and that these fissures are now filled with chalcedony, while the marl is changed to a porcelaneous sub- stance. The sands and clays of this division form the scarp known as the Bordas, which forms the southern border of the Nueces valley from Dinero to Los Angeles. It also caps many of the outlying hills in the valley. . Only a few fossils have been found, but such as are determin- able—Protohippus medius Cope, P. perditus Leidy, and P placidus Leidy, Aphelops meridianus Leidy, etc.—are sufficient to determine its age as Loup Fork. The exact relation of these beds and those found in boring the Galveston deep well has not been determined, since no deposits containing similar marine Miocene fossils have been found at the surface on the Coastal slope. The relationship of the Deep Well Miocene and deposits of Florida and the West Indies is shown by Harris in his report on the organic remains from that boring. On the Llano Estacado there is no great break between the tFourth Annual Report Geological Survey of ‘Texas, p. 118. THE CENOZOIC DEPOSITS OF TEXAS. 559 Loup Fork beds and the Blanco or Pliocene, but they are directly connected by a deposit which has been called the Good- night beds. The fauna, according to Professor Cope, contains forms which are found in the underlying Loup Fork, and others which extend upward into the overlying Blanco, as well as three which are peculiar to itself—Protohippus lenticularis Cope, Hip- pidium interpolatum Cope, and Equus eurystylus Cope. It is pos- sible that more detailed investigations of the upper portion of the Oakville beds above Lapara creek, and between Brenham and Long Point, may furnish evidence of a similar condition. PLIOCENE. The Blanco beds—Pliocene of the Llano Estacado are composed of clays and sands interbedded with diatoma- ceous earth and capped with calcareous sandstone and _ lime- stone. They constitute the eastern scarp of the Plains from the Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos river on the south, to Palo Duro Canyon on the north, resting directly on the red clays of the Triassic. The vertebrate fauna of these beds is described in the Fourth Annual Report of the Texas Survey, Pt. ti, pp. 47-74. The species are: Testudo turgida Cope, T. pertenuis Cope, Crecoides osbornit Schuf., Megalonyx leptostomus Cope, Canimartes cumminsi Cope, Borophagus diversidens Cope, Felis hillanus Cope, Letrabelodon shepard Leidy, Dibelodon humboldti Cuv., D. tropicus Cope, D. precursor Cope, Equus simplicidens Cope, E. cumminsi Cope, 4. minutus Cope, Platygonus bicalcaratus Cope, Phauchenta Spatula Cope. On the Coastal Slope the beds are grits and clays overlaid by light colored clays, gravel, and tufaceous limestone. In this area I have suggested the following divisions: Lapara, Lagarto, and Reynosa-Orange sand.’ The Lapara division, as shown on Lapara creek and on Hog * McGee, in the Twelfth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey, has cor- related the Reynosa and Orange sand with his Lafayette formation; but I retain the names originally given to these beds for purposes of description, and their precise relations to the Lafayette formation can be determined later. 560 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. Hollow, on the opposite side of the Nueces, consists of sands and clays interbedded and somewhat cross-bedded. The sands are coarse and sharp, often forming grits, and including pebbles of clay and calcareous concretions. The clays are jointed and parti-colored—light red, green, etc.—and in some localities appear as a conglomerate of clay pebbles. Fragments of bone are common in them, but they are often so worn as to prevent recognition. The fossils were submitted to Professor Cope, who pronounced the horizon to be the Blanco, and states that nothing from either locality indicates a horizon as low as the Loup Fork. Similar deposits were observed on the Southern Pacific railroad between La Grange and Columbus, and in the vicinity of Brenham. The Lagarto division includes a series of sands and clays of a different character from the Lapara, and overlying them. It comprises light colored clays—tiilac, lavender, sea-green, greenish brown and mottlings of these colors—jointed and showing many slips. In places the upper portion contains a considerable amount of sand, gravel, or lime, and the change in a single stratum from one kind of rock to another takes places within a very few feet. In localities where the lime predominates it closely simulates the Reynosa. Where the limestone or calcareous sandstone caps the clays, strings of limestones extend downwards into them for a distance of six or eight feet. The clays contain quantities of semi-crystalline limestone pebbles with manganese dendritions, and, indeed, manganese appears to be one of the characteristics of the clay wherever found. The upper portion of the beds is usually a sandstone. No fossils have been found in them. Reynosa division.— Lithologically this is the most character- istic of all of the Neocene deposits. While I use the name given it by Penrose in 1889, it had been observed previously by Schott and Shumard, both of whom referred it to the Cretaceous. This reference, made on lithological grounds alone, has in its favor the fact that there are many localities where the Reynosa deposits so closely resemble those of the Austin limestone that, were they found within the Cretaceous area, they would be passed without LAE CHENOZOLG DEPOSITS. OF TEXAS. 561 question, even by those better acquainted with the Cretaceous than were these observers. Loughridge, in his Report on Cotton Production, (Tenth Census Report), comes nearer the truth when he refers it to the Port Hudson. The very variable series of beds intended to be included in this division, has, usually, at the base a conglomerate of pebbles @f various sizes, imbedded in a lime matrix, often indurated, sometimes tufaceous, sandy or evenclayey. Above this is often, but not always, a series of interbedded clays, limy clays, limy sands and sandstones with some pebbles. This closely resembles the Lagarto clays. The whole is capped by the Reynosa lime- stone. This isa tufaceous lime rock, but often so mixed with clay or sand as to lose that character. There are few exposures which show the entire series of beds. In places along the middle Rio Grande, the basal bed of conglomerate is all that is present, while on the divides the basal and uppermost beds are usually found, but without the intermediate Lagarto. The Reynosa, in its typical form, is only found west of the Colorado, so far as I have observed. East of the Guadalupe the lime is gradually replaced by iron, the Orange sand phase appears in the Colorado drainage and east of that stream becomes the prevailing form, although some lime is present at many localities. This change is obviously due to the fact that in the western part of the State the erosion of the Cretaceous limestones furnished the materials for the Reynosa, while in the east the ferruginous beds of the Tertiary supplied the materials for the Orange sand. No fossils have been found in this deposit which can certainly be said to be indigenous to it. A number of shells of Bulimus were found imbedded in an upper crumbly layer of it, but they are simply on the surface and are probably later. No other bed of the Tertiary has anything like so wide a dis- tribution as this. I found it at the top of the escarpment of the Llano Estacado in Garza county, at the point marked “11” on the map of the Llano Estacado accompanying the Third Annual Report of this Survey, and also just south of Big Springs, resting on the northern slope of the Cretaceous hills. Cummins has 562 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. traced it over a large portion of the Plains, and while we have no record of it on the top of the Cretaceous plateau between Big Springs and the Nueces canyon, it may be there, and have been overlooked owing to its close resemblance to Cretaceous mate- rials. In the canyons, however, on the southern edge of the plateau, its presence has been reported by Hill and Taff, and I have traced its continuation southward from the line of the South- ern Pacific railway to San Diego. While no direct connection of these beds with those of the Llano Estacado has been observed, their lithological identity and stratigraphical relations to the Blanco beds below and the Equus beds above seem to warrant the conclusion that a connection did exist either across or around the Plateau. While erosion has removed the Reynosa from a large part of the Guadalupe and Nueces valleys, it still caps the divides and higher elevations and forms the surface of that plateau between the Nueces and the Rio Grande which is in many respects the homologue of the Llano Estacado, and may well be called the Reynosa plateau. On this plateau it attains an elevation of over eight hundred feet above sea level in an area which appears on all topographic maps as lying below the 200 foot contour. In the Orange sand area the conditions are somewhat differ- ent. The beds do not appear to have covered the entire area, as did the Reynosa, but to have been laid down in drainage chan- nels, lakes or bays among the islands or promontories of Eocene materials. The Neocene deposits, taken as a whole, represent a period of lacustrine, fluviatile and estuarine deposits. With the excep- tion of the fossils obtained from the Galveston deep well there is nothing to indicate marine conditions anywhere in the region during Neocene times. At the close of the Pliocene the beds were elevated and sub- jected to considerable erosion prior to the deposition of the Pleistocene. The Sun mound, west of Waller, is an outlier of the Orange sand, and Damon’s mound, in Brazoria county, seems to belong to the Reynosa, although many miles to the seaward TEES CENOZOIO DEPOSILS OF- TEXAS. 563 of any other exposure referable to that horizon. Every con- tact which I have observed also bears evidence to the fact. PEEISTOCENE: The Pleistocene deposits include the Equus beds and con- nected deposits found along various rivers and creeks; the Coast clays and their’ extensions along rivers and creeks and contemporaneous deposits of the Seymour plateau; and the later river, creek and surface deposits either of aqueous or subaerial deposition. Equus beds.—\n the valleys and depressions hollowed out by the erosion of the Pliocene materials were laid down the ash- colored limy sands and gravel which constitute the typical Equus beds of San Diego and southwest Texas and the more ferrugin- ous beds of the same age east of the Colorado. So far as I have observed them they rest with great unconformity upon the Rey- nosa, indeed, there is no equal unconformity visible between any other two series of beds in the Texas Cenozoic. The deposits consist, in their typical exposures, of limy con- glomeritic ashy material, containing pebbles derived from the underlying Reynosa. The beds are without trace of stratification, except that here and there through them the calcareous matter appears as a line of nodules, or bed of pebbles will follow a straight line for several feet. The beds are usually ashy yellow in color, but lighter in places, and grade upward into a grayer and more sandy body, and then into a black soil. Their ashy appearance is one of their distinguishing characteristics. When damp they are easily dug into, but when dry are very hard. The vertebrate fossils, to which they owe their name, are found in the lower portion of the beds, while they are rare in the upper or grayer portion, which carries instead a number of forms of land and fresh water shells. However, no line of division can be drawn between the two portions as the change is very gradual. The thickness of the beds, so far as observed, is in no place over 20 feet, and they appear to occur in detached and irregular basins, usually connected directly with some drainage channel, 564 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. present or past. The Equus beds of the Llano Estacado are sim- ilarly related to the underlying Blanco beds, and in one instance, on Wild Horse creek, rest directly on the Trias. In addition to the typical locality at San Diego, these beds are found at many other localities on the Coastal slope, some of which have been noted in the publications of Cope and Leidy and others by this Survey. They also extend up the river valleys for considerable distances, as is proved by the presence of characteristic fossils from the second bottom deposits as far inland as Austin. The species described from the Plains are as follows: Testudo hexagonata Cope; T. laticaudata Cope; Mylodon ? sodalis Cope; Llephas primigenus Blum; Equus excelsus Leidy; E. semiplicatus Cope; £. tau Owen; £. major Dekay; Holem- emscus sulcatus Cope; H. macrocephalus Cope. From the San Diego beds the following have been reported: Cistudo marnockiu Cope ; Elephas primigenius Blum; Canis sp. Glyptodon petaliferus Cope; Equus tau Cope; £. semiplicatus Cope; E, excelsus Leidy; 2. occidentalis Weidy ;, 2. crentdens Cope. In addition to these many others have been reported from localities to the eastward, proving the existence of the beds over a large portion of the Coastal slope. The shells collected from the upper part of the San Diego beds and determined by J. A. Singley are as follows: Bulimulus dealbatus Say; Physa gyrina Say; P. heterostropha Say; Patula alternata Say; Planorbis lentus Say; P. bicarinatus Say; P. parvus Say; Amnicola peracuta P. & W.; Unio texasensis Lea; U. sp.2, Spherum elevatum Hold. ?; Helicina orbiculata Say ; Flelix texastana Mor. Coast clays —Yhe Coast clays which are regarded as the west- ern extension of the Port Hudson group of Hilgard, and as belonging to the Champlain Period of Dana, underlie the greater part of the area of the coast prairies. They form a wide belt lying between the Reynosa and the sandy coastal strip, and in many places stretch to the very shores of the bays which border the gulf. The Coast clays are for the most part heavy limy clays of vari- THE CENOZOIC DEPOSTTS OF TEXAS. 565, ous colors, yellow, red and blue in places, in others olive green and brown. They are interbedded with sand, contain nodules and con- cretions of lime, are often high in iron, and the sand, which for the most part is uncompacted, at times forms concretionary masses of considerable size. These clays vary from east to west in accord- ance with the varying character of the beds from which they were derived, being more silty eastward and denser toward the west. In the only contact of any extent which I have seen, that on the Brazos river east of Sealy, the Coast clays rest unconformably upon the Equus beds, as they do upon the Reynosa further west, in such places as the Equus are lacking. In them have been found several varieties of land shells, and fossil vertebrates occur at many localities. They too, stretch inward for many miles along the river channels forming the second bottoms, and even the highlands, as proved by the fossils secured from such deposits. These are usually characterized by Alephas and Aguus remains. Similar remains as well as those of smaller animals, are also found in the body of the deposit itself. These clays have been studied very little. The exposures are so very few and usually so widely separated, the fossils so scat- tered, and the economic questions outside artesian water and agriculture, so few, that they have not received the attention they deserve. It seems probable, however, that when more thoroughly studied, they will be separable into two portions, the lower being much darker and more evenly bedded than the upper or massive beds. The evidence before us now, however, is to the effect that the second bottoms of the rivers are by no means referable to any one division either of the Pliocene or Pleistocene, but that they comprise deposits ranging in time from Blanco to Recent. Either to this or to the upper Equus horizon must also be referred the brown silty clay which is found on some of the divides in the Coastal slope. In places this carries land shells and exhibits a loess-like structure. It is well developed on the divide between the Nueces and the Leona, and has been observed in many other localities. . 566 RHE JOURNALYORE GEOLOGY: The Seymour Plateau, which is referred to this horizon because of its mid-Pleistocene, or at least post-Equus fauna as determined by Cope, stretches northeast from the Texas and Pacific railway west of Sweetwater, with a width varying from 16 to 50 miles, to Red river, north of Vernon, a total length of 160 miles. The western border of this ancient lake is sharply defined by a range of gypsum hills, as may be seen on the Fort Worth and Denver railroad east of Quanah. In elevation it varies between 1200 and 1600 feet above sea level, and although at present cut through by many streams, whose beds are sometimes 150 feet below the plain, the general flatness of its surface is still well preserved. Of the latest of the divisions of the Pleistocene little can be said, because it has been studied least of all. It comprises the sands of the immediate coast area, which stretch inland in places for 50 miles and more; the later stream gravels, and other deposits of gravels and sands which are found on the surface at many localities. The sand dunes of the west and southwest also belong here. CONCLUSIONS. None of the beds of the Eocene having yielded fossils char- acteristic of horizons higher than the lower Claiborne, the depos- its referable to that series are confined to its basal portion. Certain forms indicate a connection of the Eocene waters of the Texan region with those of the Pacific. In the Texan region dry land probably existed from mid- Eocene times far into the Miocene. Although there is a possibility that the lower portion of the deposits referred to the Miocene may prove a little earlier, the fossils so far discovered belong to the upper portion of that stage—the Loup Fork. The exact relation of the Loup Fork and the marine Mio- cene of the Deep well is undetermined, There exists, both on the Llano Estacado and on the Coastal slope a series of beds, overlying the Loup Fork and underlying THE CENOZOIC DEPOSITS OF TEXAS. 567 the Equus beds which contain a ‘‘fauna more nearly and strictly Pliocene than any of the lacustrine terranes hitherto found in the yy interior of this continent. This stage culminated similarly both on the Stockaded plain and on the Coastal slope. The strong unconformity existing between the Equus beds and the Pliocene deposits, together with their relations to the over- lying Coast clays, seem sufficient warrant for making them the base of the Pleistocene. DUN ee. *Cope. Fourth Annual Report Geological Survey of Texas. Pt. 11, p. 47. OUTLINE OF CENOZOIC HISTORY OF A PORTION Oly GEE MID DEE AWE MNdiGy St ORE In the spring of 1891, I published a preliminary account of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations of eastern Virginia and Maryland, in which there was given a brief resumé of the his- tory.? Studies have been continued in the region, and much new information has been acquired, especially regarding the rela- tions and history of the younger formations. Notice of the results of these studies was given at the meetings of the Geologi- cal Society of America, in December, 1892, and August, 1893. In this paper, there is presented a brief summary of the principal features, but further details and a more extended discussion, will appear later in a memoir now in course of preparation. The middle Atlantic slope extends with fairly regular decliv- ity from the Appalachian range to the ocean. It comprises two provinces, the Piedmont and the Coastal plain. The former, which lies to the westward, is a high undulating plateau carved in greater part in crystalline rocks; the latter slopes to the ocean, and is underlain by unconsolidated deposits ranging from Cretaceous to Pleistocene in age. The Piedmont belt is traversed by rivers which flow in gorges, and the minor water ways run in deep rocky valleys. The slope to the eastward is gentle and the province merges into the Coastal plain in a zone of moderate width, in which, to the northward, there is increased declivity. The surface of the Coastal plain comprises wide areas of plateau to the southward and rolling hills to the northward, which attain maximum elevations from two hundred to three hundred feet. It is bordered on the eastward by low terrace plains, and traversed by wide depressions, which contain terraces of various heights. The gorges of the rivers of the Piedmont * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 2 Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., Vol. IL, pp. 431-451; Plate 10. 568 GENOZOTCCATSTORY: 569 belt open into these depressions and the larger rivers become tide water estuaries in the Coastal plain. The formations underlying the Coastal plain province are a series of widely extended sheets of gravels, sands, clays, and marls lying on an east-sloping floor of crystalline rocks. They are separated by unconformities and, in greater part, dip gently and thicken gradually, to the eastward. They emerge at the surface in succession to the westward, but there is more or less overlap of the younger formations beyond the edges of the older formations. The Cretaceous and Tertiary representatives are the Potomac and Raritan formations, consisting of clays and sands of early Cretaceous age; Magothy* sands and brown sandstones of Maryland; the great greensand series of New Jersey repre- sented by the carbonaceous sands of the Severn formation in Maryland; Pamunkey formation consisting of glauconitic sands and marls of Eocene age; Chesapeake formation consisting of clays, fine sands, and diatomaceous clays of Miocene age, and the Lafayette formation consisting of gravels, sands, and loams of later Neocene or Pliocene (?) age. On the terraces in the depressions, and on the low lands to the eastward, there are deposits of gravels, loams, and sands of Pleistocene age which have, in greater part, hitherto been com- prised in the ‘‘Columbia formation.” I have found, however, that these depositions consist of two series of deposits, an earlier, which lies on the higher terraces westward and is the basal member eastward, and a later deposit, which lies on the lower terraces, and overlies the earlier deposits eastward and southward of the Potomac valley. This difference in altitude is due to emergence and strong tilting from the northwestward between the time of deposition of the earlier and later deposits. The area of this emergence is shown by the heavier ruling in figure 4. The earlier deposit has not been differentiated before, but it is an important and distinct member of the Coastal plain series. The general relations of the various formations near the latitude of Washington are shown in the fifth section on figure 3. Recently defined by Darton, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLV., 1893, 45 pp. 570 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. TERTIARY BASE-LEVELS. It is now very clearly recognized that the Piedmont plateau is a peneplain of Tertiary age. This plain extends eastward over the Coastal plain region, and with gradually decreasing altitude finally passes beneath tide water level not far from the present coast line. In the Piedmont region, the plain has been deeply trenched by drainage ways, but wide areas are preserved in the divides. On the Coastal plain, it is overlain by the Lafayette formation by which it is largely preserved to the southward, but in northern Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, this formation has been removed and the peneplain gives place to rounded hills or to later terrace levels. The Tertiary pene- plain extends over the Piedmont plateau to the foot of the mountains and through their gorges into the great Appalachian valley. Its altitude near the Blue Ridge west of Washington is about 600 feet, but it rises gradually along the foot of this range to 900 feet on Jamesriver. A short distance west of Washington, its altitude is 400 feet, and a few miles to the eastward, where it is widely overlain by the Lafayette formation, it is 270 feet. At the shore of Chesapeake Bay, east of Washington, it is 110 feet, and near the mouth of the Potomac river, go feet. At Rich- mond, it is 200 feet, and it passes beneath tide level near Norfolk. These altitudes indicate a gradual slope to the east, and to the south along the Blue Ridge near James river. There is, also, a gen- eral increase of altitude to the northward along the Coastal plain, which has resulted in the wide removal of the Lafayette formation and degrading of the underlying peneplain in that direction. In figure 5, an attempt has been made to represent the contour of the peneplain by one hundred foot contours, restoring the portions which have been degraded. ‘The steep slopes in the Washington-Baltimore region are due mainly to the inter-Columbia tilting. A portion of the general tilt to the east, especially to the southward, was probably pre-Lafayette, and the peneplain had originally, of course, a moderate seaward slope. The surface contour of the peneplain is quite smooth. On the CHENOZOTC TISTORY: 571 Coastal plain, the Lafayette formation hes on a very smooth sur- face, but there are low depressions along the lines of the present valleys of the larger streams south of, but not including, the Potomac. In the Piedmont region, there is a system of very low flat divides coincident with those of the present drainage systems. There are a number of ‘‘monadnocks” or unreduced areas of hard rocks, which rise more or less abruptly to various heights above the plain. These are shown on figure 5. Parrs Ridge, the large, unreduced area west of Baltimore, rises gradu- ally to only a moderate elevation, but its slopes are nearly every- where clearly demarked from the peneplain. The monadnocks are portions of the old Cretaceous peneplain which was the slope on which the Tertiary peneplain was excavated. Probably the tops of some of the higher monadnocks stood above the Creta- ceous plain. During the development of the Tertiary peneplain, there were deposited the Chesapeake, Pamunkey, and possibly portions of earlier deposits, and the long time intervals by which these formations are separated represent intervals of uplift and in- creased planation. It has not been possible, as yet, to differen- tiate the topographic products of these epochs in the Piedmont region, and probably the local features to which the earlier con- ditions gave rise were effaced in succeeding epochs. A certain amount of base-levelling progressed in the Piedmont region dur- ing the deposition of Lafayette formation, but the relative amount is not known. Probably it was not great for the forma- tion represents but a small time compared with preceding depo- sitions and uplifts. DERTIARY DEPOSITS, There are three formations of Tertiary age in the Coastal plain region, Pamunkey (Eocene), Chesapeake (Miocene), and Lafay- ette (Pliocene?). The Pamunkey formation consists of glau- conitic sands and marls, which attain a thickness of about 180 feet east of Washington. It represents but a small proportion of Eocene time, and according to a recent comparison by G. D. 572 THE JOURNAL OF "GEOLOGY. Harris,’ is equivalent to a small member near the lower portion of the Eocene series of the Gulf region. The Chesapeake formation consists of clays and fine sands with large amounts of diatom remains in the lower members. Its thickness is about 800 feet in eastern Maryland and Virginia, but it is only from fifteen to thirty feet thick about Washington, and is thin all along its western edge. In New Jersey, it is over 1,400 feet thick in artesian wells at Atlantic City, but here it includes a lower series, the Shiloh marls, which do not reach the surface in Maryland and Virginia. In the Gulf region, there are still older Miocene members. The youngest members so far studied are found in the Yorkton-Suffolk region, in Virginia, and these are at about the horizon of the youngest Miocene known. The Lafayette formation consists of bowlders, gravels, and sands westward, but the materials become finer to the eastward and southward. It is a thin sheet varying from fifteen to twenty feet in thickness in greater part. It overlaps the edges of pre- ceding formations, and its western edge extends for some dis- tance on the crystalline rocks in the Piedmont plateau. A shore formation of talus and bowlders along the castern foot of the Catoctin Range is of this age, and according to Mr. Keith there are outhers on a high summit a short distance eastward. As before mentioned these formations are the products of the base-levelling of the Piedmont region. They are separated by erosion intervals, during which base-levelling extended over the Coastal plain region. The western thinning of the Pamunkey and Chesapeake for- mations may be due entirely to increased uplift and planing in that direction, but there is some meagre stratigraphic evidence that the original deposits thickened eastward, and that there are older members in that direction which are overlapped westward by the later deposits of the formations. Throughout its course, the Pamunkey formation is overlapped westward by the Chesa- peake formation, although at a few localities, the overlying Chesapeake beds have been removed locally. The original Am. Jour. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLVIL., April, 1894, pp. 301-304. CENOZOLC, TISLORY. 5/3 extent westward of the Chesapeake and Pamunkey formations is not known, for no shores or shore deposits remain, and the superimposed drainage may be of later age. As they were deposited in moderately deep waters and the shores were probably low, at least in Chesapeake times, it is possible that the deposits may have originally extended far west of their present terminations. In Virginia, both formations abut against steep shores of crystal- line rocks or Potomac sands, but in their original thickness they may have overlapped these local steep shores. About Washing- ton, and west of Baltimore, outliers of probable Chesapeake cap the highest summits under a protecting cap of Lafayette gravels, and as one stands on these outliers and looks westward, there is strong suggestion that the formations may have originally extended far in that direction. PLEISTOCENE TERRACES. The earlier Pleistocene terrace, or that on which the earlier Columbia deposits lie, is tilted to a high altitude to the northwest- ward, but it dips to the east and south, and finally passes beneath the terrace level of the later Columbia deposits. The latter is also slightly tilted to the eastward. As the southeastward tilt of the Tertiary peneplain is greater than that of the Baltimore terrace, the Lafayette formation passes beneath the deposits of pthat terrace’ along a line near the zero line in figure 5. The relative slopes of these terrace levels and the Tertiary peneplain near the latitude of Washington are shown in the following dia- gram : Figure 1. Diagram of earlier and later Columbia terrace plains and Tertiary peneplain near the Latitude of Washington. Vertical scale greatly exaggerated. In the vicinity of Washington, where the relations are partic- ularly well exhibited, the earlier Columbia terrace has an altitude from 215 to 180 feet, with the Lafayette formation on the Ter- 'tiary peneplain about 100 feet above. The later Columbian terraces are in a series, of which the highest averages about 100 574 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. feet in altitude. Both are separated by steep bare scarps, which are continuous for long distances. Florida, or Boundary Avenue, is at the foot of the younger scarp for several miles, and this scarp is a marked feature all about the Washington amphi- theatre. The earlier Columbia terrace extends widely around Washington, and far up the Potomac valley, at first with rapidly increasing elevation. It is clearly exhibited in the Frederick valley at an altitude of 4oo feet, and Mr. Keith has called my attention to extensive terracings in the Goose Creek valley and extending across to the head waters of the Occoquan, which are of earlier Columbia and Inter-Columbia age. In descending the Potomac, the altitudes of the earlier Columbia terrace are found to gradually decrease, and finally it passes beneath the later Columbia terrace and deposits, about thirty miles below Washington. In the Baltimore region, the relations are very similar to those in the Potomac valley. The upper part of Baltimore is built mainly on the earlier Columbia terrace at altitudes from 140 to 200 feet. The terrace and its deposits have been found to extend up the Jones Falls depression to an altitude of 380 feet in eleven miles, and there are similar relations in the Gunpowder valley, where the same altitude is finally attained. This is a much steeper slope than exists in the Washington region, and the tilt- ing here attains its maximum degree. Between Washington and Baltimore, there is a moderately wide depression, which holds areas of various sizes of early Columbia terrace at altitudes from 180 to 240 feet. This depression expands widely in the region between the Patuxent and the Patapsco, and towards the bay the altitudes gradually decrease to sixty feet near the bay shore. On the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, the deposits of the early Columbia terrace are overlain by the later Columbia depos- its at an altitude from five to twenty-five feet above tide water, and to the eastward there is only a very gentle slope seaward. In the region south of the lower Potomac, the relations are simi- lar to those east of the bay. The later Columbia terraces extend in a wide belt along the CENOZOIC HISTORY. 575. ocean, covering all of the eastern shore of Maryland and Virginia, and extending up the tidal estuaries to and into the Piedmont region. They pass below tide level along the coast line and extend far out the submarine slope. To the westward, they gradually rise to from 60 to 100 feet in the depressions near the western margin of the Coastal Plain province. They extend up the Pied- mont gorges for some distance, but are, of course, there greatly narrowed. Along the north side of the Potomac gorge above Washington, there is a narrow discontinuous shelf which grad- ually rises to 145 feet at Great Falls, where it becomes the floor of the valley. The inner gorge below the Falls has been cut through the later Columbia terrace. The later Columbia terrace extends up all the small valleys along the Coastal Plain, but is often considerably degraded in them. PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS. The Pleistocene deposits consist of gravels, loams, and sands. In the typical development, there is a basal member containing gravels and bowlders, which merges upward into loams. On the earlier terraces, there is a formation of this character, which for the present may be designated ‘earlier Columbia.” On the later terraces, there is a similar deposit which has long been known as the Columbia formation, and this for the present shall be differentiated as“‘(later Columbia.” In the region to the west and north of Washington, where the earlier terrace is highly elevated, the earlier Columbia is at high altitudes, and the later Columbia deposits lie on the low terraces in the deeper portion of the depressions, but to the east and south, the later Columbia lies in regular succession on the earlier Columbia deposits. The evidences of the separateness of these two formations westward are the bare scarp of erosion intervening between the terraces, and, in a measure, the differ- ence in degree of inclination. In some districts there are wide areas of bare slopes between the upper and lower terrace levels. In portions of the region eastward, a series of cross-bedded sands has been found to intervene between the earlier and later 576 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. Columbia deposits, which represents the products of the sub- zrial erosion of the inter Columbia uplift in the region westward. In his report on the ‘“ Geology of the Head of Chesapeake Bay,” McGee describes several exposures of this feature and represents it in his general section, but gives no suggestion as to its inter- pretation. It has been found to be general over a wide area, but is not everywhere equally distinct. The relations are shown in the following figure: ih i we ity i) jin iat “eIquinjoy Io}e'T ®.. ‘I. a wes tce th a Il ine hit *eIqUINjOD IaTpeW Figure 2. General section of Pleistocene deposits on the eastern side of Chesa- peake Bay showing relations of cross-bedded sands between the earlier and later Columbia deposits. 1. Loam. 2. Gravel and bowlder bed. 3. Cross-bedded coarse sands. 4. Loam, with scattered pebbles, etc. 5. Gravel and bowlder bed. 6. Pre- Pleistocene formation. The basal beds of each of the Pleistocene formations contain very coarse material to the westward which comprise bowlders, pebbles and sub-angular masses of quartzite, quartz, crystalline rocks, sandstones, and cherts, more or less closely packed in sands and loams. Some of the masses stand on end, and these ™U.S.G.S., 7th Ann. Rept., 1888. Pp. 537-646. Plates. CENOZOIC HISTORY. were strongly suggest that they were carried by ice and dropped in their present attitudes. The loams contain scattered pebbles and bowlders, and pebbly and sandy streaks. Locally the forma- tions consist entirely of pebbly sands. To the eastward, there is a gradual decrease in the coarseness of the materials. These statements apply about equally to the earlier and later Columbia deposits, but, on the whole, the materials of the earlier Columbia are often coarser than those of the later Columbia. Both forma- tions contain local streaks of ferruginous conglomerate, but the earlier Columbia deposit presents much of this material, and east of Washington it is a conspicuous feature. In some: portions of the regions between the valleys of the Potomac and Patuxent, and northeast of Baltimore, the earlier Columbia formation becomes very thin, and consists largely of local materials. The thickness of the later and earlier Columbia deposit averages twenty feet each. The earlier Columbia deposit has been widely removed from the higher altitudes, and up the Piedmont gorges is represented by meagre fragments. The widest areas now constituting the surface are southeast of Baltimore, and south of Washington, west of the Potomac. In the upper part of Baltimore, and about Mount Pleasant, the upper part of Washington, there are moderately large areas. In the valleys north of Baltimore there are many thin patches of earlier Columbia gravels, and some of these widen considerably in the limestone valley of the Cocky- ville region. In the Rock creek valley, near Washington, there are many small areas of the deposits at from 195 feet to 205 feet, and an early Columbia delta at the broad intersection of the 200-foot terrace level with the gorge above. The later Columbia deposit is not widely degraded, and it has only been removed over the area occupied by tide water, and narrowly trenched by the various small water ways. POST-COLUMBIA RELATIONS. The principal Post-Columbia features are the channels which have been cut through the Columbia terraces, recent alluvium, 578 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. wash on slopes, and marsh. The Post-Columbia channels are in greater part flooded by tide water, which, to the southeastward, extends to slightly above the base of the Columbia formation. These channels have a depth of 150 feet in the deepest portion of Chesapeake Bay, but decrease in amount to the westward. They are excavated through the Columbia deposits and are not floored by that formation, as suggested by McGee. Throughout the region, the later Columbia deposit caps cliffs at the waters edge, and to the northward its base is usually considerably — above tide water and various subterranes appear below. Many of these cliffs have been cut back more or less by lateral wave action, but there are numerous others which are due entirely to vertical erosion. All the tide water channels are cut deeply into forma- tions underlying the Columbia deposits, and the base of the very lowest Columbia deposits southward is but a short distance below low tide. Several years ago I obtained a sample of the bottom of the Chesapeake bay in twenty feet of water, a mile from the west side of the lower bay, and it was typical Chesapeake clay containing a perfect, very fragile shell of a characteristic ¢ellina. At Claiborne, on the east side of the bay, extensive dredgings were made for a long railroad dock, and the lower diatomaceous clays of the Chesapeake formation were found to be practically bare in the bottom. In Patapsco river, the dredgings out of the channel brought up typical Potomac clay at twenty-seven feet, which was overlain by a few feet of river mud. McGee’ states that the boring on Spesutic island, near the head of the bay, was through 140 feet of sands and silts, which were thought to be neither Columbia nor Potomac. I believe, however, that in the lower portion of this well some Potomac sands may have been penetrated. The well, however, proves the existence of a deep channel here with a great mass of alluvial filling. Owing to submergence now in progress, alluvial deposits are mainly laid down in tide water. In the Piedmont region, and in some of the smaller valleys, there are transient accumulations of alluvium on freshet planes. Throughout the region, there are THEOCACIt CENOZOIC HISTORY. 579 overwash deposits, or talus, on slopes and in some small depressions. Marsh growth keeps pace with subsidence in many regions, and there are numerous large marsh areas along the principal tidal estuaries. There are recent dune sands on the coast and older dunes inland in part of the eastern shore region, but I have given no special attention to their relations. RESUME OF HISTORY. < The earliest event in the Tertiary history of which there is evidence was the deposition of the Pamunkey formation in Eocene times’ Its fine, glauconitic, highly fossiliferous sands were evidently deposited in moderately deep waters containing an abundant fauna. The extent of the maximum submergence by Pamunkey seas and the original extent and thickness of the formation are not known. As the formation represents but a small proportion of the total Eocene known in other regions, there either were long intervals in which this region was a land surface (and this was undoubtedly the case during the deposition of older Eocene formations elsewhere ) or overlying formations, if deposited, were subsequently removed. Consequently the erosion interval between the Pamunkey and Chesapeake forma- tions may have been inaugurated soon after the end of Pamunkey deposition, or it may have followed much more extensive deposi- tion of later Eocene formations which were removed before Ches- apeake deposition. It is ascertained that the entire present Coastal Plain region emerged before Chesapeake deposition and g, but the extent of uplift, the amount of tilting, and the depth of degradation which followed are not known. Some light may be thrown on these questions when the stratigraphy of the Pamunkey formation is more accurately determined. The emergence was followed by submergence during which the Chesapeake formation was depos- ited. As these deposits have a known thickness of 800 feet to the southeastward, and over 1,400 feet in New Jersey, and consist of very fine-grained materials, and are in part diatomaceous, their there was general planing or base-levellin 580 THE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. deposition occupied a very long period of deep submergence; but how deep and how wide-spread are not known. The western edge of the Pamunkey formation was widely overlapped, and it is prob- able that the older Miocene formations were also overlapped far to the eastward. The conditions of erosion and sedimentation dif- ered considerably from those of Pamunkey times, for the fine sands and clays, diatomaceous in part, have had a different history from the glauconitic sands and marls of the Pamunkey forma- tion. The uppermost members of the formation, which are found in the southeastern corner of Virginia, were laid down’ during the uplift of the Chesapeake formation, for the mingled sands and shell fragments indicate proximity toa shore. They are very young Miocene and contain a large number of Pliocene shells. This emergence was probably part of the general uplift and planing which followed Chesapeake deposition. It was a general base-levelling precisely similar to that of the Post- Pamunkey emergence, and there are similar limitations to our knowledge of the extent of uplift, amount of tilting, and depth of denudation. In both uplifts there was slight tilting from the westward. It was during Pamunkey and Chesapeake times that much of the base-levelling of the Piedmont region was effected, but if these formations were originally spread far westward over the surface of the crystalline rocks, their presence retarded the base-levelling for the time being. Following Post-Chesapeake erosion there came a moderate amount of submergence and the deposition of the Lafayette formation. Another change had taken place in the conditions of erosion and sedimentation, for coarse sands and gravels were spread about by waves and currents over a wide zone in the vicinity of the shore. Farther eastward there were deeper waters and the sands and finer materials were deposited inthem. How far west the waters spread is not known, but the shore deposits along the base of Catoctin Mountain indicate general submergence of the peneplain for at least a portion of the time. The great sheet of typical sediments was apparently not spread far beyond its present limits on the divides, but it widely overlapped the CENOZOIC HISTORY. 581 edge of the Chesapeake formation and many outliers of Potomac formation. It was from the lower and marginal beds of the Potomac formation that much of its material was derived. Lafayette deposition was followed by relatively rapid uplift,, during which there were carved the wide steep-sided troughs of the river valleys and a wide shelf along the coast to the east and north. It was at this time that the present topography of the Coastal Plain region was outlined for, in previous emergences, there had been only a general planing. It is thought that the irregular course of the rivers across the Coastal Plain, notably the southerly deflections of portions of the Delaware and Poto- mac rivers and the head of Chesapeake Bay and the local drain- age relations, were due to the original contour of the surface of the Lafayette deposits. This surface hada peninsular configura- tion similar to the submarine sand bars now existent along the ocean coast, and, with uplift, the “sloughs” determined the loca- tion of the water ways. The deflected courses of the rivers are not related to any orogenic influence so far discovered, as sug- gested by McGee, nor to the texture of the deposits they traverse. Post-Lafayette emergence was greatest in amount to the northward, and in northern Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, the formation was widely eroded, together with the underlying formations. All of this region was planed to a terrace level, and a wide depression was excavated along the western margin of the Coastal Plain region from Baltimore to Washington. Wide valleys and series of terrace plains were cut in the Piedmont region, especially in the areas of softer rocks in the Jura-Trias and limestone valleys adjoining the Susquehanna and Potomac depressions. In figure 3 there are given a series of sections which illus- trate the conditions at a number of periods following the Lafayette uplift. In the second section in this figure is shown the relative amount of the erosion during the uplift following Lafayette deposition, along a line passing near the latitude of Washington. 582 LHE JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY. To the northward the degradation extends farther and farther westward, and finally covered the entire width of the Coastal Plain. To the southward its amount diminishes gradually. The next epoch was one of general subsidence by which the terrace plains of the last epoch were submerged to a moderate depth, and the earlier Columbia was deposited. The extent of this submergence is represented in the following figure, and some of its relations are shown in the second section in figure 3. I. LAFAYETTE DEPOSITS ANO POST TERTIARY UPLIFT EMERGENCE SEA LEVEL e Vio PRESENT CONDITIONS