ll ~ he al
Ae att, gine Sit, : .
“snsenn aon thi st renlapnigee: eee: tes
pete ‘< esmetce

—_ nn nn. a
mera eee E tatne ete kotha erreaen
Aa ried of ng en ea ne

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

VO, No. I January, 1919

CONTENTS

Chimeras in’ Corn Hybrids; by J... Collings... 4.4050 eee 3
Effect of Cross-Pollination on Size, Color, Shape and Quality of

the: Apple 32,30:35 260 8 cate ae ee 10
Better American Families, by Wilhelmine E. Key.................. ll
New Everbearing Strawberries, by W. Van Fleet.................... 14
Testing New Foods, by David Fairchild............................ 7
Racial!Problems and World) Problems 2.52.54. 34... -2) 0 eee 28
The Fighting Ability of Different Races............................ 29
Growing Medicinal Plants in heenieried: by Allerton S. Cushman.... 32
A Laboratory Manual of Genetics, A Review....................... 39
Race Mixture in Hawaii, by Vaughan MacCoughey................. 41

NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918. Vol. IX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cehts a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Or-
gan of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, March 8, 1919.

ot
ite Tr

,

GLADILOLUS PARKILY WHITE AND PARTLY RED
ised by a vegetative mutation in a gladiolus corm resulting in the production of
and partly red and white flowers on a stalk of normally white flowering variety.
yf Prof. E. B. Babcock.) (Frontispiece.)

CHIMERAS IN CORN HYBRIDS

Xenia in F, Corn Hybrids Changed Through Mutation—Chimeras in Flowers—A
Case of Chimera in a Fig

J. L. Cottins
Instructor in Genetics, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.

MONG the purple starchy F,
aN dent grains of corn resulting

from crossing Extra Early

Adams white dent corn with
Black Mexican sweet corn one grain
was found half of which was white, the
other half being the dark purple color
characteristic of the male parent (Fig.
la). . The line separating the colored
from the uncolored area was sharply
defined.

In order to determine whether there
is any hereditary tendency for the for-
mation of such “mosaics,” this F, grain
was planted, and the four ears shown in
Fig. 2 were produced. They showed
segregation into purple and white colors
and starchy and sugary endosperm!*
characters in the following proportions:
408 purple starchy, 352 white starchy,
172 purple sweet, 151 white sweet.
This approximates the F, dihybrid
ratio to be expected from a cross of
white dent with purple sweet corn
when starchy endosperm and purple
aleurone? are dominant characters.

Among the 1,083 F, grains twelve
were found showing reappearance of
the mosaic in a degree as great or less
than was shown. by the F, parent.
There is not sufficient evidence in the
way of reappearances, however, to lead
one to believe that the condition is in-
herited in a Mendelian fashion. East
and Hayes grew a number of such seeds
to see whether the tendency was in-
herited, but without positive results.

Similar cases in F, corn hybrids
have been noted by Correns and by
Webber, both of whom believed that it
was caused by the failure of the

second pollen nucleus and the endo-
sperm nucleus to fuse, so that each
nucleus developed independently and
thus formed one-half of the endosperm,
which is enclosed by the colorless peri-
carp composed entirely of maternal tis-
sue. This explanation cannot hold in
this case, because, if such were true,
the purple half of the seed should also
have had the sweet endosperm, inas-
much as the factor for purple aleurone
and the factor for sweet endosperm
were carried by the same (male) nu-
cleus. Reference to Fig. la shows that
the entire grain had the starchy endo-
sperm. The F, results show the em-
bryo to have been a true hybrid for
both aleurone color and endosperm tex-
ture, with the starchy endosperm, to all
appearances, completely dominant in
the F,. If we are to believe that each
nucleus developed independently to pro-
duce the bicolored aleurone effect, how
can we harmonize this belief with the
fact of uniform dominance of the
starchy endosperm? East and Hayes
suggest that the phenomenon may be
due to “Mendelian segregation” in so-
matic tissue. That there is no known
physical basis for the operation of such
segregation is clearly shown by Bab-
cock and Lloyd where they state that
“the mechanism by which this (Men-
delian) segregation is accomplished is
the separation of whole chromosomes
in the heterotypic mitosis (meiosis)
during maturation of the germ cells.’”*
Such separation of chromosomes does
not normally occur during division of
somatic cells.

1Endosperm.—The substance stored in a seed adjacent to the embryo, for its early

nourishment.

2 Aleurone.—The protein granules found in the endosperm of ripe seeds.

8 Italics are mine. —

4 PECULIAR GRAIN OF CORN

A chimera in a grain of corn caused by the occurrence of a factor mutation in a single cell at

an early stage of aleurone dev elopment.

(Fig. 1b, at right.)

A more probable explanation of this
two-color phenomenon in corn is the
occurrence of a vegetative factor muta-
tion in meristematic tissue causing the
development of a chimera. The result
could be produced by the occurrence of
a mutation affecting the aleurone color
factor in one of the cells at a very early
stage of the development and growth of
the zygote, such that all cells descend-
ing from the mutated cell would have
the white aleurone layer. The applica-
tion of the mutation idea adequately
accounts for the occurrence of areas
yr stripes of white, which are less than
ata of the surface of the grain, as

1 Fig. lb. Some of the F, grains from
tiie one shown in Fig. la had only a
small spot of white aleurone, which was
surrounded by purple. These white
cells may be considered as the out-

a single cell in which muta-
tion occurred in the color factor much
later in the development of the aleurone
layer than was the case where approxi-
mately one-half of the grain was white.
The appearance of these smaller areas
cannot be adequately accounted for by
the theory of the ine lependent devel p-
ment of the second pollen nucleus and

f the endosperm nucleus, even when

i

erowth of

Colors purple and white.
A chimera involving a smaller area of changed aleurone tissue.

(Fig. 1a.)
Colors purple and yellow.

the additional evidence from endosperm
texture is not considered.

If objection is raised to the applica-
tion of the mutation hypothesis here
because of the appearance of a nuniber
of similar mutated individuals in the
same or the immediately succeeding
generation, attention only need be called
to similar cases in other plants where
this sort of phenomenon reoecurs many
times, and has been explained as due
to mutation in vegetative tissue. Per-
haps the best known case is that of
citrous fruits containing one or more
sections differing in color or texture
from the remainder of the fruit. Bab-
cock and Clausen attribute the appear-
ance of partly red and partly white
colored gladiolus flowers on a plant of
the white var iety known as “The Bride”
(Frontispiece) to a factor mutation in
meristematic tissue. Their account of its
appearance is as follows: “In 1915
there appeared in a row of ‘The Bride’
a single stalk bearing partly red and
partly white flowers. That this grew
from a corm which was an offshoot
from a typical white flowering corm is
certain. Furthermore, that the muta-
tion occurred very early in the develop-
ment of this corm and not some time
during the growth of the flower stalk

CORN GROWN FROM A GRAIN CHIMERA

Four F, ears of corn produced by selfing the F, plant grown from the grain chimera shown in
Fig. 1a. (Fig. 2.)

A COLOR CHIMERA IN A FIG

The cell in which the change took place was not in the developing young fruit, but in a cel! of
the young shoot on which the fruit grew. (Photo by courtesy of Professor I. J. Condit.) (Fig. 3.)

is proved by the following observations :
In the autumn following the discovery
of the mutant stalk it was carefully
lifted and the corm from which it grew
was separated from the cluster of white
flowering corms. It was observed that
there were smaller corms located very
close to the mutant corm. The fol-
lowing spring one flower stalk bore red
and white and the other only red
flowers. In gladiolus the young corms
push out from near the base of the old
one. Hence the original mutant corm
must have consisted partly of cells
capable of producing red pigment in
the flowers. That the cells having this
altered chemical constitution comprised
about one-half of the corm is indicated
by the position of the red and white

flowers on the stalk.” A like condition
in the canna lily is shown in Fig. 5,
where the change envolves foliage
leaves, flowering stalk and flowers.

Similar kinds of vegetative mutations
in fruits, causing the appearance of
sharply defined color and texture areas,
have been reported in apples, peaches,
cherries, prunes,* tomatoes,’ olives and
figs.®

The fig-chimera here reported (see
Fig. 3) appears to be of a slightly
different type of origin from the other
chimeras mentioned, and also from the
corn grains under discussion, in that
the cell in which the change took place
was not in the developing of young
fruit itself, but in a cell.of the young
shoot on which the fruit grew. A few

a P C. Whitten, Division of Pomology, University of California.
° E. B. Babcock, Division of Genetics, University of California.
®T. J. Condit, Division of Citriculture, University of California.

6

PARTLY WHITE LEAVES FROM A FIG TREE

Leaf chimera from the tree which produced the fig shown in Fig. 3. Notice the chimera
condition in the branch. (Photograph by courtesy of Professor I. J. Condit.) (Fig. 4.)

CHIMERAS IN GRAINS OF MAIZE.

Three grains of maize showing chimeras in which the endosperm characters sugary

starchy are involved. (Fig. Sa, b, c.)

A color chimera in an F2 grain of sweet maize.

of the leaves growing on the tree which
produced the fig-chimera were charac-
terized by white areas or sections, as
shown in Fig. 4. Many examples of
this kind of chimera have been demon-
strated. Norton was able to trace a
foliage color difference down the stalk
as a different colored stripe in a whole
branch of a tomato plant, narrowing
until its origin was apparently located
in a single cell. Buds pushing out at
the point of union between the stripe
and the normal colored portion of the
stem bore two-colored leaves similar to
the fig leaf in Fig. 4.

If we use the mutation hypothesis to
account for a change in color in a por-
tion of a corn grain, it would appear
reasonable to expect that mutations
might occur in factors affecting other
chemical constituents of the endosperm.
Grains of corn showing such changes

‘Furnished by Dr. R. E. Clausen.

S

and

(Fig. 5d.)

in eee have been found’ (Fig.
5a, b,c) among the hybrid progeny of
two ies different strains. The cross
between the varieties Country Gentle-
man (sweet) with U. S. White Dent
(starchy) produced among the F, prog-
eny seven grains with sweet patches
in the starchy endosperm (Fig. 5a,b,c).
Among the F, grains derived from
the one show n in Fig. la, a half purple
and half white sweet grain was found,
to which a great deal of interest is
attached, because in this grain lies the
possibility of our being furnished with
the proof that the mutation hypothesis
here given is the correct one. If the
progeny from this grain (Fig. 5d) gives
ev idence that the embryo is homozygous
for the purple color, then the change
from purple to white in the aleurone
can only have come about by somatic
mutation in the manner herein de-

CHIMERA IN A CANNA LILY

A canna lily of the purple or bronze leaved red flowering variety in which a change took
place apparently in a cell or cells of the root at the point where the bud pushed out,
causing the chimera in the stem, leaves and flowers. Areas of the bronze leaves changed to
pure green and flower color changed from red to yellow. The open flower on the left side
of the stalk is half red and half yellow. (Photograph by courtesy of Professor W. J:
Pope, University Farm, Davis, Calif.) (Fig. 6.)

10 The}Journal

scribed, while on the other hand, if evi-
dence is furnished that this F, grain is
heterozygous for purple and for non-
purple (white), no violence will be
done to our mutation conception of the
origin of the chimera.

SUM MARY

Grains of hybrid corn are here re-
ported in which xenia occurs only in a
portion of the aleurone layer, others
having sweet patches in the starchy
endosperm. Evidence is furnished dis-
proving the theory of independent de-
velopment of the second pollen tube
nucleus and the endosperm nucleus. A
factor mutation occurring in a single
somatic cell, producing a chimera, is
offered as the more probable explana-
tion of the phenomenon. A certain F,
grain may furnish conclusive proof of
the hypothesis advanced. Instances

of Heredity

are cited of the occurrence of similar
chimeras in several plant genera.

LIST OF LITERATURE CITED

Untersuchen uber die
Ber. d. Deutsch.

Correns, C.:
Zenien bei Zea mays.
Bot. Ges. 17. 18.

Webber, H. J.: Xenia on the _Imme-
diate Effect of Pollen in Maize. U. S. D.
A., Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bul. 22.
1900.

Norton, J. B. S.: Some Unusual To-
mato Variations. Proc. Soc. Hort. Sci.,
1910.

East, E. M., and H. K. Hayes: In-
heritance in Maize. Conn. A. E. 5S.
Bul. 167, 1911.

Babcock, E. B., and F. E. Lloyd: So-
matic Segregation. Jour. Herep., Vol.
8, 1917.

Babcock, E. B., and R. E. Clausen:
Genetics in Relation to Agriculture.
New York, 1918.

The Effect of Cross-Pollination on Size, Color, Shape and Quality of the Apple®

W. H. Wicks, formerly horticulturist,
University of Arkansas, reports the re-
sults of investigation for three years of
the “Effect of Cross-Pollination on
Size, Color, Shape, and Quality of the
Apple.” It is the second publication of
a series on apple pollination problems
begun at the Arkansas Experiment Sta-
tion in April, 1914.

The necessity of cross-pollination of
the apple has been set forth by investi-
gators, both in this country and abroad.
Considerable literature on this subject
has accumulated. Data collected, also,
by this station since 1914 show the ne-
cessity of cross-pollination. Growers are

now aware of the importance of cross-
pollination and are planting commercial
apple orchards in alternate varieties.
More bees are kept each year by the
more progressive orchardists, as it has
been demonstrated that insects, espe-
cially the honeybee, are most beneficial
in promoting pollination. :

Where this occurs the question arises,
what is the immediate influence or ef-
fect of the pollen of the male parent on
size, color, shape, and quality of the
fruit of the female parent? This study
was conducted during 1915, 1916, and
1917, in a typical commercial orchard
at Springdale, Ark.

1 Monthly Bulletin of the California State Commission of Horticulture, October, 1918.

BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES

Heredity in Its Relation to Social Selection in the Formation of Distinctive
American Strains

WILHELMINE E. Key

Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

ISTORIES have hitherto been
H written as though the genius of

a nation were something mys-

terious, impersonal, which in-
heres in its constituent people, lifting
them and their institutions to a zenith
of power, and then as certainly bring-
ing to them decadence and death. The
life of a race has been conceived as
unfolding itself in obedience to immu-
table law, which in the mere passage of
time effects its extinction even as it
effected at an earlier period of its de-
velopment complete expression of its
potentialities. So far as analogies from
biology have been sought, we have said,
in brief, “This people lives; hence it
must, in due course of time, die.” At
the best, we assign as conceivable causes
of national decline one or two out-
standing facts. Thus Rome fell be-
cause of malaria or dissolute living, and
Spain suffered fatal weakening through
the emigration of her able men and the
multiplication of her religious orders.

NATURE OF THE SOCIAL PROCESS

The facts of history take on new
interpretations with the years. In the
rewriting of history which the present
world crisis has stimulated we witness
an encouraging attempt to disentangle
all the factors germane to this vital prob-
lem. In this effort the social psychol-
ogist has preceded the historian in seek-
ing the essentials of the social process
in the traits and tendencies of the indi-
vidual, the influence of the environment
on those traits and tendencies, and in
the ideals and social standards he is led
to establish. In particular are we taking
account of the nation’s dominating per-

sonalities, their nature and origin, the
interplay of these personalities with the
masses, as well as the response of the
latter to the urge of ideals and tradi-
tions as represented in institutions; for
institutions are nothing more than the
enduring expression of the dominating
personalities of the past.

From time to time in the life of a
people danger signals are flung out and
impassionate voices give warning of the
doom that is certain to overtake per-
sistent indulgence in national sins.
From its earliest beginnings America
has listened to many such jeremiads,
though of late these prophets of im-
pending dissolution have been over-
borne by the chorus of self-gratulation
following young America’s part in de-
ciding the world conflict. Our irresistible
man-power, with the spiritual reén-
forcement which it brought to the win-
ning of the Great Cause, gives grounds
to many for belief in the essential
soundness of our national tissue, while
to the less assured the war is viewed
as furnishing the stimulus which shall
speedily evoke new and unexpected vir-
tue in the body politic. So, at the be-
ginning of the Crimean War, sang
Tennyson of the moral regeneration to
be wrought in decadent Britain. Be-
tween these two extremes lies the mid-
dle ground of earnest questioning as to
what is fundamental in the genesis and
development of national tendency.
What, in essence, is that process of
“Americanization” which, in the space
of a few centuries, has gone far to
transform a heterogeneous mob of im-
migrants into a nation with its present
role in world politics?

11

12 The Journal of Heredity

We have thus a new starting point in
our interpretation of American history.
That this study has for us far more
than a merely academic interest is made
clear by the following considerations.
Whatever the present crisis may com-
pass in bringing latent possibilities into
fullest play through the stress of unto-
ward conditions, and however it may
make for national revitalization, we
may not look to it to change directly the
basic fabric of our society. Such
change can come only through the
heightening of social consciousness and
the influence of this heightening on the
social policies of the future.

THE DIRECTION OF THE SOCIAL PROCESS

The socio-psychic process which we
know as education and, in its boarder
sense, as culture, implies in the first
instance efficient leadership, and effi-
cient leadership implies balance between
means and method, and susceptibility to
response on the part of those who are
led. In our determination of social
policies it is fortunately not necessary
to choose between refinement of means
and methods for the development of
human possibilities on the one hand,
and. on the other, the increased sus-
ceptibility to response which shall give
their fullest effect to these educational
means. It is, however, of the highest
importance that the refinements of
means and method do not carry with
them as sequelae a decreased suscepti-
bility to response through deterioration
in the native capacity of the individual.

It is here that we reach the heart of
our problem. For deeper than the
problem of educational method lies the
problem of physical and mental fitness.
This can be met only by care for the
innate character and aptitudes of the
stocks from which chiefly the elements
of our population come. The phe-
nomenal history of America is the his-
tory not only of the regnant families
who formed her ideals, giving them ex-
pression in her traditions and institu-
tions. Toa far greater degree it is the
history of her lesser families, drawn
from some of the soundest stocks of
many nationalities, hence attracted by

all that America has come to stand for,
and following successfully where the
greater individualities led. Aristogen-
esis concerns itself with the origin of
superior endowment, whether in indi-
viduals of superlative worth or in the
mass of our citizenry who maintain
successfully the standards set by per-
sons of superlative worth. ‘Lhe present
paper aims at a fruitful line of inquiry
into the relation between aristogenesis
and the social process.

SOCIAL SELECTION IN COLONIAL TIMES

It requires no careful reading of the
annals of the early settlers to discount
assumptions as to their universal saint-
liness. Came convict hordes and ship-
loads of adventurers; yet it cannot be
denied that the majority were from the
sturdy gentry and moved mainly by a
desire to improve their worldly condi-
tion by honest méans, with a strong
leavening, particularly in New Eng-
land, of those devoted to spiritual ideals.
This population was subjected to a
physical and social selection the nature
of which can be but briefly indicated.
Added to the elimination of the weak,
which the shocking conditions of ocean
travel entailed at that day, came the
rigors of the New England winter and
farther south the ravages of the mala-
rial mosquito. In addition to this, the
colonists were in constant danger of
attack by the Indians. Hear the his-
torian of Long Island: “Although the
land was honorably purchased from the
aboriginal owners, yet the settlers never
saw a moment’s rest, for fear of their
dreaded neighbors. In the field a guard
was kept; at night none knew at what
hour the alarm would sound; to meet-
ing on the Lord’s Day they went as
men prepared for instant war; every
male from sixteen to sixty was a sol-
dier enrolled in the ranks; and in pro-
portion to its population the town could
boast a larger standing army than any
nation on the face of the globe.” So
much for the array of tests which
weeded out the unfit—tests so rigid that
the easy adventurer preferred to fare
otherwise, and many a faint-hearted
jail-bird prayed to be sent to the gal-

os Fr

Key: Better American Families

lows instead ; but for those rich in cour-
age, wit and hardihood, this world of
new and extreme conditions furnished
the supreme opportunity for dominance
and the handing on of these hardy vir-
tues to succeeding generations. Then,
too,’ to the man who had been perse-
cuted for his religious belief or out-
lawed because of revolutionary doc-
trines, came the opportunity, in the
absence of powerful central organiza-
tions, to assert his beliefs and secure a
following. Every settler was thus a
peer of the realm, and as such a poten-
tial aspirant for any honor or office of
the realm. The effect of this combina-
tion of factors in sifting out the able
and worthy of whatever station, giving
them preéminence and through this
preéminence bringing about alliances
_ which produced the quality of the reg-
nant colonial families, cannot be over-
estimated.

IN THE OLD NORTHWEST

Nor are we to imagine that there has
been serious limitation of this process
in the conquering march of settlement
westward. The early immigration to
Massachusetts Bay was from the most
virile stocks of Devon and Somerset.
These stocks furnished the seed of sel f-
governing New England and founded
the institutions which should put the
democratic ideal before every migrant
to our shores. As we trace these fami-
lies westward, we find their representa-
tives leading in the establishment of
social institutions, and often because of
greater vigor and aggressiveness, mak-
ing a short cut in social and economic
effectiveness. It is a significant fact
that the small state of Massachusetts
furnished 115,000 men to the Civil War,
but far more significant is the fact that

13

in the quota of enlisted men furnished
Ly a western town in the present war
23 nationalities should have been repre-
sented, each vying with every other in
its resolution to defend to the last ditch
the American ideal. In other words,
we have had in the immigrant of yes-
terday a responsive sensitiveness to the
social and emotional traditions for
which the word ‘‘America’”’ has come to
stand. These traditions served largely
to select the dominant tendencies of the
immigrant and the strain from which
he sprang, and these tendencies have
in their turn been preserved and often-
times intensified through union with
similar strains which earlier found a
home here. Running parallel with the
genetic process is the educational
process and all that we include under
the term “social heritage.” This, as al-
ready indicated, is in essence as
follows: The raw contacts, with the
realities of frontier existence and all
that went with the phenomenal develep-
ment of our virgin resources, developed
resourcefulness and initiative, while the
social institutions founded by our lead-
ers, offshoots in the main from the
early ablest American strains, clarified,
defined and further strengthened in-
choate strivings toward the American

" ideal.

The lesson of the persistence of de-
fect through successive generations has
been brought home to us in such his-
tories as those of the “Jukes,” the
“Ishmaelites” and the “Kallikaks.” Of
equal significance is the*study of fami-
lies where, by fortunate matings, trait
combinations spelling superior endow-
ment have been effected. The story of
such families will be taken up in suc-
ceeding papers.

Meet Success in Producing Seed

To reduce dependence on foreign
sugar-beet seed, efforts to produce this
seed in this country are meeting with
distinct success. Before the war do-
mestic production was almost at zero.
In 1916 the production had risen to
5,211,000 pounds, in 1917 to 5,558,000

of Sugar Beets in This Country

pounds, and in 1918 to 6,384,000 pounds,
the estimate for the last year being sub-
ject to revision.

Along with this movement, the acre-
age planted to sugar-beets has greatly
increased.—W eekly News Letter, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture.

NEW EVERBEARING STRAWBERRIES

W. VAN FLEET
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

that continue under favorable
conditions to fruit throughout
the summer and autumn after
bearing a fair spring crop of berries
have lately come into favor. All are
descendants of the Pan American, a
sport or mutation of the Bismack, a
former commercial variety of the Fra-
garia virginiana type in which the run-
ners are to a great extent suppressed,
favoring the successional production of
fruiting crowns during the growing
season. This peculiarity appears herit-
able in many seedlings and hybrids of
Pan American, and the horticultural
section thus established has been given
the convenient but somewhat mislead-
ing name of “everbearing,” as special
cultural requirements in the way of
moisture and fertilization are needed to
insure fruit formation and plant in-
crease during the most exacting sum-
mer months. Progressive and Superb
are the most popular varieties of the
new type and are increasingly planted.
They leave something to be desired in
productiveness and plant-making capac-
ity, as few runners are thrown out from
the more prolific plants. Seedlings con-
tinue to be grown from the present ever-
bearing varieties, and crossings have
been made by several growers with
spring-fruiting commercial varicties
and varieties of. the European Alpine
strawberry Fragaria vesca, which nat-
urally fruits over a long season, in the
hope of developing features of addi-
tional value. Fragaria vesca in the
European and Mexican Alpine forms
has rarely proved worth cultivating in
North America, as the plants do not
well endure our hot sunlight and the
berries, though well flavored, are small
and soft in texture.
While traveling in Chile as an agri-
14

: EVERAL varieties of strawberries

cultural explorer in 1914, Prof. W. F.
Wight, of the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, forwarded seeds of a fairly large-
fruited Alpine strawberry occasionally
sold in the Santiago markets. The
type is that of Fragaria vesca, but
whether native or introduced could not
be ascertained. When grown in the
introduction gardens at Rockville, Md.,
and Chico, Cal., of the Office of For-
eign Seed and Plant Introduction, cer-
tain of the resulting plants . showed
greater vigor, fruitfulness and general
adaptation to our climatic conditions
than any Alpine hitherto introduced.
They have endured our hot, dry sum-
mers, fruiting continuously from June
until frost under the most ordinary cul-
tural treatment, at the same time throw-
ing out an abundance of strong runners.
The berries are well flavored, but lack
firm texture and sufficient size to be of
practical value. Plants have been dis-
seminated in a limited way for further
trial under the introduction number of
35005. The ability of this South Amer-
ican strawberry to fruit and produce
runners simultaneously throughout the
summer and autumn suggested the pos-
sibility of developing large-fruited vari-
eties holding the same characteristics
by hybridizing it with practical com-
mercial .spring-bearing sorts. Chesa-
peake and Early Jersey Giant were
selected for the purpose as being well
adapted to local conditions at Bell Ex-
periment Plot, Glendale, Md. Pollina-
tions were carefully made under glass
in February, 1916, and the resulting
seedlings grown in the field. About
400 fruited in June, 1917, showing high
average merit as June-fruiting varieties,
but with no obvious tendency toward
continuous bearing.

Runners from two of the best plants
were rooted in pots during summer,

A NEW “EVERBEARING” STRAWBERRY

This variety of strawberry continue sunder favorable conditions to fruit throughout the summer
and autumn after bearing a crop in the spring. It is the result of a cross between Fragaria
chiloensis and F. vesca. Photographed by Crandall. (Fig. 7.)

A NEW “EVERBEARING” STRAWBERRY
Another view of the new cross produced at Bell Experiment Plot, Glendale, Md.

graphed by Crandall.

brought into bloom under glass early
in 1917, and again pollinated with No.
33005, something over 150 seedlings re-
sulting, four of which bore handsome,

large berries continuously from July
until November the past season, pro-
ducing a good supply of vigorous run-
ners at the same time. The plants
shown in the illustration were photo-
graphed September 26 and continued
to ripen fruit for several weeks. In
appearance, size and quality the berries
I 7 V( abl

compare with the best

Phe yto-
(Fig. 8.)

of the everbearing varieties now in cul-
tivation, while the plant-making pro-
pensities rival those of the commercial
spring-fruiting kinds. If, as now ap-
pears probable, superior continuous-
bearing strawberries with free runner
production can be developed by the use
of an Alpine variety adapted to the
American climate, there will be little
need to depend on the progeny of the
mutant Pan American, with its inher-
ent tendency toward slow plant increase.

TESTING NEW FOODS'

Davip FAIRCHILD

Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

VERYONE has his own idea of
EK foods and will discuss it with
you as long as you will listen.
It forms the chief topic of con-
versation among primitive peoples, and
yet, strange to say, so little serious at-
tention has been given to the subject
that the real bearing of taste upon food
production is not suspected by most
educated people.

There is a general feeling that a new
food plant comes into use in some quiet,
mysterious way, that belongs in the
category of natural occurrences, in-
stead of requiring the solution of many
practical problems.

In the attempts which my associates
and I have been making for twenty
years to introduce into use in America
the food plants popular in other lands,
we have learned a good many things
about foods and the difficulties of really
testing them, and we have also caught a
glimpse of certain changes which are
coming in the world of food production
and consumption. The thought that
these experiences of ours and _ the
deductions which we have drawn from
them may interest the members of this
section of the association, prompted me
to accept Dr. Cook’s invitation to join
such distinguished company as that of
my old friends Harper and Moore.

It is a complicated thing to test a new
food plant; it seems simple, but it is
not so. Let me give some actual expe-
riences in illustration.

THE ARRACACHA

In 1899 I visited Caracas with my
friend Mr. Barbour Lathrop and _ be-
came familiar with the Arracacha,

(Arracacha sxanthoriza), which is a
favorite vegetable among Venezuelans.
I ate it poorly prepared in a hotel there,
but believed, nevertheless, that it had
possibilities. My friend was rather in-
different to it. I interviewed old Dr.
Ernst, a German botanist, who had
spent many years in Caracas, and he
was enthusiastic in his praise of it.
How could it be decided whether my
friend’s epicurean judgment, Dr.
Ernst’s, or my own, in regard to the
vegetable, was correct? I decided that
my own guess was as good as my
friend’s, and that when the vegetable
was better prepared, and he again had a
chance to taste it, he might change his
mind. There were no other Americans
in Caracas whose opinions I could get.
The vegetable could not be sent to the
United States, for it would rot on the
way. . The only alternative was to get
sets’ of it and grow them in some part
of the United States. I had not seen
the plant growing, so I went into the
interior and saw it as it is grown there
in the door-yards, and photographed it
under difficulties. The sets failed to
survive the voyage. I imported them
again in 1899 from Jamaica, in 1905
from Porto Rico, in 1909 from Pan-
ama, in 1910 again from Caracas, in
1911 from Panama and Caracas, again
in 1912 and 1913 from Caracas, and in
1916 from Jamaica and Venezuela.
Sometimes they died in transit, some-
times they refused to grow after being
injured by the necessary fumigation,
and sometimes they were killed by neg-
lect or frost in the field tests. At last
Consul Brett of La Guaira sent me a
lot of fine sprouts or sets, and, coinci-

1 Address before the Botanical Society of America and Section G of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, in Baltimore, December 26, 1918.

2 Young plants fit for setting out.—Eb.

17

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Fairchild: Testing New Foods 19

dent with their arrival in America, Mr.
Morrow, a very unusual plant propaga-
tor, was stationed at our introduction
garden in West Florida. The im-
ported plants were potted and grew and
were sent to Mr. Morrow, and _ last
year he forwarded to Washington a
root of the Arracacha which, because it
was the only one, and a curiosity, never
got into the soup. It was only a few
weeks ago, after twenty years of wait-
ing, that I had the pleasure of digging,
cooking and eating, under the circum-
stances of American life, the Vene-
zuelan Arracacha, and of demonstrat-
ing to the satisfaction of a number. of
Americans that it is a desirable vege-
table. Ernst declares it is superior to
the best potato. Barrett says it always
sells for a good price in Porto Rico.
Schultz says it resembles a cross be-
tween potato, celery and asparagus and
is roasted, fried or baked in Panama.
Lara says it furnishes a nutritious flour
used for invalids in Venezuela. Masters
says its flavor is intermediate between
a chestnut and a parsnip. How de-
sirable the Arracacha is in comparison
with other vegetables will require years
of patient work to determine, for first
of all we*must find out whether the va-
riety we have is the best there is when
grown in America, whether the char-
acteristics of season, hardiness, pro-
ductivity, keeping qualities and ship-
ping quality will give sufficient advan-
tage over other vegetables with which
it comes into comparison to make it
remain in our gardens. Into the prob-
lem now will enter such questions as
the following: Who is it that says the
vegetable is good to eat? Has he good
taste in vegetables? Where does the
matter of learning to like a new flavor
or texture come into the question?
What influence has the manner of pre-
paration of the vegetable on its palata-
bility? Has it a character which will
make people crave it, or will they be
indifferent to it, confusing it with some-
thing else? Then there are the long
“waits between drinks,” so to speak;
periods between the seasons during
which one cannot have the vegetable
to taste—in most cases nine or ten

months. But these are only the begin-
nings of the difficulties, for there is an-
other whole set of them.

To test a new food plant with the
object of getting your countrymen to
take up its culture means, as I have
said, that you must get the best of its
kind. But how can this be done? If
you take the opinion of the foreign peo-
ple who grow the various varieties, how
do you know their taste is like that of
the American in the matter of foods?
The Chinese do not like soft berry
fruits, such as raspberries, and prefer
to eat their stone fruits while still hard;
they eat their rice without salt; they do
not like butter nor milk, because it
smells too strongly of the cow; they are
not, as we are, absurdly fond of sweet
candy (they find it too sweet); they
cannot understand how we can bear
the flavor of tomatoes, nor why we
don’t all like the flavor of their soy
sauce instead of meat gravy. Evidently
their opinion of the best variety of soy
beans may not be ours, so the only thing
to do is to collect all its varieties which
can be secured and test them side by
side. We brought into America over a
thousand varieties of soy beans, and
Mr. Morse, the soy bean expert of the
Department of Agriculture, has selected
perhaps a dozen or so of these beans
which, in his opinion, are superior to the
others in flavor or in some characters of
earliness, productiveness, and useful-
ness for special purposes. Mr. Young,
the dasheen expert of the department,
grew over a hundred varieties of the
taro before he found the Trinidad
dasheen, the Pat Long Fu, the Yatsug-
ashira, the White Sprout, and the Bel-
embe—special varieties of a vegetable
which is grown and eaten in one form
or other by millions of people through-
out the tropics. Mr. Hume has in his
collection in Florida at least fifty varie-
ties of the Kaki (the Japanese and
the Chinese persimmon), but, I under-
stand, that he is enthusiastic over only
three or four. In the case of wild
fruits which have not been selected by
man, the problem is still further com-
plicated, because the mistake is so uni-
versally made of condemning a species

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Fairchild: Testing New Foods

to oblivion without considering the fact
that one has tasted only a rank, worth-
less seedling. I have tasted North
American pawpaws (Asimina triloba)
which are as deliciously flavored as the
finest cultivated annona of Maderia, but
most people have tried only the rank-
flavored, worthless seedlings. As a re-
sult, our largest, finest native wild fruit
has remained for four centuries practi-
cally untouched by the horticulturists of
America. The watery, tasteless’ seed-
ling avocados (foolishy called alliga-
tor pears) which a few years ago came
into the markets of New York and
Philadelphia from Columbia are not to
be compared with the selected grafted
varieties of Florida and California, and
their sale is doubtless responsible for
many people’s dislike for or indiffer-
ence to the most remarkable of all salad
fruits. Many seedling mangos are so
strong in turpentine that only one who
has formed the habit of eating the
mango really enjoys them. I once had
the experience of changing completely
the opinion of an American millionaire
who had traveled hurriedly through
India, the land of the mango, and who
had formed a very unfavorable impres-
sion of that wonderful fruit, by tast-
ing some poor turpentine variety, by
giving him a delicious mango variety
from grafted trees in Florida.

So it is necessary to bring in and
grow all varieties possible in order to
select the best for the American palate.
But it is not enough to grow a single
plant of a kind in botanic garden fash-
ion. Practical experience has shown
us that a test of a variety requires the
production of many bushels of the fruit
or vegetable. My friend, Mr. Lathrop,
took me down the coast of East Africa
purposely to get a special mango which
he had eaten and liked. When it first
fruited years later in Florida, it proved
so disappointing in size and flavor as to
arouse a good deal of ridicule. By ac-
cident, however, a number of trees were
permitted to live and bore large crops of
fruit, and they came to be appreciated
highly by those who could get them.
For years we tried to decide whether
the various dasheens were really good

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ture yea!

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are keeping only~.
point of view.

When I tasted for the firsu
Chinese jujube, on a French stea:.
off the coast of China, I liked it in:-
mensely and made up my mind that th
Department of Agriculture should ge
it, but when I mentioned the jujube to
some of my colleagues of the depart-
ment, | was taken to a worthless seed-
ling growing in the department grounds
and told that it had been tried but
wasn’t fit to eat. Only since we have
planted an orchard of twenty odd dis-
tinct varieties of Chinese jujubes, and
gathered hundreds of pounds of their
fruit and candied them, have we been
able to make an impression upon our
audience and prove to many that the
jujube rivals the date in delicacy of
flavor.

The Paitsai, a Chinese species of
mustard, has been grown in the gardens
of the country for many years without
much progress, but the production of
20,000 boxes of it recently and the rapid
rise in popularity of the Cinese restau-
rants, where it is so largely used, are
giving it a test of the proper propor-
tions.

THE MANGO

But large quantities are necessary,
not only to determine the best varieties,
but also to enable one to find out
whether many people will like a new
thing or not. In the early days, when
a single mango (the first of its kind
to be produced) was sent in from one
of our test gardens, I remember with
what pride I took it to our then Secre-
tary of Agriculture, and presented it to
him. Neither shall I ever forget the
disappointment when I learned that
one smell of it was enough, that he gave

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Fairchild: Testing New Foods | 23

it to one of his friends, that this friend
tried it on his family, who passed it on
to the colored man that cut the grass;
the colored man gave it to the chickens,
and they all declined to like it—my
precious and only mango, which I knew
Englishmen in India would rave over!
The experience was a crushing disap-
pointment. I had taken the mango to
the wrong market. It took me some
time to realize that the man in authority
over one is the very last man that one
should prejudice against one’s work
by trying to get him to eat a new fruit.
Had I been able to give the same va-
riety of mango to scores of people and
compare their opinions, I would have
discovered that there are people every-
where who will, as well as some who
will not, like any given new fruit or
vegetable. I would have received en-
couragement and gained much confi-
dence by finding that for every person
who disliked the mango, there were a
dozen who liked it, and a half-dozen
who were enthusiastic about it.

I made a test of the mango last sum-
mer. I sent some of the finest flavored
fruits I have ever eaten to five ladies,
wives of Cabinet officials, and at the
same time I served the same or equally
good varieties at the Cosmos and Press
Clubs of Washington. One of the
Cabinet ladies remarked, in regard to
those which I had sent her, “I am very
sorry, but we did not like the mangos.”
Another said, “I am deeply apprecia-
tive of your remembering us, and I was
tremendously interested in the mangos,
but I am constrained to be perféctly
frank and tell you that we did not like
them. It is just possible that they are
one of the foods for which one could
cultivate a taste, but it apparently is not
a natural one with any member of my
family.” Another of the ladies re-
marked, “We found the mangos which
you so kindly sent most delicious. This
fruit would add exceedingly to our list
of edible fruits.” Another replied,
“The mangos were perfectly delicious.
Never in Mexico did I eat better,
and I am delighted to know they are
being grown in this country, for now
they will be in the market here.” Still

another of the ladies who had eaten the
mango before reported, “But, really, I
never ate such fine mangos either in
Mexico or the West Indies.” Can you
imagine the cold chill which settles
down on a pioneer when he first starts
out with a new fruit if, early in its
history, he runs into a “throw down”
such as two ladies of such prominence
socially have given him, or how his
spirits rise when he finds that three out
of five are of quite the opposite opin-
ion, or how he begins to see things dif-
ferently when he makes a trial such as
I made last summer in the Cosmos and
Press Clubs of Washington and dis-
covers that out of eighty-five who
tasted the mango only four diliked it
and that there were a large proportion
of them who. pronounced it delicious.
Only one condemned it with the words,
“It is too sweet. I dislike the flavor.”
I once opened a delicious mango and
showed how it should be eaten, to the
manager of the famous Touraine Hotel,
and he turned it down as something his
guests would not like. Therefore they
never got a chance at it. So far as the
mango is concerned there is no longer
any doubt in my mind that most of
those who do not like it could easily
acquire the taste for it if they cared to
overcome their prejudice against it.

Think what the eating of an orange
means to a child, the peeling of it, the
separation of the segments, the disposal
of the seeds and indigestible fiber, the
oil which covers his hands and poisons
his mouth if he tastes it. I can still
remember the oranges of my childhood,
arid as I look back upon them the eat-
ing amounted to a ceremonial. Today,
even, the eating of an orange on a Pull-
man is not an easy thing to do grace-
fully. We forget these things and try,
without the preliminary instruction, to
get people to eat such a fruit as the
mango or the Japanese persimmon and
are surprised that the public laughs
at us.

The story is told, and I believe it, of
an Englishman of the seventeenth cen-
tury (tea was so rare at that time that
it was a privilege to be allowed to touch
the tongue to a few leaves of it) who,

PICKING CHAYOTES IN FLORIDA

e Guatemalan chayote cdn be given a fair trialit must be giown
lvantages and disadvantages studied from variousangles. Its
to disease, the season of production, its storage qualities
particular character all require the elements of time and

these factors cannot be satisfactorily determined. In texture

1 by any other vegetable. It will carry any flavor im-

r by pickling. (Photograph by Fairchild. Brooksville,

Pee 2

Fairchild: Testing New Foods 25

when asked by a friend, who had given
him some Russian tea, how he liked it,
replied, “Well, you know we found it a
trifle tough.” He had tried to eat the
leaves! A friend of mine recently took
an avocado (alligator pear) up from
Florida to New England as a present
to his people. “Of course, they knew
how to serve it!’ In the middle of the
dinner, as the salad course was ap-
proaching he was called into the
kitchen to show how the avocado should
be servéd, and he found that the cook,
in trying to peel it, had let it slip out of
her hands on to the floor, and, in trying
to cut it in half, struck the stone and
was trying to cut that with a hatchet.
Yet this is the staple food of millions of
Guatemalans who can no more imagine
intelligent people having difficulty in
eating an avocado than we have in im-
agining how one should eat an apple.

I think there is no doubt but that the
difficulties of preparing good corn bread
have st6od-in the way of the use of this
excellent food by the peoples of
Europe, just as our ignorance of how to
cook rice properly has prevented our
consumption of that cereal from ex-
ceeding 7 pounds per capita.

We have underestimated the size of
the task. To plant a tree of a new fruit
in a botanical collection and expect the
public to take it up is a good deal like
making a new tooth powder in a test
tube and waiting for a demand for it to
spring into existence. In the Pinchin
Garden in Rome stands an avocado tree
over one hundred years old, and the
only people who gather the fruits are
the members of the Mexican Legation.

THE CHAYOTE

Take the chayote as an example. A
few French descendants near New
Orleans, Charleston and Savannah have
for many years grown with varying
yearly success a small patch of what
they there call the Mirliton, or mango
squash. They have generally sold what
they grew, but the demand has not in-
creased. Only a very small circle of the
fashionable people knew it, and those
who were not fashionable hesitated to
try it. We have taken up its cultiva-

tion on a larger scale, and we find that
instead of a few plants we need at least
an acre of trellises and hundreds of
vines, and we are planning for the pro-
duction of a thousand bushels of the
fruits which, with the most carefully
thought-out literature to accompany it,
will be sent out to the commission
houses and the public generally. Hun-
dreds of bushels have been so dis-
tributed this year and last, with two
results—a growing demand by the trade
on the one hand and, on the other, a
local. interest in them by people who
could grow them in their own yards for
their own use. The propaganda lifts
the vegetable from the rank of a curios-
ity which “neighbor Jones is growing”’
and puts it where it belongs, as a per-
fectly good vegetable with certain char-
acteristics, distinguishing it from all
others. and making it a valuable addi-
tion to the table.

Much fun is poked at the Florida
“Cracker,” but, after all, it must be ad-
mitted that we owe the grapefruit to
his open-minded attitude towards new
foods; whether born of the necessity
of isolation or not, is another question.
If canned fruits had been cheaper and
easier to get in the early days in
Florida, perhaps we would not have the
grapefruit at all.

But, after all is said, perhaps the
greatest obstacle to a satisfactory test-
ing of new foods lies in two curious
facts. It seem to be human nature to
ridicule a food which one does not like
oneself, and to attribute health-giving
or disease-producing qualities to the
food one eats. This is not only an in-
dividual trait, but a universal one.

Upon the walls of a quaint little hotel
in Doylestown, Pa., I found in my bed-
room last year an interesting old wood-
cut depicting the departure of the
French soldiers for England, and under
it were these lines:

“With lantern jaws and croaking gut

See how the half-starved Frenchmen
strut,

But soon we'll teach those bragging fves

That beef and beer give heavier blows

Than lamb and roasted frogs.”

A WEST INDIAN YAM

still attached to the vine, from the Yam patch of Mr. O.

] g oing this starc hy tuber producing vine regularly
nily have become as fond of these Yams as they are
vas obliged to restrict exports of wheat to Tri nidad,
nd becamea Potere hs getable there. When cooked
potatoes and is a delicious table vegetable. (Fig. 13.)

Fairchild: Testing New Foods af

A similar attempt to maintain the
superiority of our own national food
appears today in the writings of some
of our foremost food chemists. Os-
borne attributes the drift of the Japan-
ese toward our menu to an instinctive
craving for a higher protein diet, but
just how he arrives at such a conclu-
sion I fail to understand, since the
Japanese have copied our hats, our
umbrellas, our shoes, our coats and
trousers and even our furniture, and
certainly there is nothing instinctive to
be found in these imitations on the part
of a smaller for the habits of a greater,
more powerful nationality. Even
McCollum, in his excellent book, makes
the statement, unsupported by any care-
fully considered evidence. I am afraid
that the peoples who drink milk and
eat butter and meats are larger than
those who get their “fat soluble A”’
from green vegetables. Galton’s studies
on the inheritance of height represents
the method, it seems to me, that it will
be necessary to follow to arrive at any
satisfactory conclusion on this subject,
and I am disposed to consider the state-
ment as an expression of an idle notion
and a neglect to consider the role played
by heredity.

The pigmies of Africa live side by
side with the normal sized blacks—do
they eat different foods? The Terra
del Fuegans are a large race—is their
size determined by their food?

As I have said, to ridicule a perfectly
good new food by comparing it to some
food stuff used for the lower animals
is perhaps the commonest form of ridi-
cule. I cannot consider it as anything
but foolish and short-sighted that the
Irish should have come to look upon
corn-meal as “food fit only for hogs,”
Only the feeblest propaganda has been
raised against such an attitude. Our
wheat shortage during the war rose in
part at least through the inability of
Europeans to eat our corn, and when I
look for signs of any advertising to
teach them, I find that none worth men-
tioning was ever made. When the war
came it was perhaps too late. “Corn-
meal” Murphy was not financially sup-
ported. He was like John the Baptist,

crying in the wilderness. He complains
that he had to give up because he could
not raise the funds, and Dr. C. V. Riley,
then Assistant Commissioner to the Ex-
position, in refusing to help him stage a
corn show at the Paris Exposition,
pleads the usual lack of appropriations.

Ridicule of new foods has hindered
their proper testing, and magazines and
newspapers still have funny writers
connected with them who fail to see
anything great in the attempts to intro-
duce new food plants. They make fun
of the avocado as a rich man’s food,
though it is the food of the poorest
cargador in Guatemala, and of the
dasheen as a bearded potato, though it
forms the food of millions where the
potato cannot be successfully grown.

In Panama, the natives back from
the coastal ports give as an excuse tu
their guests for not having any vege-
tables, the fact that they are too far
from the coast, where the potato is im-
ported. It is the fashion to eat im-
ported potatoes in Panama just as it is
the fashion to eat French bread (E/
Frances) in Guatemala, even though
potatoes do not grow well in Panama
and wheat doesn’t grow at all in Guate-
mala These are serious questions, and
they/deserve a much more serious con-
sideration by agriculturalists and edu-
cationalists.

I ¢havegno- wish to discuss with indi-
viduals whether they should or should
not eat gheese or ice cream to excess or
drinkycoffee—these are questions for
disputation and are generally fruitless
—but¢I do maintain, as the result of
twenty years of study and experimenta-
tion, that the question of testing new
foods must and will go on to a broader
basis than it hitherto has occupied.
When it does, I believe we will find
that the greatest, most progressive races
will reach out after all kinds of foods
that are good; and with the same hospi-
tality of mind which has characterized
the Americans in their adoption of new
labor-saving machinery, I believe our
countrymen will test with interest many
new foods and learn to use so many
kinds that it will be profitable to grow
those best adapted to each agricultural

28 The Journal

region and season, because there will be
the necessary demand for them. How
far the change from one food to an-
other is essential to health is a question
for the dietitians to settle, but I do-
insist that the whole question of test-
ing new foods must rise from the
slough of foolish neglect, where it re-
mained almost from the time of primi-
tive man, to the plane it deserves to oc-
cupy, for, after all, we are not certain
we have the best. We know a few food
plants cannot grow everywhere, and
the whole drift of evolution is towards
a greater variety of all things—foods
as well as other things.

New foods (new species, not only
new preparations) must, and I believe
will, be tried out on as great a scale as
that which characterizes the advertis-
ing campaigns for cereal foods. When

of Heredity

that time comes many of the new plant
foods will come into their own and
compete with the old and form natural
agricultural monopolies where they
grow the best.

We would indeed be supine if, blind
to the lessons of this great war, we
dropped back into the same old rut in
our education with regard to the role
which is being played in agriculture
through the foolish, unreasoning and
unjust popular ridicule of the great
foods of the world. Narrow-minded-
ness in the food habits of the people is
as much to be avoided as narrow-mind-
edness towards labor-saving machinery
or towards morals or government or re-
ligion. The restricted menu affects the
essential function of eating and so ef-
fects the adaptability of the species and
hinders its evolution.

Racial Problems and World Problems

A recent meeting of the newly
formed Galton Society took place in the
American Musum of Natural History.
It was preceded by a luncheon at which
the members present were the guests
of Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn
and Mr. Madison Grant. The follow-
ing members and guests were present:
Professor E. G. Conklin, Mrs. William
H. Crocker, Dr. C. B. Davenport, Dr.
Gregory, Mr. Madison Grant, Mrs. E.
H. Harriman, Professor Huntington,
Professor McGregor, Professor Mer-
riam, Professor Osborn, Dr. Lothrop
Stoddard, Professor E. L. Thorndike,
Dr. Wisslor, Dr. F. A. Woods.

Professor Merriam, of California,
spoke of the place anthropology should

hold in the universities. In order
to make the discussion concrete, he
gave a brief outline of the history

of the anthropology in the University
of California. When the department
was started everyone thought best to
begin with the local anthropological
problem, in other words, with the study
of the California Indians. Under Pro-

fessor Kroeber this work has been car-
ried to a very satisfactory conclusion
and, while a great deal more work
could be done, it seems that a point
had been reached where new problems
should be undertaken. The speaker
thought this was typical of anthro-
pology in America. Everywhere the
feeling had been, and rightly, that
attention should be given to the prob-
lems at hand. The result is that we
have a very systematic body of knowl-
edge concerning the North American
Indians, but have no contributing work-
ers in larger anthropological problems.
The effect of the world war and its
broadening influences make it highly
desirable that anthropology should be
put upon a broader and more funda-
mental plane, particularly should it deal
with problems concerning our own ra-
cial and national antecedents. The
broadening of anthropology would also
require the drawing in and coordination
of much that has been done in psychol-
ogy, biology, neurology and history.

THE FIGHTING ABILITY
OF: DIFFERENT RACES

Letter from an American Officer, with Comments by John Jay Chapman and
Henry Fairfield Osborn

O ADEQUATE scientific stud‘2s

have ever been made on the

comparative fighting ability of

different races. The ‘warring
instinct,” or gregarious group-instinct,
is something quite apart from any de-
sire to fight single-handed, to quarrel
with one’s neighbors, to go about with
a chip on one’s shoulders, or to start
trouble out of nothing. The most polite
and peaceful morals may make the best
soldiers under the stimulus of group
conflict.

The readiness of nearly all peoples to
respond to this group-instinct for war
is not difficult to explain on grounds of
heredity. Mankind has been devoting
presumably half of its time to warfare,
so that any groups lacking that instinc-
tive tie that binds so marvelously one
to all, would, by and large, have been
hacked to pieces by more unified and
organized groups. Or, in other words,
those groups, compounded in the patri-
otic mold, with a maximum display of
bravery and individual self-sacrifice,
would survive as such, and in the long
run exterminate less closely formed
aggregates.

The disposition to act in a quarrel-
some manner, to fight singlehanded, to
murder, or to disturb the harmony of
the social order represents a type of
man that has been acted upon by nat-
ural selection in precisely the opposite
way. Ever since human beings have
lived in settled communities, persons of
this sort have been seized upon by so-
ciety and summarily dealt with, so that
to a great extent these types have been
eliminated. *

The willingness and, indeed, enthu-

siasm with which so many nations en-
tered into the recent great war, as soon
as the gregarious instinct reached a
certain point of contagion, would seem
to indicate the general or widespread
distribution of the warring impulse.
The countless evidences of bravery and
marvelous self-sacrifice that have
reached us from all quarters might give
‘he impression that all people are equally
brave and that there is little difference
in the value of the fighting ability of
different races.

This may or may not be true; but in
the absence of systematic knowledge
on this important question it is at least
interesting to read the following letter
contributed by Mr. Madison Grant,
whose recent “Passing of the Great
Race” has extended an interest in the
applications of the study of heredity.

This letter was written to Mr. Grant
by an officer who had become interested
in racial questions and who evidently
thinks that “blood will tell.” It is pub-
lished here in full recognition that it is
merely the testimony of a single indi-
vidual.

Mr. Henry Fairfield Osborn, who
also sent to the JouRNAL or HeErReEpDITY
a copy of this letter, has added some
comment on the questions involved and
has answered a criticism raised by Mr.
John Jay Chapman.

HEREDITARY AND ACQUIRED FIGHTING
ABILITY
American Museum of Natural History,
December 26, 1918.
For the “Journal of Heredity’
The following opinions, formed by
one of the American artillery captains

1A fuller discussion of the results of warfare on human evolution, through the
processes of natural selection and survival, may be found in “Is War Diminishing?”
by Woods, F. A., and Baltzly, A., Boston, 1915.

29

30 The Journal

in France, has some bearing on the ra-
.cial distribution of the readiness to
fight and of physical courage:

“Tt is interesting to learn about the
relative fighting ability of the various
races in this game. ‘~he Norman and
Breton Frenchmen and the North
French generally are the fighting men
of France. Today they compose prac-
tically all the fighting troops left. The
Scotchmen are the top-hole fighters of
them all, Boches and Allies, and that
seems to be admitted by all alike, while
the Italians of certain divisions are ut-
terly unreliable. A fighting Italian is
as scarce as the dodo bird, in spite of
all the newspaper bull to the contrary.
. They are used entirely for
road building and stevedore work about
as far back of the lines as they can get.
Some French troops told us that the
Italians took over the sector we left
between the Vesle and the Aisne when
we pulled out of there, and in two days
they lost practically all that we had won
across the Vesle and were being wal-
loped soundly by the Boches.

“There is not a bit of use denying
that the Boches are brave men and fight
like heroes. Their aviators are the fin-
est fighters of the lot, with the excep-
tion of the British, perhaps. But how
anyone can show greater sand or finer
dash than the Boche aviators, I cannot
understand. They may be devils, but
they are fighting devils and have guts
through and through. Between them
and the Italians give me the Boches
every time.

“As for our own troops, their fight-
ing ability is in direct proportion to the
Americans in the various units. Get a
draft outfit filled with the kind that is
swept up around our east side and it is
just about as unsafe as anything in the
Army; given an outfit like the Yankee
division, or some of them with a full
proportion of Americans, and there is
nothing they are afraid of, nothing that
will stop them short of death itself. In
fact they’re too darned brave if any-
thing. That idiotic ‘melting pot’ idea is
blown to the devil by this war if they
tell the truth about the thing. But it

of Heredity

is ten to one bet that they will lie and
smooth the matter over in such a man-
ner that you all at home will believe
that anyone with an American uniform
on is as good as another similarly
dressed. lighting men are born that
way ; you cannot drill the real stuff into
anyone at all.

“T think that the Southerners and the
New Englanders are the best of our lot,
with no choice between the two. But
you really cannot hand the palm to any
of the Americans; they are all equally
full of the greatest spirit that any man
ever Saw in war.

“T have seen no negroes fighting and
have heard very different reports of
them, but the experience of the French
and British is that the lower races can-
not stand the strain of this war, par-
ticularly shell fire, which is the hardest
thing of all on the morale of troops.
And I do not imagine that they are very
good fighting troops, though they are
invaluable as working troops, and one
sees thousands of them everywhere on
the roads right back of the lines and
from there back to the docks at Brest
itself.”

The above, from a letter not intended
for publication, is more or less con-
firmed by other observers. Of course
it does not take into account the influ-
ence of training. It is an open secret,
however, that in the first battle of the
Marne, it was the men of Mediter-
ranean race from the south of France
who gave way and had to be rallied and
replaced by sterner material from the
north of France.

JOHN JAY CHAPMAN'S COMMENT

It is interesting also to see the com-
ments on the above letter by a distin-
guished man of letters, Mr. John Jay
Chapman, who does not believe in ra-
cial values in psychic qualities:

1. “Many thanks for letting me see
the enclosed. I don’t doubt that some
races fight better than others. But I
doubt whether you can scheme to pre-
serve any particular race without doing
more harm than good. If you accept
the test of survival as the best test of a
race, why it’s only scientific to let the

American Physicians Should Follow Suit at

matter alone. How do you know which
one ought to survive? That’s the very
question you are trying to find out. You
might as well put weights in the bal-
ance in weighing chemicals.

2. “The notion that we must boost
up any race which is failing or assist
nature in any degree violates the whole
theory of the survival of the fittest.

3. “As for which race makes the best
fighters, look at the Germans (whom
the correspondent praises so highly)
and see how they collapse. I don’t
think the world will regard the German
civilization as efficient or the Germans
as good fighters for some time to come.

4. “What basis are you going to get
down to in encouraging nature?

6. “If modern science has discovered
a formula that will tell us how to begin,
I don’t know the formula. This desire
to help things along is a moral idea
which science has borrowed from re-
ligion and ethics, etc., and which science
can make use of in small matters, like
hygiene. But the idea is unscientific
or non-scientific, and I rather believe

that it cannot be expressed in purely
scientific language.”

Considering the above report by one
of our artillery captains, and the com-
ments of Mr. Chapman, it must first
be observed that it is extremely difficult
to distinguish between hereditary and
acquired fighting ability, the former an
inborn predisposition, the latter the re-
sult of education and social environ-
ment. ‘The matter is also one of aver-
ages rather than of individual instances
and exceptions. Here, as well as in
every other field of genetic inquiry, we
must sharply distinguish between race
and country.

An attempt is being made by mem-
bers of the Galton Society to encourage
a more precise physical and anatomical
definition of the Nordic, Alpine and
Mediterranean races __ respectively.
Doubtless psychic definitions, or inven-
tories of dominant and widely prevail-
ing psychic traits and predispositions
are equally important to place the races
distinctively on a genetic or heredity
basis.

Henry FAIRFIELD Osporn.

American Physicians Should Follow Suit

December 4, 1918.
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION,
511 Eleventh Street N. W.
Washington, D. C.

GENTLEMEN :

For the past seven years I have been
a resident of Rio de Janeiro and S.
Paulo, Brazil. While in S. Paulo a
very energetic young physician became
interested in the study and propaganda
of the science of eugenics. We invited
him to give a lecture at our association
building, which he did. As a result of
his interest, an organization has been
formed in the interest of eugenics, and

its membership is composed of one hun-
dred of the leading physicians in the
city.

I am very anxious to foster this sin-
cere effort, and appeal to you for sug-.
gestions and help. In what way can
your organization advance the interest
of the science through that organi-
zation ?

I should appreciate your codpera-
tion. Cordially yours,

ARTHUR W. MANUEL,

International Commuttee of Young

Men’s Christian Associations,
347 Madison Ave., New York.

GROWING MEDICINAL
PLANTS IN AMERICA’

ALLERTON S.

CusHMAN, Ph.D.

Lieutenant Colonel, Ordnance Department, N. A.

Formerly Director,
ODERN warfare may be
roughly divided into two dis-
tinct phases: one is destructive

and the other reconstructive.
There are no longer crucial battles
which decide the issue of war as at

Waterloo or Gettysburg, but there is in-
stead one protracted and unceasing ef-
fort to destroy the enemy’s life and
property on the largest scale possible.
Nevertheless, the reconstructive work
must follow the destructive on an
equally gigantic scale. Never before in
the history of mankind has such organ-
ization existed for the first-aid and sub-
sequent treatment of the sick and
wounded, and never before has there
been such concentrated human and ani-
imai suffering calling for alleviation.
It is a curious dispensation of Provi-
dence that man first found, and still to
a very large extent depends for his
remedial and anesthetic agencies on,
the familiar herbs and weeds which
grow wild about his woods, fields and
hedgerows. The term “drug” includes
all substances used as medicines, as
well as those substances which may be
misused as intoxicants or anesthetics.
Drugs may be mineral, such as the
bromides, iodides, and chlorates of po-
tassium, the mercurial, arsenical, and
silver compounds and many others. In
addition to these, modern medicine de-
pends largely on the coal-tar deriva-
tives, among which may be mentioned

some of the more familiar, as, for in-
stance, acetanilid, phenacetin, and the
various salicylates, under such trade

names as aspirin and salol, owned and
exploited before the war exclusively by

‘Reprinted from the Journal of The Franklin Institute

The Institute of Industrial Research, Washington, D. C.

the Germans. The present paper, how-
ever, concerns itself particularly with
the raw materials from which such
medicinal agents as the alkaloids and
glucosides are extracted. These are rep-
resented by morphine, cocaine, strych-
nine, atropine, quinine, digitalin, stro-
phanthin aloin, etc., which are extracted
from crude drugs imported into this
country from overseas.

It is, however, more particularly the.
botanical drugs which can be grown
under proper scientific control in the
United States which we shall consider.
Among these we find the following im-
portant medicinal plants: Aconite, bel-
ladonna, and stramonium, the principal
source of atropine, digitalis (foxglove),
cannabis indica or Indian hemp, the ac-
tive principal of which is known in
India as hashish, the properties of
which the elder Dumas so beautifully
misdescribes in “The Count of Monte
Cristo.”

Among our native medicinal plants
we also use in fairly large quantity hen-
bane, rhubarb, senna, gentian, golden
seal (hy drastis), senega, mandrake,
bloodroot, arnica; ajowan seeds, and
monada punctata, used in the manufac-
ture of thymol, a specific in the treat-
ment of the hookworm disease, and
many others too numerous to mention.
If a layman, unaccustomed to the study
of such subjects, were to pick up one
of the great New York commercial
daily newspapers which quote prices in
the drug markets and were to glance
over the items quoted he would proba-
bly be very much astonished at the fa-
miliar herbs, roots, and flowers which

. September, 1918, with additional

comment by the author on the present situation.

32

we ~

SHUAVATL STIVLISIG DONILLSHAUVH

SIAVNNVO AO GTA V

EI 25 oF RLU LNT LT
- tert a Viltabase T a
y ‘ ‘ a

Cushman: Growing Medicinal Plants in America

are made a matter of almost daily bar-
ter and sale, the manifold uses of which
constitute some of the mysteries of our
enormous patent medicine industry.
There are warehouses in the heart of
New York City filled with great bales
of things familiar to our childhood
days: cornsilk, daisy tops, red clover
tops, laurel leaves, skunk cabbage, flag-
root, burdock, dandelion, gentian, lily-
of-the-valley, wintergreen, and many

another of our old friends of the fields

and woods. The inquirer might also
be surprised to learn that these familiar
things command a price varying from
cents to dollars per pound and he might
even solemnly determine to turn his
newly acquired knowledge to profitable
purposes and forthwith embark in the
combination of business and pleasure
of producing and purveying herbs and
simples. Unfortunately, however, for
this laudable ambition, it would soon
become apparent that the labor in-
volved, for instance, in gathering two
bales of green corn silk or something
else which shrinks to one bale on drying
is quite inadequately paid for by the
_ prices offered by the stony-hearted buy-
ers in the New York market. In fact,
it would probably be learned that, al-
though America produces more corn
silk or something else than all of the
rest of the world together, from time
out of mind the baled corn silk or some-
thing else has been imported from
overseas, where child-labor laws are
unknown and where people’s wives,
mothers, and grandmothers are more
interested in acquiring a few extra
pennies a day by working in the fields
than they are in acquiring a vote.
Seriously speaking, the production of
medicinal herbs in America depends
very largely on the labor cost, and can
be made a profitable enterprise only
when it is conducted on a scientific
basis and on a sufficiently large scale
to absorb the high cost of the labor
involved in the tilling, planting, cultivat-
ing, harvesting, curing, and packing
operations. At the same time, the drug

2 The Druggists’ Circular, January 18,

35

grower faces a most uncertain and pre-
carious market for his wares, for, al-
though his drug plants are needed, the
need is strictly limited, and the slightest
overproduction is either entirely unsal-
able or salable at a price less than the
cost of production.

A well-known authority on drug
growing, Mr. H. C. Fuller, has recently
said in effect: “The cultivation and
marketing of drugs must be done under
an entirely different set of conditions
than those obtaining in the growing and
selling of vegetables. Much that has
been published on the subject is mis-
leading, and the idea that the ordinary
farmer can successfully grow drug
plants and produce a marketable article
is ridiculous. It can be confidently as-
serted that if the ordinary farmer
should undertake the growing of drug
plants it would result in failure to him
as well as discredit to the efforts of
those who are specializing in the
subject.”

Dr. W. W. Stockberger, the expert
of the United States Department of
Agriculture, in charge of drug and
poisonous plant investigations, expresses
the same fact is the following words :?

“Tf medicinal plant cultivation is to

succeed in this country it must be placed
on a sound commercial basis, and there
are good reasons for believing that this
end will not be attained by encouraging
a large number of persons to engage in
drug growing ona small scale.”
“Tf the drug manufacturer is to become
permanently interested in medicinal
plants produced in this country he must
be assured of a fairly large and depend-
able source of supply. For this reliance
must be placed upon well-equipped
growers who have sufficient capital to
carry on the enterprise effectively.”

Still another writer on this subject
has recently published the following
comments :* “In the strictly pharma-
ceutical field the shortage of crude
drugs has been felt more or less keenly
since 1914, and much misinformation
and little information of value have

5; ibid., March 18, p. 106.

3 Journal Franklin Institute, vol. 185, No: aaah 435.

PLANTING BELLADONNA SEEDLINGS AT THE RATE OF SIXTY TO THE MINUTE

These are planted at the rate of sixty to the minute.

Belladonna and digitalis have to be

propagated in a greenhouse during the winter in order that the plants, when set out, will be

large enough to cope with the ravages of insects and crowding out by weeds.

been circulated on the subject. Stocks
of many crude drugs have been ex-
hausted, and the cultivation of medici-
nal plants has not as yet assumed any
great proportions in the United States.
Those drugs which were obtained from
Europe were not cultivated, but grew
wild there. It was therefore a simple
matter to have them gathered and pre-
pared for market at comparatively
small cost. The cultivation of medicinal
plants in the United States requires ex-
pert labor, the production of artificial
‘onditions of soil and moisture in order
to provide as nearly as possible the con-
ditions under which the plants grow in
their native habitat, and considerable
investment of money. Drug plants have
been raised on an experimental scale
by the Government and in the drug
36

(Fig. 16.)

gardens of various colleges, but it is a
very different undertaking to raise them
on a commercial scale. American grow-
ers of crude drugs were confronted with
the necessity of increasing the value of
the plants in order to overcome the
high cost of cultivation. It was soon
found that cross-pollination would not
produce plants containing miore active
constituents than they do normally, but
by careful selection of seed it has been
possible to increase the amount of ac-
tive constituents in such plants as bella-
donna, digitalis,. etc., to three or four
times what the Pharmacopoeia requires.
Furthermore, advanced methods of har-
vesting these plants have made it pos-
sible to secure three or four harvestings
in one season, whereas in former years
one or two was the limit.”

Cushman: Growing Medicinal Plants in America 37

The experience gained by the author
in the production of certain drug plants
extending over the past three years con-
firms the statements of the experts
quoted above. The fact is very clearly
brought out that the so-called ‘“back-
yard” movement, however much it may
stimulate vegetable gardening and poul-
try raising, is not applicable to the
growing of medicinal plants. The U.
S. P. requirement for dry belladonna
herb or leaf calls for an assay showing
a content of not less than 0.3% atropine
alkaloid. Any substantial quantity of
active constituent in excess of this pre-
scribed minimum should, if the pro-
ducer is aware of it, be credited in the
price paid by the consumer. The small
producer can have no knowledge of the
assay value of his product unless he
employs the services of a chemical
laboratory. Such chemical assays re-
quire special highly paid experts in
order to obtain accurate results, and
the cost of such service is 1aturally
high. In the opinion of the writer,
unless a producer is able to hold his
belladonna to an assay value at least
twice as strong as the U. S. P. require-
ment, it would not be worth producing
at all under American conditions. Such
high-potency crude drugs can be ob-
tained only by the application to the
problem of trained scientific knowledge.
Plant breeding through seed selection
and a knowledge of just the day to har-
vest when the alkaloidal content is at
the maximum, together with proper
control of the drying operations, con-
stitute a large part of the secret of
success. All this necessarily hangs upon
the results of laboratory investigation,
which must go on hand in hand with
the agricultural ‘operations. The au-
thor and his associates have picoduced
belladonna in bulk running almost 1%
alkaloid-atropin.

Other important medicinal crops,
such as digitalis and cannabis, present
a special problem, inasmuch as the ac-
tive constituents are not determinable
by chemical assay, but depend upon cer-
tain specific physiological tests which
require the services of another group
of trained specialists.

In marketing crude drugs the phar-
macopoeial requirements must be met,
no matter how irrational these may be.
The requirement on cannabis calls for
the dried flowering tops of unfertilized
pistillate or female plants only. This
specification requires that before the
male plants pollinate experts must go
over the entire crop, plant by plant,
and distinguish and destroy every male
individual. Immediately the visible crop
shrinks approximately 50%, and also
adds to its cost of production the cost
of this wholesale weeding operation.
This requirement also necessitates the
seed gardens being remote enough
from the main crop to prevent wind-
blown pollen from reaching the female
survivors. In order to test the necessity
for this requirement, the author, in
cooperation with Mr. H. C. Fuller,
gathered from the seed gardens flower-
ing male tops, which were dried, pow-
dered, and bottled. This sample, to-
gether with a pharmacopoeial sample
bearing distinguishing numbers but no
other information, was sent to the phys-
iological laboratory of the Harvard
Medical School. The report showed
the male sample was the more physio-
logically active of the two. Although
the pharmacopoeial requirement is prob-
ably a survival of some superstition
originating in India, the drug-plant
grower is held rigidly to it, and it is ex-
tremely unlikely that any buyer would
purchase the crude drug in the pow-
dered form, as the dried flowers must
be present so that inspection will detect
the presence of male plants. If such
specifications are annoying to the com-
mercial drug grower, they would be
found intolerable by an ordinary farmer
who might otherwise feel inclined to
undertake the production of this special
crop.

All medicinal plants are intensely
poisonous to animals, but, curiously
enough, most of them are very attract-
ive to predatory insects. Possibly in-
sects share with man a weakness for
certain things that would better be let
alone. However this may be, the au-
thor has determined by actual experi-

38 The Journal

ment that the flea beetle consumes about
5% of every crop of belladonna grown,
in spite of the most liberal use of
insecticides and agricultural spraying
machinery.

Henbane, the crude drug from which
hyoscyamine is made, sells at about $4
a pound on the dry basis, and is worth
it, owing to the eagerness with which
insects appear to lie in wait for every
green shoot as it appears. In the course
of the author’s experience potatoes
were grown in the neighborhood of
henbane, in the hope that it would act
the part of a decoy crop. Unfor-
tunately, however, the potato beetles
preferred the henbane, and—if we may
be permitted to drop into the vernacular
—returned to their own homes only
after all the other places were shut up.

Among the medicinal plants which
the author and his associates have at-
tempted to grow commercially in Vir-
ginia and Maryland, many of them suc-
cessfully, are belladonna, digitalis,
cannabis, sage, hydrastis, ginseng, stra-
monium, monada punctata, pinkroot,
valerian, senega, colchicum, etc. Of these,
the first two have to be propagated in
a greenhouse during the winter in or-
der that the plants, when set out in the
field, will be large and vigorous enough

of Heredity

to cope with the ravages of insects and
crowding out by weeds. The green-
house soil has to be especially sterilized
to prevent the spread of a special fun-
goid root-rot disease to which bella-
donna is especially susceptible and
which follows the seedlings from the
greenhouse to the open fields. During
one season the writer lost over 50% of
his belladonna crop, due to root-rot. So
suddenly did the disease show itself
that on one day the bushy plants, about
two feet high, were flourishing in the
field and the next day were found
wilted down and dying. The roots of
belladonna are rich in atropine and are
usually dug up and sold after a suc-
cession of leaf crops have been gath-
ered, so that the loss from root-rot is
most discouraging and baffling.

This paper has not attempted to dis-
cuss drugs or drug growing in their
technical aspects, but merely describes
a few of the conditions and difficulties
encountered by a group of associates
who entered the field with no expecta-
tion of making large profits, but with
the patriotic purpose of demonstrating,
if possible, that American methods were
capable of making us independent of
central Europe with respect to some
very necessary medicinals.*

4The results obtained during the harvest year of 1918 fully justified the careful work

of seed selection that has been carried on during the past years, as the active principles in
the various crops mentioned were kept up to the standard aimed at. This result was
obtained in spite of the fact that not only was the labor situation during the war year
extremely acute, necessitating paying higher wages to inefficient and ignorant labor than
were previously paid to expert labor, but also the weather conditions during the summer
season of 1918 rendered the handling of special crops very difficult. In the early spring there
was a long rainy period which held back plowing and setting of plants, and this was
followed by an extensive drought which lasted for twelve weeks, both conditions being
unfavorable to agricultural operations. In addition to this, supplementing what has been
previously touched upon in the preceding article in regard to the relation between the
successful growing of medicinal plants and insect attack, it may be recorded that during
August of this year a flight of a peculiar and unusual kind of potato beetle appeared upon
the scene and attacked the belladonna, consuming a considerable quantity of the crop
before the new insect was recognized and measures put into effect to control it. In
addition to the usual medicinal plants, the growing of which has been described in this
article, several new crops were produced in a small way, which had not heretofore been
successfully grown and marketed in this country. This development work, it is hoped,
will be carried on from year to year as opportunity of success seems to promise.

A LABORATORY MANUAL

FOR GENETICS’

OURSES in genetics have been
3 on the rapid increase in the
last few years, but the sub-
ject is so new that they have
scarcely yet crystallized into any
very definite form or content as given
in different institutions. With the ful-
ler growth and rounding-out of the
subject, however, and with the advent
of more suitable texts, there is evidently
a tendency toward a more definite
order in the presentation of at least the
more elementary facts. The value of
laboratory work to supplement that of
the classroom has doubtless been appre-
ciated by all who have taught genetics,
but here the selection of the most suit-
able exercises has been even more diffi-
cult than a choice of material for lecture
presentation. Obviously, for an under-
standing of Mendelian inheritance,
nothing else is so valuable to the stu-
dent as the actual performing of ex-
periments involving crosses, and the
study of dominance, segregation, re-
combination, and other such _ phe-
nomena, in at least the first and second
filial generations. Fortunately, the very
characteristics that have made Droso-
phila the form par excellence for gene-
tic research, make it also well adapted
for laboratory class purposes. This
fact has been recognized by numerous
teachers of genetics in this country,
who have been making use of Droso-
' phila in connection with their elemen-
tary teaching for some years. It is
accordingly not surprising to find that
breeding experiments with the “vine-
gar fly’ form the backbone of the
course in this the pioneer of laboratory
manuals in genetics.
It seems somewhat presumptuous to
attempt to give an estimate of a man-

ual of directions without first having
tried them out in practice, even by one
who has been giving much of the same
work to his own classes. The old
proverb asserts that the real test of a
pudding is not to be gained by inspec-
tion, but by chewing the string; this
is even more true of laboratory man-
uals than of puddings, and there has
been no opportunity to apply the string
test in the present case. Nevertheless,
one may, perhaps, be allowed to hazard
an opinion on the basis of parallel
experience.

The principal experiments outlined
on Drosophila are along obvious lines,
and are designed to illustrate normal
Mendelian inheritance, sex-linkage, and
mono and dihybrid ratios. Experiment
VI involves the question of factor
groups (corresponding to the chromo-
some pairs), but no experiment on the
degree of linkage of two factors in
the same group is given. The advis-
ability of including this in an elemen-
tary course may, without doubt, be
questioned, but where as much time
can be devoted to the course as in this
one, it might, perhaps, well be offered
at least as a substitute. The character
differences selected for the breeding ex-
periments are well chosen, and a feature
that will doubtless appeal to those who
give the work to successive classes of
elementary students is the provision of
alternate characters for each exercise.
which can be substituted from year to
year. Two alternatives are given with
each exercise.

The suggestive work on variation in
plants is based on readily accessible ma-
terial, and the suggestion of having the
student prepare an herbarium of varia-
tion is a good one where such material

1 Genetics Laboratory Manual, by E. B. Babcock and J. L. Collins. First edition, xi + 56 pp.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated; New York, 1918.

39

40

is available. The work often comes
at such a time, however, in most of
the northern states, that dependence
would have to be placed largely on
greenhouse material.

Seasonal restrictions and lack of
greenhouse facilities will also probably
limit in many cases what can be accom-
plished in the way of having the stu-
dent perform actual experiments in
plant Mendelism; but while the direc-
tions in this respect cannot, perhaps,
often be adopted as they stand, they
are very suggestive and should help an
ingenious instructor to work out prac-
ticable plans to meet his own conditions.
The suggestion of having F, seed that
the student can plant in order to study
segregation is a good one. This will
work out particularly well, for example,
with green and pvurple-stemmed Da-
turas, since the segregation of stem
color can, in this case, be observed in
the seedlings, and these can be raised
in large numbers in a short time in
small germinating pans in an ordinary
room.

The feasibility of giving the work on
plant hybridization (practice in cross-
pollination) will again depend on fa-
cilities and other conditions: The se-
lection of types would be difficult to
improve, but it would perhaps have
added much to the usableness of this
section if illustrations had been sup-
plied, showing the instruments to be
employed, and the methods of perform-
ing the operations.

Practical work in animal breeding
(aside from that on Drosophila) is even
more difficult to bring into a regular

The Journal

of Heredity

laboratory course than is work with
plants. The suggestions along this line
deal with registry methods with cattle,
a subject which is, in most agricultural
colleges, included in the course in Ani-
mal Husbandry.. It is important, of
course, that students interested in gene-
tics in relation to agriculture should
get this knowledge, but it would seem
that it would have been well to include
also some training in the methods of
keeping breeding records more particu- -
larly for genetic uses.

Putting out a laboratory manual, par-
ticularly in a new field, is a somewhat
precarious venture, since every instruc-
tor is likely to have his own ideas as
to material and methods! or at any rate,
as previously mentioned, he is likély to
be limited by his available facilities and
the condition under which his work
must be given. It would, therefore, be
somewhat hazardous to venture an
opinion as to how completely these di-
rections can be adopted without modi-
fication, but the reviewer has no hesi-
tation in saying that any teacher of
genetics, whether or not he has previ-
ously been offering a laboratory course,
will find the manual full of useful sug-
gestions. In places, in fact, it would
appear to be addressed more directly
to the instructor than to the student.
Nevertheless, if it helps to stimulate,
as no doubt it will, the institution of
laboratory work in connection with
courses in genetics, where such work
has not previously been given, it will
serve a most useful purpose.

Lhe

The Basis of Crop Reports

The Bureauy of Crop Estimates,
United States Department of Agricul-
ture, maintains 199,384 voluntary crop
reporters, to whom schedules of inquiry
regarding crop and live-stock conditions
are forwarded periodically. These

schedules are tabulated and averaged.

The data thus collected and compiled,
supplemented by reports from the field
service, constitute the basis of the
monthly and special crop reports of the
bureau.

RACE MIXTURE IN HAWAII

By VAUGHAN MACCAUGHEY

College of Hawai, Honolulu, Hawai

THE CHINESE

HE Hawaiian Islands are re-
markable for the diversity of
races represented and for the
varied conjugal race- -mingling
which has taken place in this tiny island
world during the past hundred and fifty
years. Excellent general accounts of the
nature of Hawaii’s population can be
found in W. F. Blackman’s “The Mak-
ing of Hawaii” (Macmillan, 1906, 266
pp.) and in “Race Mingling in Hawaii,’
by Ernest J]. Reece (American Journal
of Sociology, 20:104-16, July, 1914)
The present paper is the first of a series
of eugenic studies of Hawaii’s polyglot
and polychrome population, a_ series
which embodies data not heretofore
assembled and made available for stu-
dents of eugenics.

The population of Hawaii, 1918, in
round numbers is as-follows:

EASED TTESS ANS ited on ey IS ree aS oe O01 6)
AIDANCSES bec agens oe vss - 105,000
RO IMESES xs scarce sae brats «io bs 23,000
NSOREANS oo eis set. Mt Alonso 6 cs 5,000
IB MPIITIOS,. Scat he dots oe ass 20,000
Polynesia... 5. 2.......-..-.. 40,000
RAWAIIANIS Stu Na nN feceae sc 23,000
Caucasian-Hawaiians..... 11,000
Chinese-Hawaiians....... 6,000
Latins.. Fe ees iene 6 eo L000
Portuguese Pearce rete ae = 23,000
Spanish. . eth ee, = 2,000
Porto Rican.............. 6,000
Americans, Scotch, British, Germans,
PRUSSIA SOLON On < aby 2 a-0.scfae dees 122,000

The Hawaiians are remnants of the
splendid Polynesian stock that formerly
solely possessed this lovely mid-Pacific
archipelago. The Americans, North
Europeans and other “white men” rep-

1See also Vaughan MacCaughey,

resent the traders, missionaries, beach-
combers, sailors, fugitives from justice,
merchants, sugar planters, professional,
military and capitalistic classes that
have completely dominated and ex-
ploited the life and resources of the
islands. All of the other races—Jap-
anese, Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Span-
ish, Portuguese, Porto Rican, Russian,
Negro, South Sea Islanders, etc.—have
been imported wholesale by the agr icul-
tural corporations to work in the sugar-
cane fields. At present the population
of Hawaii is predominantly Asiatic,
alien, male, illiterate, non-English-
speaking, non-Christian, landless, and
homeless.

The Chinese have been associated
with Hawaii since very early times
The first epoch in Hawaii’s industrial
exploitation was the “Sandalwood Pe-
riod,” during which an active trade was
carried on with China. Chinese coolies
began to be imported in small numbers
about 1870. The flood of coolie labor
swelled rapidly and reached a maximum
about 1870. The exclusion law, which
went into effect with annexation in
1898, has decreased the number of Chi-
nese immigrants. The immigration of
foreign-born Chinese into Hawaii to
1910 has been as follows:

Previows:to 1690). 2. wes = re 6,580
T391—1895). oo ot he sie ce Min ee TRU
1895- 1000;. :< co ee Sen ee
T9OO=1905¢ 3.0" secsoe ence eee ee
1905-1910.. So Atte OS

The Chinese now ee 23,000 ; the
increase during the past decade has
been slight. There are now 800 regis-
tered Chinese voters in Hawaii. In
1900 there were almost as many Chinese
children (1,300) in the public and pri-

“Americanization and the Schools of Hawaii.” in

School and Society, 8: 24-26, July 6, 1918, and “Racial Elements in Hawaii’s Schools, in

Education,” in press.

7

42 Tae Journal

vate schools as Japanese (1,350). The
Chinese, however, have increased only
to 4,000, whereas there are now 15,000
Japanese children. Chinese form 10%
of the total school population; the Jap-
anese form 40%. Only 2,000 of the
Chinese in Hawaii are now working on
the sugar plantations. Reece states:
“The Chinese in Hawaii are all from
Quantung and largely from Canton.
They exhibit, therefore, the racial char-
acteristics of the southern Chinese, be-
ing short, dark-skinned, and suggestive
of Malay extraction. Their mental
traits are those of the Chinese in gen-
eral. They are plodding, thrifty, in-
veterate workers, content with simple
living, stolid, and capable of excelling
in those activities which involve
memory and imitation rather than
originality.”

Table I (see Appendix) shows the
racial elements involved in all Chinese
marriages in Hawaii during the five-
year period 1913-1917. Accurate data
are not available for earlier years, bur
the essential facts concerning race mix-
tures would be substantially the same
if records covering a longer period were
available. The data are from the offi-
cial records of the Territorial Board of
Health.

MARRIAGES OF CHINESE

The racial preferences shown by the
Chinese men may be grouped as fol-
lows: 58% chose Chinese wives, 10%
chose wives of mixed Chinese blood,
20% chose Hawaiian wives, 14% chose
wives of mixed Hawaiian blood. None
married Korean women, and only 4
married Japanese women. Of the 613
matings, 425 married Asiatics, 167 mar-
ried Polynesians, and 14 married Cau-
casians. Nearly all of the Chinese
women married Chinese men. Seven
married Chinese-Hawaiians, 6 married
Americans, and 4 married Hawaiians.
Only 1 married a Korean, and only 2
married Japanese.

Nearly all of the Chinese-Hawaiian
men selected wives with Hawaiian
blood, either pure Hawaiian, Caucasian-
Hawaiian, or Chinese-Hawaiian. Only

of Heredity

7 out of 173 married Chinese women.
None married Japanese, Koreans, or
Filipinos. Eight married Portuguese.
The Chinese-Hawaiian women likewise
selected, or were selected by, men
of Hawaiian, Caucasian - Hawaiian, or
Chinese - Hawaiian blood. Fifty-nine
were married by Chinese men, 15 by
Americans, and 15 by Portuguese.

Of the 240 Chinese-Hawaiian women
97 married Asiatic husbands, 109
Polynesian husbands, and 32 got Cau-
casian husbands.

CONCLUSIONS
Over half the Chinese men marry
Chinese women, while most Chinese
women marry Chinese men. A large
percentage of the Chinese men marry
Hawalian or part-Hawatian women.

Very few Chinese women marry Ha-
walian or part-Hawaiian men.

FEW MARRIAGES WITH AMERICANS

Only one Chinese man has married
an American woman; a few Chinese
women have been married by American
men.

An appreciable amount of mingling
has taken place between the Chinese
and the Portuguese; Chinese and Chi-
nese-Hawatian men marry Portuguese,
Spanish, Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawa-
lian, etc. Chinese-Portuguese men and
women marry Portuguese, Spanish,
Hawaiian, Caucasian - Hawaiian, etc.
There is remarkably slight mingling be-
tween Chinese and Japanese or Koreans.
A few Chinese men have married
Japanese women, and a few Chinese-
Hawaiian women have been married by
IXoreans. There have been a few mar-
riages of Americans and North Euro-
peans with Chinese and _ Chinese-
Hawaiian women; the Caucasian min-
gling is chiefly through the Caucasian-
Hawaiian, who intermarry freely with
the Chinese and Chinese-Hawaiians.

The most significant feature is the
large number of mixed marriages, in
which the Chinese, Hawaiian, and Cau-
casian strains intermingle. Reece states:
“There seems to be no reason to doubt
that the mixing will proceed at a mod-

MacCaughey: Race Mixture in Hawaii

erate rate. This does not, of course,
mean that Hawaii will be given over to
the Caucasian-Hawaiian-Chinese race.
The Japanese are predominant numer-
ically, and promise to remain so. The
Portuguese constitute a bulky element.
Both are prolific, and neither con-
tributes considerably to the fusion.
What is likely to appear is the gradual
growth of the new stock, fitting itself
for leadership in the minor business
and clerical activities of the islands.”

JAPANESE AND KOREANS

Nearly one-half of the total popula-
tion of Hawaii is foreign-born. Of the
110,000 foreign-born population, about
70% are Japanese, about 15% are Chi-
nese, and the remainder are Koreans,
Filipinos, ete. Asiatics comprise over
five-sixths of the total foreign-born
population. The Japanese are racially
dominant in Hawai today, and will
doubtless so continue for many decades.
They are very fertile, and have already
reached the point of comprising over
40% of the total school population.
There are now over 15,000 Japanese
children in the schools; in 1900 there
were only 1,300. The Japanese popula-
tion numbers 106,000, or nearly cne-
half the total population of the terri-
tory. It consists largely of alien males.
The Japanese have been the backbone
of Hawaii’s extremely profitable cor
poration cane-sugar industry. At pres-

ent there are only 26,000 Japanese at
work on the sugar plantations. Most
of the Japanese were imported before
annexation to supply the demand for
cheap field labor. Immigration began
about 1886, and since that date there
has been a iarge and steady stream of
alien laborers coming into Hawaii from

43

Japan. Extensive immigration is tak-
ing place at the present time, in the
form of “picture brides,” who rapidly
become the mothers of prospective
“American citizens.” The Japanese
have increased 23,000 in seven years,
both by birth and immigration.

The immigration of foreign-born
Japanese into Hawaii for a typical se-
ries of years has been as follows (see
also appendix ) :

Previous to 1890.........-... 3,330

TS01-1905 "of. cs oe a
189621900: 3.50... sce eee
19012190405") xe ben 2 oe
Ts PR 2 eager bl.
1906.35 3.75 0h geet. sens
(907; Guth) pee ce. Seon
1908.00. nes el oe
{900 FAL gees.) 1,070

The tourist upon coming to Hawaii
is impressed by the large numbers of
Japanese women employed in domestic
service. As a class these women are
attractive, intelligent, clean, polite,
and serviceable. They wear Japanese
clothes, and are always picturesque and
neatly attired. The American-born
Japanese girls usually wear American
clothes.

During the past decade there has been
a heavy influx of Japanese women into
Hawaii, chiefly as “picture brides.”
Statistics for a typical five-year period
show Japanese women immigrants as
follows:

As “ picture-

As laborers As non-laborers brides’’?
1,447 77
2,130 95 15/2
1,842 217 1,407
1,126 Zon 1,050
1S 151 909

The picture brides are selected in
Japan by intermediaries or middlemen
upon requisition by the Japanese in
Hawaii who desire a wife. Two cere-
monies take place, one in Japan, in the
absence of the husband; the second at
the Immigration Station in Honolulu,
according to American law. These

2 These numbers are duplicates, also included in the other two columns.

44 The Journal

brides-to-be are almost without excep-
tion plantation laborers, and they so
state when they arrive.

In general the Japanese women have
large families, are able to nurse their
babies (as many American women in
Hawaii are not), take good care of their
children, dress them in American
clothes when they begin to go to school,
and establish homes that compare fa-
vorably with other immigrant people of
similar economic and social grade.

Upon comparison with the table of
Chinese marriages and intermarriages,
given in the Appendix, Tables | and I).
it will be noted that there is little ten-
dency on the part of the Japanese
to amalgamate with the Hawaiians,
whereas the Chinese have contributed
largely to the formation of the Chinese-
Caucasian-Hawaiian mixture. Neither
do the Japanese marry as freely with
the Portuguese as the Chinese have
done.

THE KOREANS

The importation and immigration of
foreign-born Koreans into Hawaii up
to 1910 has been as follows:

Previous:to 1900... eee 65
P01) 904 ars Se ol eee 3360
TODS vecueccens seo ee 590
TSOGSEGIOR 4.78... an a ee 145

_ There are now about 5,000 Koreans
in Hawaii, mostly alien males. During
the five-year period, 1913-1917, 404 Ko-

rean men married and 311 Korean

of Heredity

women married. It is noteworthy and
most extraordinary that all of the
women, without exception, married
Korean men. The women of no other
race in Hawaii have a like record for
tenacious adherence to racial lines. The
women of no other race have married
only men of their own race. The Ko-
rean men have “out-married” to a con-
siderable degree, as witnessed by the
tables (see Appendix, table \ ):

CONCLUSIONS

In general, Japanese marry only Jap-
anese; they show remarkable racial al-
legiance, more so, as a race, than any
other in Hawaii. A few Japanese men
have married Hawaiian, part-Hawaiian,
and Portuguese women; only one has
married an American woman. There
are surprising few marriages between
the Japanese and the other “Asiatic peo-
ples in Hawaii; a few Japanese women
have been married by Chinese and Ko-
reans. In general, Asiatics in Hawaii
breed more freely with Caucasian stock
than they do among themselves. All
the Korean women have married only
Koreans. The Korean men have mar-
ried not only Koreans but also women
of Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian blood.

The Japanese and Koreans contrast
strongly with the Chinese in race mix-
tures, the former groups evincing
strong clannishness in marital selec-
tions: the latter groups freely breeding
“out.”

—— ee ee

APPENDIX

Race Mixture in Hawaii
(See article on page 41)
Table I shows the racial elements involved in all Chinese marriages in Hawaii
during 1913-1917:
TABLE !

Chinese Chinese-Hawaiian | Chinese-Portuguese
Nationality of mate—
wife or husband % fac) ; i
Men | Women Men Women | Men Women

as Pa a _ Nel: a | EE =
Total marriages...\...........| 613 hf Pages 240 ie Gee
Chinese. . Lo ee 359°— | 359 | 7 59 0 0
Chinese-Hawaiian. Ley lene 59 7 27 27 0 0
(hinese-Bilipino:, - Gea... .-.- 1 0 0 0 0 0
Chinese-Japanese. 55 tae 1 0 | 0 0 0 0
NetpAMESGey Se) Acdece e/a 6 os 4 2 0 0 0
periawatian... 606 Bie. oe 0 1 | 0 0 0
Korean. . a See he 0 1 | 0 5 0 0
Korean-Hawaiian... Sp ee ees 0 0 0 1 0 0
Filipino. . Set Lie ae 1 ae 0 4 0 0
Mawatian:...... Riss ee 140 rn 82 72 0 1

Caucasian-Hawaiian. A ii a 47 36 1

|
0 es eae 1 Ores 0 0 1 0
Portuguese. . ic te ok eee ae 11 0 8 15 2 1
Porto Rican. ie 16 cae 7 0 0 0 0 0
Norwegian- Portuguese . eee 0 0 0 1 0
JANIPTYETE CTA), cater ney ha a one 1 6 0 15 0 0
(EY SRS Se oar ee er 0 0 0 0 0 1
Swede.. vot hoe aati thee 0 0 0 0 0 1
Russian. . Se 1 0 1 0 0 0
Austrian- German... 0 1 0 2 0 0

One marriage of Chinese-Hawaiian man with Chinese-Japanese woman.
One marriage of American man with Chinese-American woman.

46 Appendix

Table II shows graphically, so far as records are available, the relation of
Japanese to the population as a whole:

TABLE II
| /
7 Total a Bornin | Bornin
Year population | Japanese Japan | Hawaii
|
1860 67,000
1866.... oss ss zn. ares ee |
[868 55s s:tex Figs sateal . Jo or ee eee 148 148
1872 56,900 | |
1878 58,000
1882 73,000
1884 76,000 116
188005... 2.0 Ges a eh Cee ee ee ee 8,400
18908 232505 Se Me ee es oc 95,246 PogsOO > |e: oc iocren 902
TBOG ras cia 6 2) ESS eee 109,020 24,407 [3 frees i ove 2,078
Tc eer eee ceria Re
OGD. feck, oo ene ee ae ean 61.111 56,230 4,881
GO Se ct. - Ser 172,000 72,000
1909 28: .<'.3 Dads ee Fs Set. Fe 175,000 75,000 |
1910... noo Reo ee es 79,674 | 59,785 | 19,889
‘hie coke. SS Se et me 80,000
1912 210,000 80,366
1913 217,744 83,100
(ho on 227/391 89.715
PON sc ecpterein ee hg oe She Oe PRAY 91,490
DING): Fe oe. es oo x eee ne 237,623 97,000
WOU es oe. SR. bo eee 102490. THEA ee 30,000
(estimated)
Table III shows the marital relations of the Japanese in Hawaii:
TABLE III
: Males to
Year Males Females 100 females
S90. ob oro 8. ase 20 eee ere 10,079 2,281 490
1900 2 305 oo 8 Se eal a Lee 47,508 13,603 349
BOLO. oss. bbe Be Benet comes hee ee 54,783 24,891 220
1918: (estimated) i222... 28a eee 62,000 40,000 155

It will be noted that during this period, 1890-1918, the number of males has
increased 500%, the number of females 3,800%; there is still a large disparity
between numbers of males and females.

Table LV shows the racial elements involved in all Japanese marriages in
Hawaii during the five-year period 1913-1917. Accurate data are not available
tor earlier years, but the essential facts would be substantially the same for_a
eer i om The data are from the official record of the Territorial Board
ot eaitn:

Tw,

_ (Vice eee ee

i

Appendix 47

TABLE IV
Japanese Jap-Hawaiian Jap-Portuguese
Nationality 2 Jee es
of mate
Men Women Men Women Men Women
Real iarriages: . 3.2. 5. Saws | 7,671 7,647 8 2 1 3
(E05 To as ee 7.627 7,627 0 0 0 1
JES 2 ojantt0 Ce 1 0 0 0 1 0
LES CR ne le 2 4 1 0 0 0
| SORTS 2 oe eae 0 5 0 0 0 1
0 A ee oe eee 0 1 0 0 0 0
LORIE A a pH 2 3 0 0 0
iSnmmese-Hawailan..) 2.6: acs. 1 One 1 0 0 0
Caucasian-Hawaiian............ 4 2> | 3 1 0 0
PIEPMRMESE cox. wiciss pie ds os ws 8 0 0 1 0 1
EEN ASE 0/52 Seas acl Ss ne 0 1 9) i) 0 0
LAVITIDIAICT aS eee ee eee 1 ee 0 0 0 (0)
eenreisctemeiere 5° ee Tete Ss ets 0 1 0 0 0) 0.
One American ‘man married a German-Japanese woman.
TABLE -V
Nationality of wife Korean men

COT catNe See aN ere OS ee) Seta ee nec etied A oe en ee RA Noh oe alata 311

Pee Oe me wettest ek tee Sle SY a eee Ire as ke icyc 5

WNNESE= Sees oe cen Mae Eee re hae ka Aes 1

SEIS SUMO she race ares cg oe Casrathne Sec Va Sine kne iz ovhes anes ee ee 5

Elaiee titi k ors 2h wes Nes Re ee en ae. 5 CA ol 52

CBNITESe SEL AW AAI: enter nei AS acts sae ee Riera ais 5

@Cancasian- await: oe eae «8 es Lie cn bites Reus wish th Nee 4 2

OREUSIIESC seston opt at Seaton ame NS als Lakai oe Sate ple cei 9

RPS eet tees ees eras «tu ure, doe ertten ¢ alos e 1 GRAS thea etie ames 10

BOE EOU RICA 80 Pe os Drone hn oO Rie ciao tN ORs 2

“COSTA ATCase Sie a peg em Ben cet ROE eae Pa PA SM) A we bs Sen 1

One Korean-Hawaiian man married a Chinese-Hawaiian woman.

es ge a eB Be Oe me Be de de Fe BP oS me eC CR SS

APPLIED EUGENICS

By

PAUL, POPENOE

Editor of the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic
Association), Washington, D. C.

and

ROSWELL HILL JOHNSON
Professor in the University of Pittsburgh

‘“Theresults of all the trustworthy observations and
experiments have been taken into account
This book should command the attention not only of
students of sociology, but; as well, of philanthropists,
social workers, settlement wardens, doctors, clergy-
men, educators, editors, publicists, Y. M. C. A. sec-
retaries and industrial engineers. It ought to lie at
the elbow of law-makers, statesmen, poor relief offi-
cials, immigration inspectors, judges of juvenile courts,
probation officers, members of state boards of con-
trol and heads of charitable and correctional insti-
tutions. Finally, the thoughtful ought to find in it
guidance in their problem of mating. It will inspire
the superior to rise above certain worldly ideals of life
and to aim at the family success rather than an
individual success."-—From the introduction by Edward
Alsworth Ross, Professor of Sociology in the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin.

Prige>$210

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK

i ns i te ot ee
. . - as . i i i i i tt i a ee

me ng me a mS 8 nS BS BE BY OY OS

Le Nh Gh me me Fm ee A

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. X, No. 2 February, 1919

CONTENTS

The Synthetic Production of Wild Wheat Forms, by H. H. Love

Fats Le eed BER Op etc Pen atl a8 le ate ae eS Aaa err tone RAB cucces ar Roe Ree 51
Present Condition and Opportunity of the American Genetic Asso-

ciation. Dy-David Hairchildl. 2 cacics qs cat Mee ee Re es 65
Some Present, Aspects of Ibnmizration=: ~....0....--2.220++-e-s402-6- 68

The Breed in Poultry and Pure Breeding, by William A. Lippincott 71

Butter hatavs. body bat.by. 0. Wairss> pele es ext 79

Better American Families—II, by Wilhelmine E. Key.............. 80

Good Qualities Are Correlated, by Frederick Adams Woods......... 84

Restricted Entry of Plants to Protect American Crops.............. 87

haprcening. Pave stock. by G.-Pusehy.06./5%. witicnphs.cte horns Sg eere ee 88

Race Mixture in Hawaii, by Vaughan MacCaughey................. 90
NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918. Vol. IX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Or-
gan of the American Genetic Association), Washington, Dac;

Date of issue of this number, April 5, 1919.

ee ———— Le Se a

+. ao
a 8 ee res

TRUE WILD RYBRID > WILD

WILD WHEAT FROM PALESTINE AND NEW HYBRID

Here is shown a spikelet of the true wild wheat and one of the hybrid forms. (Frontispiece.)

THE SYNTHETIC PRODUCTION
OF WILD WHEAT FORMS'

H. H. Love ann W. T. Crarc?

The rediscovery of wild wheat or
wild emmer in Palestine by Aaron
Aaronsohn! is of great interest to those
investigators who are concerning them-
selves with work in cereals, particu-
larly with wheat. It also is of general
interest, since any evidence that may be
produced to connect domestic varieties
with their wild prototypes is always of
interest.

Kornicke found in the National Mu-
seum of Vienna some Hordeum spon-
taneum which Kotschy had gathered at
Rasheyya, Palestine, on the northwest-
ern side of Mount Hermon about 1855.
Among the stems of this material was
part of an ear which Kornicke consid-
ered to be wild wheat and later named
it Triticum vulgare dicoccoides and de-
clared it to be the prototype of the cul-
tivated wheats.

No further information was obtained,
and no more material of this wild type
was found until Aaronsohn in 1906
found a plant at Rosh Pinar in Pales-
tine. Later in the same year near
Rasheyya, Palestine, he found many
plants of wild wheat in the uncultivated
fields. He found a great diversity of
forms such as_ black-glumed_ types,
pubescent forms and other variations.
No forms were found which Aaronsohn
believed were hybrids between the wild
type and the cultivated forms. This
wild type came to be named Triticum
dicoccum dicoccoides, but Cook* has
suggested the name Triticum hermonis,
due to its being found on and near
Mount Hermon.

The wild wheat was usually asso-
ciated with wild barley and was found
in other places in Palestine by Aaron-
sohn on other botanical explorations.
Aaronsohn stated that this wild form
is either the prototype of cultivated
wheats or one of the oldest forms de-
rived from such a prototype.

During 1910, Cook, in connection
with an investigation of cotton culture
in Egypt, visited the wild wheat coun-
try in Palestine. The results of this
inspection have been fully described.*
Cook gives a very complete description
of this wild form and a number of its
variations as found in Palestine, as well
as its adaptation to cross fertilization.

In regard to this being the wild pro-
totype Cook says: “Though there is no
reason for any further doubt of the ex-
istence of a wild type of wheat in Pal-
estine, equal certainty cannot be claimed
for the idea that the Palestine wild
wheat is the ancester or true prototype
of the domesticated types of wheat. It
is still doubtful whether all the culti-
vated types of wheat arose from a sin-
gle wild species or from _ different
species. Though the wild wheat of Pal-
estine possesses all the characters that
the European specialists expected to
find in the primitive ancestor or proto-
type of the domestic wheat, these char-
acters might also be expected to occur
in any wild relative of the wheat plant
and do not afford ground for a final
conclusion regarding the relationships
that exist between the wild wheat of
Palestine and the domesticated cereals.”

*Paper No. 75 of the Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

7In cooperation with the Office of Cereal Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

*Aaronsohn, Aaron: “Agricultural and Botanical Explorations in Palestine. U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry Bull. 180 (1910).

‘Cook, O. F.: “Wild Wheat in Palestine.”

Plant Industry Bull. 274 (1913).

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of

51

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EARLY RED CHIEF AND MAROUANI CROSS

the parent forms and the F, hybrid. The parents are designated by x and y and
the hybrid by a. (Fig. 1.)

2640.5 .004 Fa TYPES

SECOND GENERATION

The second generation was grown in the greenhouse. 113 plants resulted. Among these
plants various forms were produced, as is usual among crosses between common and durum
wheat. Note 112, which is the form which produced wild types. (Fig. 2.)

54 The Journal

This wild type has a brittle rachis as
has wild barley. The rachis is not
merely brittle in the sense that it breaks
easily as does that of emmer or spelt,
but it has a special articulation that
permits the joints to separate at matur-
ity. These joints are firmly attached
to the spikelets so that they serve as a
beak for the latter. Along the sides of
the joints are stiff bristles or hairs
which increase toward the upper end of
the joint.

The glumes of the wild wheat are
very stiff, thus holding the grains very
tight so that they are threshed with
difficulty. These are some of the main
differences between the head of the
wild wheat and that of common wheat.
The plant of the wild wheat is different
from that of the common wheat, the
stems being finer and the leaves nar-
rower. The foliage is of a lighter green
color than ordinary wheat. An illus-
tration of the wild type of spikelet is
shown in the frontispiece.

MATERIAL

While engaged in studying inherit-
ance in wheat from various crosses our
attention was attracted particularly to
one, a species of cross between varie-
ties of the common and durum types.
From this cross, forms resembling the
wild type were obtained among the seg-
regates in F,.

This cross is one made between T.
vulgare var. Early Red Chief and T.
durum var. Marouani. The Early Red
Chief variety was a typical T. vulgare
form, was beardless, had smooth brown
chaff and a red kernel. The Marouani
was a _ typical durum form, was
bearded, had a smooth white or yel-
lowish-white chaff and yellow or yel-
lowish-white kernel, which for tkis
study can be considered colorless. C.
R. Ball, who has examined this type,
says that it is more like an intermediate
between Pelessier and Marouani. The
sort used had black awns which, ac-
cording to Ball, the true Marouani does
not have. At the base of the spikelet
of the Marouani are a few hairs or
bristles.

of Heredity

The F, type produced from. this
cross was intermediate in regard to
certain characters. There were a few
very short beards at the tip of the head
which had some black coloration, but
were not nearly so black as those of
the Marouani parent. The glumes were
longer and stiffer than in the female
parent, but not so long as in the male.
They were pointed at the tip more like
the Marouani variety. The kernel was
somewhat longer than that of the
female parent and was red in color.
On the joints of the rachis are a few
very short bristles or hairs.

The parent types and F, are shown
in Fig. 1. The F, type is the form
shown between the two parent forms.

The second generation was grown in
the greenhouse and 113 plants resulted.
Among these plants various forms
were produced, as is usual among
crosses between common and durum
wheats. Some of these forms are
shown in Fig. 2. While it is not planned
in this paper to discuss fully the re-
sults as to different forms and char-
acters, a short statement regarding
some of the results may be of interest.

In regard to the color of chaff there
were in this generation 107 brown chaff
to 6 white chaff plants, thus indicating
a 15:1 ratio. The color of kernel was
noted on all plants that produced ker-
nels and these gave 77 red:5 white
kernels. This would indicate a 15:1
ratio for the color of kernel also. In
regard to awns there were 83 awn-
less: 30 fully awned plants, which indi-
cates that the awned condition is re-
cessive and inherited on a 3:1 basis.
It is well to state, however, that among
the 83 plants designated as awnless
there are some with a few very long
awns on some of the spikelets. The
fully awned plants are those that pos-
sess awns like the ordinary varieties of
awned wheat, while some of the awn-
less plants with long awns have them
only at the tip. One plant in particular
had awns developed at the tip of the
spike only, yet they measured 10.8 cm.
in length, while the longest awns found
on any of the plants were only 13.7 cm.

\\r.

RESULTS FEROM PLANTING: SEED OF No.

THIRD GENERATION

No. 112 shown in Fig. 2 resembled the wild type.

Seeds were sown from this to grow an
(Fig. 3.)

Some of the results are here shown.

F;.

SPIKELETS IN THE THIRD GENERATION
Spikelets from different F; plants produced from 112 and 113.

Redwood.

in length. It is of interest to state in
this connection that certain families in
later generations bred true to the condi-
tion where awns were developed at the
tip of the head only. These awns de-
veloped a length, however, equal to that
of fully awned plants. Of the 30 awned
plants only 6 developed black color like
the Marouani variety. More data are
being obtained, however, on_ this
character.

The shape of the glume, that is,
whether pointed at the tip or having a
shoulder, segregated into 82 pointed
glumes: 28 non-pointed.

Many of these F, plants were tested
in F,. Owing to a poor stand, how-
ever, not enough plants were obtained
in all families to determine the inherit-
ance of the various characters. In
general, however, the results of the
third generation agree with the con-

56

Drawings made by C. W.
(Fig. 4.)

clusions drawn from the material of
the second generation.

Among the F, plants were two (Nos.
112 and 113) which are of particular
interest in relation to the wild proto-
type question, and it is a description of
these and their progeny which we will
now consider. These two plants were
in many respects similar to the wild
wheat. They both possessed the brittle
rachis and long basal hairs or bristles.
One form was beardless, while the
other was partially bearded. The ker-
nels were longer than in the other
segregates and resembled the wild type.
The heads were flat, similar to the true
wild form. One of these forms, No.
112, is shown in Fig. 2. The one main
difference between the true wild wheat
and these segregates was that the spike-
lets of the segregates were somewhat
broader than those of the wild type.

vd D
TRUE WILD HYBRID WIL

HYBRIDS SIMILAR TO THE WILD FORM

One pedigree produced hybrids very similar to the true wild type. Spikelets of true wild
and hybrid type are here shown. (Fig. 5.)

KERNELS OF PARENT AND TRUE WILD TYPES

Upper kernels, female, of parent type. Lower kernels-are the true wild types. The
kernels of the synthetic wild type, shown on the opposite page, may be somewhat more

plump than those of the true wild, yet many of these are actually identical in all respects.

KERNELS OF PARENT AND SYNTHETIC WILD

Upper kernels, male of parent type. Lower kernels are of the synthetic wild, which so
strongly resembles the true wild. (Fig. 7.)

60 The Journal
Each spikelet, however, carried away
the joint of the rachis attached to it
just as does the true wild wheat.

At first thought it may be suggested
that these two forms arose because of
a natural cross with the F, plant and
the wild wheat. Such is not a possi-
bility, however, since no wild wheat
had been grown in any of our cultures
until the year the F, was grown, and
then these plants were in a distant part
of the greenhouse.

Seed from both plants Nos. 112 and
113 were sown to grow an F, and pro-
duced some very interesting forms.
Some of these forms obtained from
No. 112 are shown in Fig. 3. Plant 112
produced enough seed so that 70 plants
were grown in F,. They segregated
for various characters such as color of
chaff, awns, and the like.

In regard to coler of chaff a segrega-
tion of 52 brown: 18 white chaff was
obtained. Awnless, intermediate, and
awned plants were obtained as follows:
18:38:14. A great many of the spikes
were flat, much like the spike of the
wild type. There was a tendency on
the part of many plants to produce
compact-like heads. Most of these
were flattened, but not of the true wild
type of head. All of the plants pos-
sessed the long basal bristles similar in
length and amount to those borne by
the wild sort. All kernels were red,
and very many of them similar in shape
and length to the wild type of kernel.
Finally, in regard to the fragile rachis,
most of the plants produced heads
with a fragile rachis. There was con-
siderable variation with respect to this
character. Some of the spikelets sepa-
rated at maturity, thus making it diffi-
cult to harvest them, while others
would not separate until they were
being handled. Some were in all re-
spects as fragile as the wild form. Only
5 or 6 plants had a somewhat solid
rachis. Certain of the spikelets ob-
tained in this F, are shown in Fig. 4.
While there is some variation in regard
to size, shape, and the like, all are simi-
lar in that they carry with them the
joint of the rachis, which has a duck-
bill appearance.

of Heredity

Only 10 plants were obtained in F,
from plant 113. In general, their be-
havior was similar to that of the segre-
gates from plant 112. Some of the
plants from F, were tested again in
’,. The results as obtained, so far as
the character of brittle rachis is con-
cerned, showed that practically all of
the plants produced heads with the
brittle rachis. There was some varia-
tion, yet most of them were brittle.
Only 3 plants produced heads _ that
broke apart with difficulty. All of the
plants produced red kernels and the
long basal bristles. Most of the plants
produced their spikes on straw which
was solid for some distance below the
first joint of the spike. A number of
the kernel shapes were very similar;
in fact some were identical with the
wild. The plants produced from pedi-
gree 2030a1-112-7 were very similar
in all respects to wild, as will be seen
from inspection of Fig. 5, since one of
these segregates is shown with the true
wild type. It may seem that the awns
of the wild type are heavier than the
wild segregate. However, other forms
have been obtained with awns as heavy
as the wild. In addition to the char-
acters of the spike being similar to
those of the wild wheat, the habit and
appearance of the plants also were
similar to the wild type. The plants had
fine stems and leaves and the color was
of a lighter green than is common
among the domestic wheats.

Seed from certain of these F, plants
were sown and another generation was
grown. The results of this planting
were very similar to those of F,, thus
indicating that the plants all bred true
to the character of the fragile rachis.
Some of the families produced were
like the wild in all of their characters.
This is particularly true with respect
to two families. In family 112-4-4 the
rachis was very fragile and, although
there was segregation regarding awns
the awned types were very much like
the wild wheat.

The offspring of 2030a1-112-7 were
all classed as wild types in the fifth gen-
eration, so there is no question of doubt
but that types in every way similar to

REVERSED AWNS

The awns of wheat when present are ordinarily grown ¢
the empty glumes. The empty glumes may bear a

62 The Journal

the wild wheat have been produced
synthetically. The spikelets of these
individuals are represented together
with the true wild in Fig. 5. The ker-
nel types of the parent varieties and
those of the true wild and synthetic
wild are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The
kernels of the synthetic type may be
somewhat more plump than those of the
true wild, yet many of these are actually
identical in all respects.
REVERSED AWNS

Another very interesting fact ob-
served in this cross was that of the
reversed awn condition. The awns of
wheat, when present, are borne by the
flowering glumes. The empty glumes
may bear a short beak and in some
sorts this beak may develop a length of
at least 1 cm.

Among the segregates of 112 were
found some types on which the awn
was produced on the empty glume and
the beak on the flowering glume (I*igs.
8 and 9). All of the awns were not
thus reversed, but usually one on a
spikelet. Sometimes the awn and beak
were nearly of the same length, when
again the beak on the flowering glume
would be no longer than the beak
usually borne on the empty glumes.
While studying thousands of wheat
segregates, this character has never
been observed in any other cross.

Seed from certain of these reversed
awn types have been sown, and it is
found that the abnormality is repro-
duced, in the following generation. In
fact, one family at least gives every
indication that it is homozygous for the
reversed awn, as all of the plants in the
family of the fifth generation have this
condition.

Crosses between types with the re-
versed awn and the ordinary types
have not been made as yet to determine
the behavior of this character in cross-
ing, but it is planned to make such
crosses.

BEHAVIOR OF WILD WHEAT IN CROSSES

While studying the wild segregates
it was considered necessary to deter-
mine how the characters of the true

of Heredity

wild wheat were inherited when crossed
with other types. Two such crosses
have so far been observed. One durum
variety, Gharnovka, and one common
variety, Extra Early Windsor, were
each crossed with the wild wheat. It
is not planned to give these results here
in detail. A few facts, however, will
show the inheritance of certain char-
acters.

In the F, the brittle rachis is domi-
nant, or partially so, over the solid or
ordinary type of rachis. On the joints
of the rachis are many basal hairs or
bristles. The spikelets look much like
those of the wild type, except that they
are broader.

When the F, is inspected it is clear
that the fragile rachis segregates, at
least in these crosses, on what seems to
be a 3:1 ratio. Types are obtained
which resemble the wild type used as
a parent. These have the flattened
heads, long, stiff glumes, basal bristles
and long kernels like the wild type. The
red kernel color of the wild type seems
to be the resultant of two factors ac-
cording to the ratios obtained.

It is clear from these crosses that
the wild type is obtained as a segregate
in the F, and succeeding generations,
thus adding further evidence that, had
it been possible for the wild types ob-
tained from the Early Red Chief-
Marouani cross to have been the result
of a natural cross, further segregations
would have been obtained in the fol-
lowing generation. It is clear also that
the characters of the wild wheat be-
have in hybridization much as do the
characters of the other wheat types.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The occurrence of this wild form is
a cross between the common and durum
types is of considerable interest, since it
may throw some light on the question
as to the prototype of our common
wheats. Since in the second generation
there were two wild-like plants found
out of a total of 113, it might be as-
sumed that they occur as a_ natural
result of ordinary segregation, and,
occurring in this proportion, might indi-
cate a 63:1 ratio. If this were true,

(6 ‘Stq) “yejaytds e uo ouO A]]enNSn Ynq ‘pasidAe1 JOU 910M

»[[e AT] PtIoUer) “SUMP PoSIIAIL UJIM UMOLYS olOY IB sodAay pe} IS OY JO VUIOS 7 ‘Bly ut UMOUS Z[]T : ) SJ URDU, suowly

SNAVY CHSHYHAAY

64 The Journal

one would expect that in F, certain
families would be found which would
produce more of the wild types. Only
one such family was obtained, however.
Owing to the fact that there was a
poor stand in F, due to a heavy rain
just after sowing, it cannot be said
definitely that more families did not
exist which may have produced wild
forms if a full stand had been obtained.
It seems, however, that enough plants
were obtained so that, if as many fami-
lies produced, or would have produced,
wild plants as expected in F,, a number
of wild plants would have been ob-
tained in this generation. More evi-
dence on this point cannot be obtained
until this cross is repeated, which is
now being done.

The occurrence of these forms may
lead to the conclusion that the wild
wheat of Palestine is the prototype of
our domestic wheats and that the fac-
tor or factors necessary to its produc-
tion were carried by either of the
parent forms and that through some
fortunate combination of factors the
wild types were produced. If this were
true, then is it not possible that many
varieties may carry these factors and
that through crossing these the wild
wheat forms would be produced? Such
does not occur, however, for in several
hundred different wheat crosses under
our observation no such wild types
have been produced except those in the
one cross discussed. These combina-
tions include crosses between the em-
mers, spelts, durums, clubs, and com-
mon wheat.

It is possible that these forms
may have occurred through mutative
changes so far as the factors for the
production of type of rachis, basal
hairs, shape of kernel and the like. It
has been noted that there were segre-
gations in F, and F, regarding awns,
so that if a mutation did occur it was
not one affecting all the characters but
only those mentioned. If it is later
evident that these types have arisen
through mutation, it will be interesting,
since it will be the origin of a type
with dominant characters. Such cases
are rather rare.

of Heredity

Since these wild-like forms have
occurred through crossing it does not
follow that the wild wheat of Palestine
is certainly a prototype of the common
wheat. For, as suggested above, we
might expect such occurrences more
commonly. For example, in Avena
crosses the wild A. fatua is not pro-
duced commonly, if ever, when crosses
between different types of oats are
made,® even though the varieties of
A. sativa are thought to have been
deived from A. fatua.

From the evidence one might well
put forth the suggestion that the wild
wheat of Palestine may have been pro-

duced originally through a_ natural
cross. Owing to its very excellent
adaptations for self-dissemination it

would naturally spread and fill up waste
places. The wild oat of the west is
more common in waste places than in
cultivated fields. It occurs in cultivated
fields but, owing to cultivation, is not
so common. Wild wheat, then, may
even exist occasionally, though un-
noticed, in cultivated fields.

The occurrence of wild segregates in
the cross described does not prove that
the wild wheat is the prototype of
wheat, but rather raises the question
whether it really is a protoype or a
contemporary form. More data from
other crosses will be needed before any
definite statement can be made. May
it not be possible that there is a certain
type (or types) in Palestine that, when
crossed with others, may frequently
produce the wild type?

CONCLUSION

A wild type of wheat was produced
by crossing a durum with a common
wheat.

This type of segregates from this
type was similar in all respects to the
typical wild wheat of Palestine.

The occurrence of this wild form
may be evidence in favor of the proto-
type theory in relation to the wild
wheat of Palestine or indicate that
such a wild form may have arisen
through natural crossing between al-
ready existing forms.

* The authors have some evidence that such may be produced in certain crosses.

PRESENT CONDITION

AND

OPPORTUNITY OF THE AMERICAN
GENETIC ASSOCIATION’

DAvIp

FAIRCHILD

HE YEAR which has passed

since our last meeting is one of

the most remarkable in the his-

tory of mankind. Through the
whirl of terrific forces which has
characterized it I feel sure all of us
must see a drift that threatens many or
all of the familiar adjustments of hu-
man society. Whether we understand
that drift or not, we must recognize
that it is fraught with the most sinister
possibilities. The rupture of the fabric
of society, which we have seen going on
around us and read of as an_ over-
whelming catastrophe in Russia and as
threatening all Europe, we must begin
to consider as a phenomenon based
upon the rapid spread of propaganda
which is as unsound biologically from
the standpoint of this new science of
genetics as the theory of the flat earth
was unsound physically. In becoming
more scientific, in the sense of being
more open-minded and accessible to
new ideas, the world has become more
susceptible to destructive as well as to
constructive suggestions, and since it
is vastly easier to detroy what now
exists than to develop and apply con-
structive solutions of our problems, the
dangers of the present situation are
hardly to be exaggerated.

All of these burning questions of the
day, which are stirring men’s hearts
and angering or saddening them, must
have answers based upon principles.
What are these principles? It is likely
that they will ever be revealed through
the discussion and deductive reasoning
of men like the bolshevik leaders of
Russia? Have we not witnessed long
enough the steady growth of the exact
sciences to feel convinced that there is
no other method by which the human

1 President’s address delivered before the
ciation, Washington, D. C., January 9, 1919.

mind can arrive at stable notions of
things than through the methods of
experiment and objective observation?
There is no short cut—no inspiration
based upon ignorance of what has gone
before.

The spectacle of the influence of a
single abnormal personality upon a
nation of sixty millions and of our
own concentration of authority in the
hands of the President as the only
means of meeting a real crisis should
make us realize, as never before, the
paramount importance of the indi-
vidual, as a focus or nucleus bearing
the fate of an entire nation or race.
The weak personality of the Tzar, and
the absolute chaos for lack of strong
leaders after his destruction, form a
picture which is terrible to contemplate.

The spread of personal propaganda,
and by this I mean the systematic
propaganda which attracts and rivets
the minds of millions upon the per-

sonality of some public official, has de-
veloped since the war began to pro-

portions undreamed of before, and this
phenomenon is one which deserves the
closest scrutiny. The formation of con-
venient brain patterns in the form of
slogans and their use by those who
declare in a loud voice that they see
confidently into the future, but whose
theories are false for all their assump-
tion of superior knowledge, will force
upon the scientific community, who are
the real intellectuals of the world, the
necessity of some adequate counter-
propaganda in which the factors of
human welfare, as shown by the science
of inheritance, will be driven home and
sink deep into the consciousnesses of
great mass of the people.

If the false doctrines that threaten

Annual Meeting of the American Genetic Asso-

65

66 The Journal
to destroy society as a living organism
and replace it with an arbitrary and
artificial system directed from below by
the less intelligent elements of the
population should prevail, an era of
extreme depression and chaos might
easily come upon us, a period of disin-
tegration and decay like that of the
Roman E -mpire and the dark ages that
followed the complete overturning of
society. Think of the Spanish Inquisi-
tion from the standpoint of propa-
ganda. Recall how it swept over and
blasted a capable and rapidly develop-
ing nation and ran into other countries
like an epidemic. Can we be confident
that those who think they can control
public opinion know what they are
doing—especially when we see errone-
ous ideas and misstatements of fact in
this torrent of propaganda? As scien-
tific men we know more facts and see
the drift of many things, but our hon-
esty, and especially our repugnance
towards self advertising, prevents us
from taking the place which we ought
to take in the councils of the people.
We cannot reach them with our scien-
tific jargon, and our desire to be true
to the cult of our science and to stand
well with our professional colleagues
keeps us from popularizing our ideas
and thus exerting at least a fraction of
the influence which is our right and
our responsibility as students of these
tremendous problems.

We are here as members of the
American Genetic Association, an asso-
ciation of scientific men and of those
who are interested in the great subject
of heredity and its relation to human
welfare. And we are citizens of a
country which stands before the world
as no country before has stood. The
times are fraught with the greatest
dangers, and these dangers lie in the
realm of the understanding and are
based upon certain laws of inheritance,
which we are investigating. One of the
greatest tools which can be used to edu-
cate the public is the tool of illustra-
tion. The most prominent feature in
the propaganda program is the use of
striking pictures, pictures which really
tell a story; pictures which have been

of Heredity

prepared for the express purpose of
producing a certain effect. You all
know, as well as I do, that we have the
materials, and what we should do is to
use them for the enlightenment of a
widening audience of the most intelli-
gent people of the country.

The situation, as I see it, constitutes
one of the greatest opportuniies of our
lives, and I cannot overemphasize my
feelings in the matter, for they amount
to conviction. If we handle the situa-
tion at this time, we will do a great
service to the world. If we do not, we
fail, and a great opportunity passes.
While we delay or hesitate, other or-
ganizations, with more obvious but less
important appeals to the intelligence of
the people, are forging ahead with
evanescent, distorted and moral-de-
stroying propaganda.

Our “propaganda should be against
the almost universal fallacy which per-
vades society ideas everywhere that
acquired characters are somehow and
in some mysterious way inherited. The
non-inheritance of acquired characters
is a well-established theory, but the
general public does not know it.
Through the educational propaganda,
through the charitable propaganda,
through the sporting propaganda and
through the medical propaganda there
runs everywhere the unspoken assump-
tion that, given a good environment,
any child is as likely to be great as any
other; and everywhere we find people
who are searching for all of the causes
of crime and degeneracy in the environ-
ment. The wayward son of the
preacher, the deaf from childhood, the
small-sized boys of small parents who
“never got enough to eat when they
were young.” the effect of hats as
causes of baldness, the causes of lon-
gevity. and a host of others are now
“explained” by those who do not know.
Millions of dollavs are expended every
year upon palliative remedies with the
firm conviction of the givers that they
are curative measures, whereas they
end with the generation they assist.

If through the propaganda of this
little Journal of the Association we
could get a hundred thousand people to

Fairchild: The American Genetic Association 67

thinking regarding the real difference
between the phenomena of environment
as distinguished from those of heredity,
the accomplishment would be a great
positive gain to our country.

These differences can only be learned
through study. They cannot be taught
like so many of the superficial facts of
the advertising business by the dia-
grams or pictures of a single poster.

The background of plants and ani-
mals and their behavior must be pre-
sented and the mind led up to the great
fact of heredity by a series of steps
which requires many pictures and illus-
trations to make clear.

It is hard for the layman to believe
that you can cut off the tail of a white
mouse and its daughter and her daugh-
ter and all the daughters for a hundred
generations and of the sons as well
without producing a tailless breed of
white mice, whereas, if you hunt the
world over, you will probably find
somewhere a pair of mice which were
born without tails and, by _ breeding
these together and selecting the tailless
ones and mating these again, produce
in a few generations a breed of tailless
white mice. A variety of spineless cac-
tus cannot be produced by rubbing off
the spines and making cuttings from
the spineless portion. Identical twins
often remain through life so much
alike that they are mistaken for each
other, whether they have lived in the

same environment, or have led the same
kind of life or not.

It is the propaganda for an under-
standing, a universal study of the great
forces which we know are here, that
our journal should undertake, and the
first great work lies in the elucidation
of the fundamental difference which
exists between the changes wrought by
our environment and the limitations
which come through our heredity.
What experience can be more _ bitter
than that of offering all the possibili-
ties of the widest imaginable environ-
ment to a youth only to find that he
does not want them, that he simply
cannot rise to their utilizaion. “He
could if he would only try,” sums up
too often a case of defective inherit-
ance. But these I know are too com-
plicated matters to be carelessly an-
swered in this way. They present the
most difficult problems in this new
science. They are in the very field
which the JouRNAL must enter with its
propaganda, viz., the field of the in-
heritance of mental and moral char-
acteristics, in which field the evidence
is rapidly accumulating, making it more
and more certain that they are in-
herited and are scarcely more easily
changed than a child who is slow at
figures can be made into a great mathe-
matician or one who cannot carry a
tune can be developed into a great
composer.

Preparing for Great Food-Raising Tasks of “After the War”

“Strengthen agriculture’s organiza-
tions for 1919.”

This slogan has gone from Washing-
ton to every State—in preparation for
the huge after-war tasks of American
farmers—and reports of responses in
every section of the country now are
coming to the United States Department
of Agriculture.

Tens of thousands of farmers are
joining and making stronger the county
councils of agriculture, county farm
bureaus, and other local extension or-
ganizations that have come to hold a
place of vital importance in the organ-
ized agriculture of America.

These local organizations of farmers
occupy much the same relation to the
counties as chambers of commerce
occupy to cities. They plan for pros-
perous and balanced agriculture, intro-
duce better farming methods, work fot
more and wider markets. They deal
especially with the work of the co-
Operative agricultural extension agen-
cies, and are not intended to take the
place of the existing farmers’ organiza-
tions, with which they sustain many
helpful and cordial relationships.—
Weekly News Letter, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture.

SOME PRESENT ASPECTS

OF IMMIGRATION

Fourth Report of the Committee on Immigration of the American
Genetic Association. '

HE last Report of the Committee

on Immigration was made about

one year before this country en-

tered the war.* In that report
this committee stated its reasons for
believing (1) that the war would be
followed by a very large increase in the
numbers of immigrants, and (2) that
the general effect of the war as a whole
would probably be to cause a deteriora-
tion in the mental, physical and moral
characteristic of our future immigants
and of their descendants. A summary
of the immigration bill then pending in
Congress was given, and the committee
expressed itself as heartily in favor of
all the provisions looking towards the
more effective detection, exclusion and
deportation of mentally and physically
unfit aliens. This bill, after having
passed both houses of Congress, was
vetoed twice by President Wilson, but
was passed over the veto by both Sen-
ate and House and became law on Feb-
ruary 5, 1917, about one month before
this country declared war. The new
statute became effective on May 1, 1917.
It is by far the most comprehensive
immigration legislation ever enacted in
this country and, if properly enforced,
can become of immense benefit to our
future race.

The effect of the war in diminishing
the volume of immigration to the United
States was, of course, expected, but has
nevertheless been striking. From an
annual immigration of nearly a million

Personnel of Committee: Alexander E

and a half during the fiscal years 1913
and 1914, and an annual net increase
in alien population (7. e., deducting the
numbers of those who returned to their
own countries) of 800,000, the number
of immigrant aliens fell to a little over
325,000 during the year ending June
30, 1915. In the fiscal years 1916 and
1917, about 300,000 came, while in the
year ending June 30 last the number of
immigrant aliens was only 110,000.
From July to October, 1918, the num-
ber of immigrant aliens was’ 37,410, and
of non-immigrant aliens 25,729. While
the mere fact of greater or smaller
numbers does not, in and for itself,
concern this committee, there is a very
important aspect of a small immigra-
tion which is of the greatest interest to
eugenists. It has always been held by
those who are concerned regarding the
admission into the United States of
mentally and physically defective aliens
that, with a smaller number of alien
arrivals, the work of inspection could
be more effectively done, with the
inevitable and greatly-to-be-desired
result that fewer undesirables would
escape detection. Our experience dur-
ing the war has borne out this view.
The last Report of the Commissioner
General of Immigration (for the year
ending June 30, 1918) gives the fol-
lowing percentages of aliens who were
refused admission for all causes: 1914,
2.390; 1915, 5.3% % 1916, 4.9%; AS
4.2% ; 1918, 3.3%. The increase in the

. Cance, Amherst. Mass.; Irving Fisher, New

Haven, Conn. ; Prescott F. Hall, Boston, Mass., Chairman; Dr. Thomas F. Salmon, New
y ork City; Robert De C. Ward, Cambridge, Mass., Secretary.
rhis report has not been submitted to Professor Cance and to Dr. (now Colonel) Salmon,

both of whom are overseas.

“See Journal of Heredity, vol. vii, No. 6, June, 1916, pp. 243-248.

OS

Present Aspects

percentage of rejections during the war
is to be ascribed, according to the Com-
missioner General, to two causes: first,
a deterioration in the quality of immui-
gration itself; and second, to the more
rigid inspection made possible by the
decreased numbers. One of the pro-
visions of the new Immigration Act re-
quires that two inspection officers shall,
whenever practicable, pass upon the
case of each alien, and the same is
true of the medical inspection. It is
interesting to note that 23% of the
total number of all rejections for the
year 1918 were due to the operation of
new provisions in the Act of February
, 1917. Among those rejected because
of such new provisions there were 20
certified for chronic psychopathic in-
feriority; 24 chronic alcoholics; 17
afflicted with “tuberculosis in any form”
as distinguished from tuberculosis of
the respiratory, intestinal or urinary
tracts, these being excludable under the
old law; 10 aliens mentally defective
without regard to the effect of such
defect upon the ability to earn a living.
In addition to the foregoing, debarred
under new provisions, there were de-
barred under provisions contained in
both the old and new laws, 4 idiots, 5
imbeciles, 64 insane, 31 epileptics, and
19 feeble-minded. That even the new
law does not accomplish all that is de-
sirable is shown by the fact that, in
1918, out of 6,153 aliens certified by
the surgeons as mentally or physically
defective, 4,558, or 74.1%, were landed.
In 1917, 71.4% were landed.

An excellent provision of the new
Immigration Act is the extension of the
period during which the expulsion of
defective aliens can be accomplished.
In the past year 106 aliens suffering
from serious mental defects were ex-
pelled from the country. Of this num-
ber, 17 were so afflicted when they were
originally admitted, 78 became insane
within five years after landing, and 11
became public charges because of other
mental defects. In the previous year,
172 aliens suffering from serious men-
tal defects were expelled. Of these, 38
had been so afflicted at the time of en-

of Immigration 69
try and 130 had become public charges
within three years after entry because
of insanity.

In the last Report of this Committee,
attention was called to the great 1m-
portance of the proposed increase in
the fines to be levied on the transporta-
tion companies in cases where aliens,

clearly excludable under the law, are
brought to this country. These in-

creased fines are now embodied in the
new Immigration Act. It is obviously
a very great hardship on individual
aliens w ho have made the long journey
to this country to turn them back at our
ports when they are found to belong
in the excluded classes. Such cases are
often reported in our newspapers,
naturally arouse widespread sentimen-
tal interest, and usually bring out un-
reasonable and_ ill-judged protests
against any rigid enforcement of the
Immigration Act. Experience has
shown that the only way to diminish
the number of such cases of hardship
is to levy considerable fines upon the
steamship companies when they give
passage to aliens who, on embarkation,
clearly fall into the excluded classes
which are named in the law. The new
Immigration Act increases the fines in
cases where they were already providect
and established new fines in other cases.
During the past fiscal year, a total of
$63,515 was collected in such fines. Of
this amount, $7,325 was levied because
the bringing to our ports of mentally

r physically “diseased aliens. A rigid
ceded inspection of all arriving aliens,
and the collection of fines in all cases
where such fines can clearly be im-
posed would certainly do a very great
deal, under the excellent provisions of
the present law, to improve the mental
and physical qualities of our immi-
grants. That much more could be done
under the administrative fine provisions
is shown by the fact that, while 954
aliens were debarred as being physi-
cally or mentally diseased or defective,
fines were imposed for bringing onty
93 of these.

If any further arguments were needed
to show the value and importance of

70 The Journal of Heredity

our new Immigration Act, the war has
supplied them. This law is our only
breakwater against the advancing tide
of immigration which, unless all signs
fail, is likely to be both increased in
quantity and lowered in quality. The
new law has not yet stood the test of
a large immigration. Everything should
be done to secure its effective adminis-
tration. Its rigid enforcement would
unquestionably result in an _improve-
ment in the mental and physical quali-
ties of our immigrants even if it was
not designed to, and cannot, greatly
reduce their numbers.

The almost certain prospect of a
greatly increased immigration closely
following the ending of the war, the
manifest. injustice of exposing our re-
turning soldiers and sailors to compe-
tition with the low-priced labor of
Europe and of Western Asia, and the
conviction that our present immigration
law is qualitatively selective rather than
numerically restrictive have naturally
resulted in a- widespread demand fo1
immediate further legislation. The Ini-
migration Committee of the House of
Representatives has reported a_ bill
(H.R. 15302, Union Calendar No. 359;
Report No. 1015) suspending immi-

gration for four years with many ex-
ceptions in the cases of certain profes-
sional classes; the near relations of
aliens now in or citizens of the United
States ; aliens from Canada, Newfound-
land, Cuba and Mexico; aliens who are
refugees because of various kinds of
persecution, and of. aliens admitted
temporarily under regulations to be pre-
scribed by the Commissioner . General
of Immigration with the approval of the
Secretary of Labor.

The general economic aspect of the
immigration problem does not concern
the Committee on Immigration of the
American Genetic Association. This
committee therefore does not feel called
upon to express any opinion as to the
merits, or otherwise, of the pending
bill. It is, however, convinced that a
reduction in the numbers of our immi-
grants does simplify and render more
effective the task of inspection, and
therefore leads to the administration
of fewer mentally and physically de-
fective aliens. From that point of view,
therefore, a considerable restriction, or
a temporary suspension, of alien immi-
gration would have highly desirable
eugenic results.

Push the Button and Find a Pig

A Litchfield (Conn.) county agent
originated an interesting plan for an
agricultural survey. If you want to
locate a supply of seed corn or oats, a
grain binder, a pure-bred bull, or some
young pigs in any community in five
counties in this State, all you have to do
is to walk into the office of the state
librarian at Hartford, Conn., run a
series of cards through an electric sort-
ing machine, and, presto! you have the
information. It may sound a little like
the story of Aladdin’s lamp, but it is
only big business applied to farm affairs
under war stress. The Council of De-
fense took up this plan and offered to
back the farm bureaus to the limit in
every county in the State. Five of the

eight counties began surveys early in
March, 1918. Forty questions, under

the headings of area, crops harvested
in 1917, crops planned to be harvested
in 1918, live stock on hand, machinery
on hand, and employes were included
in the survey, and a corps of volunteer
farmer census enumerators got busy.
When the survey was completed the
farm bureaus had a stack of cards con-
taining minute information as to the
resources and needs of every farm. An
electric sorting machine was installed
in the state library, and any fact dis-
closed by the survey can be made avail-
able by throwing on an electric switch.
The survey has been invaluable in help-
ing Connecticut to mobilize her agri-
cultural forces for war needs.—W eekly
News Letter, U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture.

THE BREED IN POULTRY,
AND PURE BREEDING'

Case in Which a Standard Bred and Supposedly Pure Bred Family Carries Fac-
tors Normal to Other Breeds and Without Being Suspected.

WILLIAM A.

LIPPINCOTT

answer to the question, ““What is a
breed of live stock?” in the JouRNAL

oF HEREDITY? some time ago, Lloyd-
Jones fell into a slight error of detail
concerning poultry when he remarked,
“Of Wyandottes I believe ‘there are
about a dozen varieties differing from
each other in color, pattern, feathering,
or comb shape.” As a matter of fact,
the varieties of Wyandottes do not dif-
fer in either feathering or comb shape.
The comb is always rose and the feath-
ering is uniform throughout the breed.
Poultry breeders appear to have been
rather more fortunate in arriving at a
definite conclusion concerning what con-
stitutes a breed, than have the breeders
of some of the larger farm animals.
They have defined it as a group of do-
mestic birds closely approaching a cer-
tain specific shape. The breed name is
the one which identifies any well-defined
and recognized type, such as Plymouth
Rock, Wyandotte, Leghorn, Brahma,
etc., and the birds conforming closely
to those shapes are said to be members
of those respective breeds. Some va-
rieties within certain breeds apparently
have no immediate genetic relationship.
As feathering has very much to do
with a bird’s shape, it is manifestly
impossible for different members of a
given breed to differ in feathering be-
yond a certain quite well-defined limit
of variation. These limits are pre-
scribed in “The Standard of Perfec-
tion,” a book published by The Ameri-
ican Poultry Association and recog-

ie ATTEMPTING to give a broad

nized generally as’ the official guide by
which poultry is bred and judged. The
Wyandotte is, for instance, described
as having featherless shanks and toes.
A member of this breed carrying so
much as one small feather on the
shanks or toes is barred from competi-
tion in the show-room, and is said to
be “disqualified.”

The breeds, which are in reality the
basis of poultry classification, are, for
convenience, both subdivided and
grouped. The subdivisions are termed
varieties, while the groups are referred
to as classes. There are two varietal
distinctions, namely, comb shape and
color of plumage; either one or both
may be present. Thus the Rose Comb
Rhode Island Red differs from the Sin-
gle Comb Rhode Island Red only in
comb shape. The White Wyandotte
differs from the Buff Wyandotte only
in color, while the Single Comb White
Leghorn differs from the Rose Comb
Brown Leghorn in both comb and
color. They are members of the same
breed, however, because they approach
very closely the same type or shape.

For the more common breeds the
class grouping is based on similar gen-
eral characteristics and place of origin.
The Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan, to-
gether, comprise the Asiatic class. They
have all come to us from or through
Asia and are birds of large size, having
feathered shanks, frequently becoming
broody and laying a dark-brown egg.
The Leghorns, Minorcas, Anconas, An-
dalusians, and Spanish, which comprise

1Contribution from the Department of Poultry Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural Ex-

periment Station.
2Vol. vi, No. 12, p. 531.

71

OCCASIONAL SINGLE COMB SEGREGATES

For some years occasional single comb segregates have been noticed in this standard-hred

family of White Wyandottes.
(Fig. 10.)

the Mediterranean class, all seem to
have originated around the Mediter-
ranean Sea. They are all nervous, active
birds, stylish and sprightly in appear-
ance, somewhat lacking in the brooding
instinct and are layers of white eggs.
The breeds which comprise the Amer-
ican class are the familiar Plymouth
Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island
Red, and the less familiar Java, Buck-
eye, and Dominique. These breeds
were developed in America through a
judicious blending of Asiatic and Medi-
terranean blood lines followed by
rigid selection. In most characteristics
they fall about half-way between the
types from which they

general

The grouping of breeds into classes

ave no other basis than that of
convenience, or as in the case of the
“Miscellaneous” class, which is com-

rather curious breeds,

Any comb other than rose is a disqualification in Wyandottes.

namely, Silkies, Sultans, and Frizzles,
because they do not seem to fit any-
where else.

A complete list of chickens, turkeys,
ducks, and geese, as recognized by the
American Poultry Association and
listed in the American Standard of Per-
fection, includes fifteen classes, sixty
breeds, and one hundred and forty-nine
varieties. Of these, twelve classes,
forty-two breeds, and one hundred and
twenty-one varieties are of chickens.
There are eleven breeds of ducks,
grouped in one class, and subdivided
into fifteen varieties. The six breeds
of geese are grouped as one class, only
one of the breeds having two varieties.
Turkeys are all of the same shape and
so all along to the same breed, as well
as to the same class. The breed is di-
vided into six varieties on the basis of
color, there also being in this case size
differences between the varieties.

SPLASHED ANDALUSIAN

Splashed Andalusian, male (Kansas 57M). When mated with the White Wyandotte (Fig. 3

she produced four kinds of offspring with regard to color.

14,15 and 16. (Fig. 11.)

While one of the rules laid down in
the constitution (Article XI, Section 1)
of the American Poultry Association®
for the admission of a new breed or
variety to the Standard of Perfection is
that “it must be able to produce 50 per
cent of the specimens reasonably true
to the type and characteristics of the
breed or variety, as set forth in the
(its) proposed standard,” as a matter
of fact appearance and not pedigree is
the criterion of poultry breeding. Very
few poultry breeders keep careful and
complete breeding records (though hap-
pily the number is steadily growing),
and there are no official records.
Perfection,

American Standard of

Poultry Association, Mansfield, Ohio.

1910 edition, p. 328.

These are shown in Figs. 13,

Pen matings of one male and several
females of individuals within the vari-
ous breeds and varieties are usually
made from year to year. If a bird is
purchasd for breeding purposes, the
buyer has only the word of the breeder
and the appearance of the bird to as-
sure him that the bird purchased has
been bred pure.

As a matter of fact, however, poul-
try is, in all probability, nearly if not
quite as “pure bred” as any other line
ot live stock, even though no breeding
record, official or private, is kept. The
types and colors could hardly be main
without it. That the fact of

Published by the

tained

American

~
Ww

WHITE WYANDOTTE

Kansas 2031).

White Wyandotte, female
and barring. Dam of

official registry does not preclude im-

purity for certain characters is wit-
nessed by the occasional appearance ot
ed Berkshire hogs, red Holstein cattle

and rned individuals in registered
eeds of cattle. And it is quite

ssible that unsuspected factors usually
resent and considered desirable in
. 1

ntly be present

ls may freque
f but with

asm of others,
xpression.
ce of an individual

from

reed may be tar
1 Ly sara ie
maKke-

Q

observa-

hough of a standard-bred family, she carried
; shown in Figs. 13, 14, 15 and 16. (Fig. 12.)

tion by investigators. It was shown
specifically in the case of poultry some
years ago, by Hadley,* for the White
Leghorn.

He found that many White Leghorns
carried factors for both black pigment
and barring, the expression of which
was masked by the action of a dominant
factor for white. It is obviously im-
possible to state that all White Leg-
horns carry these factors, but the con-
dition seems to be quite general, as wit-
nessed by reports from several widely
separated investigators. So far as I am
aware, no attempt has been made to

161, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment’ Station.

J ks ter
oo

at
SE ee

BARRED-SPLASHED

Kansas 147E.
Female shown in Fig. 12:
females, and non-barred blue females.

trace this condition to any particular
racial ancestor.

A family of White Wyandottes has
recently come under my observation
which is interesting from the standpoint
of purity of breeding. Members of this
family have repeatedly won prizes in
the larger shows of Kansas and Mis-
souri and also at the Panama Exposi-
tion show, which was one of the largest
ever held in this country. As a result
they have been held in considerable es-

‘Journal of Experimental Zoology, vol. 12,
” published by Edward Arnold, London, 1906, pp.

6“Races of Domestic Poultry,

—

ened

*

MALE

Four kinds of offspring were produced from the male shownin Fig. 11 and the
Barred splashed ma

(Fig.

les; barred blue males, non-barred splashed
13.)

teem by Wyandotte breeders of the
Southwest.

By way of explanation it may be said
that the white of the White Wyandotte
is recessive, as noted by Sturtevant,’
probably being in the first place a white
mutation from the pigmented Silver
Wyandotte. The Silver Wyandotte is
credited by Brown® as having been the
pri duct of between the Se-
bright Bantam, from which it inherited
its color, the Cochin and Hamburg, and
possibly others.

crosses

499-518.

No. 4 pp

eo

BARRED BLUE MALE

Barred Blue Male (Kansas 98E). Second of the four kinds of offspring produced, (see Fig.

13.)

lor some years occasional singie
comb segregates have been noticed in
this family, two of which are shown in
Fig. 10. Possibly this has come down
from some of the breed’s Cochin an-
cestors.

It was not, however, until several
females from this family were crossed
with males carrying black pigment dur-
ing the 1918 breeding season that it was
discovered that the family also carried
the factor which, acting on black pig-
ment, renders it bluish-grey in appear-
ance as in the Blue Andalusian, and
also the sex-linked factor for barring
as found in the Barred Plymouth Rock

(Fig. 14.)

and White Leghorn. Several indivi-
duals were found which carried the
“blue” factor and one (Legband 2031),
whose likeness is shown in Fig. 12, car-
ried factors for both “blue” and _bar-
ring. Several were also found which
carried neither factor. Although as
noted above, this family is more or less
heterozygous in respect to comb, this
particular individual’s breeding be-
havior showed her to be homozygous
for the comb character.

When mated with a Splashed Anda-
lusian male (57M, Fig. 11) this female
produced four kinds of offspring with
regard tocolor. These were (1) barred

NON-BARRED SPLASHED FEMALE

Non-barred splashed female (Kansas 1672).

between a splashed Andalusian male and a White Wyandotte female.

splashed males (Fig. 13), (2) barred
blue males (Fig. 14), (3) non-barred
splashed females (Fig. 15), and (4)
non-barred blue females (Fig. 16).

As previously suggested (Lippin-
cott’), the splashed Andalusian is ho-
mozygous for a dominant factor for
black pigment and for another domi-
nant factor which, acting on black pig-
ment, renders it bluish-grey 1n appear-
ance. It lacks another dominant fac-
tor which is present in self blue, self
black, and some self white races, which
extends black pigment, if present, into
all parts of all feathers of the body,
giving a self color.

These last two factors may be true
allelomorphs (7. e., occupying identical

loci of homologous chromosomes) or

7 The American Naturalist, vol. li,

No. 614, pp.

Third of the four kinds produced by a cross

(Fig. 15.)

each may be closeiy linked to the re-
cessive allelomorph of the other, a point
as yet undetermined.

Assuming that the latter is the case,
the genetic formula of a splashed An-
dalusion male, with regard to the char-
acters in question is—

PP (Re)(Re) bb
where P = black pigment
P = white (no pigment)
(Re) = blue in presence ol P (self blue if

heterozygous [(Re)(rE)], splashed
if homozygous [(Re)(Re)]
(rE) = self black if homozygous [(rE)(rE)]
In presence of P, blue if heterozy-
gous [(rE)(Re)] in presence of P.,
3(sex-linked) = barring in presence of P.
b(sex-linked) = non-barring.
b = indicates lack of synaptic mate of B

1

or b in the female

2

95-115.

NON-BARRED BLUE FEMALE

For ancestry, see Figs. 11 and 12.

The principal interest in the case illustrated in Figs. 11 to

16 lies in the fact that a standard bred and supposedly pure bred family should carry factors

normal to other breeds, and without being suspected.

On the basis of her offspring when
mated with a splashed Andalusian male
the formula of White Wyandotte 2031
must be, with regard to the same char-
acters—

pp (Re)(rE) Bb

Because this individual does not carry
P she is white and neither (Re), (rE),
nor B can find expression. However,
when mated with a splashed Andalusian
the theoretical result is as follows:

(Fig. 16.)

Photographs of the four kinds of in-
dividuals are shown herewith (Figs. 13,
14, 15 and 16). The expectation of
equal numbers of each kind appears to
have been closely approximated. The
exact numbers are not known, inas-
much as the appearance of barring was
entirely unexpected and a number of
dead chicks had been counted in the
down before the possibility suggested
itself that the occipital spot which was
appearing on the blue males was the

oe A 57M White Wyandotte 9 2031
PP (Re)(I I pp (Re)(rE) Bb
Offspring (1) Pp (Re)(Re) bB = Barred splashed 0 of M

2) Pp (Re)(rE) bB = Barred blue op of
b = Non-barred splashed 9 9
= Non-barred blue 9 9 M

3 Pp Re)
4 Pp (Re)|

M Equal
M numbers

Lippincott: Poultry,

juvenile expression of the barring fac-
tor, as found in Barred Plymouth Rock
chicks.

The principal interest in this case is
the fact that a standard red and sup-
posedly pure bred family should carry
factors normal to other breeds, and
without being suspected. How these
factors found their way into the germ
plasm is a matter of conjecture. It
would appear unlikely that they should
have been introduced through any of
the known ancestors of the breed, but
the history of the formation of the
Wyandotte breed appears to be some-
what hazy, and this is a possibility.

There is also the possibility, perhaps

and Pure Breeding 79

the probability, that cross breeding has
occurred at some time. The fact that
some individuals of this family, and all
of the few individuals of other families
that have been mated in a similar man-
ner, have not exhibited factors for these
foreign characters, seem to favor the
latter view. A cross with White Plym-
outh Rocks at some time in the past
might account for both the single combs
and the barring, since the latter variety
is single combed recessive white and
carries barring as a cryptomere. The
“blue” factor appears to be more fre-
quent in occurrence in this family than
the barring factor. How or when it
was introduced one can only guess.

Butter Fat vs. Body Fat

In 1906 a test of soiling crops was
made involving the entire dairy herd of
The Pennsylvania State College. The
crops tested were rye, wheat, alfalfa,
timothy and clover, oats, oats and peas,
and corn. Among the points under ob-
servation were the effects of these vari-
ous crops on the live weight of the
cows, quantity of milk produced, and
its fat content. The test involved
thirty-one cows and extended from
May 17 to August 28. Not all the cows
were on test during the entire time,
so the total number of observations
was 173.

When curves were plotted showing
the mean live weight and the mean fat
content for the various periods it was
found that “A gain in live weight is
in every instance accompanied by a de-
crease in the per cent of butter fat,
and a falling off in live weight in every
case but one accompanied by a gain
in the per cent of butter-fat.

Including the records of 1902 and
1904 with those of 1906, the only years
when similar observations were made,
it was found that “When the cows
gained in live weight their milk fell off

in richness and vice versa one hundred
and fifty-three times out of two hundred
and nineteen or almost exactly 70% of
the cases.”

At that time no attempt was made to
work out the correlation. This has since
been worked out and the correlation co-
efficient between increase or decrease
in live weight and increase or decrease
in fat content of milk for the 173 meas-
urements of 1906 found to be .47 with
a probable error of .039. The values in
live weight were taken by 10-pound
units and ranged from —40 to 40. The
values in fat content were taken by 5%
units and ranged from —2 to 2.

While the popular belief has been
that cows placing fat on their bodies
put less in the pail actual data to con-
firm it have been comparatively
meager. The influence of feed upon
fat content of milk has been pretty
generally denied, but this test would
indicate that some feeds tend to pro-
duce body fat while others either di-
rectly or indirectly increase the secretion
of milk fat—T. I. Marrs, State Col-
lege, Pa.

BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES II

The Story of a Family Belonging to the So-Called Middle Class Which in the
Course of Generations Has Broken Up into Lines Differing
Widely in Social Worth.

WILHELMINE E. Key

Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

LL that we win is a battle—lost

in advance—with the irreversi-
ble phenomena in the back-
ground of nature.’ So exclaims
one school of thinkers over the spectacle
of dead and decadent civilizations, while
the more hopeful view is voiced in some
such phrase as follows: “First and
foremost in the perpetuity of national
life is the element of belief —an undying
faith in human nature.” In a previous
paper we have already disclaimed any
need for such general and impersonal
laws of national development, finding
the real motive power to lie in the in-
teraction of certain personalities with
new combinations of environal charac-
ters. These characters, which con-
stituted the resources of the country, to-
gether with the new demands on the
individual such as adverse climatic con-
ditions, vast distances to be traversed,
savage enemies, human and otherwise,
have acted to bring to the fore and per-
petuate through physical and social se-
lection the trait-complexes best fitted to
cope with these conditions. The process
of Americanization was found to consist
primarily in the establishment of stand-
ards by certain regnant personalities,
and the more or less perfect approxi-
mation to these standards through edu-
cation on the part of the people.

It is proposed in this paper to ex-
amine, more minutely than.is usually
done, this process of approximation as
exemplified in the story of two immi-
grant families of something more than
a century ago. Fortunately the sector
of human development known as Amer-

80

ican history is narrow enough to per-
mit a view in relation to the individuals
which determined the dominating qual-
ity of its several epochs. We have not
yet outgrown the pioneering period of
our history; it only assumes new phases
from decade to decade, not the least
significant of its manifestations being
the behavior of “young America” in
the war just ended. However, for this
study we will take the story of two
families through five and six genera-
tions from their earliest planting on
American soil. We shall try to trace the
changes in social worth from generation
to generation, both in relation to the
economic and social opportunity en-
joyed, but also in relation to the type
of marriage its various members were
able to make. . We shall try to express
their worth in terms of their leading
traits and view their value as social
assets as reaction between these traits
and the environment. The study com-
prises nearly two thousand individuals,
about one-half of whom are in the direct
line of descent from two pairs of
pioneers, the remainder being members
of the families into which the direct
descendants married.

It is estimating character and ability
in the individual, chief reliance was
placed on the “social test ;” and by this
was meant sufficient physical and men-
tal soundness to understand the nature
and possibilities of his surroundings, to
react to them, to conceive social stand-
ards and bring his life in conformity to
such standards. While the appiication
of standard tests in a study of this sort

68 Oat

Key: Better American Families 81

is highly desirable, the impossibility of
using them on the majority of the per-
sons studied made it inadvisable to use
them at all. Moreover, the settled na-
ture of the communities where they
lived, with a fair sprinkling of intelli-
gent historians, gave conditions of opti-
mum value for the social test.

In the latter part of the eighteenth
century there came to what was then
the western edge of the American fron-
tier an immigrant, whom we will desig-
nate as Aaron Rufer, with his wife and
three small children. He was shrewd,
honest, plucky and persevering. He
never learned to read or write, but the
conditions of his will, which he signed
with a cross, show prudence and fore-
sight. He acquired 400 acres of fertile
land, which he farmed successfully for
thirty years. Aaron’s wife, Mary, was
totally lacking in sense of number or
quantity, for before he went to work in
the morning he always measured out
the proper amount of meat and vege-
tables for the family dinner; that done,
Mary could tend the fire until a “sort
of meal” was in readiness. Moreover,
she could neither sew, spin nor weave
acceptably, though she was obliging and
faithful to the simple tasks she was able
to perform.

From Aaron and his defective wife
were derived seven children, five of
whom were traced to the present gen-
eration. They are Isaac, faithful, plod-
ding, with little ability to plan or cal-
culate; Jared, shiftless and dishonest,
with little ability to plan or calculate;
Stephen, having a fair share of these
traits, but non-aggressive, though he
persevered in tasks set for him; and
Darius, who resembled Isaac. Dorcas
and Herman “didn’t know anything at
all.” In his will, Aaron provides ample
means and a guardian for them and
“the old woman,” the guardian to see
that these children did not marry.
Dorcas never did, but because Herman
had been left a good farm, designing
persons arranged a marriage with a
feeble-minded, sexually lax girl “in
order to give her a home.” Their four
children were very defective, two did

not marry, but two married descendants
of a couple to be described in the fol-
lowing paragraph.

Thomas and Martha Riel were settled
in an adjoining county, where they
owned a small farm. Both were very
tall and had great physical endurance.
Thomas came from a fair family but
had certain irresponsible tendencies,
which led him to slip away one night,
leaving to his wife the care of the farm
and their twelve children. The latter.
too, were known for their great stature
and strength, which in most of them
was combined with extreme shyness.
good nature and dullness. Two daugh-
ters married into stock of varied ca-
pacity, and their descendants made alli-
ances with those of Aaron and Mary
Rufer. Limited space forbids repeti-
tion of the anecdotes from which their
characteristics have been derived, but
stories like the following could be dup-
licated many times; Molly Riel, born
about 1810, lacking as she was, was still
superior to her husband in energy and
planfulness, and all that the scanty acres
yielded was owing to her. When the
census-taker exclaimed at her family
of twenty-one children and asked: “Are
they all bright?” she nonchalantly re-
plied: “Yes, tol’ably, considering how
many the’ is of them!” One of her
sons, who never married, used to say
in explanation: “I like Mam _ best.
Lucky for Pap that he set eyes on Mam
before I did; if I’d seen her first, Pap
would sure never have got her.” A
photograph of her sister shows her to
have been of large, powerful physique.
When her neighbor’s child fell into the
well, she went down after it, climbing
back with its dress held between her
teeth, while with her hands and feet she
clung to the sides. These two founded
strains of widely differing potentiality.
In early generations, mental develop-
ment was very slow; many who were
dubbed witless in their teens and twen-
ties later managed their own affairs.
And here, marriage into stocks showing
a normal rate of development has ap-
parently effected acceleration, so that
the mental unfolding comes increasingly

82 The Journal

early from generation to generation.
Their lines cross those of Aaron and
Mary Rufer, to an account of which we
now return.

Isaac, the eldest son, married a
woman of average ability who lacked
sex control and came from a family
showing nervous instability manifested
largely in alcoholism. Their six chil-
dren were very diverse, and through
their marriages gave rise to branches
(A in chart) widely divergent in re-
spect to these traits. Their mentally
deficient, immoral daughter, mating
with a sexually loose man, had children
with lack of sex control in the propor-
tion of two out of three. Later unions
with members of families showing
higher ability to plan and calculate
bring advance in these traits, but per-
sistence of the lack of sex-control. Two
members of generation III, who were
superior in calculating ability and per-
severance but low in aggressiveness,
married into strains with an average of
the traits, and the subsequent genera-
tions are considerably improved, except
where a defective daughter, through
marriage into a weak strain, carries on
the defect in number and perseverance.
The remaining members show a good
average of social worth, considerably
above that of three generations ago.

The wife of Jared, the second son,
was able, but sexually lax. Their only
daughter seems to have escaped the de-
fects of both father and mother and to
have founded a line B showing fair
enterprise and morality. Line C was
founded by the most able of the broth-
ers, Stephen, and his able, aggressive
wife, who came from stock having
these traits in good measure. Subse-
quent marriages into good strains Fave
brought complete elimination of the de-
fects of the founders and correspond-
ing economic worth. Line D, founded
by Darius, who closely resembled Isaac,
through marriage into sex-offending,
alcoholic, criminalistic stock, has broken
up into very degenerate branches.
There have been a number of marriages
here which were arranged as jokes by
outsiders, one notably of an epileptic

of Heredity

with an imbecile, which fortunately re-
sulted in only one daughter, for twenty
years an institutional case, the other
children having died. The most de-
generate branch arises where lack of
number sense and low aggressiveness
and perseverance mates with a low de-
gree of these traits combined with sex
offense. These defects persist in most
of the offspring, but with industry in
some cases, and sex control. However,
none of the trait-complexes from these
defective germ-plasms are such as to
produce social fitness; we have, as a
result, vagrancy, pauperism, prostitu-
tion and petty criminality. With one
exception its representatives are all at
large, a drain on the resources and a
menace to the moral and economic de-
velopment of their communities. Left
to themselves, its degenerate members
have gravitated toward degenerate off-
shoots of other mixed strains, their
mating producing an accentuation of
the defects of the parents.

The story of line E, founded by the
imbecilic Herman, differs from the pre-
ceding in that there has been nothing
but imbecility from the beginning.
After three generations, in which the
property has been dissipated, the sur-
viving representatives are happily end-
ing their days in a state institution.
This is the line in which marriage has
occurred with the defective descendants
of Thomas and Martha Riel, the casual
nature of which is illustrated by this
episode. Walking along a country road
a young girl met two boy acquaintances.

“Come, let’s get married,” said she to
one. He, however, demurred, where-
upon the other one agreed to do so, and
they went forthwith and were married.
This mating resulted in five children,
three of whom died of neglect; the
other two were cared for in institu-
tions at an expense of thousands of
dollars.

To recapitulate, we have here one of
nature’s experiments in selective mat-
ing, experiments repeated over and over
again, and ascertainable if we only give
the needed careful study. All mem-
bers carry defects. “We are none of us

ae ee ee eS

Key: Better American Families 83

perfect; no, not one.’ Are these de-
fects relatively few, or so slight as not
to seriously impair efficiency, the chance
of making good these defects in mar-
riage 1s correspondingly great. The trait
is thus strengthened and remains so un-
less there is subsequent marriage into
strains showing similar weakness or
defect. This process has resulted in
the practical blotting out of gross de-
fect in three lines (A, B and C) of this
net-work. On the other hand, when
defect has been marked, or a combina-
tion of minor weaknesses has entailed
social inadequacy, mating has usually
occurred with those equally defective.
Where these defects were similar we
have a fairly uniform type of unfitness ;
where dissimilar, the result is a diver-
sity of degenerate condition. This
process is illustrated by lines D and E.
Marriage was usually with early Amer-
ican stocks, and the sifting out which
has thus occurred has brought about an
approximation to the standards of the
older stocks on the part of the new-
comers, so far as their natural endow-
ment permitted. The examination of
eugenic conceptions operating in the va-
rious matings, the changes in educa-
tional and economic opportunity, which
came as “accident” or because of the
better endowment of the individual, are
too long and detailed to be given here.
It must suffice to say that the posses-
sion of the traits considered, in one
way or other, usually operated to secure
a greater range and better type of mar-
riage selection. The better ones in con-
sequence are continually pushing out
into newer sections of the country,
there developing its resources, while the
weaker remain behind to mate together,
accentuate defects and become a _ bur-
den on the public. This is graphically
shown in the diagram which gives the
relation of the various lines to migra-
tion.

The story told here has been repeated
many times in the history of American
settlement. While, no doubt, the wife

of Aaron was more defective than the
vast majority of pioneer wives, and the
level of most families belonging to the
Riel group lower than the average, still
the relative reaction of its various mem-
hers to the educational and economic
opportunity of their times remains the
same. The diverseness in ability sim-
ply serves to throw the history of the
lines into more vivid relief. There is
a well-defined sentiment against mar-
riage into the family in sections where
the defective and degenerate members
are found. On the other hand, the
abler members of the mixed strains feel
that stigma and seek to get away where
the family is not known. It is related
of one of them, that after living in the
west for some years, he returned and
sought to establish himself at the old
home. The effort proving vain, he is
said to have exclaimed: “Here I’m only
a damned Rufer! TIl go back west
where I am as good as anybody!” This
he did, and now owns two ranches, is
married and a school director, and the
father of promising children.

We thus see how heredity, in con-
junction with the physical and _ social
selection imposed through the environal
factors, operates to bring about con-
centration of positive characters in the
rise of abler lines, who seek to approxi-
mate their enterprises and manner of
life to the better standards established
by the dominating personalities of the
period. That the concomitant concen-
tration of defect in other lines does not
overwhelm the former process is due to
the fact that the survival rate of the
defective and degenerate families is be-
low that of the abler families. This at
least is true for the families studied
here, and is illustrative of ‘“Nature’s
method” of eliminating the socially un-
fit and insuring to the “fit” survival and
all that survival entails. Where physi-
cal and social conditions pertain that
encourage a reversal of this process, we
have decadence and death.

GOOD QUALITIES ARE CORRELATED

Hope for the Eugenist, and One Objection Answered

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

T is often gratuitously stated that the

aims of eugenists will be thwarted

because individuals and _ families

possessing rare and desirable quali-
ties are likely, in other important
ways, to be decidedly deficient. Ac-
cording to this theory, there is apt to
be compensation in the allotment of
human gifts. If ‘some are born fin-
gers, and some are born thumbs,” it is
assumed that persons over-endowed
with thumbs are nevertheless rugged
and sturdy and probably staunch in
moral fibre. This theory of compensa-
tion has been popularized by the emo-
tionally appealing and widely read essay
of Ralph Waldo Emerson, which bears
the title “Compensation.” The philos-
opher dealt chiefly with the problm of
happiness and its dependant spiritual
development, and here he may, or may
not, be right. However that may be, it
is a reasonable assumption that the
work of Emerson, as well as that of
hosts of other philosophers and preach-
ers, is responsible for the notion that
the poor, the sick, the stupid and the
generally unfortunate are “the pure in
heart,’ the hallowed possessors of di-
vinely bestowed virtues.

That the exact opposite happens to be
the truth, will not interest certain
types of emotional and sentimental re-
formers; but persons desirous of pro-
moting the science of heredity in its ap-
plication to human problems may be
interested in the evidence that accumu-
lates from time to time, all of which
points in one direction.

There is certainly a slowly growing
mass of statistical proof that important

1“Eugenics: Twelve
“Popular Science Monthly,
Mental and mor:

84

Oct.

University Lectures.”
1903, and ae in Royalty.”

mental and moral qualities are corre-
lated. The number of researches is not
very extensive, but they should not be
overlooked. Most writers on eugenics
appear to be unacquainted with the ma-
terial bearing on this matter and seem
thoughtless as to even the existence of
such a question. Among authors who
have recognized the significance of in-
dividual correlations in eugenic dis-
cussions may be mentioned E. L.
Thorndike and latterly to some extent
Popenoe and Johnson in “Applied Eu-
genics.”

Thorndike in his chapter “Eugenics :
With Special Reference to Intellect and
Character,” accepts the idea of a gen-
eral correlation of superior and desir-
able qualities, and quotes Woods* as
proving the correlation of intellect with
morality, and morality with fecundity,
in statistics gathered for measurements
of royal families, but does not
specifically mention subsequent re-
searches, all of which lead to the view
that the correlation of superior qualities
is probably a general principle of nature.

Thorndike states the matter as fol-
lows:

“If we breed horses for speed, they
are likely to lose in strength and vigor.
Do we run such risks in breeding men
for intellect, or for morals, or for skill ?
This question has been neglected by
the hortatory type of enthusiasts for
eugenics. It has not received the at-
tention it deserves from the real work-
ers for racial improvement, probably
because the psychological investigations
which answer it are little known. They
do, however, give a clear and important

New York, 1914.

New York, 1906,

Good Qualities

answer—that there is practically no
chance whatever of injury from select-
ive breeding within a race for intellect,
or for morality, or for mental health
and balance, or for energy, or for con-
structive’ ingenuity and skill —no risk
that the improvement of any one of
these will cause injury to any of them,
or to physical health or happiness.”

Among investigations tending to sup-
port this theory may be mentioned that
of Krueger and Spearman, reported in
the Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie in 1906.
The tests made by these authors were
five in number, and it should be noted
that they were of a nature involving
very dissimilar mental faculties. The
five tests were as follows

1. Distinction between
given tones.

2. Combination of
printed texts.

3. Establishment of the limits of the
sense of touch.

4. Addition of figures.

5. Ease of committing to
successive series of numbers.

In spite of the wide difference be-
tween having an ear especially sensitive
to musical tones, and a brain quick at
adding figures, the experimentees, who
were brilliant in one of these five di-
rections, were found on the average to
be brilliant in the other four.

Recent confirmation of this theory is
furnishel by W. H. Pyle in the Septem-
ber, 1918, number of the Journal of De-
linquenc: y.. He shows, in his article
“The Relation of Mental to Physical
Development,” that there is good evi-
dence that brighter children are also
both anatomically and physiologically
superior to children of mediocre men-
tality and that they are physically su-
perior to their duller schoolmates to an
even greater degree.*

The same issue of the Journal of De-
linquency has further evidence bearing
on the question of correlations within

pitches of

fragments of

memory

3 See also
p. 286.

“Body and Mind,” in the JourRNAL

are Correlated 85

individuals. Willis W. Clark, who is a
held-worker in the Whittier State
School for Truants, Whittier, Califor-
nia, finds that one-fourth of the white,
one-half of the colored, and one-half of
the Mexican Indian boys, committed to
the school were definitely feeble-
minded. Only 17.7 per cent of the
total number committed were of aver-
age-normal or superior intelligence,
Further proof is to be found the
July number of Mental Hygiene (page
445). Here Jessie D. Hodder, Superin-
tendent of the Reformatory for Women,
Framingham, Massachusetts, presents
statistics which show a slight though
measurable correlation between intel-
lectual superiority and freedom from
nervous defect. All of the 5,310 cases
were women committed to the insti-
tution for some form of criminality.
The author has classified these indi-
viduals into six grades for mentality,
(imbecile, moron, subnormal, dull, fair,
and good). The method used in classi-
fying is not given, but inasmuch as the
material is presented for a purpose
other than proving that good qualities
are correlated, we may assume that the
author has no bias towards such a
theory, and we may at least examine the
statistics from this standpoint. The
percentages of these criminal women
who show some form of nervous or
mental defect is very high (63.6 per

cent) and is itself a manifestation of the

joining together of bad qualities.
Furthermore, if we sum up the two
highest classes in mental grades we find
] 837 persons showing only 39 per cent
free from nervous defect, while the
three lowest mental classes, 2,390 in
number, give an even worse record, o1
only 34 per cent, free from some one of
the four forms of defect here classified
under the categories, neuropaths, psy-
chopaths, epileptics and hysterical.
Psychologists have also made tests
upon school children and college stu-

oF Herepity for June, 1917, Vol. viii,

86 The Journal

dents. The results are summed up in
the following quotation,* ““He who can
learn better than the average through
the eyes, tends to learn better than the
average through the ears; also he who
can attend to one thing better than all
other men, will be able to attend to many
things at once, or in rapid succession,
better than most of them. Artistic
ability, as in music, painting, or literary
creation, goes with scientific ability and
matter-of-fact wisdom. The best ab-
stract thinker will be above the average
in concrete thought also. The rapid
workers are the most accurate. Intel-
lectual ability and moral worth hang
together.

The correlations are, of course, not
perfect. A large degree of superiority
in one desirable trait may involve only a
slight superiority in many others. And
since the relations vary enormously
amongst individuals, a person highly
gifted in one respect will often, though
not usually, be very inferior in others.’”*

Thus we see that most of the really
important characteristics of human be-
ings—such unquestionably desirable at-
tributes, from the common-sense point
of aetie as health, intellect and morality
(here meaning all virtues in their
widest sense) are strongly correlated.
Special aptitudes are also correlated.
More than this, net fertility is corre-
lated with morality and consequently,
to some extent, with intellect also. Fur-
thermore, net fertility has been found
to be correlated with longevity, which is
itself hereditary to a very great extent.®

4 Thorndike, Edward L.:
Houghton, Mifflin, 1911.

5 See also B. R. Simpson:
bia, 1912, p. 122.

6 Beeton, Miss M., Yule, G. V.,
of Life and the Number of Offspring,

The material consisted of English and American Quaker families.
Duration of Life and Conditions Associated with Longevity

“Tndividuality,” Riverside Educational Monographs.

“Correlation of Mental

of Heredity

All these facts warrant us in assign-
ing an immence importance to the
whole principle of correlations within
the individual, and they present a little
appreciated though very optimistic out-
look for the future of eugenics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Betts, G..Hi = “The Distributiemedt
Functions of Mental Imagery,” Teach-
ers College, Columbia University Con-
tributions to Education, No. 26, 1909.

Bonser, F. G.: ‘The Reasoning Abil-
ity of Children of the Fourth, Fifth,
and Sixth School Grades,” do., No. an
1910.

Brown, W.: “Some Experimental
Results in the Correlation of Mental
Abilities.” British Journal of Psychol-
ogy, vol. 3, pp. 296-322, 1910.

Burt, C.:. “Experimental Tests of
General Intelligence. British Journal of
Psychology, vol. 3, pp. 94-177, 1909.

Spearman, C.: “General Intelligence,”
Objectively Determined. American Jour-
nal of Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 201-292,
1904.

Stern, W.: Ueber Psychologie der In-
dividuellen Differenzen, 1900.

Stern, W.: Die Differentielle Psy-
chologie, 1911.

Whitley, W. T.:.“An Empirical
Study of Certain Tests for Individual
Differences.” Archives of Psychology,
No. 19, LOTT:

Wissler,-C.: “The Cortelation ot
Mental and Physical Tests. Psychologi-
cal Review, Monograph Supplement,

No. 16, 1901.

Boston:

Abilities,” Teachers’ College, Colum-

and Pearson, K.: “On the Correlation Between Duration
” Proc. R. S., London, Vol. LX VII, 1900, pp. 159-171.

Also Bell, A. G.: “The

.’ Washington, 1918. 57 pp.

RESTRICTED ENTRY OF PLANTS
TO PROTECT AMERICAN CROPS

No Plants Completely Excluded by New Quarantine—U. S. Department of
Agriculture Explains Reasons for Far-Reaching Regulations
Which Go into Effect June 1, 1919,

ASHINGTON, D. C.—The ef-
\ \/ fective date (June 1, 1919) of
Plant Quarantine No. 37 will
mark the operation of new
and strict regulations governing the im-
portation into the United States of
plants and plant products. The quaran-
tine order has been promulgated by the
Secretary of Agriculture to check so far
as possible the introduction of more
dangerous crop enemies. Experts of
the Department of Agriculture estimate
that the losses caused by the pests al-
ready introduced, for the most part
through the agency of imported plants,
aggregate half a million dollars an-
nually.

Important provisions of the new
quarantine are as follows:

“Requires permits and compliance
with regulations for importation of lily
bulbs, lily-of-the-valley, narcissus, hya-
cinths, tulips, and crocus; stocks, cut-
tings, scions, and buds, of fruits for
propagation; rose stocks for propaga-
tion, including Manetti, Multiflora, Brier
Rose, and Rosa Rugosa; nuts, including
palm seeds, for propagation; seeds of
fruit, forest, ornamental, and shade
trees, seeds of deciduous and evergreen
ornamental shrubs, and seeds of hardy
perennial plants.

“Leaves unrestricted, except in spe-
cial cases, importation of fruits, vege-
tables, cereals, and other plant products
imported for medicinal, food or manu-
facturing purposes; and field, vegetable,
and flower seeds.

“Excludes, except as noted in next
paragraph, all other classes of plants
for propagation, including fruit trees,
grapevines, bush fruits, grafted and
budded roses, forest, ornamental and
deciduous trees, ornamental and decidu-
ous shrubs, pine trees of all kinds,

broad-leaved evergreens (such as aza-
leas and rhododendrons), and a long
list of plant material commonly known
as florists’ stock.

“Excluded plants may still be im-
ported through the agency of the De-
partment of Agriculture, in limited
quantities to supply the country with
novelties and necessary propagating
stock, such entry being safeguarded by
the highly-developed inspection and
quarantine service which has been or-
ganized by the department.”

The conditions of entry of these va-
rious classes of plants and plant prod-
ucts are given in the regulations under
the quarantine. A news letter giving
more detailed explanation of the con-
ditions governing importations still per-
mitted, shortly will be sent by the De-
partment of Agriculture to all horticul-
tural, nursery and florist trade journals.

Quarantine No. 37 represents years
of careful consideration given to the
subject by the experts of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and of the several
States, and of the interests concerned,
followed by a public hearing, and sub-
sequent further investigation and con-
sultation with the principal nurserymen
and florists of this country. The quar-
antine, therefore, embodies the best
judgment of the plant experts of the
department, and of the several states,
concurred in by most of the interests
engaged in actual plant production. It
voices the belief that the policy of prac-
tical exclusion of all stock not abso-
lutely essential to the horticultural,
floricultural and forestry needs of the
United States is the only one that
will give adequate protection against
additional introductions of dangerous
plant diseases and insects—U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

87

INBREEDING

Dr iG,

The author reports experimental work
in inbreeding Toggenburg and Erzge-
birge native goats, and in inbreeding
Friesian milk sheep. In the experi-
mental work with goats Pusch used 18
females and 9 males, making 42 matings
and obtaining 77 offspring. With the
sheep he used five ewes and one ram,
making five matings and producing
nine lambs.

The system of breeding followed by
Pusch with the goats was the mating of
a particular female with her sons for
several generations, thus greatly in-
tensifying the blood line and making
the animals very closely related.

EFFECTS APPARENTLY DYSGENIC

From two matings of a Toggenburg
mother and son two goats were pro-
duced that developed very badly and
showed chronic dizziness when mature.
A mating between daughter and sire
produced a kid of low vitality and with
chronic dropsy, confirmed by post-
mortem examination.

The effect on the numbers of offspring
produced was noticeable with this very
close inbreeding. The kids became
lighter in weight and also more defec-
tive in body development. The addi-
tion of the blood of another though still
closely related line increased the number
of offspring produced, but this increase
soon disappeared when the close in-
breeding was again practiced.

He reports one case in the Erzge-
birge gray goats in which a female
goat was mated with her son producing
Bruno 1. Bruno 1 mated with his
dam produced Bruno 2, and Bruno 2
mated with his dam produced Bruno 3.
From the first mating with her son she
gave birth to four kids. Of the four
progeny produced from this mating,
one was smothered while young, one

LIVE STOCK’

Puscu.

was sterile as a male, and the other two
were most excellent individuals in
every way. The same Erzgebirge was
mated four times to a Toggenburg male.
Three of the matings produced two kids
each, and one mating produced three
kids.

Five matings between brothers and
sisters in which five females and three
males were used showed most unfavor-
able results. From these matings six
kids resulted of which one was sound,
one epileptic, two born dead from
different mothers, one rickety, and
one showed very unsatisfactory de-
velopment.

In all the close inbreeding only one
goat did not become pregnant by her
son. She was proven to be fertile by
the fact that the next year she bore a
kid from another male. Her son was
likewise fertile with other females. In
several cases there was recognized a
distinct inclination to osteomalacia
(defective mineral metabolism in the
bones) in the offspring from close
mating, although care was taken to
give the animals proper feed and abun-
dant opportunity to exercise.

INBREEDING GIVES POOR RESULTS

In these experiments brother and
sister, sire and daughter, and dam and
son matings gave much more unsatis-
factory results than cross breeding, line
breeding, and moderate inbreeding.

The work with the goats he sum-
marizes as follows: Twelve cross-bred
matings gave 26 kids, 25 strong, 1 in-
ferior (3.85%). Nine line bred matings,
or moderate inbreeding, produced 18
kids, 15 satisfactory, 3 inferior (16.67%).
Twenty-one very close matings pro-
duced 33 kids, 15- satisfactory, 18 in-
ferior (54.50%).

Pusch summarizes his results with

‘Translated from the German by F. A. Hays, Delaware College Experiment Station,

Newark, Delaware.
88

Pusch: Inbreeding Live Stock 89

sheep as follows: The first four close
matings gave seven lambs of good con-
formation and development. Cross
breeding, on the other hand, gave two
lambs which did not develop well.

Summary.— Inbreeding creates homo-
zygous germ plasm, producing animals
that breed true, and tends to produce
uniformity in the breed. Deliberate
and moderate inbreeding has proved
itself necessary and useful in live stock
improvement, and the reproductive
capacity has been favorably influenced
thereby.

GENETICALLY SUPERIOR STOCK
NECESSARY

Success in inbreeding is only pos-
sible where breeding stock has a strong
constitution and perfect health. It is
not successful in breeds that are too
highly refined, and the feeding and
shelter must be given careful attention.
According to Pusch, if the above condi-
tions are not fulfilled, the offspring from

close matings may be over-refined in
skeleton, giving small yields of milk,
lacking in vitality, and showing low
fertility. Existing defects make in-
breeding especially dangerous. The cer-
tainty of inheritance applies to the
defects as well as the strong points of
the animals. Inbreeding, therefore,
requires continued and careful study of
the herd.

Very close inbreeding should be rec-
ommended only when special con-
siderations justify and when the breeder
is fully conscious of the possible out-
come. ‘There is an increasing tendency
to discourage such a method in Ger-
many. Moderate inbreeding and line
breeding have been used to good advan-
tage in Germany. Carelessness in ma-
tings and improper maintenance of the
animals have greatly increased the
dangers from inbreeding. Inbreeding
as a practice can only be carried on
profitably where all undesirable traits
have been avoided in the breeding stock.

Heredity of Cancer

It is, of course, only in accord with
common observation that tumors may
develop into sarcomata or other malig-
nant types of growth. The fact that
multiple fibroneuromata do so bears on
the question of “heredity of cancer,”
which is so much discussed.

This question is a perennial one. Of
late it has come to the fore because of
the doubt cast upon heredity of cancer
by life insurance actuaries and statis-
ticians using the method of mass sta-
tistics. On the other hand, new evi-
dence for the inheritance of cancer has
come from the experimental patholo-
gists who all agree that in mice there
are strains that cannot grow cancers
and others in which they grow rapidly.
The hereditary behavior of such strains
has even been investigated experiment-
ally by Tyzzer and Little. Now the
cancers of mice are so entirely like
those of man that it is extremely prob-
able that if the one has an hereditary
basis the other has also.

Another reason for the view that c1n-
cer is hereditary is that there are races
of men who are almost immune to can-

cers, such as the American Indian, full-
blooded negroes and some aborigines of
Australia and the Pacific Islands. Also,
there are racial peculiarities in the or-
gans affected by cancer; among the
Japanase women cancer of the genera-
tive organs is about as common as in
Great Britain, but cancer of the breast
only one-tenth as common. Also, we
cannot overlook the significance of such
facts as that of the occurrence of sar-
coma of the eyeball in three genera-
tions in the direct line and four in-
dividuals of the middle generation of
this family (Silcox, 1892).

Finally, the fact of cancer villages,
where there has been much intermar-
riage, is strong additional evidence of
the racial significance of liability to can-
cer. In view of all these considerations
we must consider the presence of an in-
heritable factor in cancer as practically
certain. But we are, neverthelss, very
far from a knowledge of the law of its
inheritableness. That is a matter for
future investigation Eugenics Record
Office Bulletin, No. 19, October, 1918.

RACE MIXTURE IN HAWAII

(Second Series)
VAUGHAN MACCAUGHEY

College of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawai

PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH

HE first paper of this series
dealt with the Chinese, the Jap-

anese and the Koreans. Por-

tuguese were imported as _ la-
borers for the sugar plantations, the
principal influx occurring about 1880.
They stand second only to the Chinese
in length of residence in Hawaii, and
now constitute the chief “white” labor.
In the case of both Portuguese and
Spanish a large percentage (50% or
more) of the original immigrants have
been dissatisfied with conditions of
labor in Hawaii and have emigrated to
California. Most of the Portuguese
were imported, at the expense of the
Government or planters, from Madeira
and Fayal. The immigration of foreign-
born Portuguese into Hawaii, to 1910,
has been as follows:

Previous to 1890........... 5000
TOOTH 1895 coe ood LO
1S96=1900 2 eo eee ee Le
E9O1=1905 5 est So eet LO
1906 ere ES
TSOP Bs yee, hs ee ee ee eS
19ODB EE ert sr eee ee LO
1909 =1910 2 ee he ee OU

There has been little immigration
since 1910. At present there are about
24,000 Portuguese in Hawaii, 3,400 of
whom are laborers on the sugar planta-
tions. In 1917 there were about 6,000
Portuguese children in the schools ; they
comprise 15% of the total school enroll-
ment and exceed all other nationalities
except the Japanese.

The Portuguese have about 3,000
registered voters in Hawaii and com-
prise politically the best element in
Hawaii's diverse immigrant population.

The marriages during a typical five-
year period (see previous paper for
data) have been as follows:

90

FULL-BLOODED FPORTUGUESE

Nationality of mate Men Women
Totaltmarriages/. ose eee 1,139 1,463
POLtUCHeSE ctu tc terete 991 991
American-Portuguese....... 0 1
British-Portuguese.......... 1 12
German-Portuguese......... 2 0
Swedish-Portuguese......... 1 0
Norwegian-Portuguese....... 1 0
Spanish-Portuguese......... 1 1
Mexican-Portuguese........ 1 1
Italian-Portuguese......... 0 5
Chinese-Portuguese......... 4 2
Japanese-Portuguese........ 1 0
Spanish «4; SA ore ee 20
Ataliansa72 See es Pee 0 1
Greeks. Eiicut aoe eee 1 0
Beenie >. sachs te 2 as Soc eee 6 0
Galicia ere Slee a te hee 1 2
Micxicani=aeesn.< Snes oo fora oe 1 0
Ameri Gare cs coca tae 6 194
British ec. Soden ck coe 3 15
Norwegian 93... 22 eee eee 1 4
SWedeGunne ns ke a ee 0) 4}
Dutch 0 1
Danes ger 7.0 haa eee ee 0 2
Germanzys<.... Sen eater 4 16
German Spanish’ sus.c. seve 1 0
AUSEEIANA sic a ee 1 1
Russiait. |. se een ee. ee 3 4
Chinese 27), site ne ee eee 0 11
JAPANESES.o is beeen nae eee 0 8
Koreans ovo 2 ace ee oe 0 9
Filipino’: jssace oc a ee 2 58
Porto:Ricanss. a see eet 3 24
Hawatiani: $< Ragen tie nvae ce ee 40 31
Caucasian-Hawatian........ 34 24
Chinese-Hawatian.......... 13 8
Japanese-Hawaiian.......... 1 0
south Sea Islander-3 22-240 0 1
Other nationalities............ 1 6

SUMMARY

1. The majority of Portuguese men
marry Portuguese. Their national pref-
erences, outside their own group, in
quantitative sequence are: Hawaiian,
Caucasian-Hawaiian, Spanish, Chinese-
Hawaiian.

MacCaughey: Race

2. No Portuguese men married full-
blooded Oriental women (Chinese, Jap-
anese, Koreans). Only 2 married Fil-
ipinos, whereas 58 Portuguese women
married Filipinos; 19 Portuguese men
married part-Oriental women.

3. Of the total marriages, both men
and women, 174 were with mates of
Polynesian or mixed Polynesian stock ;
259 were with mates of American or
North European stock; 67 were with
mates of South European stock (aside
from Portuguese).

4. Among the other significant fig-
ures, from the standpoint of race-ming-
ling, are these: 194 Portuguese women
were married by Americans, 58 by Fil-
ipinos, 28 by Orientals, 24 by Porto

Ricans, 63 by Hawaiians or _ part-
Hawaiians.
5. An appreciable percentage of

Hawaii's population is more or less in-
fused with Portuguese blood, as_ wit-
nessed by the marriages of full-blooded
Portuguese men and women with mates
cf mixed Portuguese blood.

PART PORTUGUESE

married a

1 Portuguese-Spanish woman

Mexican.

1 French-Portuguese woman married an
American.

1 German-Portuguese man married a Cau-

ca ian-Hawaiian.

German-Portuguese women married Amer-

icans.

German-Portuguese women married Ger-

mans.

German-Portuguese women married Cau-

casian-Hawalians.

1 Norwegian-Portuguese woman married a
German.

1 Danish-Portuguese woman married a Cau-
casian-Hawaiian.

2 British-Portuguese women married Amer-
Searls:

1 British-Portuguese
Swede.

2 Chinese-Portuguese women married Nor-
wegicn-Portuguese.

Ww 4

bo

woman married a

1 Chinese-Portuguese woman married a
Spaniard.
1 Chinese-Portuguese woman married an

Italian-Portuguese.

1 Chinese-Portuguese woman married a Cau-
ca ian-Hawaiian.

1 Japanese-Portuguese man married a Jap-
anese-Portuguese.

1 Japanese-Portuguese woman married a
Korean.

Mixture in Hawaii 91

These tables testify to a remarkable
breaking-down of “race barriers” in
Hawaii. The intermarrying of the
Portuguese with other peoples in Hawaii
is only exceeded by the Hawaiians and
the Americans. It is unfortunate that
we do not possess detailed accurate
eugenic data concerning the progeny of
these unions.

THE SPANISH

The Spanish in Hawaii are very much
like the Portuguese in character, intel-
lect, economic and social status. There
are only about 3,000 Spanish, many of
the original immigrants having “gone to
the coast.” Practically all were im-
ported originally to furnish cheap field
labor for the sugar plantations. The
Spanish school population has decreased
in recent years; it comprises less than
2% of the total school enrollment.

MARRIAGES, FULL-BLOODED SPANISII
(5-YEAR PERIOD)

Nationality of mate Men Women
Motalmarniages tess. snes eee CON 269
Spasish) 52. tee eee ee La 177
Pontupueses... cspaee se oe ae 20
RortouRicans = yc aan eee 5 11
Filipino. . 0 ZS
Poa 2 0
Caucasian-Hawaiian . 1 3
Chinese. 0 1
Chinese- Portuguese... 0 1
Japanese. . ihre ee 1 0
Korean tien c) cress eee 0 10
AINECH CAN Et... Moke tee ee 10
British. 0 4
French. ene see 1b 1
Gres oes Da ee 1
Norwepian cit Se an erent 1
Germans yea iit ate 0 1
Russian..... Lv Steere 2
Other nationalities. . po Ay 1
1 Pen Micke Guam woman married a
Portuguese.
1 Portuguese-Spanish woman married a
Norwegian.

1 British-Spanish man married a Caucasian-
Hawaiian.

1 British-Spanish woman married a Briton.

1 German-Spanish man married a Portu-
guese.

1 Indian-Spanish woman married an Amer-
ican.

SUMMARY

1. Most Spanish men married Span-
ish women. Spanish women marry
freely outside their nationality.

92 The Journal

2. A small amount of intermarry-
ing takes place between Spanish and
Portuguese.

3. A notable number of Spanish
women are married by Porto Ricans
and Filipinos.

4. The intermarrying between Spanish
and Hawaiian and part-Hawaiians is
very slight, especially when contrasted
with the Portuguese in this regard.

5. Practically no Spanish men marry
Oriental women; ten Spanish women
were married by Koreans.

6. Practically no Spanish men marry
Americans or Europeans (except Por-
tuguese). Spanish women have been
married by Americans and Europeans.

THE NATIVE HAWAIIANS

The primitive Hawaiians were Poly-
nesians, and part of the splendid Maori-
Samoan-Hawaiian brotherhood. This
group comprised one of the finest physi-
cal types known in the history of the
human race. For a detailed account of
the primitive Hawaiian physique, see
the author’s “Physique of the Ancient
Hawaiians” in the Scientific Monthly,
5: 166-74, August, 1917.

The present paper cannot deal with
the successive tragic stages in the ex-
tinction of the ancient Hawaiian, nor
can it analyze the complex and inex-
orable factors that so rapidly consumed
this noble race. In 1778 there were
probably no less than 300,000 native
Hawaiians, the sole inhabitants of “the
loveliest fleet of islands that lies an-
chored in any ocean.” Five decades
later, in 1823, the census showed only
142,000. At the close of another decade
the native population had dropped to
130,000. The next interval of thirty-
six years witnessed a frightful decrease
of two-thirds of the total population,
reducing the natives to 44,000. In 1900
there were but 30,000; the past eighteen
years have probably cut this nearly in
half. The official figures of the Board
of Health give 26,000 native Hawaiians
for 1910 and about 23,000 for 1917, a
decrease of 3,000 in seven years. All
of the above figures are for full-blooded
Hawaiians. The part-Hawaiian popu-
lation is given as 12,500 for 1910 and

of Heredity

16,000 for 1917, a marked increase,
which is growing steadily from year to
year. It should be noted that a very
considerable percentage of the persons
listed as “native Hawaiians,” especially
in later years, are not full-blooded
Polynesians. The natives have mar-
ried, with startling promiscuity, both in
and out of wedlock, with all the motley
hordes who have come to their shores.
Today it is practically impossible to de-
termine pure lines of descent. There
are probably not 10,000 pure-blooded
Hawaiians living today.

The first two gifts of the white man
to the Hawaiian were alcohol and vene-
real disease, and these have been pow-
erful agents in the demoralization of
the race. Other introduced bacterial
diseases—plague, measles, leprosy, tu-
berculosis, pneumonia, etc.—have hor-
ribly ravaged these susceptible people.
Foreign clothing, unsanitary housing,
immorality grossly encouraged by a
certain portion of the white population,
and an economic system to which the
Polynesian was absolutely unadapted—
these factors have all contributed to
wipe out a human type that had many
physical, mental and spiritual attributes
of lovely and superior quality.

The marriages of the Hawaiians and
part-Hawaiians, during a typical five-
year period (see previous paper for
data) are tabulated on (Table I) oppo-
site page. The period, 1913-1917, is
the same throughout the papers in this
series, so that the data are comparable.

SUMMARY

1. Most Hawaiian men marry Ha-
waiians. Hawaiian women marry freely
outside their own race.

2. Notable among the racial prefer-
ences of Hawaiian men are their mar-
riages with Caucasian-Hawaiians, Chi-
nese-Hawalians, and Portuguese.

3. Hawaiian women were selected by
the following nationalities, in order:
Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawaiian, Chi-
nese, Chinese-Hawaiian, American, Fil-
ipino, Korean, Portuguese, Japanese.

4. Of special note is the large amount
of intermarrying between the various

MacCaughey: Race

Mixture in Hawaii 93

TABLE I

Hawaiian Chinese-Haw'n | Caucas-Haw’n.
Nationality of mate ie
Men |Women| Men | Women; Men | Women

Mea lemanMeeeS: yala cals bjs avec iacrss «aml dp 250 1,694 173 240 444 625
EPA ALAM Senate Sori tss scccosaeeross os s| L007 1,007 82 72 144 124
Ghinese-Hawatian:.. 3... .05) ccs ee UP 82 27 27 36 47
Japanese-Hawailian........2...0..5.- 0 3 0 1 1 3
Koreafi-Hawanan..,....52..00.005. 0 0 0 1 oO | 0
HMITOINOStLAWAMAM': «cc sees «ore sie ee « 0 0 0 0 | 1 1
Saeasian-naWwallan. . see ce cee a- «+ oe 124 144 47 300 | eto 197
PMICAMAAWAIATI 8 cl eras os) slases « 1 0 0) 0 0 0
Mawauan-Alaskati. | .).060... oss. oe « ‘Spal 2 0 0 0 0
Saunmoca islander... .. 22. .00.. 00. 2° 1 0 0 0 ty)
(CTRSTER 2 ot 9 ie SO CE a a 140 il 59 1 27
Chinese-Portuguese.............2... 1 0 0 0 1 1
(SSS ee 2 27 0 7 2 4
Lior val 2 0 a0 eee ee 0 SYA) 0 5 0 2
BEG be 2 sa er 1 65 | 0 4 1 4
Smee Neer en tk ocd. a ese 0 | 0 0 3 1
[PNAC RUSSO Bai aa Geta tn aes 30 40 | 8 15 24 34
RE CAUY yermet hag oe sk aG.n a tan ees 0 3 0 0 1 0
fo ADRS pe a ee 6 78 | We 15 19 136
[Britis 3 Gie.oe Brot aeg cA eeeee 0 17 0 | 1 4 18
ISO PATUSH 40 «cis avis seid on ee 0 0 0 0 0 1
oT) Gp oy wenger ea ass Sicha eas es 0 0 0 0 1 2
[EES SSI 2a See gee ae 0 0 0 Orn 1 0
SWISE. 6b aac e/g oth tid ao ERROR En 0 1 0 oO | 0 0
\ GERTTDGEL 33 Bo oes BOS eee 0 16 0 ae © 19
remiian-F Orbuguese. oo... eke es ee ae 0 0 0 -0O | z 1

A USIT DEIN 6. ces oto Oa Sea 0 1 0 0 0 0
ETE ae 0 0 0 Gi 0 1
LOETANS win Sadana oon: a 0 1 0 0 | 0 0
MIOEW COLA RAM ee nas ioe aldo k's seuss 1 4 0 Ont | 2
SEGA S a ane ace, ea oe 0 4 0 ae | OF 4
USISSG i ieee a ae 1 0 1 oO | a) 0
Other nationalitiess: we oun. cc. cee «os 3 0 0 0 0. 2

European stocks and the Hawaiian and
part-Hawaiian, giving rise to an unique
European-Polynesian-Asiatic blend.

5. Two hundred and fifty-five Amer-
icans married Hawalian or part-Ha-
Waiian mates; of these 26 were Ameri-
can women.

6. In view of the fact that Japanese

comprise over 50% (over 100,000) of
the total population of Hawaii, the al-
most negligible degree of intermarrying
with the Hawaiian stock is extraordi-
nary. Only 4 Hawaiian or part-Hawaiian
men married Japanese women, and only
32 Japanese men married Hawaiians
or part-Hawaiians.*

‘A valuable sociologic and eugenic analysis of the Hawaiian-Caucasian-Chinese blend

has been made by Ernest J. Deece (Amer. Jour. Sociology, 20: 104-116, July, 1914).

The

reader is referred to this very interesting and suggestive paper, with the conclusions of which

the present writer fully agrees.

Those readers who are interested in the decline of the Hawaiian people are referred
to W. F. Blackman’s “The Making of Hawaii,” for much instructive sociological data.

94 The Journal

AMERICANS, BRITISH, GERMANS

The “white” population of Hawaii

numbers about 25,000, classed as
follows:

Army and: Navvicc ar acon waaeeee 7,000

Americans,. Civilians: <...2.eer 16,000

British: |... san se ke eee 1,000

Germans << cc ee cceee 1,000

During the period following the dis-
covery of Hawaii by Captain Cook
(1778), British influence became pro-
nounced, and many English and Scotch
came to Hawaii. At the present time
many of the old plantation managers
are Scotchmen, and before the war there
was a slender but constant migration
from Scotland to Hawaii. In Van-
couver’s time the Hawaiian chiefs ceded
the islands to Great Britain, but this
action was not ratified by Parliament.

The political destinies of Hawaii were
sealed by the arrival of the American
missionaries in 1820, and the develop-
ment of the North Pacific whaling in-
dustry in later years. For over a cen-
tury Americans have shaped and con-
trolled the life of Hawaii. During the
middle of the nineteenth century, when
Prussia began her futile dream of
world-empire, German trading stations
were established in Hawaii. With the
rapid growth of the sugar industry these
posts became powerful commercial agen-
cies of strategic Pan-Germanistic value.
This fact was demonstrated during the
recent war, during which the German-
“American” community of Hawaii was
a veritable hotbed of espionage, dis-
loyalty, treason, and criminal acts.
Virulent disease germs were secretly
disseminated under direction of the Ger-
man consulate, and were only controlled
by the prompt and drastic action of the
territorial authorities.

The preceding brief sketch will indi-
cate the origin and character of the
American, British, and German groups
in Hawaii. Most of the industrial, finan-
cial, mercantile, and professional leader-
ship in Hawaii resides in the American-
British group. A considerable percentage
of the German colony is of low-grade
peasant origin and ranks with the
Spanish and Portuguese. Table II

of Heredity

(page 95), showing marriages during
the five-year period 1913-1917, is simi-
lar to those of previous papers in this
series and the data are comparable.

SUMMARY

1. Only one-half of the American
men married Americans; most of the
American women married Americans.
In numerical order, American men mar-
ried Americans, Portuguese, Caucasian-
Hawaiians, Hawaiians, British, Ger-
man, Chinese-Hawalians, and Porto
Ricans.

2. Only 13 American men and 3
American women married Asiatics;
15 American men married Chinese-
Hawaiians; 223 married women of
Hawaiian or part-Hawaiian blood.

3. The 116 American women who did
not marry American men married, in
order: British, Caucasian-Hawaiians,
Germans, Hawaiians, Portuguese.

4. British men married, in order:
Americans, British, Caucasian-Hawai-
ians, Hawaiians, Portuguese, German,
Norwegian. British women married, in
order: British, Americans, Caucasian-
Hawaiians, German, Portuguese.

5. Most Germans married others than
Germans; in order: American, Cauca-
sian-Hawatians, Portuguese, Hawaiians,
British.

6. These tables show
blends that are occurring between
American-British-German stocks and
such stocks as the Hawaiians, part-
Hawaiians, and Portuguese. The direct
blending with Asiatic stocks is almost
negligible, although considerable inter-
mixture is taking place via the Chinese-
Hawaiians.

From the eugenic standpoint there
can be no doubt that many, if not most,
of the intermarriages of the American
and North European stocks with dark-
skinned peoples are biologically waste-
ful. The Englishman, for example, who
marries a Hawaiian, a Hindu, or a
Chinese, may have offspring of superior
quality, but most of the Caucasian-Ha-
Waiians seem to blend the least desirable
traits of both parents. The English-

the definite

MacCaughey: Race Mixture in Hawaii 95
TABLE IT
American " British German
Nationality of mate |
Men |Women} Men | Women | Men | Women
Mepalmarnages...'....... 00.1... Me. 1,089 640 206 126 | 109 71
ECORV eso had aes eaten es +> 524 524 63 49 | 9 19
American-Portuguese............... 0 0 1 0 | 0 0
Pein SMO Rr NGS. oar aiic. seston Mele pce as 49 63 58 58 4 9
MSEIGISH-POLEMSUCSE. . oo cacc cee ee ee es 2 0 0 0 0 0
Pritam PISD Se ee ee 0 0 1 0 0 0
LN EUTELSLSS le ROI Ee 10 0 4 1 1 0
rench-POrtugueses <...........6+-- 1 0 0 Ve 0 0
(2 LSU err 2 0 1 oO | 0 1
‘CEREEL Sie 2, Ee ce OR RSE 0 0 1 1 1 0
INEZ hiiss, 8 a iste ir aa 0 0 1 Om) 0 0
Lo 1 16 8 9 3 | 2 25
German-Portuguese................. 4 0 0 0 3 0
German-Japanese. ... 0.0552. .00- 5. Ou" 0 0 0 0
EMU SUEIADE PRR iar... = ales cases Gwe + 3 1 0 1 5 2
IDBNGES Gallet Ae ne ee eee eee 3 0 0 1 0 0
WANE“ROGHISTIESE. << os os siees 6 ans « 0 0 1 0 0 0
| NOES 5 Ors ee, ae 8 4 5 1 2 2
Norwegian-Portuguese.............. 0 0 0 0 1 0
SIMBIOS Ai & hoo ORR enn ane 2 2 1 1 0 0
IPSESSNM Silo RIBS 010 oD Ge Ree SR eee 2 0 0 1 2 1
NAD Ot rn ie oa sw a8. « ahade d's 78 6 iW) 0 17 0
GANCaASiAn- Ta Watlats se 25.022 fe <r a: 130 19 18 4 19 3
@hinese Hawatiami.... ac. .6 os... Pals 1 1 0 2 0
[P/OIHTUARIECESS SN ai rc el ee ee 194 6 15 3 17 5
Mexican-Portuguese................ 1 0 0 0 0 0
‘SEEGRGIT « 7 GIO At Repti on Gace cee = eee 10 0 4 0 1 0
POM AIPAIISN eke ee ee 1 0 0 0 0 0
[2eaye Pia] RETEST, og ee En on a a a 15 0 0 0 1 0
(CUTESS . sales 6 Bgnele ASS eer 6 1 1 0 0 0
Whinese-American:...... 0.0... 5.es5 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
) AVDANRES ES 5 OE cach eee eee eee 2 1 1 0 0 0
[Nias 2 GigaOm Re” | See ene 0 0 0 0 1 0
7 LE NIN eel oa len. 4 1 2 0 1 2
WME nALONAlIES \. 2 suc 05 fe<'ce cee 1 5 0 1 1 3

man who marries an Englishwoman is
more likely (all other factors being
equal) to perpetuate the most desirable
traits and traditions of his people. The
large “half-white” population that has
sprung up wherever the white man has
gone among dark-skinned peoples testi-
fies to the enormous squandering of the
hereditary physical, psychic, and racial
traits of the North European.

The author’s mature conclusion, after

a decade of intensive observation in
Hawaii’s microcosmic melting-pot, is
that biological race mingling is desirable
only when it is identified with normal
Christian home life, and only when the
contracting parties are superior speci-
mens of their respective racial types.
Most biologic race-mingling, throughout
all history, has occurred under condi-
tions which have heavily discounted the
eugenic value of such mingling.

a en ee ee Re Be em a

APPLIED BUGENICS

By
CAPTAIN PAUL POPENOE, U. S. A.

Former Editor of the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic
Association), Washington, D. C.

and

ROSWELL HILL JOHNSON

Professor in the University of Pittsburgh

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! ‘The results of all the trustworthy observations and
experiments have been taken into account

This book should command the attention not only of
l students of sociology, but, as well, of philanthropists,
| social workers, settlement wardens, doctors, clergy-
| men, educators, editors, publicists, Y. M. C. A. sec-
| retaries and industrial engineers. It ought to lie at
| the elbow of law-makers, statesmen, poor relief offi-
cials, immigration inspectors, judges of juvenile courts,
probation officers, members of state boards of con-
| trol and heads of charitable and correctional insti-
| tutions. Finally, the thoughtful ought to find in it
| guidance in their problem of mating. It will inspire
| the superior to rise above certain worldly ideals of life
and to aim at the family success rather than an
| individual success.—From the introduction by Edward
| Alsworth Ross, Professor of Sociology in the Univer-
| sity of Wisconsin.

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Price, $2.10

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK

ee ee St eg) ag og

EE OE EE OE OE ES A mm I I

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. X, No. 3 March, 1919

CONTENTS

The Founders of the Art of Breeding, by Herbert F. Roberts............ 99
Better American Families II, by Wilhelmine E. Key................... 107
Mutations in the Jimson Weed, by A. F. Blakeslee and B. T. Avery, Jr... 111
The Determination of Disputed Parentage as a Factor in Reducing
inant Wortality, by Roswell. H. Johnson”...-52+-5sc Jee eee 121
Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics, by Prescott F. Hall...... 125
Two Striking Color Variations in the Green Frog, by P. W. Whiting... 127
Bud Variations in Sugar Cane, by Carl S. Pomeroy..:...../............ 129
Newsiillaritose, by W: VanjPleet:. 3.3...) ee ne eee 136
Biology and Politics, by Walter Sonmeberg?.... 242.7824 2 ee ees 139
The Increase, Diffusion, and Decline of the Mayflower and Other New
Pucland stock, by, j-. Gardner Bartlett... 124-4) siae kee 141
Variation, Selection and Mutation in One of the Protozoa............. 143
NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918. Vol. IX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Or-
gan of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, April 25, 1919.

oY

FOREST OF OLD DATE PALMS IN THE SAHARA

The photograph illustrates what was perhaps the first home of the breeders of
plants, from four to six thousand years before our era.. (From Bull. 53, Bur.

of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) (Frontispiece.)

tae FOUNDERS.LOF
THE ART OF BREEDING

HERBERT F.

Kansas State

ROBERTS

Agricultural College

FIRST HOME OF BREEDERS OF PLANTS

XACTLY where or when men

first began to practice agricul-

ture, and to bring into cultiva-

tion and domestication the plants
and animals they found about them, no
one can tell. It is certain, however,
that one of the earliest homes of civil-
ized man upon earth was in the lower
basin of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
in southwestern Asia, the site of the
biblical “Garden of Eden,” known
locally today by the Arabic name of
Sirag.”’

From four to six thousand years
before our era, and at least fifteen hun-
dred years before the days of the Jew-
ish patriarch Abraham, this region was
occupied by an already ancient, orderly
and settled civilization, possessing cul-
tivated plants and domestic animals.
Indeed, there is little reason to doubt
that the low alluvial plain fed by the
“waters of Babylon” was the scene of
one of the very first of man’s attempts
at the improvement of plants, for it is
known that, at the earliest time re-
corded in human history, the cultiva-
tion of the date palm was being carried
on in this region.

DATE CULTURE IN ANCIENT BABYLONIA

AND ASSYRIA

The history of the date palm typifes,
better than that of almost any other
plant, man’s relation to the plant world
as a moulder of its cultivated forms.
The great extent of the culture of dates
in Mesopotamia in ancient times, 1s
made very plain to us from the many
Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions.
The monuments of these ancient em-
pires show not only the methods of cul-
ture and the serving of the date as food,
but even the process of hand pollina-
tion (10).

Krom the ruins of Nineveh there
comes, for example, an inscribed mon-
ument of Ashurbanipal, who lived about
650 B. C., king of Assyria at the zenith
of its power, ‘the Sat ‘danapalus of the
Greeks, and the “Grand Monarque” of
the ancient world.

In this bas-relief he is represented
upon a couch in his garden. Over his
head stretch the loaded garlands of the
grape vine, while to the rear stands
a date palm laden with fruit.

The tremendous economic value of
this remarkable tree, even in those early
times, is attested by a Babylonian hymn,
quoted by both Pliny and Strabo, which
recites three hundred and sixty uses for
the plant. As late as the thirteenth
century, the celebrated traveler, Marco
Polo, speaks of “a great city called
Bastra (modern Busreh) surrounded
by woods, in which grow the best dates
in the world.”

WHY MEN

FROM THE

LEARNED PLANT BREEDING
DATE PALM

It had probably always been recog-
nized, since animals -were first exten-
sively domesticated, that the fact of sex
lay at the basis of whatever improve-
ment in their characters man could
bring about, for the reason that, in ani-
mals, “breeding” has always meant the
use of superior animals (usually supe-
rior males) in crossing. In plants, how-
ever, the existence of sex is less evident
than in the case of animals, partly be-
cause of the fact that in most plants
the sexes are not separated. But in the
date palm, we have at once a plant of

supreme economic value in certain
regions, and one in which the sexes
exist separately as in all the higher

animals. Indeed it came to be recog-

nized, from the earliest times, that date

trees were of two kinds, sterile and
99

THE BREEDING OF DATE PALMS

Cluster of female flowers being tied together to hold the sprig of male flowers in place. It
I 1 from earliest times that date trees were of two kinds, sterile and fruit-
bearing, ¢ at the product of the sterile trees was needed to insure the bearing of fruit.
From Bull. 53, Bur. of Plant Industry. Loaned by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) (Fig. 1.)

Roberts: The Founders
fruit-bearing, and that the product of
the sterile (male) trees was needed in
order to insure the bearing of fruit by
the other (female) trees.

Kazwini (5), the Arabic writer on
natural history, says of the date, “It
is created out of the same substances
as Adam, and is the only tree that is
artificially fertilized.” The seeds of
the date produce about half and half,
male and female trees. The female
trees are wind pollinated, and there
would, therefore, easily be enough male
trees to fertilize them under natural
wild conditions. However, under cul-
tivation, the growing of such a large
proportion of non-fruit-bearing or male
trees, would be a very wasteful use of
the land, and we find that as early as
Babylonian and Assyrian times it was
discovered that the pollen from a small
number of male trees could be made to
suffice for fertilizing a considerable
number of female trees, by substituting
hand pollination for the natural method.
At the present time, according to
Swingle (10) the proportion used 1
planting is about one male to one hun-
dred female trees.

VARIATION AND SELECTION OF DATE PALM

It was soon learned that, when the
seeds from the fruits thus obtained
by fertilization were planted, the off-
spring could no more be depended upon
to bear fruits like those of the mother
tree than can the seedlings of our mod-
ern “budded” peaches, apples, or pears.
As a matter of fact, the seedlings com-
ing from any given variety of date show
a very wide range of variation, and it
is said that the original parent type
seldom reappears among the seed-
lings (10).

This diversity of type among seed-
ling dates has led to the establishment
of a great number of varieties in cul-
tivation. From four cases of the Sa-
hara alone, over four hundred distinct
varieties of date palms are reported,
which vary greatly in the size, shape
and flavor of the fruits, some being
round, some oval, others slender and
elongated. In color the fruits vary
from light brown to deep black. Some

of the Art of Breeding 101

varieties ripen dry, and furnish a staple
food product useful for long journeys.
Others are so soft and syrupy that they
must be eaten fresh.

Thus we see that, through the me-
dium of the date palm, man, in one of
his earliest homes, learned two great
facts upon which all plant improvement
rests—the fact of variation, which
makes selection possible, and the fact
of plant sex, upon which “plant breed-

ing’ in the true sense is based.
DISCOVERY OF SEX IN PLANTS THE
LESSON THAT WAS LOST

We have seen that the Babylonians
understand that the date palms were of
two sorts, male and female by nature,
and that they utilized this knowledge
in a practical way by resorting to arti-
ficial pollination of the female trees in
order to make them bear more abun-
dantly. We also know that the Arabs
have continued this practice uninter-
ruptedly to the present time. Indeed
they seem to have had a distinct under-
standing that the date palm possessed
sex in the same sense in which it exists
in the animal kingdom. Kazwini, who
died about 682 A. D., and to whom ref-
erence has already been made, says
plainly in his book: “Of the marvels of
Nature, and of the Singularities of
Creating Things,” the date has a strik-
ing resemblance to man, through the
beauty of its erect and slender figure,
its division into two distinct sexes, and
the property, which is peculiar to it, of
being fecundated by a sort of union.’

How ever, the lesson which the date
palm might have taught men—that all
plants possess sex, and hence that
breeding can be conducted with them
as with animals—appears to have been
lost. Even in those regions where the
date was grown, the idea which the
long-continued practice of artificial pol-
lination ought to have suggested—that
it was possible to breed and improve
other plants in like manner—seems
never to have arisen. One would natu-
rally suppose that the ancient Babylon-
ians, having learned the art of artificial
crossing in the case of one plant, would
have applied the same process to others.

THE POLLINATION OF THE DATE PALM

separately as in all the higher animals. Arabs inserting a
ull. 53, Bur. of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

R. J. CAMERARIUS

In 1694, Camerarius wrote an extraordinary “‘letter’’ to his friend Professor Valentin. This
letter fills some fifty printed pages, is entitled ‘‘De Sexu Plantarum Epistola.”’ (Fig. 3.)

104

The reason for their failure to do so is,
however, in a measure explainable. No
other important plants with which they
came into contact in their fields ex-
hibited a similar striking division into
two distinct sexes. For example, they
did not chance to possess at the same
time a plant like Indian corn, in which
the sexes are at least partially sepa-
rated, in which pollination is a conspic-
uous fact, and in which crossing not
only can be seen to be continually tak-
ing place in nature but can likewise
easily be carried out by artificial meth-
ods. Otherwise it is possible that a
further advance would have been made
in plant breeding, even in those early
times. As a matter of fact, no second
lesson was learned. The book was
closed, and the land of Babylonia, where
the first plant breeders lived, became
the desert which it remains-to this day.
Literally, in the words of they Prophet
Jeremiah, “Her cities are a desolation,
a dry land and a wilderness.”

BEGINNING OF THE NEW LESSON

Ages of oblivion had rolled over the
land where nature taught men their
first lesson in plant breeding. Nearly
all that we commonly call the history
of the world had taken place. On the
25th of August, 1694, in his laboratory
in the University Tubingen, in South
Germany, Rudolph Jacob Camerer,
Professor of Natural Philosophy, bet-
ter known to science under his latinized
name of Camerarius, finished the writ-
ing of an extremely long letter to his
friend, Professor Michael Bernhard
Valentin, of the University of Giessen.
This extraordinary “letter,” which fills
some fifty printed pages, is entitled
“De Sexu Plantarum Epistola’’ It
recounts at length, not only the knowl-
edge, slender enough though it was on
this subject, which existed up to his
time, but gives a full description of
Camerarius’ now extensive experimental
work.

It is almost incredible, but it is a fact,
that this constitutes the first piece of
acual scientific investigation into the
quesion of the existence of sex in plants

*Letter concerning the sex of plants.

The Journal of Heredity

that had ever been made, since the date
palm had thrown out its first plain and
single suggestion more than seven thou-
sand years before.

The Greek and Roman writers on
natural history, Aristotle (1), Pliny
(8), and Theophrastus (11), had com-
mented on the supposed nature of sex
in plants; Theophrastus, and especially
Pliny, even citing plainly and definitely
the case of the date palm; but it is evi-
dent, from the vague and contradictory
nature of their views, that they carried
on no experiments to determine the
facts. This was exactly, however, what
Camerarius did.

He was the first botanist to discover
by actual experiment that the pollen is
indispensable to the fertilization of the
seeds, and that the pollen-producing
flowers or plants are therefore male,
and the seed-bearing ones female, in
nature. Camerarius conducted his ex-
periments with spinach, hemp, and
hops, in which the pollen and seed-bear-
ing plants are distinct, and with Indian
corn, or maize. He was likewise the
first botanist to discover, two hundred
years after maize had been introduced
into Europe from America, what seems
to us a simple and every-day fact, that
on removing the pollen-bearing flowers
from the tassel of an isolated corn plant
the seeds on the ears remained unfer-
tilized.

PREPARING WAY FOR BREEDERS

The outcome of his experiments, to-
gether with the results obtained with
the other plants mentioned, enabled
Camerarius (2) to come to this conclu-
sion regarding sex in plants (p. 28):

“They behave indeed to each other
as male and female, and are otherwise
not different from one another. They
are thus distinguished with respect to
sex, and this is not to be understood,
as is ordinarily done, as a sort of com-
parison, analogy, or figure of speech,
but is to be taken actually and literally
as such.”

We have thus reached another defi-
nite landmark in plant breeding. First,
the date palm suggested the idea that

JOANN. GEORG. GMELIN

MED. D.

SERMO ACADEMICYVS
DE

NOVORVM
VEGETABILIVM

POST CREATIONEM DIVINAM

EXORTV

Pee KIL. AVG. clolocexiix
PVBLICE RECITATVS

ADDVNTVR

PROGRAMMA AD PANEGYRIN
HANCINVITANS

ET PROPTER MATERIA NEXVM

D. RVD. IAC. CAMERARII

PROF. OLIM TVBING. LONGE CELEB,
ap D. MICH. BERN. VALENTINI
PROF. GIESS.

DE

SEXV PLANTARVM
EPISTOLA.

TVBINGA LITERIS ERHARDTIANIS.

CAMERARIUS’ TITLE PAGE

Introductory page to Camerarius’ published letter upon sex in plants,
written in 1694. (Fig. 4.

106

plants possess sex as do animals, but
nota single experiment is recorded until
Camerarius, attacking the problem in
the modern way, by means of an ex:
perimental garden and a microscope,
found that sex actually exists in plants
as it exists in animals. The knowledge
of this fact opened the way for the
work of experimental plant breeding.
As we have seen, “plant breeding,”
strictly so-called, means the production
of new types of plants as the result of
crossing. Therefore, the science of
breeding involves a knowledge of, first,
the fact of sex, and second, of the be-
havior of hybrids. Thus the barrier
to progress in plant breeding was re-
moved by Camerarius’ discovery of sex
in plants.

Nor did his searching mind fail to
sense the great possibilities latent in
the field of hybridization which were
involved in this discovery, for he says
in passing (p. 49)

“The aifheult question, which is also
a new one, is whether a female plant
can be fertilized by a male of another
kind, the female hemp by the male
hops; the castor bean from which one
has removed the staminate flowers,
through pollination with the pollen of
Turkish wheat (maize); and whether,
and in what degree altered, a seedling
will arise therefrom.”

In this striking sentence we find out-
lined, although in fantastic guise, the
germinal conception which underlies all
plant breeding, viz., the creation,
through crossing, of new and hitherto
unknown types. In this brief para-
graph we glimpse the fresh spirit of a
new era of scientific investigation.

Camerarius, however, seems never
himself to have attempted the artificial
crossing of plants, and it was a full
hundred years before his discovery re-
garding sex in plants received any rec-
ognition whatsoever, and before we find
the first recorded instance of an actual
experiment in hybridization.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.). For his views
on sex in plants, see Sachs, “History of

The Journal of Heredity

Botany 1530-1860,” p. 376. (Trans. from the
German by Garnsey and Balfour, Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1906), and further, Ernst
Meyer, *Jeschichte der Botanik” (History of
Botany), p. 98, cited by Sachs.

2. Camerarius, R. J. (1665-1721) : “De sexu
plantarum epistola” (“Concerning the Sex
of Plants). Translated into German, by M.
Mobius, in Ostwald’s “Klassiker der Exakten
Wissenschaften” (Classics of the Exact Sci-
ences.) Leipzig, Germany. Wilhelm Engel-
mann (1899),

3. Fairchild, David G.: Persian Gulf Dates
and Their Introduction Into America.” U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Ind.
Bull. 54 (December 19, 1963).

4. Hohn, Victor: “Kulturpflanzen and
Haustiere in ihren “Ubergang aus Asien nach
Griechenland und Italien, so wie in das
ubrige Europa” (cultivated plants and do-
mestic animals in their transition from Asia
to Greece and Italy, as well as into the rest
of Europe). 8th Ed. Berlin (1911).

5. Kazwini, Mohammed Ben-mohammed:
“The marvels of nature and the singularities
of created things’; extracts quoted (in
French translation) in “Chrestomathie Arabe,
ou extraits de divers scrivains Arabes, tant
en prose qu’en vers, a l’usage éléves de l’école
speciale des Langues Orientales” (Arabic
chrestomathy, or extracts from various Ara-
bic authors, as well in prose as in verse, for
the use of the pupils of the Special Schoo! of
Oriental languages) by A. I. Silvestre de
Sacy, 3: 371-499 (Paris, 1806). The ex-
tracts quoted herein are from pp. 378-380.

6. Kearney, Thomas H.: (a) “The Date
Gardens of the Jerid.” Nat'l Geog. Mag. 21:
543 (July, 1910). (b) “The country of the
Ant. Men.” Nat'l Geog. Mag. 22: 267 (April,
1911).

7. Mason, S. C.: “Dates of Egypt and the
Sudan.” U. S. Dept. of Agri. Bull. 71 (Sep-
tember, 1915).

8. Pliny (Gadius Plinius Secundus, A. D.
23-79): Historia Mundi (History of the
World), cited in Sachs, “History of Botany,”
p. 378. Passage from Pliny cited in De Can-
dolle, “Physiologie Végétale,” 2:44 (1835).

9. Popenoe, Paul B.: ‘ Babylonian Dates
for California.” Pomona College Journal of
Economic Botany, 3:459 (May, 1913).

10. Swingle, Walter T.: “The Date Palm
and Its Utilization in the Southwestern
States’? U>S:-Dept.of Acc. Bur cot Ge
Ind. Circular 19 (June, 1913).

11. Theophrastus (372-287 B. C.):

(a) “Concerning the Causes of Plants.”
A botanical work in six books. See Book I,
chapters 13, 14, and Book IV, chapter 4.

(b) “The History of Plants.” Botanical
work in nine books. Book II, chapter 8.
Both the citations are from the edition of
Gottlieb Schneider, Leipzig, 1818, cited in
Sachs, “History of Botany,” pp. 377, 378.

BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES III

Showing How the Level of a Trait or Trait-Complex May Be Raised
Through Marriage-Selection

WILHELMINE E. Key

Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

family as given in the preceding

paper, the conclusion seems justified

that through selective matings, the
grade of such traits as aggressiveness,
perseverance and the ability to handle
number was noticeably increased or
diminished. For example, in Line E
the absence of such abilities with the
concomitant failure of the individuals
to marry those possessing the abilities in
question persisted through five genera-
tions. In Line C a comparatively low
ability to calculate has, through selec-
tive matings with good or average
ability, been built up into ability which
is average or in some instances even
above the average. This holds true
also ot the trait-complex aggressive-
ness: In Line D again, ability with
number, and aggressiveness have
through matings with a low grade of
these abilities, persisted at the low
level of the original founders. In the
same way the trait-complex persever-
ance is found to move up or down in
fair accord with the type of mating
made.

Let us now see how far the behavior of
these abilities in inheritance conforms
to the Mendelian hypothesis. At the
outset, we concede that our data, since
they appertain to mental and tempera-

|: tracing the history of the Rufer

mental traits, do not permit of the
accuracy of measurement possible in
handling physical traits. It will, how-
ever, be generally agreed that all have a
basis in heredity and remain far less
affected by environmental influences
than many other characters that might
be selected for study. And with at
least one ability, that of dealing with
number, it is possible to adhere to
uniform objective standards. Our jus-
tification for attempting to carry the
Mendelian principles into this domain
is the value which even approximate
conclusions may have for future effort
along similar lines.

THE ABILITY TO CALCULATE

If we let C stand for comparative
presence of determiners for this ability,
and c for their comparative absence,
whether they occur in a unit-like series
of similar or various elements, we have
the following possible combinations in
the union of germ plasms: CC develop-
ing relatively high ability which we may
indicate by H; Ce developing mediocre
ability indicated by M; and cc develop-
ing low ability indicated by L.

Distribution of these abilities from
different types of mating would be as
follows:

ec xcc —100% cc., i. e., All children show very low ability.

Ce xcc —50% Ce and 50% cc.
ability.

Ce x Ce —25% CC, 50% Cc and 25% cc.

Half the children show medium ability, half low

One-fourth the children with high, half

with medium and one-fourth with low ability.

ee x CC—100% Cc.

All children show medium ability.

Ce x CC—50% Cc and 50% CC. Half show medium ability and half high.

CG=CC—100% CC.

All children show high ability.

107

108

In the studies of distribution as actu-
ally occurring in the Rufer family, the
germinal constitution was necessarily
inferred from the character of the in-
dividual. That is, low ability was
taken to indicate the germinal consti-
tution cc, or all germ cells with relative
absence of determiners for calculating
ability. Cc medium ability, with half
the germ cells having determiners and
half not having sufficient determiners
for this ability; while high ability indi-
cates the germinal constitution CC, or
all germ cells with sufficient determiners
for this ability.

Let us examine first the distribution
of the grades of this ability in a group of
the Rufer family where the level of the
ability is distinctly lower than that of
the general population. Here class I,
indicated by L, includes all those having
no ability to handle quantities beyond 5;
class 2, indicated by M, includes all
those able to perform simple multi-
plication and division, and make small
change; class 3, indicated by H, includes
all those having ability beyond this, but
still not above the average for the
general population. The progeny of 48
matings, including 177 offspring were
graded and their distribution in the
three classes compared with the theoret-
ical expectation as given above.

Comparison of percentages realized
with percentages expected:

Ly 9X L L x M ee x
L M [ete ab. jy Ge | Li Mo

Expected. . 100 50 »=650 100 H
Realized... 100 529 °33% 138" 30) 60) 10
M x M M x [nk 4h ps H
Le OM 9 M El eV ee el
Expected.. 25 50 25 50 50 100
Realized .. 185 704 11! 13! 391 478 24 976

The realized percentages support the
following conclusions: (1) When both
parents show a low grade of this ability,
all the children are similarly of low
grade. (2) When both parents show high
ability, practically all the children are
similarly endowed. (3) When one par-
ent shows a low grade and the other a
medium or high grade the increase in
the percentage of medium and high is
proportionate to the grade of the abler
parent. Although a small proportion of
low grades are produced by the mating

The Journal

of Heredity

of a medium with a medium of high
grade, here again the proportion of low
grades shows greater decrease when one
consort is of high grade than when he
is of medium grade.

A similar study of the distribution of
grades of calculating ability was made in
the Riel group. The distribution of
thirty-two families including 120 indi-
viduals was determined, only here,
different values were assigned to the
three classes. L included all those who
could perform simple multiplications
and divisions and make small change;
M included all those with average abil-
ity, while H included all those with
ability above the average. The com-
parison of percentages realized with
percentages expected follows:

L x 1D Y, ML H

x
M Hee M H L M H
Expected. . 100 50 §=650 100
2

Realized... 868 134 476 524 70 «6030
M <A OM" +x, 90 AE H
L MOE | Ee Me ea ee
Expected... 25 50 25 50 50 100
Realized .. 386 428 286 57 388 555

The realized percentages in this group
support all the conclusions drawn from
study of the Rufer group, with the
exception of the second conclusion, the
mating of high ability with high not
having occurred.

If we adopt the hypothesis of a unit-
like series of determiners in the germ
plasm to account for the development of
this ability, we may conceive the number
which means presence in a low degree
in the poor strains, to be replaced by
a larger number of determiners and
consequent good ability in the bet-
ter strains. Should this replacement,
through ‘‘good matings” occur for a
number of gerierations, a point may be
reached where fair and good ability
would still appear in the offspring,
even though there be mating with low
ability. That is, relative absence in the
germ plasm of the better consort would
behave as relative presence to the lack
in the weaker consort; the resulting
simplex. individual would show and
transmit fair ability. The serious danger
would arise from matings in two consec-
utive generations with low or no
ability. In such cases there would be

Key: Better American Families III

reversal of the process and the produc-
tion of an increasing proportion of
children with low ability. We would
appear to have here then, segregation, a
real alternative inheritance, with pos-
sibly units of progressively higher po-
tency as we pass from strains having a
low level of this ability to those with
superior endowment.

AGGRESSIVENESS

This trait-complex may be defined as
energy and courage in the undertaking
of new projects. It will be seen at once
that the grades of this character cannot
be fixed with the definiteness possible
when dealing with number. They were
evaluated with reference to the eco-
nomic and social opportunity, physical
and mental limitations and the effect of
_ example on suggestible individuals. The

distribution of 282 individuals, the
product of eighty matings was as
follows:
L x ip 1G; xe eed:
[ahi TS MMS RUMI = es it © ha =
Expected.. 106 50 50 100
Realized... 888 112 516 46 24 303 606 91

IM) 22x: M M x Jel a3t ma dal
WANES (Ha NE He DM
Expected.. 25 50 25 50. 50 100
Realized... 176 759 65 32 47 498 25 75
Here again the realized percentages
would indicate the heritability of this
trait-complex in accordance with the
theory of segregation of determiners for
the trait-complex. The slightly wider
discrepancy between the expected and
the realized results is no doubt due to
the difficulty of evaluating the character.
It will be observed that the discrepancy
is considerable only where both parents
are moderately aggressive, or where one
has a very low grade while the other has
a high grade of the trait. In both cases,
the offspring show greater resemblance
to the parents than the hypothesis
would lead us to expect.

PERSEVERANCE

In dealing with this trait-complex, we
are again confronted by the difficulties
involved in its evaluation. As in the
case of aggressiveness, the social inheri-
tance plays a far greater role in its
manifestation than it does in the ability
to handle numbers. The persistence

109

with which one follows a line of activity
is due mainly to his capacity for forming
habits in conjunction with his dominat-
ing interests. While the latter have no
doubt heritable elements in what are
usually known as ‘‘aptitudes,”’ still they
are affected by all sorts of extraneous
influences. Such native qualities as
pride, endurance, independence, ob-
stinacy also have their role in its mani-
festation. When, however, it is remem-
bered that small children show a wide
range in this characteristic while 1m-
beciles, who are incapable of conceiving
a chain of related purposes, likewise
show a wide range, this trait-complex
may well be regarded as having heritable
elements whose behavior may be profit-
ably investigated.

The children from eighty matings to
the number of 269 were classified into
three groups, and the results compared
with the theoretical expectation accord-
ing to Mendel’s Law.

L xy TG > ee Gee By x H
L M H L MH L M H

Expected . 100 SO oO 100
Realized... 968 32 557. 448 138 655 207
M x M M peel) wel x H
L M H UL MH L M HW
Expected. 25 50 25 50 50 100
Realized... 128 82 52 S& 608 337 100

Here again, there is some discrepancy
between the actual and the theoretical
results which may well be laid to diffi-
culties in grading and the effect of
exogenous elements on the manifesta-
tion of innate tendency. Making due
allowance for these factors, the conclu-
sion seems warranted that there are
heritable elements in perseverance whose
behavior is in accord with the principle
of segregation.

CONSTRUCTIVE ASPECT OF SEGREGATION

Our histories furnish many interesting
examples where there appears to have
been an effective building up of trait
combinations through fortunate matings
in successive generations. Thus in line
A, aggressiveness, perseverance, cal-
culating ability and finally mechanical
ability all converge from strains posses-
sing these abilities to produce in the
sixth generation unusual mechanical and
mathematical aptitude, which with the

110 The Journal

foregoing traits is bringing a high degree
of success. Another significant series
of combinations occurs in line C whereby
defects concentrate in a single member
of the third generation, who dies without
issue, while the combination of medium
or high aggressiveness and perseverance
with calculating and other mental
abilities produces average efficiency of
various types in the later generations.
The recent extension of physical and
mental tests in determining types of

of Heredity

efficiency in the National Army, gives
promise of far more accurate ratings in
future studies of this kind. By such
means this principle of segregation
should be found capable of extension in
directions at present unthought of.
Such extension would provide a means of
more accurate prediction as to the out-
come of given matings and the trend of
development in particular strains. Such
extension would prove highly valuable
for constructive eugenics.

The Immigration Of Orientals

Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 8, 1918.

The Editor of the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY.

Sir: Ishouldlike tomake one comment
on the subject of Dr. Sidney L. Gulick’s
League for Constructive Immigration
Legislation, which is referred to on page
379 of the December number of the
JoURNAL. On paper, the principles of
this new league read extremely well,
and appeal to many persons who are
seriously concerned regarding the proba-
ble future volume of immigration to this
country. It should be pointed out,
however, that it is an essential part of
Dr. Gulick’s program to repeal our
present Chinese Exclusion Act; to end
our present ‘‘Gentleman’s Agreement”
with Japan, and to have only one
general immigration law. In other
words, the plan is to treat all aliens
alike, admitting Chinese and Japanese
on the same terms as all other nationali-
ties. While the number of Orientals to

be admitted would necessarily be very
small, for a time, under the proposed
limitation to a certain percentage, these
numbers would soon automatically in-
crease. Furthermore, the percentages to
be admitted could easily be raised. The
Gulick plan also involves the naturaliza-
tion of the Oriental.

It is these portions of the league’s
program which are strongly opposed
by many persons who thoroughly believe
in the restriction of immigration; and
those who are interested in eugenics,
and in the future character of the
American race, may well bear these
facts in mind. The Gulick plan pro-
poses to put the thin edge of a wedge
under the door which our national policy
has built against Oriental immigration.
It is a very thin wedge now, but it is a
wedge.

R. DEC. Warp.

MUTATIONS IN THE JIMSON WEED

ALBERT F. BLAKESLEE AND B. T.

AVERY, JR.!

Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

N a recent article in the JoURNAL OF
Herepirty (March, 1917) the writers
pointed out the availability of the
common Jimson Weed (Datura stra-

monium) as an illustration of Mendelian
phenomena. Data, in addition to those
already published by Bateson and
others, were reported showing the regu-
larity with which the factors for purple
and green stems and for spiney and
smooth capsules followed the laws of
segregation. The writers have recently
determined the presence of another pair
of factors affecting the node number
and habit of the plant as is shown by
the two specimens in Fig. 13. Aside
from these three pairs of factors just
mentioned and a possible fourth which is
under investigation, no other Mendeliz-
ing factors, so far as we are aware, have
been definitely determined for the Jim-
son Weed. During the past few years,
however, we have discovered in our cul-
tures a number of mutative variants of

greater or less distinctness which, so far
as studied, seem to be inherited in a
manner different from that shown by
simple Mendelian characters. We do
not wish in this article to go into a de-
tailed discussion of the method of their
inheritance. Suffice it to say that these
mutations are of sudden, though rather
rare occurrence and transmit their char-
acters—chiefly through the female sex—
to only a part of their offspring. We
desire here merely to present a few of
the more marked types in order to
give some idea of the extent of depar-
ture which they show from the normal.
The mutations are distinguished from
the normal plants from which they arise,
not merely by single visible differences,

but by a complex of characters which
seem to be inherited as a whole wehn
transmitted to their offspring. Leaf
and capsule characters are perhaps the
most conspicuously affected, although
the growth habits and flowers are also
involved in the mutations. The flow-
ers, however, fail to show the marked
range in color and morphological varia-
tion exhibited in many species. The
mutations in Datura are distinguished
by the same kind of differences appar-
ently that characterize mutations in the
classical genus Oenothera.

The capsule is perhaps the best part
of the plant to serve as a single example
of a given mutation. Its outline differs
as seen from different sides. Fig. 5 is a
photograph of capsules from a single
normal plant arranged to show the in-
ternal structure and the resulting out-
lines in two positions. All the fruits are
correctly oriented in relation to the
central cross section. While in this
section (d), cut midway between the
base and the apex, two cross-walls
apparently divide the ovary into four
cells; the section at the left (e), cut
higher up, shows that only a single sep-
tum extends completely to the apex.
The capsule is in fact, therefore, two-
celled with the placenta forming a false
partition running part way to the top.
The outline of the surface in consequence
appears ovate on the placental side (a)
and more nearly cylindrical or ellip-
tical on the septum side (b). Typical
examples are shown in Fig. 6 from two
normal plants and from a number of
mutations. At the top are two normals
showing the spiney and spineless condi-
tion already explained as forming a

1 Died in France, June 18, 1918, while in service in the Medical Detachment, 30th Infantry.
Mr. Avery, w hile scientific assistant to the senior author, personally handled all the mutants

discussed in this paper.
were discovered.
investigation of variability in the Daturas.

He is also responsible for finding the first ‘*
I g

It is largely due to the keenness of his powers of observation that they

Globe”? mutant which started the

111

CAPSULES FROM A NORMAL JIMSON WEED

These capsules are from a single normal plant and are arranged to show the internal structure
and resulting outlines when seen from two different positions. Capsules of Jimson Weed
correctly oriented in reference to central section. (a) Placental side showing ovate outline;
(b) septum side showing elliptical outline; (c) top view; (d) cross section through middle;
(e) cross section near apex leaving seeds intact on one side of septum and removed on other,
exposing placenta; (f) placental side, outer walls removed, seeds intact; (g) the same, seeds
also removed; (h) like (f) but septum side; (7) the same but seeds removed from one side

and half of outer wall left intact. (Fig. 5.)

simple Mendelian pair in inheritance.

The mutations on the three lower rows

in Fig. 6 have been given provisional

names taken chiefly from capsule or leaf

peculiarities. Reading from left to right,

we have on the second row from the top:
112

“Sugarloaf” with characteristically
shaped capsules and stunted spines:
‘“New Species’’ with spherical capsules;
‘““Globe”’ with globose, depressed cap-
sules and stout spines; and ‘“‘Glossy”’
with small shiny capsules. On the

1752. (42)

FSS) /720¢/d

1/7/0209 17/03 (29)

/792(21) S74 54) 17/9 (23)

/6 510 @) 172.28 S7¢3C0CY 1787 (38)

CAPSULES OF VARLOUS FORM

sules showing the spiney and spineless conditions which form
The mutations in the three lower rows have been
f. (Fig. 6.)

At the top are two normal cap
a simple Mendelian pair in inheritance.
given provisional names taken chiefly from capsule or leaf.

=

?

J A o :
rte
74

NORMAL JIMSON WEED

Pot-grown normal plant

‘““Cockelbur”’ with small nar-
tow capsules; ‘‘ Mutilated,’ two cap-
sules, the one on left showing the usual
mutilated condition of apex suggesting
the name; and “‘Ilex’’ with small cap-

third line:

sules and slender spines. On the fourth
line ‘‘Tobacco-leaf”’ with small cap-
sules and short stout spines; ‘‘ Micro-

carpic’’ with small, rathet

downy cap-

sules; “Buckling,” a type related to
‘‘Microcarpic”’ but with larger more
ovate capsules; and lastly an unnamed

type not yet investigated.

it and leaf characters can best

ye show y photographs of pot and

field plants. A few ed mutations

will be briefly described and illustrated
he accompanying photographs.

Fig. 8)—The habit and
{ character of the mutant “ Poly-

carpic’’ shown in Fig. 8 is strikingly

select

normal plant shown

ol in Fig.. 7. The most

peculiarities are its narrow

and its slow growth. The
en 1

he

on account of

shown for comparison with other plants. (Fig. 7.)

frequent presence of extra abortive car-
pels within the flower.

Globe (Fig. 9 and 10).—The ‘“‘ Globe
mutation was the first to be discovered,
perhaps because it is one of the most
distinct of the variant forms and shows
in less degree than most of the mutants
the lack of vigor seemingly character-
istic of abnormal types in this as in
other species. It was named on
count of the depressed globose capsules
already illustrated. The leaves are
broader and less indented than normals
and the foliage tends to be more com-
pactly massed at the ends of branches.
‘““Globe’” mutants are recognizable at
an early stage, frequently at or before
the opening of the second leaves. Fig.
10 shows at the left a typical ‘“Globe”’
seedling which, with its broader entire
leaves is easily distinguished from the
normal plant of the same age beside it.

Cocklebur(Fig.141and 12).—The*‘ Cock-
lebur’’ mutant was so called because
of the small, narrow capsules already
illustrated. It first recognized as

ac-

Was

“POLYCARPIC” JIMSON WEED

The habit and character of this mutant is strikingly different from the normal plant

shown in (Fig. 7).
and its slow growth. (Fig. 8.)

a distinct type from its narrow, slightly
toothed leaves. Fig. 8 is typical in
habit for pot-grown plants inasmuch
as the stems are weak and inclined to
droop when grown under greenhouse

conditions. In Fig.12,a typical ‘‘Cock-
lebur’’ seedling is shown at the left

beside a normal from the same pedigree.
The differences are such that these
mutants can usually be picked out in
the seedpan.

“ Poinsettia’ (Fig. 14).—The mutant
‘Poinsettia’ is one of the most distinct
in habit of all the mutants so far dis-
covered. Its long, narrow, dark-green
leaves are clustered at the ends of the
branches in a fashion suggestive of the
plant from which it has been named.
Masses of adventitious buds often
extrude from the young stems, causing
irregularities in the branching and in-

The most conspicuous peculiarities are its narrow entire leaves

creasing its strangeness of appearance.
For comparison with this and the next
mutant to be described, there is shown in
Fig. 13 a few-noded normal plant on the
left and a many-noded normal on the
right.

‘““N. S.”’—The original plant of the
mutant provisionally designated by “‘N.
S.,” the initials of the words New
Species, is represented in Fig. 15. This
plant proved sterile in several attempted
crosses with normals although fertile
with itself and with its own offspring
produced by self-pollination. Further
tests have shown that the mutant differs
from all others investigated in that it
breeds true and seems to have estab-
lished itself as a distinct new race which
is almost entirely, if not absolutely,
sterile with other forms. This physio-
logical incompatability between a muta-

115

“GLOBE” JIMSON WEED

Named on account of the depressed globe capsules. The Globe was the first to be discovered
perhaps because it is one of the most distinct of the variant forms. (Fig. 9.)

/Oo cam.

YOUNG “GLOBE”? MUTANT. (Fig. 10.

ahi RS

465474)

19 cin.

ADULT “COCKLEBUR” MUTANT
It was first recognized as a distinct type by its narrow, slightly-toothed leaves. A typical
pot-grown plant. Its stems are weak and inclined to droop when grown under greenhouse
conditions. (Fig. 11.)

47926)

“COCKLEBUR” SEEDLING AND NORMAL SEEDLING

The ‘‘Cocklebur”’ seedling, at the left, is distinguishable from the normal seedling, at the
right. (Fig. 12.)

(ey ‘3tq) 38] 94} UO PeULIOU papou-Moyz ‘7Y8II ay} UO [eULIOU papou-AUvU ‘UMOIS-pfoly “poAtosqo Useq OS[e dAvY SJURJNUT Jo JoquINU YW ‘SML|
ayy Aeqo saynsdeo yjoows pue Aourds ‘suiajs uses pue aiding ‘euowousyd uvyapusyy Jo UorerysnI[I poos v soystuiny poo jy Wosuut[ WOUTWIOS oy],

daaM NOSIWIL AO SNAWIDAdS OAL

7716 (70)

Le Te Pe
PR OE ti Sy eee BE, act PN 4
© et a) Ba aro IEE ih EE ep Soma
THE MUTANT “SPOINSETTIA”’
Its

This mutant is one of the most distinct in habit of all the mutants so far discovered.
long, narrow, dark-green leaves are clustered at the ends of the branches in a fashion sug-
(Fig. 14.)

gestive of the plant from which it has been named.

“NEW SPECIES” OR “N. S.°? MUTANT
Tests have shown that this mutant

a distinct new race. Here we

as
(Fig. 15.
119

This plant proved sterile in several attempted crosses.
differs from all others investigated in that it breeds true

appear to be witnessing the birth of a new species.

120

tion and the parent species from which
it arose suggests that we have actually
been witnessing in our controlled pedi-
grees the birth of a new species which
may be capable of maintaining itself in
a mixed population uncontaminated by
crossing with its ancestral line. The
race is relatively vigorous. In some
respects it resembles the “Globe” mu-
tation, although not readily confused
with the latter type. The leaves are
considerably larger and the capsules,
while roughly spherical in outline, are
not so depressed at the apex nor armed
with such stout spines.

The Journal of Heredity

We have shown in this brief presenta-
tion that the Jimson Weed possesses
characters inherited in simple Mendelian
manner; that, in addition, numerous
mutations, several of which are figured,
have arisen in our cultures; that these
mutations transmit their characters as
a complex, usually to only a part of their
offspring, that the inheritance is chiefly,
through the female sex; that, in a single
instance, a mutation has arisen which
seems to have established a distinct race
or new species, breeding true but seem-
ingly unable to cross with the species
from which it has had its origin.

Live-Stock Production Helped by County Agents in North and West

Production of more and better live
stock with less expensive feed and
greater profit to the producers is given
attention by county agents in nearly
every county in the thirty-three north-
ern and western states.

During the fiscal year 1918 the agents
assisted in the organization of 160 live-
stock breeders’ associations to encour-
age the use of better sires, and 182
cow-testing associations to eliminate un-
profitable cows and bring about more
economical feeding. Through these as-
sociations and those organized with the
assistance of agents in previous years
127,835 cows were under test, resulting
in at least 8,724 cows being discarded
as. unprofitable. Primarily, through
these organizations, 10,986 farmers
were induced to adopt balanced rations
for their herds, and the following num-

ber of registered stock were secured at
suggestion of agents: Bulls, 3,285;
cows, 4,836; rams, 1,469, and boars,
2,974. The agents also brought about
the transfer to other herds of 3,370
valuable registered sires by means of
information given to individual farmers
or through exchange lists published by
the farm bureaus.

In some states a_ special effort
was made to save calves from being
slaughtered for veal, resulting in 10,499
additional calves being raised. This
work was carried on most extensively
in Wisconsin, from which 2,459 calves
from high-grade or registered stock
were shipped for breeding stock to Mis-
sourl, Wyoming, and other western
and southern states—Weekly News
Letter, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

THE DETERMINATION OF
DISPUTED PARENTAGE AS A FACTOR
IN REDUCING INFANT MORTALITY

ROsweELut H. JOHNSON
Lecturer in Eugenics, University of Pittsburgh

HILE juries have been called
upon to compare in court the
features of children and al-
leged parents, the uncertainty

of such superficial comparisons has pre-
vented any important legal use of the
determination of parentage. The most
widely known of such cases have been in
cases of contested wills or titles. These
cases, while spectacular, represent only
a small part of the very wide application
that would be made of this method, were
it possible to unerringly establish parent-
age in illegitimacy cases. At the present
time, if an illegitimate mother sues an
alleged father for the support of her
child, the defense on his part is usually
that some other person might have been
the father of the child, and because of
difficulty of rebutting this defense under

1 For admissibility of child for inspection:
Gilmanton vs. Ham, 38 N. H., 108.
State vs. Arnold, 13 Ired. (N. C.), 184.
Finnegan vs. Dugan, 96 Mass., 197.
State vs. Woodruff, 67 N. C., 89.
Morrison vs. People, 52 Ill. App., 482.
State vs. Smith, 6 N. W., 153.
Scott vs. Donovan, 26 N. E., 871.
Gaint vs. State, 14 Atlantic, 600.
Kelly vs. State, 133 Ala., 195.
Shailer vs. Bullock, 78 Conn., 65.
Higley vs. Bostock, 79 Conn., 97.
State vs. Sardell, 46 A., 1083.
Brantley vs. State, 65 Ia., 678.
Lard. vs. State, 1055 W., 90.

Sins vs. State, 84 S. E., 976.
State vs. Browning, 152 P., 672.
Smith vs. Hawkins, 47 S. O., 429.

the present methods, it has been very
difficult to fasten the support of the
child on the father. If it is possible to
elaborate methods by which parentage
can be surely determined, so that al-
leged parentage can be definitely proven
or disproven, then the support of the
child can be fastened upon the father
in cases where he can be located and has
the necessary income.

The admissibility of the child for the
inspection! of the jury is now well
established for children over two? years
of age, but the preponderance of deci-
sions excludes this evidence for establish-
ing resemblances below that age, on the
ground that the child’s features have
not yet acquired maturity and perma-
nence. In our present state of know-
ledge this rule can be little criticized, but

(2 years 1 month.)
(Regardless of age.)

(10 months.)

Commonwealth vs. Pearl, 33 Pa. Super. Ct., 97.
Robnett vs. The People, etc., 16 Ill. Appellate Court, 299.

tw

Against admitting a very young child:
Clark vs. Bradstreet, 80 Me., 454.
Hanawalt vs. State (1885), 64 Wis., 84.
Overlook vs. Hall, 81 Maine (1889).
State vs. Harvey, 84 N. W., 535.
State vs. Danforth, 48 Iowa, 43.
Rush vs. State, 19 Indiana, 152.
Ingram vs. State, 37 N. W., 943.
Shorter vs. Judd, 42 Pacific, 337.
of maturity and permanence.)

(6 weeks old.)

(Younger than 1 year.)
(6 months old.)

(9 months old.)

(3 months old.)

(3 months old.)

(At an age when its features have not assumed some degree

121

122 The Journal

it is evident that it is while the child is
still below two years that it is most
necessary that the parentage should be
established so that the child shall be
supported. Since the objections of the
court are solely based on the uncer-
tainty of determination by mere inspec-
tion, there is every reason to believe
that should a method be developed that
would make the determination possible
from birth onward, that the courts
would interpose no objection.

However, we have so far considered
the admissibility of the child itself as an
exhibit. There remains the question
of the admissibility of the opinion of
persons as to the alleged resemblance.
In two cases photographs* have been
admitted, but the courts have been
very reluctant to admit the judgment
of witnesses,* and the preponderance of
the decisions is against their admission.
Yet we have three cases in which there
is clear discrimination as to the ability
of witnesses to reack an opinion of value.
I shall quote the language of the courts
in these cases, Clark vs. Bradstreet,
80 Me., 454: ‘“‘The testimony of
witnesses where they have no special
skill or knowledge in such matters has
never been admitted in the state
(Maine).’”’ Eddy vs. Gray, 4 Allen, 438.
‘““The evidence she offered as to the
supposed resemblance of the child to the
defendant was properly rejected. It is
not of the kind which comes within the
rule in relation to the testimony of
experts upon questions of science or of
skill or of knowledge acquired by some

of Heredity

peculiar experience or education. The
witness called did not profess to have
any special skill upon the subject of
inquiry.”” Keniston vs. Rowe, 16 Me.,
38. ‘Witnesses who have had sight of
the persons might be indefinitely multi-
plied, without affording any satisfactory.
ground of judgment for a jury. Wit-
nesses except in some art, trade or pro-
fession requiring peculiar skill and
science are not called to form compari-
sons and to testify to opinions arising
from them.”

It is quite evident therefore that
the court has already laid the ground
for real expert testimony on this sub-
ject when methods that yield reliable
results shall have been elaborated.
The reasons why the elaboration of
such methods would be so desirable
are the following: (1) The number
of illegitimate children will be cut
down, if the prospective father knows
that his paternity can be detected
and the support of the child fastened
upon him. Second, the care of the
child would be very much better and
hence its mortality risk appreciably
reduced. This we may conclude from
the well-known contrast between the
death rate of illegitimate and legitimate
children, most of which must be attrib-
uted to the better support of the latter
class. Having, then, seen the great
need for such a method, let us examine
our knowledge of heredity to see whether
such a method is feasible.

There are four distinct methods that
might be employed, and while the

* Photograph was admitted and bearing on resemblance.

State vs. Patterson, 100 N. W., 162.
Shorter vs. Judd, 42 Pac., 337.
4 State vs. Woodruff, 67 B. C., 89.

(It allows all persons to testify to such identity or to such

resemblance who have had an opportunity of seeing the persons, if but for an instant.)
Douglas Peerage Case, House of Lords, 1769. -

Day vs. Day, Huntington Assize, 1797.
Paulk vs. State, 52 Ala., 427.

(The defendant may prove that the child bears no likeness to

him or that it resembles another man who had opportunity of illicit intercourse with the mother.)

Jones vs. Jones, 45 Mary, 151. (1876.)
Keniston vs. Rowe, 16 Maine, 38.
Eddy vs. Gray, 4 Allen, 435.

W. Calman vs. State, 49 S. E., 612.
Shorter vs. Judd, 42 Pacific, 337.
Hanawalt vs. State, 64 Wis., 84,
Keniston vs. Rowe, 16 Mo., 38.

Young vs. Makepeace, 103 Mass., 50.

(We think also that the testimony to show points of

similarity between the child and the parent should not have been admitted; even where there is a
noticeable resemblance there may be equally marked points of dissimilarity.)

Johnson: Parentage and Infant Mortality

method to be mentioned last is believed
by the writer to be the method of great-
est reliability, the first three methods
to be mentioned will have some cor-
roborative value, especially in giving
more concrete evidence to skeptical
jurors in the first few years of the appli-
cation of the method.

1. The alternative inheritance of
many abnormalities. Davenport in his
“Heredity in Relation to Eugenics” has
a list of many abnormalities which are
inherited alternately and in a more or
less Mendelian manner. In those cases
where there is present one of these
abnormalities in both the suspected
parent and the child, we have corrobora-
tive evidence, but this method alone can
be of limited use only.

2. More uniform application of the
alternative inheritance of certain human
traits which are inherited in a more or
less Mendelian fashion, such as hair,
eye and skin color. Since there is
always some color, this comparison is
possible in all cases, in contrast to the
first class where the abnormality is only
occasionally present. Conclusive evi-
dence is hardly to be expected, although
the evidential value becomes greater
where both parent and child had some
one recessive characteristic. It is true
that there is a court decision where
evidence as to eye color® was ruled out,
and a similar one in respect to hair color,
but it is evident that the judge’s reason
in each case was not that these traits
were thought by him not to be inherited
in some degree, but a justifiable fear lest
this evidence alone might too greatly
influence the jury, in view of the im-
portance of reaching conclusions as to
parentage only on the basis of many
traits.

3. The papillary ridges of the palm
and sole. Prof. H. H. Wilder, of Smith
‘College, and other workers have now
well established that there is a large réle
of heredity in the determinations of the
patterns of these lines on the palm and
sole. These are the lines.so well known
in the finger prints now so frequently
taken for identification purposes. I can

5 People vs. Carney, 29 Hun. (N. Y.), 47, 49 (1883).

eyes is not admissible to show its paternity.)

123

vouch for this because I have on the
palm of one of my hands one peculiar
feature of the palm pattern common to
my mother, myself and my older son.
The use of the palms and soles is decid-
edly superior to the class of evidence
heretofore discussed, but since it does
not lend itself as yet readily to statistical
analysis, we must look mainly to the last
method, the anthropometric.

Anthropometry, or the science of
human measurements, offers us the
main reliance because by taking one
hundred measurements on the child,
on the suspected parent, and on the
known parent, if the other parent be
known, it will be possible to establish an
index of correlation which will run very
much higher in the case of real parent-
age than where there is no relation. The
one hundred measurements to be taken
should include a number on the ear, for
the reason that this organ is peculiarly
unsusceptible to modifications and to
change in its proportions during life.
Where the ear has been pierced, the
lobal characteristics should be rejected,
and possibly also the amount of projec-
tion from the head should be rejected
as having too much of the modification
element. Head shape and facial fea-
tures should be used for a large number
of measurements because of their re-
markable variability. The other meas-
urements would be those where the
measurement is primarily a skeletal one,
little affected by the weight and health
of the individual. Davenport has shown
that different skeletal dimensions may
be inherited independently. There are
two disturbing factors which should
be recognized. One is the change in
proportion between male and female.
This is readily provided for by the use of
correction factors which eliminate sex
differences. A more disturbing element
is change of proportion with age, but this
again can be largely eliminated by the
use of correction factors.

There remains now to discuss the
feasibility of this method. In the first
place, a large number of measurements
must first be made on parents and their

(Evidence of the color of the child’s

124

children in order to establish norms and
correction factors, and also to determine
the amount of difference in the correla-
tion indices where the parental relation
exists and does not. An appropriation
of $35,000 could be depended upon
to give results in two years. The
method of attack is well understood by
competent students of heredity, and it
merely requires the decision of some in-
stitution to undertake the investigation.
The writer suggests that the Children’s
Bureau at Washington would be the
best agency, but since the governmental
initiative is sometimes difficult to in-
voke, it may be possible that we must
look to the Carnegie Institute of Wash-
ington or the Rockefeller or the Sage
foundation for the preliminary work.

The Journal of Heredity

After the methodology has been per-
fected, how shall the method be actually
used? It is my belief that this work
should not be done by private experts
hired by one or the other of the litigants,
the system by which expert witnesses
are usually employed, but which is
nearly universally disapproved by those
who have given the matter attention.
Better, let the court call upon the Dis-
puted Parentage Division of the Chil-
dren’s Bureau to make the determina-
tion and report to it, the Children’s
Bureau making an appropriate charge
to the court for the services. By elimi-
nating the danger of bias, this will
greatly increase the confidence of judges
and juries in the decisions.

Rabbit Raising Pays in Utah

In Utah many boy and girl club
members are going into the rabbit-rais-
ing business, finding it most profitable,
according to word received by the
States Relations Service, United States
Department of Agriculture. They have
found that it costs about 25 cents to
raise a rabbit to the age of three months,
and that at that time it may be mar-
keted at 35 or 40 cents a pound. The
pelts bring from 15 to 75 cents, de-
pending on the kind of rabbit and its
size. Compared with poultry, rabbit
raising in Utah has proved much more
economical, as rabbits are very hardy
and require no expensive feed. For

example, one club boy reports that he
feeds only oats, cabbage, and water.
In some places in the state the demand
exceeds the supply. Hotels and restau-
rants, which serve rabbit as often as
they do chicken, are the chief buyers.
The Bureau of Biological Survey and
the Bureau of Markets are cooperating
actively in developing interest in the
production and marketing of domesti-
cated rabbits and in standardizing meth-
ods of handling these animals and
the wild rabbits which are killed for
sport or to protect crops from their
depredations—_Weekly News Letter,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Boys Teach Fathers Better Hog Raising

Some of the boys in the two Dekalb
County, Ind., pig clubs are showing
their fathers how rapid and economical
gains can be made in raising pigs. Un-
der the direction of the local county
agent these boys have been able to al-
most double the results obtained by their
fathers within the same length of time
and feeding pigs of the same litter. The
boys used self-feeders and the fathers
did not, and the pigs which were al-
lowed to select their own feed made

gains of 2 pounds a day. The club
members are proving, beyond question,
the merits of the self-feeder, and hog
raisers in the county of many years’
experience are beginning to copy the
boys’ methods. Asa result of the club
work, the county agent reports, many
fathers and sons are now planning to
go into partnership and raise pure-
bred hogs.—W eekly News Letter, U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION

AND

PRESCOTT

WORLD EUGENICS

F. Haut

HERE is one aspect of immigra-
tion restriction in the various
countries which does not often
receive much attention, namely,
the possibility of its use as a method of
world eugenics. Most persons think of
migration in terms of space,—as the
moving of a certain number of people
from one part of the earth’s surface to
another. Whereas the much more im-
portant aspect of it is that of a func-
tioning in time.

This comes from two facts. The first
is that the vacuum left in any country
by emigration is rapidly filled up
through a rise in the birth rate. There
are more people in England today than
in the time of Elizabeth, in spite of the
enormous emigration from that country,
to all parts of the world; and there are
just as many sparrows in England today
in spite of the unfortunate spread of
those birds in the United States. The
vacuum is chiefly filled by the breeding
of the lower classes. The vacuum is
chiefly filled by the breeding of the
lower classes. Thus, according to Pro-
fessor Pearson, more than one-half the
births in England are now from the
lowest one-sixth of the population.
In Italy, a similar condition fills the
vacuum left by the very large emigra-
tion from there to North and South
America.

The second fact is that immigration
to any country of a given stratum of
population tends to sterilize all strata
of higher social and economic levels
already in that country. So true is this
that nearly all students of the matter are
agreed that the United States would
have a larger population today if there
had been no immigration since 1820;
and, it is needless to add, a much more
homogeneous population. As long as

the people of any community are rela-
tively homogeneous, what differences of
wealth and social position there may
be do not affect the birth rate, or do so
only after a considerable time. But
put into that community a number of
immigrants, inferior mentally, socially
and economically, and the natives are
unwilling to have their children asso-
ciate with them in work or social life.
They then limit the number of their
children in order to give them the capi-
tal or education to enter occupations in
which they will not be brought into
contact with the new arrivals. This
result is quite apparent in New England
where successive waves of immigration
from lower and lower levels have been
coming in for eighty years. In the west,
the same New England stock has a
much higher birth rate, showing that its
fertility has in no way diminished. In
the south, where until very recently
there was no immigration at all, and the
only socially inferior race was clearly
separated by the accident of color, the
birth rate has remained very high, and
the very large families of the colonial
period are even now not uncommon.
This is not to say that other causes
do not contribute to lower the birth rate
of a country; for that is an almost world-
wide phenomenon. But the desire to
be separated from inferiors is as strong
a motive to birth control as the desire
for luxury or to ape one’s economic
superiors. Races follow Gresham’s law
as to money; the poorer of two kinds in
the same place tends to supplant the
better. Mark you supplant, not drive
out. One of the most common fallacies
is the idea that the natives whose places
are taken by lower immigration are
“driven up” to more responsible posi-
tions. A few may be pushed up; more

125

126

are driven to a new locality, as hap-
pened in the mining regions; but most
are prevented from coming into exist-
ence at all.

What is the result then of the migra-
tion of a million persons of lower level
into a country where the average is of a
higher level. Considering the world as
a whole, there are, after a few years,
two million persons of the lower type
in the world, and probably from half a
million to a million less of the higher
type. The proportion of lower to higher
in the country from which the migra-
tion goes may remain the same; but
in the country receiving it, it has risen.
Is the world as a whole the gainer?

Of course, the euthenist says at once
that these immigrants are improved.
We may grant that, although the im-
provement is probably much exag-
gerated. You cannot make bad stock
into good by changing its meridian, any
more than you can turn a cart horse into
a hunter by putting it into a fine stable,
or make a mongrel into a fine dog by
teaching it tricks. But such improve-
ment as there is involves time, expense
and trouble; and, when it is done, has
anything been gained? Will anyone say
that the races that have supplanted the
old Nordic stock in New England are
any better, or as good, as the descen-
dants of that stock would have been if
their birth rate had not been lowered?

Further, in addition to the purely
biological aspects of the matter, there
are certain psychological ones. Al-
though a cosmopolitan atmosphere fur-
nishes a certain freedom in which strong
congenital talents can develop, it is a
question whether as many are not
injured as helped by this. Indeed,
there is considerable evidence to show
that for the production of great men, a
certain homogeneity of environment is
necessary. The reason of this is very
simple. Ina homogeneous community,
opinions on a large number of matters
are fixed. The individual does not have
to attend to such things; but is free to go
ahead on some special line of his own, to
concentrate to his limit on his work,
even though that work be fighting the
common opinions. But in a community

The Journal of Heredity

of many races, there is either cross-
breeding or there is not. If there is,
the children of such cross-breeding are
liable to inherit two souls, two tempera-
ments, two sets of opinions, with the
result in many cases that they are unable
to think or act strongly and consistently
in any direction. The classic examples
are Cuba, Mexico and Brazil. On the
other hand, if there is no cross-breeding,
the diversity exists in the original races,
and in a community full of diverse
ideals of all kinds much of the energy of
the higher type of man is dissipated, and
in two ways. First, in the intellectual
field there is much more doubt about
everything, and he tends to weigh, dis-
cuss and agitate many more subjects,
in order to arrive at a conclusion amid
the opposing views. Second, in prac-
tical affairs, much time and strength
have to be devoted to keeping things
going along the old lines, which could
have been spent in new research and
development. In how many of our
large cities today are men of the highest
type spending their whole time fighting,
often in vain, to maintain standards of
honesty, decency and order, and in try-
ing to compose the various ethnic ele-
ments, who should be free to build new
structures upon the old!

The moral seems to be this: Eugenics
among individuals is encouraging the
propagation of the fit, and lmiting or
preventing the multiplication of the
unfit. World eugenics is doing pre-
cisely the same thing as to races con-
sidered as wholes. Immigration re-
striction is a species of segregation on a
large scale, by which inferior stocks can
be prevented from both diluting and
supplanting good stocks. Just as we
isolate bacterial invasions, and starve
out the bacteria by limiting the area and
amount of their food supply, so we can
compel an inferior race to remain in its
native habitat, where its own multipli-
cation in a limited area will, as with all
organisms, eventually limit its numbers
and therefore its influence. On the
other hand, the superior races, more self-
limiting than the others, with the
benefits of more space and nourishment
will tend to still higher levels.

Whiting: Color Variations in the Green F rog

This result is not merely a selfish
benefit to the higher races but a good to
the world as a whole. The object is to
produce the greatest number of those
fittest not ‘‘for survival’ merely but
fittest for all purposes. The lower
types among men progress, so far as
their racial inheritance allows them to,
chiefly by imitation and emulation.
The presence of the highest develop-
ment and the highest institutions among
Any race is a distinct benefit to all the

L27

others. It is a gift of psychological
environment to anyone capable of ap-
preciation.

It is important, therefore, that noth-
ing in the constitution of the League of
Nations should Jimit the right of any
nation to decide who shall be admitted
into its life; for, as Le Bow says, a
preponderance of foreign elements de-
stroys the most precious thing it
possesses—its own soul.

TWO STRIKING COLOR
VARIATIONS IN THE GREEN FROG

P. W. WHITING
Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa.

T IS well known to every student of
pond life that the common green
trog, Rana clamitans Latrielle, snow
many variations in color. Typically,

the coloring is bright metallic-green on

head and shoulders and dusky ohve,
more or less spotted, posteriorly. ‘he
throat is orange-yellow in the male,

white in the female.

The dark coloration of frogs is due
to a layer of black pigment cells under
the epidermis. Under the influence of
various stimuli, these cells have the
power of changing shape. [Expansion
produces a dark color, contraction a
dilution effect. Mary C. Dickerson, in
The Frog Book, explains the produc-
tion of green color as follows:

“Green color is not produced directly
by a pigment, but as the result of black
and yellow pigments and a structure,
namely, the so-called interference layer.
This is a single layer of polygonal cells
between the epidermis and the black
pigment layer. These cells contain
minute yellow particles, which crowd
to the sides of the cells next the epi-
dermis. If these cells were empty, the
result would be simply that the black
pigment layer would be farther from
the surface and would be seen through
the interference layer. This would

make the color appear blue instead of
black, giving the ordinary color phe-
nomenon of dense media, as seen in the
color of the sky (1. e., all the light waves
of great wave lengths are absorbed and
only those of short lengths are re-
flected). When the interference cells
contain yellow, the blue is seen through
the yellow, and the resultant color is
green.

“The green color thus produced may
be more blue or more yellow, and may
change to brown when the black pig-
ment cells expand greatly and press
close about the cells of the interference
layer, thus diminishing the density. A
fragment of the outer skin of a green
tree frog, examined from underneath,
of course appears black, because we are
looking directly at the black pigment
layer. The same piece looked at from
above and against the light appears
brown, but examined from above with
light from above it appears green and
shows the polygonal cells of the inter-
ference layer.

“Therefore, frogs that have the inter-
ference layer and black and yellow pig-
ments appear green or brown, and can
change from one to the other with
great rapidity.”

The same principle of color produc-

128

tion is illustrated by blue or greenish
eyes in man, by greenish eyes in cats,
and by the blue-eyed white cat. Thus
the blue eye has dark pigment on the
posterior side of the iris, while in the
greenish eye there is a certain amount
of yellow pigment on the front of the
iris as well. The blues seen in many
birds and butterflies are similarly due
to the presence of dark pigment under-
lying modifying structures, and greens
are produced by the addition of yellow
pigment.

CREAMY WHITE FROGS

The two color variations in the green
frog, with which the present paper is
concerned, were noticed in specimens
brought to the zodlogical laboratory of
the University of Pennsylvania in the
fall of 1916. Yellow pigment was en-
tirely lacking from the skin, and the
dark pigment was reduced to a very
light sepia, barely visible on the back
and head. The skin in general appeared
creamy white. The iris was_ black,
showing that, while the yellow pigment
normally present was eliminated, the
black was here reduced but little, if any.
The pupil was dark.

This variation is apparently compar-
able to that described by Haecker* in
the tiger salamander. He found par-
tially albinic forms which showed more
or less gray color in the skin. Yellow
pigment was lacking. The iris was in
all cases black, but, unlike that of the
albinic frogs, the pupil was reddish, due
to reduction of the dark pigment in the
retina. The variation described by
Haecker acted as a simple Mendelian
recessive.

ALBINO FROGS

The other variation in the green frog
was represented by a single specimen,
which was brought to the laboratory in
the fall of 1917. This was a young
frog lacking black pigment entirely.
The skin of the back, sides and head

1 Haecker, VY.
schweig.

2Wright, Sewall:
and ix, 1917-18.

1911,

Allegemeine Vererbungslehre.

The Journal of Heredity

was clear light yellow. The only trace
of a darker color was a very slight
greenish shade in the skin about the
eye. The iris was clear gold; the pu-
pil, pink.

Dr. Sewall Wright, in an interesting
series of articles on color inheritance
in mammals,* has developed the theory
that there are two enzymes for color
production. “Enzyme |” is the funda-
mental enzyme, which, acting alone on
chromogen, produces yellow pigment.
“Enzyme Il” has no effect on chromo-
gen directly, but in combination with
“Enzyme IL” develops dark pigment. It
appears quite probable to me _ that
Wright’s theory may be extended to
other groups, such as birds, amphibia,
and insects.

The albinic variation in the tadpoles
here described, as well as in Haecker’s
salamanders, would then be due to a
factor determining extreme, though not
complete, reduction in “Enzyme I.”
The yellow frog, on the other hand,
would have “Enzyme II” almost en-
tirely eliminated. If the whitish forms
differed from the normal variety by the
loss of a certain color factor, C, and
the yellow differed by the loss of a dark
color developer, D, they would recon-
stitute the common form when crossed.
Thus albino, ccDD, by yellow, CCdd,
gives normal, CcDd. If these were in-
bred, we should obtain nine (CD) nor-
mal, three (ccD) albinic, three (Cdd)
yellow, and one (ccdd) which, lacking
both factors, should be pure white with
pink iris and pupil, for cc eliminates all
yellow and dd eliminates all black and
brown. It is unfortunate that the speci-
mens could not be reared and tested,
but it has seemed worth while, in view
of the striking character of the varia-
tions noted and the apparent correla-
tion with color factor differences in
mammals, to put the matter on record.
The writer would be interested to hear
of other similar variations.

Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braun-

“Color Inheritance in Mammals,’ JourRNAL oF HeEreEpITy, Vols. viii

BUD VARIATIONS IN SUGAR CANE

Cart S. PoMEROY

Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of

Agriculture,

Riverside, Cal.

HE occurrence of bud mutations
in cultivated plants has long been
known and the commercial value
of many such forms has been
recognized. Several hundred bud vari-
eties of fruits, flowers, and other plants
grown for their economic or ornamental
value are in more or less general culti-
vation at the present time. As examples
of such varieties mentioned may be made
of the Washington Navel orange, the
Pima cotton and several forms of the
Nephrolepis fern.

A recent study of plant varieties
known to have originated as bud muta-
tions disclosed the importance of such
forms in the development of the cane
sugar industry. The following account
of the bud origin of several sugar-cane
varieties is presented in the hope that it
may reach a wider distribution among
students of genetics than was secured
by the publications reviewed, 7. e.: (1)
The West Indian Bulletin, vol. 2, No.
3 (1901 or 1902), pp. 216-223, “Bud
Variation in the Sugar Cane.” (2)
“Cane Sugar,” Noel Deerr, London,
1911, pp. 23-38.

Anyone especially interested in this
subject should consult these articles, as
Mr. Deerr’s book has colored plates of
several of the bud-varieties described
and the figures reproduced herewith are
shown in color in the West Indian
Bulletin.

Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum
Linn.) is one of the most important of
our economic crops, and yet the devel-
opment of the scientific study of it
dates back but little over a generation.
This is probably due largely to the con-

1The magazine Sugar Cane, No. 17.

finement of its cultivation to widely
scattered districts, most of which are
remote from the older centers of civili-
zation and to the decentralized develop-
ment of the industry.

Previous to 1885 it was generally be-
lieved that the flowers of the sugar cane
were infertile, notwithstanding that
there are several earlier recorded in-
stances of the occurrence of seed. All
propagation was by the planting of
joints of the stalks. and it is believed
that practically all the varieties in com-
mercial cultivation up to within the last
twenty-five years originated as bud
variations.

Since the rediscovery of the fertility
of the flowers of the sugar cane, which
was made independently by Soltwede!
in Java in 1888, and by Harrison and
Bovell in Barbados in 1889, valuable
varieties have been developed as seed-
lings. Commercial propagations are
still made entirely by planting pieces of
the stalk. Seed propagation is only
practiced in the search for new varieties,
as seedlings show the characters of their
parents in but very slight degrees.

VARIATIONS FROM STRIPED VARIETIES

The earliest recorded instance of bud
variation in the sugar cane is given by
Mr. J. F. Horne then’ Director ot
Forests and Botanical Gardens in Mau-
ritius. In describing canes imported
into Mauritius he wrote: “Two plants
were found, one of which, while pro-
ducing striped canes from one eye, pro-
duced green canes from another eye,
both of which eyes belonged to the same
piece of cane, while the second plant

129

ariation in sugar cane found on the Kirton plantation, Barbados. From West
Indian Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 3. (Fig. 16.)

Pomeroy: Bud Variations in Sugar Cane

produced both striped and green canes
from one and the same eye.”

A very similar observation was made
by Melmoth Hall’ a little later. He
wrote: “I have in one instance seen no
less than three distinct canes springing
from one stool of the ribbon variety,
one entirely yellow, one entirely green,
the other being the usual ribbon cane;
while from other stools in the same
field I found canes either of a uniform
green, purple or purplish-brown; all
the rest spring from the same ribbon
cane root, being striped in the usual
Way.”

Mr. Deerr, writing in 1910, said that
for generations the Louzier (Otaheite)
cane, known under several names in
different sections, had produced a very
large proportion of the world’s supply
of sugar cane combining the character-
istics of heavy tonnage, sweet and pure
juice, and low fiber content. M. Au-
guste Villele, of Mauritius, thus de-
scribed the origin of this variety in a
letter to Mr. Deerr: “In 1868 or 1869
M. Lavignac introduced into Mauritius
several varieties of cane from New Cal-
edonia, among which was the Mignonne,
a red and green striped variety. This
cane was noticed by M. Louzier to
throw sports and from a vellow sport
the Louzier was developed, being the
standard cane of Mauritius for many
years.”

The Louzier cane traveled from
Mauritius to other districts and is not
to be distinguished from the Yellow
Otaheite cane of Cuba and Java, or
from varieties grown under other names
in several sugar-cane districts. Mr.
Deerr states that, having seen the Bour-
bon, the Lahaina, and the Louzier
srowing on a large scale in Demerara,
Hawaii, and Mauritius, he has no hesi-
tation in saying that they are indistin-
guishable. Stubbs? and Harrison and
Tenman* also considered these varieties
identical. It is then reasonable to sup-

2 The magazine Sugar Cane, No. 64.

3 Dr. W. Stubbs, Sugar Cane, 1897, p. 66.
4The magazine Sugar Cane, No. 273.

> Kew Bulletin, 1891.

131

pose that the Lahaina and Bourbon
canes, although introduced into Hawaii
and the West Indies as_ self-colored
canes, were originally in Otaheite sports
from the cane introduced into Mauri-
tius in 1868 or 1869 under the name
Mignonne, and that in Otaheite the
latter was cultivated as a separate cane.

Assuming the identity of the Louzier
with the Otaheite and Lahaina canes
as described above, and remembering
the origin of the first mentioned, it is
also probable that the other two origi-
nated in the same way but, having been
introduced at early dates as self-colored
canes, no suspicion of their origin arose.
The Louzier cane also is known to
throw a striped sport indistinguishable
from the Mignonne from which the
Louzier arose, and this cane in turn
throws self-colored sports, thus com-
pleting the cycle through striped cane,
self-colored cane, to striped cane again,
although it is impossible to state which
was the original type.

In December, 1890, Mr. J. F. Horne
wrote the Director of the Royal Gar-
dens at Kew as follows :° “Of new vari-
eties originating as bud sports we have
eight or nine in Mauritius alone; some
of them are very fine canes and they
are extensively planted. Most of them
are hardier than their parents and they
yield more sugar. They are mostly ob-
tained from new canes recently intro-
duced. The sudden change of climate,
soil, and other circumstances cause them
to be thrown off. More of them might
be obtained if the planters were more
observing than they are and closely fol-
lowed the cane cutters throughout their
fields. As things are, a new variety is
only observed should it chance to spring
up in an outside row.”

In the early nineties the Striped
Tanna canes. Under th name of Yel-
color) was brought to Mauritius, and
it was frequently observed to throw
sports whence have come the White

Stool of Red Ribbon (Striped Cheribon) sugar cane showing stalks of the Burke_or White
Cheribon variety appearing as a bud variation. Found by Mr. S. B. Kirton, owner of
the Arthur Seat plantation, Barbados, in 1900. From West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 2sNors:

(Fig. 17.)

Pomeroy: Bud Variations in Sugar Cane

(yellow color) and Black (purple color)
Yanna canes. Under the name of Yel-
low Caledonia the White Tanna in
1910 formed the major portion of the
unirrigated plantings in the Hawaiian
Islands, as Malabar it was the favorite
cane of Fiji, and as White Tanna it
covered extensive areas in Mauritius.
All three of the Tanna canes were also
cultivated on a large scale in Australia.

Mr. James Clarke of North Queens-
land reported that the first instance of
bud variation that he noticed was in
New South Wales, where he had charge
of a large sugar plantation. Having
planted with his own hands some of the
Striped Tanna cane in an endeavor to
establish there a variety resistant to the
“summing” disease, he noticed when
cutting the canes that some of them
were entirely yellow and some purple
without stripes. One stalk was found
with the three lower joints striped like
Striped Tanna and the upper portion of
the stalk unstriped and completely yel-
low. The yellow and the purple canes
were planted separately, as were the
joints from the stalk that was partly
striped and partly yellow, and in each
case the resulting canes were true to
the color of the cuttings planted.

The following experiment® is reported
from Louisiana: “As an illustration of
bud variation, some stalks of cane,
partly white and partly purple, were
selected from the field of Soniat Bros.,
Tchoupitoulas plantation. They were
called bastard canes. These stalks were
planted as follows: First row, the en-
tire stalk ; second row, the white joints;
third row, the colored joints. At the
end of the season four distinct canes,
as far as color could direct us, were ob-
tained. Types of the four new vari-
eties were selected and _ separately
planted and the next year were found
to be nearly pure. Selection and sep-
arate plantings have been made each
year since. These canes have been
named as follows: First, a white cane,
No. 29, Soniat; second, a light striped
cane, No. 59, Nicholls; third, a light

6 Dr. W. Stubbs, Sugar Cane, 1897, p. 66.

133

purple cane, No. 64, Bird; fourth, a
dark striped cane, No. 65, Garig. The
yield and analyses of these canes have
been annually made. They, except the
white, are entirely different from any
other cane in our collection.”

An interesting bud variation (Fig. 1)
was forwarded by the Hon. F. J. Clarke
from Kirton plantation in Barbados to
the West Indian Department of Agri-
culture and was exhibited by Dr. Mor-
ris, the Commissioner of Agriculture,
at a meeting of the Barbados Agricul-
tural Society in April, 1899. The speci-
men was a ribbon cane with very pro-
nounced stripes on the main stem. Four
successive joints had thrown off shoots,
the first and third of which were striped
with red like the parent cane, while the
second and fourth were unstriped yel-
low canes. The resulting appearance
was a striped parent cane bearing two
striped shoots on one side and two un-
striped shoots on the other side.

In March, 1900, Mr. S. B. Kirton,
proprietor of the Arthur Seat planta-
tion, Barbados, observed several stools
of cane showing bud variation growing
in the outside row of a field on his es-
tate. From a common base sprang red
striped canes on one side and pale yel-
low unstriped canes on the other side
(Fig. 2). An examination of five
clumps in which the phenomenon was
noticed gave the following figures:

White
canes

Red striped
canes
6
6
4

6
16

Stool

U1 de Ne
SUAON

The cane originally planted was deter-
mined in each case to have been Red
Ribbon (Striped Cheribon, yellow and
blood red color). In one clump which
was examined carefully it was found
that a bud of the striped cane which was
planted had produced a white cane
which in turn produced a ribbon cane
from a bud below the surface of the
ground. The white canes were identical

134

with the Burke variety (White Cheri-
bon, yellow-violet color).

Subsequent to these investigations
Mr. James Clarke, of North Queens-
land, recorded the following instances
of bud variation in a letter to Prof.
J. B. Harrison, of the West Indian De-
partment of Agriculture. In cutting
Striped Singapore canes (Striped Cher-
ibon) a short time previous he had
noticed what appeared to be ripe, yel-
low Rappoe canes (Burke or White
Cheribon) growing out of the middle
of the Striped Singapore stools. Some
stalks were found with purple stripes
on a few of the lower joints, while the
upper part of the stalk was of a uni-
form yellow color. Careful search
showed that the canes planted had really
been of the Striped variety. To make
sure that the yellow canes growing from
the center of the Striped Singapore
stools were true sports, a stool of mixed
canes was dug and sliced through the
center. This showed that the striped
canes were the parents of the yellow
sports which had sprung from them.

There seems no reason to doubt that
the White and Black Cheribon canes
originated as variations from _ the
Striped Cheribon, and they are repeat-
edly found appearing as sports of that
variety. These canes have been intro-
duced into nearly all cane-growing dis-
tricts, and as sugar producers they are
equal in value to the Otaheite.

It is important to note that when a
striped cane throws sports two varieties
arise, one light colored and one dark
colored, and that almost always the
light-colored and the dark-colored canes
arising from any one variety are iden-
tical. Thus almost every light-colored
sport from a Striped Tanna cane is a
White Tanna, and nearly every dark-
colored sport from a Striped Tanna is
a Black Tanna.

VARIATIONS FROM SELF-COLORED
VARIETIES

Sporting from self-colored canes has
been less frequently observed than from
striped canes, but some _ self-colored
canes have been known to give rise to
two distinct striped bud variations. In

The Journal of Heredity

Mauritius the Louzier (yellow color)
has been known to throw two distinct
sports, one a cane identical with the
Mignonne (red and green striped), the
parent of the Louzier, and the other the
Horne (irregularly striped red, green
and yellow). Mr. Deerr also observed
similar sports springing from the Ota-
heite cane under the names of Bourbon
and Lahaina in Demerara and Hawaii.

The Horne cane just mentioned is of
especial interest as its appearance was
one of the earliest, if not the earliest,
recorded instance of a striped cane orig-
inating from a self-colored one. It
was first found by Mr. J. F. Horne
springing from a plant of the Louzier
variety and has been grown on the plan-
tation scale in Mauritius. A cane exactly
similar to the Horne has been ob-
served several times in Bourbon (Lou-
zier or Otaheite) fields in Demerara.

The Green Rose Ribbon cane is a
green and yellowish-pink striped vari-
ety which originated as a sport of the
Otaheite or Louzier and is grown with
success in Australia.

Another instance of a bud variation
of this same character was observed
in the Hawaiian Islands by Mr. E. W.
3roadbent, who found a green and yel-
low ribbon cane springing from the
White Tanna. In this case the sport
was quite distinct from the Striped
Tanna, the parent of the White Tanna.

The Cavangerie cane, one of the
standard varieties of the world, is ex-
tensively cultivated in Mauritius under
the name Port Mackay. It is claret
colored, with an inconspicuous but
clearly defined deep green stripe. In
Mauritius this variety has given rise to
a black cane called the Port Mackay
Noir.

Among the canes introduced into
Mauritius from New Caledonia was a
striped one originally known as Tsim-
bec, which is striped red and yellow.
From it several sports have arisen, one
of which, yellowish-red in color, is
known as Iscambine Rouge and is
grown on the plantation scale.

In Hawaii a variety called the Striped
Tip (dark red and pinkish-green color),

Pomeroy:

of uncertain origin, has given rise to
the Yellow Tip (light green becoming
yellow at maturity).

SUMMARY

These scattering instances of bud
variations may be briefly summarized
as follows:

Bud variations in the sugar cane are
quite common and have been recorded
in Louisiana, the West Indies, Mauri-
tius, Hawaii and Australia.

The difference between mother plants
and sports is often as great as between
recognized varieties.

Bud Variations in Sugar Cane

ie fe)

Bud varieties have been noticed as—

1. Differently colored side shoots
from one cane.

2. Dillerently colored canes in one
stool growing from a single piece of
planted cane.

3. A stalk with some joints striped
and some unstriped.

4. Strains showing
hardiness.

5. Strains
sugar content.

Plants grown from cuttings of the
bud sports tend to reproduce true to
the character of the sports.

differences in

showing differences in

Better Dairying by Bull Associations—Joint Use of Good Sires Improves Herds*

Dairymen who would like to use
pure-bred bulls to improve their herds
but who cannot afford to purchase such
animals should investigate the advan-
tages of a cooperative bull association.

These organizations are formed by
farmers for the joint ownership, use,
and exchange of pure-bred bulls. The
purchase price and cost of maintenance
are distributed according to the number
of cows owned by each member, thereby
giving the dairyman an opportunity to
build up his herd at a minimum ex-
pense. The organization also helps its
members to market dairy stock and
dairy products, to fight contagious dis-
eases of cattle intelligently, and in other
ways to assist in improving the dairy
industry. Farmers’ Bulletin 993, re-
cently issued by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, gives direc-
tions for the organization and operation
of bull organizations, together with con-
stitution and by-laws necessary for such
an organization.

The typical codperative bull associa-
tion, as recommended by the dairy spe-
cialists of the department, is composed
of from fifteen to thirty farmers who
jointly own five bulls. The territory in
which these farmers live is divided into
five “breeding blocks,” one bull being
assigned to each block.

In a survey conducted by the depart-

1 Weekly News Letter, U.

ment on 1,219 farms in eight districts
in Lowa, Minnesota, and Massachusetts,
in which there were no associations, it
was found that there were 817 bulls,
having an average value of $76. Had
the owners of these cheap bulls been
properly organized, the same inyest-
ment would have purchased the neces-
sary bulls of an average value of $283.
In one association having more than 100
members the original cost of good pure-
bred bulls to each member was only $23.
When questioned regarding the value
of cooperative bull associations, 150
farmers in Maryland, Michigan and
Minnesota estimated that the use of
bulls belonging to the organization in-
creased the value of the offspring in
the first generation from 30% to 80%,
with an average of 65%.

SUCCESS DEMANDS CARE

The selection of the bulls for an
association is one of the most impor-
tant considerations. A good pure-bred
bull will make rapid and marked im-
provement in the herds, and the asso-
ciation interest increases in proportion
to the improvement obtained. If a poor
dairy bull is used, the milk production
of the members’ herds is sometimes re-
duced, the interest is lessened, and these
conditions may lead to the breaking up
of the association.

S. Department of Agriculture.

NEW PILLAR ROSE

W. VAN FLEET

MOST promising new ae pil-
nay lar or low-climbing rose of com-

posite parentage, a result of

applying pollen of a vigorous
hybrid between the new Chinese Rosa
Soulicana and R. setigera, the wild
Michigan or Prairie rose, to the stig-
mas of an unusually hardy seedling of
R. Wichuraiana that had the Tea rose
Devoniensis as its pollen parent. All
other seedlings of this crossing have a
tinge of pink imparted by R. setigera,
but the blooms of WV”. S. 18 are pure
white, relieved by the prominent yellow
stamens that characterize three of the
four species involved in its production.
The flowers are borne in graceful clus-
ters covering the whole plant, as shown
in the illustration, and are succeeded
by an equal number of good-sized deep
red fruits that endure with little change
in coloring all winter. The blooms are
over 2 inches across, of perfect form
and great substance, remaining in good
condition for several days and are so
thickly set that the petals nearly touch
over the whole surface of the foliage,
which is thick, firm and of a pleasing
bluish-green shade. The canes are
strong, arching, with heavy side-shoots
bearing the great flower clusters, and
are naturally so well arranged that
little support or pruning appears to be
needed. The plant proved entirely
hardy during the past test winter that
killed many supposedly hardy roses to
the snow line.

The season of bloom at Washington
is early June, and there is considerable
fragrance of the character usually asso-
ciated with the musk rose, to which
Rosa Soulieana belongs. W. S. 18 has
not yet reached its full development
and will probably grow 10 or more feet
higher in favorable situations, and
doubtless will find its greatest utility
as a specimen tall bush or pillar rose,
in open situations rather than as a
porch climber. It is hardy and vigor-

ous and appears resistant to all foliage
and cane diseases that affect roses in
this climate.

Rosa Soulieana was discovered about
1895 by the French explorer Pere
Soulie growing in fair abundance along
the upper reaches of the Yalung River
in Southwest China and was soon after
established in England, where it is re-
garded as perfectly hardy and grows
in the open perhaps more vigorously
than any other rose species. It was
brought to this country in 1909 by the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Intro-
duction, and has turned out to be only
doubtfully hardy about Washington,
but otherwise well worth growing as
an oriental wild rose. It is very florif-
erous when not too severely injured
by winter, the creamy-white flowers, an
inch or more across, being disposed in
dense terminal corymbs, while the buds
are pale yellow just before expanding.
The strong canes grow 7 or 8 feet high
in a season, and the abundant bluish-
green foliage appears rarely troubled
by insects or disease. The tendency to
kill back in winter, however, has made
it desirable to interbreed this interesting
newcomer with other rose species and
varieties of undoubted hardiness, and
W.S. 18 is at this time the most prom-
ising outcome, though many attractive
seedlings, some of dwarf growth with
double blush and white blooms borne
throughout the growing season, have
been secured. Rosa Soulieana, blended
with desirable hardy rose species and
varieties, appears likely to prove a val-
uable acquisition to the equipment of
the breeder of garden roses.

In W. S. 18, Rosa setigera appears
only to have contributed hardiness, R.
Soulieana habit, foliage and abundance

of bloom, while R. Wichuraiana and
Devoniensis (R. odorata) size, sub-
stance and finish of the individual

flowers.

1 Rosa Soulieana X W. S. 18, Raised Bell Experiment Plot, Glendale, Maryland, 1915.

136

ROSE SEEDLING W.S. 18

x R. wichuraiana x R. odorata &.

Rosa soulieana x R. setigera é Blooming twig about two-
thirds natural size. Photographed by Dr. W. Van Fleet at Bell, Md., June 12, 1918. ,(Fig. 18.)

ROSE SEEDLING W. S. 18

Rosa soulieana x R. setigera 6 XK R. wichuraiana x R. odorata &.

Raised at Bell, Md. Plant three

years from seed. Photographed by Dr. W. Van Fleet at Bell, Maryland, June 12, 1918. (Fig. 19.)

Pure-Bred Pigs “Preferred Stock”

More than 80,000 boys and girls in
the United States are enrolled in pig
clubs organized and conducted by the
United States Department of Agricul-
ture and the state agricultural colleges,
and 71% of the reporting members raise
pure-bred pigs. The juvenile wisdom
displayed is supported by records show-
ing that more than 12,000 pigs made an
average daily gain of 1.14 pounds in

weight, which is considerably above
results obtained on most farms. Pig
clubs, now established in twenty-eight
states, are believed to have such a bene-
ficial effect on the swine industry of
the country that the Department of
Agriculture has assigned forty-nine
specialists to foster their further devel-
opment.—W eekly News Letter, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture.

BIOLOGY AND POLITICS

WALTER SONNEBERG

r NHE danger in applying knowledge
gained in one department of life
to other and quite distinct depart-
ments lies in the tendency to

ignore limitations of application. If

we are going to apply principles formu-
lated for biology to political conditions
we want to be pretty sure in advance
just what the limitations of those prin-
ciples are. Alleyne Ireland! suggests the
enforcement of a biological teaching to
combat the growing worship of the
“blind god of Numbers.”’ Granting the
impendment of catastrophe in the com-
mitment of political power to the hands
of proletariat, Germany’s experience of
biological principle does not furnish
much encouragement for further appli-

cation. It is now apparent that a

biologically buttressed formula was the

most potent inciter to Hun frightful-
ness.

Through the persuasion of Haeckel
and his mechanistic logic, the doctrine
“might makes right’’ was consolidated
and confirmed in the German mind:
through the idealization of man the
machine Germany went down to civiliza-
tion-crushing defeat—imagine the moral
effect, on receptive minds, of the preach-
ment that all life rose exclusively and
strictly from mechanic stresses and
chemical reactions. Earlier philosophers
emphasized the advantages of a God
relegated to the remoteness of ultra-
astronomical confines; subsequent de-
velopments made manifest that the
spiritual beauty they painted was a
mirage veiling lust released and rapacity
revivified. | _Discontented minds the
world over eagerly devoured the alluring
doctrine. What could be more palatable
to their half enlightened mentality than
a philosophy made up of egotism and
irresponsibility compounded in a spirit-
ual vacuum?

Mr. Ireland mentions the tendency
of talent to concentrate hereditarily
through selective mating; the advertise-
ment and acceptance of this tendency is
the only hope for rescuing the political

hierarchy from the maw of Bolsheviki.
Though we may be loath to admit it, the
smoothness of our government operation
is the outcome of the political wisdom
of the self-selected few who control
electorate votes. Where political power
happens to foregather in fairly wise
hands results are fairly satisfactory;
where it is unwisely used democracy is
less triumphant.

One thing is certain, neither biological
nor political science has anything to
gain by adherence to a scientifically
repudiated mechanistic doctrine. Bio-
logically it has served its purpose in
stimulating research; politically it has
proven criminally defective. In the
hands of ignorance it undeniably fur-
thers irresponsibility and immorality,
notwithstanding naive protests of closest
biologists.

As Dr. Frederick Adams Woods
indicates,” it may be possible to eliminate
despotic rulers by regulating the sources
from which they spring, but a prole-
tariat gone rabid, of misinformation and
impracticable ideals cannot be disposed
of so summarily. No satisfactorily
permanent substitute for common sense
has yet been found. Biology is under
the strongest obligation to unteach what
it has already taught, and leave politics
to work out its own salvation. While
agreeing with Mr. Ireland as to the
unfitness of majority to vote intelli-
gently on complicated political measures
it is less easy to accept his remedy.

The glaring disparity between moral
profession and performance in the
modern world is its great defect. The
remedy lies, not in formal education,
not in biological formula; but in the
steady and consistent example of work
and sacrifice set by the knowing few for
the unknowing many. Convert the
energy of laudation and oratory into
useful, character producing work. Noth-
ing less will avail to stay the forces of
license and licentiousness ‘e! loose by a
mistaken application of biological doc-
trine.

1 JourNAL oF Herepity, December, 1918, p. 339,
2 JouRNAL oF Herepity, December, 1918, p. 353.

139

MOTHER, TWO GRANDMOTHERS, AND FOUR GREAT-GRANDMOTHERS

Josephine Preston, of Denver, Colorado, three months old (when the photograph was taken),
I the rare distinction of possessing two grandmothers and four great-grandmothers, all

Fig. 20.

THE INCREASE, DIFFUSION, AND
DECLINE OF THE MAYFLOWER AND
OTHER NEW ENGLAND STOCK

Present Number of Living Mayflower Descendants Estimated at 85,000.

J. GARDNER BARTLETT

New England Historic Genealogical Society
Boston, Mass.

HE article in last November’s
number of this magazine by S. J.
Holmes and C. M. Doud entitled
“The Approaching Extinction

of the Mayflower Descendants’’ has
aroused wide interest. While the fall-
ing birth rate during the last seventy-
five years among the New England
stock has been deplorable, the present
conditions are not quite so desperate as
pictured by Messrs. Holmes and Doud,
as their conclusions were based on far
too small a field of data.

The early history of New England,
the genealogies of its families, the
increase and diffusion of the stock
throughout the whole country, the
decline in its birth rate during the last
two generations, and the amount and
effect of foreign immigration since
1845 have been subjects of much inter-
est to the writer for twenty years.

About 25,000 English colonists set-
tled New England between 1620 and
1643 (over 20,000 coming between 1630
and 1640), after which general imm1-
gration ceased until after 1790, except
for about 8,000 Scotch-Irish immigrants
who came here between 1715 and 1750.
The total population of New England in
1650 was about 33,000. Colonial cen-
suses and study of vital records in
thousands of families in New England
genealogies establish that this old stock
doubled in population about every 28
years, which give the following data on

Population of New England Stock

1650 b 33,000
icy coupes bia Oe ut 7 = Ok Ne okie Ne 66,000
LOG Sec ts eee. Be OO
TG test rire RN ge ee ee ee ee CMO
LOD 2a ee Lee 2 Se eae SOUL OOO
U/ 90. eevee . 1,125,000

(The Scotch-Irish immigration, 1715-
1750,is the cause of a little more than
doubling in the figures of 1734 and
1762.)

According to the United States Cen-
sus of 1790, the population of New Eng-
land was 1,009,000; but at that time at
least 115,000 persons of New England
origin were living outside New England,
mainly in New York, New Jersey and
Pennsylvania. So of the nearly 4,000,
000 total population of the United States
in 1790, about 1,125,000, or about 28%,
were of the old New England stock,
which continued to double about every
twenty-eight years until about 1845.
Its birth rate then commenced to fall,
so about forty years elapsed before the
population of this stock had again
doubled about 1885; and since then a
further fall in birth rate has resulted in
thirty-four years in an increase of
hardly 25% in this stock in 1919 over
what it was in 1885.

United States Censuses, immigration
statistics, and the preceding figures on
New England stock, show how the lat-
ter has steadily decreased in its percent-
age in the total population of the coun-
try since 1790.

141

142 The Journal of Heredity
Year Total Pop. N.E. Stock P. C. ready a melting-pot of races as popularly
; Hl A aeheae pecan ape =: supposed. The old New England stock,
Srey ,000, 2,250, 25 1 A .
1845....... 20,000,000 4/500'000 2214 ROW Spread all over the country, still
1885...... 55,000,000 9,000,000 16 continues remarkably pure, as its mem-
1919. ..... 106,000,000 11,000,000 101% bers still marry principally among them-
ahr selves, and if not, then generally with
I tion to the United Stat beces eo :
mmigration to the United Sta = _ British stock of English, Scotch, Scotch-
1790-1818 peareises 250,000 Irish, or Welsh descent, or with the
1818-1845. . ; 1,000,000 . ,
1845-1885................... 11,000,000 descendants of the old New York
1885-1919. . - 21,000,000 Dutch; marriages with persons of Irish,

From 1650 to 1845 when the New
England stock doubled by reproduction
about every twenty-eight years, the
vital records of over 10,000 separate
families taken from 100 genealogies of
New England families show an average
of nearly eight children per marriage, of
whom an average of nearly two died
in infancy or unmarried, the infant
mortality being rather high.

An examination of 9,000 completed
families in twenty genealogies of New
England stock where the parents mar-
ried between 1880 and 1910 shows an
average of 2.92 children per family.
About 6,000 of these marriages between
1880 and 1900 had an average 3.15
children; and about 3,000 marriages
between 1900 and 1910 had an average
of 2.71 children. These 9,000 families
were not picked or selected, but em-
braced all degrees. wealthy and poor,
cultured and uncultured, of many kinds
of occupations or professions, and with
residences on farms, in small towns and
in great cities located all over the United
States. This wider scope of data results
in much higher figures of fertility than
Messrs. Holmes and Doud secured from
their note of only seventy-three mar-
riages since 1880 which gave but 2.04
children per marriage; and their data
of only 1.5 children per marriage from
their twenty marriages since 1900, is
certainly far too low for a general
average of the whole stock throughout
the country, which doubtless still con-
tinues at over 2.5 children per marriage.

According to my observation and
compilations, the United States is not as

German, Slavic, or Latin descent are
infrequent.

The ‘“‘Mayflower Descendants’’ have
naturally experienced increase, diffusion
and recent decline in fertility similar to
that of the rest of the New England
stock. By exceptional temporary fer-
tility, the 101 passengers of the “‘ May-
flower,” although fifty died within a
few months, increased from 1620 to
1650 to at least 270 souls living in the
latter year who can be named. Using
the previously quoted proportions of
increase, the following results appear:

Living Mayflower

Year descendants
1650... eee A ee 270
TOTSe ee Rete aioe 540
LO GR eae ce Sone ee eee 1,080
1 BY 1 eRe tere My ake it 2G 2,160
LT G2 ot ee os ee ee 4,320
iL ASTUE Reena ity. Sree een hoe 8,640
AST eee oe, ok ae eee 17,280
L845 oo as eh ee actos 34,560
1885) 250 3c Se eee 69,120
1919: rahi .8, ) aes, 2 85,000

An average birth rate as low as 2.50
children per family can doubtless sus-
tain the Mayflower stock to its present
strength of 85,000; so the apparent
present rate of about 2.71 is encouraging
against its “extinction.’”’ The same
birth rate of 2.50 will also maintain at
its present numbers the 11,000,000 of
the rest of the old New England stock,
now spread all over the country although
its percentage in the total population
will decrease below the present 10.5
per cent, owing to past and future im-
migration of foreigners of higher fecun-
dity.

1The 80,000 population acquired by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 is included in this

estimate.

oe

VARIATION, SELECTION AND MUTA-
TION IN ONE OF THE PROTOZOA

HERE is a theory that the one-
celled organisms dividing as they
do by simple fission ought to be
all alike in their heredity sub-

stances, in other words that the geno-
type should be constant, and selection
should be of no avail. The recent
work of Middleton and Jennings has
brought this theory into question and
still more recently (1918) R. W. Hegner
has made a contribution to this funda-
mental biological problem. In his in-
vestigation Professor Hegner used one
of the lowest and simplest of animals
but one that fortunately has a variable
characteristic that readily lends itself
to accurate observation, namely the
number of spines on its shell. His
conclusions and proofs are clearly given
in Volume 4 of the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences. In
summarized form they are as follows:

Arcella dentata is a _ microscopic
protozoon belonging to the lowest
class, the Rhizopoda. It is as simple
as any animal organism it is possible
to obtain that has measurable charac-
teristics. It varies in diameter from 73
microns to 150 microns and in spine
number from 7 to 20. It multiplies
vegetatively and rapidly and the char-
acteristics of the shell are not modified
by growth or by the environment, and
are heritable but variable. Can heri-
tably diverse lines with respect to spine
number and diameter of shell be dis-
tinguished among the descendants of a
simgle specimen of Arcella dentata pro-
duced by simple fission?

Small families were reared from
70 ‘“‘wild’”’ specimens selected so as to
include large, small, and medium sized
organisms. Seven hundred and forty-
six specimens were obtained in this
way, ranging in number from only 2 or
3 to 149 per family. The mean spine
number of the families ranged from
10.40 to 14.07. Variations in spine

number occurred among the descendants
of single specimens during fission and
these variations were in part inherited.
It was found that the hereditary con-
stitution of the different families was
different with respect to spine number
and the conclusion was reached that a
“wild”? population consists of a large
number of heritably diverse families so
far as spine number is concerned, and
also probably as regards diameter, since
spine number and diameter are closely
correlated.

The main problem was next under-
taken, 7. e., an attempt was made to
isolate heritably diverse lines from
among the descendants of a single speci-
men produced by vegetative reproduc-
tion.

The data prove that the descendants
of a single specimen of Arcella dentata
produced by vegetative reproduction
differ slightly from one another in
their hereditary constitution and that
heritably diverse lines may be iso-
lated from among them, differing
both in spine number and in diameter,
and that these two characters are closely
correlated. These heritably diverse
lines resemble certain of the families that
were reared from ‘‘wild’’ specimens,
and suggest that differences in the
hereditary constitution of these wild
specimens may have originated in the
same way.

The general conclusion reached is
that within a large family of Arcella
dentata produced by vegetative repro-
duction from a single specimen, there
are many heritably diverse branches.
These diversities are due both to
very slight variations and to sudden
large variations (‘‘mutations’’). The
formation of such hereditarily diverse
branches appears to be a true case of
evolution that has been observed in the
laboratory and that occurs in a similar
way in nature.

143

—T Tt me me a mt th me a it th me me 1 mF me 0 m1 Bo oe

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APPLIED EUGER EGS

By
CAPTAIN PAUL POPENOE, U. S. A.

Former Editor of the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic
Association), Washington, D. C.

and

ROSWELL HILL JOHNSON
Professor in the University of Pittsburgh

‘The results of all the trustworthy observations and
experiments have been taken into account
This book should command the attention not only of
students of sociology, but, as well, of philanthropists,
social workers, settlement wardens, doctors, clergy-
men, educators, editors, publicists, Y. M. C. A. sec-
retaries and industrial engineers. It ought to lie at
the elbow of law-makers, statesmen, poor relief offi-
cials, immigration inspectors, judges of juvenile courts,
probation officers, members of state boards of con-
trol and heads of charitable and correctional insti-
tutions. Finally, the thoughtful ought to find in it
guidance in their problem of mating. It will inspire
the superior to rise above certain worldly ideals of life
and to aim at the family success rather than an
individual success.—From the introduction by Edward
Alsworth Ross, Professor of Sociology in the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin.

Price, $2.10

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK

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i he

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. X, No. 4 April, 1919

CONTENTS

The Founders of the Art of Breeding—II, by Herbert F. Roberts. . 147
A Unifoliolate Mutation in the Adzuki Bean, by A. F. Blakeslee. . 153
Breeding Milk Goats, by J. W. Thompson.............. REIS Sete a 11 (
Heredity and Democracy, by Edwin G. Conklin............ ahs 161

Discussion of Article on Democracy and Heredity, by Madison Grant 164

Aristocracy and Politics, by Prescott F. Hall........ OF oy 166
Plant Breeder’s Envelope, by Robert L. Davis..... RLS hae ae ob. 168
AgHossilpbarlot Maze, by: G. N. Collims:....5. 5.5 se 2 ee eee: 171
The Fighting Ability of Different Races, Second Letter........ Sly:
AQ Wine lesse\Wiyandotbe, by. Ji. kus Lerryenn. te. . ceri ees ine 175
Domestication of Animals in Peru, by O. F. Cook............... 177
Do, Birds Show a Monogamous Instinct?......................... 181
winnie meAltalta. iby WV. Southworth... >. 225-6. 4. ose 182
A Forage Plant from the Solanacae Family, by B. H. Hunnicutt 185
The Racial Limitation of Bolshevism, by F. A. Woods........... 188
The Inheritance of Continuous and Discontinuous Variations.... 191
NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918. Vol. IX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Or-
gan of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, May 26, 1919.

J. Cederquist ad lithographiam autot.

KOELREUTER, THE FIRST SCIENTIFIC PLANT BREEDER
In 1760 Koelreuter produced the first plant hybrid ever obtained in a scientific experiment.
(Frontispiece.)

THE FOUNDERS OF THE
ART OF BREEDING— II

Work of the Earlier Hybridists—Other Great Discoverers Long Neglected, as
Was the Case with Mendel

HERBERT F. ROBERTS

Kansas State Agricultural College

described the early work in plant

breeding, which came about through

the accidental contact of the people
of Mesopotamia with the date palm,
the discovery thereby of the fact of sex
in plants, which underlies breeding, and
Camerarius’ scientific investigations
upon plant sex. The present article
deals with the work of some of the
earlier hybridists, whose experiments
determined the course of the art of
plant breeding before Mendel’s time.

le A previous article,! the writer

KOELREUTER, THE FIRST SCIENTIFIC
PLANT BREEDER

Camerarius’ now famous Latin letter
fell on sterile, or rather on unprepared
soil. Over half a century had to pass
by before one was found to speak his
praise. ‘Rudolf Jacob Camerer is in-
disputably the first who proved the sex
of plants through his own experiments,
instituted with this idea in view. ;
In this manuscript (the letter to Valen-
tin), which far surpasses in thorough-
ness, completeness and good execution,
almost all the writings of this nature
which have thus far come to light up to
the present day, he appeared to have at
once exhausted everything which might
have been said on the subject up to his
time.’’ These were the words of Joseph
Gottlieb Koelreuter: From the 25th
of August, 1694, when Camerarius
wrote his letter concerning his experi-
ments upon sex in plants, until Septem-
ber 1, 1761, there had been no real
progress in the scientific knowledge
which underlies plant breeding. On this

1J]OURNAL OF HEREDITY, vol. Xx, p. 99.

latter date, however, appeared Koel-
reuter’s ‘Preliminary Report of some
Experiments and Observations concern-
ing Sex in Plants’’(4). This report,
followed in 1763, 1764, and 1766, by
three additional papers on the same
subject, record the results of 136 dis-
tinct experiments in the crossing of
plants.

If Camerarius made the actual scien-
tific discovery of sex in plants, Koel-
reuter was the first to apply this dis-
covery to their scientific breeding.
Koelreuter was born April 27, 1733, in
the Swabian village of Sulz, in the
valley of the Neckar, in the Black
Forest region of southwest Germany.
He conducted his experiments partly in
his native village, partly in the garden
of a physician in the town of Calw in
Wurttemberg, and partly in St. Peters-
burg, Berlin, and Leipzig. From 1764,
until his death in 1806, he was Pro-
fessor of Natural History in the Uni-
versity of Karlsruhe. At Sulz, in 1760,
Koelreuter produced the first plant
hybrid ever obtained in a scientific
experiment.

‘

THE FIRST ‘‘MULE”’ PLANT

In Koelreuter’s quaint German, we
read of the reasons which led him to
experiment upon the breeding of plants.
He calls attention to the fact that man
has brought together into botanical and
zoological gardens, plants and animals
from all quarters of the earth. With
animals, this has given rise to the
possibility of making hybrids. ‘‘Would
a goldfinch ever have mated with a

147

148

canary bird, and have produced hybrid
offspring,’ he naively comments, “‘if
man had not furnished them the oppor-
tunity to come to know each other more
intimately?’ He then goes on to
remark upon the possibility of plant
hybrids having been similarly produced
in botanic gardens, between related
plants, which had thus been brought
into accidental proximity to one another
and says:

‘*Because I was long since convinced
of the sexuality of plants, and had never
doubted the possibility of such an un-
natural procreation, I, therefore, let
myself be deterred by nothing from
instituting experiments on the subject,
in the good hope that I might perhaps
be so fortunate as to bring into existence
a hybrid plant. After many experi-
ments carried on in vain with several
kinds of plants, in the past year, 1760,
I got so far in the case of two different
species of a natufal group, Nicotiana
paniculata and Nicotiana rustica, that I
fertilized with the seminal dust (pollen)
of the former, the ovaries of the latter,
obtained perfect seeds, and from these,
in the very same year, have raised young
plants.”’

Some twenty of these hybrids came to
maturity, and were found to occupy an
almost exactly intermediate position
between the two parents, with respect to
all of their characters examined. Un-
fortunately, these hybrids were com-
pletely sterile, and Koelreuter adds this
odd remark: “This plant is thus in a
real sense, an actual, and so far as is
known to me, the first botanical mule
which has been produced by art.”’

Koelreuter made, besides other crosses
between species of Nicotiana, crosses
between species of Kedmia, pink (Dian-
thus), stocks (Matthiola), dogbane
(Hyoscyamus) and burdock (Verbas-
cum). He ascertained the fact, that in
general only nearly related plants, and
not always even these, can be crossed.
He determined experimentally the fact
that if the stigmas of flowers are pol-
linated at the same time by their own
and by pollen from another species, that
fertilization is effected by the former,
which would account for the compara-

The Journal

of Heredity

tive rarity of ‘‘species hybrids”’ in
nature. Koelreuter also made the very
important discovery, the explanation of
which was not furnished until much
later, that the continued self-pollina-
tion of hybrids finally results in the
re-appearance of the original parental
forms.

His ideas regarding fertilization are
interesting. He thought that a plant
was formed by the fusion of two fluid
materials of different sorts. The pre-
potence of the one parent over the other,
where it occurred, was ascribed to the
fact that, ‘‘since these materials are of
different sort, or in their essence are
different from each other, it is easy to
comprehend that the strength of one
must be different from the strength of
the other.”’

MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS
ING SEX IN PLANTS

REGARD-

Camerarius and Koelreuter stand as
the two great landmarks in the history
of scientific plant breeding up to 1766.
While these two were the only investi-
gators whose contributions to our know-
ledge of sex in plants were extensive or
fundamental, it is of interest to know
that the first person who is reported to
have actually crossed plants artificially,
was an Englishman named Thomas
Fairchild, who, according to Bradley
(1, p. 16), crossed two kinds of pinks in
1719. The cross in question was known
still to gardens, one hundred years later,
as ‘“‘Fairchild’s Sweet William,”’ never-
theless, as Focke says (p. 430): “‘This
success in artificial fertilization was
never utilized for science, nor does it
appear to have given gardeners any stim-
ulus to further investigations.”

Two years earlier than this, Bradley
himself (1, p. 20) had removed the
anthers from the flowers of twelve tulips
which he had planted in a remote place
in his garden, and had found that they
produced no seeds, while some four
hundred tulips planted elsewhere in the
garden and left intact, produced seeds
freely.

Twenty years later, in 1739, James
Logan, an American citizen of Irish
birth, and at that time governor of

Roberts: Founders of the Art of Breeding

Pennsylvania, published in Latin (5),
an account of his experiments with
Indian corn, or maize. In each of the
four corners of a plot of ground forty
by eighty feet in size, he planted Indian
corn. The plants in one corner, being
detasseled, produced no seeds. From
certain ears, he removed part of the
silks, and found that only those grains
to which the silks were left attached,
became fertilized, and grew to maturity.
He also wrapped one ear in cloth before
the silks appeared, with the result that
no seeds whatever were produced.

“In 1731, Philip Miller, in the first
edition of his ““Gardeners’ Dictionary”
(6) reported his own repetition of Brad-
ley’s experiment with tulips, as follows:

_“T set twelve tulips by themselves,
about six or seven yards from any other,
and as soon as they blew, I took out the
stamina with their summits so very
carefully that I scattered none of the
male dust; and about two days after-
wards I saw bees working on a bed of
tulips, where I did not take out the
stamina; and when they came out, they
were loaded with the Farina or male
dust on their bodies and legs; and I saw
them fly into the tulips, where I had
taken out the stamina, and when they
came out, | found they had left behind
them ‘sufficient to impregnate these
flowers, for they bore good ripe seeds
which afterward grew.”

Miller also grew male and female
plants of spinach apart, and found that
the latter bore seeds which contained no
embryos.

In 1751, Gleditsch, Director of the
Berlin Botanical Garden, published an
account (3) of an experiment in cross-
ing a species of palm (Chamaerops
humilis), of which Sachs says in his His-
tory of Botany, “This treatise, in point
of its scientific tone and learned handling
of the question, is the best that appeared
between the time of Camerarius and that
of Koelreuter.”’

Gleditsch had a pistillate palm in the
botanical garden in Berlin, which,
although some eighty years old, had
never borne fruit. There was a male
tree of the same species in a garden in
Leipzig. In the spring of 1749 he

149

obtained from this tree a quantity of
pollen, which arrived in Berlin nine
days later, a journey which today re-
quires two and one-quarter hours. In
consequence of the long iourney, most
of the pollen had fallen out of the with-
ered staminate flowers. Nevertheless
he pollinated the female flowers with the
loose pollen, and was rewarded by seeing
fruit ripen and produce seeds, which
germinated in the spring of 1750.

This sketches briefly all of the import- °
ant experiments known to have been per-
formed in connection with the investi-
gation of sex in plants, between the days
of Camerarius and Koelreuter. By the
middle of the eighth century. therefore,
little doubt should have remained in
scientific minds regarding the existence
of sex in plants, or as to the necessity of
the pollen as a fertilizing agent. More-
over, actual experiments in fertilization,
many of them between plants of different
species, had been successfully carried out
in more than twenty important groups
of plants, from many different families.
We have also, in Koelreuter’s work, a
careful study of the ¢haracteristics of
hybrids, obtained in sixty-five different
hybridization experiments, conducted
with species from a dozen different
genera, belonging to diverse families,
together with an accurate comparison
of the characters of the hybrid plants of
the first generation with those of their
parents.

A scientific foundation was therefore
laid at last for the breeding of plants.
The value of Koelreuter’s experimental
work was doubted, however, by influ-
ential contemporary critics, although
Sagerer (7), whose opinion should have
carried weight, said of Koelreuter:
‘Having several times repeated his
experiments I have had occasion to con-
vince myself more and more of his exact-
itude and of his veracity; I believe then
that he merits all confidence.”’ It was
the fate, therefore, of Koelreuter as of
Camerarius, to remain practically un-
known and unheeded by his own genera-
tion, and to exert no influence whatever
upon the theory and practice of his day.

Despite, however, the fact that Koel-
reuter had demonstrated the possibility

entdeckte Ceheimnifs

d ile”

C vis De o/, Sas
at ¢ rl Liv}, 1703.,)

bei Friedrich Vie weo ‘dem celtern.

TITLE PAGE OF A GREAT CLASSIC
le page of the first edition of ‘‘Sprengel’s Secret of Nature,’’ in which he reveals his discovery
of insect fertilization. (Fig. 1.)

Roberts: Founders of the Art of Breeding

of crossing plants artificially, and had
even laid the foundations for a knowl-
edge of the laws governing hybrids,
much doubt still remained in the minds
of botanists, regarding the facts which
Camerarius’ and Koelreuter’s experi-
ments demonstrated. As Sachs re-
marks. ‘“‘The plant collectors of the
Linnaean school, as well as the true sys-
tematists at the end of the eighteenth
century, had little understanding for
such labors as Koelreuter’s.”’

Gartner says, writing in 1849 (2, p. 5):
“Hybridization in its scientific signifi-
cance was so little thought of, and,
at the most, regarded merely as a
proof of the sexuality of plants, that the
many important suggestions and actual
data which this diligent and exact
observer recorded in various treatises
have found but little acceptance in
plant physiological papers up to the
most recent times. On the other hand,
even in respect to the sexuality of plants,
they were attacked to such a degree, that
their genuineness was doubted and
strenuously contradicted, or else they
were regarded as a sort of inoculation
phenomenon belonging to gardening.”
Such is the usual history of scientific
progress.

THE REVELATIONS OF SPRENGEL

While Camerarius had demonstrated
the fact that plants possess sex, and
Koelreuter had shown that fertile hy-
brids could be produced between plants
of different kinds, the further fact that
crossing in nature, at least among
different individuals of the same species,
is a common and ordinary phenomenon
in the plant kingdom, was not at all
known. Aware, as we are today, that
the improvement of cultivated plants,
due to the appearance of new strains
and varieties, is to be accredited largely
to the natural crossing of individuals
standing in fairly close relationship to
one another, we can see the importance
to plant breeding, of the next great
discovery, that flowers are commonly
pollinated by insects, and that there is
an intimate inter-relationship between
the plant and the insect world.

151

Christian Konrad Sprengel (1750-
1816), published in 1793 (8), an epoch-
making book, ‘‘The Newly Revealed
Secret of Nature in the Structure and
Fertilization of Flowers,’’ which consti-
tutes the third great landmark in plant
breeding, after the original discovery of
plant sex by the Asiatic date breeders in
the unknown past. It was Sprengel’s
chief contribution, to discover the fact
of insect fertilization. Such a wealth of
accurate, first-hand observations on the
adaptations of flowers to cross pollina-
tions, had never before been made. To
Sprengel also is due the discovery of
dichogamy, 7. e., the maturing of the
stamens and pistils of flowers at different
times. His conclusion, that nature in
most cases, intended that flowers should
not be fertilized by their own pollen,
and that the peculiarities of flower
structure can only be understood, when
studied in relation to the insect world,
was revolutionary for his time. ‘Here
was the first attempt to explain the
origin of organic forms from definite
relations to their environment.”

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SPRENGEL’S
DISCOVERY TO PLANT BREEDING

Conceding the fact that plants actu-
ally have sex, it is plain that some kind
of breeding must be possible. Granting
that hybrids, even between different
species, can be produced, it is further
plain that new kinds of plants can be
originated. But what of the additional
fact—the contribution of Sprengel—
that in general, nearly all flowering
plants with definite floral envelopes
are naturally cross-fertilized. It means
simply this, that the bringing together
of new combinations of parental char-
acters is the rule rather than the excep-
tion in nature, and that, therefore, the
breeding of new types in the plant world
may be said to be going on all of the
time. It remained for Darwin to show
how the results from such perpetual
crossings are limited and held in check
by the operation of natural selection.
At all events, Sprengel’s discoveries at
once disclosed at least an important
reason for the diversity—the existence
of so many variations in nature, upon

£2 The Journal

which fact man had depended for the
selection of ‘‘superior”’ types of plants,
and hence for the ‘“‘improvement”’ of
plant races.

But, unfortunately, these discoveries
and disclosures of Sprengel’s awakened
little interest at the time. Like Camera-
rius and Koelreuter, Sprengel, in turn,
was a stone that the builders rejected.
Biologists of his day believed in the
dogma of the fixity of species, to which
Koelreuter’s experiments in the making
of hybrids, and Sprengel’s epoch-making
discoveries regarding cross-pollination
by means of insects, were directly con-
tradictory.

THE OPENING OF A NEW ERA

The beginning of the nineteenth
century marks the beginning of a new
era in plant breeding, initiated by the
work of the English breeders and
naturalists, Andrew Knight and William
Herbert, and of the celebrated German
hybridizer, Carl Friedrich von Gartner.
Through the extensive and intelligent
experimentation of these men, the fact
of sexuality 1n plants was emphasized,
and the inauguration of the era of
practical plant breeding was effected.
Although the scientific world of today
traces a continuity of thought and
investigation from Gartner back to
Camerarius, the fact must not be lost
sight of, that each of the three great
investigators who laid the foundations
of plant breeding—Camerarius, Koel-
reuter, and Sprengel—was completely
ignored by, and practically unknown to,
the biological science of his own time.
The torch of discovery was not passed
from hand to hand, but was lighted, as it
were, three separate times.

Two human generations elapsed from
the work of Camerarius to that of
Koelreuter, and one generation from
Koelreuter to Sprengel. It is more than
another generation from Sprengel’s pub-
lication to the time of the best work of
Herbert (1837). It is a third of a
generation more to the appearance of

of Heredity

Gartner’s memoir (1849), and about
half of another generation more to the
appearance of Mendel’s epoch-making
and now celebrated papers (1866), and
more than another generation again to
the date of the final rediscovery of
Mendel’s work (1900), the beginning of
the Mendelian or scientific age of plant
breeding, which ushered in the era of the
development of what we call the science
of ‘‘ genetics.”’

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Literature pertaining to sexuality in plants,
and to hybridization, from Koelreuter
(1760), to Sprengel (1793).

1. Bradley, Richard, New Improvements of
Planting and Gardening, Sixth Ed. London,
1719.

2. Gartner, Carl Friedrich von, Versuche
and Beobachtungen uber die Bastarderzeugung
im Pflanzenreich, Stuttgart, 1849.

3. Gleditsch, Johann Gottlieb. (a) Essai
d’une fécondation artificielle. fait sur l’espéce
de palmier qu’on nomme Palma dactylifera
folio flabilliforme. Histoire de 1’Académie
royale des sciences et des belles lettres de Berlin,
1749. Pp. 103-108, 1751. (b) Rélation de la
fécondation artificielle d’un palmier femelle,
réitérée pour la troisiéme fois, et avec un plein
succes, dans le Jardin botanique, de Berlin.
Histoire de l’Académie royale des sciences et
des belles lettres de Berlin, 1767, pp. 3-19, 1769.

4. Koelreuter, Joseph Gottlieb, (a) Vor-
laufige Nachricht von einigen, das Geschlecht
der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und
Beobachtungen, nebst Fortsetzungen 1, 2,
and 3 (1761-1766); edited by W. Pfeffer, as
No. 41 in Ostwald’s ‘‘Klassiker der Exakten
Wissenschaften.”’ Leipzig, 1893. (4) Histoire
der Versuche tiber das Geschlecht der Pflanzen,
in Miken’s ‘‘Opuscula Botanici Argumenti.”

5. Logan, James, (a) Experimenta et melete-
mata de plantarum generatione. Lugduni
Batavorum, (Leiden), 1739. (b) Experiments
and considerations on the generation of plants.
Second edition of above. English and Latin on
opposite pages, and with both English and
Latin title page. London, 1747.

6. Miller, Philip, Gardener’s Dictionary,
Extract quoted, found in the following editions.
1st Ed. £431, 6th (folio); 1752,/ 7th; a7oe:
Extract in text taken from edition of 1759,
unpaged, in article entitled ‘‘Generation”’
toward the end of the volume.

7. Sprengel, Christian Konrad, Das Ent-
deckte Geheimniss der Natur, im Bau und in
der Befruchtung der Blumen, 1793. Ed. by
Paul Knuth. In Ostwald’s Klassiker der
Exakten Wissenschaften, No. 48. 4 vols.,
Leipzig, 1894.

A UNIFOLIOLATE MUTATION
IN THE ADZUKI BEAN

A. F. BLAKESLEE

Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

HE Adzuki Bean (Phaseolus an-
gularis), like other members of
the genus Phaseolus to which our
common beans belong, is trifoli-
ate. Although the first pair of leaves
above the cotyledons are simple, those
later formed are regularly compound
each with three leaflets. Occasional
abnormalities in individual leaves, it is
true, may be found, and the writer has
record of a seedling plant with but a
single simple leaf which was unable
to continue growth on account of the
lack of buds. So far as the writer is
aware, however, a full-grown Adzuki
Bean plant with all its leaves simple has
only once been observed. In view of the
number of plants of this species that
have been under close observation for a
considerable length of time, it seems
worth while to make a brief record of
this occurrence.

The plant on the right in Fig. 2 is
shown beside a normal individual from
the same pedigree. Unfortunately the
photograph was not taken till late in the
season when the foliage was in an imper-
fect condition. A typical unifoliolate
leaf isolated from this plant is shown on
the background at the right in contrast
with a typical trifoliate leaf on the
extreme left from the normal plant.
The mutant plant was somewhat taller
than its neighbors in the same pedigree,
was more branched and retained its
leaves longer. In fact it was difficult
when the photograph was taken to find
a normal! plant that had not lost most of
its leaves. These peculiarities in habit
may be due to the fact that the plant
was entirely sterile, and vegetative
functions in consequence were not
checked by the production of fruit.
Buds were formed in densely packed

spikes giving promise of abundant
flowers. No fully formed flowers, how-
ever, ever developed. The buds all
dropped at an early stage before the
petals were visible. As the dropping
proceeded from the base upwards, the
axis of the cluster progressively elon-
gated and thickened. These floral clus-
ters may be seen projecting from the
plant in many places. They show the
terminal clusters of young buds and the
elongated axes studded with warty
scars that mark the places from which
buds have fallen.

The unifoliate plant was the only one
of its kind in a row of some 1,500 plants
grown in 1918. The parents of this
pedigree were the offspring of a single
select plant grown in 1918. The line
from which the mutant arose came from
a single plant grown in 1913. The
descendants of this original plant, in-
cluding a number of sublines, comprise
2,672 individually counted plants in
addition to about 4,700 plants not
actually counted although grown under
close inspection. It is safe to say,
therefore, that the mutant in question
was the only one of its kind in an inbred
line comprising around 7,400 individuals.
Moreover, no unifoliolate plant has been
observed in rather extensive plantings of
Adzuki Beans of various other lines. In
1917 all the plants in the field, number-
ing 42,174 individuals, were under close
observation and frequent records were
taken of them in regard to time of
flowering and maturity of pods. In
1918, select pedigrees comprising around
74,100 individuals were likewise repeat-
edly inspected for flowering and matu-
rity. All the plants grown in the fieldin
1917 and the select pedigrees of 1918
were so frequently inspected that it

153

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Aeur uore nul SULT, “Be] oulo1yxo of} UO Jeo] 9}eTOT[OJIIy peord Ay B O} YSPIZUOD UT YS oY} Ye punNo. SyOeq dy} uo UMOYS ST JUPINUT oy
WIOL} pa}ejOSt Jeo] o}epoToyrun yeordAy V ‘391 OU} 32 21d Joyeus OY} UL UMOYS SB 9} R[OTOJi1] St “SUBAq UOUIUIOD JSOUI OYIT] ‘IyNZpy 9,

NV IM OZdY AH NE NOLLVLOW ALYTIOPIOAIND

Blakeslee: A Unifoliate Mutation

seems improbable that such a striking
variation as the one photographed
could have escaped notice. The same
is true of 5,938 plants grown in the
greenhouse. A total, then, of over
122,000 plants were grown under close
observation without showing another
mutant of this kind.

Since the simple-leaved form is sterile
and moreover retains its leaves in the
fall after other plants have become
defoliated, it is a conspicuous object at
time of harvest. If such a plant had
been present in the 228,000 and more
individuals grown in multiplication ped-
igrees in 1918, it would have stood good
chance of being discovered at harvest,
although these multiplication pedigrees
were not so often nor so closely in-
spected during the growing season. It
is not entirely improbable, therefore, that
the mutant occurred only once among
over 450,000 plants which were kept
under more or less strict observation.

Numerous varieties of the Adzuki
Bean have been introduced and grown
in trial plats by the department of
Forage Crop Investigation of the U. S.
Bureau of Plant Industry during the
last twenty years. Dr. C. V. Piper and
Mr. W. J. Morse, who have had charge
of the tests in this department, report
that they have never seen a plant of the
Aszuki Bean with unifoliolate leaves.

Another representative of the genus
Phaseolus (P. Vulgaris) has been studied
by Dr. J. Arthur Harris in reference to
the occurrence of abnormalities in the
seedlings. He has kindly informed the
writer that only once has he found plants
with unifoliolate leaves. Three indi-
viduals in a pedigree, the offspring from
asingle parent, had undivided leaves and
were otherwise abnormal. Outside of
this single pedigree, none of the several
million plants of the pea bean individ-

155

ually examined for abnormalities was
found with simple leaves.

The Legumenosae are predominately
characterized by compound leaves.
In a few genera, however, the leaves are
simple. As familiar examples of the
latter condition may be mentioned the
Redbud (Cercts), the Rattlebox (Cro-
tolaria) and the Dyer’s Greenweed
Genista). In Rhynchosia, typically a
trifoliolate genus, one species (R. sim-
plex) has only unifoliolate leaves. These
facts may suggest that in the evolution
of the Leguminosae the present pre-
dominately compound foliage has been
derived from a simple-leaved condition.
Such a supposition might be supported
by the genus Bauhinia, which appar-
ently shows various stages in the process
of conversion of a simple to a compound
leaf by progressive furrowing between
lobes. The unifoliolate representatives
of the family might, therefore, be con-
sidered arrested stages in evolution or
reversions to an ancestral type. Under
this interpretation, the mutation under
discussion would be in the nature of a
reversion. It must not be denied,
however, that some may prefer to read
the evolutionary trend in the reversed
direction and to consider the mutation
a progressive one.

All the facts presented show that the
unifoliolate type here reported for the
Adzuki Bean is an extremely rare var-
iant. Despite the fact that its inherit-
ance could not be established by breed-
ing experiments, it has been called a
mutation. Its failure to appear more
than once in so large a number of indi-
viduals indicates that it is a variation
genotypic in nature, since it could
scarcely be attributed to the reappear-
ance of a character through normal
segregation nor be considered a mere
modification induced by environmental
factors.

BREEDING MILK GOATS

Anglo-Swiss and Egyptian Breeds Are Popular in the United States—
The Industry a Profitable one—Distinctive American Breed
Is Needed
J. W. THompson
Ex-Editor “Spirit of the West,” ‘‘Stock Farm,” Etc.

milk supply is rapidly becoming a

necessity in this country. Various

causes are bringing it about. One
is the speedy multiplication of densely
inhabited cities and towns, with popu-
lation so closely crowded as to preclude,
largely, the keeping of the cumbersome
and unsanitary family cow. Another is,
failing lands, both in area and produc-
tiveness, with increased high cost of
feed, of all sorts, for maintaining ex-
tensive dairies to supply milk at a price
not prohibitive to average households.
A third cause is the menace of tuber-
cular affection in the bovine species,
with other infections and impurities
connected with dairying institutions,
defying all efforts successfully to cor-
rect or remove them.

Casting about for a substitute, none
other appears, on the whole, to present
as many and strong claims to take the
place as the genus Capra, the animal
first employed by mankind to supply
the earliest and most wholesome of all
goods.

|: IS obvious that a new source of

A MODERN IMPROVED TYPE

A vastly improved variety has been
developed in recent years, manifesting
capacity and possibility in milk produc-
tion of very high order. The orient has
led off in this, as in the first domestica-
tion of the animal, and is the source
from which this country has to derive
its foundation stock. Upper Egypt,
Abyssinia and Nubia have developed
what is known as the Nubian breed,
which, modified by a cross with natives
in England, has given the Anglo-
Nubian largely in use in that country.
Switzerland has evolved three distinct

156

varieties, the Toggenburg, the Saanen
and the Guggisberger, which, with the
Maltese, found in the island of Malta,
comprise practically all entitled to the
claim of special adaptation. This coun-
try has lagged far behind in developing
an industry productive of the kind,
making the first importations worthy
of mention less than a score of years
ago, and on the menace of the “foot
and mouth disease,’’ putting a ban on
the further import of all animals liable
to prove carriers of the dreaded germs.
A limited number of pure-bred descend-
ants of those brought in, with the class
of grades resulting from crosses made
with the native stock, compose the total
holdings up to the present, so scant
that the limited number of enthusiastic
breeders and owners are combining in an
effort to induce the Government, under
its own agency, to procure additional
stock of each of the established breeds
from the forbidden lands across the sea.

MILK-PRODUCING VALUE

The capability of the high-bred class
to produce milk in quantity and quality
encouraging a general introduction is
sufficiently well established to convince
the most sceptical, while even the bet-
ter specimens of grades of relatively low
order show up in an astonishing man-
ner. A test made at the farm of the
California Agricultural College, of a
grade Toggenburg doe, showed a milk
yield, in 365 consecutive days, of 2,914
pounds, and the conclusion of numerous
experiments made by the same institu-
tion is, that average does of the sort can
be largely bred, yielding 3 to 4
quarts per day for a lactic period of
eight to ten months. The flavor of the

VP %
a te

TWO PURE-BRED SAANEN DOES

This is one of the three varieties developed in Switzerland.

burg and Guggisberger. The does shown in

per day each. Courtesy of The Goat World.
milk is pronounced virtually identical
with the best froém the cow, indistin-
guishable in our experience, and in
richness, on the average, superior, about
equivalent to what is termed ‘thin

this picture have milked more

The other two are the Toggen-
than 14 pounds
Fig. 3.

cream.’ Its wholesomeness is, how-
ever, much more strongly insisted upon
by numerous authorities, including phy-
sicians, chemical analysts and experts
of various sorts. Particularly has its

157

PURE-BRED ANGLO-NUBIAN GOAT

This cross between the Nubian of Africa and the native English is largely in use in England.

This doe has a record of more than 5 quarts daily for a long period.

World. (Fig. 4.)
worth been proven in the case of deli-
cate and failing infants, surpassing any
known preparation as an artificial food
for babes not nurtured at the mother’s
breast, and, likewise, for the aged,
infirm and ailing, having almost a reme-
dial virtue in many instances; while as
an article for general use, in addition
to its superiority in other food elements,
its supreme excellence lies in the fact of
the large preponderance it possesses,
over other milks in use, in the life-giving
property of vitamines.

FREEDOM

FROM DISEASE GERMS

The long-reputed freedom of the hir-
cine tribe, comparatively with all other
158

Courtesy of The Goat

domestic animals, from tubercular and
other disease germs, appears to be well
authenticated. From time immemorial
the reputation of this mountain rumi-
nant for general hardiness and health-
fulness has been universally conceded,
its very presence with other animals
being popularly believed to have a pre-
ventive, if not curative effect, in the
case of many ailments. Although not
proven absolutely immune to the fatal
malady of tuberculosis, yet the goat
tribe, as a whole, has been found vir-
tually proof against invasion by its
fearful virus, even inoculation with it,
in tests made, being effectually resisted.

PURE-BRED TOGGENBURG DOES

These, with the Guggisberger and Saanen (Fig. 3), form the standard Swiss breeds.

has not yet developed a distinctive breed.
daily when the picture was taken.

Climaxing the claims to be put for-
ward in its favor is consideration of
economy. First is the small space into
which it may be cramped and the con-
sequent cheap housing, covering all
exactions in two particulars, so difficult
to provide for in the instance of the
more gross and untidy cow. The back
yard, at command of most households,
and a kennel such as is often provided
for the children’s pet dog, will suffice,
while the unusual freedom from odor of
the doe, with its exceptional cleanliness,
fits it for close proximity to residences
or other buildings, and its docility per-
mits its use for the children’s pet.
Again, no other discovered domestic
animal that could fill the place can be
fed at as small an outlay. In quantity
of feed, careful computations figure on
one-eighth of what is required to main-
tain a cow in like condition. In actual

America

These five goats were giving 49 pounds of milk
Courtesy of The Goat World.

(Fig. 5.)

cost, this amount may be indefinitely
reduced in the vast majority of in-
stances. Tethering out in summer on
lawns, road sides, vacant lots, ete., will
be found feasible, frequently sustaining
entirely for an extended period. The
weeds and waste from gardens, peelings
and discarded vegetables, with scraps
from the table, will furnish another
large portion of acceptable provender.
Then the class of feed to be purchased
may be of the cheapest order of forage
and mill products, articles which the

goat relishes as no other domestic
animal.

The sale of kids produced, and the
meat and pelt value, which have been
the chief revenues derived from han-
dling the common goat, have not been
mentioned—left entirely as ‘‘velvet.’’

A main obstacle to a wide ownership
in this country, aside from shortness of

159

160 The Journal

supply, is the price demanded, making a
truly desirable doe, instead of the ‘* poor
man’s cow,” the ‘“‘rich man’s luxury.”
Richly pedigreed, tested does com-
mand figures running well up into the
hundreds, the record price having been
set at the Liberty Fair in Los Angeles,
California, the first days of the present
year, in the sale of the Toggenburg,
Princess Louise, No. 739 A.M.G.A.,
yielding 614 quarts of milk in twenty-
four hours, and producing fourteen
kids in her four kiddings, for $700.

of Heredity

Fairly good producing grades sell for
from $50 to $75, while top males bring
from $200 to the record of $1,000.
Lower grades, and young untried things,
are vended all the way from $25 down
to the price of market stock.

Such a state of affairs affords an
attractive opportunity for progressive
spirits to engage in the enterprise of
breeding, handling and perfecting milk
goats, up to the unlimited possibilities
clearly attainable.

Hermaphrodite Bees

One of the beekeepers in this district
has just been telling me of a further de-
velopment of the unusual experience he
had with one of his colonies in 1917.
During that year, and again in 1918,
large numbers of malformed bees were
thrown out of one of his hives. On mak-
ing an examination of these bees as many
as thirteen distinct and curious combina-
tions were observed. Some of them had
a worker eye on the left side of the head
and a drone eye on the other, and some
just the reverse. Others were per-
fectly formed drones as far as the
petiole (the tube connecting the thorax
with the abdomen), the abdomens from
that point being in every way the same
as workers, including the sting. Others
again were just the reverse of this. These
monstrosities all emerged from worker
cells which were capped in such a pecu-
liar manner that they could all be

recognized before hatching out. There
was apparently nothing radically amiss
with the queen otherwise as the colony
built up rapidly in the spring and
swarmed early in the season. At this
time five nuclei were made from the
hive and now comes the remarkable and
strange part of the story. All these
nuclei have repeated the same pheno-
mena as the parent colony, similar types
of malformed bees having been thrown
out of every one. Here, therefore is
direct evidence of a well defined, al-
though undesirable, trait, or charac-
teristic, in a queen being transmitted
to her next succeeding generation. A
theory advanced, when the occurrence
was first observed in 1917, was that pos-
sibly the old queen might have been
mated with a drone emanating from a
laying worker.—W. J. SHEPPARD, NEL-
son, B. C., in British Columbia Farmer.

Families of the First-Born

Analyzing more than 20,000 individ-
ual histories in five American genealo-
gies, Carl E. Jones (Quarterly Pubs.,
Am. Stat. Ass’n, December, 1918),
finds that the first-born marry in the
same proportion as other members of
their families, and that when they marry
they have on the average just as many
children as do their sibs. He infers that,
whatever the handicaps may be under

which the first-born is alleged to labor,
these handicaps are not of a character
to interfere with his racial value. Mr.
Jones extracts from his data a number
of other conclusions, most of which are
confirmatory of those secured by Alex-
ander Graham Bell in his study of the
Hyde family, parts of which have been
presented in various issues of the Jour-
NAL OF HEREDITY.

HEREDITY AND DEMOCRACY

A Reply to Mr. Alleyne Ireland

EpwIn G.

CONKLIN

I

N SEVERAL addresses given during
| the course of the war and in an

article in Scribner's Magazine for

April, 1919, I have attempted to
show that the principles of heredity and
evolution are not opposed to the essen-
tial principles of democracy. In the
JouRNAL oF HEREDITY for December,
1918, Mr. Alleyne Ireland comes to a
directly opposite conclusion. Mr. Ire-
land speaks out of an experience of more
than twenty-five years as a student of
government in a score of countries
“with a dozen governmental systems
ranging between the extremes of the
autocratic and of the democratic forms.”
As a result of this experience he con-
cludes ‘‘that the best governed countries
were those in which the mass of the
people had the least control over the
administration of public affairs. By
‘best governed’ I mean best provided
with internal peace, with justice, with
honest and competent officials, with
protection for life, property, with free-
dom of individual action? with arrange-
ments for promoting the general wel-
fare.”’

This is a conclusion of such a startling
character that it may well challenge the
attention of students of government
throughout the world. The facts upon
which it is based need to be presented
in greater detail, and if it is confirmed
by further study it behooves the
defenders of democracy to show that the
evils of democratic government are not
necessary evils or that they are more
than compensated for by other advan-
tages. As one who is only a casual
student of government I shall not
venture upon this task, but I cannot
help wondering whether Mr. Ireland
includes Russia under the Czars and
Turkey under the Sultan or the ‘‘Com-

mittee of Union and Progress’”’ among
the best governed nations or whether
he may not be thinking rather of
British colonies in which a _ highly
enlightened race rules over an inferior or
primitive one.

No doubt it is generally better for
parents to govern young children than
to make them absolutely self-governing;
no doubt races of superior intelligence
and morality can govern primitive races
more efficiently than they can govern
themselves; no doubt a wise and benef-
icent autocracy can accomplish many
desirable things which an ignorant and
corrupt democracy cannot. The ques-
tion which lies back of all this is, What
is the purpose of government’ In the
case of children is it not to bring them
to a condition where they can wisely
govern themselves? Is the purpose
different in the case of primitive races
or of the masses in a democracy?’ Is
not the chief aim of government the
highest possible development of the
individual, the nation and the race?

In all kinds of development and
evolution progress depends upon increas-
ing specialization and codperation, and
this is as true of human society as of
anything else. As a nation we have
only recently emerged from the pioneer
condition in which there was little
specialization and codéperation but such
a condition is not a necessary part of
democracy and our people are rapidly
becoming more highly specialized and
more intimately bound together without
becoming less democratic. Many faults
of democracies are not so much results
of the form of government as of the
condition and character of the people.

Lack of specialization is said to be one
of the fatal faults of democracy. Mr.
Ireland says that in all other affairs of
life we demand specialists and experts
but ‘‘in government we are asked to

161

162 The Journal

submit expert control to the inexpert.”’
But lack of specialization is no essential
part of democracy. Specialists in all
fields of human activity are developed
in democracies no less than in other
forms of government, and if in selecting
men for public office we still retain some
of our pioneer ideals this phase of our
development is rapidly passing. No
doubt we often make mistakes in choos-
ing men for public positions, but do
other forms of government avoid such
mistakes? In a democracy these mis-
takes may be quickly remedied; when
we become sufficiently aroused ‘“‘we
turn the rascals out,’’ but it is more
difficult to get rid of a corrupt or incom-
petent autocrat.

Modern democracy is not the rule of
the people as a whole, of ignorant
masses, of ‘‘the blind God of Numbers.”’
A democracy no less than an autocracy
is a government by leaders, but in the
former case these leaders are chosen by
the people and are responsible to them
and in the latter they are not. Leaders
in a democracy have great power, and in
great crises such as war, their powers
may be temporarily greatly increased,
but they are not autocrats for they must
render to the people an account of their
stewardship. In no modern form of
government do the people as a whole
make plans for war or peace, for taxa-
tion or legislation or even party plat-
forms. These things are determined by
leaders and in general the mass of the
people hold them responsible only for
results. Government, no less than per-
sonal behavior proceeds by the princi-
ple of “‘trial and error,’’ and the majority
in a democracy decides only whether
the results are failures or successes.
Furthermore a democracy is much more
sensitive to this test than is any other
form of government, for a failure is
quickly abandoned and its authors
repudiated. The contrast between de-
mocracy and autocracy is not between
‘numbers and rightness,’’ but it is
between rightness as measured by the
effect upon the majority or on only a
small minority of the people. Modern
democracy demands, and has, experts
even in matters of government, and

of Heredity

who can truly say that the results are on
the whole worse than in an autocracy?
The greatest problem which confronts
all types of government is the problem of
social coéperation. Efficient codépera-
tion may for a time be forced upon a
people by a powerful autocracy but
history has generally shown that such a
course ends in class antagonisms and the
destruction of social union. Self-gov-
ernment and majority rule are generally
recognized as the best form of govern-
ment for intelligent people; a paternal
form of government may be _ better
suited to ignorant and undeveloped
races, but only in case willing codpera-
tion can be secured, for the end and aim
of social evolution is coéperation with-
out compulsion. A genuine democracy
seeks and obtains a degree of codpera-
tion which compulsion can never ob-
tain. Ideal democracy means not less
specialization but fuller codéperation
than in other forms of government.

II

But it is not so much Mr. Ireland’s
views on democracy as on heredity to
which attention should be called in this
Journal. There is good evidence, as Mr.
Ireland assumes, that acquired charac-
teristics are not heritable and that men-
tal and moral traits are inherited in the
same way that physical traits are—
namely according to the law of Mendel.
Sexually produced organisms are mo-
saics of characters each of which is
usually derived from one or the other of
the two parents but not from both.
These characters, or rather their germ-
inal causes, the genes, are separable in
hereditary transmission and in the for-
formation of the germ cells they are
taken apart and in the fertilization of
the egg new combinations are made.
Good and bad traits are widely dis-
tributed throughout all classes of men,
good and bad genes occur in al] kinds of
germplasm. East calculates that the
gene or genes for feeble-mindedness
occur in one person out of fourteen in the
population of this country and un-
doubtedly the genes for superior intellect
are also widely distributed. Even in
obscure families a fortunate combina-

Conklin: Heredity and Democracy

tion of good hereditary factors may
give rise to great leaders, and in the most
distinguished families an unfortunate
combination of bad genes may lead
to nonentities or worse. In short there
is the sharpest distinction between the
popular idea of heredity as expressed in
the ‘law of entail’? and the Jaw of Men-
del. Property, titles and_ privileges
may be entailed but not personality,
character or ability. No doubt the
chances that good or bad traits may ap-
pear in offspring are much greater in
certain families than in others, for while
both good and bad traits are widely
distributed they are not equally dis-
tributed. Nevertheless the actual facts
show that great leaders do come from
the lower levels of society as well as
from the higher. Some of the greatest
of the sons of men have had the most
lowly origin. No one can predict today
from what social level the great leaders
of tomorrow will come. Many of the
leaders in the present world crisis are
men of humble birth, many who had the
most distinguished lineage have been
most dismal failures. Bateson some-
where comments on the great advantage
it would be if only men could be propa-
gated asexually as many cultivated
plants are, for then it would be possible
to entail character and ability.

Education or any other environmental
factor can serve only to bring to develop-
ment potentialities which are present in
heredity, but, on the other hand, these
potentialities would never become ac-
tualities except for the influence of edu-
cation and environment. In every per-
son many potentialities, some of them
perhaps of the greatest value to society,
remain relatively undeveloped, and this
is especially true where popular educa-
tion is lacking or in a society with fixed
class distinctions.

Mr. Ireland asserts further ‘‘that
assortative mating operates unremit-
tingly to depress one end of the moral
and intellectual scale and to elevate the
other,’ that there is a ‘‘constantly
widening gulf which separates medioc-
rity from talent, and the lapse of time
is making talented families more tal-
ented and forcing others further and

163

further below the line of mediocrity.”
If this is really true it should be easy
to demonstrate, but I am not aware
that any historical evidence has been
or can be furnished for such a con-
clusion. No doubt if assortative mat-
ing among men could be directed and
controlled as in the case of domestic
animals such results as Mr. Ireland
describes could be secured and_ in-
deed all except the most talented
types might be eliminated, but as yet
these are only theoretical possibilities so
far as mankind is concerned. There is
relatively little assortative mating of
such a kind as would be necessary to
bring about these results, and even
where selection is most carefully made
it is not continued for many genera-
tions along the same lines. When one
considers the tendencies among the
peoples of the earth as a whole, as over
against these theoretically possible re-
sults of assortative mating, there is
seen to be a great movement against
fixed hereditary classes, even against
national and racial segregation. Mating
is determined by propinquity rather
than by hereditary likeness, and such a
method can never lead to hereditary
uniformity.

In conclusion there seems to be no
reason to conclude that heredity and
democracy are incompatible. The law
of entail is aristocratic but the law of
Mendel is democratic. Democracy has
never meant that all men are equal in
intellect or character. It is not a
denial of personal inequalities but is the
only genuine recognition of them; on
the other hand class or family distinc-
tions disregard personal distinctions.
No social system can afford to disre-
gard the great personages who come of
humble families or to exalt nonenities to
leadership because they come of great
families.

It is the creed of democracy that
leadership should depend upon _ indi-
vidual worth and distinction and not
upon the greatness of some ancestor
whose good qualities may have passed to
some collateral line—but this is not the
faith or practice of aristocracv. After

164 The Journal

all the merits of any system of govern-
ment should be measured by its actual
results on society as a whole, over long

of Heredity

periods of time, and measured in this
way democracy has no cause as yet to
be fearful of the results.

DISCUSSION OF ARTICLE ON
DEMOCRACY AND HEREDITY

MapDIsoN GRANT

HE Journat or Hereptty for

| December, 1918, published a

short article entitled ‘‘ Democ-
racy and the Accepted Facts of
Heredity,’ by Alleyne Ireland.

The subject is of peculiar interest at
the present crisis, and amid the popular
clamor about socialistic democracy as a
panacea for all social and political ills,
it is refreshing to find an author who has
the courage to stand firmly on historic
facts and the lessons to be derived there-
from and to challenge the verdict of the
masses. a

In 1910 Emile Faguet wrote the
‘‘Le Culte de Il’Incompétence” and
showed how banal, inefficient and taw-
dry the government of France had
become in the opening decade of the
twentieth century, but since then few
voices have been raised to protest
against the theory of government which
entrusts the conduct of public affairs
to the most incompetent members of
the community.

The world war has had the effect of a
rigid readjustment and of bringing the
strong men to the front, especially in
France, and in America also where the
great heart of the people more than
compensated for the mediocrity of the
government. In military affairs this
process of sifting proceeded rapidly, and
it is probable that in Europe the admin-
istration of the armies was finally vested
in those entirely efficient. The war did
not last long enough, however, for
America to replace the politicians by
men of demonstrated ability at home.

In every branch of human activity,
except government, we demand a cer-

tain amount of expert or technical
knowledge, but, apparently anybody is
good enough to represent the public in a
board of aldermen, a state assembly
or even in the Federal Congress. There
is no attempt made to require experience,
knowledge or even a very high degree
of personal character—and, least of all,
does it seem to be of great importance,
even for those who fill the highest posi-
tions in the nation, to possess long tra-
ditions of Americanism, without which
no man can adequately represent the
Republic.

Almost the only exception to the fore-
going was the circumstance noted last
autumn in Chicago that those candi-
dates for various municipal offices who
bore nondescript foreign names were
one and all anxious to state that they
were ‘“‘born in America.”’

It is pathetic to note that in our
American democracy the electorate hav-
ing once accepted the theory that any
man is qualified for any office without
‘distinction of race, creed or color,’’ we
proceed to limit and check the power of
our chosen representatives by all manner
of regulations, statutes and constitu-
tions. This is in sharp contrast to
England, which, being without a written
constitution, has from time out of mind
entrusted political power only to those
classes which were deeply imbued with
the unwritten traditions of the nation.
If England ever falls into the hands of
the Socialist Labor party it will suffer
greatly from the lack of a written con-
stitution because their new rulers will be
devoid of respect for those great prece-
dents of human justice and freedom

Grant: Democracy and Heredity

which have created and maintained the
British Empire.

Alleyne Ireland’s paper on democracy
is a straight challenge to the relative
value of heredity and environment.
The extreme democratic, and still more
the socialist, theory of government
necessarily rests on the assumption that
whatever inequalities exist between
men or races are due to an unfavorable
environment, and that, given an equal
environment, which today spells educa-
tion, the result will be the speedy oblit-
eration of the differences between man
and man and make them all equal in
body, character and intellect.

This must be a very popular view-
point, and this theory does commend
itself most strongly to the lowest classes
in every community, and in America it
appeals to those races who, repudiated
at home, have found here an hospital
refuge. These classes and elements are
noisy out of proportion to their number
and are totally devoid of the American
traditions of the past three centuries.
To these classes and to these races,
which have been previously denied,
perhaps on the merits, access to social
circles and to positions of responsibility,
the breaking down of all barriers is most
welcome.

This is Internationalism—a _ creed
which finds ready acceptance among
those individuals who, having neither
flag, nor country, nor antecedents, nor
traditions, nor language, nor even sur-
names of their own, are naturally
desirous of abolishing these attributes
or “‘privileges’’ in others. These men
deny all discussion of race and raise the
cry of ‘‘race prejudice’’ the moment the
subject is opened.

Race, of course, is the greatest of all
privileges and is the one thing that
cannot be abolished by any human
device except the actual killing of its
possessor. In the last analysis the
Bolshevist movement in Russia is a
war of races. The Alpine peasantry,
under Semitic leadership, are engaged in
destroying the Nordic bourgeoisie, and
with it the only racial elements of value
in that great sodden welter of quasi-
European peoples called ‘‘ The Russias.”

This objection to the discussion of

165

race values, as I am informed, was
largely responsible for the failure in
France to take anthropological measure-
ments during the war. In this country
Mr. Ireland’s paper will meet with
violent protest from those races who feel
themselves aggrieved by any classifica-
tion or distinction among mankind
based upon race.

If more Americans would come for-
ward and say in print that which is
universally stated and admitted in
private conversation concerning the
military, social and political value of the
different immigrant races which have of
recent years flooded our country, there
would be a far more healthy reaction to
the problems involved and less would be
heard about a universal democracy
bringing in the millennium.

In America the melting pot is an
absolute failure. Immigrant races re-
tain just what they brought with them,
and some are good and some are bad.
This is well-nigh universally admitted
in private, but in public it is most un-
popular to hesitate to bend the knee in
servile adulation to the great god,
Demos.

Our vaunted freedom of speech and
of press in America probably is less
observed than anywhere else among
civilized men. If any reader doubts this
statement let him try to obtain space in
the public press for strictures on certain
races and on certain religions; to make
comments on their doubtful loyalty
during the war; to mention their bias
in favor of Old World antipathies; to
discuss or disclose the shifty measures
used to avoid the draft by some of these
aliens; to point out the religious forces
that lay behind the refusal of Australia
or of Ireland to accept the draft and bear
their share in the great world war, or to
indicate the source of the opposition to
the draft in French Canada. After such
an attempt he will be quickly relieved of
the idea that this is a free country.

It is, therefore, an act of no small
courage on the part of Mr. Ireland to
come forward and register a protest
against the fatuous folly of the universal
extension of the theory that all human
ills can be cured by democracy and then
‘‘more democracy.”

ARISTOCRACY AND POLITICS

Further Discussion of Mr. Alleyne Ireland’s Article

Prescott F. Hai

R. ALLEYNE IRELAND'S
article ‘‘A Biological View of
Politics,’’in the December num-
ber of the JOURNAL, states a

view with which many serious students
are in sympathy, but which few have
the courage to state. I say ‘“‘courage”’
because the opposite view is so universal
in popular discussion that it seems to
be crying in the wilderness to preach
against it.

The widespread and fatuous belief in
universal suffrage and in what Goncourt
called the ‘‘barbarism of number”’ is
largely due, I think, to the increasing
prevalence of a new. psychological type.
For lack of a better term I have coined
the word ‘“‘expansile”’ to designate it.
Just as we have ‘‘motiles,” ‘‘audiles”’
and ‘‘visuels,’’ depending upon which
sense is most active, so we have “‘expan-
siles,’’ whose characteristic is that they
are the victims of any idea which is
broader or more inclusive quantitatively
than some other. What bodily variation
is correlated with this is not clear; but it
may be a symbol, in the psycho-analytic
sense, of claustrophobia, and may signify
a reaction from the increasing urban
life. The expansile tendency is es-
pecially marked in the desire for
“equality”? of any kind, this being a
species of inclusiveness. In fact, in
some persons, the lust for equality
becomes a form of paranoia. Thus,
if the discussion is of suffrage, everyone
should have a vote; if of wages, everyone
should have an equal wage; if of educa-
tion, everyone should have an equal
opportunity. The idea of proportional
opportunity, by which those most
gifted should have the best chance, is
obnoxious to the expansile. The kind
of thing often expressed in the phrase
‘brotherhood of man” implies the
maximum of expansion and equality;
although logically altruism is perfectly
consistent with inequality.

166

oe

The most disastrous example of false
reasoning under the influence of the
expansile tendency was provided by the
French Revolution. It is well known
that certain Masonic societies had a
good deal to do with this event, notably
the Grand Orient of France, and the
Philath étes of Paris organized by Caglio-
stro. The false reasoning consisted in
assuming that certain principles of
equality, which had worked very well
among the picked and chosen members
of the lodges, could be extended at a
stroke to the whole population of France.
The writers of our Declaration of Inde-
pendence and Constitution, being Ma-
sons, adopted the language of these
principles when this country started on
its separate existence. Fortunately, the
population of the United States at that
time consisted of picked specimens of
the Nordic race, selected by the perils
of voyaging hither and of exploiting a
new country. These people had sense
enough to entrust the management of
their affairs to the most capable among
them; so that, for some sixty or seventy
years the government, although demo-
cratic in form, was aristocratic in fact.
At the present time this is no longer
true. Respect for intelligence and
ability have so far disappeared that it is
almost impossible for a strong and able
man of independent views to be elected
to high office. To get into office, a man
must now play the demagogue.

The result is a lowering both of ideals
and of execution. The popular opinion
of the masses must be consulted at every
step. Amiel says: ‘‘The stupidity of
the Demos is equalled only by its pre-
sumption. It is an adolescent who has
power but cannot attain reason...
Democracy rests on the legal fiction that
the majority has not only power but
reason, that it possesses wisdom as well
as legal rights The masses will
always be below the average, and

Hall: Aristocracy and Politics

democracy will end up in the absurdity
of leaving the decision of the most
important questions to those most
incapable. This is the penalty for its
abstract principle of equality

which ignores the inequality of valor, or
merit, of experience, in other words, of
individual effort.”

Many champions of the view that
intelligence and ability should have no
more than their numerical proportion
of power in government, in other words,
those who believe in government by
“counting noses,’’ admit more or less
of Amiel’s indictment. But they con-
tend that, although democracy in Plato’s
words is the best form of bad govern-
ment, it is essential to the education of
the people. These persons forget that
psychology has shown that the larger
part of education consists in imitation
and emulation. If the thing before the
eyes of the next generation is bad, that
is the thing it will imitate and emulate.
When a jailbird is elected to high public
office, what is the influence on the young
politicians and voters? For, as Mr.
Ireland points out, if education is not
transmitted by heredity; if only the
psychic environment is handed on in the
form of institutions, books and records,
the process of information has to be done
over in every generation, and if at any
time the institutions have changed for
the worse, the educational facilities are
lowered also.

The more intelligent a community,
the more it tends to recognize and
venerate ability and merit. In an
intelligent electorate, the aristot always
have more than their numerical quan-
tum of power, even under democratic
forms. Hence there democracy works
relatively well. But elsewhere, and
especially under all forms of ‘“‘pure
democracy,” this is not so. The matter
is further complicated by the demand
for socialism. As Emile Faguet points
out, democracy, having for its principle
equality of political rights, is the great-
est breeder of aristocrats; for there is
complete freedom and inequality as
regards natural conditions. As soon as
this is perceived, socialism demands
equality also in these natural conditions;
hence socialism is as directly opposed to

167

democracy as aristocracy is, but with
the difference that it seeks to level every-
thing instead of favoring the best.

Mr. Ireland seems to me entirely
right in holding with Nietzsche, Schop-
enhauer, Renan, James and many his-
torians, that great men lead their age,
instead of being the result of their
environment; and no doubt he would
agree that progress is to be measured
by the achievements of the greatest
rather than by the condition of the
average. As a matter of fact, as Lecky
and Mallock have shown, pure democ-
racy is an impossibility, except in a
relatively small area where the people
are intelligent and homogeneous in
character if not in race. Elsewhere, it
is simply a question of what kind of oli-
garchy shall govern; for there will be
an oligarchy either of aristocrats or of
demagogues and bosses. By aristo-
crats I mean those of special intelligence
and ability. These qualities, as Mr.
Ireland shows, are in general hereditary ;
and in the early days when the Nordic
race overran Europe, it rightfully be-
came the aristocracy of Europe by vir-
tue of the possession of these qualities.
At a later period, for various reasons,
the identity of privilege and ability
no longer held good in many cases; so
that I am not now contending for
special power based solely on ancestry.

But even where the better sort of
men have the leadership, they are often
subject to the temptation to weaken it
for the benefit of a temporary advantage.
Nearly every extension of the suffrage
has been the result of a bargain in
which some party in power has traded
the public good for the adherence of
some faction hitherto denied the ballot,
and usually in the name of progress and
reform. Ludovici has pointed out the
deterioration in the British House of
Lords through the successive creations
of life peers, mostly made to tide over
some political crisis; and that the addi-
tion of men unused to legislation,
even though able in other lines, weak-
ened the average capacity of the House.
The same thing can be said of the broad-
ening of the electorate itself. And yet
the recent abolition of plural voting in
Belgium has been hailed as a step on the

168 The Journal

road to the New Jerusalem! In this
country, so far as. I am aware, there
have been only three cases where the
suffrage has been changed from a
broader to a narrower basis. In early
Massachusetts, it was limited by a
vote of all the colonists to church
members and property owners; in New
Jersey, woman suffrage was abolished
early in the nineteenth century; and in
Rhode Island, the property-owning qual-
ification of $75 was recently raised to
$300.

In my opinion, we never shall have
good government until the suffrage is
limited to those having a certain educa-
tion, or paying a certain tax; perhaps
also allowing those to vote who are
willing to pay a fee for the privilege.
We never shall have good financial
management in cities where, as in Bos-
ton, 118,000 non-taxpayers spend the
money of 18,000 tax-payers. For, tak-
ing things on the average, as we always
have to do in sociological questions, the
liability to a tax implies a certain
measure of success and ability. That
is why the Bolshevist, who is a mentally
and nervously irritable person, filled
with hate in thé form of envy, is so
against property as an institution.

Limitation of the suffrage may seem

The plant breeder’s envelope, de-
scribed in the following paragraph,
worked admirably on tender succulent
flax plants and ought to be of use for
other delicate plants. It has the advan-
tages of being light in weight, insect
proof, moisture proof, and of being
readily adapted and used. (Fig. 6.)

A piece of oiled paper is folded or
doubled the desired width, with an
additional inch or two which is to be
left unstitched to facilitate opening the
envelope. A sewing machine is used to
stitch off as many envelopes as the
length of the folded sheet will permit.
The envelopes are cut apart with
scissors and slit up through the middle
of the unstitched portion at the base.
At the crotch of this slit a hole is cut of
sufficient size for the plant stem to fit
snugly when enclosed. One half, sec-

of Heredity

impossible of accomplishment in these
times, when we are seeking the smallest
possible political unit, even as we try to
split up the atoms of physical matter;
and yet, if everyone would speak out
who desires it, the achievement might
not be so remote. Perhaps the most
pregnant saying of Goethe, which em-
bodied a generalization from his wide
study of biology and other sciences, was
that anything to succeed must have
‘‘Beschraenkung’’—limitation. Goethe
was not what I have called an expansile.
He would doubtless have recognized
that the chief danger of the American
people today is the tendency to follow
out logically abstract ideals without
reference to the concrete situation.
This, as LeBon has shown, is a ten-
dency indigenous to the Latin but not
to the Nordic spirit. We are developing
it partly through the dilution of our
national character by immigration, and
partly by hearkening to the catchwords
of expansile leaders and those who
wallow in humanitarian platitudes.

Therefore we should all be grateful to
Mr. Ireland for stating the case so
clearly, and for his testimony to the
value of aristocracy, based on his long
and thorough study of various experi-
ments in government.

Plant Breeder’s Envelope

tion B, of the unstitched portion is
folded lengthwise towards the top of the
envelope. The other half, section A, is
folded on a forty-five degree slant over
the first half. Points c, d, and e coin-
cide, and at this corner where the folded
parts overlap a snap fastener such as is
used on women’s dresses is used to
fasten the envelope base together. The
plant breeder’s envelope is now in the
same position as when enclosing an
emasculated flower on the stem of a
plant. The unstitched portion at the
envelope base must be one-half, or less
than one-half, the width of the envelope
in length so that, when folded, there will
be no unstitched portion above the fold.
Ropert L. Davis,
Scientific Assistant, Fiber Investi-
gations, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.

PLANT BREEDERS ENVELOPE

f= Emasculated !
flax flowers. \

Cc
A PRACTICAL ENVELOPE FOR PLANT BREEDERS

It has the advantage of being light in weight, insect proof, moisture pri of, and
of being readily adapted and used. See description on opposite page. (Fig. 6.)

A FOSSIL EAR OF MAIZE

First Tangible Evidence of the Existence of Indian Corn in Geologic Times

G. N. CoLuins

Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

R. F. H. KNOWLTON has re-
cently published the description
of a fossil ear of maize from
Peru.! The specimen, which is

described as a new species, Zea antiqua
Knowlton, was purchased from a col-
lector of curios in Cuzco, Peru, in 1914.
In spite of its unsatisfactory history,
the specimen is of especial interest since
it affords the first tangible evidence of
the geological existence of this impor-
tant cultivated plant.

It is well known that maize or Indian
corn was grown widely in North and

South America before the time of
Columbus. How long before, there is as

yet no way of determining. A very
long period is indicated by the fact that
the progress made in the improvement of
this plant since the discovery of Amer-
ica is insignificant in comparison with
the changes that must have taken place
since the prototypes of maize were able
to exist as wild plants. Not only were
the kinds found growing by the earliest
explorers similar to those now culti-
vated, but remains of ears found in
prehistoric graves are almost duplicates
of the varieties grown in the same
regions today.

The finding of a fossil ear means that
the origin of maize may now be trans-
ferred from prehistoric to geologic times,
for Dr. Knowlton is confident that,
although the specimen may not be
assigned to its exact geological period, it
is an undoubted fossil. Yet the type it
represents is domesticated maize essen-
tially like the varieties still being grown
in Peru and Bolivia.

Mexico is generally thought to be the

region where maize was originally do-
mesticated. The chief reason for as-
signing the origin of maize to Mexico
rather than to South America is the
important fact that Mexico is the natur-
al habitat of teosinte, the nearest wild
relative of maize. On the other hand,
the great diversity of types existing in
South America certainly bespeaks either
a very great antiquity or a multiple
origin.

Prior to the discovery of Zea antiqua
the most ancient evidence of maize was
the specimens found by Darwin? who
unearthed ‘‘heads of Indian corn,”’
mixed with marine shells and earth on
an elevated ledge on the island of San
Lorenzo near Callao, Peru. The ledge
on which the relics of maize were found
was elevated 85 feet. above sea level.
The shells which accompanied the
maize specimens belonged to recent
species and were covered with a few
inches of detritus. Darwin states that
the maize and human remains “had
all indisputably been embedded with
the shells.”’

The ear of Zea antiqua is 60 mm. long
and 35 mm. in greatest diameter. The
apical portion is missing but the original
ear must have been about 80 mm. in
length. The butt is rounded and the
ear is strongly tapered, there being no
portion even approximately cylindrical.

The seeds are from 4 to 8 mm. in
length and from 3 to 5 mm. in width,
sharply pointed and irregularly dis-
posed. The seeds on one side of the ear
at some distance from the base are
somewhat smaller and more irregular in
form, making the ear slightly asymmet-

' Jour. Wash. Acad. of Sci., Vol. 9, No. 5, pp. 134-136, March 4, 1919.
? Darwin, C. R., “Geological Obserwations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands and on South

America,” Pt. II, pp. 47-49, London, 1851.
170

FOSSIL MAIZE AND MODERN MAIZE

An ear of fossil maize (Zea antiqua) compared with existing South American types. Nos.
1, 2 and 3, different aspects of the fossil ear; No. 4, a Bolivian variety from high altitudes;
Nos. 5 and 6, a Peruvian popcorn from Ollantaytambo; Nos. 7 and 9, Copacabana variety
from near Lake Titicaca; No. 8, a Peruvian variety called Granada. (Fig. 7.)

ye

rical. Asymmetry of this kind is fre-
quently observed in varieties which
have the ears closely oppressed to the
culm. If this analogy is correct, the
aspect shown in Fig. 7, No. 1, is
the axial side of the ear. The articula-
tion of the seeds with the cob can be
readily made out and individual seeds
are easily detached. The structure of
the cob is not apparent, at least without
sectioning. The seeds extend around
the base indicating that the pedicel
must have been very small. In size
and shape the specimen is similar to the
ears of Peruvian and Bolivian varieties,
illustrations of which are shown with
those of the fossil ear in Fig. 7.

The gradually rounded butt is not an
uncommon character and is well illus-
trated in Nos. 4,5 and 7. The shape of
the seeds cannot be exactly duplicated
by any specimen in our collection, but is
not unlike those of a Peruvian variety of
pop-corn shown as No. 5 that was grown
near Ollantaytambo. Pointed seeds are

The Journal of Heredity

a common characteristic of Bolivian and
Peruvian varieties, but they are usually
much larger than those of Zea antiqua.
An example of these larger pointed
seeds is shown as No. 8. The irregular
arrangement of the rows is approxi-
mated by specimens of the Copacabana
variety from the region of Lake Titicaca,
Now.

The extent to which the base is
covered by the seeds seems almost to
preclude the possibility of a pedicel able
to hold the ear in an upright position.
Equally small pedicels are, however,
not uncommon in Peruvian specimens.
See Nos. 6 and 9.’ In existing varieties
having very small pedicels, the pedicels
are also short and the ear is supported
chiefly by the subtending leaf-sheath.

While the fossil ear is not duplicated
by any ear in our collection, it presents
no new characters, but rather a different
combination of characters found among
the existing types.

Differentiation of Bright,

Anyone who visits a typical public
school in which the pupils of each grade
number thirty or more can scarcely
avoid noting marked differences between
pupils in a single grade in the facility
with which they assimilate knowledge of
the subjects being taught.

It is becoming a well-recognized fact
that a pupil who falls in the first group
in one subject tends to fall in the same
group in all subjects, and that the same
is true of pupils falling in the second or
third groups. There may be, here and
there, marked exceptions to this rule,
but it is true in general. One is natu-
rally led to the conclusion, therefore, that
the pupils of the second type men-
tioned simply lack the general mental
capacity to assimilate knowledge as
rapidly as the other pupils, though their
having passed the grade below would
seem to indicate that if given sufficient
time they could understand the subjects
under discussion, at least fairly well.

Medium, and Dull Pupils

One is led to conclude also that the
pupils of the third type mentioned
possess a degree of native mental
ability which enables them to acquire
knowledge more rapidly than do their
fellows.

The almost inevitable outcome of
such maladjustment is the premature
quitting of school and the consequent
misfortune of a half-finished education
accompanied by a feeling of malevolence
toward the school and society.

Perhaps the chief purpose of intelli-
gence measurement, then, is the scien-
tific (as well as rapid and accurate)
classification of pupils in regard to their
native capacities to learn, in order to
provide for the separate teaching of
pupils of marked differences in ability
to progress in school.—From the Preface
of a Manual of Directions for Adminis-
tering the Otis Group Intelligence Scale,
World Book Company, Yonkers-on-
Hudson, N. Y.

THESPIGHTING ABILITY OF

DIFFERENT RACES

(Second Letter)!

FRANCE, December 6, 1918.

S TVE told you before, the Nor-

mans and North French finally

made up the fighting troops of

France that could be depended
upon in disaster as well as victory, the
infantry that held and went forward.
The Bretons, too, were tough and stead -
fast fighters but seemed to lack some-
thing of the madness of the Normans
and North French on occasions for a
grand gesture.

On the front the number of big,
burly, blond Frenchmen amongst the
officers seemed to me striking, while
blue eyes were almost in the majority
more than one of our officers and men
have remarked in my presence on this
fact and on the stature and blondness
of the French officers and fighting men.
It was so contrary to their preconceived
notions.

Of course you know the British and
their qualities too well for me to have to
record them. The Scotch most of all
were the natural fighting men of the
war—the ones who actually took joy
in it more than any of the rest. The
love of fighting was a great source of
weakness to the British more than once,
as it was more than once with us, too,
The Scotchman seems to be a sort of
drunken madman in a fight. Fear of
death does not appear to bother him in
the least. And the few Scotchmen in
our regiment were the best and most
reliable noncoms we had. McKinzie
and Knox, two noncoms of my old
battery, particularly distinguished them-
selves in trying situations, acting with
coolness and courage that were highly
commendable.

Amongst our own highly heterogen-
eous troops the fighting ability of an
organization usually could be measured

by its percentage of Americans of the
old stock. And as outfits were filled up
by draft ‘“replacements’’ the fighting
ability perceptibly waned. This is
stated by the officers who commanded
the platoons and companies and battal-
ions in the fighting. Of course the
entire army was oOfficered by Americans
of the old stocks almost 100%. The
exceptions are quite negligible. The
Irish are awfully good fighting leaders.
But the number of Irish names is not
conspicuously large.

I am quite sure the New England
troops were our best—the northern
troops infinitely superior to the south-
ern in “‘guts,’’ discipline and fighting
ability—tthough the southern officers
were conspicuously brave and able all
around with a fine faculty for true leader-
ship.

The 77th Division seems to have been
a curious contradiction since it was
made up of the scum of New York City,
all drafted and of all races, Jews, Ital-
ians, Poles, and Russians. And it was
really a wonderful fighting outfit. It
was officered by American gentlemen,
however, and their leadership was
equal to anything shown in the war.
The things they did with their city scum
were really heroic, again and again, and
equalled any of the mad, forlorn hopes
that the mad Highlanders or the stub-
born English ever pulled. The Jews
seem to have displayed lots of “‘guts”
too (when they were in fighting units),
but they were wonders in getting into
the safer branches of the service.

The Mediterranean peoples seem to
have been least able to stand shell fire,
gas and the general hell of the game.
It is more than a coincidence that
officer after officer has told me of

1Received from Madison Grant. Written by an American Army Officer. For the first letter
and accompanying discussion see JOURNAL OF HEReEDITy for January, 1919.

173

174 The Journal of Heredity

Italians, privates and noncoms, who
broke, quit cold and lay down like curs
all of a sudden after fighting with dash
and courage up to a certain point. They
lack the character to ‘“‘carry on’’ to the
finish. You cannot rely on them at all.
The Slav is a mirror—he is what his
officers and comrades are. But he is
poor stuff—a childish-minded, unstable,
moody animal, and seldom over-bur-
dened with loyalty and_ reliability.
Tt’sa shame to think the clean blood of
the old American stock is going to con-
tinue to be contaminated and debased
by these things from south and eastern
Europe. Is there no way to stop it?
Again and again I’ve heard officers
here say, “There’s just one fighting
man in our army—the American!”
And when he said ““American’’ he ex-
cluded al! Wops, Polocks, Slavs, Turks
and Asiatics, and we all knew what was
meant.

The negro failed utterly under his
own color, but officered by white men
he was pretty good! Indeed the negro
officer is perhaps the most pitiful thing
in the whole war. He failed through no
fault of his own—but his color. The
negro soldier had no respect and no
confidence in his black officer. No
matter how good the black officer is, he
is first and always a nigger in the eyes
of other negroes. And leadership ‘s
surely based on nothing but confidence,
—bluff, if you choose to call it so. And
no negro can bluff another negro.

The Indians I’ve heard of and seen
(only a few) have all been good, nervy
men and very good soldiers, natural
soldiers in every way. And they seem
to take naturally to war, shellfire, gas

and all. I’ve heard nothing but good
words for them from officers who com-
manded them and whom they fought
under.

But no fighting man in the war was
the superior to the real, tall, lean, blue-
eyed, tow-headed American doughboy—
our American, I mean. <A red-headed
second lieutenant told me of a party he
pulled with a bunch of real Americans
who had been without food for thirty
hours and for half a day without water.
The Boches pulled a counter attack on
them at dusk after harassing them all
day with shells and grenades. He
said he told his men to ‘go out and
meet them’’ and not to retire until they
heard his whistle blow. He said his
men went out at ’em with howls like
madmen before he’d given the word.
He said the crash of the meeting of the
two bodies of troops was really tre-
mendous and that he could not bring his
men back from the pursuit till they had
driven the Boches a kilometer north-
ward. Several men he had to threaten
with his revolver to force them to
retire. “Just let me get one more,
Lieutenant, just one more, Sir! Please!”’
they’d beg him. And the bayonet and
butt was the order of the fight on our
side all through. It’s so typical of the
stories the doughboy officers tell that it
must be our fighting way, the national
method of getting at ’em.

The devil of it is that the Americans
got bumped off too fast—and the re-
placements were too often ‘‘not there.”’
In the papers the “draft army” is O. K.,
but we know about it. You had the
right dope in the Great Race. It is the
great race and no mistake. ©

ee

WINGLESS WYANDOTTE, MOTHER OF NORMAL CHICKS

Photograph showing a sudden mutation which may be recessive, as this hen, when mated to

a normal male, has produced only normal offspring.
of embryonic origin and not carried in the germ-plasm.

It is possible that the mutation may be
(Fig. 8.)

A Wingless Wyandotte

The pullet shown in the illustration
(Fig.8) was hatched in April, 1918, from
a flock of normally formed White Wyan-
dottes. The male of the flock was not
related to the females. The pullet
was born without wings or any sign of
same. At the spot where the wing
should join the body on either side of the
bird, there is what might be called a
“cow-lick”’ of feathers. This chick was
the only abnormal one of those hatched
from the flock with the exception of a

cockerel which was born without a tail,
having no “‘parson’s nose.”’ The pullet
weighs 514 pounds, and has been laying

steadily since December 1. She has
been mated to a normal unrelated

cockerel of the same breed. Up to the
present all her chicks have been normal.
Since January 1, the pullet has started
to leap and can now easily leap to its
roost, 2% feet from the ground.—J. R.
Terry, Department of Agriculture, Vic-
toria, B. C., Canada.

Develops New Hybrid Cowpeas

In its plant-breeding work with cow-
peas, which involves several hundred
hybrids and selections, the United States
Department of Agriculture during the
past year has developed several new
sorts. These varieties are Potomac, Ar-
lington, Columbia, White Hybrid, and
Early Buff. Extensive field work is
being conducted by the department with
hybrids, especially in the wilt and nema-

tode lands of the Southern States. Two
hybrid selections, unnamed as yet, have
been found highly resistant to both
nematodes and wilt and are superior to
other sorts for the production of seed
and forage. These two selections are
being grown in quantity for more ex-
tensive field tests next year.—IlVeekl\
News Letter, United States Department
of Agriculture.

DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS IN PERU

aes

Charge of Crop Acclimatization,

Bionomist in

Cook

Bureau of Plant Industry,

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

EVERAL = misapprehensions ap-

pear in an article published in

Science for March 15, 1918, p.

268, under the title “The Domes-
tication of the Llama.” Reference is
made to an argument that “thousands
of years must have gone by before the
llama and its kindred, the alpaca, the
vicuna, and the huanacu, could have
been brought to their present state of
domestication.” Instead of four kin-
dred species having been brought inte
domestication, there seems to have been
only one. The vicuna and the huanacu
are not domesticated animals, only the
llama and the alpaca, and both of these
are supposed to have been derived from
the huanacu. Certainly they are not
more different than some of the varie-
ties of other domesticated species.
Though distinct breeds are not sepa-
rated, there is much diversity in size,
form and color, as well as in the lengih
and texture of the wool in the llama,
as well as in the alpaca. If a common
origin from the huanacu be denied, it
is necessary to assume the former exist-
ence of another wild species, the vicufia
being too different to figure in such a
calculation.

Both of the wild types, the huanacu
and the vicuna, are extremely shy, re-
tiring and fleet, like deer or antelope.
If caught young and raised in cages,
they may become tame, as do most
kinds of deer and antelope, but even the
domesticated llama is hardly ‘fa docile
animal by nature.” It is a stupid, un-
willing and resentful beast, in some re-
spects like the camel, in others like a
sheep. It shares the camel's habit of
blowing its nose when offended, but is

176

too small to ride and lacks the physical
endurance of the “ship of the desert.”
Alpacas are somewhat smaller than
llamas, are seldom trained to carry bur-
dens, and are herded with the female
llamas on the grazing lands of the high
plataus. Of the alpaca it is said that
an individual animal cannot be driven
away from the herd, but the llama is
also strongly flock-minded.

If animals that “feed themselves” and
“do without shelter” are only “partially
domesticated,” not only the llama, the
camel and the reindeer, but the sheep,
cattle and horses of many countries
would fall into this category. With
even a little freedom most of our domes-
ticated animals will seclude themselves
from mankind or revert to hostile in-
stincts at the breeding season, and hos-
tile propensities are also shown habitu-
ally by some individuals of our most
domesticated species, dogs, cats, pigs,
sheep, cattle and horses.

One of the most completely domes-
ticated creatures is the cuy, or guinea-
pig, also a native of Peru. This ani-
mal meets all the “criteria of domes-
tication” in which the llama is said to
fall short. The cuys are sheltered, fed
and bred in the houses of the Indians,
show no hostility or fear, and refuse
even to crawl over a threshold raised a
few inches above the ground. Yet the
vild cuys are extremely shy, and this
ancestral trait persists in hybrids, even
when the proportion of wild blood is
very small.

A general result or consequence of
domestication in mammals is the break-
ing up of the specialized and _ finely-
graded distribution of the hair colors

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180 The Journal
of the wild species into solid colors,
coarse patterns or irregular spots, ac-
companied by partial or complete albin-
ism and other abnormal features. Great
diversity exists among the domesticated
cuys in Peru, an example of which was
noted at an isolated Indian house at
Machu Picchu in May, 1915. With
less than a score of animals there were
white, black, brown and gray coats and
four shades of red and buff, including a
dark mahogany, a paler red, a bright
buff and a dull. buff, also a_ pale
buff gray, distinct from a_ black
and white gray. Red eyes were
noted with buff and white coat, a gray
and white coat, and a coat that was en-
tirely black, except for a white stripe
on the face. Some individuals were
rough, with the hair turned in all direc-
tions, and some had lop-ears. More
extended and detailed investigation has
been given to the color variations of
guinea-pigs than to those of any other
animal, and the chief authorities in this
field have stated the following general
conclusion:

“It can be stated, therefore, with
probable correctness, that the guinea-
pig has undergone in domestication
more extensive variation in color and
coat characters than any other mam-
mal, and that this variation has oc-
curred almost if not quite exclusively
under the tutelage of the natives of
Peru. This conclusion points either to
a great antiquity of the guinea-pig as
a domesticated animal or to more rapid
evolution by unit character variation
than by other natural processes.’

In addition to the llama, alpaca and
cuy, the ancient inhabitants of the
tablelands are know2 from the evi-
dence of remains found in ancient ceme-
teries to have had at least two very
distinct types of native dogs, one like
a shepherd dog, described by Nehring
as Canis ingae pecuarius, and another
which is compared with a_ bulldog,

——

of Heredity

Canis ingae molossoides. In the
warmer valleys, according to von
Tschudi, the small hairless house-dog,
Canis caraibicus, was the prevailing
type. The name perros chinos, applied
to the hairless dogs in Peru, instead of
indicating a Chinese origin, may corre-
spond to such expressions as “house-
dogs” or “‘lap-dogs” in English, china
being a word for woman in the Quichua
language.

The fact that the ancient Peruvians
and their neighbors had several domes-
ticated animals while the Indians of
other parts of America had only dogs,
has led some writers to consider the
Peruvian tablelands, instead of the
warmer valleys, as the original seat of
development of the ancient Peruvian
civilization. It has long been supposed
that a pastoral state preceded the de-
velopment of agriculture in the Old
World, an idea borrowed from the tra-
ditions of the Jews, Greeks, and other
Mediterranean peoples.

It is possible, however, that the pas-
toral nations of antiquity secured their
domesticated animals from their agri-
cultural neighbors whose crops also
they eventually adopted, just as our
western hunting Indians began to keep
horses, cattle and sheep many years be-
fore they settled down to farming.
Dogs might be domesticated by savages,
but such animals as sheep, cattle,
horses, camels, and llamas, seem much
more likely to have been domesticated
by settled agricultural peoples, than by
nomadic hunting tribes. Hunting tribes
were numerous in America, and many
had adopted only one or two crops, but
there were no strictly pastoral people,
none who relied on domesticated ani-
mals instead of on plants. The ancient
Peruvians, who went farthest in the
domestication of animals, had also the
most highly developed agriculture, the
most numerous crops and the most
specialized methods of farming.

1 Castle and Wright. Studies of Inheritance in Guinea-pigs and Rats, Pub. 241, Carnegie

Institution, Washington, p. 6.

a

Monogamous Instinct in Birds

That any definite evidence of “im-
mense antiquity” can be drawn from
the domesticated animals of the ancient
Peruvians is not of course to be ex-
pected. The most that may be possible
is to gain relative ideas of the anti-
quity of domestication in America and
in the Old World. The opportunities

181

of such comparisons are better with
plants because of the much greater
number of domesticated species. From
such considerations as seedlessness and
wide divergence from the nearest wild
relatives, the series of American crop-
plants appears to be older than the “Old
World”’ series.

Do Birds Show a Monogamous Instinct?

Recent numbers of Condor have con-
tained several articles on the marital tie
in birds, even discussing the moral issue
involved, constructing a sort of bird
morality. The contributors do not ap-
pear to have settled the question. L.
H. Miller, whose article is quoted in
part as follows, makes the suggestion
that seasonal mating may be necessary
to maintain the vigor of the race.

‘“‘In the Condor for October, 1918, Mr.
F. C. Willard contributes a most
stimulating article dealing with the
question, ‘Do birds mate for life?’ In
support of his affirmative contention he
brings forward some observations re-
sulting from his extended field work in
southern Arizona.

“His article is good and the facts
recorded are unimpeachable. The in-
terpretation of facts, however, intro-
duces the human element into science,
and hence offers a basis for divergence of
honest opinion. It is not my desire to
dispute Mr. Willard’s conclusions but
to offer, wholly in good faith, some
remarks in support of the opposite side
of the question, so that each reader may
be his own judge, jury, and court of
appeal.

“My first contention is that a bird’s
activities are almost wholly the result
of instincts. These instincts are racial
characters and are transmitted from
generation to generation, no less truly,
though perhaps more variably, than is
color, size, or wing area.

“My second contentionisthat instincts
are dependent for their stimulus upon
the physiological condition of the ani-
mal. Recent experiments on internal
secretions have been performed by the

1 Loye Holmes Miller, The Marital Tie in Birds.

transplantation of reproductive glands
or by the infusion of tissue extracts
directly into the blood stream. ‘These
experiments have some bearing upon our
problem in that they go to prove that
plumage differences between the sexes of
poultry are directly controlled by the
presence in the body of these germ
cells, and that many instinctive acts are
dependent, for their immediate stimu-
lus, upon the activity of these glands.
A young capon in whose body the ova-
ries of a hen are grafted will develop
the feathering characteristic of the hen.
The capon, without the engrafted ova-
ries, will develop almost as the normal
male. A normal female rabbit, treated
by hypodermic injection with the ex-
tract of foetus in normal salt solution,
will pluck the fur from her breast and
build a nest as though expecting a litter
of her own young, though none are
developing.

‘The theorist, however, feels it proper
to ask the question: Are there not bio-
logic reasons why a seasonal readjust-
ment of the marital relation would prove
advantageous to the race? If a pro-
tracted effort is required each season
before a mate is obtained, the less virile
bird will go unmated. Would not the
result average better for the mainten-
ance of tone in the race? Whatever
else may be claimed for the principle of
sexual selection, it seems to be more or
less vital to racial vigor. Seasonal
recurrence of the selective process would
then be classed as a sort of protective
adaptation in a class of animals showing
abundant specialization in other re-
spects.!

The Condor, vol. 21, March-April, 1919.

TWINNING IN ALFALFA

W. SouTHWORTH

Associate Professor; in Charge of Plant Breeding Investigations, Manitoba
Agricultural College, Winnipeg, Canada

URING our Alfalfa investiga-
(sa) tions in the season of 1918, the
twin hybrid seedlings as illus-
trated in Fig. 12 appeared. As
this is the first time that twinning in
alfalfa seed has been noticed in our
work, it is thought that a short account
of the parentage of the plants giving
rise to the twins may be of interest to
other investigators who may possibly
have had a similar experience.

In raising alfalfa hybrids, the method
practiced in this department is first
to germinate the seeds in small quanti-
ties in open pans, then to transfer the
sprouted seeds to prepare soil in flower
pots of shallow flats. Finally, after the
plants are sufficiently well developed,
they are planted out in plots in the
open field. It will be seen that this
system enables the worker to note any
peculiarities which may arise during
actual germination, which might other-
wise pass unnoticed. The parent of the
twins shown in Fig. 13 is the recent prog-
eny of a series of crosses commenced in
the summer of 1911.

THE ORIGINAL CROSS

The first cross of the series was made
between alfalfa as the female parent
and Black Medick as the male parent,
from which, in 1912, twenty-four Fy
plants were raised.!

THE SECOND CROSS

In 1913 a plant of the F; generation
of the original cross was crossed with
pollen from White Sweet Clover. From
this second cross, five F, plants were
raised, four of which produced a few
seeds; the fifth plant was totally sterile.
Many attempts were made to induce
this plant to produce seed, both by
selfing and by back-crossing with both
original parents, but all efforts proved

futile, the plant remained sterile
throughout. In order to perpetuate
this plant, cuttings were taken from it
in 1914 and about twenty plants propa-
gated. Much to our surprise, most of
these plants in the following year pro-
duced a small quantity of seed. In the
spring of 1916 a portion of the seed thus
obtained was germinated and eleven
plants reared.

THE THIRD CROSS

In 1917 two out of the eleven plants
were back-crossed, White Sweet Clover
being again used as the male parent.
From this cross seven F, plants were
raised, one of which produced forty-two
seeds, one of these seeds producing the
twins as herewith illustrated. (Fig.
13.) In addition to this pair of twins,
two other pairs were found. These
two pairs likewise descended from the
same original cross as the first pair, but
the subsequent crossings were both
different. In one case the parent which
produced the twin seed was obtained
by inter-crossing two F; plants from the
original cross. In the other case the
parent of the twins was obtained as a
result of back-crossing an F», plant from
the original cross, using Black Medick
as the male parent.

SUBSEQUENT BEHAVIOR OF TWIN SEED-
LINGS

Of the first pair of twins, one pro-
duced a strong healthy plant and the
other died from exposure. The remain-
ing two pairs developed into strong vig-
orous plants, and, though the members
of each pair varied somewhat in size,
yet each pair seemed to be quite iden-
tical in botanical characteristics. Of
the five surviving plants, four produced
a few seeds which will be used for fur-
ther investigation.

1 See ‘‘ Alfalfa Hybridization,’ JouRNAL oF HEREDITY, vol. v, No. 10, pp. 448-457.

182

S vatngl

TWINNING IN ALFALFA

Two alfalfa seedlings obtained from a single seed. Enlarged about four times the natural
size. (Fig. 12.)

TWIN ALFALFA PLANTS

These plants, about three months old, were produced by one seed. This seed was obtained
from a mother plant which was the F, progeny of an inter-cross between two F; plants
obtained by crossing Alfalfa 9 with Black Medick &%. (Fig. 13.)

O

’
4

BRAZILIAN PLANT SIMILAR TO TOBAC(

It is

id a good chew.

c

c

icult to get

¥
1

It is dif

horse to go by Solanum bullatum until he has h

)
}

(Fig. 14.

ge plant and should be more widely cultivated.

in excellent fora

c

A FORAGE PLANT FROM
THE SOLANACEAE FAMILY

A Plant That When Young Is Very Similar to Tobacco and Much Appre-
ciated by Horses in Brazil

BENJAMIN Harris Hun

Director of the Lavras

OOKING through the books on
forage plants under common cul-
tivation none are to be found be-
longing to the genus Solanum,

nor to any other subdivisions of the
Solanaceae family. The following notes
on the Solanum bullatum, a promising
forage plant of this family found wild
in many parts of Brazil, are made from
the standpoint of the agronomist. and
not so much of the botanist. Some time
ago our attention was called to this
plant by the articles in the Brazilian
papers by the botanist, Dr. Alvaro A.
da Silveira, whose work with little
known plants suitable for forage pur-
pose has been notable.

This plant has many common names
in Brazil, differing in each state. In
Minas it is called capoeira branca
(white bush) and fructa de pomba
(dove fruit). The first name is given
on account of the whitish tinge of the
leaves, especially as the plant gets older
and grows into a small tree. The second
name is given to it because the wild
doves are very fond of the fruits; in-
deed, it is very hard to get seeds of the
plant because the birds pick them be-
fore they are ripe. In Sao Paulo the
common name is cuvetinga, which is
probably the native or Indian name for
it. In the State of Rio de Janeiro it is
called fumeiro, or tobacco plant, be-
cause as a young plant it is very similar
to the tobacco plant. It is also found in
the State of Parana and possibly in
other states.

As a young plant it grows up as a
bush with a number of stems coming
up from the ground, but when older it

NNicuTT, M.S.A.
Agricultural School, Lavras, Brazil
is often found with only one trunk.

Where it grows isolated it spreads quite
widely (see Fig. 15), but when grow-
ing in very rich ground and along with
other plants it reaches a height of 15

torZ0) teet:

After a forest is cut off and the land
turned over, among the first plants to
appear is the Solanum bullatum, and its
usefulness as a forage plant came to be
noticed in that way. As soon as fresh
land is cleared it is planted to corn.
When the corn crop is harvested the
cattle are turned in to eat off the stalks,
and as this plant is generally to be
found it was noticeable. to what extent
the cattle sought after it. When riding
over our land it was often noticed that
a horse would leave the road to try to
get a nibble at this plant. One horse we
owned could safely be ridden through
a cornfield without his biting the corn,
but it was difficult to get him past one
of these plants without getting his
mouth full. So far as we know no toxic
effects have been observed from cattle

r horses eating this plant. We were
informed that, while it was not injuri-
ous to horses, it was poisonous to cattle,
but this information is incorrect, for
cattle are just as fond of it as horses
and no ill effects are noticeable with
either.

If it should be cultivated it would
have to be planted close enough to-
gether in the rows to be utilized before
it got too big or woody. It is perennial,
but asa forage plant would have to be
used as an annual. It will sprout from
a cut trunk, but this would probably
not prove to be of advantage agri-

185

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pue sosiofy “Olloue[ ap Oly JO 9}e4g ay} UT ,, OLloUUNy,, pay[eo st yt yey} yuRd OdoRqQo} 9Yy YONUI Os safquiasar SUNOA UBYyM Yue] SIL

INWId HOVYOH NVITIZVY

Hunnicutt: Forage Plant from the Solanaceae F amily

culturally. We have not been able to
make fair tests of it as a cultivated
plant, due to the difficulty of obtaining
seed. Although it is common on our
farm, it is very difficult to obtain even
a small supply of seed. Several small
quantities of seed have been sent to
Hon. David Fairchild of the Foreign
Seed and Plant Introduction Service of
the Plant Industry Bureau. Possibly in
the United States it will be easier to
give it a trial.

As seen by the illustrations that
accompany this article, this plant grows
on hard, comparatively poor ground.
The smaller, more bushy plant was
found in the middle of the farm road
on hard-packed ground. Nevertheless
this plant is considered as one requiring
fertile land, and is generally found on
the better soils.

As to climate, Lavras is semi-tropical,
our range of temperature being from
30° to 90° F., with an average of about
60°. But we saw this plant growing in
the State of Parana upon a mountain,
where the cold is intense. How much
frost it would stand we cannot say.

As to chemical analysis this plant re-
veals a very pleasant surprise. Its high
protein content is very unusual. It is
higher than that of most leguminous
crops.

The analysis of the Secretary of
Agriculture of Bello Horizonte is as
follows:

Per cent
IMOISEUTC oe eter es Oe aac 10.468
INST OS pees ARE ne a aeRe Er TEE 9.980
TPE OGiialt es GAA Oe AR aor ono e 23.920
TPT, 5 oO Oe Oe oe ee 3.164

187

Cellulose tte ate eee eee 26.780
Non=nitrogenous Gxt... .25500-e-o 25.688
LDotal ics 3 atest 3 ee eee 100.000

The analysis of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture is as follows:

Leaves, Branches,

per cent per cent
Moisture:..-...e- 8.36 7.04
Ether extract. ...06) 2-29 0.59
Protetiitias ened. ss ee be 14.06
@rude fiber: ........ 20.03 37.45

This plant is highly appreciated by
cattle and horses and would probably
be a feasible crop for hay if it could
be cut and prepared before getting too
woody.

There is another of this genus, So-
lanum grandiflorum, or the fruit of
wolf, which has nearly 20% protein,
which grows in much poorer land than
the Solanum bullatum, and is eaten by
the cattle in Brazil. This plant re-
sembles a gigantic egg-plant. The tree
has spines like the egg-plant and the
fruits are similar also. The plant
grows into a spreading tree about 8 to
10 feet high and will flourish on the
poorest clay uplands. To us it does not
appear to have much possibilities as an
agricultural plant, but it seems to be
worth more careful study and experi-
ment to see what can be done with it.
Lately we have had several inquiries
about this plant from other parts of
Brazil, and it is possible that soon
something will be done with it in a
practical way. We shall try and interest
the government experiment stations in
its cultivation and use.

An Old Issue Especially Wanted

Volume III, Noo. 1, the first quarterly
issue of the American Breeders’ Asso-
ciation (now the JouRNAL OF HERED-
ITy), is especially desired. Anyone hav-

ing a copy for sale will please communi-
cate. JOURNAL OF Herepity, Box 472,
Eleventh Street Station, Washington,
Pst.

THE RACIAL LIMITATION

OF BOLSHEVISM

An Analysis of European History Shows That Nordic Countries Have Been
Extremely Free from Periods of Anarchy

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

averse to Bolshevism? Let us hope

so. Dothe facts of history help us to

sustain such a belief?’ By and
large, it would seem that they do. Bol-
shevism, while it is not anarchy in
theory, leads to anarchy and to that
extent is comparable with anarchistic
periods in the past. These are all well
known and recorded in our histories, and
it is certainly not without interest and
probably not without profitable sugges-
tion to examine medieval and modern
European history from a broad point of
view and see if there is any notable pre-
disposition towards or against anarchy
that can be identified with racial
differences. Race is, of course, neither
identical with language nor with nation-
ality. Yet anthropologists all recognize,
as distinct from the Slavic, and from the
Latin or Mediterranean, an Anglo-
Teutonic or Nordic race. Scandinavia,
northern Germany, Denmark, Holland,
and Great Britain are to be considered
as the present chief abiding places of
this Nordic race—tall, blonde, dolicho-
cephalic, enterprising, and masterful,
with capacity for organization and
practical thought.

These statements need not involve
such controverted matters as the rela-
tive superiority of different races or
questions of migration and mixture. At
least the Russian peasant is different
racially from the Dane or the English-
man of the same social class, and our
question is whether the history of the
chief Nordic countries is different from
the history of Russia, the leading
Slavic country in the amount of anar-
chistic tendency revealed.

lk THE Anglo-Saxon temper by nature

No material has been collected for a
wide comparison including all the Slavic
nations, but, as far as Russia is con-
cerned, it would seem that long periods
of anarchy are nothing new, as the
following instances prove. These are
all taken directly from condensed esti-
mates which were compiled for ‘The
Influence of Monarchs,’’! and are pub-
lished in the appendix to that work to
show the varying material conditions of
fourteen European countries. They
were not made with any idea of a study
in proportionate anarchism.

In Russia, beginning with the minor-
ity of Ivan IV, 1538, there were
nine years of intrigues, uprisings, and
disorders. The Tartars harried the
empire, and the state treasury was
plundered. Treasons and conspiracies
marked the brief period, April 13 to
June 1, 1605. In 1606, for four years
until 1610, general confusion again
reigned. Russia was invaded by the
Poles, and the Tartars plundered the
border. In 1610 an interregnum com-
menced, with anarchy for two years, fol-
lowed by the expulsion of the Poles.
Civil disorder, however, continued until
1613. The public treasury was again
plundered, as in the previous century.
Again during the minority of Ivan and
his brother, Peter the Great, 1682 to
1689, occurred another period of con-
fusion and massacres. Russia during
the eighteenth century was chiefly
under the domination of Peter the Great
and Catherine the Great and there
were no notable periods of anarchy.

The above is not presented as a pro-
found and accurate historical investiga-
tion into Russian anarchism. These

1 Woods, Frederick Adams: ‘‘The Influence of Monarchs,’’ New York, 1913, pp. 359-366.

188

Woods: Racial Limitation of Bolshevism

periods were not, of course, entirely
devoted to absolute lawlessness. To
measure them intensively would be a
long drawn-out labor. But © these
words and these descriptions are un-
doubtedly such as well describe the
periods to which they are attached.
They are merely the phrases used by
standard historians and here repro-
duced just as found. No modifying or
ameliorating clauses have been omitted.

Now, if we turn to a summary of the
history of England during a similar
period (c. 1461—c. 1801). we find that
there are no periods in which the word
anarchy is used by historians as applic-
able to a description of the condition of
national affairs, or to a characterization
of the spirit of the times. Earlier than
this we do find an occasional period of
anarchy, as, for instance, under the
reign of Stephen (1135-1154), the brief
uprising under Wat Tyler (1381), which
lasted only two or three weeks, and
Jack Cade’s Rebellion, during the reign
of Henry VI. But these are the only
instances during the four centuries that
followed the Norman Conquest. No
materials are at hand to enable me to
state just how much anarchy took place
in Russia during these earlier times, but
I imagine that there was much more
than in England.

Scotland was long a backward coun-
try. Civil wars, border raids, plots,
conspiracies, turmoil, and _ unsettled
conditions are encountered frequently
enough in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, but all this is different from
anarchy, and I do not find the word
anarchy used at all by historians as
applicable to early Scottish history.
It seems rather that they always kept to
group or clan formation. The organiza-
tion of the whole was broken into parts,
but the organizations remained and the
lower orders always followed their lead-
ers. The history of Scotland shows that
it was not merely because Russia was
a backward country that she indulged
in so much anarchy.

Sweden, a good example of a Nordic
country, shows no periods of anarchy
during these centuries. General dis-
content and suffering, disorder, religious

2 1525-1792, ibid., pp. 354-358.

189

and personal warfare, misfortune and
poverty, lethargy, and even national
humiliation, are some of the descriptive
phrases picturing the dark aspects of
Sweden’s history, which occurred from
time to time, but never the word
anarchy.

Denmark in its history is nearly free
from anything approaching extreme

lawlessness. We find only during the
interregnum, 1533-1534, civil wars,
violences, and. cruelties. The same

may be said for Holland. Party strug-
gles, persecutions, financial exhaustion
were not unknown, but except for the
brief period, 1747-1751, characterized
by internal commotion and some up-
risings, there were no lapses on the part
of the Dutch from the maintenance
of organized government.

Also Prussia has scarcely ever before
known the meaning of being without a
recognized and ordered government.
During most of her history it has been
her fate to be under strong monarchical
leadership. There were only two dis-
tinctly weak Hohenzollerns from 1415 to
the death of Frederick the Great in
1786. Under George William (1619-
1640), during the Thirty Years’ War,
the nation was brought to bankruptcy,
political dissolution, and internal law-
lessness.

In this question of anarchistic ten-
dencies as shown in history, France
presents an intermediate position be-
tween Slavic Russia and the strictly
Nordic countries just described. The
anarchy of the French Revolution is,
of course, enough in itself to place France
below the Nordic countries in a record
for good behavior on law-abiding
grounds. There were not many pe-
riods of anarchy earlier than this unless
we go back to ages earlier than are here
considered. Subsequent to the middle
of the fifteenth century there was at
least one time during the reign of Henry
III when bands of lawless adventurers
overran the land.

Thus a survey of Anglo-Teutonic
history from the middle of the fifteenth
century to the beginning of the nine-
teenth brings out the fact that Nordic
races have not been appealed to by an-

190 The Journal

archistic temptations. The racial ele-
ments in the make-up of Russia are
mainly Slavic. They are of the Alpine
or brachycephalic type. The true Rus-
sians constitute nearly three-fourths of
the population of Russia, the rest are
chiefly Letto-Lithuanians, Poles, Jews,
Finns, Turco-Tartars, and Mongols.
They have indulged in much anarchy in
the past. Historical evidence strongly

of Heredity

suggests that there is something inher-
ent in the temperament of the Slav
causing him to yield much more easily
than his Nordic neighbor to the tempta-
tions of mob violence. Let us hope
that now is another time when nature
will assert itself as stronger than
nurture and that Bolshevism will find
itself delimited) on the Anglo-Saxon
frontiers.

Army Tests Reveal the Vast Differences in Mankind.

The comparison of negro with white
recruits reveals markedly lower mental
ratings for the former. A further sig-
nificant difference based on geographic
classification has been noted in that the
northern negroes are mentally much
superior to the southern.

In a certain training camp 221 inapt
soldiers, belonging to a negro regiment
of pioneer infantry, were referred by
their commanding officer for special
psychological examination. Nearly one-
half (109) of these men were found to
have mental ages of seven years or less.
The army nevertheless had been attempting
to train these men for military service.

In another instance some 306 soldiers
from organizations about to be sent over-
seas were designated by their command-
ing officers as unfit for foreign service.
They were referred for psychological
examination with the result that 90%
were discovered to be ten years or less in
mental age, and 80 % nine years or less.

The utilization of methods of
mental testing by the army has at once
increased military efficiency by the im-
proved utilization of brain power and
demonstrated the applicability of the
group method of measuring intelligence
to educational and industrial needs.
The army methods, although not
adapted to the usual educational or
industrial requirements, can readily be
modified or used as a basis for the
development of similar procedures.

There are abundant indications that
the future will witness the rapid develop-
ment of varied methods for improv-
ing scientific placement and vocational
guidance. It is highly probable that
grading in the public schools, in col-
leges and professional schools will shortly
be based in part upon measurement of
mental ability instead of exclusively on
measurements of acquisition.—Science,
March 14, 1919.

INHERITANCE OF CONTINUOUS
AND DISCONTINUOUS VARIATIONS

R. F. B. SUMNER has been mak-

LD ing some studies of inheritance in

deer-mice. Writing on the ques-

tion of discontinuous variation,

his conclusions do not support the views
of Bateson and DeVries.

‘The dorsal tail-stripe is entirely lack-
ing in a certain strain of my mutants.
This stripeless condition is recessive to
the striped one. In crosses with normal
mice, the stripe appears in its full size
and intensity. Nevertheless, the stripe
itself was shown in the preceding pages
to vary from race to race and from one
individual to another. And these va-
riations, both racial and individual, were
found to be hereditary.

“The case, of course, is parallel to
that of Castle’s hooded rats. Since
‘hoodedness’ is_ recessive to ‘self-
color’ and reappears in one fourth of the
F, generation. Castle argues that it is
dependent upon a single unit factor.
Nevertheless, this factor itself presents
hereditary variations in ‘potency,’
since it can be modified indefinitely
by selection. The Mendelian counter-
argument is that ‘hoodedness’ behaves
as a unit character in certain crosses
merely because there is some one factor
without which it cannot manifest itself
at all. The variability in its degree of
manifestation 1s due to the fact that the
hooded pattern is modified by the
action of a number of independent
cumulative factors. The argument seems
a bit scholastic, but we must admit that
it is logical and consistent.’’ Dr. Sumner
states his own conclusions in part as
follows.

“All of these differences, structural
and pigmental, are found to be differ-

ences of degree, revealed through a
comparison of mean or modal conditions
rather than of individual animals. In
comparing the less divergent of these
races with one another, the frequency
polygons for any given character over-
lap broadly.

“These subspecific differences, and
even the minor differences which dis-
tinguish one narrowly localized sub-race
from the parent form, are found to be
hereditary, as evidenced by their per-
sistence when environmental condi-
tions are interchanged.

“The gradations in certain of these
characters by which individuals of the
same race differ from one another are
found to be strongly hereditary.

“Hybrids between even the most
divergent of these four races are pre-
dominantly intermediate in character,
both in the F; and the F»2 generations.
In both of these generations a wide range
of variability is exhibited, which, how-
ever, 1s little if any greater in the F, than
in the F;.

“In contrast to the sensibly continuous
variation and sensibly blended inheri-
tance shown in respect to these sub-
specific characters, is the behavior of
certain “mutations.” Here we meet
with typical discontinuous variation,
and inheritance of the strictly alter-
native or Mendelian type. It is in-
sisted that the burden of proof rests
upon those who contend that these two
types of variation and inheritance are
reducible to a single category—that of
discontinuity. Anything like a_ proof
of this contention appears to be thus
far lacking.’’!

1Sumner, F. B., Continuous and Discontinuous Variations and Their Inheritance in Pero-

myscus—ITT.

In American Naturalist, vol. 52, August-September, 1918.

191

on: “ mm i 0 mt th 0 a a th mm 0 mB ee ee em ee ee

mn mt i i a a

APPLIED -EVUGENESS

By
CAPTAIN PAUL POPENOE, U. S. A.

Former Editor of the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic
Association), Washington, D. C.

and

ROSWELL HILL JOHNSON

Professor in the University of Pittsburgh

“The results of all the trustworthy observations and
experiments have been taken into account
This book should command the attention not only of
students of sociology, but, as well, of philanthropists,
social workers, settlement wardens, doctors, clergy-
men, educators, editors, publicists, Y. M. C. A. sec-
retaries and industrial engineers. It ought to lie at
the elbow of law-makers, statesmen, poor relief offi-
cials, immigration inspectors, judges of juvenile courts,
probation officers, members of state boards of con-
trol and heads of charitable and correctional insti-
tutions. Finally, the thoughtful ought to find in it
guidance tn their problem of mating. It will inspire
the superior to rise above certain worldly ideals of life
and to aim at the family success rather than an
individual success.—From the introduction by Edward
Alsworth Ross, Professor of Sociology in the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin.

Price, $2.10

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. X, No. 5 May, 1919

CONTENTS

Fertile Wheat-Rye Hybrids, by H. H. Love and W. T. Craig........... 195
Aghreatsbapaw,iby.G. Driebere ste cs nc deen: be cee eo ee ee 207
Population Schedule Census of 1920, by H. H. Laughlin....... Fee LOS
Portraits of Early Americans, by F. A. Woods........................ 212
Wiarand.Genetic Values, by, 0:.S. Jordans... 405- hee a ee eee 223
A Note on the Dropping of Flowers in the Potato, by M. J. Dorsey... . 226
The Founders of the Art of Breeding—III, by H. F. Roberts .........._229
NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918. Vol. LX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity (Or-
gan of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. Cc.

Date of issue of this number, July 15, 1919.

po

A HYBRID BETWEEN WHEAT AND RYE

The two parents are shown at the extreme right and extreme left. The first and second
generation from the cross are shown in the center, F, and Fs. (Frontispiece.)

FERTILE WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS

Crosses Between Wheat and Rye Are Usually Sterile—A Fertile Cross May Have
the Good Qualities of Wheat and the Hardiness of Rye

H. H. Love’ anp W.-T. Craic

(In Coéperation with the Office of Cereal Investigations,

U. S. Department of

Agriculture)

been made between wheat and

rye. One of the earliest to report

was Wilson (1) who was followed
by Carman (2), Rimpau (3) and others,
namely, Signa (4), Schliephacke (5),
Miczynski (6), Nakao (7), and Tscher-
mak (8). The result of most of the
crosses was that the hybrid plant
was sterile.. Only Miczynski, Carman
and Rimpau obtained fertile hybrids.
Later we have the work of Jesenko (9),
Leighty (10) and McFadden (11). The
latter reports the result of a wheat-rye
cross which was sterile. Leighty re-
views the work of Carman and later
gives some of his own work where he
produced wheat-rye hybrids artificially
and also found some natural hybrids
between wheat and rye.

Jesenko reports upon what seemed a
fertile wheat-rye hybrid but, asa result
of further investigation, concluded that
what he supposed was a fertile hybrid
was really the result of a backcross
between the F; and wheat. He also
believed that the fertile hybrids ob-
tained by Rimpau and Miczynski were
the result of backcrossing with wheat
and not the result of self-fertilization.
Jesenko backcrossed very many F,
flowers with both wheat and rye. When
he used wheat he obtained about three
seed per thousand flowers pollinated,
and with rye he obtained only one seed
from 4,800 flowers pollinated. When
the F, was backcrossed with wheat the
resulting F. plants were very similar
to wheat, and the result when rye was
used was a plant very similar to rye.

A T VARIOUS times crosses have

Jesenko suggests that it is possible
that in the egg cells the amount of
wheat and rye plasm is not equally dis-
tributed but that sometimes more wheat
and, again, more rye plasm is present.
Then, when a pollen grain from a wheat
plant would fertilize an egg cell with
little rye plasm and nearly all wheat, a
plant similar to wheat would be ob-
tained. This plant would be fertile.
As the rye plasm is increased, in the
egg cells the plant developing will
be less wheat-like and less fertile. This
would continue until complete sterility
would be obtained. The reverse would
be true if a pollen grain from rye would
fertilize an egg cell containing more rye
plasm than wheat. The plant would
be fertile and more like rye. As the
rye plasm decreases and the wheat plasm
increases the resulting plant would look
less like rye and would be less fer-
tile until complete sterility would be
reached.

A SUCCESSFUL CROSS

A number of crosses between wheat
and rye have been made by the authors.
Most of these have been sterile in F; and
no attempts were made to cross them
back with wheat or rye. So far as the
characters of these hybrids are con-
cerned, they agree with the results usu-
ally obtained when this cross is made, in
that the hybrid is intermediate in many
respects. Two hybrids between wheat
and rye have been fertile, and it is
planned to describe here briefly the
results obtained, so far, from one of
these crosses.

1Paper No. 76, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

195

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Love and Craig: Fertile

The variety Dawson’s Golden Chaff
was crossed with common rye and
from this cross one plant was obtained.
This F, plant gave every indication
that it was a wheat-rye hybrid. It
had a few awns develop particularly at
the tip of the head. The glumes were
brown and intermediate between those
of wheat and rye. They were keeled
more like rye and ciliate. There was
only a slight pubescence of the peduncle.
While in some wheat-rye hybrids this
is very pronounced, other hybrids have
been obtained which are not at all
pubescent.

This hybrid plant was not com-
pletely fertile but one seed was obtained
which produced a plant in the following
generation. The parent heads and a
head from each of the F,; and F, plants are
shown in frontispiece. The F, head was
much like F,, but more awns developed.
It showed in many ways its rye parent-
age. The glumes were sharply keeled
and ciliate. More awns developed than
in the case of the F; type although this
plant was not as fully awned as rye.
The peduncle was not pubescent at all.
Only one viable seed was obtained from
this plant. This seed produced a healthy
plant the following generation. This
plant in appearance was more wheat-
like than either the F, or F. and pro-
duced many seed. It did not show its
hybrid nature to any great extent so far
as the head characters are concerned.

A number of seed were sown from
this plant and an Fy; generation was
grown. The plants resulting from these
seed were very variable so far as awns,
color of chaff and color of kernel are
concerned. The color of chaff, beards
and color of kernel seemed to all follow
a simple Medelian ratio of 3:1, thus
indicating that segregation in wheat-
rye hybrids occurs the same as when
two varieties of wheat are crossed. It
should be noted that the color of ker-
nel of the wheat parent was white, so
that any color must have come from the
rye. The heads are all more like wheat
than they are like rye, yet in some
respects they indicate their hybrid ori-
gin. A number of these heads are shown
in Figs. 1-2, Nos. 2-10. Head No. 39

Wheat-Rye Hybrids 205

was much like rye in regard to the awn
development and ciliated glumes. It is
evident that there is considerable vari-
ation as to the degree of sterility found.
Certain ones are fully fertile while others
are nearly sterile, for example Nos. 43
and 47 (Fig. 9).

The kernels showed some variation
and seemed from their shapes to show
differences that are not common among
wheat hybrids. Most of these kernel
types are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, Nos. 11
and 12. Inregard to the general appear-
ance of the plants many of them showed
their hybrid nature by the color of
the stems and certain likenesses to rye.
This was so apparent that a visitor on
looking over the cultures in the green-
house remarked on their rye-like nature
without knowing what the series was.
None of the plants had the pubescent
peduncle as the F, did, but as this
pubescence. was lacking in F, these F,
plants would not be expected to pos-
sess this pubescence. Since known F;
wheat-rye hybrids occur without the
pubescence it is not a certain criterion of
a wheat-rye hybrid that it was formerly
thought to be.

Some of these F, families have been
carried further and they continue to
produce plants that, so far as the
heads are concerned, are more wheat-like
in their nature, yet so far as the plant
is concerned show some resemblance
to rye.

WINTER HARDINESS

Some of these hybrids are now being
tested under field conditions to deter-
mine whether they may have inherited
any of the winter hardiness of rye. If
it is possible to obtain such a plant with
the good qualities of wheat, one would
be able to sow later than is now done and
still obtain a good stand. The im-
portance of this is self-evident and
would mean much to wheat growing
areas where winter killing is severe.

From these results it seems without
doubt that we have a fertile wheat-rye
hybrid and that the seed which devel-
oped on the F, plant was the result of
self-fertilization and not a result of a
backcrossing with wheat or rye. If

bo

@ ee s

7 a i
gs
v

~

y @ Le "
rip 0 a zt
KERNELS CF DIFFERENT PLANTS FROM THE F, GENERATION. (Fic. 10)
2 5) 2a

°o@™g 2 e245 a

RE !

v1 Q+28

vy A Te,

KERNELS OF DIFFERENT PLANTS FROM THE F, GENERATION. (Fig. 11.)

Love and Craig: Fertile Wheat-Rye Hybrids

this had been so, and accepting Jesenko’s
conclusion, the plant would either have
been more wheat-like if crossed with
wheat, or more rye-like if crossed with
rye. The plant was more like the Fi
than either wheat or rye and was
partially fertile, and the plants pro-
duced from it wheat-like in appearance,
yet showing some relationship to rye.

207

The fact that there is some partial
sterility among the later plants and that
some of the plant characteristics are like
rye is further evidence that we have a
fertile hybrid between wheat and rye.
It may be possible to find certain wheat
varieties that may produce fertile wheat-
rye hybrids. The results already ob-
tained would lead to that conclusion,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Wilson: Transact. und proceed bot. soc., Edinbourgh XII, 2 und Markelane Express 31.

Mai, 1875.

. Signa: Italia agricola XL, II.

. Miczynski: Kosmos r. XXX, Lwow, 1905.

SID NP WY

Cereals and Their Hybrids.”

. Carman, E. S.: Rural New Yorker, August 30, 1884.
Rimpau: Kreuzungsprodukte der landwirtschaftlichen Versuchspflanzen, 1891.

. Schliephacke: Deutsch. landw. Presse, 1904, p. 412.
. Nakao: ‘‘Cytological Studies on the Nuclear Division of The Pollen Mother-Cells of some

Journ. of the College of Agriculture, Sapporo, 1911.
8. Tschermak, E. v.: Bastardierungen zwischen relativ fremden Formen.

In Fruwirths Zuch-

tung landw. Kulturpflanzen, 1910, Bd. IV, p. 185. .
9. Jesenko, F.: Sur un Hybride Fertile Entre Triticum Sativum 2 (Ble Mold-Squarehead) et

Secale Cereale o (Seigle de Petkus).
1911.

—: Ueber Gertreide-Speziesbastarde (Weizen-Roggen).
Abstammungs- und Vererbungs-lehre, Band X, 1913.

Leighty, C. E.: “Natural Wheat-Rye Hybrids.”

10.
Sept.—Oct., 1915.

: ‘“Carman’s Wheat-Rye Hybrids.”

11. McFadden, E. A.: ‘‘Wheat-Rye Hybrids.”

A Freak Papaw

The Editor,
JOURNAL OF HEREDITY.
DEAR SiR:

As generally found, the papaw fruit
is green in color when immature, and,
though in some cases it continues so,
even when fit for eating, it often shows
an orange coloration, running down the
fruit in bands. Occasionally the entire
fruit turns orange yellow—generally
when left to ripen on the tree.

In the village of Dippittigala, about
6 miles from the provincial town of
Ratnapura, in Ceylon, the writer ob-
served a clump of papaw trees of a
strange appearance. All the fruits, from
the smallest to the largest, were of
a sulphur yellow color, and the leaves
wore a marbled appearance in which
the same color predominated. The
smaller fruits were so light in color

IV Conference Internationale De Genetique, Paris,

Zeitschrift ftir Induktive

Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., vol. vii, No. 5,

Jour. HEREDITY, vol. vii, No. 9, Sept., 1916.
Jour. HEREDITY, vol. viii, No. 7, July, 1917.

(Carica Papaya)

that they were almost white. On en-
quiry, the fact was elicited from one of
the prominent residents in the neighbor-
hood that the seed from ripe fruits
of this strange variety gave rise to
progeny true to type. Specimens were
secured and brought to Peradeniya,
where plants raised from seed were
found to produce the ordinary green
variety.

Recently the writer visited the same
village and made further enquiries, and
was able to verify the fact that while
some of the seed from the trees in ques-
tion bred true, others did not. The
appearance of the trees at Dippittigala
suggested the name of “Albino Papaw.”
The question arises—is this a case of
Albinism ?—C. Drieperc, Superintend-
ent of School Gardens, Peradeniyd,
Ceylon.

POPULATION SCHEDULE
FOR THE CENSUS OF 1920

Harry H. LAUGHLIN
Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

census of the United States will

be taken as of January 1, 1920.

The mere counting of the people
has long ceased to constitute the chief
activity and purpose of the federal cen-
sus. Formerly the census organization
was made and dissolved for each decen-
nial canvass and tabulation, but by the
act.of March 6, 1902, Congress pro-
vided for a permanent Bureau of the
Census which was created in the Depart-
ment of the Interior. Later, when the
Department of Commerce and Labor
was organized, the Bureau of the Census
was transferred thither. At present this
Bureau is part of the Department of
Commerce. Thus the impending decen-
nial census will be the second taken
under the permanent organization. The
intercensal years are occupied by analy-
ses and publication of decennial census
material, and in making and publishing
the results of many special surveys.

[ve FOURTEENTH | decennial

THE POPULATION SCHEDULE

Section 8 of the Act of March 3, 1919
(an Act to provide for the fourteenth and
subsequent decennial censuses) reads:
“Sec. 8. That the Fourteenth Census
shall be restricted to inquiries relating
to population, to agriculture, to manu-
factures, to forestry and forest products,
and to mines and quarries. The sche-
dules relating to population shall in-
clude for each inhabitant the name,
place of abode, relationship to head of
family, color, sex, age, conjugal condi-
tion, place of birth, place of birth of
parents, nationality or mother tongue
of all persons born in foreign countries,
nationality or mother tongue of parents
of foreign birth, number of years in the

208

United States, citizenship, occupation,
whether or not employer or employee,
whether or not engaged in agriculture,
school attendance, literacy, tenure of
home and the encumbrance thereon, and
the name and address ot each blind or
deaf and dumb person.’

Then follow the specifications ‘for the
schedules relating to agriculture, to
manufactures, to forestry and forestry
products, and to mines and quarries,
each set of which is equally extensive
with that for population. The value
to the nation of the summarized and
digested information secured by these
schedules is of course very great.

EUGENISTS AND GENEALOGISTS DESIRE
AMENDMENT TO POPULATION SCHEDULE

In 1916, Alexander Graham Bell,
Chairman of the Board of Scientific
Directors of the Eugenics Record Office,
proposed a resolution which was unani-
mously adopted by this body, to the
effect that it would be highly desirable
in the interests of American family
history studies if to the census schedule
there were added two items: first,
“name of the father of the person
enumerated;”’ and second, “full maiden
name of the mother of the person
enumerated.’’ The Eugenics Research
Association, through its Executive Com-
mittee, in following up this purpose,
presented on February 21, 1919, the
following memorial to the Director of
the Census:

“To the Hon. Samuel L. Rogers,
Director of the Census of the United
States, A Memorial:

“In the interest of race betterment in
the United States, the Eugenics Re-

Laughlin: Population Schedule—Census of 1920

search Association, by formal vote of its
Executive Committee, respectfully mem-
orializes the honorable Director of the
Census to provide in the forthcoming
general enumeration of the Census of
1920, and in all future censuses, for
recording the name of the father and the
maiden name of the mother of every
person enumerated. This could be done
by adding to the enumeration sheet for
the Census of 1910, between columns 11
and 12, two 1!%-inch columns, the pair
of columns headed Ancestry; the first
column of the pair sub-headed Full
Name of Father of this Person; the second
column of the pair sub-headed Full
Maiden Name of Mother of this Person.

“We respectfully set forth the very
great value in this and in future cen-
suses of the facts which would thus be
secured :

“1. The family ties would be estab-
lished and thus all census enumeration
records would become available for
genealogical and family pedigree-studies.

“2. Persons of the same name would
be distinguished by connecting each
other with the name of his own father.

“3. The position in the family tree of
married men and women would be
established.

“4. The relationship of unmarried
women in the household would be
established.

“5. Family records would be _ pre-
served intact, despite the change of
surname and of surname spelling.

‘6. If used in a series of censuses, this
one item would enable the student of
American families to construct, from the
census records alone, the family trees
of all American families. Thus by this
relatively simple correction, the United
States Federal Census reports would
constitute the greatest and most valua-
ble genealogical source in the world.

“This proposition was first urged by
Alexander Graham Bell at the annual
meeting of the Board of Scientific Direc-
tors of the Eugenic’s Record Office in
1916, and was unanimously adopted by
this Board, which at that time con-
sisted of: Alexander Graham Bell,Chair-
man; William H. Welch, Vice-Chair-
man; Lewellys F. Barker; Irving Fisher;
T. H. Morgan; and Charles B. Daven-

209

port, Secretary and Resident Director.
The experience of Dr. Bell in practical
census work makes his opinion on this
particular matter especially worthy of
your careful consideration.
“Respectfully submitted,

‘February 21, 1919.”

Besides the arguments enumerated in
this memorial in favor of supplementing
the census records by the addition of
“the name of the father and the full
maiden name of the mother of every
person enumerated,”’ the following points
are presented:

1. By the use of population-records
containing these facts, the individual
could be located from census to census
and from generation to generation.
Thus not only could the statistician
secure from the census returns mass
data descriptive of general demographic
conditions, but also he could trace
individual and family fortunes. This
would enable the analyst to measure
the personal ‘“‘overturn”’ in population,
wealth, occupation and residence. Such
investigations would be of the greatest
social and political value.

2. Except for persons who are born
and who die within the same inter-
censal period, the entire genealogical
trees of all families of the American
population, together with many facts
of biography and personality, beginning
with the oldest generation living at the
inauguration of the system, could be
constructed and permanently main-
tained.

3. Fragmentary data concerning an-
cestors would be sufficient clues to
enable the investigator, by the use of
the records asked for, authentically to
restore a family tree.

4. The American people are learning
to treat family-history archives more as
pedigree-records for use in tracing the
descent of natural traits, than solely as
genealogical studies whose chief motive
is superficial social distinction. The
desired census data would therefore be
put to a very useful purpose.

5. The records of parentage as given
by the census would be of great legal
value in supplementing local records

210 The Journal

in cases involving inheritance and
property, indeed in many instances the
census records would constitute the
only documentary evidence of parent-
age.

To summarize: Present*census meth-
ods give statistical pictures of the popu-
lation, but do not trace personal or
family fortunes. The addition of only
two items to the population schedule—
“the name of the father, and the full
maiden name of the mother,’ would

of Heredity

permit the analysis of census returns on
the personal and family-history basis.
The fortunes of the nation are indis-
solubly united with those of the indi-
vidual, and since the rate and extent of
‘overturn’? in personal fortune is an
index to the quality of national growth,
the value of the proposed analyses would
repay many times the relatively slight
additional cost and effort involved in
adding the two desired items to the
population schedule.

Six Hundred Twins Already Discovered

Twins Which Were Separated

The American Genetic Association
through the generous codperation of the
press has been placed in communication
with over six hundred twins and several
hundred of themhave sent excellent pho-
tographs illustrating in many cases most
remarkable similarity. It is particularly
important in the researches that are
being carried out that such identical
twins as have lived in entirely different
environments be found and further pub-
licity leading to the discovery of pairs of

in Babyhood Especially Sought

identical twins, the individuals of which
have lived in different countries and
have been taught from _ childhood
different languages is desired. All
communications should be directed to
the American Genetic Association,
Washington, D. C.

Any twin cooperating with the Asso-
ciation will be supplied with any special
articles published relating to these
researches.

The Beginnings of the Nervous System

THE ELEMENTARY NERVOUS
SYS LEM, by G. H..Parker, Sc.D,
Professor of Zodlogy, Harvard Uni-
versity. Pp. 229 53, illustrations.
Price, $2.50 net. Philadelphia and
London; J. B. Lippincott Co. (Mono-
graphs on Experimental Biology),
1919.

Confining himself mainly to such
simple forms of life as sponges, jelly-
fishes and hydroids, Dr. Parker has
outlined in detail the nature of the
elementary nervous system, particularly
with a view to showing its limitations.
His point of view is described in his
preface: ‘‘The dependence of human
affairs upon the nervous system of man

is so absolute that it was inevitable, as
soon as this relation was understood,
that the activities of the simpler
animals should be interpreted as though
these creatures were miniature human
beings. That such interpretation was
carried far beyond its legitimate bounds,
even by the scientifically trained, is now
admitted on almost all sides. That
these bounds are vastly more restricted
than has usually been supposed is
certain. An approach to a clearer
understanding of what they are is as-
sured through the application of experi-
mental and quantitative methods to
the questions concerned rather than by
a continuation of the older more purely
observational procedure.”’

The Journal of Heredity

pap le

Why the Babies Die

INFANT MORTALITY: Results of a
field study in Brockton, Mass., based
on births for one year, by Mary V.
Dempsey. U. S. Dept. of Labor,
Children’s Bureau Publication No.
37. Pp. 82. ‘Washineten,- D. C.,
1919.

Brockton is a center of shoe manu-
facture, and a prosperous New England
town. The Children’s Bureau surveyed
it to find why the infant mortality rate
was so low (96.7). It ascertained some
commonplace things, and some that
were unexpected, as that the mortality

among babies of foreign-born mothers
was lower than among babies whose
mothers were native Americans. Like
most of the studies the Children’s
Bureau has made on infant mortality,
this one is statistically inadequate and
misleading. The conclusion is that
Brockton’s infant mortality rate is not
so low as it ought to be, considering the
high wages paid to shoe-workers and
the good municipal sanitation. The
insistence on economic factors, and the
failure to deal with biologic factors that
might affect infant mortality, render the
study of little real value.

The Inheritance of Blindness

THE BLIND, their condition and the
work being done for them in the
United States, by Harry Best, Ph.D.
Pp. 763. New York: The Macmillan
Ca: 1919:

Heredity plays an unimportant part
in causing blindness, according to Dr.
Best. His chapter on heredity, like
many other chapters of the book, is a
compilation marked by little grasp of
the subject, but he concludes that
possibly not more than 10% of the blind
owe their infirmity to inheritance.
Heredity causes blindness, apparently,

in a dozen or more different ways, of
which cataract is the most frequent.
The blind do not tend to marry in such
large proportion as the normal members
of the population. ‘‘ The likelihood of
blind offspring is not necessarily greater
when both parents are blind than when
one is blind and the other sighted,”
except in cases of consanguineous mar-
riage, of course. From Dr. Best’s
citations it would seem that there are
considerable data available for a study
of the inheritance of blindness, but he
himself has added nothing to the subject.

A Compilation on Subnormality

PROBLEMS OF SUBNORMALITY,
by J. E. Wallace Wallin, Director of
the Psycho-Educational Clinic, Board
of Education, St. Louis; with an
introduction by John W. Withers,
Ph.D., Superintendent of Public
Schools in the City of St. Louis.
Pp. 485. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.;
World Book Co., 1917.

Dr. Wallin has diligently brought
together an immense amount of mis-
cellaneous material relating in a
general way to the problems of sub-
normal intelligence. He considers ‘‘ The
Changing Attitude towards the Sub-
normal,’’ asks ‘‘ Who is Feebleminded ?’’,
outlines his views on the proper educa-
tion of feebleminded and backward
children, inserts a paper an epilepsy,

summarizes the present state provisions
for defective children, and concludes
with 46 pages on ‘‘The Hygiene of
Eugenic Generation.’ This last chapter
is marked by such a confusion between
eugenics and euthenics, and such an
uncritical handling of facts and au-
thorities, that it has little value.
Throughout the book Dr. Wallin wisely
insists on proper use and standardiza-
tion of mental tests, and condemns
attempts to include too large a propor-
tion of the population in the category of
feebleminded. The book is useful as a
source of citations and compendium of
facts gathered from the literature, but
the reader in using it will have to apply
the critical selection to data which Dr.
Wallin himself has not applied.

PORTRAITS OF EARLY AMERICANS'

Recent Publication by Charles K. Bolton Shows Intermediate Type in the
Evolution of the Nordic Face—Eyes and Nose Show the Most
Interesting Changes

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

OR four or five hundred years

artists have been making graphic

records of the human face. Yet

this historical, anthropological,
and often beautiful material has been
but little utilized in the study of evolu-
tion. That it can be utilized to a very
great extent can scarcely admit of doubt.
Racial types are often no more clearly
marked in the faces of the living than
in the portraits of the dead. Eye-
color, hair-color, the shape of the bones
of the head, and more particularly the
bones of the face, the modeling and even
the expression of the mouth, are all
significant and vary in diverse races,
families, and social classes. Character
and intelligence are usually clearly writ-
ten in physiognomy. It only remains
for the intuitive perception of the expert
to be supplanted by measurements and
inductive analysis, and the human face,
containing the most vital, the most
varying, the most revealing of all an-
thropological data, will be promoted to
its position of importance in classifying
mankind.

How do we recognize an old friend or
anticipate a new one? How do we
determine a person’s probable attrac-
tiveness? How do we quickly differen-
tiate the special racial subdivisions of
mankind? We do not measure the
shapes of their heads. We look them
squarely in the face. And, undoubtedly
very limited portions of the face suffice,
—notably the small region around the
mouth and nostrils and certain indica-

tions about the eyes. For instance,
the Mongolian eve is characteristic,
although occasionally found in other
races. The Semitic nostril and upper
lip are, in that race, so ancient and
universal that they appear with equal
constancy and obviousness in the earliest
profile drawings in Babylonian days.

DEARTH OF ANATOMICAL MATERIAL

Evidences of anatomical evolution
are not lacking if one goes back to pre-
historic times. The Neanderthal and
other very early skulls, human or semi-
human, are small in cranial capacity and
primitive in shape. Anthropologists
have found but little evidence of recent
human evolution—that is, within historic
time. We do judge from the sizes of
suits of armor that men are somewhat
larger than they were a few hundred
years ago, but increased body size may
not mean intellectual evolution. The
reason why anatomists have failed to
find visible evidence of recent evolution
is because they have attended to every
part of the body except that one external
feature- which is most indicative of
character and intelligence. If there be
a real, recent mental evolution, and if
anatomists for centuries had been study-
ing the internal structure of the brain
after the methods of modern technique—
mapping brain regions and counting
brain cells—they would have found
such evolution. But, naturally, the
older anatomists kept no such records;
and now, after the once living gray

‘Review and supplementary research based upon ‘‘The Founders: Portraits of Persons

Born Abroad Who Came to the Colonizs in North America before the Year 17015" with an in-
troduction, biographical outlines, and comments on the portraits, by Charles Knowles Bolton

In 2 volumes.

212

The Boston Athenaeum, 1919.

\
:

a

SS,

hens
=

REV. SIMON BRADSTREET

The arrow calls attention to the eyebrow, which is very high above the eye. This is typical
in the early portraits of English people but not in the early portraits of Italians. Also, the nose
is broad at the top andthe eyesare far apart. Thearrow has been added by the reviewer.
(Fig. 13.)

SAMUEL SEWALL, 1652-1730

The arrow calls attention to the broad nose and high upper eyelid. Both were common in the
teenth century. They were not uncommon in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
> rare today but can be found occasionally. (Fig. 14.)

STEPHEN SEWALL, 1657-1725

Brother of Samuel Sewall (Fig. 14). The family resemblance is striktng. The arrow calls
attention to the high eyelid very similar to that of his brother. Note the great vertical dis-
tance between the point of the arrow and the center of the eyeball. (Fig. 15).

216 The Journal

matter has gone forever, the one anatom-
ical record most hkely to reveal the
inner brain is the face itself, which may
be regarded in more ways than one as
the next thing to it.

THE USE OF PORTRAITS

In order to make satisfactory studies
of ancient portraits, good photographic
copies are needed, and many specimens
must be brought together for comparison
and analysis. Here we are in an advan-
tageous position over our forefathers,
who did not have photography to make
possible a large collection of good copies.
Also, to make a fair comparison, a
collection of complete portraits of some
one race or historical group is desirable.

In the collected photographs of por-
traits in famous national galleries we, to
a certain extent, have reasonable com-
pleteness, though all portraits must be
classified according to period and na-
tionality. The work on Early Portraits

.in the National Portrait Gallery; Lon-
don, (1400-1500) and Volume II (1600-—
1700) form suitable collections for
studies of measurement and analysis,
since all or nearly all belong to the
strictly English breed.

PORTRAITS OF THE FOUNDERS|

Recently Charles K. Bolton, Librar-
ian of the Boston Athenaeum, has
brought together and published a very
important collection of photogravures
of all the portraits obtainable of the
founders of the colonies in North Amer-
ica. who came before 1701. Such a
collection is valuable and satisfying on
account of its completeness. It is not
likely that more than a very few por-
traits, not in the collection, will ever be
unearthed. As the author truly says:

“The value of the pictures here re-
produced will increase with the years,
for they represent men and women who
came together from the countries of
Europe to found colonies which have
been federated*into a great republic.
Inevitably a few portraits have been
overlooked, and when these have been
added we shall have betweén the covers
of one work all the faces that we shall

2 Problems in Eugenics.

of Heredity

ever see from that historic past. The
portraits are of value for their evidence
of dress, armor, and fashion; but there
is a still more fundamental significance
in these faces as a group, for they show
the type of the immigrant of the seven-
teenth century—austere, adventurous,
and resolute.”’

Mr. Bolton in his Introduction accepts
my conclusion, reached some years ago
from a study of Italian, French, Flemish
and English portraiture, that the face of
the Nordic has actually changed since
the beginning of the sixteenth century.’
The greatest change is in the region of
the eyes. The eyes are now more often
near together than formerly. This
means that the breadth at the top of
the nose which is generally associated
with eyes wide apart, is frequent in early
portraits and disappears with the course
of time. This unusual breadth at the
top of the nose is indicated by the
arrows in Figs. 13-16. The eyes in these
portraits are far apart.

The second point of distinction is the
distance between the eyebrow and the
pupil of the eye itself, that is, the eye-
brow in the early portraits is often high
above the eye, the upper eyelid pre-
senting a flat surface. The eye is not
set in under the orbital arch as is usual
today. The cheek-bones are somewhat
less prominent now than formerly, but
otherwise the face has changed but
little. Figs. 13, 14, and 15 show the eye-
brow very high above the eye, as is
indicated at the points of the arrows.

NOT AN ARTISTIC MANNERISM

Portraits are not, like photographs,
mechanical records. Consequently the
personal equations of the different art-
ists must be taken into consideration.
There is, for instance, the well-recog-
nized “‘Sir Peter.Lely eye,’’ and one is
inclined to think that much of this
change in eye-form is due to an im-
provement in the art of painting. But
this will not stand the test of compara-
tive analysis. While most of the earli-
est portraits are crude in their primi-
tiveness (those prior to Holbein, for
instance), the portraits by Holbein

London, 1912, p. 251.

A SIXTEENTH CENTURY NOSE

The nose, rough in outline and broad at the top, was common to Nordics in the sixteenth
century, and by no means rare in the seventeenth. Here the upper eyelid is more like
a modern, but the eye is by no means as deep set as is usual today. The portrait is that of
Nathaniel Byfield, 1653-1733. (Fig. 16.)

218 The Journal

himself, who was doubtless an accurate
realist, are replete with this early or
mongolioid type. Not all of the Hol-
beins show this characteristic. Some
are always in a median or doubtful
grade between the early and the late
types, but the number of distinctly mod-
ern ‘‘eye-nose regions’’ 1s always enum-
erable, and it is this increase in propor-
tionate numbers through the centuries,
without regard to the amount of mas-
tery in the art of portraiture, that
makes it improbable that the change
represents anything Jess than a real evo-
lution in the bony structure of the face.
In other words the archaic type of eye
is as common in the finished and accu-
rate work of any given period as it is in
the cruder work.

The faces of the upper classes among
the Nordic people have approached
toward the Mediterranean or even to-
ward the Greek type. Early Greek sculp-
ture shows this mongolioid feature, but it
is not at all certain that this was
merely because it was primitive art.
Primitive Italian art does not show
the early type,? except nearly always
when the Virgin is depicted. She is also
represented with very high eyebrows
and eyes far apart in most of the later
paintings of the sixteenth century. The
Mediterranean peoples, including the
Italians of the Renaissance, never,
except in a small percentage of instances,
exhibited the ancient northern type of
eve and nose.

Among modern Nordics the ancient
type still persists among perhaps 10 to
15% of the whole population.4 Many
accurate measurements have been made
from photographs of English, French,
Flemish, and Italian portraits.

In the case of Mr. Bolton’s fine col-
lection of early American likenesses, I
have merely gone through the two vol-
umes and placed as nearly as possible
each in one of three grades. There are,

of Heredity

out of 113 authentic portraits (suffi
ciently clear and available for com™
parison), about 37 of the ancient type’
37 doubtful or intermediate, and 39
modern, or low in eyebrow, with eye
well under the orbital arch. The earli-
est authentic portraits of the Nordic
upper classes, or well-to-do upper middle
classes, 7. e., persons who were able to
have their portraits painted, show more
than 50% of the early type; the same
class, roughly speaking, in America
today shows only 10 or 15% of this
form. The faces of the seventeenth
and early eighteenth century as revealed
in Mr. Bolton’s collection show 32.8%
Thus the middle period fits in, as it
should, part way between the two.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PURITANS

The ‘Portraits of the Founders”’
forms not only a magnificent and thor-
ough historical collection, analyzing the
authenticity and history of each pic-
ture, but it also, in a novel way, reveals
the characteristics of the Puritans and
the Cavaliers. Rev. Simon Bradstreet
has, I should say, a very pleasant face
(Fig. 13). It is fully. my accordance
with his reputed character. Such agree-
able faces are, we must admit, rare
among the portraits of early New Eng-
landers. Sir Richard Saltonstall, john
Leverett, Mabel Harlakenden, Thomas
Amory, Rev. Hanserd Knollys, Rich-
ard Middlecott, James Bowdoin, Mar-
gery Pepperrell, Sir Henry Vane, Pe-
nelope Winslow, Mary (Luttrell) Win-
throp and Stephen Winthrop present
few of the puritanical aspects of coun-
tenance. - These it may be noticed
were not strictly typical Puritans, and
many of them were persons of gentle
blood.

The relation of history and portraiture
to biology and racial heredity is not
unappreciated by Mr. Bolton, who says:

‘““We are perhaps too ready to deal

’See for instance School of Cimabue, Chiesa Inferiore di S. Francesco Assisi, and Giotto,

Marriage of St. Francis to Poverty, Allegory of Chastity, etc.

modern with the exception of the Virgin.

Here there are many faces all

‘The first 337 portraits in Vol. xv of the National Cyclopedia (N. Y., 1916) show, as regards
height of eyebrow, 39 of the ancient type, 67 doubtful, and 231 modern.

A MORE MODERN TYPE

Here the eyes are more deeply set under the eyebrows and the nose is narrow at the top.
She was born in 1674, wife of Isaac Norris, Mayor of Philadelphia in 1724. Her ancestry was
gentle and in part noble and royal. Many of her descendants are living today. (Fig. 17.)

220 The Journal

with these ancestors capriciously, either
holding up our own standards to their
life histories and marking the contrasts,
or, on the other hand, associating
their undoubted weaknesses with the
age in which they lived and treating
leniently frailties that should be con-
demned in any age. They did, many
of them, come here to escape episco-
pacy, not to grant liberty of conscience
to others. Most were bigoted in a
day when the logic of convictions made
men intolerant. The Puritans were
the liberals of their time, but they were
only a shade more tolerant than the
conservative Roman Catholics; while
none of them, unless we except possibly
the Episcopalians, with somewhat ad-
justable convictions, had any affection
for radicals such as Wheelwright and
Williams. None of them doubted that
mystics and witches were in actual com-
munion with the devil, however widely
they might’ differ as to punishment
suitable for persons thus entangled.

“Stoughton called the immigrants
to New England the choice grain of old
England. The settlers in America in-
cluded very few of the lowest class,
many of the great middle or mediocre
multitude, a fair proportion of the upper
middle class, such as city merchants,
clergymen, and undistinguished visita-
tion families, and but few, if any, of
the ruling classin Europe* Such as they
were, however, they have dominated
our political and intellectual life to this
day. The Anglo-Saxon half of Boston,
for example, produces a dozen eminent
men to every leader produced by the
Celtic half of the population.°

“Whatever their shortcomings may
have been, these people, from north to
south, were all of the dominant Nordic
race so recently described by Mr. Mad-
ion Grant:

““New England, during Colonial
times and long afterward, was far more
Teutonic than old England; that is, it
contained a smaller percentage of small,
pre-Nordic brunets. Anyone familiar
with the native New Englander knows
the clean-cut face, the high stature, and

of Heredity

the prevalence of gray and blue eyes and
light brown hair, and recognizes that
the brunet element is less noticeable
there than in the South.

“*“The Southern States were popu-
lated also by Englishmen of the purest
Nordic type, but there is today, except
among the mountains, an appreciably
larger amount of brunet types than in
the North. Virginia is in the same
latitude as North Africa, and south of
this line no blonds have ever been able
to survive in full vigor, chiefly because
the actinic rays of the sun are the same,
regardless of other climatic conditions. '
These rays beat heavily on the Nordic
race and disturb their nervous system,
wherever the white man ventures too
far from the cold and foggy North.

“*“The remaining Colonial elements,
the Holland Dutch, the Palatine Ger-
mans, who came over in small numbers
to New York and Pennsylvania, were
also purely Teutonic, while the French
Huguenots who escaped to America
were drawn much more largely from
the Nordic than from the Alpine or
Mediterranean elements of France.’

“Tf we apply these facts a little more
specifically to the portraits, we find that
ninety-seven represent Englishmen,
fourteen represent Dutchmen, nine are
Frenchmen, two Swedes, two Germans,
and one a Bohemian. In other words,
eight-tenths were English, one-tenth
Dutch, and one-tenth French and
others.”’

In closing this notice of Mr. Bolton’s
volumes, we can only emphasize their
value to students of history, sociology,
and eugenics. Here historical material is
brought together in the true spirit of
natural science, for we have one of its
valid methods exemplified, namely, the
objective and complete collection of
homogeneous data. Mr. Bolton is an
historical investigator who recognizes
the importance of genealogy and hered-
ity and, still more of the need of syste-
matic measurements before new histori-
cal generalizations are to be made.

These portraits, in conjunction with
those in other volumes, enable us actu-

° Popular Science Monthly, April, 1914, p. 400.

A TWENTIETH CENTURY FACE
(THomaAS, LorD COLEPEPER, 1634-=—1688-9)

This type of nose was rare in the seventeenth century and rarer still in the sixteenth. Here the
entire nose is delicately mouldec Especially it should be noticed that the upper part of the
nose projects and is not especially hroad as in most early portraits. The upper eyelid is
an intermediate type. (Fig. 18.)

222 The Journal

ally to see human evolution taking
place. While it is not certain that the
more modern type is indicative of a
higher grade of intelligence, it is prob-
ably somehow correlated with it, though
there may be many exceptions to the
rule. It is at least an evolution in the
sense of being a change, and it is cer-
tainly a change towards what was for
the ancient Greek an ideal of beauty.
If the. bony structure of the face has
altered, presumably through some as
yet unrecognized forces of selection
working in conjunction with beneficial
correlations, there is good reason to

of Heredity

hold, at least as an hypothesis, that the
brains of Nordic peoples are not just as
they were four hundred years ago. While
it may be surprising to find that a measur-
able human alteration took place in so
short a time, it is perhaps not so remark-
able if we consider how short a period
man has been on earth as compared
with that for his prehuman ancestors,
and how vast and complex are the
possibilities of some human_ brains
compared with anything existing in the
lower animal kingdom. Verily, we have
been on earth only a few benighted mo-
ments and have only just begun.

The Theory of the Environment

AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF
THE IDEA OF THE MILIEU AND ITS
PRESENT STATUS, by Armin Hajman
Koller, Ph.D., Instructor in German, The
University of Illinois. Menasha, Wis.:
George Banta Publishing Company, 1918.
Pp. 104.

In this little book the author has com-
piled and compressed an enormous
number of quotations from most of the
famous writers who have expressed
their opinions on the influence of en-
vironment on man. The scheme of the
book is historical, and the sketch ex-
tends from the Hebrew Prophets to the
nineteenth century. Some quotations
may help to give an idea of the scope of
this book.

“The Hebrew prophets see the hand
of Providence in the harmony of na-
tional fate with the configuration of the
globe. Hippocrates dwells upon the
regularity of climatic effect on man.
Aristotle notes the action of physical
environment on. government and na-
tional character.” In another place,
page 11, we find that “Giovanni Villani,
the noted Florentine historian of the
fourteenth century, observes with a
deal of finesse that Arezzo, by reason
of its air and position, produces men of

great subtilty of mind.” In regard to
Cuvier, Mr. Koller quotes Ripley.
Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the
close relation borne by philosophy and
art to the underlying geological forma-
tions.” It is not difficult to understand
that “Cuvier did not hesitate,’ especially
when one recalls that he did not hesitate
to attack and ruin the great Lamarck,
and his plea for the doctrine of organic
evolution.

Mr. Koller’s English is, in places,
difficult to read. ‘A great part of
his book is madeup of quotations, where
the various famous theorists complain of
each others deficiencies or praise each
other warmly. In fact his book is largely
made up of quotations, or quotations of
quotations. It is at least an interesting
contribution to the bibliography of the
subject, especially as it gives the views
of so many of the early writers. Noth-
ing is said about the non-inheritance
of acquired traits or modern invest-
tigations in heredity, all of which have
upset so many of the dogmatic theories
of the older environmentalists. It 1s to
be hoped that these aspects will be dis-
cussed in Part II, which the author ex-
pects to publish shortly.

WAR AND GENETIC VALUES:

DAVID STARR JORDAN

Stanford University, California

ERTAIN recent writers, speaking
@ in the name of science, have

attempted in different ways to

minimize the recognized evils of
war-selection, the destruction of the
fittest in camp and in the field.

It is claimed by Dr. McFie of London,
and others, that the soldier shows but
slight genetic superiority (physical,
mental, moral), 5% perhaps, over the
men left at home. “The best for
warlike purposes, not necessarily the
best for any other.”’ In the aggregate,
they argue, war-selection is therefore
negligible, tending at the worst to lower
physical strength while leaving the
mental acumen of the race unimpaired.

A writer of larger outlook, Dr. Thor-
stein Veblen, in his trenchant and sug-
gestive volume ‘“‘Germany and the In-
dustrial Revolution,” pushes this idea
still further, regarding the reversal of
selection as an undoubted fact, but of
slight racial importance. Veblen bases
his view on two premises: that the men
killed in war do not as a whole represent
high racial values, and that by the
Mendelian law the descendants of the
‘““depauperate’’ spared by war will in
two or three generations regain the
racial average.

As to the first contention, Veblen
regards war as the business of the leisure
classes and of the bullying type of men.
The first of these he finds to be made up,
in general, of inefficient social units, the
second to be of inferior mental caliber.
Destruction by war is thus, in his mind,
largely confined to those human types
which civilization can well spare.

The first contention of our author

raises certain questions of fact. In
general, the leisure class has been made
so by incidents of wealth, society, and
education. The stock is not necessar-
ily inferior because the individual has
suffered from an unfortunate upbringing.
It may, of course, be at once admitted
that those who find joy in war are in
general of a low type of mind as well as
of morals. Doubtless in the course of
history there have been many free lances
and soldiers of fortune whose extermina-
tion left the world better off. War-
selection is a racial evil only to the
degree in which the best are sacrificed.
In modern armies the best elements are
certainly drawn upon heavily. Every
one knows this to be the case. Natu-
rally the stronger the appeal of the
‘cause,’ the higher the type of men
drawn to the sacrifice. To this, the
selective draft, or any other form of dis-
crimination, affords no modification.

In his second contention, Dr. Veblen
urges that, according to the Mendelian
principle, the ravages of war are soon
restored by the tendency to revert, in
mathematical proportion, to qualities
of past ancestors. Thus the descend-
ants of the weak and incapable would
soon line up with the others. There is
nothing in ‘‘Mendel’s Law,’ however
(so far as anyone knows), which implies
that bad stock can be made good, or
that any appreciable percentage of
those who are, to use Veblen’s term,
‘‘depauperate’’ through heredity, or
who may suffer from other ancestral
weakness, will rise above the level of
their personal forbears. When the in-
dividual overtops his parentage it is

1 This is a discussion in genetics, and for emphasis of the great and terrible truths contained
therein it waives for the moment the fact that some part of the loss owing to war wastage may be
balanced ultimately by advantage to humanity in the establishment of international harmony and

national freedom and efficiency.— The Author.

223

224 The Journal

because some of his still earlier progeni-
tors were of better material or because
society has misjudged the stock from
which he sprang or because the mingling
of germs has brought about a peculiarly
favorable combination.

I find no warrant for Veblen’s asser-
tion that ‘‘under the Mendelian rule? of
heredity, breeding from what may be
called the ‘depauperate’ representa-
tives of this hybrid stock should in the
course of some two or three generations
give the same result as breeding from
the best exemplars.’’ Nor is it true
that ‘‘the best, as contemplated in this
proposition, are the best for the warlike
purpose, not necessarily for any other.’
This may have been true at some time
and in some degree. It has not been
true in the European wars of the last
hundred years. The degree of evil in
war-selection must, of course, vary with
every army and with every day of war,
but its importance as a factor in history
cannot be questioned.

A serious view of the actual situation
is expressed by Mr. Seth K. Humphrey
as follows.’

“This war is little short of a headlong
plunge into race-suicide. . . . A lit-
tle play-war, offering adventure abroad,
might attract roving spirits
whose value in any sustained effort at
home is conspicuously absent, and thus
not materially affect racial values.
It is safe to say that among the millions
killed will be a million who are carrying
superlatively effective inheritances, the
dependence of the race’s future. Noth-
ing is more absurd: than the notion
that these inheritances can be replaced
in a few generations. They are
gone forever. The survivors are going
to produce their less valuable kind.
Words fail to convey the appalling
nature of this loss.”

Again, quoting from some author not
named, Mr. Humphrey gives the follow-

of Heredity

ing excellent definition of a desirable
inheritance:

“Tt is of that quality of brain—one
might almost add quantity of brain—
which leads to creative leadership in
whatever activity it may select. It
dominates environment and advances
into new undertakings. It is the mark
of the Social Migrator, the man of ini-
tiative who extricates himself from the
mass and changes some bit of the world
for better or for worse, by his contact
with it Someone has said that
if France, for example, were to lose fifty
of her greatest statesmen, fifty leading
scientists, fifty each of her shining
lights in education, art, music, there
would be nothing left of France. This
states in an exaggerated way a deep
truth which can be more convincingly
illustrated.’’4

France is here used merely as an
illustration; the same line of argument
applies equally everywhere. Suppose
that from any nation were taken 1%
of the physically best men such as
not of the ‘‘very best human values,
are being lost in war, but of the best in
intellectual and creative ability, in
leadership, in genetic worth,” what
would be left?

Continuing, Mr. Humphrey asks what
would become of New York, if 1%
(40,000) of the best were removed.
“In the physical display which any
active nation can make we lose sight of
the rather appalling fact that its con-
structively effective brains are concen-
trated in the heads of a very small
number.”

There exists, of course, in the mass a
certain percentage who have not yet
found themselves or found means of
self-extrication. There are others yet
to be produced through happy combina-
tions of ancestral traits. But high
endowments do not spring from nonen-
tity. ‘‘Ability is never careless of its

2 No biologist who is qualified to express an opinion on the subject now fails to recognize the

vast significance of Mendel’s discovery. .

But these admissions in no way affect our con-

demnation of the flimsy superstructure of speculation which has been erected by some of Mendel’s
successors. (Francis B. Sumner, Modern Conceptions of Heredity, La Jolla, Cal., p. 4)

3 Mankind, p. 13.
4Seth K. Humphrey, Mankind, p. 38.

<< oayl

Jordan: War. and Genetic Values

ancestry. There are no ‘self-
made men.’’ for each man has within
him, derived from his intertangled

ancestry, the potentiality of whatever
he becomes.”

REPAIR OF HUMAN WASTAGE AFTER WAR

We do not yet know how many men,
women, and children have been killed,
maimed, or ruined in the great war.
The number runs very high, far into the
millions already—thirty, forty or more—
according to the completeness of our
statistics. To replace these incalcul-
able losses is a problem for future states-
manship. Restoration of numbers, how-
ever slow, is a matter relatively simple;
renewal in quality a difficult process.

As has been abundantly pointed out,
war first devours the young, selected for
strength and endurance, ‘‘the best that
the nation can bring.’”’ But the devas-
tation, immeasurable as it is, by no
means stops there. For with each man
who falls perishes also the great widen-
ing wedge, reaching forward through
time, of those who by rights should be his
descendants. ‘‘Giving his life for his
country,’ aman gives far more than
that—he yields up his proportion of
the “‘slain unnumbered”’ who are never
to be.

Again, in addition to the millions fallen
in battle, war takes its quota of civilians.
Refugees of every description, men and
women, children often lost or aban-
doned, trampled or starved in the rush,
perish along the road, or are slain
through “military necessity.” Further-
more, everywhere behind the lines, war
takes a corresponding toll, high-minded
men and women breaking under the
strain of a topsy-turvy world, the

229

feeble and aged dying from want and
neglect. It is often estimated that for
each soldier who falls, two or three non-
combatants also perish.

As an accompaniment of all this, the
shadow of enforced celibacy is spreading
over the womanhood of Europe. A
world in which women hopelessly out-
number the men is sadly unnatural. It
means that millions fitted for love and
motherhood are to be debarred from
the richest joys of life.

The best will accept the situation with
no lowering of moral standards. But for
the mass, indications point directly to
some form of semi-legalized polygamy.
The common run look to the state to
formulate the moral law and ask no
higher sanction than tacit official ap-
proval. In Germany, a plan for “‘lat-
eral’’ or ‘‘secondary”’ marriages, another
name for the semi-slavery of con-
cubinage, has been repeatedly under
discussion. But polygamy, in whatever
form, brings disaster to social purity.
Conventions guarding the most pre-
cious jewel of society cannot be dis-
carded without a far-reaching heritage
of evil.

To recapitulate, restoration in quan-
tity is a matter of time. Restoration in
quality, in values, moral, mental, and
physical, will be a much longer and more
difficult process. Still for a century to
come the history of Europe will disclose
its failure adequately to conserve the
most forceful elements of its population.
But as in the long run the strong and
intelligent tend to outlast the futile,
the dissipated, and the lawless, we may
expect that after this, as after every war,
there will be an ultimate although very
tardy recovery.

Game-Bird Farming Needed

General prohibition of the sale of
migratory birds has created a great
demand for domesticated birds to sup-
ply the markets. To meet these de-
mands the regulations under the migra-
tory bird treaty act, made in 1916
between the United States and Great
Britain for the protection of game birds
migrating between this country and

Canada, make liberal provisions for
the propagation of migratory waterfowl.
Permits are issued free of charge by
Secretary of Agriculture, through the
Bureau of Biological Survey, authoriz-
ing persons to acquire a limited number
of wild waterfowl to be used as the nu-
cleus of a breeding stock or to strengthen
the strain of birds already possessed.

A NOTE ON THE DROPPING OF
FLOWERS IN THE POTATO’

M. J. Dorsey

Head of the Section of Fruit Breeding, Agricultural Experiment Station of the
University of Minnesota

r NHERE is considerable popular
interest in the failure of many
potato varieties grown today to
set seed. The varieties of our

forefathers are generally supposed to
have set seed-balls in abundance. It
has been generally held that the cooler
northern States such as Minnesota fur-
nish conditions favorable to the devel-
opment of seed-balls, but recently
Newman and Leonian report seed-ball
production in the Lookout Mountain
variety (when grown as far south as
Georgia) that certainly equals seed pro-
duction farther north at its best. In
fact these investigators are attempting
to develop varieties which will produce
by seed as well as by tubers. An occa-
sional year when seed-balls are more
abundant than others is well known, but
the interest of growers centers more
around those years when the flowers
are abundant, but seed-balls rare, if any
develop. The disposition of the flowers
in the last case is the theme of this
article.

It should be stated that flower pro-
duction varies from year to year and
also that some varieties habitually bear
fewer flowers than others. For in-
stance, King seldom produces flowers,
while Green Mountain bears them in
abundance. It follows then that seed-
ball production must also vary from
year to year and between varieties.
Some contend that seedlings bear more
seed-balls than the older varieties.

Early Ohio (Fig. 19, Nos. 1 and 2)
and Rural New Yorker bore flowers in
abundance at the Fruit Breeding Farm
in 1918; but, like so many other seas-

ons, all fell off so that at harvest time
not a single seed-ball could be found in
the entire patch. What happened:
An examination of the blossoms when
the first flowers were open showed
that both the opened flowers and buds
were falling in large numbers. In some
clusters there was a partial succession
of bloom, but the first flowers to open
fell as the later ones came into bloom.
In others the younger as well as older
buds were falling several days in ad-
vance of the time they were due to open.
In still others the younger buds fell
before those which had come into full
bloom. It is unusual to find dropping
taking place simultaneously in flowers
differing so much in age, because in most
cases flowers normally fall after ma-
turity.

The joint in the pedicel (Fig. 19, No.
1) at which the flowers drop is three to
five millimeters below the flower. There
is a conspicuous swelling in the pedicel
at this point, and before the flowers fall
the stem is noticeably yellow in the
younger buds as well as those which
have opened. Buds or flowers some-
times drop on clusters in which seed-balls
have already developed, and rarely even
the younger seed-balls may drop. There
is no abscission layer subtending the
flower stalk, and after the flowers have
all fallen off it persists and, in the ab-
sence of leaves at the base, dries up
and can be found in this condition at
maturity.

In many of the varieties a large per-
centage of the pollen is defective and in
some no normal pollen is produced
(Fig. 19, Nos. 5 and 7). Counts in a

1 Published with the approval of the Director, as Paper 161 of the Journal Series of the

Minnesota Experiment Station.
226

POTATO FLOWERS

(1) Early Ohio, flowers dropping before opening; (2) Early Ohio, flowers dropping after
opening; (3) seed-balls setting on a cross between Keeper and Silverskin; (4) same as
No. 3, showing greater development; note that some of the flowers on these two clusters
have not set seed-balls; (5) longitudinal section of anther showing complete pollen
abortion; (6) apparently normal ovule development in flowers which generally drop:
(7) cross-section of an anther showing, as in No. 5, practically complete pollen abortion.
(Fig. 19.)

228 The Journal

few of the common varieties showed
the following percentages of defective
pollen: Beauty of Hebron, 30%; Early
Norther, 44%; Early Rose, 60%; Green
Mountain, 679%; White Elephant, 58%,
and in a hybrid between Keeper and
Silverskin, 89%. When pollen is taken
from mature anthers and mounted in
lactic acid the defective grains appear
empty. The fact that there are empty
pollen coverings in the loculi indicates
that pollen development is stopped
after being liberated from the tetrad.
In anthers where there is complete pol-
len abortion at maturity the pollen
appears white instead of the character-
istic yellow. After dehiscence the an-
thers curve backward away from the
style. It would appear from the above
percentages, that while all of the var-
ieties bear considerable quantities of
aborted pollen, in most cases there would
be ample normal pollen for self or
cross pollination. In one collection of
flowers from Early Ohio and Rural
New Yorker there was nearly complete
pollen abortion. If this were generally
the case large fields of either of these
varieties would fail to set seed-balls
even if the flowers did not drop.

An examination of the pistil, on the
other hand, shows that the ovules un-
dergo normal development (Fig. 19, No.
6). There are evidences of disintegration
in some embryo sacs but on the whole
they appear to be undergoing the usual
growth up to the time thev are cut off

of Heredity

when the flower drops. Some of the
pistils are whitish in color at the base
instead of distinct green before the
flowers drop, and in those flowers which
drop after opening, the abscission layer
at the base of the style forms, and occa-
sionally a flower persists long enough
for the style to absciss. Receptive
stigmas have very few pollen grains on
them under field conditions. It often
happens that seed-balls develop but bear
few mature seeds. Apparently the stim-
ulus from these is sufficient to hold the
balls on.

What relation then does the dropping
of flowers in the potato bear to the nor-
mal functioning of pollen and pistil?
Since complete abortion of pollen occurs
in many forms in which the pistil func-
tions normally, this factor is not neces-
sarily a cause of dropping, although
pollen development is carried up to the
liberated microspore. The pistil devel-
ops ovules and the stigma becomes
receptive in the maturest flowers which
shows that normal pistil development
takes place in flowers in which the pollen
is suppressed. Since the flowers are cut
off before the stimulation resulting from
pollination or fertilization takes place,
this factor can be eliminated. Bloom,
likewise, precedes any considerable stor-
age of food material in the tuber. It
appears then, that there are physiologi-
cal influences operating independently
of pollen or pistil development which
cause the potato flower to drop.

Robert Louis Stevenson on Heredity

“Our conscious years are but a mo-
ment in the history of the elements that
build us. And though today I
am only a man of letters, either tradition
errs or I was present when there landed
at St. Andrews a French barber-surgeon
to tend the health and the beard of the
great Cardinal Beaton: I have shaken
a spear in the Debatable Land and
shouted the slogan of the Elliots; I
was present when a skipper, plying
from Dundee, smuggled Jacobites to
France after the ’i5. Yes,

parts of me have seen life, and met
adventures, and sometimes met them
well. And, away in the still cloudier
past, the threads that make me up can
be traced by fancy into the bosoms of
thousands and millions of ascendants:
Picts who rallied round Macbeth and
the old (and highly preferable) system
of descent by females, fliers from before
the legions of Agricola, marchers in
Pannonian morasses, star-gazers on
Chaldean plateaus.”

THE FOUNDERS: OF THE
ART OF BREEDING—III

Pre-Mendelian Breeders of the Nineteenth Century

HERBERT F.

ROBERTS

Kansas State Agricultural College

N 1819 the Physical Section of the

Royal Prussian Academy of the

Sciences offered a prize for an an-

swer to the question—‘‘ Does hy-
brid fertilization occur in the plant
kingdom?’”’ and this, despite the fact
that as far back as 1761, Koelreuter, in
the preface to his published work, had
flattered himself with the hope that
now “‘even the most stubborn doubter
of the truth of the sexuality of plants
would be completely convinced.” ‘‘If,
contrary to all-conjecture,” he says,
“there should be such a one, who after
a rigid examination, still maintained the
contrary, 1t would astonish me as greatly
as though I heard someone on a clear
mid-day maintain that it was night.’
Fifty-six years after this utterance, ‘how-
ever, the Prussian Academy still sought
light in the darkness that Koelreuter
had flattered himself to have dispelled.

On the third of July, 1826, the Acad-
emy’s prize was conferred upon Dr. A.
F. Wiegmann, physician of Braun-
schweig. Since the investigation did
not, in ‘the Academy’s opinion, furnish a
complete solution to the question, but
half instead of the whole of the prize
was granted. The award was made in
the following language: ‘‘The author
has described the results of his inves-
tigation with appropriate brevity. These
results are in part completely convin-
cing, and in part not,’’ the reason being
given that certain of Wiegmann’s hy-
brid specimens submitted — scarcely
showed evidence of being of a hybrid
character. Since, on the other hand,
Wiegmann’s results completely con-
firmed and extended those of Koel-
reuter, and especially by reason of his
determination of the fact that self-fer-
tilized hybrids may bear fertile seeds,
it was decided to grant an award.

Wiegmann, through forty years of ob-
servation, including the fact of having
actually produced two geranium crosses
as early as his sixteenth year, was al-
ready predisposed toward the affirma-
tive of the question submitted. His in-
vestigations, begun in 1822, were finally
published in 1828. In order to over-
come all possible criticisms from the
opponents of the idea of sexuality in
plants, which he considered might be
directed against what he refers to as
“an unnatural handling of plants in
pots,’ he conducted his operations in the
open ground, in connection with which
he alludes to the several hindrances he
was obliged to undergo, ‘‘weak sight, a
trembling hand, and painful bending
and kneeling’’ (p. 2).

Wiegmann refers to the many failures
encountered, including the attempted
repetition of a number of Koelreuter’s
experiments, as being probably due in
part to having attempted crosses be-
tween different genera, ‘“‘since many
stigmas, according to my numerous ex-
periments, take the pollen of too distant
genera either not at all, or with extreme
difficulty”’ (p. 2). ‘“‘Plants which to-
gether are to produce hybrids,” he says
(p. 26), ‘““must have some relationship
with one another, as Koelreuter has
already remarked. The nearer the
parent plants are related to one an-
other, the more easily will hybrid fer-
tilization succeed; most easily in the
case of different sub-species or varieties;
then different species of the same genus;
less easily in the case of plants of dif-
ferent genera.”

Wiegmann, however, was completely
free from any rigid dogmatic attitude
on the species question. His views in
this regard are completely modern.

229

230 The Journal of Heredity

Continuing the above, he says, ‘‘ Yet at
the same time, one needs indeed pay
less attention to differences based on
artificial generic characters. Genera
like Pisum and Vicia, Ervum and Vicia,
Lychnia and Cucubalus, are in their na-
ture so related that hybrids can arise
from them, as Koelreuter and I have
demonstrated”’ (p. 27). ‘“‘So much the
more I dispute his opinion,” he says
of Koelreuter (p. 25), “‘respecting the
falsely derived difference between true
‘species’ and ‘variety’ from the fertility
or infertility of the hybrid plants.”

CHANCE CROSSING IN NATURE

Wiegmann in fact regards chance
crossing in nature, between species or
sorts of plants, as having given rise to
new agricultural races. “It appears
from my experiments,”’ he says (p. 26),
“that many species, or constant sub-
species, e. g., Pisum arvense, Vicia
leucosperma, Vicia faba (red-seeded),
as well as the most of the varieties of
cabbage and the cereals, whose origin is
unknown, possibly are hybrid plants,
which have been produced upon our
fields and in our gardens, through the
proximity of a few related plants, and
which have remained constant.”’

Wiegmann sums up the matter of the
bearing of degree of relationship upon
crossing as follows (p. 27): ‘Mainly
it comes to the point that the differ-
ent plants do not vary from one another
greatly in their natural constitution,
and that their secretions are not too
heterogeneous, since otherwise the pol-
linating substance would not be ab-
sorbed by the stigma. ‘In general,”
he says, “foreign pollen takes hold of
the stigma with much greater difficulty
than does its own, and in order to obtain
complete fertilization, one must often
deposit it several times, even when the
foreign pollen is from a plant of the
same species” (p. 3).

Wiegmann’s experiments covered a
list of thirty-six crosses, using the fol-
lowing species and cultivated varieties:

Allium (onion, etc.), 2 species.

Brassica (cabbage, etc.), 4 race-
species.

Dianthus (pink), 3 species.

Ervum (lentil), 1 species.

Nicotiana (tobacco, etc.), 2 species.

Phaseolus (bean), 2 varieties.

Pisum (pea), 2 species.

Vicia (vetch), 1 species.

The general conclusions Wiegmann
draws from his experiments are most
interesting. The most important are
those which relate to the possible vigor
of new species (p. 3): . “My ex-
periments sufficiently prove,’’ he says,
“that the fertilization of different sub-
species, inter se, is a source of manifold
running-out of species in the plant
kingdom, and that insects, especially
bees and humblebees, as well as little
beetles and flies, play a much more 1m-
portant réle in the fertilization of plants
than one has lately been inclined to
allow them, but of which I have the most
indubitable proofs.”’

‘‘Even though the structure of the
corolla in the case of leguminous plants,”
he says again (p. 26), ‘‘scarcely appears
to admit of the access of insects and
foreign pollen, yet the plants obtained
from the seed of experimental plants
show such a striking alteration in their
specific characters, especially in the
form of the seed and its envelopes,
that an influence of foreign pollen on
the ovules will scarcely be able to be
denied. I myself have numberless
times convinced myself of the fact
that humblebees, bees and small in-
sects from the orders of flies and beetles,
can fertilize the flowers of the Legum-
inosae in the manner stated by Sprengel.
It is therefore necessary in agriculture to
give heed to this matter, if one wishes
to keep plants that are to be cultivated,
in their quality and integrity.”’

With respect to observations of a
more special nature, Wiegmann’s mem-
oir contains much of interest. Re-
garding the breaking up of the progeny
of hybrids, he says, speaking of Koel-
reuter’s observations: ‘‘I have found
his observation well founded, that the
plants produced from one seed and
from one capsule of hybrid plants
often differ from one another in respect
to fertility, and especially in the struc-

=

Roberts: The Founders

ture of certain parts, now approximating
more to the father, now to the mother”’
(p..20).

Wiegmann’s independence of tradi-
tional authority is witnessed in his con-
tradiction of the view of ‘“‘the great
Linnaeus,” that hybrids resemble the
mother in the fertilization apparatus
and the father in foliage and habit.
Instead, he says: ‘“‘the change through
the foreign fertilizing pollen shows
itself in very different parts in dif-
erent plants; in the anther filam-
ents, in the inflorescence, in
the form, color, and odor of the corolla,
in the height of the stem and its divi-
sions, in the form and outside covering
of the leaf’’ (p. 23).

Referring to the then general assump-
tion that hybrids (of the F; generation,
as we should say) occupy a mid-position,
with respect to their characters, between
the two parents, he says: “ ee trt
many cases this does not occur, but
either the color of the father or that of
the mother shows itself alone dominant
(herrshend) in the hybrid. The same
also obtains among animal hybrids;
the two colors may, through mingling,
give an intermediate one, but in just as
many cases the one only prevails.
Plant hybrids therefore unite in them-
selves in part the peculiarities of the
father, in part those of the mother,
whereby they approach now the mater-
nal, now the paternal form”’ (p. 21).

THE QUESTION OF DOMINANCE

Regarding the matter of dominance,
Wiegmann further incidentally remarks
upon the case of the crossing of two
species of Dianthus, where ‘“‘the form
of the father has almost entirely sup-
pressed that of the mother” (p. 22).

To present-day geneticists, one of
the most interesting points in Wieg-
mann’s report is his discussion of the
immediate effect of the pollen in the
case of peas. According to his state-
ment, that there occurs, ‘““even imme-
diately after fertilization, an alteration
arising in the form and color of the seed,
and in the form and size of the pods, is

especially unmistakable in the case
of the leguminous plants, although

of the Art of Breeding 7at

otherwise all fruits and seeds of hybrid
plants from other families, have never
shown themselves to me to be different
from those of the mother plants” (p.
23). And again, ‘‘The principle ex-
pressed by Gartner, that the influence
of foreign pollen changes nothing in the
form and external character of the fruits
and seeds of the mother plant, should,
according to my investigations, undergo
a modification in the case of the Dia-
delphia (Leguminosae), since, in the
case of these, the foreign pollen exerts
an immediate effect upon the form, color,
and other characters of the fruits and
seeds ’ (p..29)..

In the case of Phaseolus (common
bean), he says; ‘‘ Previous experiments
have taught me that Phaseoli of one
species, but of two kinds of flowers and
seeds, when placed together, bear differ-
ently colored seeds, and, in the second
generation, also differently colored flow-
ers’ '(p. 23).

Wiegmann carried on some field ex-
periments with beans, vetches, oats,
and cabbage, in which adjoining rows
of plants were allowed to freely cross-
pollinate through the agency of wind and
insects, from which he concluded: “‘It
appears further, from the behavior of
the Leguminosae and of cabbage, that
agronomists and gardeners cannot be
careful enough in the arrangement of
their fields, in order not to suffer from
the great damage through hybrid fer-
tilization occurring even the first year’’
(D2 so):

Speaking generally, he says further
(p. 30): “It is not entirely improbable
that that which exhibited itself to me
thus far, as being peculiar to the
Leguminosae alone, may take place
also among other plant-families, and
the clearing up of this matter remains
very desirable for botany, as well as for
agriculture in particular”? (p. 30).

Wiegmann’s work, as a whole, im-
presses one as the work of aman without
scientific prepossessions, willing to in-
vestigate for himself, to dispute freely
the authority of other investigators
such as Linnaeus, Koelreuter, and Gart-
ner, and, withal, a man with a prac-
tical bias and a sympathy for agriculture.

232 The Journal

In the valley of the Nagold, in the
Black Forest region of Wtrttemberg,
some 40 miles southwest of Stuttgart,
the capital, lies the village of Calw.
Here Koelreuter, whose home was in
Sulz, a little way to the south in the
Neckar valley, lived for a time, and
did some of his work on hybridization,
in the garden of a local physician. By
a curious coincidence, in the same village
of Calw in which Koelreuter had pre-
viously worked, and but 40 miles north
of Sulz, where also Koelreuter had
formerly obtained the first hybrid plant
ever produced in a scientific experiment,
lived and died Carl Friedrich von Gart-
ner, who for twenty-five years conducted
extensive experimental work in hybrid-
ization. He was a son of the distin-
guished botanist Joseph Gartner, Pro-
fessor at Tubingen and St. Petersburg,
and author of an authoritative work
on the seeds and fruits of plants, in
which figured the morphology of more
than a thousand species. The intro-
ductions to the volume for 1788 con-
tain, in the words of Sachs, ‘‘ valuable
reflections on sexuality in plants.”

In 1830, two years after the appear-
ance of Wiegmann’s memoir, the Dutch
Academy of Sciences at Haarlem, pro-
pounded the riddle of hybridization anew
in the following words: ‘‘What does
experience teach regarding the produc-
tion of new species and _ varieties,
through the artificial fertilization of
flowers of the one with the pollen of the
other, and what economic and orna-
mental plants can be produced and mul-
tiplied in this way?”’ No reply was re-
ceived by the end of the time for which
the prize was offered (January 1, 1833),
and the offer was accordingly renewed
for another three years (until January 1,
1836).

No. of species used

of Heredity

In October, 1835, Gartner learned of
the prize offer and was able to present a
brief résumé of his work up to that
time, which, indeed, prompted a fur-
ther extension of time on the part of the
Academy. Gartner finally presented
the Academy with a memoir of two
hundred pages, and with herbarium
mounts of one hundred and fifty differ-
ent sorts of hybrid plants produced by
hand pollination. On May 20, 1837,
this memoir received the prize and was
later (April 20, 1849), published in re-
vised and extended form, together with
an extensive list- of the experimental
material, and with the obtained results
arranged in tabulated form.

An idea of the amount of labor
expended by Gartner during the twenty-
five years of his hybridization experi-
ments may be obtained by the state-
ment that he carried out nearly ten
thousand separate experiments 1n cross-
ing, among about seven hundred spe-
cies, belonging to eighty different gen-
era of plants, and obtained in all some
two hundred and fifty hybrid plants as
the total result.

Among the prominent genera worked
with were Althaea, Avena, Campion,
Columbine, Currant, Datura (Jimson
weed, etc.), Fox-glove, Fuchsia, Gladi-
olus, Larkspur, Lobelia, Maize, Mallow,
Mullein, Nicotiana (Tobacco, etc.),
Oenothera (Evening Primrose), Pink,
Poppy, Primrose, Snapdragon, St. Johns-
wort, and Stocks.

The following brief table, giving some
of the numerical data, in crosses in-
volving a few of the principal genera,
will afford a conception of Gartner’s
labors; yet these constitute but one-
tenth of the total number of his crosses.

No. of attempted No. of hybrid

Genus in the crosses combinations plants obtained

Nicotiana (tobacco, etc.)......... 23 432 85
Dranthuss (Pinks) eee oc eee 20 349 87
Lychniss(Campion) esse. 7a: oy Sif 18
Verbascum (Mullein)............. 14 118 97
Lobelta:.. ae ool ee eee ee 4 97 20
Digitalis (Foxglove)............. 9 59 14
Datura (Jimson weed, etc.)....... 8 55 16
Oenothera (Evening Primrose).... . 19 52 6
Aquilegia (Columbine)........... 9 33 Z3

107 1332 366

Roberts: The Founders of the Art of Breeding

Gartner undertook to classify hy-
brids for convenience into three types:
(1) intermediate, (2) commingled, and
(3) decided. The first included those
in which ‘‘a complete balance occurred
of both fertilizing materials, either in
respect to mass or activity” (p. 227).
Commingled types are those in which
“now this, now that part of the hybrid
approaches more to the maternal or to
the paternal form, whereby, however,
the characters of the parents, in their
transference to the new organism, never
go over pure, but in which the parental
characters always suffer a certain modi-
fication” (p. 282). Under the third
class of hybrids, Gartner places those
‘“among which the resemblance of a hy-
brid to one of its parents, either to the
father or the mother, is so marked and
preponderating that the agreement with
the one or with the other is unques-
tioned”’ (p. 285).

Gartner recognized, as did the other
hybridizers of his day, that there was
always a difference between the first
and the succeeding generations, the
former being uniform, the later ones
variously splitting up. He made no
distinction between the second and the
other following generations, and simply
says that the fundamental ground ma-
terial of which the hybrid is made “‘be-
haves differently in the second and in
the further stages of breeding, where,
on account of the different nature of the
two factors of the hybrid in the suc-
ceeding fertilizations, an altered, shift-
ing, variable direction in type-forma-
tion enters into the arising varieties’”’ (p.
572).

He further says, concerning varia-
bility in hybrids of the second and suc-
ceeding generations: ‘“‘Other hybrids,
and in fact the most of them which are
fertile, present from the seeds of the
second and further generations, dif-
ferent forms, 7. @., varieties, varying
from the normal types, which in part
are unlike the original hybrid mother,
or deviate from the same, now more,
now less”’ (p. 422).

Gartner’s most definite statement,
however, regarding what we call “‘seg-

253

regation”’ in the second hybrid gener-
ation, is as follows: ‘‘Among many fer-
tile hybrids, this change in the second
and succeeding generations affects not
only the flowers but also the entire
habit, even to the exclusion of the flow-
ers, whereby the majority of the indi-
viduals from a single cross ordinarily
retain the form of the hybrid mother, a
few others have become more like the
original mother parent, and, finally,
here and there an individual more
nearly reverted to the original father”’
(pred?)

Gartner did not fail to recognize the
fact of unusual vigor in hybrids, al-
though he does not distinguish as to the
generation: ‘‘The marked increase in
the size of the flowers is a phenomenon
not seldom occurring among hybrids”’
(p. 295); and ‘‘one of the most marked
and general characters of plant hybrids
is the luxuriance of all their parts, since,
among very many of them, an exuber-
ance of growth and development of
roots, branches, leaves and flowers mani-
fests itself, which is not encountered
among the parents, even under careful
cultivating’’ (p. 526).

PRACTICAL POSSIBILITIES

Gartner recognized at once the pos-
sibilities for agriculture in this fact of
the increased vigor of hybrids, although,
of course, he did not realize the fact that
this increased vigor belonged to the first
or hybrid generation, properly so called:
“Among the characters of hybrids
worthy of recommendation for agricul-
ture, their tendency toward luxuriance
in stalks and leaves and their extra-
ordinary capacity for tillering is
related above. With respect to the rais-
ing of forage, agriculture could, without
doubt, make great use of this charac-
teristic’ (p. 634).

Gartner derived, from his long ex-
perience, a certain philosophy concern-
ing the nature of hybrids which is note-
worthy. He recognized an inequality
in the influences or the “‘potency,” as
he termed it, of one parent over another
in a cross, which potency was main-
tained, whichever way the cross was
made. As we now understand it, it

234 The Journal

means the relative dominance of one or
more factors or character-units of the
parents. Gartner, not having the
knowledge which has come since and in
consequence of Mendel’s investigations,
sought a theoretical explanation for
this phenomenon of dominance and
gave it the designation of “sexual
affinity)’ (Wahlverwandschaft) in the
crossing of species, the magnitude of
which he considered could be measured
by the number of viable seeds produced
in the cross. Gartner seems to confuse
the matter by appearing to indicate that
there might possibly be a different num-
ber of seeds produced by the reciprocals
of reciprocal crosses, thus presumably
indicating a possible ‘‘ prepotency,”’ so
called, of one of the parents in the cross.
In other places he simply seems to mean
the relative influence, so to speak, of
such and such species when crossed with
others. This appears to be the mean-
ing in the following:

‘This manifestation of generic types,
according to which one species acts in
a predominant manner over several
other species in hybrid breeding, is
a further uncontradictable proof that
the relationship of the forces, through
which the union of two pure species
takes place, must be unlike, and that
thereby there can be no question of any
balance of factors’’ (p. 290).

It will be seen that Gartner’s view of
hybridization was that “‘species’’ was
crossed with ‘“‘species’’ as such, each
species as a whole exerting its own rela-
tive power or potency in the cross—the
hybrid being regarded as the resultant,
so to speak, of the contest for supremacy
of the two competing natures in the
compound. This view is well enough
expressed in the following passage:
‘‘Thus, just as there are species in a
natural genus, which possess a _ pre-
potent fertilizing power upon several
other species of their genus, so there are
also species which exert upon several
others such a typical predominating
effect, not to an equal extent, to be
sure, but still of such a nature that their
operation, in all combinations, is to be
recognized by a character in common.

Both of these forces are, however, of

of Heredity

different kinds and _ follow
laws’’ (p. 289).

Gartner did not realize, in spite of
Sageret’s experiments, that some indi-
vidual characters of a parent might be
found to dominate in a cross and others
not. ‘‘ The laws of hybrid types orient
themselves, not toward the individual
organs of plants—do not apply to a sin-
gle part, e. g., stems, leaves, etc.—but
are applicable rather to the inner na-
ture of species. The organs which de-
termine the types of hybrids must
therefore be investigated and compared
in their totality and in their mutual
inter-relationship. For the most part,
the individuality of a hybrid expresses
itself in its entire habit, but in this re-
spect the flower, above other parts of
the plant, is most frequently and
plainly distinguished”’ (p. 251).

Gartner made some crosses with corn
and with peas to determine the question
of the immediate influence of the pollen
upon the character of the seed. In
corn he got no results, because of cross-
ing white corn with red, in which latter
the color, being due to the skin or peri-
carp, does not show until the seeds of
the following season ripen. In peas he
crossed four varieties. In certain
crosses, @. g., Paris Wax (yellow) X
Sugar Pea (greenish-yellow), Early
Green Brockel (green) X Paris Wax
(yellow), and Sugar Pea (greenish-yel-
low) X Dwarf Creeping (yellow), the
yellow color dominates over the green
in the hybrid seeds.

Gartner’s work is noteworthy, not
only for the remarkable number of spe-
cies with which he experimented but
for the scrupulous care which he exer-
cised in his operations, if we may judge
from his own statements; as, for in-
stance, the following:

‘For complete assurance of the purity
and reliability of the products of hy-
brid breeding, and for testing the con-
clusions derived therefrom, we have
repeated most of the experiments, espe-
cially the doubtful cases, not once only,
but several times, and put them to the
test through crossing of the same spe-
cies, for even with the most scrupu-
lous foresight and precision, individual

different

Roberts: The Founders

rare instances have still occurred in
these tedious and wearisome investiga-
tions, where the suspicion had made
itself felt, of a mistake or error having
crept in, either in pollination or emas-
culation, since such results stood in di-
rect contradiction to the usual ex-
periences, and on a repetition of the
experiments, made itself incontroverti-
bly evident as an error. We believed it
possible to attain no higher degree of
certainty in this branch of natural sci-
ence, and to be able to bring the con-
clusions derived therefrom to no higher
proof, than through the precise coinci-
dence of the forms of the products,by
repetition under the same conditions
with the same species, but with differ-
ent individuals, and at different times’’
(p./675):

THE ENGLISH BOTANISTS

At the beginning of the nineteenth
century, there began to appear, in
Fngland, the first signs of the applica-
tion of the science of hybridization to
the practical art of breeding, in the work
of Thomas Andrew Knight and William
Herbert.

THE WORK OF KNIGHT

Knight was a country gentleman by
occupation, born August 12, 1759, and
educated at Oxford, and who early
began to interest himself, on his estate
at Elton in Herefordshire, in experi-
ments in the raising of new varieties of
fruits and vegetables. In 1795 his
work as a horticulturist first became
known through some papers read at
the sessions of the Royal Society. He
was an organizer of the Horticultural
Society of London, founded 1804, of
which he was president from 1811 until
his death in 1838. He was an annual
contributor to its “‘Transactions’’ and
was the author of upwards of one hun-
dred papers. In 1841, three years after
his death, a collection of eighty-two of
his papers was published by the botan-
ists Bentham and Lindley. Of Knight’s
published papers, forty-six are enumer-
ated in the Royal Society's Catalogue.
Knight was not a scientific man, but a
practical horticulturist with scientific

of the Art of Breeding 235

instincts, who proceeded on the princi-
ple that the improvement of plants
depended upon the same _ scientific
laws as the improvement of animals,
and that cross-breeding was the key to
the origination of new and improved
sorts. His principal work of crossing
was carried out with currants, grapes,
apples pears, and peaches, to the end
of producing hardier and superior fruits.
One of his discoveries of genetic interest
was that, in crosses of varieties of red
upon white currant, by far the greater
number of the hybrids produced red
fruit, 1.e., the dominance of red. A
conclusion formulated by Knight on
the basis of his experience, and after-
wards confirmed by Darwin, and since
called the Knight-Darwin law, was that
“new varieties of every species of fruit
will generally be better obtained by in-
troducing the farina (pollen) of one
variety of fruit into the blossom of an-
other, than by propagating from one
single kind.”

However, the work of Knight that
attracts the most attention from the
standpoint of genetics is his experiment
with peas. The paper in question,
read before the Horticultural Society,
June 3, 1823, was entitled: ‘Some
Remarks on the Supposed Influence of
the Pollen, in Cross-breeding, on the
Color of the Seed-coats of Plants
and the Qualities of Their Fruits.”
This paper is really, in part, a reply to
certain phases of the experiments of
John Goss upon the same _ plant.
Knight’s introductory statement, which
follows, is a curious reminder, in point
of form, of Mendel’s own introduction
to his report upon his experiments
with peas nearly half a century later:

“The numerous varieties of strictly
permanent habits of the pea, its annual
life, and the distinct character in form,
size and color of many of its varieties
induced me, many years ago, to select
it for the purpose of ascertaining, by
a long course of experiments, the effects
of introducing the pollen of one variety
into the prepared blossoms of another.
My chief object in these experiments,
was to obtain such information as
would enable me to calculate the prob-

236 The Journal

able effects of similar operations upon
other species of plants, and I believe
it would not be easy to suggest an
experiment of cross-breeding upon this
plant, of which I have not seen the
result, through many successive gen-
erations.”’

In the particular experiment in ques-
tion, Knight determined that, in cross-
ing a pea with grey seed-coats upon
one with white seed-coats, no immedi-
ate change took place, but that the
resulting hybrid seeds produced plants
the next year which uniformly bore
grey seeds, as well as having the purple-
colored stems and flowers of the male
parent. He further discovered the fact
that by crossing plants grown from these
(heterozygous) grey seeds, with pollen
from what he calls a ‘“permanent’”’
white variety, plants of two types
appeared, one bearing grey and the
other white seeds—in other words,
the result of the cross of a recessive
white upon a hybrid dominant grey,
as we should say nowadays. No num-
bers are reported, so that a scientific
basis of ratios, as later found by Men-
del, was not laid. Despite the fact
that Focke says (p. 436) “he has con-
tributed more to our knowledge of
hybrids than any other writer during the
first half of the nineteenth century”
—a statement which may well be seri-
ously disputed—it is nevertheless true
that Knight was the first experimenter
to apply the science of plant hybridiza-
tion to plant improvement. Although
endowed with scientific insight of
no mean order, his chief claim to rec-
ognition lies in the fact that he pos-
sessed a practical instinct for getting
improved orchard fruits into existence.

The following examples will serve to
illustrate the nature of his results. Of
his currant crosses, he says: “Five
varieties, three red and two white.
out of about two hundred, appeared
to me to possess considerably greater
merits than either of their parents, and
one of the red will, I believe, prove
larger than any red currant now in
cultivation.”

By crossing the ‘Noblesse’? peach
(female) by ‘“Nutmeg,’’ (male), he

of Heredity

obtained about twenty seedlings, of
which three “appeared better peaches
than I previously possessed.’’ Of one
of these he says: “Its fruit has at-
tained a more uniform degree of per-
fection than I have ever witnessed in
any other variety. The trees have
also been free from every vestige of
mildew, in the situation where the
disease is very prominent, and have
entirely escaped the attacks of insects.”
As to the result of his crosses of apple
varieties with the Siberian Crab, with
the object of producing fruits that would
ripen in cold and exposed situations,
he says: ‘‘The plants thus produced
seem perfectly well calculated in every
respect to answer the object of the ex-
periment, and possess an extraordinary
hardiness and luxuriance of growth.”

WILLIAM HERBERT

The work of William Herbert was to
a considerable extent contemporary
with that of Knight. Born January 12,
1778, son of the Earl of Carnarvon,
educated at Eton and Oxford, he was
trained for the bar, which he finally
left for the Church, entering orders and
finally becoming Dean of Manchester.
Fond of outdoor life and sport, he pos-
sessed also, in addition to literary
talent, an instinct for plant studies.
Herbert worked largely on the improve-
ment of florists’ flowers, but also con-
ducted experiments with some agri-
cultural plants. He was engaged for
a considerable time upon his own ex-
periments, before he came upon the
work of Koelreuter, which he immedi-
ately assimilated and estimated at its
true value, as the following comment
indicates:

“The first experiments, with a view
to ascertain the possibility of producing
hybrid vegetables (plants) appears to
have been made in Germany, by Koel-
reuter, who published reports of his
proceedings in the Acts of the Peters-
burgh Academy between fifty and sixty
years ago. Lycium, Digitalis, Nico-
tiana, Datura, and Lobelia were the
chief plants with which he worked suc-
cessfully, and as I have found nothing
in his reports, to the best of my recol-

—

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-—

A PIONEER IN THE STUDY OF HEREDITY

Thomas Andrew Knight (1758-1838)

(Fig. 20.)

An English horticulturist who published in 1795 his views on the inheritance of diseases
among fruit-trees, which attracted much attention

238 The Journal

lection, opposed to my own general ob-
servations, it is unnecessary to state
more concerning his mules, than the
fact that he was the father of such ex-
periments. They do not seem to have
been at all followed up by others, or to
have attracted the attention of culti-
vators or botanists as they ought to
have done; and nothing else material
on the subject has fallen under my no-
tice of earlier date than Mr. Knight’s
report of his crosses of fruit trees, and
my own of ornamental flowers, in the
Transactions of the Horticultural So-
ciety of London. Those papers at-
tracted the public notice, and appear
to have excited many persons, both in
this country and abroad, to similar
experiments.”’

Herbert’s experimental work was
animated by the conviction of the fact
which he felt himself to have estab-
lished, that the then current botanical
dogma was wrong, which regarded the
existence of sterile offspring from a
cross, as evidence that the two parents
were of different ‘‘species.”” His views
were contrary to those held at the time
by Knight, in common with many
botanists, ‘“‘that the production of a
fertile cross was proof that the two
parents were of the same _ species,”
assuming, as a consequence, ‘‘that the
sterile offspring was nearly conclusive
evidence that they were of different
species; and this dictum was advanced
without suggesting any alteration in
the definition of the term ‘species,’ but
leaving it to imply what it has before
universally signified in the language of
botanists.”

A PRECURSOR OF MENDEL

Besides the work of Knight and Her-
bert, an experiment from the first half
of the nineteenth century, which has
elicited considerable interest, because
of its suggestion of the later discov-
eries of Mendel, is that of John Goss, of
Hatherleigh, in Devonshire, England,
with garden peas. In the summer of
1820, Goss pollinated flowers of the Blue
Prussian variety with pollen of a dwarf
pea known as Dwarf Spanish, obtain-
ing, as the result of the cross, three

of Heredity

pods of hybrid seeds. In the spring of
1821, when he opened these pods for
planting, he was surprised to find that
the color of the seeds (2. e., of the
cotyledons), instead of being a deep blue
like those of the female parent, was yel-
lowish-white like that of the male.
Here was evidently a case of complete
dominance of yellow-white over blue
cotyledons. However, the plants grow-
ing from these seeds in that season
‘““produced some pods with all blue,
some with all white, and many with
both blue and white peas in the same
pod.’ Here was evidently a plain dis-
covery of the fact of segregation, ac-
cording to what later became known as
Mendel’s law. The following spring
(1822) he separated the blue peas from
the white, sowing the seeds of each
color in separate rows. He found that
the blue seeds, which we should now call
the “‘recessives,’’ produced in turn only
blue seeds; while the white seeds, or
‘‘dominants”’ as they are now called,
‘yielded some pods with all white, and
some with both blue and white peas in-
termixed.”’ Here, then, is the typical
case of the segregation of the heterozy-
gotes or hybrid dominants.

Although Goss in this experiment un-
doubtedly made evident the facts of
dominance and of segregation, he did
not recognize them as such, nor did he,
apparently, sow the seeds of his differ-
ent plants separately, or make counts of
the number of seeds of the two colors
found on each separate plant, as did
Mendel in his experiments. Goss was
chiefly interested in the question of the
possibility of the “‘new variety’’ having
superior value as an edible pea, and yet
remarked that, in case it possessed no
superior merit, that there yet might be
“something in its history that will
emit a ray of physiological light.”
However, the ‘‘ physiological light’’ did
not appear until after the rediscovery
of Mendel’s papers in 1900. The paper
of John Goss was read before the Horti-
cultural Society, October 15, 1822. At
the meeting of the 20th of August
preceding, a communication was read
on the same subject from Alexander
Seton. Seton had pollinated the flowers

Roberts: The Founders of the Art of Breeding

of the Dwarf Imperial, a grey-seeded
pea, with the pollen of a tall white-
seeded variety. One pod with four peas
was produced, all of which were green,
1. e., the dominance of green cotyledon
color over its absence (white). The
plants growing from the four peas
(F, seeds, as we should call them) were
intermediate in size between the two
parents, and the pods, on ripening,
“instead of their containing peas like
those of either parent, or of an appear-
ance between the two, almost every one
of them had some peas of the full green
color of the Dwarf Imperial and others
of the whitish color of that with which
it had been impregnated, mixed indis-
criminately and in undefined numbers;
they were all completely either of one color
or the other, none of them having an inter-
mediate tint.’’ (Italics inserted.)

Here again were recorded the pheno-
mena of dominance and of segregation,
but owing to the fact that the numbers
of seeds of each color of each plant were
not counted and recorded separately,
the results were not available for scien-
tific purposes, nor would they have
aroused attention any more than those of
Goss, except for Mendel’s later work
with the same kind of plants.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. GARTNER, CARL FRIEDRICH VON—
(a) Versuche und Beobachtungen wiber die
Befruchtungsorgane der vollkommeneren
~~ Gewachse;und tber die naturliche und
kunstliche Befruchtung durch den eige-
nen Pollen.” ~Naturwissenschaftliche
Abhandlungen, Tiuibingen 1 : 1.
(b) Notice sur des expériences concernant
la fécondation de quelques végétaux.
—_—Annates-des-sciences naturelles, 10 : 113-
148, 1827. (Translation. of the pre-
ceding.)
(c) Over de Voorteling van Baastard-
Planten. Eene Bijtrage tot de Kennis
van de Bevruchting der Gewassen.
Haarlem, 1838.
(d) Beitrage sur Kenntniss der Befruchtung.
Stuttgart, 1849.
(e) Versuche und Beobachtungen wtber die

239

Bastarderzeugung im Pflanzenreich.
Stuttgart, 1849.

(f) Methode der kunstlichen Bastardbe-
fruchtung der Gewachse, und Namens-
verzeichniss der Pflanzen, mit welchen
Versuche eingestellt wurden. Stuttgart,
1849.

2. Goss, JoOHN—
On the variation in the colour of peas,
occasioned by cross-impregnation. Jour-
nal of the Horticultural Society of Lon-
don, 5:234, 1824.

3. HERBERT, WILLIAM—

(a) On the production of hybrid vegetables;
with the result of many experiments
made in the investigation of the subject.
Transactions, Horticultural Society of
London, 4 : 15-50, 1819.

(6) On crosses and hybrid intermixtures in
vegetables; pp. 335-380 of ‘‘Amarylli-
daceae; preceded by an attempt to ar-
range the monocotyledonous orders, and
followed by a treatise on cross-bred
vegetables, and supplement.’’ London,
1837.

4. Knicut, THomMas ANDREW—
(a) Observations on the means of producing

new and early fruits. Transactions
Horticultural Society, 1 : 30-40. London,
1806.

(b) On the comparative influence of male and
female parents on their offspring. Trans-
actions, Royal Philosophical Society,
Part 1 : 392-399, 1809.

(c) Observations on hybrids. Transactions
Horticultural Society of London, 4 : 367—
Si, kewl

(d) An account of some mule plants. Trans-
actions Horticultural Society of London,
5 : 292-296, 1823.

(e) Some remarks on the supposed influences
of the pollen in cross-breeding upon the
color of the seed-coats of plants, and the
qualities of their fruits. Transactions,
Horticultural Society of London, 5 : 277—
380, 1823.

(f) A selection from the physiological and
horticultural papers published in the
transactions of the Royal and Horticul-
tural Societies, by the late Thomas
Andrew Knight, to which is added a
sketch of his life. London, 1841.

5. SETON, ALEXANDER—
On the variation in the colours of peas
from cross-impregnation. Journal of the
Horticultural Society of London, 5:236,
1824. E.,

6. WIEGMANN, A. F.— baa
Ueber Bastarderzeugung im Pflanzen
reiche. Braunschweig, 1828.

(To be continued)

1 HL | | | iH | | HO YH | HM a

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THE DURATION? OF fire

AND

CONDITIONS AsSSsOCEATED
WITH LONGEVITY

A STUDY OF THE HYDE GENEALOGY

BY
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL

PUBLISHED BY
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OFFICE
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Uae SUS Deo CID IN Ge

By
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Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.
and
ROSWELL HILL JOHNSON
Professor in the University of Pittsburgh

“The results of all the trustworthy observations and experiments have been
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makers, statesmen, poor relief officials, immigration inspectors, judges of
juvenile courts, probation officers, members of state boards of control and
heads of charitable and correctional institutions. Finally, the thoughtful
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Price, $2.10

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FO Ee EE Se EE of i Sf ef ef i

A

aa ac ccna hea ce ent RO Ss 8 sl ee Ae AR eee as le

Journal of Heredity

The

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. xX. No: 6 June, 1919

CONTENTS

The Barbour Lathrop Bamboo Grove. by David Fairchild........... 213
Biology and Goy ernment, by /O2b Cookand kh. © Cook... o- 250
Eugenics, The War Instinct and Democracy, by A. T. Winters...... 254
The Founders of the Art of Breeding—IV, by H. F. Roberts. ..... ya PE
A Commercially New Blueberry, by G. E. Murrell.................. 271
The Dramatic Careers of Two Plantsmen, by Dayid Fairchild... ._. 276
An Improved Strain of Wisconsin Tobacco, by James Johnson...... 279
Racial Origins and the Honors of War, by F. A. Woods............. 287
NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918. Vol. IX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
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foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, August 15, 1919.

THE ORIENTAL TIMBER BAMBOO AS IT GROWS IN THE UNITED
STATES

A view in the edge of the Barbour Lathrop Bamboo Grove near Savannah, Georgia.
It is not generally k nown that this ‘‘giant’’ bamboo of China and Japan is successful
throughout a wide area in the southern part of the United States. In addition to
its ornamental value, the bamboo is one of the most useful of plants. (Frontispiece. )

THE BARBOUR LATHROP

BAMBOO GROVE

Davip FAIRCHILD

\ \ THILE traveling in search of
plants in Japan in 1902, Mr.
Barbour Lathrop and I became
interested in the possibilities
of the cultivation of the Japanese
bamboo in America. Acting under the
stimulus of his enthusiasm, I wrote a
bulletin on the subject for the Office of
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction.!
Seventeen years have passed since then,
bringing added experience to us in
regard to this subject—experience which
has resulted in the firmest conviction
that from the Carolinas to the Gulf,
wherever the soil conditions will permit,
groves of the Japanese bamboo can be
grown that will be as large and as
beautiful as any in Japan.

We are now growing in this country
both the timber and the edible bamboo,
with stems as tall and with plumes of
foliage as feathery as anything to be
seen in Japan or China, and there is
no reason why, at thousands of places,
we should not start small groves of
this plant which the Orientals have for
thousands‘ of years considered the most
useful plant in the world.

It is a strange thing to consider that
on one side of the Pacific there are
civilizations comprising hundreds of
millions of people who are so dependent
upon the bamboo that they simply
cannot imagine an existence without it,
whereas, on the other shore, a hundred
million people live whose main contact
with the plant is through its use as a
fishing pole.

Now that the experiments begun by
the Government in 1902 and the many
individual trials of the plant, which were
begun earlier, have shown how easily
the bamboo can be grown, the task is

1 Fairchild, David G., Japanese Bamboos and Their Introduction into America.
43, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, 1903.

before us of instructing the American
farmer in the uses and value of this
remarkable plant. In order to do this,
material in considerable quantities will
be required, and it is a most fortunate
circumstance that at this critical point
in the development of the industry in
this country. Mr. Lathrop, who has
fathered its introduction, should not
only save from probable destruction the
most remarkable grove of bamboo in
eastern North America, but that he
should place it in the custody of the
Department of Agriculture for ninety-
nine years, in order that the timber
which it produces and the thousands of
young plants which can be taken from
it may be placed by the Government
in the hands of the manufacturers on
the one hand and the farmers on the
other to experiment with.
The grove which Mr. Lathrop has
recently acquired is located on the
Ogeechee Road, 14 miles from Savannah,
Georgia. The Dixie Highway passes
by it on that stretch which connects
Savannah and Brunswick, and every
lover of plants would find that the
experience of a few minutes in this
unique grove rivals any of the other
new experiences of a motor trip through
the south, for a bamboo grove is
strangely different—unusually so—from
any other growth of trees in the world.
The dense, deciduous tropical forests
of Java and Sumatra, the evergreen
fir and spruce forests of Canada, the
eucalyptus-covered plains of Australia,
the rainy region jungles of Brazil, the
date palm groves of Egypt, or the fern
tree forests of Hawaii are all different
from each other, but they have this in
common—the trees have trunks, and

Bul.
243

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246 The Journal
above them are the spreading branches
or branch-lhke leaves. They agree in a
general way with one’s conventional
idea of a tree. A bamboo grove,
however, is a different thing entirely.
It is a giant grass. Like a grass it
forms a perfect mat or sod of roots,
which completely fill the ground, and
like a grass this sod in the spring sends
up everywhere new young shoots which,
instead of starting out as miniature
forms of the trees they are to become—
growing slowly larger with each passing
year—come up full sized through the
ground, and they come with a rush,
raising the soil and cracking it as a
mole does. Often 4 inches in diameter,
these shoot skyward at the rate of a foot
a day, until they stand towering above
you 50 or 60 feet in the air. Put your
hand on one of these new shoots, green
as an asparagus shoot. If you shake
it, the top will snap off and fall down
on your head, so soft and brittle does it
remain until it has reached its full
height and spread out its delicate
branches of thin green leaves.

On all sides, so close that you can
just walk between them, rise these
giant green canes, branchless for 20 or
30 feet. At every foot or two there
occurs a joint, like the joints on a tall
grass, and, like the grass, the lengths
between the joints—the internodes—
are hollow. Each encloses a dead air
space, so completely shutting it in that,
if you heat the air by throwing a cane
into the fire, it will explode with a loud
report.

The charm of a bamboo grove lies in
the friendly mystery of its shade, with
the green sunlight flickering through the
thin plumes of leaves on to the soft mat
of yellow dead leaves below. You
wander through such a grove, feeling
that you have never seen anything like
it before, and the quiet, fairy-like
charm of it remains with you long after
you have gone away.

As a landscape unit alone, therefore,
a grove of bamboos is worthy of the
widest popularity, and parks and open
places through the south should plant
them. Icanimagine no more wonderful

Gi “Heredity

a place for little children to play in than
a bamboo grove.

But there are other and more prac-
tical .reasons for the widest possible
distribution of the bamboo throughout
the south. To begin with, its young
shoots furnish one of the most delicious
of early vegetables. In Japan and
China it plays a loading rdle among
spring vegetables, and one finds it on
the tables of the well-to-do Americans
and Europeans everywhere, as well as
on the Japanese menus. Properly
cooked, it has a freshness and flavor
which always reminds me remotely of
sweet corn, but its texture is firmer than
almost any other vegetable I am
familiar with. It comes into the market
in April and, being a good shipepr, it
should quickly win its proper place on
the American menu, where early vege-
tables are always a desideratum. In
Japan, the edible bamboo growers
make good money out of the sale of the
shoots—in fact, bamboo culture ranks
as one of the most profitable vegetable
industries of the country. I- have
eaten American-grown bamboo shoots,
and those of my friends who have done
so have, without exception, liked them
extremely well.

To speak of the timber uses of the
bamboo is a good deal like speaking
of the timber uses of the pine, except
that the qualities of the two are en-
tirely distinct. The peculiar proper-
ties of the bamboo come from the fact
that the trunks are composed of short,
hollow cylinders, making them the
lightest timbers for their strength of
any known. The fibers run from end
to end, making it possible to split a
bamboo pole into strands or strips more
easily than any other wood. These
fibers are among the strongest, most
elastic known, and it is the bewilder-
ment of Occidentals visiting Japan to
see how many are the uses of this
peculiar timber.

For ladders, their lightness and
strength render the poles remarkably
well adapted; there are no fruit-picking
ladders which compare with them.
For fishing poles, the small canes are

THE DARK MYSTERY OF THE BAMBOO GROVE

Had Maxfield Parrish lived among the bamboo forests of Japan or China, he would
have found in them the themes for many of his paintings which appeal to our imagi-
nations by their sense of mystery. In this photograph the bamboos are nearly as
tall as. the pecan trees standing in their midst. (Fig. 3.)

ManiinicMhte otis i laakenateettinie

oe ee

A DOORYARD SHADED BY BAMBOOS

dition to

In a

1, leaf-carpeted
lucation in the uses to which

shadec

1ey are practically unknown.

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Fairchild: The Barbour

imported by the millions from Japan
and scattered by jobbers all over the
country so that every boy can have one,
and the split bamboo fishing poles, of
which we use nearly $5,000,000 worth
every year, are made from the outer
layers of wood of the best canes.
What baskets can compare in their
variety and delicacy of construction
with the bamboo baskets of Japan!
For watering pipes for small gardens
they will have the same use in America
that they have in Japan, the joints
being broken out with a long iron rod.
Our best flower stakes are bamboo.
Bamboo bean poles cannot be excelled,
and for light arbors, fences, trellises,
vine stakes, penholders, pipe stems,
kindling wood, spraying nozzle holders,
and many kinds of tool handles, they
find a wide use in the Orient.

Anyone who has used a bamboo
handled broom will appreciate its light-
ness and the smooth finish of its surface,
while the split strands of bamboo are
so stiff and elastic that they have been
used most successfully in broom mak-
ing—they may even compete with the
broomcorn straw for broom manu-
facture.

While these are a few of the obvious
uses which will probably be first in-
vestigated by Americans, it is incon-
ceivable that the ingenuity of the
American will not find new uses for so

Lathrop Bamboo Grove 249

unique a raw product as the bamboo,
and the Barbour Lathrop grove will
play a most important rdle in the educa-
tion of the people of this continent in the
uses and beauty of this remarkable
plant.

So far as can be ascertained, the
original plants from which this grove
sprang were brought into America by
Mr. Andreas E. Moynelo, a Cuban by
birth, who was at one time one of the
largest rice planters on the coast of
Georgia. Mr. Moynelo traveled in the
Orient and is said to have brought the
plant back with him from the East
Indies, but from what particular region
is unknown. The importation took
place probably in the late eighties.
The first planting was made several miles
distant from this grove, at the village of
Burroughs, and fromit, probably within
a few years of the time of its first
planting, a small plant was taken by
Mrs. H. J. Miller and set out near the
well back of the house. This was in
1890, so that the grove today is twenty-
nine years old. Although called an
East Indian species, it appears to be
very closely related to the best of the
Japanese timber bamboos (Phyllostachys
bambusoides), from which it seems to
differ in no reliable character. It
appears highly probable that Mr. Moy-
nelo got his plants in Japan or China.

An Exposition of ‘‘The New Psychology”’

THE CuHILp’s Unconscious MINpD, by Wilfrid
Lay, Ph.D. Pp. 329. Price, $2. New York
City: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1919.

The type of analytical psychology
which is usually associated with the
name of Freud serves asa useful correct-
ive to exaggerated claims of inheritance
of mental traits; but some of its ex-
ponents show little realization of the
facts of heredity. Thus Dr. Lay, whose
ill-written book contains a good deal of
interesting material, recalls that ‘‘the
actual nervous constitution, which is
determined for the child before the
hour of birth, is the inheritance of an
infinite number of ancestors, all of
whom contribute an approximately equal

part.”’ It would be difficult to frame
a more misleading sentence on the
subject. Again, he ‘is impressed with
the tremendous unity of nature, every-
thing except man apparently completely
fulfilling its appointed function all the
time without interruption.” The ap-
parently imperfect things in nature are
“as perfect as their environment allows
them to be;’ and ‘is not the most
bestial human the best product that his
circumstances could make of him?”
As Dr. Lay has a good many suggestive
ideas on education, it isa pity that his
book could not be marked by a sounder
biological point of view.

BIOLOGY AND GOVERNMENT

Further Discussion of Alleyne Ireland’s Article on Democracy and the
Accepted Facts of Heredity.

O. F. Cook AnD ROBERT CARTER COOK

R. WOODS has asked for bio-
1D logical consideration of ques-

tions raised by Mr. Alleyne

Ireland in an article entitled:
“Democracy and the Accepted Facts of
Heredity,” in the December number of
this journal. To see that theories of
government need to square with biolo-
gical facts is an advanced position in
political philosophy. Biologists may not
accept the applications proposed by Mr.
Ireland, but there can be no question of
the need of bringing the two fields of
thought into closer relations.

That acquired or environmental char-
acters are not inherited, that mental and
moral traits are inherited, that selective
or assortive mating tends in nature to
preserve adaptive or advantageous
characters, that progressive evolution-
ary changes appear as individual varia-
tions, not as mass transformations, are
statements that most biologists accept,
but they do not seem to afford a basis
for Mr. Ireland’s reactionary theory of
government. The question of breeding
families or classes of great, ideal rulers
has a flavor at once medieval and
utopian, but human interests are many-
sided and need to be viewed from various
angles.

The proposition that assortive mating
separates the population into distinct
superior and inferior-groups would need
to be supported by definite evidence.’
Wild species do not divide or become
bimodal in relation to characters of
adaptation, probably because the non-
adaptive extreme is eliminated by
natural selection. The human species

may not become bimodal for the oppo-
site reason, that civilization tends to
eliminate the more capable and to pre-
serve the inferior or the mediocre, the
meek who inherit the earth after the
more aggressive have destroyed each
other or exhausted themselves in the
struggle.

The main difficulty in applying
general biological facts to human in-
terests is that people in civilized
countries are no longer engaged in a
struggle for existence, but endangered
rather by superfluity.. The primitive
necessities of food, clothing and shelter
are now placed within reach of all,
through applications of science to agri-
culture and other arts. How to protect
ourselves against greed, luxury and
urban degeneration is the biological or
eugenic problem of civilized countries.
The use of alcohol is only one artificial
habit that is clearly prejudicial to the
race under the conditions of our pres-
ent civilization. The entire system of
sedentary urban existence, of education,
commerce and industry, undoubtedly
has a sterilizing tendency that is exerted
especially upon the superior stocks. The
continual drafting of the more capable
elements of the population from the
country to the city is a persistent and
dangerous form of adverse selection, as
explained in an article on “‘Eugenics and
Agriculture,” published in June, 1916,
in this journal. Hence, instead of
becoming bimodal or tending to separate
into superior and inferior groups, as
Ireland imagines, our tendency is to

1 Mr. Ireland has here doubtless drawn upon some unpublished evidence which I have been
collecting for a number of years showing that the lower elements of society are being more and

more removed from the upper, presumably by the action of assortative mating.

The reasons

why this should take place on a priori grounds are extensively discussed in the final chapter of
my ‘Influence of Monarchs,” 1913.—AcTING EDITOR.

250

Cook and Cook: Biology and Government

restrict ourselves further and further
toward mediocrity and inferiority.

That useful talents may appear in
‘lower levels of society,’’ as Professor
Conklin points out in the May number,
may mean that our system fails to place
good stocks under favorable conditions,
or that our judgment of conditions 1s at
fault. The need is to give special
ability or usefulness a selective value, to
preserve and increase the family stock,
but our system works generally in the
opposite direction of using up and
exterminating talent as rapidly as
possible. Thus there are _ biological
problems that need to be studied from
the standpoint of politics, as well as
questions of government that need
biological answers.

Mr. Ireland’s ‘broadest generaliza-
tion,’ from his investigation, ‘‘that the
best governed countries were those in
which the mass of the people had the
least control over the administration of
public affairs,’’ indicates Germany as
the shining example, although not so
stated. Germany, at least, will do
very well to show the advantages and
the disadvantages of such a govern-
ment, for certainly there was no ap-
proach to effective control of public
affairs by the people. Germany was a
hereditary monarchy, so that the govern-
ment was in the hands of one who had
not only special training as a ruler
but any hereditary advantages of de-
scent from a line of kings. More than
that, the fabric of government in
Germany had woven in it a fairly strict
caste system, so that not only the ruler,
but the governing class as well, was not
selected by mere numbers. At any
rate, the numbers were so well balanced
that they had no disturbing effect.
The Krupp works employed about
18,000 men in peace times, and the
directors of the firm had 18,000 votes

allowed them in the elections; the
“blind God of Numbers” was _ pro-
pitiated.

Superficially, at least, the results

attained by this system seemed all that
could be desired. German cities were
cleaner than English or American cities.

21

The visitor to Germany did not see the
docks of Hamburg lined with human
scarecrows, or little children going
barefoot in the snow, as in the streets of
Liverpool. Disheveled slums like those
of London or New York did not exist.
The tenement population of Berlin
lived in improved modern buildings,
along wide, clean pavements. There
were no hungry beggars or aimless peo-
ple wandering about in rags. Irresponsi-
ble indigence was as strictly forbidden as
other misdemeanors. Everybody had
something to do, and somebody to keep
him at it. Only the Kaiser could do
as he pleased.

Yet all these busy Germans were dis-
contented. They knew that their ac-
tivities, and even their prosperity, were
artificial and that they were intended to
serve the purposes of the military caste,
as pigs are fattened for the slaughter.
Indeed, they often referred to themselves
and to their children as ‘‘cannon-
fodder,”’ foreseeing their fate as inevit-
able. With a less efficient government
the Germans might have been less in-
dustrious, less clean, less orderly, and
less aggressive. Internal dissensions
and party struggles might have been
carried farther and interfered with
preparations for attacking other nations.
Probably a democratic Germany will
not be so much governed, and devotees
of efficiency may weep for the good old
days of Hohenzollern power.

No doubt autocracies are the “‘strong-
est’’ governments, or can be made very
strong in the hands of a practical and
prudent clan like the Hohenzollerns.
The trouble with the most benevolent
autocracy, whether it be a monarchy,
an oligarchy, or any system in which a
single class has full authority over other
classes, is that it does not stay benevo-
lent, or humane, or practical, or prudent,
but generates destructive abuses of
power. Courts of monarchs are seldom
frequented by wise men, but have ever
been the haunts of parasitic adventurers.
If monarchs seek advice from anybody,
it is from military men to strengthen
their armies or from financiers to in-
crease their revenues. Dominance of a

252 The Journal

military or priestly caste is a familiar
feature of strong, centralized govern-
ments. Thisis not only because soldiers
and priests are found useful in main-
taining power, but because separate
tastes tend to seek their own interests
and readily serve the purposes of
parasitic governments in maintaining
forced control of the people.

Mr. Ireland reflects on the fact that
there have been only a few hundred
men recognized as really great among the
thousands of millions who have lived
on the earth, and that ‘“‘we owe all the
inspiration of religion, philosophy, music,
art, and literature; all the benefactions
of science, discovery, and invention
to the genius of a few hundred in-
dividuals.’” The existence of such men
certainly must not be left out of account
in relation to the question of govern-
ment. If it appeared that more great
men were produced by centralized
governments, the argument for mon-
archies would be strengthened on the
biological side, but history shows that
many of the conspicuously great men
have lived and done their work in con-
flict with the monarchs of their time.
Kings and princes do not wish to be
overshadowed by any of their subjects.
Neither are great individuals developed
by governments that make the indi-
vidual a cog in a machine, or that exalt
the state in order to treat the existing
order as sacred and suppress individual
efforts for reform.

Germany has contributed several of
the great individuals who have lived,
but the great Germans appeared while
the country was a fairly free though
chaotic aggregation of small states.
Since Germany became a very effi-
ciently organized empire she has pro-
duced no conspicuously great or famous
men. There are no Goethes, Schillers,
or Humboldts in Germany today, and
such personalities are not likely to
develop under the kind of government
Germany has had during the last fifty
years.

To leave the government of a country
entirely to a group of experts who could
always be trusted to discharge their
duties in the most competent and

of Heredity

benevolent manner, and who were en-
tirely incorruptible and free from dan-
gerous ambitions, might be approved as
an ideal plan, though without bringing
us nearer to a practical realization. Time
and again this ideal possibility has been
put to the test, when governments have
been taken in hand by those who had
shown themselves best qualified for
control. Many great men have served
as kings, or as rulers of other kinds, and
have organized their governments with
the help of the most competent advisers,
but nowhere in history has any family,
clan or class been able to maintain itself
permanently by capable leadership.
Vanity, ambition, and greed are so
general and so dominant, in human
psychology, that every system of arbi-
trary power gravitates naturally toward
oppression and parasitism. Eventually
the system decays so far that revolution
can put an end to it, or another party
grasps the power, and the cycle is
repeated.

However well an autocracy works for
a time, the national interests run
eventually into the narrow channels of
arrogance, selfishness and stupidity of
the ruling class. Forgetting that their
authority was given them by man, they
end by claiming supernatural power, or
special relations with the Deity. beyond
the reach of any restraining idea. Fear
of God and regard for man alike disap-
pear in their exalted self-assurance.
The crux of the matter seems to be that
the exercise of arbitrary power is essen-
tially unjust, unsocial, immoral, and
destructive to those who use it. ‘‘For
somehow this malady attaches to tyr-
anny, not to put confidence in its
friends.”

That a system should be strong and
efficient, so that it can direct, dominate
and project itself widely is the ideal of
government inspired through the sense
of power. Many are fascinated by the
idea of one man or a small group of
men seated on a pinnacle of authority,
controlling the fate of millions. But we
are now beginning to see that this sense
of power is a primitive instinct, and is
being outgrown. It is much stronger
among savages or in barbarous coun-

Cook and Cook: Biology and Government

tries than among civilized people. To
know what should be done is the first
qualification of constructive leadership.
Fully intelligent, right-minded men no
more desire to control than to be con-
trolled. For those who are anxious to
find their place in the world and to do
their share of the work, external compul-
sion is not needed. Organization, plans,
and directions that coérdinate effort are
understood and obeyed, but arbitrary,
unnecessary orders are resented.

The sense of present-day humanity—
that popular government is the best—
is the product of the long experience
that history records and is not in con-
flict with biology or with the scientific
spirit. Freedom is the eldest daughter
of Science, according to Thomas Jeffer-
son, who saw very clearly that the
human mind must be liberated in order
to work out a higher destiny, and that
this provision for progress must bea
fundamental consideration in govern-
ment. The Napoleonic theory that
“governments are established to aid
society to overcome the obstacles which
impede its march” is less profound
because it does not so clearly recognize
the source of constructive progress in
the scientific mind, and the need of
excluding all forms of artificial domina-
tion and oppression of the mind, as well
as the physical forms of injustice.
Scientific men, even more than others,
should appreciate the need of progress
in government to meet changes of other
kinds. Our experiment in democracy is
very different from any that preceded
it, in being aimed toward scientific
government.

Mr. Ireland’s theory of government
does not appear progressive, but dis-
tinctly archaic. It is conceived, as he
says, ‘‘on the level plain of routine,”
the object being ‘‘to direct the energy
of the mass,”’ a project like making all
the clocks strike at the same instant, as
in the traditional effort of another disil-
lusioned specialist in government. In-
stead of looking forward to a world of
capable, right-minded people, ‘‘wisdom
and talent’? are to be established in

253

authority as a select class, to avoid a
catastrophe that threatens the existing
order through the advance of democracy.

But there would be more danger that
placing a select class in control would
insure its destruction in the usual way,
instead of tending to preserve it. Re-
sponsible majorities are not dangerous,
but irresponsible minorities, of parasites
or fanatics. Where has democracy pro-
duced any such reactions as the French
Revolution a century ago, or the Rus-
sian Revolution of today? What are
the principles or theories that need to be
applied in government, but cannot be
presented and explained for the ap-
proval of a free electorate ¢

Not too much power in the hands of
the people, but too little of active, con-
structive interest in problems of general
welfare, even among intelligent citizens,
is the most serious danger in popular
government. People think of the gov-
ernment much as they think of an
insurance company. They pay their tax
assessments passively and assume that a
mysterious system will attend properly
to the public work. Our theories are
democratic, but many of our habits are
still feudal or monarchic. We are far
enough from monarchy to think of the
government as responsible to the people,
yet not far enough for people to think of
themselves as responsible for govern-
ment. A special lesson on this point is
now being had in Germany.

The general problem of government is
to develop popular systems along lines
of wider and more direct interest to the
people, not to restrict interest or re-
sponsibility to a special governing class
and revert to institutions of arbitrary
power. The discussion of eugenics and
other applications of biology no doubt
will lend more constructive interest to
political questions. Eventually there
may be developed a truly biological
conception of the race as a living organi-
zation, and of governments and other
social institutions as means of conscious
adaptation, to meet progressive needs in
each generation.

EUGENICS, THE WAR
INSTINCT AND DEMOCRACY

JOURNAL OF HEREDITY:

Certain articles that have appeared
in the journal during the last five or six
months have moved me to a certain
amount of speculation, which I now
put forward tentatively. They are
merely the speculations of a layman.

In one number of the journal (which
I have not at hand and cannot definitely
refer to) was an article (by Woods, I
believe) to the effect that war might be
beneficial by aiding Nature in her
problem of the survival of the fittest."
Does not war rather tend to take the
fittest from each nation, and kill, or
maim, or break them with disease, and
in this way, rather than leave Nation A
stronger than Nation B, leave B weaker
than A, and both A and B, and hence
the race, weaker than before? In the
same number was an article by Popenoe
which attempted to demonstrate that
war is inevitable, because of an innate
instinct in man for war, an hereditary
instinct, an instinct which is therefore
as ineradicable as one’s heart or lungs.
Is there not rather a desire for occupa-
tion, for a struggle for existence, which
under favorable circumstances may be
directed along industrial, scientific, and
artistic lines, but which under unfavor-
able conditions may run to marauding
and bloodshed? It is a notable fact,
at any rate, that all of the wars in the
history of civilization have been due
either to the ambitions of some foolish
monarch or to the commercial interests
of those classes from which a monarch
draws his support. Perhaps if these
wars had not occurred, others would,
due to the innate desire of which the
author speaks; perhaps peace would

have reigned; there is no telling. But
supposing both or either of these theories
to be correct, they seem to me, unless
followed to their natural conclusion, to
be rather dangerous doctrines to preach.
There are four possibilities in regard
to them.

1. War is neither beneficial nor in-
evitable, in which case we should do
everything in our power to forestall the.
possibility of war.

2. War is beneficial but evitable. In
this case one can only ask how much
excessive war is beneficial, for certainly
too much war means extinction. What
scientist will draw the line between too
much and enough? I scarcely think
there is any. Then we take no more
risks in evading war than in indulging
in it—for how can we tell that we do
not indulge too much? And war is a
different thing to control, anyway—
once it gets started there is no saying
how far it will go. A well-directed
system of executions would be much
safer. So the same thing to do in this
case, of course, would be to look to our
present weal as we cannot look to our
future and forestall any possibility of
war.

3. War is detrimental but inevitable.
If this be true we can only remove all
superficial causes of war, and for the
rest either resign ourselves or shake our
fists at the Unknowable, as our natures
or religions dictate.

4. War is beneficial and inevitable.
In this event, war is a result of natural
law, and, as a result of natural law, is
beneficial. But it no less surely follows
that any war that is not the result of
natural law, but the result of super-

1 The article is by Alleyne Ireland in the November number, 1918. It concerns a quotation

from ‘‘Is War Diminishing?’’ by Woods and Baltzly.

by these authors that war is eugenic.

The contention, however, was never made

Woods pointed out some possible eugenic aspects of war
that were ignored by partisan writers and by the then numerous pacifists.

The disgenic aspects

of war are also here considered, and the contention is made that further researches are necessary.

—ACTING EDITOR.

254

Eugenics, the War Instinct and Democracy

ficial causes (the commercial interests of
a few, the whims of a monarch) is not
beneficial; for it goes without saying
that the desire of a few obsessed mam-
mon-worshipers does not represent the
innate instinct of the mass. Only such
war as is inevitable is beneficial, for
again too much war will surely lead to
extinction. It then follows that we
should remove all superficial causes of
war and only indulge in such wars as
are dictated by nature, 7. e., by the
desire of the people of a given nation as
shown by a popular vote. By this
method and by this method only can
we evade ‘nterference with nature.

Hence it follows that whether neither,
either, or both of the postulates that
war is beneficial and that war is inevi-
table are true, our course of action
should be the same—to forestall the
possibility of war in every way.

The other bone I have to pick is
Ireland’s article in the December num-
ber: ‘‘Democracy and the Accepted
Facts of Heredity.”’ Ireland makes the
point that some people by their intel-
lectual heritage are more fit to govern
than others, and that these individuals
should be given something of a free rein
in governing. If these people would
govern for the good of their nation at
large, and not for the good of them-
selves and their small cliques of sup-
porters, this would be true enough.
But although certain men have the
intellectual ability to govern efficiently,
I dare say that not one in a century has
sufficient moral strength to govern
justly if he is not held in check by the
chances of dethronement. I do not
hold up popular control as the panacea
of all evils, but it is likely to exert a
restraining influence on the ambitious.
it is-a historical fact, of course, in
practically every country, that social
and economic reforms (decent housing
conditions, living wages, etc.) have not
come from the governing classes, but
from and because of the demands and
unrest of the masses. And while I
do not support any religious dogma, I
do hold that every man has a right to

arch

u
a square deal. Moreover, I hold tha,
war is, to all intents and purposes
the offspring of a government by (and
therefore for) the few. If war had only
been declared after a popular vote had
shown a people in favor of it, I venture
to say that there would have been very
few wars in history.2, And I venture
to say that the individual nation and
the world at large would be no worse off
if this custom prevailed. The German
and Russian workers and _ peasants
would scarcely have been sufficiently
interested in the jealousies of their
masters to have started the holocaust
that has just terminated. As to Mr.
Ireland’s fear for the fate of the indi-
vidual, such individuals as Napoleon,
the late Kaiser, or Bismarck would
doubtless feel themselves hampered by
a democratic government. And it is
unfortunately to Napoleonism and Bis-
marckism that brilliant minds run
when given unlimited power. As far
as the arts and sciences go, I think Mr.
Ireland can safely put away his fears.
When even such a radically popular
government as the one at Moscow
puts such a man as Lunacharsky at the
head of its educational system it does
not point to a disapproval of personal
genius. Even Trotsky would scarcely
advocate that pictures be painted by
referendum or that esthetic criticism

be put upon a communistic basis.
Moreover, even though Mr. Ireland

may not consider the ten million odd
of the hoz pollot killed in the recent
war—precipitated by autocratic govern-
ments—to be important, still he must
admit by his own argument that the
death of such men as Gaudier-Brzeska,
Rupert Brooke, Peguy, Frakl, etc.,
were a genuine and irremediable loss to
civilization, provided, of course, that
he has ever heard of these men. And no
one knows how many potential Shake-
speares and Newtons there were among
the nineteen and twenty-year-olds that
were slaughtered and broken.

The chief crime of democracy would
seem, then, to be a relative inefficiency
in the handling of public affairs, of

2 This should be decided by a systematic appeal to the facts of history. Some facts as.yet
unpublished indicate that democracies are quite as prone to war as are autocracies.

256 The Journal

autocracy, selfishness, which results in
war, slaughter, disease, and the degener-
ation of mankind.

There is also the esthetic argument
for democracy which I shall at present
refrain from expounding, as Mr. Ireland
would doubtless consider it a sort of
fourth-dimension vaporing. It is, not-
withstanding, responsible for the opin-
ions of a considerable portion of the
world’s population.

I repeat, however, that I offer these
opinions not as the opinions of an expert,

of Heredity

but as the opinions of a layman. It is
only because I suspect that a great
many other laymen may hold them that
I trouble you with them. But this
being the case, I think it would be worth
while for your experts to set me and
my comrades in ignorance right on these
matters if we are wrong. For such, I
take it, is the social function. of experts.
Very truly yours,
A. Y. WINTERS.
St. Vincent Sanitarium,
vantaske NIV

A FACTOR INFLUENCING

URING the latter part of the
IB: nineteenth century it was gen-
erally believed that sex in man

and in various animals is deter-

mined mainly by the amount of nour-
ishment that the embryos receive; well-
nourished embryos were supposed to
become females; those that were poorly
nourished were assumed to develop
into males. A considerable amount of
evidence in favor of this view was col-
lected by Dutsing (83, ’84, ’86), who

maintained, furthermore, that close
inbreeding interferes with embryonic

nutrition, by lessening the vitality of the
mother, and so produces a great excess
of male young.

Helen Dean King has recently re-
ported some results of the effect of
inbreeding upon the production of male
or female offspring among albino rats.
Her conclusions in part are as follows:'

In each series the difference between
the sex ratio for the group of inbred
litters and that for the group of half-in-
bred litters is a significant one. Appar-
ently, therefore, the chemotactic reac-
tion between the ovum and the sperma-
tozoOn is not quite the same where these
sexual elements come from unrelated
individuals as when they are produced
by individuals that are closely inbred.

1 Helen Dean King.
on the sex ratio of the albino rat.

Studies on Inbreeding—III.

THE SEX > Rea ee

Morgan ('14) has suggested that
the infertility of the eggs of Ciona
to spermatozoa from the same individual
may be due to the similarity in the
hereditary complex of the germ cells,
which in some way decreases the chances
of their uniting. The selective fertiliza-
tion experiments made by Marshall
(10) with different varieties of dogs and
also my own experiments with different
varieties of rats show that the ova of
these animals have a strong tendency
to unite with spermatozoa from in-
dividuals belonging to unrelated stock
rather than with spermatozoa from
individuals of the same blood.

The results of this series of experi-
ments, as a whole, seem to indicate that
in the rat, as in the pigeon (Riddle, ’14,
16, °17), in Drosophila (Moenkhaus,
11) and in the guinea-pig (Papanicolau,
15), the female has more influence in
determining the sex ratio than has the
male. Yet it is not in the differentia-
tion of the ova, nor in the development
of the spermatozoa, that the key to
the riddle of sex-determination will be
found. A knowledge of the interaction
of the germ cells, and of the conditions
that influence it, must be gained before
the final solution of this problem can
be attained.

The effects of inbreeding, with selection

Journal of Experimental Zoélogy, vol. 27, No. 1.

THE FOUNDERS OF THE
ART OF BREEDING—IV

Pre-Mendelian Breeders of the Nineteenth Century—Concluded

HERBERT F. ROBERTS

Kansas State Agricultural College

URING the time of the prosecu-
le) tion of the work of Knight and

Herbert appeared the results

in hybridization obtained by
Sageret in France. Sageret’s experi-
ments in crossing were largely confined
to the Cucurbitaceae, and his results
were published in a memoir entitled,
~“Considérations sur la production des
hybrides, des variantes et des variétés
en général, et sur celles de la famille des
Cucurbitacées en particulier,’ which ap-
peared in 1826 in the Annales des
Sciences Naturelles, Vol. 18.

SAGERET ON SEGREGATION

Sageret made some discoveries that
clearly anticipate our modern knowledge
of segregation, and he was able to furnish
what was, for the time, a fairly satis-
factory scientific explanation for the
reappearance of ancestral characters.
The experiment upon which his conclu-
sions were primarily based was a cross
in which a muskmelon was the female
and a cantaloupe the male parent. Each
plant was regarded as a relatively pure
or type representative of its kind. In
stating the results of the cross, Sageret
for the first time, so far as the writer
knows, in the history of plant hybridiza-
tion, aligned the characters of the
parents in opposing or contrasting pairs
after Mendel’s fashion forty years later.
Following is the list of contrasting
parental characters as Sageret gives
them:

Muskmelon (female)

. Flesh white.

. Seeds white.

Skin smooth.

. Ribs slightly evident.

. Flavor sugary, and very acid at the
same time.

Ue Whe

Cantaloupe (male)

. Flesh yellow.

Seeds yellow.

Skin netted.

Ribs strongly pronounced.
Flavor sweet.

One WM R

Sageret remarks: “‘The assumed pro-
duct of the crosses made ought to have
been intermediate: (1) Flesh very pale
yellow, (2) seeds very pale yellow, (3)
netting light, (4) sides slightly marked,
(5) flavor at once sweet and sprightly,
but the contrary was the case.”

As a matter of fact, in the two hybrid
fruits reported upon, the characters were
not blended or intermediate at all, but
were clearly and distinctly those of the
one or the other parent.

Second hybrid

. Flesh yellowish.
. Seeds white.

. Skin smooth.

. Ribs wanting.

. Flavor sweet.

First hybrid

Flesh yellow.
. seeds white.
. Skin netted.
. Ribs rather pronounced.
. Flavor acid.

One Whe
On He QQ br

In the further support of his conclu-
sions regarding the descent of characters
in unitary fashion, he remarks upon the
inheritance of human hair and eye color
in the mating of a brunette with a
blonde type. He comments upon the
fact that these two hybrids are types of
which he had “several times obtained
the analogues or their equivalents.”’
While there is fusion here and there, he
says, ‘‘one sees here a much more marked
distribution of their different characters,
without any mixture between them.”
He even uses, for the first time in the
literature of plant hybridization, the
word ‘“‘dominate’’ with reference to
characters in crossing, in the following
words. Speaking of the inheritance of
flavor in various melon crosses, he says:

2a1

258 The Journal

“The acid flavor of the muskmelon is
encountered in the forms of the canta-
loupe and the snake-melon; in others,
the form of the cantaloupe dominated.”

Summing up the results of his experi-
ments in a general conclusion, he says,
with regard to the natural expectation
that in a hybrid there will be a complete
or partial fusion of the parental charac-
ters, that ‘‘this fusion of characters may
take place in certain cases; but it has
appeared to me that, in general, things
did not take place in this way;” and
again: ‘It has appeared to me that, in
general, the resemblance of the hybrid
to its two ascendants consisted, not in
an intimate fusion of the diverse
characters peculiar to each one of them
in particular, but rather in a distribu-
tion, equal or unequal, of the same
characters.’ (Italics inserted.)

Here we meet again, for the first time
in the literature of hybridization, the
phrase ‘‘distribution of characters’” now
so familiar. ‘’These facts,” Sageret
remarks, ‘“‘have been confirmed by a
multitude of my experiments.” It is
evident from the following statement
that Sageret appraised his discovery of
the dominance of characters in crossing
at its proper value: ‘‘The ideas which I
present,” he says, “have appeared
remarkable to me; they seem to me to be
of a very great importance.”’

In addition to his melon crosses,
Sageret secured a hybrid between a
black radish and a cabbage, of which he
says: ‘‘The fruits, instead of being inter-
mediate, were like either cabbage or
radish on the same inflorescence. Each
silique bore a single seed, analogous to
its pod,’”’ to which he makes reference in
a further comment upon “the distribu-
tion among hybrids, of the characters of
their ascendants without fusion of these
characters,” a point of view with regard
to the results of hybridization that needs
little to makeit modern. Itis, however,
a matter of further interest that Sageret
was able to derive the natural scientific
conclusion from the facts of unit-
character inheritance as he found them,
with respect to the reappearance of old
or the appearance of new “‘species.”’
The hybrids “‘often reproduced for me,”’

of Heredity

he says, “‘varieties which had long ago
disappeared.”

He finally concludes: ‘“To what, then,
does this faculty belong, which nature
has, of reproducing upon the descend-
ants such or such a character which had
belonged to their ancestors? We do not
know. We are able, however, to sus-
pect that it depends upon a type, upon
a primitive mould, which contains the
germ which sleeps and awakens, which
develops or not according to circum-
stances, and possibly that which we call
a new species, in which develop organs,
ancient but forgotten, of which the germ
existed, but which the development had
not yet favored.”’

DARWIN ON HYBRIDS

Gn November 24, 1859, appeared the
first edition of Darwin’s epoch-making
book, ‘‘The Origin of Species,’ in which
he briefly reviewed (Chap. 9) the results
and conclusions regarding hybrids and
hybridization up to his time. Inread-
ing Darwin’s chapter one is strangely
struck by the persistence of the species-
variety question.

Is this a “‘species,’’ or is it merely a
“variety ?”’—a question which crossing
was expected to answer. If two organ-
isms would not cross, or if their offspring
were sterile, they were thereby proved
to be distinct ‘‘species.”’ If they freely
intercrossed, or if their offspring were
fertile, then, ipso facto, they were
‘varieties’ of the same species. Dar-
win’s thesis—that “‘species,’”’ so called,
grew out of ‘‘varieties’” so called, by
natural selection, caused him to review
the evidence which the work of the
hybridists, especially Koelreuter, Gart-
ner and Herbert, afforded. Regarding
the matter of the relation of hybrids to
species-affinity, Darwin writes with his
usual conservative wisdom:

“No one has been able to point out
what kind or what amount of difference,
in any recognizable character, is suffi-
cient to prevent two species crossing.
It can be shown that plants most widely
different in habit and general appear-
ance, and having strongly marked
differences in every part cf the flower,
even in the pollen, in the fruit and in the

b

Roberts: The Founders of the Art of Breeding

cotyledons, can be crossed . . . (p.
14). The facility of making a first cross,
between any two species is not always
governed by their systematic affinity or
degree of resemblance to each other.
This latter statement is clearly proved
by the difference in the result of reci-
procal crosses between the same two
species, for according as the one species
or the other is used as the father or the
mother, there is generally some differ-
ence, and occasionally the widest pos-
sible difference, in the facility of effect-
ing an union. The hybrids, moreover,
produced from reciprocal crosses often
differ in fertility”’ (p. 16).

Again he says: ‘“‘There is often the
widest possible difference in the facility
of making reciprocal crosses. Such
cases are highly important, for they
prove that the capacity in any two
species to cross is often completely inde-
pendent of their systematic affinity,
that is, of any difference in their struc-
ture or constitution, excepting in their
reproductive systems (p. 14). It can
thus be shown that neither sterility nor
fertility affords any certain distinction
between species and varieties. The
evidence from this source graduates
away, and is doubtful in the same
degree as is the evidence derived from
other constitutional and _ structural
differences”’ (p. 4).

Darwin finally summarizes the evi-
dence as follows: ‘First crosses between
forms, sufficiently distinct to be marked
as species, and their hybrids, are very
generally, but not universally sterile.
The sterility is of all degrees and is often
so slight that the most careful experi-
mentalists have arrived at diametrically
opposite conclusions in ranking forms by
this test’’ (p. 44).

In 1861 the Paris Academy of the
Sciences proposed the following problem
to receive the grand prize in the physical
sciences: “To study plant hybrids from
the point of view of their fecundity, and
of the perpetuity or non-perpetuity of
their characters. ‘“‘The production of
hybrids among plants of different species
of the same genus is a fact determined a
long time since, but many precise re-
searches still remain to be made in

259

order to solve the following questions,
which have an interest equally from the
point of view of general physiology, and
of the determination of the limits of
species, of the extent of their variations.

“1. In what cases of hybrids are they
self-fertile? Does this fecundity of
hybrids stand in relation to the external
resemblances of the species from which
they come, or does it testify to a special
affinity from the point of view of
fertilization, as has been remarked
regarding the ease of production of the
hybrids themselves ?

“2. Do self-sterile hybrids always owe
their stability to the imperfection of the
pollen? Are the pistil and the ovules
always susceptible of being fecundated
by a foreign pollen, properly selected ?
Is an appreciable imperfect condition
sometimes observed in the pistil and the
ovules ¢

“3. Do hybrids which reproduce
themselves by their own fecundation
sometimes preserve invariable characters
for several generations, and are they
able to become the type of constant
races, or do they always return, on the
contrary, to the forms of their ancestors
after several generations, as recent
observations seem to indicate ?

THE IDEAS OF GODRON

The two chief competitors under the
Academy’s offer were Charles Naudin
of the Museum of Natural History at
Paris, and D. A. Godron of the Uni-
versity at Nancy, the prize being
awarded to the former. The papers of
both appeared in Vol. 19 of the Annales
des Sciences Naturelles (Botanique), 4
me. Serie (1863).

The title of Godron’s thesis was
“Des hybrides végétaux, considérées au
point de vue de leur fécondité et de la
perpetuité ou non-perpetuité de leurs
charactéres.’’ His paper is chiefly de-
voted to the solution of the question as
to whether “hybrids reproducing by
self-fertilization sometimes keep their
characters invariable during several
generations, and whether they are able
to become the types of constant races,
or whether, on the contrary, they always
return to the forms of one of their

260 The Journal

ancestors at the end of several genera-
tions, as recent observations seem to
indicate. In answer to this query, he
says: ‘““We have determined, upon hy-
brids of Linaria, that the hybrid forms
may become very fertile, and that a
certain number of individuals, from the
second generation, return respectively
to the two primitive types, when they
grow in company with their parents, and
this return movement manifests itself
much more in the following generations.”’

Godron remarks that the same fact
has been observed by Lecoq in the fertile
hybrids of stocks, by Naudin in the
fertile hybrids of tobacco, and by several
observers in primula and in petunia.
From these experiments, then, he con-
cludes the proof of the final return of
fertile hybrids to their parental forms to
be established. Godron was a victim of
the rigid idea of species, which held, that
because ‘so many hybrids between
different ‘‘species,” so called, were
sterile, that therefore any hybrid which
proved fertile must necessarily, 7pso
facto, prove the parents not to be of
different species but to be merely
varieties of the same species.

To the vain purpose of settling this
verbal controversy, as to whether such
and such plants were to be regarded as
separate “‘species,’’ or merely as varie-
ties of the same species, many of the
most ardent endeavors of hybridists,
both before and since Mendel’s time,
have been conscientiously and duly
devoted. A sample of this method of
reasoning in a circle so vigorously com-
bated by Herbert, and characterized by
Sageret as “fighting the air,’ is exem-
plified in a sentence of Godron which
typifies the then general view. He
says: ‘‘To admit that two distinct species
have produced hybrids which, from the
very first have become very fertile, would
constitute a very grave exception to the
law which has its sanction in the
numerous experiments which, for a
century past, have been made by Koel-
reuter, Wiegmann, C. F. Gartner, etc.,
and by M. Naudin himself, that simple
hybrids are sterile or but little fertile.”
(Italics inserted.)

Considering the fact, however, that

of Heredity

hybrids between confessedly distinct
species are so frequently sterile, it is not
surprising that, in view of the then
greater interest in the species question
itself, that hybridizers should have
turned systematic botanists and have
made the sterility of the hybrid offspring
a criterion of species distinction. Be-
sides his competing memoir before the
Paris Academy, Godron was the author
of several other contributions to the
literature of plant hybridization, includ-
ing that of the then celebrated question
as to the possible origin of cultivated
wheat from the wild plant Aegilops
ovata.
NAUDIN’S CONCLUSIONS

The general conclusions of importance
for his time, at which Naudin arrived, are
as follows—in the language of the award
committee of the Academy—and which
are quoted in their own words (6c) to
show the point of view of science at
that time: “The first,-and the most
important of all, is that the singular
beings which result from the cross-
fertilization of two different types, far
from being condemned to absolute
sterility, are frequently endowed with
the faculty of producing seeds capable
of germination” (p. 129).

“The second consequence of major
interest which proceeds from the nu-
merous experiments in the same memoir
is that fertile hybrids have a manifest
tendency to return to the forms that pro-
duced them, and that without other action
than that of their own proper pollen,
under such conditions that the pollen of
the parents is not able to exercise the
influence to determine this return’ (p.
129).

UNIT CHARACTERS

An essential feature in Naudin’s
paper, of high importance from our
present standpoint, is the independent
behavior of characters in a cross, and
referred to by the Academy committee
as follows: ‘“‘Not content with respond-
ing by numerous experiments to the
questions propounded by the Academy,
the author has sought to
throw light upon several points, some
obscure, others.not yet studied, in the

Roberts: The Founders

history of hybrids. He has confirmed
that which Sageret already knew, that
in a hybrid the characters of the two
parents are often shown, not blended
but approximated, in such fashion that
the fruit of a Datura hybrid, born of
two species, the one with a smooth, the
other with a spiny capsule, presents
smooth places in the midst of a surface
generally spiny. This disjunction, as it
is called, is explained according to him
by the presence in the hybrid of two
specific essences, which tend to be
separated more or less rapidly the one
from the other. He even sees in this
disjunction the true cause of the return
of fertile hybrids to the types from which
they came’’ (p. 131). (Italics inserted.)

It is further of great interest to note
that the seeds gathered from the smooth
side of the capsule reproduced only the
smooth-capsule form, Datura laevis,
while those taken from the spiny side
gave rise only to the spiny form, Datura
stramonium. In Verlot’s paper, yet
to be discussed, further instances of
this vegetative segregation, as it may be
called, will be found.

Naudin stated, more clearly and
definitely than others had hitherto done,
the fact of the general uniformity of the
hybrid offspring of the first generation
(the F, generation), as we should say,
and the diversity of form, with partial
reversion to, or, as we would now put it,
the reappearance of, the parental types
in the second hybrid (or F, generation).
His language is as follows: “Finally,
one may say that the hybrids of the
same cross resemble one another in the
first generation as much, or almost as
much, as the individuals which come
from a single legitimate species.”’

In contradiction to the results derived
by Sageret from his particular set of
experiments, Naudin asserts the gener-
ally intermediate nature of the first
generation hybrids: “All the hybridol-
ogists are in accord in recognizing that
the hybrids (and it is always the
question of the hybrids of the first
generation) are mixed forms, inter-
mediate between those of the two
parent species. This is, in fact, what
takes place in the immense majority

of the Art of Breeding 261

of cases; but it does not follow there-
from that these intermediate forms are
always at an equal distance from that
of the two species.”” He goes on to
remark upon the vagueness with which
this relative approximation is deter-
mined, resting as it does, largely upon a
basis of opinion. He also calls atten-
tion to the fact that sometimes the
hybrids resemble one of the two parents
in certain parts and the other in other

parts. Regarding segregation in the
second hybrid generation he says:

“Very often, to the so perfect uniformity
of the first generation, there succeeds an
extreme medley of forms, some ap-
proaching the specific type of the
father, the others that of the mother
a ge I§-1s; asa matter of fact, im
the second generation that this dissolu-
tion of the hybrid forms commences in
the great majority of cases.

Among several of these hybrids of the
second generation, there is a complete
return to one or the other of the two
parental species, or both, and diverse
degrees of approach to these species.”

NAUDIN’S EXEFLANATION

Naudin now comes to what he
regards as the philosophical explana-
tion of these facts: ‘‘All these facts are
naturally explained by the disjunction
of the two specific essences, in the pollen
and in the ovules of the hybrid. A
hybrid plant is an individual in which
are found united two different essences,
having their respective modes of devel-
opment and final direction, which mu-
tually counter one another, and which
are incessantly in a struggle to disengage
themselves from one another.” ‘“‘The
hybrid,” he says, ‘in this hypothesis
would be a living mosaic, in which the
eye would not discern the discordant
elements as long as they remained
intermingled; but, if in consequence of
their affinities, the elements of the same

species mutually approximating one
another, agglomerate in rather con-
siderable masses, there may result

therefrom parts discernible to the eye,
sometimes entire organs, etc.”

Naudin concludes that the pollen
and the ovules, and the pollen especially,

262 The Journal

“are the parts of the plant where the
specific disjunction takes place with the
riost energy.’”’ He goes on to suppose,
and here, perhaps he comes closest to a
statement of Mendel’s view, “that in
the hybrids of the first generation the
disjunction takes place at the same time
in the anther and in the contents of the
ovary; that some of the grains of pollen
belong totally to the species of the father,
and others to the species of the mother;
that in others the disjunction has not
occurred or has just commenced; let us
grant again that the ovules are, in the
same degree, segregated toward the side
of the father and toward the side of the
mother. If the. tube froma
grain of pollen, approximated to the
species of the male parent, encounters
an ovule segregated in the same direc-
tion, there will be produced a plant
entirely reverted to the paternal species.
The same combination being accom-
plished between a grain of pollen and
an ovule, both segregated in the direc-
tion of the female parent of the hybrid,
the product will return in the same way
to the species of the latter; if, on the
contrary, the combination is effected
between an ovule and a grain of pollen
segregated in a direction contrary the
one to the other, there will result a true
cross-fertilization like that which has
given birth to the hybrid itself, and there
will result therefrom a form intermediate
between the two specific types.”

In 1864 Naudin communicated a
second report to the Academy, 1n which
he confirmed his previous results as to
uniformity in the first generation crosses,
the identity of reciprocal crosses, and the
“disorderly variation,” as he calls it, of
the hybrids of the second and succeeding
generation. In neither of the two
papers is there any numerical classifica-
tion of the hybrid types.

Naudin’s memoir is often referred to
as amounting virtually to a statement
of Mendel’s law of the disjunction of
hybrids. In Naudin’s case, however,
the statement was of a speculative na-
ture and consisted 1n the proposition of
a scientific hypothesis; in Mendel’s
case, his “‘law’’ was a scientific conclu-
sion derived as the result of experiment.

of Heredity

Naudin propounded, in 1863, a well-
reasoned theory of probable truth;
Mendel, in 1868, formulated a state-
ment of ascertained fact.

THE WORK OF VERLOT

In 1865 B. Verlot, of the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris, published a_ brief
memoir which in 1862 had received a
prize from the Imperial and Central
Horticultural Society, the thesis of which
was as follows: “To demonstrate the
circumstances which determine the pro-
duction and fixation of varieties in orna-
mental plants.” The memoir is of
interest as thoroughly and _ typically
embodying the general point of view of |
the day concerning hybridization and
the origin of new varieties, while afford-
ing at the same time much matter of
interest from the standpoint of practical
horticulture. Verlot presented the view
that, while the causes of variation are
unknown, they arise under definable
circumstances, chief among which he
enumerates prolonged cultivation, re-
moval from one set of climatic and soil
conditions to another, and hybridization.

The thought of the time did not
clearly distinguish a difference between
the nature of the changes brought about
by the external environment and those
arising from sexual fertilization. Both
were generally assumed to be equally
heritable. Cultivation long continued
was considered to have been especially
potent in bringing about variation. In
Verlot’s words: “It is especially with
plants cultivated for a great number of
years, with those the introduction of
which is so ancient that it 1s lost in the
night of time, that one finds profound
and multiplied modifications” (p. 4).

He further voices the then prevailing
view regarding the relation between
culture. and variation: “If we com-
pare,’ he says, “‘a species in its spon-
taneous condition with the same species
cultivated, transported, that is to say,
most often into conditions of climate,
soil, etc., completely different from those
where it lived before, we shall be struck
by seeing that in our gardens this latter
will show deviations of type more
numerous than in the wild state. We

Roberts: The Founders of the Art of Breeding

shall derive from this fact the conse-
quence that the faculty of varying,
which is proper to the plant, augments
with culture. If we observe, then, that
the plants cultivated in our gardens
which have varied the most—as, for
example, the dahlias, the roses, the
camellias, the rhododendrons, the po-
tato, etc——are not borrowed for the
most part from our flora, nor from one
of the neighboring floras, but on the
contrary come from distant countries,
where they grow under conditions often
absolutely different from those in which
we cultivate them, we shall conclude
that the more a species is depatriated
the more it will easily vary” (p. 30);
and again: ““The more plants are cul-
tivated, the greater their variations are,
and, by the same token, the easier they
are to fix. We will possibly be contra-
dicted, but we do not hesitate to con-
sider, once more, long-practiced culture
as one of the most favorable antecedents
to the rapid fixation of variations’
(p38).

We now know at least that the in-
creased variation manifested by wild
plants, when brought into cultivation,
is probably due to the removal of the
restrictive influences of competition
rather than to any actual increase in
.the range of heritable variability itself.

Verlot cites, as examples of the
changes supposedly wrought by cul-
ture, the changes brought about in the
roots of such plants as beet and parsnip,
in the production of dwarf plants, in
various modifications in general habit,
such as fastigiate, pyramidal and weep-
ing variations in trees; in the appearance
of variations with laciniate or other-
wise modified leaves; in varieties with
leaves colored white, yellow, red or
brown; in the arrangement of the leaves,
as in the sudden appearance on an
ordinary alternate-leaved plant of Kosa
alba, of a shoot with opposite leaves,
propagated as Rosa cannabifolia. From
the evidence he concludes that cultiva-
tion sets up within the plant a condition
of instability, which gives rise not only
to seed variation but to variation within
the plant itself—what we would call
bud-variation or somatic segregation—

203

as in the case just cited, the case of a
chrysanthemum reported which bore at
the same time yellow and rose-colored
flowers, and of a citrus fruit half-and-
half orange and lemon. Another case
cited by Verlot is that of a variegated
Camellia imperialis which, for twelve
years, had constantly given brilliant
white flowers set off with rose-colored
striations and variegations, and upon
which a small branch appeared one year
bearing three flowers, in a group of a
uniform rose color, the same in tint as
that of the striations and variegations
of the other flowers.

“It is evident, in these cases,’ says
Verlot, ‘“‘that the colorations disjoin
and that this variation returns by dis-
junction to its colored types, as we have
indicated for certain plants of hybrid
origin. (p. 67). As we see,” he says,
“by the sole fact that a plant is cul-
tivated, it is forced to vary. The
instability of a cultivated plant is even
evident in certain cases in such a way
that it does not only manifest itself in
the direct descendants of the plant, but
also in the plant itself. Thus, while the
generality of the branches of a plant
bear leaves, flowers and fruits of definite
forms or colors, a branch is sometimes
produced in which the leaves, flowers,
and fruits present completely different
characters. We recognize that culture
has been and is still the essential cause
of the variation of plants, and that
thereby man has, so to speak, com-
pelled them to re-clothe themselves
with new forms appropriate to his needs
or to his caprices’’\(p: 5).

The above statement excellently pre-
sents the older point of view regarding
variation. Stich cases as the rose,
chrysanthemum and orange, and the
famous hybrid Cytisus Adami (purpu-
reus X laburnum), Verlot accounts for
under the guise of Naudin’s conception
of “disjunction”: ‘“‘It is by disjunction
that, in these last cases, the specific
forms thus reappear in hybrid plants,
and it is with woody plants, it will be
noticed, that this fact presents itself;
individuals, that is to say, which, per-
sisting for long years, must achieve all
the phases of existence of a hybrid plant,

264 The. Journal

an existence of which this disjunction
would be the last term’ (p. 14). He
then refers to Naudin’s case of disjunc-
tion in Datura, which is elsewhere
discussed. Verlot’s expression of views
on the matter of methods of selection is
so thoroughly typical of the thought of
his time, 7. e., that variation is in conse-
quence of the “breaking up’”’ of the
“type,’’ and that selection, tpso facto,
intensifies the variation in the direction
selected for. that it ds a. mmatter or
interest to present here the view ex-
pressed. ‘“‘If a variation is produced
in a direction other than that toward
which one tends, it ought not to be
abandoned for that; one will have more
chance of obtaining new variations in
sowing a deviation from the type, even
in a diametrically. opposite direction,
than in sowing anew the type itself.
In the deviation there is already a
tendency toward perturbation, and to-
ward the beginning of the destruction of
atavism”’ (p. 31).

Another interesting example of the
older empirical point of view regarding
plant improvement is Vilmorin’s opinion,
quoted by Verlot, and which is here
reproduced to show how thoroughly
the primary idea of “‘breaking up the
type’”’ in order to bring about “‘varia-
tion’’ entered into the thought and
operations of pre-Mendelian breeders.

“To obtain from a plant not yet
modified, varieties of a kind determined
in advance, I will first set myself to
making it vary in some direction or
other, choosing for the reproducing
factor, not that one of the accidental
varieties which would most nearly
approach the form which I have pro-
posed to myself to obtain but simply
that which would most differ from the
type. In the second generation, the
same care would make me choose a
deviation, the greatest possible at first,
the one most different, in a word, from
that which I would have chosen in the
first place. Following this direction for
several generations, there necessarily
ought to result, in the products obtained,
an extreme tendency to vary; there then
results again, and that is the principal
point according to me, that the force of

of Heredity

atavism, exerting itself counter to very
divergent influences, will have lost a
great part of its power, or, if one ven-
tures to make use of this comparison, it
will exert it always in a broken line”
(p. 28).

Man’s relation to the fixation of
characters in new races of plants is
stated by Verlot in the usual manner
prevalent in the days before Mendelian
analyses: ‘‘In brief, gardeners have re-
marked with reason that a plant newly
introduced is very susceptible to vary.
This fact, it is conceived, has nothing
surprising about it. It confirms that
which we have previously said, that a
variety, whatever it might be, had need,
in order to become fixed, of being cul-
tivated for a greater or less length of
time, until one had finally come to
maintain with it the tendency not to
depart from being that which he had
made it”’ (p. 70).

In other words, the idea then preva-
lent, and more or less incoherently
expressed, was that, in some unknown
manner, man, by continued selection,
succeeds in impressing upon a “‘variety”’
the stamp of a certain type, and, through
repeated and continuous selection in the
same direction, finally ‘fixes’ it, so
that the variety becomes, as it were,
stabilized. Analyzed in a modern way,
it simply means that, by continuous
selection of some certain type, those
individuals are usually isolated which
are homozygous for the character-units
thus represented, and which become
“‘fixed,’’ because no heterozygous factors
are left to split apart.

We have here, in other words, an
unscientific sensing through practical
experience of the fact which the breeder
of today would define as the selection of
a heterozygote having dominant charac-
ters differing from those of the species.
Being of hybrid nature, such a plant
would break up and hence yield new
types, whereas the plants resembling
the type are more apt to be homozy-
gous and less liable to vary in their
progeny. He emphasizes the view just
set forth still more emphatically in the
following words: ‘If two variations are
produced, of which the one differs little

Roberts: The Founders of the Art of Breeding

from the type, but is placed upon the
line which leads in the desired direction,
and the other is placed in an opposite
direction, but departing considerably
from the type, we shall not neglect
nevertheless to follow this latter, because
with it the breaking-up of atavism is
more advanced”’ (p. 31).

The necessity of fixing upon some
single individual plant as the basis of
selection is referred to by Verlot in the
following terms: ‘“‘We ought, then, to
recognize that it is necessary to take
account for the choice of the seed-
bearers, not only of the external char-
acters but even of the idiosyncrasy of
each one of them. Now since this
does not manifest itself except by its
effects, we shall, if a variation seems to
present some difficulties in becoming
fixed, have to examine separately the
products of each of the seed parents
and make our choice bear upon those
which present, in the least pronounced
degree, atavism, or the tendency to
return to the primitive type” (p. 32).

Verlot’s experience with and observa-
tions upon hybrid plants, as coming
from an experienced horticulturist, are
interesting, and, to the practical plant
breeder, valuable. Regarding the now
well-understood fact of the gradual dis-
appearance of the hybrid forms through
segregation, he says: ‘“‘Their fertility is
of short duration, through the more or
less rapid return of their products to
the types which have given them birth”
(p:725)..

Regarding the general aspects of
plant hybrids, he adds: “All their
characters, of whatever nature they
may be, with the exception of a more
considerable development of the organs
of vegetation, are, in general, inter-
mediate between those of the parents,
but always limited by them”’ (p. 25).
Regarding the matter of the bounds or
limits of the hybrid characters he
remarks elsewhere: “‘Let us call atten-
tion to a circumstance always constant
in the hybrids, which we have to con-
sider, that is, the absence in the products
of colors other than those, or a com-
bination of those of the parents. We
shall insist upon this characteristic,

265

because we shall have occasion to
recur to it; it will serve us to establish
the fact that up to now the facts prove
that, by hybrid fecundations, one will
obtain, in whatever part of the plant
they present themselves, the variations
of color only, limited to those of the
parents” (p. 18).

Since Verlot’s view regarding the
nature of a hybrid was the conventional
one that it consists of a cross between
what are commonly called distinct
species, he was led to notice the very
common fact of comparative sterility
in these cases. Noting the well-known
characteristic of augmented vegetative
growth in hybrids, he is led to ascribe
the seed sterility to the latter, a con-
clusion easily if naively arrived at
from the well-known inverse relation
between undue vegetative luxuriance
and seed reproduction. As an instance
of intermediacy, Verlot alludes to the
matter of height: “In crossing an almost
dwarf species with the pollen of a taller
species the seeds of this cross
will undubitably produce individuals
taller than was their mother”’ (p. 44).

Regarding intermediateness in size in
flowers, he says: “In crossing a species
parviflora by its variety grandiflora we
shall be able to obtain indi-
viduals with flowers larger than those
of their mother by crossing
one is able then to create a race or a
variety in which the size of the flowers
will be augmented” (p. 47). With
regard to the same matter in respect to
earliness and lateness, he says: “‘Sup-
posing one crosses a very early plant
with its very late variety, or vice versa,
one will only be able to obtain varieties
intermediate between the parents in
earliness or lateness”’ (p. 50).

Regarding fragrance he mentions the
case of a cross between Rhododendron
ciliatum (odorless) and R. Edgeworthii
(very fragrant), the hybrid being less
intensely fragrant than the pollen
parent (p. 31). In the matter of color
intermediateness he makes the state-
ment: “Once obtained, white coloration
is able to serve, either by crossing or
by hybridization, in the production of
new variations, ordinarily intermediate

266 The Journal

between it and the color from which it
has proceeded” (p. 59); in other words,
as we should say today, dilution through
the presence of but a single dose of the
color factor.

The most interesting portion of Ver-
lot’s memoir is his discussion of the
practical results achieved with orna-
mental plants in the field of hybridiza-
tion. Regarding dwarfing he cites
McNab (p. 42), to the effect that the
best dwarf varieties of rhododendron
are obtained by the use of pollen taken
from the small stamens, ‘“‘the products
of which,” he says, “I am able to
certify, are very different from those
obtained by the use of the pollen of the
large stamens.’”’ Regarding breeding
for winter hardiness, he mentions the
case of the cross of Amaryllis brasiliensis,
a delicate species impossible to winter
out of doors, by Amaryllis vittata, a
much hardier plant, whereby hybrids
were produced which, with light cover-
ing, would support the climate of Paris.
Likewise Rhododendron arboreum, which
cannot resist more than 2 to 3 degrees of
cold, gave, when crossed by R. cataw-
biense (a much hardier form, though with
inferior inflorescence), hybrids which in-
herited the hardiness of the female plant.

Verlot did fot recognize the phe-
nomenon of dominance in the first
generation of the hybrids, but he men-
tions the case of a white Gloxinia crossed
by pollen from a blue-flowered variety,
in which out of one thousand seedlings
“all bore nothing but perfectly blue
flowers, not a single one of them being
white, nor a single one variegated”
(p. 65). Likewise the crossing of the
same plant by a red-flowered variety
gave the same result, “‘all the plants
coming from sowings of seeds thus pro-
duced had entirely blue flowers”’ (p. 65).

Regarding the inheritance of variega-
tions it may be of simple interest to note
that the following species are mentioned
in which the variegated form breeds
true from the seed. Alyssum mariti-
mum, Barbarea vulgaris, Celtis australis,
Chetranthus cheirt. With these are to
be included the variegated ferns Pteris
argyraea and P. aspericaults var. tricolor.

He remarks upon an interesting fact

of Heredity

that the variegations do not appear
upon the first leaves of a variegated
variety. Regarding the heredity of
double flowers, he reports no crosses,
but simply remarks upon cases of
double-flowered peach and apple which
came true from the seed (p. 83).

Another interesting piece of informa-
tion given is that, in the case of double
camellias, the full round seeds pro-
duced plants with very double flowers,
while the more elongated seeds pro-
duced plants with single or but slightly
doubled flowers (p. 87). Among color
variations in plants, few are more
interesting than the red or copper-
leaved forms of ordinary green-leaved
types. It may be of interest here to
note Verlot’s citations of such color
varieties as are homozygous for the
color, and which hence come true to
type, among the recorded instances
being the purple beech and the purple-
leaved barberry.

One of the most interesting matters
recorded in Verlot’s paper, is his cita-
tion of Bridgmann’s investigations
on the inheritance of leaf variation in
ferns. Many species of ferns show
various degrees of leaf laciniation, the
latter becoming often many times com-
pounded. In the case of several species
of Scolopendrium with crisped or lacini-
ate leaves, spores were separately sown
from the modified and from the un-
modified leaves, with the result that
the resulting plants, although derived
from the same original plant as a parent,
inherited the characteristics of the
particular leaves or parts of leaves from
which the spores were taken.

“The spores from the deformed part
of the frond were collected and sown
separately. The result was
that all the plants which came from
them reproduced the crisped form of the
individual mother plant, and some of
them even in a higher degree’ (p. 98).

“The spores from the normal part
of the frond, which had furnished the
first sowing, were collected with the
same care, and sown under identical
conditions. There originated in the
same way thousands of young plants,
but it was scarcely possible in the

Roberts: The Founders of the Art of Breeding

quantity of them for one to find a dozen
which showed, even to a feeble degree,
the irregularities of form so charac-
teristic of the first lot. The two sow-
ings were so different from one another
that, if one had not known their deriva-
tion, one would never have been able to
believe that they were such near
relatives. The great majority here
were perfectly normal; as to the small
number of those which showed traces
of the maternal monstrosity, this mon-
strosity was limited to fronds bi-lobed
or tri-lobed at the top, with the edges
more or less sinuous or a little slashed;
yet this alteration most often did not
reach more than one or two fronds on
the same individual” (p. 98).

VERLOT’S SUMMARY

Verlot summarizes his views upon
hybrids in the following words, which
are worth reproducing because they
fairly well represent the general knowl-
edge of the time, as follows: (1) ‘““Hybrid
fecundation is not able to produce
anything but variations which will be
able, it is true, to multiply themselves
mechanically, but which will not be
fixable, and which consequently cannot
be brought to constitute races or varie-
ties, the products which arise from them
being sterile, or if they are. fertile,
having only a fertility limited to a few
generations, or disappearing after a
certain time by the disjunction of the
types. (2) One of the characters of the
hybrids is also a great development of
the vegetative organs, coincident with
less abundant flowering. They are in
general intermediate between the species
types, but often approach more the
father. (3) The hybrid, self-fertilized,
returns more or less rapidly to the
parents. (4) The hybrid, fertilized by
a parent, returns also promptly to the
parent. (5) Crossing—that is to say,
reciprocal fertilization of varieties or
races of the same species—will serve for
obtaining new variations, intermediate
between the parents, very fertile, and
which can be fixed more or less rapidly,
and constitute new varieties or races.”’

Reviewing this list of statements in
the light of present knowledge, we can

267

see that they constitute a more or less
correct, non-scientific formulation of
the truth. For example, the more or
less rapid return of hybrids—that is to
say, heterozygotes—to the parental
forms, is well established today as a
fact of segregation according to Men-
delian ratios, which, if there is a single
pair of allelomorphs in question, goes
on, on a 1.2.1 basis in each successive
generation. The more or less rapid
return to its parents of the hybrid fer-
tilized by a parent is simply the splitting
off of 50 per cent dominants or reces-
sives as the case may be, and which
are the parental types in the case of
simple ratios.
WICHURA’S WORK

In 1865 there appeared Wichura’s
memoir on the hybridization of plants
(10), based upon experiments in the
crossing of willows, which had occupied
him from 1852 to 1858 inclusive. A
brief preliminary report had appeared
in Flora in 1854, and also within the
same year in the report of the Schlesische
Gesellschaft.

Taken as a whole, Wichura’s work
dealt, not with the investigations: of
individual specific characters but with
species taken entire and crossed as
such. As was the general custom, he
regarded a “species”? as an integral
whole that could be crossed in its
entirety. With this conception he made
what he called ‘‘binary,” ‘“‘ternary”’
and ‘‘quaternary”’ crosses, 7. @., crosses:
(1) between two species; (2) between a
species and a hybrid; and (3) crosses
between two hybrids. Besides the
smaller list of Wichura’s successful
crosses, he published a much longer one
of his failures, which stand as evidence
both of the considerable amount of
crossing work that was done and of the
scientific integrity of the experimenter.
Of the ordinary, or, as he calls them,
‘‘binary’’ crosses, Wichura made, in all, ©
thirty-five successful crosses and com-
binations of crosses (of which ten were
‘‘binarv,’”’ 1. @., simply crosses in the
ordinary sense) between twenty-one
different species of willows.

Although, as has_ been _ stated,

268 The Journal

Wichura, no more than most of the
other hybridists of his day, paid atten-
tion to the crossing of characters as
such, he remarks upon the evidence of
individual characters being inherited as
such: “It was of interest,’ he says
(p. 27), “‘to observe how the unusual
narrowness of the leaves in the experi-
ment, utilizing Salix purpurea X vimina-
lis, remained still recognizable in the
following generation; a proof that,
even in hybrid fertilization, individual
characteristics of the parent plants can
be inherited.”’ (Italics inserted.)
Wichura noted in willows, as others
had done in other plants, the fact of a
higher degree of sterility on the part of
hybrids obtained between species of
more distant specific relationship. The
greater amount of vegetative vigor of
hybrids was remarked upon by Wichura
in the following words (p. 40): ‘‘Not
only in the reproductive organs, but
also in their vegetative behavior, hybrids
show many phenomena whereby they
are more or less strikingly distinguished
from true species. According to the
corroborating observations of Koelreuter
and Gartner, a larger part of the
hybrids obtained by them by hand
crossing, were distinguished by luxuri-
ance of growth. The plants grew to a
greater height than the parents, spread
out farther laterally by virtue of an
increased capacity for sprouting, had a
longer life-period, were able to with-
stand cold longer, and had more abund-
ant, larger and earlier flowers than the
parents. : Among the willow
hybrids, similar phenomena occur, but
the examples of luxuriant growth by
no means constitute the rule.”
Wichura further observed that:
‘““‘Even the most sterile hybrids fall
behind the parents in their productive-
ness. A certain deficiency in the parts
set aside for reproduction must therefore
also occur with them, and if we associate
this in reverse relation with the excess of
their vegetative development, it stands
in complete harmony with the facts
otherwise demonstrated. We _ shall
therefore have to say, in order to express
the relationship correctly, that in the
case of very vigorous hybrids the weak-

of Heredity

ness of the sexual parts brings out an
increased development of the vegetative
growth, whereas it is not the case with
others which are too weak for such a
reaction’’ (meaning crosses between
too distant species) (p. 43).

Wichura concluded from his observa-
tions that hybrids were intermediate in
respect to the differing parental char-
acters. Cases of dominance do not
seem to have come under his hand.
“Among the numerous artificial and
natural willow hybrids observed by me,”
he says, “I have throughout verified
but one apparent exception to the
principle of intermediateness. i
Even the time of flowering of hybrids
holds the mean between ‘the time. of
flowering of the two parents’ (p. 47).
“The leaf-form of Salix caprea X
vminalis, for example, holds so com-
pletely the mean between the linear-
lanceolate leaves of S. viminalis and the
round-ovate leaves of S. caprea, that
they in fact appear to represent the
mathematical mean between the curves
for the outlines of paternal and the
maternal leaves” (p. 47). With regard
to what we should call absence of
dominance, he has to say (p. 50): “‘As
rich in species as the genus of the
willows is, and as numerous combina-
tions of hybrid fertilizations as it has to
show, nevertheless I have never yet
verified anything of a preponderant
influence in any one of its species, but
rather always found that their hybrids
always hold the mean between the
constant characters of the parents’; and
again (p. 86): “In hybrid fertilization,
if unlike factors unite, there arises an
intermediate formation, etc.”’

The latter passage appears to be the
first occasion where the term “‘factor”’
has been used in the literature of plant
breeding, although here the factors
referred to are the parents as a whole
which participate in the cross, and not
the character-forming elements of those
parents. His general conclusion is (p.
46): “Constant characters, through
which the parent species are distin-
guished from one another er :
half over to the hybrid, so that it holds
the middle position between them.’’

Roberts: The Founders

Two observations of Gdartner’s were
verified by Wichura—the identity of
reciprocal crosses (pp. 51 and 186), and
the fact of ‘‘variation”’ in hybrid progeny.

The question was as to the relative
importance of the egg or the pollen in
the result of fertilization. Wichura
says (p. 57): “One sees the question is
still far removed from having been
brought to light, but from Gartner’s
and my own observations it appears at
least determined that the products of
hybrid pollen in breeding are more
various than those of the pollen of true
species.”

From the generally admitted identity
of reciprocal crosses, Wichura draws the
following conclusion (p. 86): “We
have found that the products which
come from reciprocal crossing, unlike
the well-known experiments made in
the animal kingdom, completely coin-
cide with each other. From thts it fol-
lows, however, with mathematical necessity,
that the pollen cell must have exactly the
same share in the conformation of the
fertilization product as the egg.’ (Italics
inserted.)

So far as the writer knows, this is the
first complete categorical statement in
the literature of breeding of such a
conclusion as to the behavior of the sex
cells in amphimixis. One is completely
impressed, in reading Wichura’s work,
with the scrupulous care, accuracy and
precision with which his hybridization
experiments were carried out. One or
two passages in point are interesting.
Referring to a case of Gartner’s, where
exceptional types appeared in the midst
of ‘‘a greater number of hybrid plants of
completely similar hybrid types,” he
says (p. 53): ““To judge concerning the
here-mentioned exceptional types with-
out myself having seen them is scarcely
possible. From the relatively limited
number of my experiments, which have
not yielded the like, I cannot, to be
sure, deny its possibility, but here like-
wise, as above in the case of reversions,
the suspicion of a complete disturbance
of the experiment, whether that the
protection had not been complete, or the
pollen utilized for fertilization not pure,
or the seeds sown not free from foreign

of the Art of Breeding 269

admixture. Whoever knows from his
own experience how much care must be
observed in order to keep an experiment
clean becomes skeptical respecting all
results of an experiment which vary
from the usual rule, of the correctness of
which one has not achieved conviction
through his own observation.”’

Regarding these and other so-called
anomalies as the result of crossing, he
again says (p. 89): “That concerning all
these points and many other disputable
questions we know so little, has
indeed its basis in part in the method
hitherto of artificial cross-fertilization,
which suffers from the double deficiency
that the care requisite to the correctness
of the experiment, through the exclusion
of foreign pollen, has not been taken in
the first place, and second, that although
many experiments have been instituted
in very different families, nevertheless
the individual hybrids have not been
bred and observed in sufficient number.
However, this is imperative throughout
for attainment of general results. Only
when one has at hand the same hybrid
in hundreds of cases, partly from the
same, partly from different parents,
repeated through different years, only
then will one be in position to separate
the essential phenomena of hybridiza-
tion from the more accidental ones.”’

Finally (p. 92), Wichura remarks,
expressing the hope that a learned
society or an individual with means
might repeat his own experiments on a
larger scale: ‘The most scrupulous
exactness in such case would be indis-
pensable. Failing this, and especially if
the possibility of the access of foreign
pollen is not completely excluded, then
all experiments, the more extensively
they are undertaken, only contribute
so much the more to the confusion of
the matter. This must be taken to
heart.”

Regarding the possibility of securing,
in any given case, a cross, Wichura
remarks (p. 84): “. only such
species can be united in a hybrid which
agree in relatively many characters, and
correspondingly in many life conditions.
Experience teaches the same thing in the
familiar rule, that hybrid combinations

270

only occur between species of the same
genus, or though different, yet nearly
related genera.’ This statement repre-
sents a point of view resembling that
held by Gartner, as we have seen. He
comes to a generalization of genetic
value in the following statement (p. 85):
“Tt is known that families die out, after
a few generations, whose members
carry in themselves the germ of a disease,
and who marry only among themselves;
and variety breeders know very well
that all diverging characters of animal
and plant species may be intensified,
when, in successive fertilization, the
precaution is taken that only similarly
divergent individuals mate with one
another.”

This closes the account of the work
in the field of hybridization from the
time of Koelreuter to the time of Gregor
Mendel, 1760 to 1866. Mendel’s in-
vestigations, however, did not become
generally known until 1900, so that very
little change occurred in the methods
pursued in the study of hybrid phe-

nomena until after the date last men-

tioned. Comparatively few students of
plant breeding, however, realize the his-
torical value of the work of the earlier hy-
bridists, in whose experiments he the
germs of our present knowledge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. DARWIN, CHARLES—
The origin of species by means of
natural selection, or the preservation of
favored races in the struggle for life.
First edition, 1859. Extracts are taken
from the sixth edition. New York,
1896.
. FocKE, WILHELM OLBERS—
Die Pflanzenmischlinge, ein Beitrag sur
Biologie der Gewachse. Berlin, 1861.
3. DUCHARTRE—
Rapport sur la question de l’hybridité
dans les végétaux. Mise au concours par
l’Académie des Sciences, 1861.
4. Gopron, D. A.—
(a) Del’hybridité dans les végétaux. Nancy,
1844.
(b) Recherches expérimentales sur
bridité dans le régne végétale.
1863.

bo

Vhy-
Nancy,

The Journal of Heredity

(c) Des hybrides végétaux, considérés, au
point de vue de leur fécondité et de la
perpetuité on nonperpetuité de leurs
caractéres. Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, 4 me. Série, Botanique, 19 :
125-204, 1863.

5. Lecog, HENRI—

(a) Recherches sur la reproduction des
végétaux. 1827.

(b) De la fécondation naturelle et arti-
ficielle des végétaux, et de l’hybridation,
considérée dans ses rapports avec
Vhorticulture, l’agriculture et la sylvi-
culture, ou études sur les croisements des
plantes des principaux genres cultivés
dans les jardins d’ornaments, fruitiers,
et maraichers, sur les végétaux écono-
miques et de grande culture, les arbres
forestiers, etc. Contenent les moyens
pratiques d’opérer l’hybridation et de
créer facilement des variétés nouvelles.
First edition. Paris, 1845.

(c) De la fécondation naturelle et artificielle
des végétaux, et de l’hybridation, con-
siderée dans ses rapports avec l’horti-
culture et la sylviculture, contenant les
moyens pratiques d’opérer l’hybridation
et de créer facilement des variétés
nouvelles. Second edition. Paris, 1862.

6. NAUDIN, CHARLES—

(a) Réflexions sur l’hybridation dans les
végétaux. Revue Horticole, 4 me.
Série, 4 : 351, 1855.

(b) Sur les plantes hybrides.
cole, 4 me. Serie, 39, 1861.

(c) Nouvelles recherches sur l’hybridité dans
les végétaux. Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, Botanique, 4 me. Serie 19 :
180, 1863.

(d) Del’hybridité considéré comme cause de
variabilité dans les végétaux. Annales
des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique, 5
me. Série 3 : 153, 1865; Comptes Rendus
de l’Académie des Sciences, Nov. 21,
1864.

7. SAGERET, AUGUSTIN—
Considérations sur la production des
hybrides; des variantes, et des variétés
en général, et sur celles des Cucurbi-
tacées en particulier. Annales des
Sciences Naturelles, 18 : 294-314, 1826.
8. VERLOT, B.
Sur la production et la fixation des
variétés dans les plantes d’ornement.
Paris, 1865.
8. VILMORIN, HENRI DE—
Note sur une expérience a l'étude de
Vhérédité dans les végétaux. Paris, 1879.
10. WicHuURA, Max—
Die Bastardbefruchtung im Pflanzen-
reich, erlautert an den Bastarden der
Weiden. Breslau, 1865.

Revue Horti-

A COMMERCIALLY NEW BLUEBERRY

GEORGE E. MURRELL

Horticulturist for the Southern Railway, Washington, D.C.

A. SAPP lives 3% miles from
M Crestview, in northwestern
e Florida, about half-way be-
tween Pensacola and River
Junction. Some twenty years ago he
conceived the idea of testing as a horti-
cultural crop the wild plant known
locally as the high-bush swamp-huckle-
berry. While Mr. Sapp has no tech-
nical horticultural training or experience
in methods of plant breeding, he is one
of those men who combines keen powers
of observation with feeling for plants
and ability to apply himself closely to
a study of their requirements. Locally
he is known as a particularly successful
farmer.

Mr. Sapp visited a swamp not far
from his place during the ripening
season and tagged the blueberry bushes
which appeared to him the most de-
sirable from the standpoint of produc-
tiveness and size of fruit. In the
succeeding autumn he transplanted one
hundred of the bushes he had tagged to
a well-drained field near his home,
settting them out in rows spaced so
that they would be 14 by 15 feet.
This made about 200 bushes to the
acre. He found that the suckers grew
readily and that in their new environ-
ment they made better growth and
fruited more profusely than they did in
their native swamp. When he began
to market the berries he encountered
such an excellent demand, and was able
to obtain such good prices, that he
decided to extend his planting. He now
has his original half acre, which is
twenty years old; an acre which is
twelve years old; 3 acres which are
five years old; and 2 acres two years
old, making a total of 81% acres.

The plants commence bearing the
second year after being set in the field,
and at five years of age yield com-
mercial crops of fruit. From the age of

eight onwards they average half a
bushel of fruit per plant annually,
making the yield 3,200 quarts from
an acre.

At the present time there is little
apparent difference in productiveness
between the twelve-year-old bushes and
those twenty years old. There are,
however, distinct types of plants occur-
ring in the plantation. One type is
stocky, compact, freely branching in
habit, reaching about 8 feet in height
and spread, with the fruit well distrib-
uted throughout the plant. The leaves
of this type are 34 inch by 1% inch in
size, lead-blue in color, with a distinct
bloom upon the upper surface. The
second type is erect in habit, many
stemmed, 10 to 12 feet in height, with
the fruit borne mainly on the ends of
the branches. The leaves of this type
are 1 inch by 2 inches in size, pale
green in color. In addition to these two
principal types there are several inter-
mediate ones, varying in season of
ripening and size of berry.

The botanical standing of this blue-
berry is somewhat in doubt. The
description of Vaccinium virgatum Ait.
appears to cover this species, yet there
are certain differences which may,
when the plant is studied more carefully,
lead to its being classified differently.

Variation in productiveness is marked.
In 1918, one bush yielded 20 quarts at
a single picking, 3 bushels during the

season. Others do not yield so abun-
dantly. Mr. Sapp has found that the
compact bushes are, in general, as

productive as the tall ones, and the
fruit is more easily gathered, hence he
is confining his plantings at present to
this type.

The season extends from May 20 to
August 20, the bulk of the crop ripening
in June and July. Pickings are made
weekly throughout this period. The

271

A BLUEBERRY BUSH OF THE ERECT TYPE

Blueberry bushes vary in habit of growth.

others are compact, spreading, and even drooping in form.
A bush like this may yield 20 quarts of fruit in a

Sapp to be the most desirable type.
single season. (Fig. 5.)

berries remain in good condition for
several days and can be shipped without
difficulty. They are sold on the farm
at 10 to 12% cents per quart. Up to
the present Mr. Sapp has not attempted
to ship to distant markets, as the local
demand has exceeded the supply.

In diameter the berries vary from 10
to 14 mm. They contain seeds like
those of other vacciniums, and in about
the same quantity as the average blue-
berry of the north. The color is blue to
black, the flavor sweet, pleasant, so
agreeable that the fruit is satisfactory
for eating out of hand as well as cooked.
The unusually large size which is
characteristic of Mr. Sapp’s blueberries
makes them of great interest.

Diiey

The one here shown is of the erect type;
This is considered by M. A.

The land upon which they are being
grown is typical of thousands of acres
of pine land found in the South Atlantic
and Gulf states. The surface is sandy
loam, the subsoil a sandy clay, with the
water table 10 to 15 feet below the
surface.

Stimulated by the success of the Sapp
plantation, several other plantings have
been made by people in the same sec-
tion of Florida. D. T: Finlason, at
Laurel Hill, some distance north of
Crestview, is making a serious study of
the matter, and has brought together
on his place an° extensive collection of
varieties. In transplanting suckers
from the swamps into the home garden,
it has been found that they should be

(9 ‘SIgq) “wo woay 8uryesedo1d pur syuryd o[qeusop ysout oy} Butyoopas Aq ssouoAT
-onpoid asearoul puv yj sty Jo Joyovsvyo oy} oaoidumt 07 ayqe useq sey ddeg “py “epqry Id A][eIosJOUIWUOD poaAold sey ainypno arayy pure
‘dweas Suroqysiou & wooly poyurydsuesy o10M soysng oy, “eplopy Uroyzsou ur ddeg "y “JV Jo uorzeyury]d o1oR Jey B puB JYsIo oy} Jo je

HLOOS AHL Ni SNOLLVINVId AXYHEHN TH LSubt GAL LO ANO

A FRUITING BRANCH OF THE SOUTHERN BLUEBERRY

\n « re f 1

ants yields 3,200 quarts of these berries, and M. A. Sapp has found no difficulty
them at 10 to 121% cents a quart. The productiveness of the plants is indi-
ated by this fruiting branch, here shown considerably reduced in size. (Fig. 7.)

Misconception Concerning Human Heredity

set somewhat more deeply than they
originally grew.

It is evident that the commercial
possibilities of this fruit are excellent.
All who are growing it state that the

bo
~I
cn

supply far exceeds the demand. Its
culture is simple, it produces its fruit
in the greatest abundance, and the
prices obtained have been very satis-
factory.

A Common Misconception Concerning Human Heredity

“Important as the heredity which has
stamped its hall-mark upon an organism
or an individual may be, there is another
factor constantly at work in molding
it, namely, its environment. The fin-
ished article, be it vegetable-marrow
or man, is the resultant in a parallelo-
gram of forces, the factors of which are
heredity, or what it brings with it into
the world, and environment, or the
play of world forces upon it. So far
as it concerns the individual, heredity
stops at his birth, though the burden
or the treasure it may have bound upon
his shoulders is sometimes not revealed
till after a long period of years. Its
greatest influence is antenatal. The
environment of the parents may affect
the heredity of the child for good or ill,
but the major part of the effect of envi-
ronment is a post-natal and personal
matter.

‘A leek or a lily grown in the open air
has green leaves, but if the plant is
forced to live in a dark cellar where the
sunlight cannot reach it, its leaves are
white. It requires the energetic touch
of the sun to enable it to elaborate the
green chlorophyll, which gives it its
verdure. Or it may be grown in the
sunlight, in soil from which all traces of
iron have been removed, and its leaves
will remain pale. But if a little iron be
added to the soil the leaves will quickly
assume their natural hue. Here we
are dealing with only one factor in the

1 See Popenoe and Johnson, “‘ Applied Eugenics,” p. 3.

environment; but in nature, as a rule,
the circumstances are more complex.
“The response to the conditions of
environment are well shown by the
behavior of certain Alpine plants. If
taken from their natural habitat and
cultivated in the lowlands, they undergo
material alterations in character. They
grow to a greater height and their
leaves expand in length and breadth.
So long as the plant remains in the low-
lands it will exhibit in each successive
generation these altered characters.
But if one of the plants is transferred
once more to its original habitat, high
up upon the bleak mountains, it will
once more assume the Alpine charac-
teristics, which continue to persist so
long as the plant or its descendants live
under the same conditions. . . . In
the nature of things it is perhaps to be
expected that the influence of environ-
ment should make itself felt in plant
life; but it plays a great part in produc-
ing modifications of animal life as well.”’
The above quotation from ‘The
Adventure of Life,” by Dr. Robert W.
MackKenna, represents a mistaken as-
sumption in regard to heredity that is
very frequently encountered even in
text-books on eugenics. It is an es-
tablished generalization that the rdle
played by environment in producing
wide modifications compatible with life
is far greater in plant life than in animal,
and far greater on the simpler animal
tissues than on the more complex.!

New York, 1918.

THE DRAMATIC CAREERS
OF TWO PLANTSMEN

Davip FAIRCHILD

seldom or never made by educa-

tion. A man may be a good

botanist and not be a good plants-
man, for a botanist’s interests lie in the
names of the plants or their morphology
or anatomy or cytology or in their
chemical constitution. He may be an
expert botanist and yet in the country,
surrounded by trees and fields of wild
plants, be unable to tell one species
from another. A plantsman, on the
other hand, loves plants for their own
sake and, as he wanders through life,
forms the habit of knowing the trees
and shrubs and weeds growing about
him and is not satisfied if he cannot
identify at least the families to which
they belong. This love goes deeper still
if heisatrue plantsman. It makes him
unhappy if he is not growing plants
himself and watching them develop.

The careers of two of the world’s true
plantsmen have just closed, and in such
dramatic fashion that the cable des-
patches regarding their deaths have been
published throughout America: Frank
N. Meyer, of Amsterdam, Holland, and
Aaron Aaronsohn, of Haifa, Palestine—
the one while descending the Yangtze
River, the other in a fall in an aeroplane
off the north coast of France.

By that strange attraction which
brings congenial people together, Frank
N. Meyer, for years the assistant to
Hugo de Vries in Amsterdam, drifted
into the organization of the Office of
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
became an American citizen and an
agricultural explorer, and Aaron Aaron-
sohn, Director of the first American
agricultural experiment station on the
shores of the Mediterranean, became a
foreign collaborator of the same office.

Through these coincidences I came to
know intimately these two remarkable
men, whose work in the discovery of

276

POM eitom oF n are born, and are

new plants for the use of plant breeders
has already become history.

For nine years Frank Meyer wandered
on foot along the narrow pathways of
China, gathering the plants which he
believed would grow in America. As
I write of him here, his hardy yellow
rose, Rosa xanthina, peers in upon me
through my study window, and up in
the border his scarlet lily is in bud,
while the perfume of his lilac has barely
passed away. His white-barked pine is
dusting its pollen into the air, his
Euonymous and his hardy bamboo are
growing at the corners of the house, and
his dry-land elm with its delicate
branches shades the entrance. So much
of China has he successfully transplanted
to this country.

Meyer’s memory of the forms of
plants as they appeared in the open
was remarkable. In this lay his great
power. He could keep in his mind the
characters of thousands of plants—
many of which he had only once seen—
and this enabled him to recognize at
once any which were strangers to his
experience. It is this form memory,
inborn certainly, but trained by years of
solitude in forests and by long tramps
through the fields looking for flowers,
that proves such an invaluable asset in
the profession of an agricultural ex-
plorer. This, combined with the en-
thusiasm of a boy to whom everything
is new, made Meyer unique as a hunter
of plants.

The plant breeders of America and of
all countries where the problems are
similar will benefit by Meyer’s explora-
tions in many ways, for he had the tastes
of a plant breeder and expected, when
his traveling was done, to settle down
in a plant-breeding garden somewhere
in the Rocky Mountain region, where a
high altitude and cool weather would
enable him to carry on breeding work

PIONEER AGRICULTURAL WORK IN THE ORIENT

The first agricultural experiment station to be developed along American lines in the Orient
was started at Haifa, Palestine, by Aaron Aaronsohn. Its progress, which was being watched
with interest by plantsmen throughout the world, was interrupted by the world war, but
Dr. Aaronsohn, who is here seen examining one of his irrigation ditches in company with his
secretary and his foreman, intended to resume experimental work the moment peace was
restored. Just at the moment when it seemed possible to do this, and he was making plans
to that end, he met his death in the fall of an airplane.

FRANK N. MEYER, AGRICULTURAL EXPLORER

The plant explorer’s reward comes from seeing the fruits and flowers which he has gathered
in remote corners of the earth growing successfully in his own country. Fortunately, Frank
N. Meyer lived to see many of his own introductions established in the United States. The

one which he is here examining in the Plant Introduction Station at Chico, California, is a wal-
nut which he sent from northern China.

Fairchild: The Dramatic Careers of Two Plantsmen

throughout the summer. His notes,
published in the ‘‘Inventories of Seeds
and Plants Imported,’ of the Office of
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
are full of suggestions to plant breeders,
and, luckily, his suggestions are backed
up by living material which will make it
easy to provide the breeders with many
of the plants which he describes.

Meyer collected a very wide range of
plants. He collected wild alfalfas in
the Caucasus, Chinese Turkestan and
Siberia; sorghums and Chinese pears in
Manchuria; wild peaches and almonds
in the Kansu Province; chestnuts east
of Pekin; persimmons in the Ming
Tombs Valley; wild conifers in the
Wu Tai Shan; citrus fruits on the
Upper Yangtze; bamboos and straw-
berry trees (the Yang mae) south of
Shanghai; jujubes and the pound peach
in the Shantung Province; dwarf al-
monds, dwarf cherries and apricots and
large fruited oleasters in Russian Tur-
kestan; desert poplars and tamarisks,
wheats and barleys in the desert region
of Chinese Turkestan; wild apples and
apricots in the Tisu Shan range which
divides Siberia and Chinese Turkestan;
large fruited black currants from the
Yakutsk Province of Siberia.

I doubt if any man has traveled more
miles on foot than Meyer did, in search
of his plants. He was attacked by
ruffians in Harbin; his life was threat-
ened by Chinese soldiers in Kansu,
who stood him up against the wall.
He spent months 1n the uncomfortable
inns and was quartered in temples and
other strange places in China. He ran
the gauntlet of suspicious Russian
officials on the border between Siberia
and China at a time when the relations
between these two countries were
strained. He had the distinction of
having his photographs of deforestation
in China used by President Roosevelt
in his message to Congress. Shut in
by the Chinese revolution in Ichang for
many months, his health, which had
begun to feel the effects of lonely travel,
broke down and, when finally he suc-
ceeded in escaping, the strain appears
to have been toomuch. He disappeared
from the river steamer in the middle of

279

the night of June 2, 1918, and his body
was found several days later by the
American consul at the little town
of Wuhu, where the Chinese, who had
found it in the river, had temporarily
buried it, and from which place it
was taken to Shanghai, where it now
rests.

Aaron Aaronsohn began his life on
horseback, so to speak. On his Arab
steed he traversed the Jordan and
climbed the slopes of Mount Hermon in
the Holy Land. Educated as a protégé
of Baron Rothschild, in Grignon, France,
and as a friend of the African explorer
Schweinfurth in Berlin, he early became
interested in the wild plants of Palestine
and made collections of the wild forms.
Urged on by his professors in Bonn and
Munich to discover the origin of the
cultivated wheat plant, he found on the
slopes of Mount Hermon a truly wild
wheat, which has been subsequently
named by O. F. Cook in honor of the
discovery, Triticum hermonit. Because
of the fact that certain crosses of culti-
vated wheats revert to it in character,
and from the fact of its undoubted wild
character, it appears in all probability
to be one of the progenitors of wheat,
the greatest cereal of civilized man,
rather than a cultivated form gone
wild.

Coming to America to study American
conditions, Aaronsohn interested the
Department of Agriculture in his Pales-
tine researches, and through the friends
he made here and guided by the advice
of department men, he established the
first agricultural experiment station
along American lines to be started out-
side the confines of the United States.

After four years of organization work,
the war storm broke over the institu-
tion, wrecked it completely and forced
Aaronsohn to flee. His life, which had
been spectacular enough during peace
times, became infinitely more exciting,
and the story of his escape through
Austria and Germany into Denmark
on the plea that if he could only get the
advice of Johannson of Copenhagen or
Nilsson of Sval6f, Sweden, he could
produce by a selection a variety of
sesame which would produce increased

280 The Journal

amounts of this oil-producing seed and
relieve the oil shortage, seemed as he
told it to me like a chapter out of the
Arabian Nights. He told me how he,
by cablegrams to America, got the
English Consulate to give him papers to
England, and how he threw these
away in order that he might be arrested
as a spy on arrival at Folkstone and
so conceal from the Turks the fact that
he had deserted and thus save his own
family from massacre, only to hear
later of their murder; how he showed
General Allenby the water-bearing strata
where artesian wells should be sunk in
Palestine and aided him in placing his
artillery so as to produce the greatest
effect on the cliffs and fortifications he
was attacking; how he saw Balfour and
was of influence in getting him to make
his promise of “Palestine as a home
land for the Jews”; of his work in
Bulgaria to pull her out of the war—all
these war activities of Aaronsohn’s will
doubtless find their-place in the histories
now being written of the Great Struggle.

That, just as the war clouds are
lifting and he was making plans to put
in new crop plants and start a new
agriculture on a quarter of a million
acres of land in Palestine, and was
hurrying through the air from London
to Paris, he and his pilot should in-
stantly drop through the fog into the
sea and be lost, seems too hard to

of Heredity

believe, for we had come to feel that
there on the eastern, Oriental end of the
Mediterranean there was coming into
existence a type of experimental agri-
culture which would be epoch-making
and that Aaronsohn was the man des-
tined to bring this about. When the
war broke, a beginning in plant exchange
had been made, and the plant breeders
of America will find in Aaronsohn’s
bulletin on his agricultural explorations
in Palestine a large number of valuable
suggestions regarding the possibilities of
new dry-land cereals, stocks for the
jujubes, oil-producing grains, the carob
fodder tree, and cover crops for citrus
orchards. The date growers in the
Salt River Valley have grown some of
the date palms which Aaronsohn got
for them in Egypt, and the desert
hawthorn which he sent in is being
tested as a stock for early pears.

The plans of these two remarkable
men, the myriads of observations made,
the knowledge gained from their re-
flections in solitude—all are lost to the
world at a time when it can ill afford
to lose such things and just as their
discoveries were beginning to need their
guidance.

May their lives encourage, some-
where in the world, young men starting
out to live, to find their careers in the
field of plant breeding and _ plant
exploration.

Corrections in an Article on Poultry Breeding

Typographical errors unfortunately
appeared in the article by Professor
Lippincott, ‘‘The Breed in Poultry
and Pure Breeding,’ which appeared
in the February number, 1919. These
are of a technical nature and require
correction in order to make the article
intelligible. Page 77, eleven lines from
the bottom, P=white (no - pigment)

Offspring (1) Pp (Re)(Re) bB = Barred splashed fo} of

(2) Pp (Re)(rE) bB = Barred blue f' &
Non-barred splashed 2 9
Non-barred blue Q 2

(3) Pp (Re)(Re) bb =
(4) Pp (Re)(rE) bb =

should read p=white (no pigment).
Same page, two lines from bottom;
b=indicates, etc., should read b=in-
dicates, etc. Page 78, twelve lines from
the bottom, for pp (Re)(rE) Bb read
pp (Re) (rE) Bb. Five lines from the
bottom, right-hand column, the same
correction should be made. The four
lines at the bottom should read:

)
Equal
numbers

AN IMPROVED STRAIN
OF WISCONSIN TOBACCO

Connecticut Havana No. 38

JAMES JOHNSON

Wisconsin Experiment Station!

: ‘HE instances of improved types
of tobacco, which are accepted
as such commercially, together
with data covering a number of

years to show where such improvement

hes, are sufficiently rare to warrant
recording. In 1908 a project for the
production of an improved strain of

Wisconsin cigar binder tobacco was

undertaken, together with a study of

certain principles of inheritance involved
in crosses and in simple selection with
tobacco. Some of the results secured
on the latter problem are to be published
elsewhere. It is desired here to record
only certain aspects of the production
of a commercial strain of tobacco.
During the summer of 1908, about 2
acres of Connecticut Havana tobacco
were grown at the Experiment Station

Farm at Madison, largely for seed

purposes, with the idea of introducing

this variety widely throughout the
tobacco-growing regions of the State.

Several hundred pounds of this seed

were distributed annually for a period

of three years and it met with consider-
able success. A great many growers,
however, reported that although the
quality was very satisfactory the yield
of this type should be increased. The
exact history of the strain of Connec-
ticut Havana which was grown is not
definitely known, although at the time
of its introduction here it was not far
removed from some of the best strains
grown under this name in the Con-
necticut Valley. Repeated comparisons
with the widely grown variety of Com-
stock Spanish of Wisconsin, the Con-
necticut Havana, and the Zimmer

1 Published by permission of the Director.

Spanish of Ohio, showed that they were
all practically identical and could be all
classed in one group as ‘‘ Havana Seed.”’

The Connecticut Havana grown for
seed in 1908 was presumably ‘“‘pure-
bred”’ seed. A great deal of attention
was paid to roguing out seed plants and
selecting and bagging plants for further
study during this year. Seed from
about thirty-five plants was _ self-fer-
tilized and the majority of these sowed
separately and transplanted into prog-
eny rows in 1909. It became evident
from this test that three fairly distinct
types of tobacco were present in the
progeny plat, but that the progeny
from each parent plant was remarkably
uniform. The majority of the rows
were practically identical and typical
Connecticut Havana tobacco, but two
rows, viz., Selection No. 26 and Selec-
tion No. 27, stood out distinctly from
the others. Type 26 differed from the
normal type in that the leaves were
smaller in number but considerably

larger in size, and also were more
pendant than those of 27. Further,
the stalk was shorter, thicker, and

tended to lodge more than the normal
type under unfavorable weather con-
ditions. Type 26 also budded slightly
earlier and matured earlier than the
normal. Type 27, on the other hand,
differed from the normal in that it
possessed a greater number of leaves,
which, on the whole, were somewhat
smaller in size than the normal. The
leaves were very erect in position. The
stalk was a little more slender, some-
what taller than normal, but very
strong, and rarely lodged. This strain

281

-_ = * 4
ut ae a ~»

ONE OF THE PARENTS OF CONNECTICUT HAVANA NO. 38

a

This tobacco plant represents Strain No. 26, isolated from the Connecticut Havana
variety. Itis the female parent of Strain No. 38, of which 10,000 acres are now grown
commercially in Wisconsin. (Fig. 8.)

Johnson: An Improved Strain of Wisconsin Tobacco

budded and matured on an average of a
week or ten days later than the normal.

It is assumed that strains 26 and
27 are ‘‘mutations”’ from the normal.
The reasons for this assumption lie
primarily in the fact that both types
differ from any other variety or strain
which has previously or since been
grown at the station, and hence their
occurrence in the Connecticut Havana
variety was presumably not due to an
intermixture of seed. On the other
hand, these strains have now been grown
for ten vears and during this time have
shown no sign of segregation but have
remained remarkably uniform as_ to
type.

Both strains 26 and 27 possessed some
commercial advantages over the normal,
as, for instance, the size of the leaf in
26 and the number of leaves in 27. On
the other hand, both possessed points
of lesser value than the normal, as,
for instance, the reduced number of
leaves in 26 and the reduced size of
leaves in 27. The quality of the leaf
in both seemed to be in no way inferior
to that of the normal, although the
time of maturity of 27 might, under
certain conditions, prove undesirable.

It at once became evident that, if the
desirable qualities of the two strains
could be combined into one plant, a
considerable improvement over the nor-
mal might be expected. Accordingly
this cross was made along with a large
number of other crosses of varieties
and strains made during 1909 for the
same purpose. The first generation of
the cross 269 X 27 was given in 1910.
The cross showed to a very large extent
a very desirable intermediate condition
of the characters of the two parents, and,
in an unexpected manner, produced a
plant whose conformation very closely
approached the ideal in mind. This
type was given the number 38 as a
means of readily distinguishing it from
the numerous other types grown. The
second generation of the cross was
grown in small numbers in 1911, but
in 1912 and succeeding generations was
grown in large numbers, although data
were unfortunately not taken upon
large numbers in the second generation.

283

Field observations upon a large number
of individuals, however, have convinced
the writer that there was no marked
segregation into types such as occurred
when certain varieties of tobacco were
crossed and grown under similar con-
ditions. Whether the segregation was
of such character that it could not be
detected or did not occur at all may be
regarded as an open question. The
writer is inclined to believe, however,
as a result of data and observations on
this and other crosses in tobacco, that
under certain conditions, where the
strains crossed are closely related,
“blended”’ inheritance only may occur,
segregation into parent types and in-
termediates being absent in the second
filial generation. Whether this assump-
tion, which has been noted in several
variety crosses of tobacco (together
with segregation in others) be true or
not, it is evident that differences in
habit and form of growth and in quality
which cannot be detected by careful
observation can have no significance
from a commercial standpoint, although
segregation in characters concerned in
quality may occur. No evidence of
such segregation has been found, but
it is exceedingly important that no
segregating strain, no matter how small
the variability may be, should be in-
troduced into cultivation. In order to
be further certain of this, therefore, the
new strain was grown for four years at
the station before being distributed to
growers and then the distribution was
limited to small amounts for experi-
mental purposes. Following fairly ex-
tensive distribution in 1916, however,
the writer was convinced that the
quality was sufficiently uniform to
warrant the general recommendation of
this seed to Wisconsin growers. The
strain has met with considerable favor
among the growers from the standpoint
of appearance and yield in the field
and from the standpoint of the cured
product on the part of the buyers.
The strain owes its value, not to its
being widely different from the best
varieties grown in the State, but rather
to its general similarity to these varieties
combined with the fact that it ts a

284 The Journal

distinct improvement over them in
some respects. Such improvement ap-
parently could not be obtained from
the standard variety by simple selection
alone, as has been shown by such trials
carried on simultaneously.

The chief advantages claimed for
Connecticut Havana No. 38 are due to
the desirable habit of growth 1t presents
in the field, the leaves being quite erect
in position, rendering the necessary
field operations more easily accom-
plished. The leaves are quite uniform
in size from top to bottom of the plant
and are somewhat broader in proportion
to their length than those of the ordinary
Havana seed. It possesses on the
average one or two more leaves to the
plant than does the ordinary Havana,
while, at the same time, it has a greater
average size of leaf. The quality is not
inferior to that of Connecticut Havana
seed, at least under Wisconsin con-
ditions. Although no carefully con-
trolled experiment on the relative yield
of Connecticut Havana No. 38 and of
ordinary Havana seed has been made,
it appears from the data secured on leaf
number and size that on the average it
will yield 7 to 10% more than the
ordinary Havana seed.

The data upon which most of these
conclusions are based are presented in
Table I, covering a period of nine sea-
sons. During each year measurements
and counts were made on about twenty-
five plants of each type and the averages
only are given for the four types 26, 27,
38, and 33, the latter being a product of
a continued selection and imbreeding
experiment with the ordinary Connec-
ticut Havana type. During two or
three years all the data could not be
secured, either because of insect injury
or, as in 1916, when the data were dis-
carded as unreliable because of the
effect of Mosaic disease upon the plants.
In other years the root-rot disease due
to Thielavia was a factor in reducing
size, but it was considered that the
influence had the same relative effect
on each, since in these types there was
no evidence of variation in resistance to
the disease. It should be said here
that Connecticut Havana No. 38 is no

of Heredity

more resistant to the Thielavia root-
rot disease than the ordinary Spanish
or Havana types of seed, and the
grower is likely to be disappointed in
low yields obtained on infested soils.
This strain preferably should not be
grown on Thielavia infested _ soils.
Where the grower expects to plant
tobacco on root-rot infested soils or on
old tobacco fields, he should obtain a
resistant type of seed. Such types are
now being developed at the Wisconsin
Station in codperation with the United
States Department of Agriculture and
may in the future largely displace the
susceptible strains of Havana tobacco,
provided an equally high quality can
be produced in the resistant types.
Referring to Table I, it will be noted
that numbers have been gradually
added to the designation. Each digit
following the original number indicates
an added generation of inbreeding so
that the number of generations a seed-
plant has been inbred can be readily
determined. The stalk height refers
to the height of a ‘“‘topped’”’ plant.
The height of topping was in some
measure determined by judgment from
a commercial standpoint in earlier
years, but in the later years the plants
were topped uniformly with reference
to the position of the first ‘“‘bald”’
sucker. + The leaf number is the number
of marketable leaves. The length and
breadth of the leaves are the maximum
measurement of these dimensions. The
“top leaf’? 1s the uppermost leaf of
the plant after topping, the ‘‘middle
leaf”’ the largest leaf selected at random
at about the middle position of the
plant and the “bottom leaf,” usually
the third from the bottom counting in
the ‘‘sand”’ leaves. The average leaf
length and width is the average of the
top, middle, and bottom leaf, and rep-
resents quite satisfactorily the average
size of the leaves on the plant. The
average breadth-index is secured by
dividing the average leaf breadth by the
average length and multiplying by 100.
This figure is a good relative index to
the shape of the leaf, 7. e., it indicates
the width as compared to the length,
the greater the number the more nearly

AN IMPROVED WISCONSIN STRAIN OF TOBACCO

“Connecticut Havana No. 38,’’ a strain produced by crossing two strains isolated
from the common Connecticut Havana variety. This type of tobacco has
been a commercial success, and is a noteworthy example of the practical possi-
bilities of plant breeding. (Fig. 9.)

THE SECOND PARENT OF CONNECTICUT HAVANA NO. 38

This tobacco plant represents Strain No. 27, isolated from the Connecticut Havana
variety. It was used as the male or pollen-bearing strain in making the cross which
produced the commercially valuable type known as Connecticut Havana No. 38.
(Fig. 10.)

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288 The Journal

‘

‘round”’ the leaf. From these data it
will be seen, by comparing the averages

of No. 38 with those of No. 33 (the
ordinary Connecticut Havana), that

the number of leaves is on the whole
greater and the average leaf size some-
what larger in the Connecticut Havana
38. The leaf shape is also considerably
better under good growing conditions,
though this character is less pronounced
than other characters under unfavorable
growing conditions. The more signif-
icant facts are summarized as averages
of eight years in Table II.

The value of this strain is shown by
the fact that in addition to the seed
distributed by the station, at least four
growers are producing the seed for
commercial purposes in one instance on
an extensive scale. Jt is estimated that
at least ten thousand acres of this type
will be grown in Wisconsin during 1919,
out of a total acreage of forty to forty-five
thousand. This 1s, then, a case of a new
strain of tobacco developed as a result of
experimental trial which has been ac-

Taste I1.—Summarized Data of Most Significant Characters of Connecticut Havana
Together with Parent and Normal Strains.

of Heredity

cepted and grown commercially. There
have been perhaps a number of such
failures in tobacco culture leading to
the popular opinion among growers and
dealers that tobacco cannot or should
not be “bred up,’’ but that we should
strive to maintain the “original” as
closely as practicable, separating our
seed by as few generations as possible
from the original stock of seed upon
which the success of the tobacco in-
dustry was founded. The fallacy of
such an argument is evident from an
agricultural standpoint, although at the
same time one cannot argue too strongly
against the promiscuous introduction of
new strains of tobacco without having
first repeatedly tested them out under
the commercial conditions for which
they are intended. Much progress can
be made along the line of improving
tobacco by breeding or selection, but
it should not be attempted by anyone
who is not willing to devote at least
eight to ten years of time and work to
accomplish it.

No. 38,
Averages of eight years.

Average of top, middle, and

bottom leaves

Strain Leaf number Baie _ Breadth index of leaf
|
Length, inches) Width, inches
: Ese E
No. 26 14.2 | 20.0 it} SO. §
No. 27 18.0 18.0 9.6 53.6
No. 38 16.9 i) 1b 10.6 5on8
No. 33 15.5 18.2 9.8 53.8

Notice to Readers

Attention is invited to the footnote on the
title page, in which it is stated that the JOURNAL
is published monthly with the exception of
July, August and September. The omission
of these three numbers was made necessary
last year by war conditions, and the fact that
the entire editorial staff had entered the
military service and left the magazine in the
hands of volunteer workers, making the issu-
ance of the summer numbers impracticable.

It is considered advisable to pursue the
same policy this year, but the editorial staff
has recently been reorganized, and with the

appearance of the October issue it is expected
that the JoURNAL will return to its pre-war
basis of twelve issues a year.

The JouRNAL relies upon members of the
American Genetic Association for interesting
material upon subjects falling within its scope.
Members are cordially invited to submit
articles suitable for publication, especially
those which are illustrated with striking or
unusual photographs. It 1s a particular policy
of this publication to interpret the discoveries
of modern science by means of photographs.

The

: Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol ax, No, 7 October, 1919

CONTENTS

Breeding Timothy at Svyaléf, by Hernfrid Witte.................... 291
The Genius of Theodore Roosevelt and His Place among Historic
Personalities, iy. We Aw WOOOS ee Sane pie ie a. 8ie a wine 2 Sie Ba wee 300
A Defect of Hair and Teeth in Cattle—Probably Hereditary, by Leon
BS" LP) OSL RN gel tes Res Rec Oy St Res Oy Sa een 303
A Mew Seniree or Plait OOd tions ate am wig el ctate euaysret oie aie cin ae aon eigen 307

The Inheritance of Coat Color in Great Danes, by C. C. Little and

BORN ONES a7 ay eae Ta tee TE oe ee ae Seog etm chs Jone altstnes 2. opts aemaKeNS 309
Olneya Beane, by OB, (ook yao dda acca te ac oss ane es er tee - 321
Racial Origins and the Honors of War, by F. A. Woods.............- 332

NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918 and 1919. Vol. IX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers,
as will also Vol. X.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

ntered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1918 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, October 15, 1919.

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AHLOWIL AO SNHOA LNAYAAAIG

BREEDING TIMOTHY AT SVALOF

HERNFRID WITTE

Director of the Forage Plant Section of the Swedish Seed Association

Y INTENTION in presenting
M the following report is to give a
short account of the methods
of timothy breeding at Svaldf,
the multifariousness of forms studied,
and the results gained from this branch
of breeding up to the present time.
The Meadow culture in Sweden is of
high importance, about one-third of the
open area being occupied by meadows,
most of which are temporary. Sweden’s
annual want of clover and grass seed
amounts to about 11 millions of kilo-
grams, of which not less than 4.8 mil-
lions is Timothy seed. In the year
1907, when grass breeding work was
taken up at Sval6df, timothy was the
first to be made an object of investiga-
tion; but also orchard grass (Dactylis
glomerata), meadow fescue (Festuca pra-
tensis), tall oat grass (Avena elatior),
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne),
field bromegrass (Bromus arvensis) and
several others were added.

THEORY AND METHODS OF BREEDING
TIMOTHY

Timothy normally being cross-pol-
linating and exhibiting manifold varia-
tions in nearly all its characters, appears
in an infinite number of different forms,
though only a very few of them are
fully constant, giving a uniform pro-
geny after self-fertilization. Suppose, for
instance, that twenty-five different pairs
of characters (surely a far too low num-
ber) are represented in timothy, this
certainly means that (2)*° or 33 million
constant combinations may exist, but
the number of possible combinations,
amounting to (2%)? or about 1.126
milliards, means only one perfectly con-
stant individual in 33 millions. It is
therefore practically impossible to base
timothy breeding on selection of con-
stant individuals. Instead one has to
select a great number of individuals, to

study the practical value of the progeny
of each of them—if possible, in several
generations. It may be necessary to
repeat the selection before at last intro-
ducing to agriculture the variety or
varieties that have proven to be of the
highest practical value.

The practical method used at Svalof
in breeding perennial grasses appears
from the following scheme. From na-
ture, or from cultures at Svaldf, pedi-
greed plants are selected and vegeta-
tively multiplied in plots for the pur-
pose of attaining the truest possible
estimate of different characters desired.
The best of these plots are then re-
increased vegetatively into larger plots,
situated as solitarily as possible. This
is marked on the chart ‘‘vegetative
multiplication isolated.’’ With seeds
from the last-mentioned plots compara-
tive trial plots are laid out, and when in
several trials a sort has proven prac-
tically superior to the very best com-
mercial seed, and also has afforded
evidence of practical uniformity, it
may be multiplied and distributed on a
large scale. Uniformity is studied in
special pedigree plots where the plants,
raised from seeds obtained in artificial
isolation, are growing in like distances
each way, generally 40 cm. In these
pedigree trials new selections are made—
individual as well as mass selections.

VARIATION AND HEREDITY OF DIFFERENT
CHARACTERS

The length of stem varies remarkably,,
from 20 to 30 cm. on the one hand to
110 to 120 cm. on the other (see Figs.
1 and 5), and displays a series of
hereditary gradations, though at times
it may be difficult distinctly to state the
hereditariness of the separate gradations,
since modifications from the environ-
ment are rather considerable.

Pry Ws

TWO EXTREMES IN HABIT OF GROWTH

riation which occurs among timothy

(Fig. 1.).

plants in habit of growth.

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294 The Journal

Number and Length of Internodes.—
As a tule most types possess 6 or 7
internodes, seldom 5. Concerning the
length of the different internodes the top
internode is always the longest. The
length decreases downward, so that the
base internode normally is the shortest.

Comparing different forms, the lengths
of the internodes vary, absolutely speak-
ing, to a considerable extent, a fact that
causes the various length of stem in
various forms. Not only absolutely
but also relatively considered, the length
of the internodes is varying to the extent
that the relation between the different
internodes in this respect is rather
different in different forms. The top
internode may, for instance, in some
forms be longer than half the stem’s
length, whereas in others it hardly
equals one-fourth of the whole length.
The base internodes are in certain cases
very short, in others rather long (see
Fig. 3). In this respect the modifica-
tions are remarkable, but regarding the
length of the internodes there exists,
no doubt, a wide range of hereditary
gradations.

Thickness of Stem.—As a matter of
course there generally exists between
tall and short stem-forms rather great
differences in thickness, a fact, however,
that also may be noticed between forms
of about the same height, so that length
and thickness of stem are not always
correlated. The thickness of stem is
naturally an hereditary character.

Direction of Stem—In most timothy
forms the stems are stiffly erect, in
some, however—for instance, in several
dwarfed varieties—they are more or
less spreading, but mostly they have a
comparatively irregular direction, vary-
ing from erect to spreading or at least
a tendency towards spreading (see Figs.
1 and 5). In other varieties the stems
are decidedly spreading, sometimes mak-
ing an angle of only 30 degrees with the
horizontal level (Fig. 1b). Direction of
stem is an hereditary character and has
a practical bearing.

Size and Color of Leaves.—In width
and length as well as in their mutual
relations the leaves vary considerably.

of Heredity

The middle leaves, which are the largest,
may in different forms vary in width
from 4.6 to 10.6 mm. and in length
from 55 to 276 mm. The relation
between width and length of leaves is
subject to a wide range of variation;
the length of the middle leaves varies
in different forms from 14 to 40 times the
width. Thus there exist many combina-
tions of gradations that certainly are
hereditary, though it is very difficult to
arrive at a definite conclusion in this
respect. The leaves may also be flat
or more or less boat-shaped.

As to direction of leaves, in most
forms the leaves are drooping, in some
nearly erect. The color of the leaves
varies from pale green to dark or bluish-
green. The stems are normally yellow-
greenish; at times the upper internodes
may be rather intensely anthocyan or
bluish colored.

Variation of Head.—The head is sub-
ject to marked variations in length,
thickness, shape, stiffness, compact-
ness, etc. (see Fig. 3). Length and
thickness of the head change markedly.
No correlation exists between these
characters, as in two variations of like
length of head the thickness may dif-
ferentiate considerably, and vice versa.
It may be stated that the length of
head varies from 2 to 15 cm. and the
thickness from about 3 or 4 mm. to
8 or 10 mm. Different gradations of
size of head are obviously hereditary.
The shape of head is normally cylin-
drical, occasionally with tapering apex
or base, rarely fusiform, all of these
characters being surely hereditary. As
a rule the head is stiff, occasionally
slender and nodding.

In the typical timothy head the
rachillae are reduced to such an extent
as to give the 1-flowered spikelets the
appearance of growing out directly from
the spike axis; in exceptional cases the
rachillae are elongated, making the
spike more panicle-shaped. Also these
characters are hereditary (see Fig. 3).

Variation in Flower Parts——The
empty glumes vary in size from 2.5 or
3 mm. to 5 or 5.5 mm. in length (see
frontispiece a, b) as well as in color at

GLUMES AND SEEDS

A detailed representation of the variations which occur in the glumes and seeds of
timothy. A and b are empty glumes; c to h floral glumes, and 7 to m seeds of differ-
ent forms. A, magnified several diameters. (Fig. 2.)

CRAG

SEES

|

VARIATION IN TIMOTHY HEADS

This series of heads represents the range of variation which has been obtained during the

course of the breeding work at Sval6f.

“The length of head varies from 2 to 15 cm., and the

thickness from about 3 or 4mm. to 8 or 10 mm. Different gradations of size of head are ob-

viously hereditary.” (Fig. 3.)

bloom and maturity. The floral glumes
are also subject to variability as to form,
size and color. Normally the first
floral glume is awnless, occasionally
having a small awn (see Fig. 2, c-h).
The anthers vary in color from white to
intense violet, sometimes rust-brownish.
The grains present variations in form
(roundish or pointed), color (light to
dark brown) and size (see Fig. 2, 7-m).

Physiological Characters —Regarding
hardiness no difference between various
forms has been noticed at Svaléf, but
in the northern part of Sweden, at the
branch station of the Swedish Seed
Association at Lulea, Lat. 65° 35’ N.,
marked variations in this respect have
been noted.

Different timothy forms present a
noticeable variation in earliness of
shooting culms in spring time as well
as in earliness of bloom (see Fig. 5).
The beginning of the bloom time may
differ with twenty-five days between the
earliest and the latest forms. These
characters are anyway not correlated,

296

but hereditary. Stiffness of stem ap-
pears to vary as in the cereals and is also
hereditary. Withering down of leaves
is an hereditary character that may be
very pronounced. In some forms all
the leaves may be withered at the begin-
ning of the bloom; in others they may
be almost fresh even at the ripening of
the seeds.

Aftergrowth—The quantity of the
aftergrowth is to a large extent due to
more or less favorable conditions of
weather, but also to different forms.
Some forms yield exclusively leaves,
others leaves and stems, and others again
nothing but single stems (see frontis-
piece). As to stooling power there is a
wide range of variation in different
forms.

Disease Resistance-——The resistance
against the timothy rust (Puccinia
phleipratensis), the fungous disease that
most severely attacks timothy, varies
considerably in different forms. Some
forms are so intensely affected that rust
appears even in the empty glumes,

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—AONVALSISAN-LSOM NE FONANATAT

THREE DISTINCT STRAINS

The plant on the left represents a tall and early-maturing strain of timothy produced at
Svalof; the one in the center is medium-sized and moderately early; and the one on the

right is medium-sized and very late.

whereas other forms growing close by
may be left nearly intact. The prac-
tical importance of this hereditary
character should not be overlooked, as
severely diseased individuals evidently
decrease in yield the following year (see
Fig. 4), or occasionally even are killed
out by the attacks. There are also other
fungous timothy diseases as, for ex-
ample, Scolecotrichum graminis, Epi-

298

(Fig. 5.)

chloe typhina and Dilophia graminis, but
the power of resistance against these
diseases has as yet not been a subject of
investigation.

Resistance to aridity also displays.
variations, some dwarfed forms with
reduced transpiration surfaces being
more suitable for adaptation to dry con-
ditions.

Specific longevity is no doubt in-

Witte: Breeding Timothy at Svalof

herently varying in different forms,
though it is difficult to make an exact
statement on account of the variability
in external conditions.

WHICH CHARACTERS ARE MOST DESI-
RABLE?

Evidently all characters in timothy
are more or less subject to variation, but
all gradations of characters are com-
bined in nearly infinite numbers of dif-
ferent forms. Most of these are hy-
brids, at self-fertilization yielding an
offspring more or less uniform, splitting
up in different types. To produce per-
fectly constant timothy sorts is practi-
cally impossible. Breeding work, there-
fore, demands that one should chiefly
eliminate characters of a purely theoret-
ical interest and endeavor to gain the
highest possible uniformity concerning
practical characters.

A timothy sort for ordinary 2-years
lay should possess:

1. Tall, not too stout, erect, compara-
tively stiff stems with short top inter-
nodes and relatively long base inter-
nodes.

2. Vigorous, abundant stooling power.

3. Profusion of leaves, perfectly fresh
at cutting.

4. Rich aftergrowth.

5. Satisfying hardiness.

6. Highest possible resistance against
rust.

7. Convenient earliness.

8. Good development during
second yielding year.

the

299

A timothy sort for perennial pasture
should possess:

1. Vigorous stooling power.

2. Early and abundant aftergrowth
after each grazing.

3. Satisfying hardiness.

4. Highest possible resistance to rust.

5. Highly increased longevity.

As a matter of course a high yield of
hay is the chief goal in timothy breed-
ing, but the importance of combining a
good seed production must not be over-
looked. For this purpose the following
characters are requisite: First, tall, stiff,
compact, uninterrupted heads; second,
big, plump, well-colored seeds, easily
loosening from empty glumes and with
well-fastened floral glumes; and_ third,
high ability of self-fertilization.

ACTUAL PRACTICAL RESULTS AT SVALOF

- After the year of 1909 comparison
trials have been made with manifold
sorts selected at Svalof, but space is too
limited for an account thereof. On a
basis of the above trials the two follow-
ing new sorts have been raised, intro-
duced, and distributed, namely, Primus
timothy and Gloria timothy. These
sorts have in trials at Svaldf afforded
respectively 12 and 20% higher yield
than ordinary Swedish market seed,
thus indicating a marked progress. The
above sorts are resistnat to rust and are
high yielders of seed.

~ YIELD OF DIFFERENT TIMOTHY Sorts IN TRIALS AT SVALOF, 1909-1918

|

Kilograms of green fodder per_hectare

| First Second Yield % com- |

year’s year’s Total pared to ordinary

lay lay Swedish timothy
Senior serloria. timothy...6 20.2.5 ve wt 14.480 11.030 25.510 120.6
SMIOES TIS GUMOTNY: . 60. os. ae se 2 13.460 | 10.210 23.670 111.9
Ordinary Swedish timothy. ........... 11.570 9.590 21.160 100.0

GENIUS OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND HIS
PLACE AMONG HISTORIC PERSONALITIES

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

OW that Theodore Roosevelt
N has passed away, the whole
w 2 world is ready to acclaim what

only a small faction formerly
perceived, that this extraordinary man
was not only one of the greatest of all
Americans, but was in his characteristics
and conduct essentially a man of genius.

The general unwillingness or inability
to justly estimate our former national
leader arose from several causes by no
means unique in his case, but rather
the exemplification of the eternal rela-
tion of the man of genius to the men
whom he seeks to persuade.

If the pioneer is a man of science or
an artist, he has his small group of
doubting professional colleagues who
need to be shown the way. If the
artist or scientist has found a new truth,
it is not usually long before this is
accepted. Such men, if they be really
great and live to a ripe old age, are
almost sure to receive phenomenal
recognition before they die. Names
swell into memory to support such a
view: Newton, Boyle, Darwin, Lister,
Kelvin, Ramsay, Franklin, Rumford,
Pasteur, Cuvier, Fabre, Linnaeus, La-
grange, Laplace, Tycho Brahe. Goethe,
Kant, Helmholtz and Faraday, Titian,
Michael Angelo, Raphael, Leonardo,
Rubens, Van Dyke, Holbein, Durer,
Millet, Corot, Whistler, Hogarth, Rey-
nolds and many others, all received, if
not ample, at least very distinguished
recognition during their actual lives.
There are exceptions. Copernicus was
long unappreciated, Galileo had a hard
time, and Mendel was unknown until
years after his death. Manet, the
founder of impressionism, was only in
part appreciated. He died at the age

300

of fifty—a recipient of the Legion of
Honor. William Blake lived to be
seventy, too long for his own happiness.
He died in poverty and obscurity.
There have been other martyrs to
science and art. It is perhaps the
popular conception of the typical man
of genius that he is unrecognized in his
day. But this is not the truth of the
matter. It is like many other popular
misconceptions, built upon the almost
unavoidable tendency to note and
remember the unusual and thus mistake
the exception for the rule. Scientists,
artists and musicians, even if bringing
the best of news, all require time for
its acceptance. The ‘experts and the
critics must be convinced; after that
the public are easily made to follow
on gregariously. There comes a day
when opposition is negligible. Not so
with the political genius. He always
has to face a mighty opposition even
to the day of his death. It lies in the
nature of political and party bias and
is inherent in the kind of work that is
his. “vA. fight from Start ‘tominrisia
but there never is a finish, never was,
nor can there conceivably be a finish,
where the particular form of manifes-
tation of genius is the leading of human
groups. For there will always remain
a very formidable aggregate of humans
who, rightly or wrongly, even if it be
a truth, cannot be made to see it that
way.

It is essentially a different kind of
problem, for here truth is not absolute
and ‘‘right’”—is always related to
somebody’s best interests. Even if it
be made into the phrase, the ‘best
interests of all,” it will be impossible
to bring all parties into agreement,

Woods: Genius of Theodore Roosevelt

since the dispute will then arise as to
the best methods of bringing about this
desirable ‘‘best interests of all.’’ The
‘“politician’’ in life may in death be-
come the ‘‘statesman,’’ but his theories
and his weaknesses are always more
exposed to searching criticism than is
the case in other forms of genius.

In the light of these considerations,
and measured in comparison with other
great men, the faults, inconsistencies,
or weaknesses of Theodore Roosevelt
appear inconsiderable, while the as-
tonishing and _ versatile attainments
place him easily among the first hundred
and fifty of the world’s most wonderful
men. Take a'one the physical or (per-
haps better) physio‘ogical aspect of his
personality. How seldom do we meet
with people who have the constantly
impelling vital force that Roosevelt
had, who are always animated, always
inspiring, always talking, or writing,
or transforming thoughts into actions
—always ‘‘feeling bully.’ If this sort
of activity is, as modern physiology
would lead us to believe, dependent
upon an excessive amount of certain
peculiar internal secretions, then, on
the bodily side alone, Roosevelt must
have been extraordinary. Although a
man of action and known chiefly for
his deeds and his relations with his
fellow-men, the total output of his
literary product, 7. e., his published
work, exceeds that of any other Harvard
man of his day.

Men of such constant exuberance of
spirit, while rare, are not exceedingly
uncommon. We all meet them from
time to time, chiefly in the business
world. They make good promoters.
But do we often meet a man of that
stamp who is also possessed of one of
the most remarkable memories ever
given to any human being’ If we do,
he is as one man in a million. There
may be a hundred such persons in the
United States today. But of these
how many also are endowed with a high
moral sense, with a never-failing desire
to make the world over in the ways that
seem for them unquestionably right?
There are such men. History knows
them. They are very few in number.

301

They are famous. Some of them have
been celebrated as preachers and re-
formers.

Now let these three traits, the first
two of which are so rare, the third of
which is not too common, be united
with intellectual curiosity, leading to a
variety of interests, which in time be-
come coérdinated into a broad outlook,
and we have our rarer man still—one
so rare that not a hundred and fifty
men in all history outrank him in fame
or eminence. And this is including all
forms of activity—that of the painter,
the poet, the preacher, the sculptor as
well.

Gladstone may rank with Roosevelt
or he may outrank him. Disraeli,
Franklin, Pitt, Cromwell, Clive, William
the Conqueror, Peter the Great, Pericles,
Charlemagne and Julius Caesar may
rank with Roosevelt. They may far
outrank him. Doubtless some of them
do. But the point is that there are so
few of these very great names that
before we reach the end of the first
hundred and fifty we willy-nilly are
obliged to include names that certainly
do not suggest any more genius or any
more greatness than that of Theodore
Roosevelt. Let any reader try it for
himself and get his friends to help.
If he does not, before finishing his first
hundred and fifty, then I wager that
before finishing his second hundred, he
will only be able to bring forward names
of a somewhat secondary magnitude.
The dazzle will be gone. At. least
Roosevelt will come in here somewhere.

In any estimate of genius it is well
to have some objective standards of
comparison and a list of names as
inclusive as possible of all candidates
for selection. Such a list can never
be entirely satisfactory, but it is at
least better than no list, since other-
wise many suitable names would be
overlooked. No list has been formu-
lated attempting to grade great men
according to their “‘pure genius,” but
there is a useful and suggestive list of
‘““eminent’’ men based upon encyclo--
pedias and biographical dictionaries.
It was compiled by J. McKeen Cattell
and published in Popular Science

302

Monthly, February, 1903. Here a thou-
sand historical characters are graded
according to their ‘‘eminence,” in other
words with reference to the amount of
attention that they now attract. Such
a method of comparison is obviously
faulty as a test of mental merit, since
it places Louis XVI, Philip II of Spain
and George III of England in the first
hundred. Also Nero, Robespierre,
Mirabeau, and Bossuet seem out of
place, nearly at the top of the heap.
If we search down through the lower
rankings we find some, though not
proportionately many, of undoubted
geniuses who ought to go higher up,
such as Wagner, Copernicus, Kepler
and Bach. Now if we substitute these
for the misplaced names in the first
hundred according to our choice, allow-
ing for all differences of opinion, we
do not change the character of the
second hundred to any appreciable
extent.!

The leading names of Americans are
in order of eminence: Washington,
Penn, Lincoln, Franklin, Jefferson,
Grant, John Adams, Webster, Hamilton,

The Journal of Heredity

Jackson, Longfellow, Prescott, Irving,
Emerson, Madison, Farragut, J. Q.
Adams, Hawthorne, Cooper, Rumford,
Clay, Patrick Henry, Fulton, Sumner,
Sheridan, Monroe and Audubon.

Washington, Penn, Lincoln, Franklin
and Jefferson are in the first hundred,
Grant, John Adams and Webster are
in the second hundred, Alexander Hamil-
ton and Andrew Jackson are in the
third.

The place of Roosevelt in world
history from the standpoint of genius
seems to be, by this test, fairly well
indicated. He certainly cannot go
much below the second hundred, not
if he be the equal of Hamilton or
Jackson. If his genius were greater
than that of John Adams or Webster
or Grant, he may go in the first hundred;
if greater than either Jefferson or Penn,
then he might go well up in the first
hundred. At any rate the probability
is that there have not been more than
one hundred and fifty men of eminence
or of genius greater than Roosevelt in
all recorded time.

1 My own suggestion is that the following names do not deserve a place in the first hundred,
They should be placed somewhat lower, and room thus made for the names of very great men
who have obviously been graded too low: Penn, Byron, Nero, Robespierre, Charles V of Germany,
Mirabeau, Guizot, Bossuet, Thiers, Louis XIV, Fox, Machiavelli, Philip II of Spain, George III,

Cousin, and Justinian.

Some of these might be placed in the second hundred, some much lower.

The second hundred might also be inproved by the removal to lower grades of certain names
as, for instance: Fénelon, Pius IX, Chirles I of England, Lamartine, Joseph Bonaparte, Jarves I,
Alberoni, Lovis XIII, Diderot, Maimont, Francis I, Nicholas I, Athanasius, Bentley, J. Cook,

and Louis XV.

A DEFECT OF HAIR AND TEETH IN
CATTLE PROBABLY HEREDITARY’

LEon J. CoLe

University of Wisconsin

H. Kuhlman, of the State College,

Brookings, S. -D.; at that time

Agricultural Demonstration Agent
at Juneau, Wis., brought to my atten-
tion an interesting case of dental de-
ficiency in cattle. This was in a herd
of purebred Holstein-Friesians near
Juneau, and a short time later I was
able to visit the place with Mr. Kuhlman
and to secure some photographs and
notes relating to the case. As the
condition appears to be unusual, and
as it shows evidence of being hereditary,
it seems worth while to put it on record.

The defect was first noticed when
some of the calves born early in 1918
were being taught to drink by putting
the fingers in their mouths for them to
suck. It was discovered in this way
that three of them did not have well-
formed teeth in front like normal
calves. Furthermore, these same calves
had a peculiar deficiency of hair, which
will be mentioned more in detail later.
The discovery of this condition in the
calves recalled the fact that the bull
which sired them had, when about a
year old, been turned out on pasture
with other cattle, and that he had
grown thin while the others remained in
good flesh. An examination was ac-
cordingly made of his mouth, leading
to the discovery that instead of the
normal complement of four well-formed
incisor teeth on each side, in the front of
the lower jaw, he had only three small,
imperfect teeth on the left side and two
correspondingly small ones on the right.
These were so small as to be practically
useless for cropping grass, which readily
explained the bull's failure to do well

I THE spring of 1918 Prof. Arthur

on pasture. As may be seen, however,
from Fig. 6, he was a well-developed,
fine appearing animal. It was not
practicable to secure a picture of his
mouth showing the teeth.

This bull had been purchased of
another breeder, and was coming three
years of age at the time of our visit.
Until his mouth was examined, it was
not known that he was in any way
imperfect or abnormal. The dams of
the calves, so far as known, all had
normal dentition.

Of the three defective calves of 1918,
one had two small teeth on the left
and one on the right, the second had
one very small tooth on the left and
one small one on the right, while the
third (shown in Fig. 7) had two conical
teeth on each side, the back ones being
very small while those in front were
larger but round and blunt. The
contrast with the normal dentition in a
calf of this age may be readily seen by
comparing this figure with Fig. 8.
Here the four sharp, well-developed
teeth are plainly discernible.

Associated with the deficiency of
teeth there was also a deficiency of hair.
This was said to be quite noticeable
in the very young calves, especially on
the head and neck. The hair was not
entirely lacking on these parts, but
was very short, giving a semi-denuded
appearance. Later in life the coat
appears to be practically normal. At
the age at which our photographs were
taken the difference was easily notice-
able, but it does not, unfortunately,
stand out very clearly in the pictures.
By careful scrutiny, however, it may be
observed that the head and upper neck

1Papers from the Department of Genetics, Agricultural Experiment Station, University

of Wisconsin, No. 19.

Published with the approval of the Director of the Station.

303.

ONE PARENT OF THE DEFECTIVE CALVES

This pure-bred Holstein-Friesian bull sired in two seasons five calves with defective
coats. Three of them also possessed defective teeth. (Fig. 6.)

A PECULIAR DEFECT

The ‘calf whose mouth is here seen was sired by the Holstein-Friesian bull shown in
Fig. 6. The incisor teeth, only two of which are to be found on each side, are conical
and blunt.. Compare them with the teeth shown in Fig. 8, which are those of a normal
calf sired by the same bull. (Fig. 7.)

NORMAL DENTITION
This calf’s teeth are normal, though it was sired by the same bull (see Fig. 6) as the
calf with defective dentition shown in Fig. 7.. There are four sharp, well-formed in-
cisors on each side in the front of the lower-jaw. (Fig. 8.) ,

A DEFECTIVE COAT

This calf is the same one whose mouth, with defective dentition, is shown in Fig. 7. The
smoothness of the coat on the head and upper neck is due to the very short hair on
these parts. This characteristic is probably correlated with defective dentition, and
appears to be inherited. (Fig. 9.)

i

A NORMAL COAT

Head of the normal calf whose mouth is shown in Fig. 8, for comparison with the defec-

tive calf shown in Fig. 9.

it overlaps the halter strap behind the lower jaw.

of the calf shavn in Fig 9, the same
animal as that in Fig. 7, is noticeably
smoother than that of the calf in Fig.
10, the same individual used for com-
parison of the teeth in Fig. 8. Note, for
example, how the hair at the angle of
the lower jaw overlaps the halter strap
in Fig. 10, showing that it is considerably
longer than on the other calf. The
coat also seemed thicker, but I cannot
make a definite statement as to this.

Two calves born in the herd the
previous year, and from this same sire,
resembled the one described above in
having a deficiency of hair, but no
examination was made of their teeth,
the correlation of the two at that time
not being suspected. Whether the bull
when young was similarly deficient in
hair was not known.

To sum up, a purebred Holstein-
Friesian sire with defective front teeth,
bred to purebred Holstein-Friesian
cows, produced in two successive years
five calves with deficient coats, three

396

The contrasting length of the hair on the head is visible where

(Fig. 10.)

of which are known to have had de-
fective dentition corresponding to the
condition of the sire. In the same
season this bull sired some fifteen or
twenty normal calves from dams in
the same herd. There would appear
to be a correlation between the condi-
tion of the coat and the deficient and
defective teeth. Furthermore, since the
bull was not born on the place, and all
the calves, normal as well as defective,
were reared under similar conditions,
it seems probable that the condition is
to be attributed to some genetic cause
rather than to factors of the environ-
ment or to faulty nutrition: It is
probably not comparable, for example,
to hairlessness in new-born pigs, which
is referable to thyroid conditions due
to deficiencies in the diet of the sow.
The question of the inheritance of the
condition in the calves could not be
carried further, as it was the intention
of the breeder to eliminate all the
defective stock from his herd.

A NEW SOURCE OF PLANT FOOD

HE use of leguminous crops for
soil improvement,” writes Karl
F. Kellerman, ‘“‘has long been
recognized by good farmers
as desirable. Aside from the general
benefits of crop rotation, the actuai
soil-enrichment is due largely to an
accumulation of available nitrogen, and
this gain in nitrogen is caused by the
presence of minute soil-bacteria which
possess the power of growing on the
roots of the legumes and then utilizing
or ‘fixing’ the free nitrogen of the air
and converting it into food for succeed-
ing crops.”

North American farmers have become
quite familiar with these nitrogen-
gathering leguminous plants, and they
play an important part in the cultiva-
tion of numerous crops. Cow-peas,
velvet-beans, vetches, and other leg-
umes are sown between rows of fruit
trees and plowed under when they begin
to bloom, in order that the nitrogen
which they have gathered in the small
nodules upon their roots may be utilized
by the trees. The use of these green
cover-crops lessens the amount of other
fertilizer which it is necessary to apply
to the orchard.

Attention has recently been called to
certain plants which gather nitrogen,
like the legumes, but which store it in
small nodules on the leaves instead of
on the roots. The one of which a leaf
is shown in the accompanying illustra-
tion is Psychotria bactertophila; it has
been shown by Zimmermann and Faber
that Pavetta Zimmermanniana and prob-
ably other rubiaceous plants have the
same habit. These plants, which be-
long to the same family as coffee, are,
like the latter, tropical in their dis-
tribution.

Faber has shown that these leaf-
nodules contain colonies of a non-
motile, nitrogen-fixing bacterium which
he has named Myco-bactertum rubiacea-
rum. These bacteria almost invariably
inhabit the micropyle of the young
seed, and, when the latter germinates,
grow through certain stomata of the
young leaves and into the intra-cellular

spaces formed in the leaf-tissues around
these stomata. Cavities are formed
through the growth of the epidermal
cells which later close entirely and make
bacterial nodules which are deeply
imbedded in the leaf tissues. <A single
leaf may have several dozen of these
symbiotic bacterial nodules. Faber was
able, by treating the seeds with hot
water and a sublimate solution, to kill
the inhabiting myco-bacteria, and, later,
to infect part of the seedlings grown
from these seeds with pure cultures of
the bacterium. The artificially in-
fected seedlings grown in soil free
from combined nitrogen grew well and
remained healthy for four months,
whereas those not so infected turned
yellowish-white and died in three or
four weeks. The plants from unsteril-
ized seeds produced leaves bearing
many more bacterial nodules than did
those from sterilized seeds which were
later artificially inoculated.

In view of the fact that these rubiace-
ous plants with nodule-bearing leaves
occur in many parts of the tropics,
and that in India the value of their
leaves has long been recognized, and
considering the importance of nitrogen-
fixing legumes as soil enrichers, the
suggestion of Faber that we may have
in these trees and shrubs plants of
positive agricultural value deserves the
serious consideration of tropical planters.
If they can be grown as subsidiary crops
beneath plantations of rubber, cacao,
coffee, or other important tropical
cultures, and their leaves allowed to
accumulate upon the ground to serve
as a mulch and as nitrogenous fertilizer,
they may have great value. They
differ from the leguminous cover-crops
in that they are perennial in habit, and
will not need to be replanted every
year. It might be possible to prune
them severely every year and utilize
the clippings as fertilizer. The subject
is one which opens up a new field in
connection with tropical agriculture,
and one which offers remarkable pos-
sibilities.

307

—

COLONIES OF NITROGEN-GATHERING PACTERIA ON A LEAF

The small dark spots visible on the under surface of this leaf are nodules containing
colonies of a non-motile nitrogen-fixing bacterium similar to the one which inhabits
the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants, and which makes the peas, beans
and vetches valuable as green-manures or sources of plant food. These nodules
have been found on the leaves of several tropical plants, and the question arises,
Will it not be possible to use these species in the same manner as the legumes? (Fig.
11.)

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THE INHERITANCE OF COAT
COLOR IN GREAT DANES

C. C. LitTLe anp E. E. Jones

Station for Experimental Evolution, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring
Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

I. HISTORICAL OUTLINE

(a) Description of the Breed.—The
Great Dane is known to all dog breeders
as one of the most vigorous of the large
breeds. Its origin is somewhat in
doubt. Stonhenge (1873), in describing
the breed, notes its frequent description
under the name of Boar Hound and
states that it ... “does not appear
to be a distinct breed, but rather a
compound of the greyhound, the mas-
tiff, and the terrier.’”’ On the other
hand, Leighton (1907) believes that the
antiquity of the breed is established
by the fact that representatives of a
type sufficiently similar to be consid-
ered its ancestors are found on early
Egyptian monuments. Its more recent
history appears to focus mostly on
Germany, where it has been given the
title of ‘‘Deutsche Dogge.” For a
long time it was, in all probability,
crossed with other breeds of large
German dogs such as the Hatzrtde,
which is a medium-sized dog about
intermediate in appearance between the
heavy and thickset “‘dogge”’ type of
the bulldog and the slimmer and less
powerful ‘‘hund” type. Other some-
what similar varieties with which it
may have been crossed are the Sau-
fanger, Ulmer Dogge, and Rottweiler
Metzerghund.

But whether the Great Dane be
considered as one of the oldest breeds
or not really has little influence, from
the viewpoint of the present investiga-
tion. It is sufficient that for a period
of at least fifty years they have been
recognized and selected with as great
care as have the other breeds of thor-
oughbred dogs. Their color varieties
are distinct and are well established as
follows:

(b) Color Varieties of the Breed.—
Stonhenge (loc. cit.) records the recog-
nized colors of this breed as follows:
“The color resembles that of the mas-
tiff, being brindled or fawn, but some-
times of a bluish slate with blotches of
brown.’ That several additional colors
appeared and were recognized within a
relatively short time is evident from
the description of the orthodox colors
given by Leighton, (loc. cit.) These
are, according to his statement, brindle,
fawn, blue, black, and harlequin. In
the brindle dogs the ground color may
be any shade from light yellow to dark
red-yellow, on which the brindle ap-
pears in darker stripes. The harlequin
should have, on a pure white ground,
fairly large black patches which must
be of irregular shape, broken up as if
they were torn. The standard of the
breed also states that, in harlequins,
fawn and brindle shades are undesirable.

To reduce these color varieties to a
simpler basis from a genetic point of
view they may be listed as follows:
Black (Fig. 12, No. 3); blue (dilute
black) (Fig. 12, No. 6); harlequin
(black and white), (Fig. 12, No. 2);
brindle (Fig. 12, No. 4)—various shades
including a dilute or ‘“‘blue’’ brindle
(Fig. 12, No. 7); fawn (Fig. 12, No. 5)
—various shades including a dilute
light, or ‘“‘dove” fawn (Fig. 12, No. 8).

The fawn is tawny with dark-brown
or black muzzle and feet. The dilute
fawn has a dull, faded silvery appear-
ance, quite well known to those who
have seen such color varieties of rodents
as dilute brown mice or dilute sooty
rabbits. Fawn is, moreover, easily
distinguishable from the yellow of
pointers which is a clear, yellow-orange
or lemon color, not nearly as rich or
heavy in shade as the more brownish

309

310 The Journal

pigmentation of the fawn. The blue
is a true dilute type, apparently directly
analogous to the maltese cat and the
‘dilute black’’ mouse or rabbit.
Brindles vary considerably in depth

of color. They may.have a rich,
golden ground color or a duller and

darker brown. The pattern which ap-
pears on this ground color.is an ir-

regular streaking with black. It is
variously described as __ brindled,
streaked, striped, or tigered. The rel-

ative amount of black and yellowish-
brown pigment in the coat varies con-
siderably, some brindles being almost
entirely fawn with a trace of black,
and others. being predominantly, if not
entirely, black, in appearance. Some
evidence that brindles may rarely be
entirely black in appearance or, at the
other extreme, fawti, will be presented
when the detailed color crosses are
considered.

Dilute brindles have a dull, silvery
type of coloration affecting both the
ground pigment and the dark striping
and giving an appearance easily dis-
tinguishable from the light but in-
tensely pigmented brindles. The dif-
ference is qualitatively almost exactly
that recognized in other mammals and
described by one of the writers in the
case of yellow mice (Little, 1911).

Spotted forms are of two sorts,
harlequins already described, and dogs
on which small white spots occur on
the chests or feet. (Fig. 12, No.
Harlequin is a pattern producing, on the
one hand, a pure white animal witha
dark nose, and on the other hand an
animal with a very small amount of
wnite. Individuals of the latter sort
might possibly be confused with animals
possessing spotting of the second (non-
harlequin) type. Animals with the
second type of spotting are not con-
sidered desirable specimens, and are in
Great Danes, as in other breeds, vigor-
ously selected against. The effects of
this upon their occurrence and descrip-
tion will be considered later.

(c) Review of Previous Literature.—
One of the writers (Little 1914) has used
the American Kennel Club Stud Books
for the purposes of studying color in-

of Heredity

heritance in pointers and has reportep
the existence of certain alternative color
types referable to Mendelizing factors.
One of these, the factor for black pig-
ment, the hypostatic form of which pro-
duces brown pigment, had been observed
previously by Lang, 1910, in a single
cross which he made. This mutation
from large B to small b does not appear
to have occurred in Great Danes in so
far as the records studied are con-
cerned. One dog was described as
“Tiver’’ in color, but inasmuch as blue
commonly approaches “‘liver”’ in ap-
pearance and, further, inasmuch as this
dog occurred in a mating where blues
would be expected, the dog in question
has been classed as blue. The second
factor to be recognized in pointers is
the factor E for the extension of black
and brown pigment in the coat. In
the hypostatic form of this factor the
colored portions of the coat are orange
or lemon-yellow. Whether the yellow
of pointers is identical with, or com-
parable to, the fawn type of Great
Danes is doubtful. It represents a
distinctly yellow type in which there
is no marked darkening of the muzzle
or the extremities such as one finds in
fawn Great Danes. Until further care-
ful experimentation is made, therefore,
we shall have to recognize four distinct
and possibly genetically different types
of red-yellow coat pigmentation in
dogs: First, the orange or lemon-
yellow of pointers and English setters;
second, the brownish-yellow of most
‘“red”’ dachsunds, and possibly of Irish
terriers; third, the dark, muzzled fawn
of bulldegs, greyhounds, and Great
Danes; and finally, the almost mahogany
red of Irish setters. The genetic re-
lationships of these four types would
make a most interesting study.

In 1915, Barrows and Phillips found
that the B and E factors were both
present in cocker spaniels, and in
addition discovered indications of a
dilution factor producing dilute black
or blue individuals and also, in the
yellow series, cream or white. On
page 393 they state that dilute reds
are cream in color. Whether, however,
dilute reds might not also be dull

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faded yellow in color does not appear
to have been considered. From analogy
with all the forms previously worked
on, in which a dilution factor of the
type apparently existing in cocker
spaniels has been established, one would
expect that such would be the case.
What we believe to be conclusive
evidence of a dilution factor in Great
Danes will be considered later.

The evidence on the inheritance of
spotting obtained by Barrows and
Phillips is extremely interesting, for it
apparently demonstrates that there are
at least two types of spotting. Thus
spotted by spotted matings produced
two hundred and twenty spotted and
fourteen solid colored individuals. The
spotted parents in these cases were
apparently the ordinary parti-colored
cockers in which cotisiderable white is
always present. When solid pigmented
animals were crossed together, nineteen
solid colored individuals were produced,
and in addition two pups from a single
litter showed very small white spots on
the breasts. We shall see later that
these conditions are paralleled closely
in Great Danes.

Wright, 1918, in reviewing color
inheritance in mammals, recognizes in
dogs the existence of the B and E factors
and of the dominant spotting which he
calls R, or roan. Just how far this roan
factor is similar to the fine mixtures of
pigment found in the roans of horses
and cattle is uncertain. It seems quite
possible that in short-haired dogs such
as Great Danes or coach-dogs, a type
of color distribution which in the long-
haired breeds such as English setters
produces a mixture of indistinct spots
and regions of apparent ‘“‘roaning,”’
might produce clear, well-defined spots.
The possible danger of considering the
dominant spotting found in cocker
spaniels a true roan is seen in such
varieties of dogs as the “‘tigered”’ or
‘““dappled”’ dachsund. Here there ap-
pears to be a real intermixture of black,
sparsely pigmented, and almost, if not
entirely unpigmented hairs; a condition
which more closely resembles the roans
which have hitherto been described.
Wright further recognizes a probable

The Journal of Heredity

factor for piebald spotting which he
considers at the present time un-
analyzed. He also mentions the inter-
esting experiments of Pearson, Nettle-
ship, and Usher, resulting in the isola-
tion of a factor for partial albinism in
Pekinese. With this brief review we
may now turn to a consideration of the
observed facts.

II. OBSERVED EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The following matings have been
recorded from data derived from the
American Kennel Club Stud Books,
Volumes 11 to 34 inclusive. As was
the case in pointers, numbers before
Volume 11 represented data collected
at a time and under circumstances not
well adapted to accuracy, and con-
tained only a small number of available
animals. The strong and weak points
in data collected from stud books have
already been touched upon in an earlier
paper by one of us already referred to
(Little, 1914), and need not be further
considered at present.

Inasmuch as many types of matings
have been involved, it will be convenient
to analyze them in groups according to
the particular factor or factors which we
believe they possess.

III. THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION

A breed of dogs such as Great Danes
may biologically be considered as a
mixed population. In so far as any
one pair of allelomorphs are concerned
there will be individuals of three sorts:
DD, DR, and RR. If there has been
no particular degree of inbreeding or
selection, they will probably be present
in approximately the proportion of one
DD, to two DR, to one RR™ Con-
sidering for a moment only the D in-
dividuals we find that in proportion to
the degree of inbreeding and selection,
the relative number of DD individuals
becomes greater, and we might therefore
expect some populations to show among
their D animals a ratio of one DD to
one DR, or perhaps two DD to one DR.

For a population in which DD and
DR animals are present in these different
proportions, characteristic ratios of D
to R individuals will be formed as the

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314 The Journal

result of random matings of D individ-
uals inter. se as follows:
D animals crossed inter se

Ratio of DD or DR

Ratio of animals in | animals to RR in

population progeny of random
matings
a) 1 DD +2 DR. 8:1
(h) DD: 1-DRis + | 15:1
(@) AF IDIGY Sal IDI aes ot | S}5) 3 il

Similarly the incidence of DD and DR
types in a relatively fixed proportion
in any population will result in definite |
ratios from the back cross of D with
R individuals. Any population which,
in respect to a given pair of. factors,
gives, when D animals are crossed
inter se, a ratio of type (a), (b), or (c),
should approach the corresponding ratio
in back crosses of D animals with R as
follows:

D animals crossed with R

| Ratio of DD or DR
| animals to RR in the
progeny of random

Ratio of animals in
population

matings
(2) The DI Bee DI ae Deel
‘de)) SID ID esl DIRS Soe | $8 Il
(OVP ADIDY SID) eos sc D)gsull

(a) The factor D for «intensity; d for
dilution
Matings involving these two color

phases are tabulated in Tables II,
Lil. and s1V_ ~ In, “each. case. the
mating designations refer to Table I.
It will be seen from Table II
that the ratio of intense to dilute
animals is approximately 15:1. We

have, in the bottom three lines of the
table, data which will serve to test how
closely the observed figures conform
with the expected numbers under an
8:1 and a 15:1 ratio. Figures for a
35:1 ratio are not, in this case, given
because of the fact that it is obvious
that the observed numbers are in
closer agreement with a 15:1 ratio
than they would be with a higher ratio.

Heredity

TABLE II

Matings D and D

BD, 1 Sea

Mating Intense | Dilute
Aaa Leys) 4 8
1B} 487 29
(Cee 39
Byatt alee cae See coe 20 1
(Cee es anes SEA It bea 18 1
ote ye ey ayes nes DF 1
Nico See reer 418 15
Ot feo RPA ea RE 5 1
Tota l(@eee os os aes |||, OF 70+5.49
Expected: 15+: 1 (b)..2.. .:.): 1250 | 8365.94
Bxpectedss: sali(c) pes as) 1185 |148+7.83
Difference (a)yaridi( fp) ei ales ees aloo
Difference (a) and (c)..... 78 £9 .56

The probable errors calculated in each
case on the smaller phenotypic class
show that between the observed num-
bers and the 15:1 ratio; there 1s 4
difference of 21+7.5. The difference,
which is 2.7 times the probable error,
makes it not unlikely that the observed
figures represent a chance deviation
from this ratio. On the other hand,
the difference between the observed
figures and an 8:1 ratio is 86+9.5.
In this case the difference is 9.0 times
its probable error, and the odds are
practically certain that the observed
figures depart significantly from an
8:1 ratio: This bem -thesase. Hapie
III, which records the cross of intense
animals with dilute, should show a
closer approximation to a ratio of three
intense to one dilute than to a 2:1
ratio. This proves to ‘be the case,
although the numbers are so small that
the difference between the observed
figures and the 2:1 ratio cannot be
considered as certainly eliminating the
possibility that a 2 : 1 ratio is involved.
However, inasmuch as the difference
between the observed figures and the
3:1 ratio are less than the probable
error, it seems extremely likely that the
3:1 ratio is the actual one involved.

Little and Jones: Inheritance of Color in Great Danes

TAREE.

Matings D andd

Mating Dye" | d
nee 3 2
lie 14 2
| Gee 29 Pa)
M.. 2 1
‘Oes 24 8
IR 8 5
oe 5
TAS 3 2
VE: 4 3
W:. 6 2
» a 8 5
Wiebe 23 1
Dies 1 oy
B... 2 1
bD- 1 oa
F!. 4 3
Tt 3
(2) ARO 2) eee : 140 43+3.8

(b) Expected on 3 : 1 ratio 137-46+3.9
(c) Expected on 2 : 1 ratio 122-61 +4.3
Difference (a) and (b) 3+5.4
Difference (a) and (c) 18+5.7

Table IV shows the results of mating
dilute animals inter se. While the
numbers are small the results are con-
sistent with the supposition that dilute
forms are hypostatic to intense and all
fifty-three animals obtained are dilute
pigmented.

TaBLeE IV
Matings D andd
Mating | D | d
|
1D) 5 Sc eae ae oe eat ne eal nner ae Aq
el: 5
he 4
TOIL CARO er ee ees bee 53

(b) The factors E for full extension, E}
for partial extension, and e' for
restriction of black pigment

In the mixed population of Great
Danes under consideration, the ratio
of E, E!, and e' types obtained when E
forms are crossed inter se or with e!
will be characteristically distinct and
will give some idea as to the degree of
inbreeding and selection involved. Thus:

15
Crossing E animals inter se.

Ratio of E to E'toe!
animals obtained by
random matings

Ratio of E types with-
in a mixed population

@aEH appt. tien. | 32 E : 3E! : le!
(0) 2B 2UB BY s1Be 60 E : 3E! : le!
(C2 2b b= her. 75 E : 8E! : le!

Crosses of E x E!

| ane F
Ratio of E types with- Ratio of E to Ei to e1
S | animals obtained by

in a mixed population | ea
| random matings

|
(a) 1EE : 1EE:: 1Ee1.. 4E :1E' :le
(b) 2EE : 1EE:': 1Ee... 6E :1E:1:le
7E : 2E: : le:

@QZEE ZEB liber:

Table V shows a combination of all
matings involving the factor E. If
the E x E matings be first considered,
it will be noted that the ratio of 309E
to 22E' to 2e! approximates very closely
the numbers expected on a 75 to 8 to 1
distribution. Referring to the list of
matings given above, it will be seen
that the 75 :8:1 ratio depends upon
the supposition that EE and EE!
individuals occur with equal frequency
in a mixed population and which are
each of them twice as numerous as
Ke! animals. This is not at all un-
likely, for blacks or harlequins (E)
and brindles (E!) are about equally
popular in Great Dane breeding, and
both of them appear far more frequently
than do fawns (e!).

TABLE V
Matings of EE! and e!
. a Cross EXE
Mating | E | E} a
|
ae oe esl ai
ieee pre eae 235A Acie | | ab emcee
1B RG At. d ape ee eee en oe ee
Gye eh ee ee 17 | } am area Oe Pee
1 PA ee ele wet Mee aU [Pare arene Meera eH
AS ates pe 1 2 2
Tn sadhasce, tact owe S| mee ell eee ee
re oan? Uae 2 1) Baas a ee erase
Totals sz ce. 1300s. 2
T5328 A TatlOe le U0 yim 4

316 The Journal

Cross E X e!
Mating E E} el
Pet sot isan 1 2 1
yee te Revere ene it Die | eke eran 2
Ro ae gare a
| ee RR irene ANE ABM Set We WY bee ee eae
| Sea eles teeta ee 2 Divi ia ie Neg
Fel eee eset 2 Gand Oe 3 | ee ee ae tis
es ee
ho talsue ere 13 16 4
(eDederatio... aeeeees: 6.4 Sot
Cross e! X et
a ee : r
Mating E | E!} el
7 Wee fake aegis 2 41
Le One cre MARS A oe dbs) Soe Sati ees 2
Tee oe ea ere ae eae 16
[ee Od eae. IC 2 1
|
Motale-srescce etene te 4 60
|
Cross EXE!
wal ts
Mating | Bo ye e
|
2 re ——- e
aye aap tlle ene 7 2 fe
Le ens See 11 7 4
IVES ee cee 3 tee ery} Dee kee
4G) ie. SA 8 17 7
Witenes a Gia tle este es sl ema eee
Pa bot hy oe ator: 1 4 2
Wes noe See 2 5 1
Migbal Sean sae | 36 37 16
Cross E!Xe}1
Mating | DUM 15 el
NGG e Ae eae 1 257 174
Pe AO eo al ee ee 11 2
OYE eres, Sears oka eek ene 17 7
Dy oh cee. Ccte\ Oe 1 1
AL ec te eee ee 1
Che) a 2 ee. Ce See 5 [lon ee ea ed
Motalsf aes. 1 292 \185+7.18
Del ratio tame |e 318 |159+6.94
Dierencesrs Ae aloe la.cueeete le ee ene 26+9.9

of Heredity -

Cross E!XE!

Mating E E} e!
Bes. ce eee 9 442 65
1 Dem A iig SLES 1 bee 19 2
N bart eee es etal ar, Sil 6
sRotalsie eee 9 492 SES Se
Si lbratiote ae ss ee 510 64+=5.08
Difkerencesvrte | te al ee es 9+7.4

If a triple allelomorph series is in-
volved between the factors E, E!, and
e!, the only types of matings which
should give all three phenotypes are
E x BE el, and <E*. Such, howe
ever, is not actually the case. We
find, for example, that there are nine E
animals obtained in matings of E! x E!
individuals in a total of 574 offspring.
Similarly, there is one E individual in
matings of ‘E) x. elin @ dotal_omam
offspring; and finally, there are four E!
individuals in a total of sixty-four
progeny produced by e'xe! matings.
Some, or perhaps all of these exceptions
might be explained by errors in re-
cording parents or in the stud books.
There appears, however, to be another
possible explanation which should re-
ceive consideration.

If one examines a large number of
specimens of brindle Great Danes, he
finds that they vary greatly in the
amount of black pigment which they
possess. Some of them are so nearly
fawn as to have only a small spot of
dark hairs, while others are almost
indistinguishable from blacks. This is
a common condition in all brindle and
similar patterns. It is found in yellow
mice, ‘tabby cats, and in agouti
rabbits, mice, and guinea-pigs. That it
is a recognized trouble maker in breeding
brindle Great Danes is shown by the
following quotation from Leighton (loc.
cit.): ‘‘When brindle Great Danes have
been continuously bred together it has
been found that they get darker and

Little and Jones: Inheritance of Color in Great Danes

that the peculiar striping disappears,
and in that case the introduction of a
good fawn into the strain is advisable.”

It seems therefore entirely probable
that at least a part of the nine blacks
(E) appearing in the E!x E! matings
and the one black appearing in the
E'xe! matings represent brindles of
this extremely dark or blackened type,
while the four brindles (E!') which
appear in matings of fawn x fawn may
well be due to the fact that one of their
parents was an extremely light brindle
in which the black was so reduced that
it appeared phenotypically like a fawn
and was so recorded. The occurrence
of exceptions of this type is therefore
expected, provided that the brindle
pattern of Great Danes behaves as all
other similar pattern factors hitherto
studied in mammals.

(c) Factor H for harlequin spotting,
h for absence of harlequin spotting
or self coat.

Inheritance of any form of spotting

317

is complicated because of great varia-
bility in the degree of spotting, and of
incompleteness of dominance in many
cases, also because genetically different
types of spotting all show themselves
as simple contrasts between colored
and white areas. Even with all these
handicaps, however, the data obtained
from the A. K. C. stud books indicate
that there are at least two genetically
different types of spotting in Great

Danes. We may first consider the more
striking of these, namely harlequin
spottings. (Plate 1, Fig. 2.)

Animals of this type when crossed
together have given, in addition to
harlequin, a considerable number of self
animals as shown in Table VI. Froma
fancier’s point of view, harlequins by
inbreeding continually tend to grow too
light, that is, to have too little black
pigment. The method followed to cor-
rect this is to cross harlequin with self
intense blacks. (Fig. 12, number 3.)
This leads to an increase in black
areas on the resulting harlequins.

TABLE VI
Pee ss Dia Sot ee )
Matings HXH | Matings hXh
Mating [se nl | Mating | H h
ho) ae VES) 80 | ere eer eee Raton: fad 515
TROUZISY Steen Oe een - 188 | 63 +4 63 Crease [eee 43
Expected 3 :1ratio..... 188" | 763 +4. 63 Dt aa ee 44
Expected 8:1ratio...... FD Pal ella hae! 23 57 emanate ies 5
Expected 15:1 ratio..... 235 too" 257) (5)1I ; Be leks Metall te tee.e ae
a uses Synil sce 3
Matings HXh Frereiaal Nie by
= (2 BAe eee 3 29
: Ee relent 4
Mating ES ae Rp ara rlseeae 13
_ a Ws, aees arb | ee 8
: DR EIT SM bn CR | 13
(Cad el ee eae Coe Ft LDLE Nk SC tel AE ee aed Ree, yee fecal (tied 24
VC oS ba Aa oe 4 | Ta tala tek tet, Oh a eee eee CIN tae e|t ccd 5
LO) Rap renne yA Ben oo 2 Dans Wine ste, MO ie Biter Ue lige tae 4
WANs aio aa eee ee 1 (OSS al (Breer Re Dat aks Nes 2 no =
[BU so EOE ee are ae 1 CAG AWN es eh oe. eee oe Totals 5 1214
iD (eu elie Seen tae B ee Weer ess | Seva: x ain ee
TMopiaitsy (Gy) aces cn, ee ee ee Sas 30 25) 115
Expected (a) 1:1 ratio...| Yes Dy 2.26
Expected (b) 2:1 ratio. .. 30 15 S59) 1163
Expected (d) 3:1 ratio... 34 11 +1.94
Difference (a) X(b)....... 7+| Seal Dit see
——- =2.2 |
: PE pitt |
Difference (a) and (c).... 15+) $.0;| Diff. 0
zs
Difference (a) and (d).... 19+ 2.89 ~ Pa

Reboot bik.

318 The Journal

Because of the generality of this
practice one might expect that the
great majority of harlequins would be
heterozygous and that the result of
crossing two harlequins would be to
approximate a ratio of three harlequins
to one self colored. This as can be
seen from Table VI is exactly the result
obtained, and we may therefore con-
sider that it is extremely probable that
harlequin represents a form of spotting
depending upon a factor epistatic to
self colored. Furthermore, when harle-
quins are crossed with self blacks, the
small number of young obtained show
a ratio which is not significantly differ-
ent from a one to one ratio. This
supports the view that the harlequins
used for breeding are commonly hetero-
zygous. The matings of animals lack-
ing the harlequin spotting factor are
last to be considered. These have
given a total of 1,219 offspring. Of
these, five, or less than four-tenths of
one per cent, are harlequin, and the
remainder are self as expected. It is
extremely likely that these five excep-
tions are due to stud-book errors, for
they occur so rarely that it is hard to
believe that they are genetically signifi-
cant.

Tape VIII

Matings 5S XS

of Heredity

The harlequin spotting factor appears
to be not unlike the dominant spotting
observed by Barrows and Phillips in
cocker spaniels, although, of course,
the actual distribution of the spots
differs in the two forms, those of the
Great Danes being far more irregular 1n
outline.

(d) The Factor S for Self Color, and s for
“ piebald”’ spotting

The term ‘‘piebald spotting” is
perhaps a misnomer, for apparently the

only manifestation of this type of

spotting which exists in Great Danes is
the occasional occurrence of animals
with a white chest spot or with white
feet, or with both. Such an animal is
shown in Fig. 12, No.1. Stich: forms
are not desired and are rigorously se-
lected against by fanciers. Inasmuch,
however, as their appearance depends
upon an hypostatic factor, the entire
elimination from any strain has proved
to be difficult, and they still crop out
at rare intervals. That they appear
less frequently than animals possessing
the other hypostatic factors already
considered is shown by Table VII.
Here matings of self xself animals
have given 1,214 offspring, of which

Matings S Xs

Mating Sr al as Mating | Se s
Fer a ie Se on 503 OPIS Deaths 5 Atnamrioks, cone aad. * | 19 Z,
COA tor peels: «aie: ASP le ate Pe Ree ee ene aor Dei ls Bete
1 ee peur ye tre etree meme Ce > 40 7) EY Der Re ee an cos tient Ac Lig eee
Lie mits Ss Gc and ke een | Sin lea hiteas SMe al reese toate. ie a eee.
Dipaee te OE ie oa eee ae | NG Aiea Dis ed Nee Re IIa uae i
Dee res Ue ee. nea SN eee | ACL ce J tied eae nc a ee ore 2 WA oe
Near cge or en ae 2h Ley secure eee Met en sists OG oles Buy 4 1c 2, 5
ING he et ee ea NCO ala as oc [is oe eer cee tem eet Re By Ay ae
Ore os Gee ee eee 24 5 Lota oe er eee 36 jf SEOs
Bee se ete eee: eae Be MENS ns eae Bxpectedi2: sec ott cee 29 14722
Reo iS ohn has ieee ees 3.4 |oceo tees Expected: Siti vue. ae 32 11. .+#1.93
WV spe e «tice ache oe creer Shear: Bxpected towers | 36 7 +1.63
Di eS ene Poor ees han 8 1 Ee ee eee R ie iren IAs dion elo oo toss oc
ee iat aan eee OS ae CRE RRS Ra a oe tecnica, Sal gona ob ithe cir
CE 2S eS eee ee Lear entre Aes ears ins 8 hae OSs croleoc.s, mus) wae
BRE is Se pyc OS 2 3 | oe eee medic. hone member ka ed sc f
sho tAlgCal) bee. eee ce ee 1192 BY =o:

Expected -1(b)i..2...-- 1079
Expected 15 :1 (c). 1138
Expected 35:1 (d). 1180

| 135 +7.38 Difference (a) and (c) 54+6.5

76 +5 69 Difference (a) and (d) 12+4.9

34 +3 .87

a —

Little and Jones: Inheritance of Color in Great Danes

twenty-two are spotted. At the bottom
of the table, a comparison between the
observed figures and the numbers ex-
pected on 8 :1, 15:1, and 35:1 ratios
is made. It will be noted that the
35:1 ratio is most closely approxi-
mated and that this ratio probably
means that there are two SS to one 5s
individuals in a mixed population of
self Great Danes.

Confirmatory evidence is obtained
from the matings of self with spotted
animals, also shown in Table vit.
Here, a 5 : 1 ratio is expected if two out
of each three self animals are SS in
formula. So far as the numbers ob-
tained are concerned, this expectation
is exactly fulfilled, although the numbers
are so small that without the additional
evidence from the cross of self animals
inter se it could not properly be con-
sidered as definitely proving the point
in question.

(e) List of factors known to date in dogs

It may be useful at this point to make
a list of color factors recognized 1n dogs,
in order that their relations may be
considered and that future experiments
may be planned with them in view.
They are as follows:

(1) C, the color factor, modification of
which, c!, produces partial albinism;
(2) B, factor for black pigmentation,
modification of which, b, produces brown
or chocolate coat color, (3) E for ex-
tension of black and brown pigmentation,
modification of which, e, produces orange
or lemon-yellow coat color. It is pos-
sible. that the black and tan pattern
and the brindle and fawn coat patterns
may fall into this series. The two
latter are therefore, for the present,
classed as follows: E! modification of £
producing brindled coat pattern such as
is found in Great Danes, bulldogs,
Boston terriers, and greyhounds. e!
modification hypostatic to E! producing
fawn coat color ound in Great Danes,
greyhounds, bulldogs, and Boston ter-
riers. Further experimentation may
serve to show that EF! and e! are in
reality not modifications of / but are
genetically in a different allelomorphic
series. One might, at present, if he so
desired, class them as members of a

319

separate series, until their relationship
with the yellow of pointers and English
setters is definitely established. We
have, however, chosen to consider them
as modifications of E until they are
proven to be independent. (4) D
factor for intensity of coat color, modi-
fication of which, d, produces dilute
pigmentation of black, brown, or yellow
coat color. This factor 1s distinct from
the albino series and is comparable to
the similarly designated factor de-
scribed by Castle and Little (1909)
in mice, or to the maltese dilution of
cats described by Doncaster (1905), and
confirmed by Whiting (1918), or to the
dilution factor described by Castle
and others (1909) in rabbits. (5) H
factor for irregular white spotting
(harlequin spotting)—manvy._ irregular
colored spots on a white ground. The
spotting is apparently independent of
regional distribution on the body and
is characteristic of harlequin Great
Danes, but also possibly found in cocker
spaniels and English setters. / modi-
fication of this factor producing, in the
absence of any other factors for spotting,
a coat without any white spotting.
(6) S factor for self or solid coat color,
a hypostatic modification of which, s,
produces animals with a small amount
of white, possibly confined to a chest
spot or single foot spot. Quite prob-
ably from a mixed population such ss
animals might be selected to form a
race of true piebald animals with a con-
siderable amount of white in the coat.

In addition to the above, several
color phases occur which are undoubt-
edly referable to mendelizing factors.
These may be listed as follows: (1)
Black and tan coat pattern, apparently
recessive to solid coat pattern. (2)
Dominant yellow such as occurs in
dachshunds. (3) R, a roaning pattern.
This factor is seen in so-called “‘tigered”’
dachshunds and possibly in Blue Merle
collies. It is in all probability domi-
nant to solid coat and independent of
the other factors listed above.

(f) The Value of Dogs as Genetic Material

Recent investigations of Malone
(1918) have shown that there are in
dogs two classes of sperm, bearing

320

eleven and ten chromosomes respec-
tively. This being the case, it seems
probable that dogs represent, even in
spite of their slow breeding and large
size, the best material available among
the mammals for a relatively complete
genetic analysis. They are found in
more color varieties than occur in any
other domesticated animals. They have
more structural differences and a greater
size difference between breeds as well
as a greater difference in number of
young per litter than are found in other
mammals. There is apparently com-
plete fertility between different breeds.
Artificial insemination has been tried
(Iwanoff, 1903) and has been found
possible, a fact which might enable
experimenters to overcome any me-
chanical difficulties in crossing very
large with very small breeds. They
possess more clearly defined instincts,
characterizing various varieties than
do other mammals. To sum up, there-
fore, it may be stated that if an in-
vestigator is willing to wait for his
results, dogs provide a field unequalled
among mammals in the respects above
outlined.

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

From a study of the breeding records
of Great Danes in the American Kennel
Club Stud Books, the following con-
clusions can be drawn:

1. There is a single mendelizing
factorial difference between the intense
pigmented (black, brindle, and fawn)
varieties on the one hand, and the
dilute varieties (dilute black, dilute
brindle, and dilute fawn) on the other
hand. The factor D for intensity is
epistatic to its allelomorph d—the
factor for dilution.

2. The three coat conditions repre-
sented by solid black, brindle, and
fawn are dependent upon three mutually
allelomorphic factors: E for full ex-
tension of black pigment, E! for its
partial extension as seen in the brindling
pattern, and e! for its restriction to the
muzzle, nose, feet, and a small area
near the eyes—a condition typical of

The Journal of Heredity

the fawns. Black *(E)~ animals may
carry either brindle (E') or fawn (e!)
but not both; brindles (E') may carry
fawn (e!) but not black (E), and fawns
(e!) can carry neither brindle (E!) nor
black (E).

3. Harlequin spotting (H) is epistatic
to solid coat color (h) and apparently
differs from it by a single mendelizing
factor.

4. Minute white spots on the chest
or on the feet occur rarely among the
progeny of solid colored animals. Their
appearance is probably due to a factor
(s) for piebald spotting which is hy-
postatic to its allelomorph (S) for self
coat color.

LITERATURE CITED

Barrows, W. M., and Pururrs, J. N. (1915):
Color in Cocker Spaniels. Jour. Heredity,
6: 387-397.

CastTLe, W. E., e¢ al. (1909): Inheritance in
Rabbits. Pub. Carnegie Inst. of Wash.
No. 114, 70 pp. 4 plates.

CaAstLe, WiE:, and Litres; .C. Cy Gee);

The Peculiar Inheritance of Pink-Eyes
among Colored Mice. Sci. N. S. 30:
313-314.

DoncasTER, L. (1905): On the Inheritance of
Tortoise Shell and Related Colors in Cats.
ie Camb. (Eng:) Phill Socy iss spi

+ OSs

IwanorF, E. J. (1903): Ueber kunstliche
Befruchtung von Saugetieren. Vorl. Mitt.
Biol. Zentralbl., 23: s. 640.

LANG, A. (1910): Ueber Alternative Vererbung
bei Hunden. Zeit. f. Abst. Ver., 3: 1-33.
LEIGHTON, R. (1907): The New Book of the
Dog. Cassell & Co., London, Eng. xvi+

620 pp.

LittLe, C. C. (1911): The ‘‘ Dilute’ Forms of
Yellow Mice. Sci. N. S., 33: 896-897.

LittLe, C. C. (1914): Inheritance of Coat
Color in Pointer Dogs. Jour. Hered. 5:
244-248.

Matong, J. Y. (1918): Spermatogenesis in the
Dog. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 37: 97-
100. 2 plates.

PEARSON, K., NETTLESHIP, E., and USHER,
C. H..(1913): A Monograph on Albinism in
Man, Part II, 460-512.

‘“‘STONHENGE”’ (WALSH, T. H.) (1873): The
Dog. Lee and Shepard, viii+470 pp.
Wuitinc, P. W. (1918): Inheritance of Coat-

Color in Cats. Jour. Exp. Zool., 25: 539-

569. 2 plates.
Wricut, S_ (1918): Color Inheritance in
Mammals. The Dog. Jour. Heredity, 9:
87-90.

OLNEYA BEANS

A Native Food Product of the Arizona Desert, Worthy of Domestication
O-F.-Coor

Bionomist in Charge of Crop Acclimatization, U.

S. Department of Agriculture

O many different trees are called

ironwood in other parts of the

United States that further use of

this name for Olneya tesota should
be avoided. As the tree is confined to
the southwestern deserts, names like
“desert ironwood,”’ ‘‘southwestern iron-
wood,” or ‘‘Sonora ironwood,”’ the last
proposed in Britton’s ‘“‘Trees of North
America,” might serve, but such com-
pounds are too awkward and tedious in
repetition to be used _ consistently.
The Mexican name, palo fierro or arbol
de hierro, meaning iron tree, may come
into use, since palo verde, meaning
green tree, has been adopted generally in
the southwest for another leguminous
tree (Cercidium), which is a regular
companion of Olneya in the desert.
But palo fierro and arbol de Ierro are
not more distinctive names in Spanish
than ironwood in English, and are
applied to trees of many kinds in
Mexico and other parts of tropical
America. Use of the generic name
Olneya, or the name tesota, recorded
by the Mexican boundary explorers and
recognized in Gray’s botanical designa-
tion of the species, would avoid the
difficulties.

The only economic feature of Olneya
noted in botanical works of reference is
that the wood is very heavy, hard, and
difficult to work, though sometimes used
for special purposes and generally valued
as fuel. Possibilities as an ornamental
are suggested by Britton’s reference to
Olneya as ‘“‘a most beautiful tree.”
The grayish foliage and gnarled trunks
give a slight similarity to the olive,
set off in May by an abundance of
pinkish-purple blossoms, in form like
those of the locust tree, to which Olneya
isrelated. It is the largest as well as the
most attractive tree that grows as a
true native of the driest southwestern

deserts, away from the stream beds and
with full exposure to heat and drought.

A forage value is recognized in ‘‘ New
Trails in Mexico,” by Lumholtz, who
tells how the mules, donkeys and horses
left good grass to feed on the leaves of
palo fierro. ‘‘They stretched their
necks like giraffes in eager competition
and, paying no heed to its numerous
thorns, they pulled away mouthfuls of
leaves.” This has to be corrected to
the extent that Olneya has no true
thorns like those of the mesquite, but
as in the screw-bean there are slender
spine-like stipules 4 or 5 mm. long on
the upright shoots, though the smaller
twigs are unarmed. Referring to a
district in Sonora, between Santa Ana
and Trincheras, Lumholtz also says:
“For three or four hours we were cross-
ing a large, low mesa with a predominant
vegetation of palo fierro trees, the
leaves of which furnish here the sole
subsistence for herds of cattle. They
grow fat on this, drinking water only
every third day.” The flowers also
are said to be eaten as they fall to the
ground, and to fatten the stock.

Thus we have Olneya.as a handsome
flowering tree, with a dark, heavy, hard
wood like ebony, and with foliage and
flowers that are eaten with avidity by
animals and are nutritious, like alfalfa.
To this reckoning must be added the
fact that the Olneya trees bear thick
crops of pods not unlike those of garden
beans, and that each pod may have
several seeds, unlike the small bony
seeds of the mesquite, but of the size,
appearance and texture of small peanuts
and having the same agreeable flavor
when roasted, so that they can be used
as food. Young pods probably could -
be cooked and eaten like green beans,
since the texture is fleshy and the
taste not. bitter, even in the raw state,

321

TREE

EYA

IN

4

THE OI

30 feet

, Arizona, about
an Olneya tree cut off near the ground, with a

in the vicinity of Sacaton

argest Olneya tree

Above, the 1
high

new

Below,
s, bear

diameter.

in

feet

ind 2
crown of uy

c

(Fig. 13.)

beans.

e crop ot

og
5

4

ing a lar

out

right spr

)
t

Cook: Olneya Beans

though somewhat astringent. The pods
are not limited to one or two seeds, as
the works of Gray and other botanists
would indicate, nor is the tree of very
slow growth as commonly supposed,
from its behavior under extreme desert
conditions. In short, Olneya is a tree
that may be found worthy of cultiva-
tion, in spite of the fact that it is not
planted or even allowed to survive
around any of the southwestern settle-
ments.

It seems remarkable that the produc-
tion of edible beans by Olneya was not
the first fact to be recorded, or at
least one of the first to attract attention,
but this feature of the tree has remained
practically unknown, even among those
who have lived long in the southwest.
One reason may be that the beans
ripen about the first of August when
even botanists and explorers avoid the
hot deserts. Emory passed through
the Gila Valley in November, 1846.
Bigelow’s specimens of Olneya were
collected in northern Arizona in Feb-
ruary, 1854, and are said by Torrey
to be “in fruit only,’ no doubt the
empty pods of the previous season.
Bigelow states that the Mexicans who
accompanied the Whipple Expedition,
and who doubtless joined it in New
Mexico, were not acquainted with the
tree nor with the name fesota. It
seems not impossible that the tree at
first was confused with the mesquite or
the “‘cat’s claw” acacia, the latter
also said to have been called tesota.
The word tezoatl appears in Simeon’s
Aztec dictionary as the name of a shrub
of the hot lands, the leaves of which
are used to make a dye, while texotia
or texotli is an Aztec word for a blue
color. In the Pima language the tree
is called hait kam, according to Russell.

The first Olneya beans that came to
my attention in October, 1916, were in
the hands of a venerable prospector
living near the abandoned town of
Picacho on the California side of the
Colorado River, about 30 miles north
of Yuma. A stock of the beans had
been collected for eating and tomakea
beverage that was compared to choco-
jate. The old prospector’s ‘‘native

$23

peanuts’”’ were remembered in July,
1918, on seeing abundant crops of pods
on many of the Olneya trees in the
deserts around Sacaton, in south-central
Arizona, and as the beans ripened many
differences were noted, some of practical
interest from the standpoint of cultiva-
tion.

No two trees seem to produce exactly
the same kind of beans. Usually the
difference between beans of neighboring
trees were not merely appreciable, but
obvious, and comparable to those that
distinguish cultivated varieties in other
genera of the pea family. Correspond-
ing differences were noted in the pods
and in the characters and behavior of
seedlings of the same parent tree.
Many writers assume that wild species
normally are uniform, and that diver-
sities among cultivated plants are in-
duced by conditions of domestication or
by hybridization. But Olneya is a mono-
typic genus, and individual diversity
or heterism, instead of uniformity,
appears as the normal condition among
the wild trees growing in their native
deserts.

Though only one bean in a pod is the
rule on some trees, it usually is possible
to find some pods with at least two or
three beans. Many trees have pods
with several seeds, and some are dis-
tinctly large-podded, to the extent of
nearly 13 cm. in length and 10 to 12
mm. in width, in the dry state. The
largest pods had nine fully developed
beans and two abortive, indicating
that pods with eleven beans or more
are sometimes produced. The number
of seeds is a practical consideration,
since gathering beans from trees with
only single-seeded or two-seeded_ pods
is much more difficult than from those
that have pods with several beans.
The color of the young pods is a light
yellowish or brownish-green, sometimes
mottled with red, as the pods of the
Arizona mesquite often are. The color
darkens to light coffee brown as the
pods dry and shrivel.

Other differences between individual
trees are in the proportioning of the
pods to the beans. If the pods are
ample so that there is no crowding, the

A NEGLECTED AMERICAN FOOD PLANT

“Tn view of the several possibilities of use it may seem strange that Olneya has not
been cultivated before or that it was not domesticated by the native agricultural
tribes of the southwestern States or of Mexico, but tree-crops were not a general
feature of the native American agriculture.” This photograph shows a branch of
Olneya with nearly mature pods, from a tree that produces only one or two beans
in a pod, as stated in botanical descriptions of the species. (Fig. 14, natural size.)

Cook: Olneya Beans

beans are regular in shape, but some
trees have relatively shorter pods, so
that the beans are crowded and flat-
tened at one or both ends, and hence
irregular in size and form, which would
increase the difficulty of mechanical
cleaning and sorting (Fig. 16). Some
trees have relatively indehiscent pods
that fall to the ground without shatter-
ing, while on other trees most of the
pods open before falling, so that the
individual beans have to be picked up,
which takes much more time and labor.

Color also appeared as a_ practical
consideration in collecting the beans,
for those that were light-colored, grayish
or brownish, were more difficult to find
than the dark purple beans of other
trees. The most difficult beans to
pick up from the ground were lhght
brown .and finely speckled, these being
hard to detect among the litter of
coarse sand or gravel, fragments of
dead wood, dry leaves, and pods under
the ‘trees. The colors range from a
uniform light tan through various
degrees of shading, mottling, and speck-
ling with dull or pinkish purple to
nearly uniform deep purple, nearly
black in the mass.

From the standpoint of general de-
sirability and ease of handling it
seemed that the best trees to select
would be those that bore abundant
crops of long, many-seeded pods, not
opening too readily, with large, plump,
regularly formed beans, of the dark
purple color. One such tree was found
that seemed definitely superior to any
other in combining the several require-
ments. Photographs of this tree were
made, as well as of the pods and beans,
and a part of the seed was planted at
Sacaton, as Olneya No. 1 (see Figs.
13. and 17, No.4). This tree had pods of
the largest dimensions, as given above,
with beans attaining 11 mm. in length,
9 mm. in breadth, and nearly 8 mm. in
thickness. The surface of the beans is
smooth and even, but under a lens
shows. very minute, close-set puncta-
tions. The hilum is white and rather
prominent, and there is a small oval pit
above the hilum, usually white and
flat at the bottom, but sometimes

20

reduced to a short, narrow groove.
On the other side of the seed, diagonally
across from the hilum, is a rather in-
distinct, broadly rounded prominence.

Still larger beans, with measurements
of 12 mm. by 9.2 mm. by 7.2 mm., were
obtained from another tree. These
were of a nearly uniform light tan
color, very finely speckled with purplish,
and with much larger and less numerous
punctations. Beans from several trees
were weighed carefully by Mr. Harold
F. Loomis. Averages of ten weighings
of 50 seeds from samples representing
seven individual trees were 13.617,
14.808, 14.231, 7.895, 12.682, 14.431,
and 10.252 grams. The corresponding
average weights of single beans of the
seven trees are 0.272, 0.296, 0.285,
0.158, 0.254, 0.289, and 0.205 grams.
The largest bean weighed 0.395 gram,
with 0.357 gram as the average of 25
of the largest beans from the same
tree, and 0.302 gram as the average of
the sample from this tree, or nearly
twice the average for the tree with the
smallest beans. The largest beans are
shown in Fig. 15, thé smallest in Fig. 17,
No. 2 and those of the tree considered
most desirable in Fig. 17, No. 4. The
tree with the largest beans bore only a
small and late crop and had short pods,
mostly with only one or two seeds, though
a few had three or four (see Fig. 15).

The tree selected to furnish seed for
planting was near the Pima village of
Santan, north of the Gila River, op-
posite Sacaton. Two quarts of beans
were collected from this tree. These
were only a small part of the crop, but
the others could not be gathered be-
cause of heavy rains that made the
river impassable.

In the deserts around Sacaton only a
few of the trees are large, most of them
being sprouts from old stumps. Even
the second growth is cut down as soon
as a thickness of a few inches has been
attained, although the yellow sapwood
of the new growth is rather soft and is
consumed rapidly by boring beetles.
Cutting the older trees reduces the seed
supply, and the second growth is
browsed by cattle until the foliage is
beyond reach. Browsing is worse, of

ad

Pe aye oy.
i. MWh shjppioatlore: dy

OLNEYA BEANS

Numerous variations occur in the size and character of the beans produced by Olneya
trees. The ones here shown were the largest found in the vicinity of Sacaton, Ari-
zona. (Fig. 15, natural size.)

BEANS AND DRY PODS

The dry pods of Olneya are firm in texture and not promptly dehiscent. The beans,
which are somewhat crowded in the pods, are flattened at each end. (Fig, 16, natural
size.)

328 The Journal

course, in the vicinity of settlements,
and the complete absence of tesota trees
from the lower ground along the Gila
River for several miles above and below
Sacaton may be due to this cause
rather than to susceptibility to frost.
Like the giant cactus, Olneya does not
come down to the river-bottom lands,
but appears to be confined to the higher
slopes, farther back toward the foot-
hills. In both’ cases human activities
and domestic animals may be important
factors in reducing the chances of
survival and of natural reproduction in
the immediate neighborhood of the
Indians.

Cattle may be responsible also for
the extreme scarcity of young trees,
which are seldom to be found in the
Sacaton district, even well back in the
desert. Although an abundance of small
seedlings sprang up under many of the
bearing trees after the August rains,
they disappeared completely in a few
weeks. No doubt the rabbits and
other rodents, as well as the birds and
insects, must always have taken a
heavy toll of the young plants, but there
must have been provision for this in the
natural economy of the species. It
may be that rabbits have become more
destructive to the Olneya seedlings,
since Pimas began to keep cattle about
the middle of the last century.

Cattle are said not to range more than
3 or 4 miles from water, but the wood-
cutters go farther into the desert, so
that a general reduction of the seed
crop from this cause also has to be
recognized, and this again may help to
explain why the Indians have ceased
to gather the beans in recent decades.
The range of wood-cutting depends, of
course, upon the price, which often is
very high. The use of Olneya wood
for fuel has been very extensive, second
only to that of mesquite, not only in
Arizona but in the adjacent regions of
Mexico. Railroads, mines, machine-
shops and irrigation pumping plants
have often used wood, in default of
coal. Lumholtz explains that the easiest
way to fell a tree is to make a fire at
the base: “It ignites easily and burns

of Heredity

the whole night through without any
further attention.”

It is apparent that only the extreme
hardiness and tenacity of life of the old
stumps and roots are responsible for
the present representation of the species
in many localities, and that when the
vitality of these relics is finally exhausted
a rapid extermination of the species
must be expected, not merely from lands
that can be brought under cultivation,
but in the deserts where no other tree
seems as well adapted to grow, except
the useless palo verde. The possibility
of retarding the destruction of the
natural supplies or of propagating the
species artificially might be worthy of
consideration from the standpoint of
fuel supply, even if there were no food
or fodder possibilities to attract atten-
tion.

The possibility of making practical
use of the natural supplies of the beans
by gathering them from the wild trees
in the desert is a question that might be
raised in localities where the trees are
still abundant, as they are said to be in
some parts of the Papago country, in
southern Arizona. There can be no
doubt that the Indians used them
formerly, though in recent years they
seem to have been entirely neglected.
One reason may be that needy Indians
could get supplies of flour and other
rations issued by the Government, and
the increasing scarcity and remoteness
of bearing trees undoubtedly would dis-
courage any habit of relying on them
for food. The fact that the bean
harvest came at the period of the
summer floods when the Indians were
busy with their farms might also tend
seriously to interfere with the gathering
of the beans. The case is different with
the mesquite, which has very hard,
inedible seeds, and is spread by cattle
and horses that eat the sweetish pods,
which the Indians also grind and bake
into loaves like bread.

If a systematic effort or test of the
possibility of gathering tesota beans
from the wild trees were to be made,
no doubt the first step would be to
cut off the low limbs and clear away

VARIATION IN GLNEYA BEANS

Samples of Olneya beans from four different trees are here shown, to illustrate
variation in size, shape, color and other features. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, top to bottom.
(Fig. 17, natural size.)

330 The Journal

the bushes and the brushwood that
accumulate under most of the trees,
so that wagon-sheets could be spread to
catch the beans, which could be knocked
off readily with poles, most of the trees
being low.

Picking up beans from the coarse
gravel and vegetable debris under the
trees is rather slow work, about an
hour being required to collect a pound.
But if values were to be reckoned on the
basis of shelled peanuts, which are
often sold at 50 cents and upward per
pound, even this most laborious method
of gathering the beans might appear
justified if bearing trees were readily
accessible.

Another question that naturally sug-
gests itself is whether profitable yields
could be obtained by planting the trees
in orchard form. At present there
are no data bearing on this subject
beyond the fact that some of the wild
trees are very prolific, so that a yield of
half a bushel of beans per tree seems not
impossible. At this rate of production
orchard planting of Olneya might prove
remunerative, and it might be found
that other crops could be raised on the
same land, as in the subculture system
used in the desert oases of North
Africa and other parts of the world.
Even if the beans were not harvested
for human use, turkeys or pigs might
keep them from being wasted. Stores
of beans collected by the desert rodents
are said to have been drawn upon largely
in former times by the Indians.

How rapidly the trees would grow,
and how soon they would begin to
bear if planted under favorable con-
ditions, have still to be learned, since
there appear to be no records of such
experiments. Small stunted trees with
trunks only 3 or 4 inches in diameter
sometimes produce beans. Sprouts
from old stumps may begin bearing
when only 1 or 2 inches thick.

A first planting of Olneya at Sacaton
in August, 1918, was lost, all of the
seedlings being eaten off close to the
ground, probably by rabbits. A second
planting early in September, with wire
protection, grew rapidly, and many of
the seedlings were over a foot high by

of Heredity

the end of October. Unlike some
members of the pea family that have
seedlings with simple leaves, Olneya
has only compound leaves above the
cotyledons.

That rapid growth may continue if the
trees receive a regular supply of water
is indicated by the fact that many
vigorous new shoots, 4 or 5 feet long
and over half an inch in diameter, were
produced in the season of 1918 on old
trees watered from a new well in the
desert near Sacaton. Trees in rapid
growth and in full leaf produce few or
no beans, while trees that bore the
heaviest crops of beans had only a
sparse development of leaves.

It appears that Olneya, like many
other desert trees, is extremely deep-
rooted, so that transplanting may prove
difficult or impossible. In an effort to
transplant an Olneya tree from the
desert near Yuma, reported by Mr. R.
E. Blair, no lateral roots were found
near the surface, and for 7 or 8 feet the
large taproot remained entirely un-
branched. Such a habit of root growth
would indicate little or no interference
with surface crops, so that Olneya may
prove well adapted for planting in or
near cultivated lands and may serve
very well for hedges or wind-breaks, as
well as for holding terraces or barriers
against erosion, which are often needed
in agricultural development of sloping
mesa or foot-hill lands of the southwest.
Even on desert lands that are too
broken for irrigation it might prove
worth while to plant belts of Olneya
across the washes, to hold back and
spread the flood-waters. More mois-
ture would be absorbed by. the soil,
and more vegetation could grow in
addition to the forage than the Olneya
itself would afford.

In view of the several possibilities of
use it may seem strange that Olneya
has not been cultivated before or that
it was not domesticated by the native
agricultural tribes of the southwestern
states or of Mexico, but tree-crops were
not a general feature of the native
American agriculture. The most con-
spicuous exception was cacao, which

Cook: Olneya Beans

seems to have been grown rather
extensively as a subculture under larger
forest trees in tropical districts of
Central America. Most of the tree
products are perishable, and the time

Sal

required for trees to come into bearing is
another reason for their not being
popular among primitive peoples, who
seldom cultivate the same land con-
tinuously for more than a few seasons.

The Sweetest Leaf Known

Several years ago a report ran through
the press, originating in Asuncion, Para-
guay, to the effect that there was a
plant which grew wild on the prairies
there, by the name of ‘Kaa Hee,”
Eupatorium rebaudianum (correctly de-
termined later as Stevia rebaudiana)
which had a substance in it 180 times as
sweet as sugar. This report startled the
sugar cane and sugar beet growers all
over the world, and their fears were not
allayed until it was discovered that the
sweet substance was a glycerine and not
a true sugar. Only the tiniest leaf
fragment at that time reached Washing-
ton, and all efforts to secure the seeds of
this interesting composite have until
recently failed, but several ounces of
the dried leaves and a small amount of
seed have been received by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, through the Ameri-
can consul, and they have aroused a
keen interest in all who have tasted
them. A fragment a quarter of an inch
square is as intensely sweet as sac-
charine. There is today so much dis-
cussion among dietitians as to the effects
upon the health of the excessive use of
cane sugar that the whole question of
gratifying our most unusual taste for
sweets is one deserving serious con-
sideration. This is, as Professor Blar-

ingham, of the Pasteur Institute, re-
marks, the age of sugar, ‘“‘La siecle de
sucre,”’ but whether the fashion for
sweets will be outgrown is a question for
the dietitians to struggle with. Professor
Osterhout, of Harvard, has shown that
sugar increases the electrical permea-
bility of the protoplasmic membrane of
the cell, but just what inference is to be
drawn from the discovery is a question.
Having possibly a bearing upon this
same problem, the following fact re-
cently called to attention is worthy of
publication:

“In southern Nigeria, according to
Mr. A. H. Kirby, Assistant Director of
Agriculture at Ibadan, there is a fruit
tree or shrub known as the ‘‘Agbayun”’
(Synsepalum dulciferum), the slightly
sweetish fruits of which, when eaten, -
have the peculiar property of making
the sourest-tasting substances such as
limes, lemons, unripe fruits, or vinegar’
which are eaten within twelve hours or
so afterward, seem intensely sweet.

Here would appear to be two sub-
stances, both worthy of investigation
from the modern standpoint of foods.
Seeds of both of these plants have been
imported by the Office of Foreign Seed
and Plant Introduction,—U. S. DE-
PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RACIAL ORIGINS AND HONORS OF WAR

The Anglo-Saxon Element and the Heroes It Produced

FREDERICK ApAMs Woops

Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

HE possession of an Anglo-Saxon
| surname is not a proof of Anglo-
Saxon descent, but it is at least a
strong indication of probability.
There have been a good many in-
stances of Jews changing their names,
presumably with the idea of concealing
their real racial origin; and since the
outbreak of the war many citizens of
German parentage have shown a similar
tendency. The Irish, who form a very
large proportion of the entire popula-
tion in Boston and its vicinity, are, on
the contrary, proud of their race, and
are not at all prone to change their
ancestral cognomens. Whatever the
error may be in assuming the surname a
criterion of race, it is not a large one.
On the return to New England of the
26th Division (Y. D. or Yankee Divi-
sion) of the overseas army, a great
parade was held in Boston, April 25.
The Boston Globe of that date pub-
lished the pictures and names of all the
chief heroes of that division, divisional,

brigade, and regimental leaders, and all
receivers of distinguished service crosses
—commissioned officers, noncommis-
sioned officers, and privates—369 in all.

Of the noncommissioned officers and
privates, 170 out of 236 bore Anglo-
Saxon names. This is over: 72%. Com-
missioned officers of Anglo-Saxon names
who had received distinguished service
crosses numbered 46 out of 63, or over
73%. Of the 51 divisional, brigade
and regimental leaders, 40, or over
78%, bore Anglo-Saxon surnames.!

The proportion of Anglo-Saxon names
in the entire division is probably not as
great as 72%? and if this be true, we
have in these figures some proof for the
assertion, so often made, that the
Anglo-Saxons, and particularly the
Yankees and the Canadians, who re-
semble them in race, and the Scotch,
who carry a large proportion of Anglo-
Saxon names, are particularly heroic and
make fine soldiers.*

1 Anglo-Saxon: Arnold, Ashworth, Baker, Bamford, Bearrs, Bishop, Bulkeley, Bunnell,

Chase, Cheatham, Cole, Dowell, Edwards, Foote, Gatchell, Glassford, Goodwin, Greenlaw,
Greenway, Hale, Hays, Herbert, Hobbs, Howard, Hume, Isbell, Jones, Keville, Lock, Major,
Parker, Petts, Sanborn, Shelton, Sherborne, Smith, Sweetser, Waterman, Whalmsley, Wheelock.
Others: Aultman, Dolan, Durfee, Lassiter, Logan, Mack, McCaskey, Meyers, Murphy, Traub,
Twachtman.

2 This total proportion of Anglo-Saxon names in the entire 26th Division was probably not
far from 50%. This is indicated by the fact that an examination of a long list of names, about
a thousand in all, including those who received citations, commendations, congratulations, etc.,
but who did not receive distinguished service crosses, gives about 55% Anglo-Saxon names.
List published in Boston Evening Transcript, April 25, 1919.

3 As a criterion in deciding doubtful cases, use was made of Bardsley, C. W., “A Dictionary
of English and Welsh Surnames with Special American Instances.’’ London, 1901.

Ss)
os)
bt

A Dangerous Horse Situation

RR)

A Dangerous Horse Situation

We can well liken the horse business
to an ocean. At times come tides, at
other times comes the ebb flow. Just
now the tide is setting very strongly
in one direction—that of getting out
of the horse business. Due to the
inability of horse prices to follow the
large increases in prices of wheat, corn,
pork, beef and mutton, many farmers
have quit the horse business. Their
mares have been for sale to the horse
buyer, in many cases, and even though
mares were held, breeding has been
neglected. The ebb flow of the ocean
is just upon us.

It takes a very strongly anchored
person to stand against the flow of tide.
It is also usually a rather thankless job
to advise going against any popular or
well-nigh universal practice or habit.
But there is always a tomorrow to be
considered.

To illustrate the way the draft horse
business is going, a short review of the
history of the last several years in
Tazewell County, Illinois, can be cited.
Tazewell County has earned the fame
of having more purebred Percheron
horses per square mile of area than any
other county in America. Old Louis
Napoleon made history for the county
in early days, and the draft horse
interests have always been very large
in the county. To obtain an accurate
opinion as to the decrease in breeding
in Tazewell County, the Tazewell
County Percheron Association a short
time ago canvassed the men owning
stallions for the years 1915, 1916, 1917
and 1918. Direct questions were asked
of each stallion owner as to the number
of mares bred per stallion during these
years. Enough replies were obtained
to furnish reliable estimates. In 1915
there were recorded 155 stallions for
public service. The average number of
mares bred per stallion was 65. Count-
ing a 50 per cent colt crop, there should
have been 5,036 colts of the 1916 crop.
In 1916 the number of registered stal-
lions decreased to 140 and the average

number of mares per horse also de-
creased to 55. This would be 3,850
colts for 1917. In 1917, the stallions
again dropped to 115 and mares per
stallion to 451%. According to this
only 2,616 colts could be expected in
1918. Last year, 1918, the stallions
only numbered 88, and the owners
reported an average of 41 mares per
stallion. This year we can expect
about 1,800 colts. From 1915 to 1918
the stallions decreased from 155 to 88.
The number of colts decreased from
5,036 to 1,800, or almost 180 per cent.
Here is food for thought. If one of the
big draft. horse counties cuts down its
horse production in this manner, what
is going to happen to the supply of
horses for market three and four years
from now?

A like decrease can be seen in the
decrease in stallions registered in the
entire state. In 1912 there were 9,677
purebred and grade stallions licensed
to stand at public service. In 1918,
there were 7,120, or a decrease of 36
per cent.

The result is already becoming ap-
parent in Tazewell County. The other |
day, the secretary of the County Per-
cheron Association was trying to find
some real geldings to price to a buyer.
In the course of his search, a considerable
number of men were consulted. No
one knew of any big sound geldings of
market age. A buyer of express horses
told the secretary, a short time ago,
that he was finding it very hard to find
any horses suitable for his trade. Last
August, in response to an inquiry for
grade mares to over 50 men in Tazewell
County, only 29 mares for sale were
located.

In the light of these figures and from
recent history, it begins to appear that
there will be practically no horses soon,
When that happens what will we do
for work stock? And we will need
work horses three, five, ten-years from
now.—CuHEsTER G. Starr, Farm Ad-
viser of Tazewell County, Il.

A BOOK ON THE SEAUAL- OUES TIGR

EN in Europe have often tried to

MW bolster up a claim of superiority

for their sex by pointing out

that the perpetuation of the

nation depended on its army and that

they, by their compulsory military

service, recognized and fulfilled the
supreme obligation.

‘*But,”’ the women have answered, ‘‘it
is we who bear these men that thus
defend the fatherland.” Therefore they
have claimed at least the equality of
their sex.

Dr. Edward Toulouse, in his system
of eugenics, proposes to take them at
their word.

Every able-bodied woman, at the age
of thirty, will be conscripted ‘“‘to work,
near her own home, for a certain
number of hours daily, in a workshop,
office or military hospital, in order to
make available for actual military
service all the soldiers who are com-
monly drawn off for non-combatant
operations.

‘“The mother with three children will
be exempt from this obligation; she who
has two will do only six months of
service; the mother of one child will
serve for a year, and the childless
woman two years.”’

‘In this way woman will be pushed
toward maternity by a force with a
different compulsion than that of taxa-
tion. Obliged to perform a service that
is noble, beautiful, equitable, but in
practice disagreeable, or to bear children
she will be naturally led to seek mater-
nity. And in doing this she will not
fear putting herself into a position of
inferiority, for from the social as from
the military point of view, procreation
is more useful than an auxiliary service
in the army. Similarly the husbands
will rather make their wives mothers
than send them into military service

1 La Question Sexuelle et La Femme, par Docteur Toulouse.
Bibliotheque-Charpentier, 11, Rue de Grenelle, 1918.

for two years. This method of pre-
venting depopulation will be efficacious;
and it will be only justice to make it
serve the military interests of the state,
which are particularly endangered by
race-suicide.”’

A thorough-going proposal, is it not?
French men of science are famous for
the relentless clarity with which they
push their arguments to logical conclu-
sions, and Dr. Toulouse, in his book on
social hygiene,! does not balk at any
intermediate obstacles.

To enable this increase in maternity,
financial means of caring for the children
must be provided; but as children are
in the last analysis the sole wealth of
the state, Dr. Toulouse sees no reason
why the state should hesitate to invest
its funds in such good. interest-bearing
securities. He would have the expense
of the early care and education of all
children borne by the state if the
parents required it; making no distinc-
tion between those of legitimate and
illegitimate parentage.

But quality as well as quantity is
necessary in a population, as the author
does not fail to recognize; and he devotes
a good deal of thought to finding the
optimum compromise between these
two contradictory demands. He would
have the marriage, or at least the
parenthood, of two persons with the
same inheritable defect prevented. In
case only one of the parents is tainted, it
would suffice that the other be warned of
the fact, so that at least he or she would
marry with open eyes. To aid in this
work of restrictive eugenics, he would
have a “‘eugenics registry’’ maintained
by the state, where all families would
be described.

In this connection occur the principal
errors of fact in a remarkable book.
The author’s views on ‘‘racial poisons”’

Pp. 288, prix f. 3.50. Paris:
Dr. Toulouse is medical director of the

Villejuif Insane Asylum and one of the best known of French psychiatrists.

334

A Book on the

and the effect of disease on the germ-
plasm are not supported by any evidence
and must be considered as_ highly
exaggerated.’

But it would be a mistake to think
that the book as a whole is marked by
these exaggerations. There have been
few published discussions of social
hygiene that are so sane, temperate,
and national. Dr. Toulouse examines
the many questions—the single stand-
ard of morality, free love, divorce, the
proper age for marriage, monogamy
and polygamy, illegitimacy, abortion,
the position of women in industry—
without dogma or sentiment, and always
with a view to determining what solu-

Sexual Question 335

tion will be most eugenic. In many
ways his discussion is in advance of the
current social hygiene literature of the
United States, for in discussing such a
question as the single standard he does
not limit himself to arguments based on
the fear of venereal infection and
illegitimate parentage, as is too often
done, but inquires into the philosophical
bases on which chastity may be justified.

On the whole, the work is stimulating
by the ideas it puts forth rather than
by its presentation of any mass of data;
for these are largely lacking. But few
recent works on eugenics will better
repay reading than this little volume by
Dr. Toulouse.

All-Northwest Egg-Laying Contest

The egg-laying contest is a testing
place for the poultry breeders of the
state, and is also a testing place for
those poultry raisers who want to
improve their flock production. The
contest, just closed, has clearly demon-
strated that high egg production can be
had from birds irrespective of altitude
or other climatic conditions. The birds
in the Second All-Northwest Contest
came from places varying widely in all
climatic conditions, as well as in avail-
able feeds. The high hen in the contest
was a Single Comb White Leghorn,
Number 251, which was bred, and is now
owned by D. Tancred, of Kent, Wash-
ington. This bird laid 311 eggs during a
period of 365 days. It is also a note-
worthy fact that these birds made their
records while kept in flocks of 36. The
usual number of birds in other contests
are from five to ten birds. It is more
credit to a breeder to have a high record
in a large flock than in a small one.

During the past seven years the
poultry raisers have become more in-
terested in the egg-laying contests. Men
who are doing good breeding work are
anxious to have their birds tested in
order that they may have official records

of their production. Egg-laying contests

have brought clearly before the poultry

public that in order to have birds that

would produce eggs, it would be neces-
sary to have good breeding back of the
birds. Feed is, to be sure, an important

factor in egg production, but it is

necessary to have birds which are able

to handle feed and convert it into eggs
before high records can be made either
at home or at the contests. The poul-

trymen who enter their birds in the

egg-laying contests, year after year,

show a marked improvement in the

quality of their stock. A few years

ago the average poultryman or farmer

was rather skeptical about a bird having

the ability to lay 200 eggs in one year.

The official trap-nesting done during the

past few years has demonstrated that a

good percentage of birds entered lay in

the neighborhood of 200 eggs in a year.

About 5% of the birds at the Second

All-Northwest Egg-Laying Contest laid

over 250 eggs each, while 31% of the

birds laid over 200 eggs, and 71% over

150 eggs —R. V. MitcHELL, Director,

Washington Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion, Pullman, Washington.

2On pages 47-48 Dr. Toulouse expresses a doubtful belief in the superstition of telegony,.
which is now thoroughly discredited among geneticists.

336

DISTRIBUTION BY SCHOOL

The Journal of Heredity

A Pioneer Research in Correlation

JRADES OF THE

WEIGHTS OF Boys AGED 9!

Mentally
inferior
Grades
(pounds) E

I II
(hotue sie ae ine 4
dee Nee Ree 1
{Se TAA a ae 5
PS Nee | 1
74. 1 5
ie it) >| 7
TD Weert 25
Al | Si
70 AN ANG
69 5.1" a0
68 it |i ity
67 1 241
66 ey tidy)
65 11 22
64 21 53
63 ile 44
62 25 63
61 25 54
60 29 72
59 29 61
58 Hoar 74
57 37 (ORs
56 i 8} 62
55 2339 91
54 SOM 2
53 Sh 7/33
52 33 52
51 28 50
50 7 48
49 20M Ae2s
48 14 | 24
47 19 14
46 8 8
45 13 11
44 TAN nay Si

Mentally
superior
LV ean

ALL GOOD QUALITIES ARE CORRELATED

As far as known, all good qualities
are correlated—that is, persons who
are superior in one direction are likely
to be superior in every other direction,
exceptions to the contrary notwith-
standing. This law is so important in
eugenics and so completely in conflict
with popular belief that insistence upon
its truth is much needed. The above
table, which proves that bright. children
weigh more than dull children, is re-
produced from the transactions of the
Academy of Science of St. Louis, March,
1893. It is the first table in a research
made by Dr. William Townsend Porter
on growing school children. The black
lines near the center mark the averages
and it can be seen that these rise like a
perfect flight of stairs. All the boys
were nine years old, but superior men-
tality was found correlated with physical
development. A successive series of
grades like the above is always a true
test of a correlation. A further dis-
cussion of correlations within the in-
dividual and their relations to eugenics
appeared in the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY
for February, 1919.

1 A few scattering figures relative to very heavy and very light boys are here omitted.

The

_ Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. X, No. 8 November, 1919

CONTENTS

Origin of a New and Improved French Prune Variety, by A. D. Shamel.. 339
Polyembryony and Sex, by J: UL: Patterson. ........-:2..s.-sceehe+ee-:. Bak

Why Should Not Cemeteries Preserve Our Life Records? by David and

aria ty RINCIIE 5.:,~ Mieke there eee ae Te i OO Bee REE CN Ree os 353
AS Supposed. Sheep-goat. Ey bridi: ... Scccc cn cepacintsss ss ke Gene co alevoiciel«tziele 357
Democracy and Heredity, by Alleyne Treland........................ 360
A Bud Variation of Le Grande Manitou Dahlia, by A. D. Shamel....... 367
The First Bad Habit—Sucking its Thumb, by David Fairchild......... 376
An Early Family History of Color Blindness, by Leon J. Cole........ 372
The Gestation of the Carabao, by B. M. Gonzalez.................... 374
A Remarkable Bud Sport of Pandanus, by John H. Schaffner........ 376
The Relation of Hereditary Eye Defects to Genetics and Eugenics, by

MERIC MAE ENONVGE. rales, hai stctace arn SitaeeeI ease. SW Pa Sele a, SE ee AE ok ee 379
A Strain Producing Multiple Births, by C. B. Davenport............. 382

NOTE

Instead of raising the price of membership, and in order to meet the require-
ments of the War Industries Board, and also because of the drafting of the
whole Editorial Staff the July, August and September numbers have been
dropped out for 1918 and 1919. Vol. LX contains only 8 instead of 12 numbers,
as will also Vol. X.

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1919 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, November 24, 1919.

A BRANCH OF THE NEW FRENCH PRUNE TREE

Some typical fruits of the new variety of French prunes are here shown. These fruits (repro-
duced above to approximately one-half natural size) are about twice the size and weight of
the ordinary variety, and are more uniform in all of their characteristics. The trees seem
to have a more vigorous growth and develop larger leaves than the parent variety. (Frontis-
piece.)

ORIGIN OF A NEW AND IMPROVED
FRENCH PRUNE VARIETY

A. D. SHAMEL

HE French prune, Prunus domes-
tica, commonly called the petite
prune d’Agen or little French
prune, was introduced into Cali-
fornia in 1856 by Louis Pellier, a
nurseryman of San Jose, who brought
the scions from Ville Neuve d’Agen,
France, from which place the variety
takes its name. The commercial de-
velopment of this prune in California
started about 1880. In 1918, according
to the California State Commission of
Horticulture, there were 100,721 acres
of prune trees in bearing and 34,690
acres of young trees not in bearing. The
production amounted to 39,127 tons
with an approximate valuation of $5,-
500,000. The Santa Clara valley is the
center of greatest production, having
about 60,500 acres of bearing prune
trees. In 1919 the very heavy crops, to-
gether with the high prices being paid
for prunes, seem likely to establish a
high record both for the amount and
value of the crop.

During recent years the prune in-
dustry has developed extensively in the
Pacific northwest, particularly in the
states of Oregon, Washington and
Idaho. Formerly, the growth of the
prune industry was slow in these dis-
tricts on account of difficulties in drying
the fruits under natural climatic con-
ditions. Recently, the drying of the
fruits has been done successfully under
controlled conditions with hot, dry air
as the source of heat in the evaporators.
This development seems likely to lead
to an extensive culture of the prune in
the northwest, where drying under
natural conditions is frequently inter-
fered with by fog and rain.

The Prune d’Agen variety, most gen-
erally grown in California, is particu-
larly well adapted for prune produc-
tion on account of the rich, aromatic

flavor of its fruits, the dense, fine tex-
ture of the flesh, which gives the cured
fruits tenderness both when used as a
confection and when slightly cooked,
and the smallness of the pits, together
with their thinness and smoothness.
The dried fruits frequently contain
more than 50% of fruit sugars. Cor-
related with this sugar content is a high
degree of spicy prune flavor. The color
of the fruits of this variety is a royal
purple, which is an important factor in
the successful marketing of the dried
prunes. The delicious, melting flesh
separates easily from the small flat pit.

The trees of this variety are heavy
bearers under normal conditions. Some
fruit is usually borne the third year
after planting. From the fifth year on,
the trees may be expected to produce
commercial crops. From 200 to 300
pounds are considered to be a satisfac- —
tory yield for a full-bearing French
prune tree. However, 600 and even 800
pounds have been produced, and a six-
year-old tree at Visalia, Cal., is said to
have borne 1,102 pounds of fruit in
one season.

The tendency to heavy bearing is fre-
quently correlated with small size of
fruits, particularly when the crops are
not thinned at the proper time. If too
muchy bearing wood is grown, the fruits
are likely to be too small for satisfactory
commercial purposes. For this reason
there has been an active demand among
prune growers for a larger French prune
having the valuable characteristics of
the established variety. Until recently
all efforts to achieve this result seem to.
have been failures. The trouble with
the larger fruited varieties, as a rule,
is that the fruits are likely to be of poor
quality, coarse, and stringy in flesh, or
have large, undesirable pits.

Leonard Coates, nurseryman and

339

COMPARISON OF NEW AND ORDINARY VARIETIES

Typical leaves, fruits and pits of the two varieties are shown above, those of the new variety

at the top and the ordinary variety at the bottom.

than the latter. (Fig. 1.)

fruit grower of Morganhill, Cal., has
been studying the problem of securing
an improved variety of the French
prune for many years. In the course
of his experiments he has isolated sev-
eral strains which differ from each other
in one or more clearly recognizable
characteristics. No attempt will be
made at this time to discuss these vari-
ous types and their relation to the origi-
nal variety. This account will be con-
fined to a description of the isolation,
propagation and testing in an experi-
mental orchard, of a strain which origi-
nated from a bud variation and which
promises to be the larger fruited variety
so long sought for by prune producers
in California.

340

The former are larger and more uniform

In 1904, in a French prune tree grow-
ing in an orchard near Saratoga, Cal.,
one branch high up in the tree was
found bearing very large fruits. There
is no question as to its being a true bud
variation. Several grafts were secured
from this branch and placed in bearing
peach trees in order to secure early evi-
dence as to whether this variation, or
bud sport, could be propagated. The
fruits produced by these grafts were
found to be identical to those borne by
the original branch. The large fruits
possessed all of the desirable character-
istics of the smaller fruits of the ordi.
nary French prune and, in addition,
possessed the desired improvement in
size.

TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE TWO VARIETIES

The fruits shown in the left half of the picture are of the new French variety, and those on
. . . — i es s
the right are of the ordinary variety. These samples were grown on neighboring trées in the

same orchard.

In order to give this strain a com-
mercial test Mr. Coates bought 10 acres
containing about 1000 peach trees for
experimental trials of the large prune
variety. These trees were five years
old in 1914 at the time of their purchase.
The large-fruited French prune variety
was budded into every other row of the
peach trees with the usual method
practiced in top-working citrus and
other fruit trees. Mr. Coates believes
that budding is preferable to grafting
for top-working peach or other stone
fruits.

The top-worked trees with the im-
proved French prune strain, called No.
1418 for convenience during the experi-
mental stages, are in alternate rows with

Note the cross-sections at the bottom.

(Fig. 2.)

the ordinary or other selected strains
of the parent variety. In other words,
in the 10-acre experimental orchard
there is one row of No. 1418 followed
by a row of the parent variety, and so
on throughout the entire orchard. The
conditions are comparative and furnish
the basis for a fair comparison of the
No. 1418 strain trees with those of the
parent variety.

The yield of the No. 1418 trees in
the experimental planting has been more
than double that of the comparative
trees. The No. 1418 fruits are about
twice the size and weight of the com-
parative fruits. They are more uniform-
ly distributed throughout the tree than
is the case with the fruits borne by the

341

342

comparative trees. Furthermore, the
fruits are more uniform in size, shape
and other characteristics than are the
fruits of the ordinary variety. So uni-
form are the No. 1418 fruits that they
appear to have been graded mechani-
cally as to size as they lie on the ground
after falling.

The No, 1418 trees appear to be more
vigorous growing and develop larger
leaves than do the comparative trees.
The leaves of the trees of this strain
appear to be thicker and have a tougher
feel than do the leaves of the trees of
the parent variety. In looking down
the rows one notices that the larger
trees of the No. i418 strain, with their
more luxurious and abundant foliage,
stand out markedly as compared with
the trees and leaves of the parent vari-
ety.

The fruits of the No. 1418 strain
average about 25-30 to the pound as
compared with an average of from
about 50-60 to the pound as is the case
of the fruits of the parent variety. The
fruits of the No. 1418 strain drop
clearly from the trees and are so firm
that in a recent field examination no
damage could be observed as a result
of their fall. There was little or no
bruising or other injuries observed in
the fruits on the ground.

The fruits of the No. 1418 strain ripen
at the same time as the fruits of the
parent variety. They have the desired
rich purple color, and on the drying
trays this color shows as a very deep
or dark purple. The flavor and other
qualities of the No. 1418 fruits are said
to be better than those of the parent
variety by the manager of the principal
drying organization in the district where
the experimental orchard is located.

After the prunes are picked up from
the ground they are dipped in a boiling
lye solution with the aid of a large wire
basket. After dipping in the lye solu-
tion the fruits are run over a sizing
machine which assorts them into three
grades according to size. Then the
fruits are spread. evenly in large
shallow wooden trays and allowed
to dry in the sun for from eight
to. “ten days: Later; “the thayssoane

The Journal of Heredity

piled in stacks, where the drying and
curing processes continue until finished.
The handling of the prunes during the
drying period requires care and experi-
ence. While kiln-drying is said to be
successfully used in some districts, the
manager of the plant where the prunes
of the No. 1418 strain are dried
does not believe it to be a commercial
success under his conditions. The cur-
ing processes must be so managed as to
preserve the rich, glossy color, meaty
condition and high flavor essential to
gcod prunes.

Asa result of the favorable opinions
expressed by propagators, growers, and
driers as to the commercial value of the
No. 1418 strain, Mr. Coates has decided
to introduce it into as many prune-
growing districts as possible in order
to secure final information as to the
range of its adaptability and value
fer commercial prune production. In
this decision he is certainly justified by
the experimental evidence in his test
orchard thus far. If the improved var-
iety proves to be equally valuable in
other districts, it will undoubtedly be
the most valuable addition to the com-
mercial prune varieties ever introduced
in America.

In carefully studying the individual
trees of the new variety Mr. Coates has
occasionally observed small branches,
and in some cases individual fruit spurs,
bearing the ordinary French prunes.
The pyriform shape and other char-
acteristics of the French prune, as con-
trasted with the more round or oval
shape of the Coates variety serve to
clearly distinguish the two types. While
going over some of these trees recently
with Mr. Coates, the writer found sev-
eral similar branches, usually small ones,
bearing several fruits which were un-
mistakably of the parent variety or
ordinary French type, while the re-
mainder on the trees were of the large
Coates variety. This condition is ad-
ditional evidence as to the origin of the
variety as a bud variation from the
ordinary French prune.

It should be noted in this connection
that the experimental orchard has not
been irrigated thus far. The conditions

THREE BRANCHES FROM THE SAME TREE

The above photograph shows some typical cases of bud variations, All of these branches
were cut from the same tree of the new French variety. On the left is a branch bearing four
new French prunes and one of the ordinary variety. On the right, the branch at the top
has two typical new French prunes, and the one at the bottom, two typical ordinary French

(Fig. 3.)

therefore are more natural than where
irrigation is practiced. Furthermore,
the fruits of both the Coates and the
ordinary French trees were not thinned.
While the crops on the trees of the new
variety were much greater than those
on the trees of the ordinary variety, the
new fruits were about twice the sizc
and weight of the ordinary ones.
Twenty years ago the prune was often
the subject of many alleged jokes on the
part of our breakfast humorists. As a
result many of us in college boarding
houses and elsewhere looked with dis-
dain upon this healthful and delicious
fruit. Those days are gone, never to
return. The writer recently paid forty
cents for a dish of prunes served on a
dining car in California. The prune is
no longer a joke. As the price has gone

prunes.

up we have learned to prize it more
highly. Prunes are now shipped from
California all over the world. They
are even exported to that district of
France from which the prune d’Agen
variety came to us. It is the superior
dried fruit, and one which is not only
good to eat but has very great thera-
peutic value as well.

Until recently the writer had never
tasted a fresh prune. When fully ripe,
as they are picked up for drying the
fresh prune is luscious. No other word
describes it. To those who have never
tasted the fresh prune there is a new
delight in store. For those who cannot
have this opportunity the stewed dried
prune or the delicious prune pie is the
next best experience.

343

POLYEMBRYONY AND SEX

A Study of the Origin and Development of Mixed Broods in Polyembryonic
Hymenoptera, and the Ratio in Production of Males to Females.

J. T. PATTERSON

Professor of Zoology,

INTRODUCTION

N ANIMALS the term polyembryony
has come to include all cases in
which two or more individuals arise
from a single egg during the course

of its early development. There are
two types of polyembryony: (1) Spe-
cific polyembryony or the habitual pro-
duction of multiple embryos in a given
species ; (2) sporadic polyembryony, or
the occasional production of alge
embryos in a species in which the eg
ty pically differentiates into a single in-
dividual.

Sporadic polyembryony occurs in
many different species among the higher
forms. lim tacteseases fave been re-
corded for every class of vertebrates.
To this type belongs the well-known
uniovular, or identical twins of the hu-
man species. Such twins are enclosed
in a single chorion and are therefore
often referred to as monochorial or
monozygotic. They are invariably
homosexual. In contrast with these are
biovular or dizygotic twins, which may
be heterosexual. In such cases the two
individuals are no more similar than
brothers or sisters in a family born at
different times, or than the individuals
in a litter of a multiparous species.
They are often called fraternal twins.

The interesting fact concerning mono-
zygotic twins is their homosexual con-
dition which is explained on the basis
of the chromosome hypothesis of sex-
determination. According to this
hypothesis, if the egg is fe rtilized by a
male-determining sperm the twins will
both be male. but if fertilized by a
female-determining sperm they will
both be female. It is supposed that,
after the egg has once been fertilized,

University of Texas

sexuality is irrevocably fixed, and, no
matter how many individuals may later
develop from it, such individuals will be
homosexual.

The early data collected on sexes
among species exhibiting specific poly-
embryony also support the chromosome
hypothesis. Thus the four embryos
which develop from a single egg of the
Texas armadillo (Tatusia novemcincta)
are invariably of the same sex. The
same is true for the larger polyembry-
onic litters of one of the South Amer-
ican armadillos (7. hybrida).

The other groups of dioecious species
which show specific polyembryony be-
long to the parasitic hymenoptera.
Because of the large number of individ-
uals which develop from a single egg in
certain of these insects, data on their
sex ratios are of especial interest. Un-
fortunately, we have but very few exact
data on the sex ratios of these insects.
Bugnion (91) was the first investiga-
tor to record such data. He reared
and studied twenty-one polyembryonic
broods of Ageniaspis (Encyrtus) fus-
cicollis, and found nine female broods
and five male broods, and seven broods
that contained both males and females.
Of the seven mixed broods, three had
males and females in about eqttal num-
bers, three had a large majority of
males, and one had a large majority of
females. Marchal (’04) studied six-
teen broods of Polyqnotus minutus.
He found eight female broods, six male,
and two mixed, one with three females
and three males. and the other with
three females and one male. Silvestri
(706) found. in one hundred and sixty
broods of Litomastix, sixty-three fe-
male, ninety-two male, and five mixed

1Contributions from the Zoological Laboratories, University of Texas, No. 142.

344

8

POLYEMBRYONY IN THE CASE OF PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA

1. Newly formed carcass of Autographra, containing parasitic pupae. 2. Newly
formed cocoon, containing carcass. 3. Older carcass. 4. Cocoon with normal pupa
of Autographra. 5. Cocoon containing pupae which are turning black. 6. Empty
carcass showing holes through which parasites have escaped. 7. Gall of Rhopalomyia.
8. Silhouette of female Paracopidosomopsis ovipositing in egg of Autographra. 9. Gall of
Walshomyia. (Fig. 4.)

346

broods. He does not give the numbers
of individuals for any of these broods.

In commenting upon the data re-
corded by Bugnion for Ageniaspis,
Marchal points out that it is difficult
to account for the four broods in which
a large majority of individuals belong
to the one or the other sex. He believes
that such broods must arise from two
(or more) eggs. He further believes
that should two eggs, one fertilized and
the other not, be laid in the egg of the
host at slightly different times, the one
first deposited might gain the upper
hand in the matter of food, and thus
prevent all but a few of the individuals
arising from the second parasitic egg
from reaching maturity.

During the past few years I have
been able to study in detail the poly-
embryonic broods of three distinct spe-
cies of parasitic hymenoptera. The first
species studied was Copidosoma gele-
chiae, which is found in the larvae of
the Solidago gall moth, Gnorimoschema
salinaris. This moth makes the ellip-
soidal galls on the stem of the marsh
goldenrod, Solidago sempervirens. ‘The
second species investigated was Para-
copidosomopsis floridanus, which lays
its egg in the egg of the common cab-
bage looper, <Autographra brassicae.
Recently I have studied the broods of
Platygaster sp.,2 which is found in the
larvae of two dipterous gall-makers of
the mountain cedar (Sabina sabinoides ).
The two hosts are Walshomyia texana
and Rhopalomyia sabinae. We shall
present the data on the sexes of these
three species in the order named.

SEX RATIOS IN COPIDOSOMA

A total of one hundred and sixty-two
broods of this species have been reared
and the sexes noted. Ninety of these
were female broods, sixty-two male, and
ten mixed. I shall here give only the
summary of these data, since the de-
tails have been published elsewhere
(Patterson, 715). On the per cent basis
these data show that 55.56% of all
broods are female, 38.27% male, and

The Journal

of Heredity

6.17% mixed. The total number of
individuals is 31,001, of which 63.41%
are females and 36.59% males. The
average number of individuals in fe-
male broods (198) is higher than in
male broods .(175). However, the
range in the number of individuals in
the several broods (from 25 to 395 in
the female, and from 41 to 345 in the
male) is such as to indicate that the
average per brood is of little significance
in determining the true sex ratio for
the species. Obviously this must be
based on the number of male and fe-
male polyembryonic broods. It would
be easy to determine this ratio were it
not for the uncertainty of the origin
of some broods. If it be assumed, as
all previous investigators have done,
that each mixed brood is at least dizy-
gotic, then, in accordance with the law
of probability, some unmixed broods
must also be of dual origin. Worked
out on this basis, it is found that the
ratio of females to males is 106 to 76,
or a sex ratio of approximately 3:2.
The interesting point brought out in
the study of these insects is the ratio
of males to females in the ten mixed
broods. These are listed in the fol-
lowing table:
TABLE I.—WMixed Broods of Copidosoma.

No. of

~ | 4 .

Brood || i .dividualé’| Females Males
iL 89 20 | 69
2 162 153 9
3 i, 92 80
4 207 | 126 81
§ 216 LPO <a 40
6 235 DI | 12
7 241 161” 80
8 300 2355 all 65
9 304 2O2 | 12

10 337 316 | 21
|

* An incomplete brood, owing to the fact
that some of the larvae and pupae had beem
destroyed by a dipterous larva.

In each of the nine complete lots
listed in the table the number of fe-
males is greater than the number of

2T am indebted to Dr. C. T. Brues, who kindly informs me that this species belongs to-
the genus Platygaster. I am also indebted to Dr. E. P. Felt for naming and describing the

two hosts here referred to.

Patterson: Polyembryony and Sex

males, but in five of the cases (Broods
3, 4, 5, 7, 8) this difference is not so
great but that the origin of each lot
can be explained on the assumption that
two parasitic eggs have been deposited
in the egg of the host. In each of the
four remaining broods (2, 6, 9, 10) fe-
males are greatly in excess of males, so
much so that it is difficult to explain
the origin of such broods on the basis
of two eggs. It was this evidence, al-
though meager in amount, that sug-
gested the possibility that such mixed
broods might be monozygotic, that is,
the origin of males and females from
a single fertilized egg.

SEX RATIOS IN PARACOPIDOSOMOPSIS

Three hundred and sixty-four para-
sitized carcasses of the Autographra
moth have been collected from the field.
Many broods of parasites have been
reared from these in the laboratory.
The sexes of the individuals in 177
cases have been studied. The results
of these studies show that only 3 broods,
or 1.7%, are pure female broods; 20,
or 11.3%, are pure male broods; and
154, or 87%, are mixed.

The three female broods contained
1,089, 1,306 and 1,859 individuals, re-
spectively. The male broods vary from
385 to 1,588 individuals, with an aver-
age of about 1,000. The mixed broods
vary from 545 to 2,028 individuals, with
an average of 1,246 per brood.

Sixty mixed broods, in which the
sex of each individual was carefully
determined, are listed in Table II, ar-
ranged in the order of percentage of
males, from the highest to the lowest.
In Table III are listed fifty additional
broods, in which the percentage of males
is based on an examination of 500 in-
dividuals in each brood. - Reference to
these tables will show that the per-
centage of males varies from 72.07 to
0.06, and further, that in over 58%
of the broods less than 10% of the
individuals in any given brood are
males, while in 35% of the brood there
is less than 3% of males. The most
striking feature of these data is the
fact that females are so frequently in
excess of males. The significance of

347

TABLE II, Mixed Broods of Paracopidosomopsts.

|
Brood. Bh bat Females | Males. | % of males.

1 974 272 702) \) 72207
2 1,289 | 400 889 | 68.97
3 1,237 482 755 | 61.02
4 636 | 204 342"), ~ -53*78
5 828 385 443 53.50
6 545 272 273 50.09
7 1,162 595 565 48.71
8 848 529 319 37.62
9 | 1,512 1,009 503 Bone.
10 1,847 1,287 560 30.32
11 830 586 253 30.15
12 943 ot 242 25.66
13 998 | 746 252 25.25
14 1,706 1,353 353 | 20.69
15 628 509 1197 ees
16 662 542 120 18.12
17 1,022 878 144 14.09
18 1,364 1,195 169 12.39
19 1,797 15849, || 213 1185
20 1,041 923 | 118 11.35
21 | 1,477 1,357 120 S12
22 1,115 1,033 82 7.35
23 1,307 1204 96 135
24 1,303 1,199 104 Toa
25 1,196 e122) 7A 6.19
26 803 754 49 6.10
27 1,432 1,352 | 80 5.59
28 868 22 46 5.30
29 1,423 1,349 74 5.20
30 1,050 996 54 5.14
31 1,883 1,791 ye) 4.89
32 1,259 1,203 56 | 4.45
CF eal aes 1304 63 ||. . Mdege
34 855 828 ie | 3.16
35 1,046 1,015 S100 2.96
36 1,124 1,091 Ei 2.94
37 1,000 972 28 2.80
38 757 739 18 2.38
39 847 827 20 2.36
40 1,301 1,271 =| 30 Dea
41 1,209 1,183 26 2.15
42 1,260 | 5233 27 2.14
43 1,682 1,647 35 2.08
44 1,592 | 1,559 33 2.07
45 1,258 1,232)" || 26 2.07
46 692 679 13 1-88
47 1,220 1,209 20 1.64
48 1,115 1,097 18 1.61
49 1,036 1,021 15 1.46
50 1,798 1,774 24 1.35
51 1,075 1,061 14 1.30
52 1,475 1,456 19 1.29
53 1,349 1,336 13 0.96
54 2,003 | 1,986 17 0.85
55 1,017 1,010 7 0.69
56 1,165 | 1,159 6 0.52
57 1,143 1,141 2% 0.18
58 1,493 1,491 Ie | 0.13
59 912 911 1 0.12
60 1,550 1,549 1 0.06

this will be discussed in a later
tion of the paper.

SEX RATIOS IN PLATYGASTER RUBI

I have reared 105 broods of Platy-
gaster, 67 from the carcasses of Rhopa-
lomyia and 38 from those of Walsho-
myia. These are listed in Tables IV
and V. The total number of individ-
uals is 1,616, or an average per brood
of over 15. The broods from Rhopa-
lomyia are distinctly larger than those
from Walshomyia, the former averag-
ing slightly over 18, the latter only 10.5.

348 The Journal

This difference is probably due to the
fact that the larva of Rhopalomyia is
almost twice as large as that of the sec-
ond host, and thus furnishes a better
‘supply of food for the multiplication
of embryos. The smallest brood found
contained five individuals (Brood 68),
the largest thirty-seven (Brood 21).

TABLE II1.-Mixed Broods of Paracopidosomopsis

{Per cent of Males Based on a Study of 500 Individuals]

Brood. No. of individuals. % of males.
61 2,028 67.20
62 1,043 47.50
63 11149 44.00
64 1,540 43.90
65 1,463 42.80
66 1,134 37.00
67 1,397 31.60
68 940 31.20
69 1123 29 60
70 996 29.00
(fl 1,045 26.00
72. 1,467 24.80
73 1,822 24.00
74 1,233 22.60
15 1,685 21.80
76 1,095 19.60
ei 1,745 19.00
78 1,201 18.00
79 1,301 16.00
80 841 14.60
81 1,410 14.60
82 1,605 14.20
83 867 13.60
84 1,347 12220)
85 1,167 11.80
86 701 11.00
87 1,403 9.20
88 1,602 8.20
89 1,606 8.09
90 1,228 8.00
91 1,614 7.40
92 1,675 7.40
93 1,258 6.50
94 1,139 6.00
95 841 2220
96 1,111 4.40
97 1,665 3.40
98 ib Spey 2.80
99 1,633 2.80

100 1,857 2.40
101 794 220)
102 1,306 2.20
103 1,092 2.00
104 980 2.00
105 1,005 1.80
106 1,334 1220
107 1,550 120
108 1,560 1 00
109 1,469 0.60
110 12D aT 0.60

of Heredity

In many respects the data collected
on Platygaster are the most interesting
available for any polyembryonic spe-
cies. So far nota single male brood has
been found. Perhaps a larger collection
of data would reveal such broods. The
scarcity or absence of pure male broods
can be explained as follows: The car-

TABLE IV.—Broods of Platygaster from
Rhopalomyia.

Brood | anaes ligevaice Males | % of males
1 7 5 2 28.59
2 36 26 10 Pt TEh
3 34 26 8 23.52
4 26 20 6 23.07
5 13 10 3 23.07
6 31 24 7 22.58
7 31 24 7 22.58
8 27 21 6 22529
) 9 7 2 We) WD
10 14 11 3 21.42
11 34 27 7 20.58
12 20 16 4 20.00
13 15 12 3 20.00

14 26 21 5 19.23
15 16 13 4 18.75
16 11 9 2 TS ae
17 11 9 2 18.18
18 29 24 5 17.24
19 36 30 6 16.66
20 24 20 4 16.66
21 37 31 6 ele onad
22 19 16 3 15.79
23 26 22 4 15.38
24 13 11 2 15.38
25 13 11 2 15.38
26 20 17 3 15.00
27 14 12 2 14.28
28 7 6 1 14.28
29 23 20 3 13.04
30 23 20 3 13.04
31 15 13 2 13.33
32 15 13 Tia 13.33
33 16 14 2 12.50
34 16 14 2 12.50
35 17 15 2 11.76
36 | 26 23 3 11.53
37 9 8 1 11.11
38 28 25 3 10.71
39 11 10 1 9.09
40 11 10 1 9.09
41 12 11 1 8.33
42 12 11 1 8.33
43 12 11 1 8.33
44 13 12 1 7.69
45 13 12 1 7.69
46 13 12 1 7.69
47 13 12 1 7.69
48 15 14 1 6.66
49 15 14 1 6.66
50 15 14 1 6.66
51 15 14 1 6.66
52 15 14 rl 6.66
53 16 15 1 6.25
54 16 15 1 6.25
55 16 15 1 6.25
56 7 16 1 5.88
57 18 17 1 5.55
58 18 17 1 5.55
59 18 Tice al 5.55
60 18 Fe | gad 5.55
61 22 21 1 4.54
62 9 9 0 0

63 13 13 0 0

64 14 (sane KO 0

65 15 15 Once! 0

66 16 16 0 | 0

67 19 ts 0) 0

Patterson:

cass of the host which contains the para-
sitic pupae is formed in the chamber
of the gall, and the parasites upon
emerging are confined within the gall
for some hours before they are able to
gnaw an exit hole through the wall.
In all of these polyembryonic hymenop-
tera copulation takes place immediately
after the insects emerge, a single male
often mating with many females. Since
practically every brood has at least one
male present, it follows that unfertilized
females rarely escape into nature. It
is known from cytological and experi-
mental studies that eggs laid by vir-
gin females produce only male broods.
Under these conditions, male broods
are not to be expected in Platygaster.

A second point of interest is the
scarcity of pure female broods. Only
six have been observed, and all of these
were reared from the carcasses of
Rhopalomyia (Broods 62 to 67). How-
ever, the chief interest in these data is
to be found in the character of the 99
mixed broods. Without exception the
number of females in any brood exceeds
the number of males. In fifty-three
broods, or more than half the cases,
there is but a single male present. Sev-
enteen broods have two males each,
and thirteen three each. The remaining
broods have varying numbers of males,
the highest having ten (Brood 2).

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SEX DATA

In the light of these data. how is one
to explain the origin of mixed broods
in polyembryonic hymenoptera? The
obvious explanation, and therefore the
one offered by all the pioneer workers
in the field, is what may be called the
two-egg hypothesis. It is suggested
that mixed broods have developed from
two parasitic eggs, one laid by a fer-
tilized and the other by a virgin fe-
male. | Undoubtedly such dizygotic
broods do exist. Several of the mixed
broods listed in the tables can be ad-
justed easily to this hypothesis. It is to
be expected that a host egg would oc-
casionally be visited and parasitized by
two such females. But there are at
least two obstacles which stand in the

Polyembryony and Sex

349

TABLE V.—Broods of Platygaster from
Walshomyia
Brood nd Pidous Females| Males | % of males
68 5 3 2 10.00
69 10 7 3 30.00
70 11 8 3 Mex)
71 8 6 2 25.00
72 5 4 1 20.00
753) 18 15 3 16.66
74 12 10 2 16.66
75 23 19 4 16.95
76 19 16 3 15.78
77 13 11 2 15.38
78 7 6 1 14.28
79 7 6 1 14.28
80 15 13 2 13.39
81 8 7 1 12.50
82 8 7 1 12.50
83 8 7 1 12.50
S4 9 8 1 Hits
85 9 8 1 sta A
86 9 8 1 11.11
87 9 8 1 1 Ua
88 10 9 1 10.00
89 10 9 1 10.00
90 10 9 1 10.00
91 10 9 1 10.00
92 10 9 1 10 00
93 10 9 1 10.00
94 10 9 1 10.00
95 10 9 1 10.00
96 10 9 1 10.00
97 10 9 1 10.00
98 10 ee Be 1 10 00
99 10 9 1 10.00
100 11 10 1 9 09
101 11 10 1 9.09
102 11 10 1 9.09
103 11 10 1 9.09
104 11 10 1 9.09
105 11 10 1 9.09

way of the universal application of the
two-egg hypothesis to all mixed broods.

I have elsewhere pointed out and dis-
cussed these difficulties, so that here
they may be referred to briefly: (1)
The individuals of a mixed brood
emerge simultaneously ; therefore, it is
necessary to make the assumption that
both parasitic eggs are always laid at
the same time. (2) In the great ma-
jority of mixed broods females far out-
number males. This is strikingly so
in the broods of Platygaster and Para-
copidosomopsis. It must be assumed,
then, that an unfertilized in the
presence of a fertilized egg is inhibited
from fully developing; because when
laid alone in the host egg it produces a
pure male brood, in most instances as
large as a pure female brood. In the
absence of experimental evidence for
sexual hormonic action in insects, it is
difficult to square the facts revealed by
a study of mixed broods with the two-
egg hypothesis.

VO HO
ege

POLYEMBRYONY IN PLANTS

Seeds of certain plants sometimes contain several embryos. The mango,
the rose-apple (Eugenia jambos), and the citrus fruits are all known to
possess this characteristic. Above are shown several plants arising from
a single seed of the mango. It is presumed that ore of the embryos
develops from the fertilized egg-cell; the remainder are derived from the
tissue of the nucellus by budding. These adventitious embryos produce
plants whose fruit resembles that of the parent tree as closely as that of a
grafted individual. By this means, in fact, numerous seedling races of
mangos and citrus fruits are propagated in the tropics. (Fig. 5.)

Patterson: Polyembryony and Sex

Since we had been able to show ex-
perimentally that if the host egg is ovi-
posited by a virgin female, the result-
ing brood of parasites is always male,
but if parasitized by a fecundated fe-
male a mixed brood develops, the ques-
tion was raised as to whether the fe-
male of Paracopidosomepsis deposits
two eggs at one oviposition, and if so,
whether the impregnated female (as
does the queen bee) could lay unfer-
tilized as well as fertilized eggs. If
this were so, it might explain “the ap-
pearance of numerous mixed broods in
this species. These questions have been
tested out by appropriate experiments,
and it is found that in two times out
of three, or in about 66% of the cases,
the female parasite lays two eggs in the
host egg at a single oviposition. If it is
assumed that in every case one of the
two eggs is fertilized and the other
is not, there is still a discrepancy of
over 20%, because 87% of all broods
in this species are mixed. Further-
more, I have studied, by means of
smears, the two eggs laid at one oviposi-
tion by the fecundated female, and find
that in the majority of cases both eggs
are fertilized. Ina few eggs it is diffi-
cult to demonstrate the presence of the
sperm, although a failure to do so does
not necessarily indicate that such eggs
are unfertilized; because the position
of the egg on the slide may be such as
to obscure the sperm.

In this connection the conditions in
Platygaster are very interesting. The
host egg for this species is too small for
smear preparations, so that it is neces-
sary to resort to sections in order to
determine whether the parasite deposits
one or two eggs. The host eggs, which
are usually laid in masses, were ex-
posed to a mixed brood of parasites,
and sections then made of these masses.
Some of the eggs will, of course, be
parasitized by more than one female,
but the position of the eggs in the yolk
of the host egg will show whether there
has been more than one oviposition. In
a group of 28 eggs the following data

mF |

were obtained: Each of 14 eggs con-
tains one parasitic egg; each of 11 con-
tains two; and each of 3 contains three.
In eight cases out of the eleven the two
eggs are far enough apart to indicate
two ovipositions, while in three cases
they are close together, suggesting that
the two eggs may have been laid at one
oviposition. In each of the three re-
maining eggs the three parasitic eggs
are not close together.* In view of these
facts it is impossible to explain the ori-
gin of mixed broods of Platygaster,
tabulated in Tables IV and V, on the
two-egg theory.

The suggestion has been made ( Pat-
terson 715, 17a) that the appearance of
so many mixed broods in some of the
species of polyembryonic parasites may
be accounted for on a monozygotic ba-
sis, namely, that a fertilized egg gives
rise to males as well as females. This
result could be brought about through
the abnormal behavior of the two sex
chromosomes during the early cleavage
divisions of the egg. There are several
different ways in which this might oc-
cur, but the most probable way is by
the means of somatic non-disjunction
(Bridges, ’16). If this process should
occur, certain blastomeres receiving but
a single & chromosome would become
the progenitors of male embryos. The
sex ratios in the broods of Polygnotus
in particular are more easily accounted
for on this basis than by the two-egg
hypothesis. This is especially true with
reference to the large number of broods
which show but a single male. The
regularity with which certain sex ratios
appear in many broods (ce. a., 9 females
and 1 male. Broods 88 to 99) suggests
that a single male is formed at some
very definite point in the early devel-
opment of the eggs. If somatic non-
disjunction does occur during the early
cleavage stages, it might be regarded
as a very primitive type of paedogenetic
development, in which some of the early
blastomeres, functioning as egg cells,
produce abnormal behavior of the sex
chromosomes in the cleavage division.

3 For these data I am indebted to Mrs. Lelia T. Porter, who is studying the development

and cytology of these insects.

soz The Journal

A non-disjunctional division in any
of the first few blastomeres will neces-
sarily result in the segregation of the
sex factors (producing male and fe-
male), provided the ce!l in which it oc-
curs has not reached the point beyond
which it becomes the progenitor of a
single embryo. If a blastomere has once
passed beyond this point in its develop-
ment, a non-disjunctional division in
any of its descendants should result in
the formation of a gynandromorph or
mosaic, as several writers have inter-
preted the origin of gynandromorphs for
the monembryonic egg. Evidence that
gynandromorphs are produced in poly-
embryonic parasites is furnished by two
cases which have come under mv _ ob-
servation. In 1917, while studying a
brood of Paracopidosomopsis, 1 found
an individual in which one-half of the
abdomen is male and the other half fe-
male. This spring I found a specimen
in Platygaster which is clearly a gynan-
dromorph. Sexual dimorphism in this
species is very indistinct. The only
clear mark of distinction is the anten-
nae, which are somewhat stouter in the
female than in the male, and, further-

of Heredity

more, the fourth antennal joint 1m the
male is enlarged. The specimen in
question has a male antenna on the left
side of the head, and a female antenna
on the right.

The final solution of the question
concerning the origin of mixed broods

must be found through cytological
studies. However, one may attempt

to interpret the data presented in this
paper, the facts at any rate are per-
fectly clear and can be verified by any-
one who will make a careful study of
these insects. i

REFERENCES

Brinces, Cavin B.. Genetics, 1, pp. 1 — 52,
107-163, 1916.

Buenion, E. Recueil Zool.
435-534, 1891.

Marca, P. Arch. de
Gen., II, pp. 257-335, 1904.

Parmrson.:je 2. 1915) Biol. Bulle seas
Dp. ..0332073> 1917a;\ Biol. Bull.” xxxaigepe:
291-305; 1917b, Biol. Bull., xxxiii, pp. 57-66;
1918, Biol. Bull., xxv, pp. 362-376.

PATTERSON] J. i: and) Pormery slemmrAesde
Biol. Bull., xxxiii, pp. 38-50, 1917.

Srivestri, F.. Ann. d. Regia Scula Super-
iore de Agricoltura di Portici, vi, pp. 1-51,
1906.

Suisse, V, pp.

Zool. Exper; et

Estimating Intelligence

There is a general belief that it is a
relatively easy problem to estimate a
person’s intelligence by looking at
him; and teachers, physicians and em-
ployers are often compelled to make
judgments as to the intelligence of a
given person with no more data than
can be obtained from a rapid survey of
his appearance; hence such phrases as
‘he looks bright”’ or “he looks stupid.”’
Even in the law courts rough estimations
of intelligence are sometimes required.
In the Psychological Review (Vol. xxv,
No. 4) Mr. R. Pinter gives the results
of an investigation he made for the
purpose of testing the trustworthiness
of these judgments. The author chose
twelve photographs of children varying
in intelligence from proved feeble-mind-
edness to unusually great ability, and
asked groups of people to arrange the
photographs in order of merit for in-
telligence. His groups consisted of

physicians, psychologists, teachers and
miscellaneous people. He found that
the group of psychologists was the
most nearly correct, but that on the
judgment of no one group or of no one
person could any reliance be placed.
Several observers were consciously in-
fluenced by children of their acquaint-
ance whom a photograph happened to
resemble, and irrelevant trivialities quite
frequently biased the observer’s judg-
ment. The author concludes that, al-
though perhaps a living person would
be easier to judge than a photograph,
nevertheless these haphazard judgments
are too untrustworthy to be of prac-
tical value; and that, whether the
observer be a teacher, physician, or
employer, it would be better to use
objective standards, and he recom-
mends that the use of mental tests
should be considerably extended.—
Nature.

WHY SHOULD NOT CEMETERIES
PRESERVE OUR LIFE RECORDS?

A Plea That Cemeteries Should Become the Historic Spots Where the Records of
Our Deeds and Our Likenesses Are Preserved

Davip AND MARIAN FarRcHILp

HY should not our cemeteries
be something more than the
mere resting places of our

bones? The savage tribes of
Borneo bury their dead with quite as
much ceremony as that with which we
escort the remains of those dearest to us
to the grave. They erect sticks over
these burial places, and they soon forget
them, just as we do.

Who has not hunted in vain through
a great cemetery for some granite shaft
that looks almost like scores of others,
but which is precious because it wit-
nesses the spot where some earthly
form loved when alive disappeared
forever into the earth from which it
came. Scattered in more or less orderly
groups over a hillside lie these spots,
each sacred to some one, each visited
perhaps on birthdays or marriage days
by the living souls in whose memory the
image that lies buried is slowly fading.

Sad places are these which mark
man’s disappearance beneath the sod,
but, sad as they are, why should they be
so hopelessly useless? Our dead are
buried in them, and their bones are
protected from molestation perhaps for
centuries, but is that not really all? In
a hundred years, a sinking gravestone,
a name and date that are hard to read,
and perhaps an epitaph—though now
these are few—are the most we can get
from any cemetery.

Yet these are the most sacred spots of
the human race. Every career ends in
one; that of the greatest human being
who has lived as well as the smallest
finds its close somewhere in a graveyard.

This has been for centuries, and is
today, the attitude of our minds
towards cemeteries, but has not the

time come when a different point of
view regarding them is possible? The
theories of descent and of the con-
tinuity of the germ plasm have brought
the realization that the living descend-
ants of the dead are imperishable parts
of them which go on living on this earth,
and are an extension, a projection, of
the life which shone out through the
eyes and found expression in the voices
of forms which lie buried beneath the
cemetery sod. To know, to under-
stand those who are living, we must
know about the dead who bore them.
It is not only the very few distinguished
members of a family who leave their
mark upon their descendents; we are
just as much influenced by those who
live their lives quietly and having done
nothing spectacular, pass away without
leaving any account of themselves in
literature or art or business.

This growing conviction that we can-
not understand people unless we know
their ancestry is making it more and
more necessary that the records of our
ancestors be kept, but where? The
most sacred spot appears to be that
beneath which they are buried, but, as
the graveyard is organized today, this
spot reveals nothing whatever—teaches
nothing. It is the spot of all most
terrible to visit, for it is there that we
gaze into the abyss of death—and
wonder. Need this be so? Need our
graveyards be, so far as teaching is
concerned, as silent as the barbaric
graveyards of the savage tribes? Can
we not arrange to have them instead
storehouses of all possible information
about the dead who are in them?

_ The Pharaohs of Egypt thought to
live on into eternity, and day by day

353

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built their tombs more deeply into the
solid rock, inscribing on the walls their
deeds. They left accounts of them-
selves which thousands of years later
have been deciphered and have revealed
their lives. What they did five thousand
years ago, and for a different reason and
at great expense, the poorest of us now
might do, leaving our images in the
silver, of photographic prints, and ac-
counts of what we did and who we were
to guide mankind in its long studies
of that great science of inheritance.
What it required hundreds of slaves to
accomplish in the days of the Pharaohs,
the printing press and the camera can
do for us all.

This record of life is made for many of

us, but the accounts are scattered after
we are dead, and our graveyards, in-
stead of being the places where our
deeds are recorded and where those 1m-
perishable shadows, our photographs,
may be seen, are cold, dreary, silent
and speechless.

e

‘““Sad places are these whic h mark man’s disappearance beneath the sod,

why should they be so hopelessly useless?

Preservation of Life Records 35:

those who
cemeteries have an oppor-
here to exert a truly great in-

We cannot help feeling that
control our
tunity

fluence for the betterment of our race.
If they should gather for all who are
buried in their confines all the data

available at the time of the person’s
death, including photographs, and store
this data as our libraries store
having it in shape for easy

books,
display,

would not such places become the
centers of information regarding the
stocks from which we came’ A system

of exchange could easily be worked out
which would make it possible to trace
the heredity of all.

There comes to most of us at some
time the desire to see where our an-
cestors are buried, and we go to some
New England village cemetery, or
perhaps to some little churchy ard abroad
and succeed in finding the gravestones.
Perhaps in the church warden’s registry
or the town clerk’s office we find re-
corded the birth or marriage or death

but sad as they are,
In a hundred years, a sinking grave-

stone, a name and date that are hard to read, and pe rhaps an epit: iph —though now these

are few—are the most we can get from any cemetery.

(Fig. if)

356

of some one of our name. What a
satisfaction it would be if instead we
could go into some quiet room and
have brought to us to look at, to hold
in our hands and to show to our child-
ren the actual photographs of our
forefathers, the accounts of what they
had done, little incidents of their lives,
anything which gives them a real
personality for us and strengthens our
interest in the family.

Let us picture in our imaginations
such a graveyard as could be made,
providing someone who could do it were
convinced of its value. Somewhere in
it there would be a beautiful building
—as beautiful as art can make it—and
in it a series of halls with alcoves and
quiet places like a great library. In-
stead of books, however, there would
be stored away in fireproof vaults the
priceless records of the men and women
—the families—who lie buried in the
cemetery and at any time these would
be available to any one who had a
right to them and they could be taken in
to one of the rooms or alcoves to be
looked over and studied. There would
be quiet reading rooms and special view-
ing contrivances where moving pictures
of families could be seen and places
fitted up so that phonographic records
of the voices of the past could be heard.
There would be. photographs and ac-
counts also of the uncles and aunts,
and of the little children who died
young, so that we could get an actual
tangible idea of the family. It would
help us realize our place in the family
and our responsibility to 1t.

There need be nothing dreary or
morbid about such a place, indeed if
it were so the whole object would be
defeated. It should be the natural

The Journal of Heredity

place to which one would take visiting
relatives and those who were coming
into the family by marriage, and the
children would go too and realize that
it means something to belong to a
family, that it is a pleasant thing to be
proud of one’s family and that one
would like to add to the family prestige
oneself.

Visits such as these would give a
background to our lives—would tie us
to the past and also make us realize
that to our children must come the
burden and the pleasure of passing on
the light of our lives into that great
and wonderful future upon this earth
in which increasing millions of babies
still unborn must live their lives, let
us hope, as happily as we have.

At funerals and at weddings families
gather together, but we part again too
often without strengthening the ties
which would bind us to the past and
make us feel that pride of family which
must be at the bottom of the making
of a better race. First, better families,
then their spread and increase, and
through them a gradual raising of the
level of the whole race. It is the only
way unless the laws of heredity are
a myth.

To lay up treasure for ourselves in
heaven is one thing, but is it not quite
as noble to try to do things now which
will make the earthly lives of future
generations happier and more spiritual
and more wonderful?

If we are to make the world better;
if that is one of the reasons for our
existence, why is not the establishment
of these Libraries of Family History, a
really constructive way of doing it?
Why does not someone do it?

A SUPPOSED SHEEP-GOAT HYBRID

A Remarkable Skin Secured by a Trader from the Navajo Indians of Arizona

IGURE 8 shows a very remark-

able ay which has been received

from Mr. J. W. Bush, of Castle

Butte, Arizona. This skin seems
to partake of the characters of both the
sheep and goat.

The color is a mixture of light brown
and white on the back, sharply distinct
from a very dark brown color on the
belly. The legs are largely dark brown
with, however, a streak of light brown
in, trom" Except for the® irrepular
areas of white on the back, the color
and pattern closely resemble the Bar-
bados sheep. A similar pattern occa-
sionally appears among Rambouillets,
as in a case described by aL. Heller in
THE JourNAL oF Herepity, vol. vi,
NesetO: (October 1915):

The sheep of Arizona are very much
mixed in color. According to an esti-
mate, 15 to 20% are dark colored. The
color of the skin thus might well be
that of a sheep or sheep hybrid. The
brown color is also, of course. common
among goats.

The coat is largely composed of short
coarse hair. In many places there is
a soft, woolly undercoat. In small
patches on the shoulders, along the back
and on the belly, this wool has accumu-
lated in tangled mats. On the hind
quarters the “woo! becomes more hair-
like, but is much finer than the hair
in the same part of the coat, as well as
much longer, reaching a length of four
or five inches. The tail is entirely cov-

ered with fine hair or coarse wool of
this character. It is somewhat coarser
than Lincoln wool. Below is Mr. Bush’s
account:

“Under separate cover I am sending
you a hybrid goat-sheep skin.

“The skin was presented to me more
than a year ago by Mr. E. J. Marty, who
is engaged as trader with the Nav ajo
Indians at Indian Wells, Arizona.

“This is the result of a cross between
a native (Mexican) goat and a sheep,
the original owner of which I have
been unable to locate, as the skin was
sold by some Indian without special
notice taken of it at the time.

“T have shown it to many of our old-
est Indians and all say they have never
seen anything like it before.”

In view of the rather unsatisfactory
history, it can hardly be definitely af-

-firmed that this is a sheep-goat hybrid.

Yet it seems unlikely that the patches
of wool could come from a goat, nor
could the coarse hair coat come from a
sheep. Sheep-goat hybrids are certainly
not common, and it has often been de-
nied that they can be produced at all.
They are occasionally reported, how-
ever. One such case was reported by
W.E. Spillman in the American Breed-
Magazine, vol. iv, No. 1 (1913).

It is to be hoped that this question
of the occurrence of sheep-goat hybrids
will be settled by experiments which
leave no doubt in regard to parentage.

357

SKIN OF THE SUPPOSED SHEEP-GOAT HYBRID

The color is a mixture of light brown and white on the back, sharply distinct from a very
fark brown color on the belly. The pattern closely resembles that of the Barbados sheep.
Fig. 8.)

Be

DETAILED VIEW OF SKIN SHOWN IN FIG. 8

The coat is largely composed of short, coarse hair but in many places there is a soft, wooly
undercoat. In small patches this wool has accumulated in tangled mats. On the hind
quarters the wool becomes more hair-like. (Fig. 9.)

DEMOCRACY AND HEREDITY—A REPLY

ALLEYNE JRELAND

OVERNMENT, as an art

science, is the only mundane

subject which, from a_ period

antedating the Christian Era, has
engaged the earnest attention alike of
philosophers and men of affairs. But
at no time in recorded history has gov-
ernment been a matter of personal con-
cern to so large a proportion of the
world’s inhabitants as it is today. It
is in the domain of government alone
that all the secular interests of the
rich and the poor, of the strong and
the weak, of the wise and the foolish,
of the young and the old, of the indus-
trious and the idle, of the sick and the
hale can be marshalled in a_ single
category.

In relation to the problems created
by the war the broad question of goy-
ernment assumes, therefore, an impor-
tance which the general public, even in
Hace OL aps preoccupation with imme-
diate economic and industrial difficul-
ties, is beginning to recognize.

To a lifelong student of government,
the signing of the armistice in Novem-
ber,, 1918, with “its promise of an
unprecedented strain upon all national
administrations, appeared to mark the
arrival of a moment when thoughtful
people would welcome a discussion of
government which aimed rather to ex-
plain general phenomena than to attack
or defend particular administrative pro-
ey Accordingly I sent to the JoURNAL

F Herepity an article entitled “Democ-
racy and the Accepted Facts of Hered-
ity,” which was printed in the issue for
December, 1918, and was discussed in
the May and June issues of 1919 by
Prof. Edwin G. Conklin, of Princeton
University; Mr. Madison Grant, Mr.
Prescott*F. Hall, Prof.-O:-F Cook, and
Mr. Robert Carter Cook.

It will serve the convenience of all
readers of this article if I compress

andea

360

into a few paragraphs the gist of my
first article. I stated, in effect :

1. That my observation of govern-
ment in a score of countries had con-
vinced me that, with few exceptions, the
best governed countries were those in
which the mass of the people had the
least control over the administration of
public affairs.

2. That in all worldly activities, save
only those linked with politics, expert
knowledge and firm leadership are uni-
versally recognized as the sources of
success.

3. That in political matters we adopt
the opposite principle, namely, the con-
trol of the expert by the inexpert.

4, That this amounts in practice to
the substitution of a quantitative for a
qualitative foundation for authority.

5. That the worse become-the con-
sequences of applying this principle the
louder do we call for its wider appli-
cation.

6. That this is the expression of a
rhapsodical or irrational attitude toward
the democratic form of government, 1n
conformity with which we attach more
importance to the form than to the re-
sults of gowernment, and refuse to draw
the only logical conclusion when these
results are, over a long period and over
a very wide area, patently and increas-
ingly unsatisfactory.

7. That my dissent from the con-
ventional view of democracy (as we
practice 1t) as a sound, political prin-
ciple was based upon four main con-
siderations :

(a) That the individual and not the
mass has been the main source of hu-
man advancement.

(b) That mental and moral traits in
the individual are derived chiefly from
heredity and not from environment.

(c) That acquired characteristics.
are not inheritable.

Ireland: Democracy and Heredity

(d) That the general mating—
through the pressure of social propin-
quity—of the more intelligent with the
more intelligent, and of the less with
the less, tends to make talented strains
more talented and to depress other
strains further and further below the
line of mediocrity.

The central idea of my article was

that, if my biological statements were
true, the conclusion was inescapable

that efficiency in government could not
arise from or be made to depend upon
its democratic quality, the word “demo-
cratic’ being employed by me, of course,
to express democratic experience during
the past twenty centuries, and not demo-
cratic hopes for the next twenty.

Of the four articles which discuss
the views here advanced, two are writ-
ten by men whose professional work
has made them specially familiar with
biology, and two by men who, from
similar causes, are specially familiar
with affairs. The biologists endorse the
greater part of my biological statements,
whilst strongly dissenting from my ap-
plication of them, and the men of af-
fairs endorse the greater part of my
statements on government. ‘The satis-
faction with which I contemplate this
situation may be measured by consid-
ering the position I would have been
in 1f the principal support for my views
on government had come from the biol-
ogists, and for my views on biology
from the men of affairs.

I do not suggest that a biologist may
not have studied government to good
purpose, or a man of affairs biology;
and, in common with all readers of the
Journat, I am aware that Mr. Madi-
son Grant, the lawyer, enjoys an inter-
national reputation as an anthropolo-
gist, and that Professor Cook, the bot-
anist, is well known as an authority on
African colonization.

Before taking up those points on
which the discussion has disclosed
marked differences of opinion it is ad-
visable to refer to one on which there
seems to be substantial agreement,
namely, the extremely unsatisfactory
state of American democracy after
nearly a century and a half of free op-

361

eration under conditions more favor-
able in most respects than those under
which any other democracy has ever
functioned.

As Professor Conklin opens his reply
to me with a reference to his article on
“Biology and Democracy” in the April,
1919, issue of Scribner’s Magazine, I
may quote from it his description of
present-day democracy in this country:

“Our lack of specialization is re-

flected in our contempt for specialists
and experts of every sort. The belief
is widespread that one man’s opinion is
as good as another’s and that expert
knowledge is merely another way of.
fooling the people. We intrust educa-
tion to those who can find no other
occupation, apparently with the idea
that anyone can teach. We leave the
control of food, fuel, clothing, and
other necessaries of life to speculators
and middlemen, and the health, hap-
piness, and employment of the people to
Providence or to selfish exploiters.
We elect demagogues and grafters to
political office so frequently that the
very name ‘politician’ has come to be
a reproach. We send narrow partisans.
to Congress, and, by stupid adherence .
to party regularity, men wholly un-
trained in statesmanship are frequently
put into the most important public
places.”

After reading the foregoing descrip-
tion of American democracy as it ap-
peared to Professor Conklin’s observa-
tion in April, 1919, it was not without
astonishment that I read his judgment
of American democracy as expressed,
also in April, 1919, in the JourNAL oF
Herepity, where he concludes his re-
ply to me with these words: “After
all the merits of any system of gov-
ernment should be measured by its ac-
tual results on society as a whole, over
long periods of time, and measured in
this way democracy has no cause as
yet to be fearful of the results.’

If the results to date of American
democratic government, as Professor
Conklin describes them, are no cause
for fear; it is not easy to imagine
upon what kind of results a just ap-
prehension might be founded.

362 The Journal

I do not know to what extent Prof.
©; F..Cook and .Mr;- Robert )Carter
Cook find themselves in agreement with
Professor Conklin’s scathing indictment
of the present state of American dem-
ocracy; but they have, in their article
in the JouRNAL for June, 1919, launched
an indictment of their own against
democracy as it is, which, though much
shorter than Professor Conklin’s, is
more comprehensive and more formid-
able. They say: “The need is to give
special ability or usefulness a selective
value, to preserve and increase the fam-
ily stock, but our system works gen-
erally in the opposite direction of using
up and exterminating talent as rap-
idly as possible.” and, in another con-
nection, “our tendency is to restrict
ourselves further and further toward
mediocrity and inferiority.’

The authors of these observations
reach a conclusion not less astonishing
than that reached by Professor Conklin
from his observations, namely, “Our
experiment in democracy is very differ-
ent from any that preceded it, in being
aimed toward scientific government.”

It is not incumbent upon me, I am
glad to say, to reconcile this statement
with Professor Conklin’s statement
about our contempt for specialists and
Experts “OL every / Sort, (or: with eis
declaration that “almost every citizen
thinks that he could solve complex
problems of government ranging all
the way from international relations
to parochial affairs better than those
who have devoted years of study to
them.”

I may dismiss this phase of the dis-
cussion by asking the reader to judge
in what measure the observations of
Professor Conklin, of Professor Cook,
and of Mr. Robert Carter Cook, when
considered in relation to the judgments
they found on them, justify the follow-
ing paragraph in my first article:

“Those who assume the task of recon-
ciling the facts of democratic control
with its theory adopt an expedient
which places the whole issue beyond
the reach of reason. They lay down
the rule that democracy must not be
judged by its yesterday or by its today,

of Heredity

but by its tomorrow, and that so fast
as tomorrows become yesterdays even
so fast must all adverse evidence be
discarded as worthless. Just below the
ever-receding horizon of time there lies,
almost in sight of those who accept this
rule, the pleasant land where education
and dietetics shall have made the ma-
jority of mankind into political units
from which there can be built up a
government of benevolence, righteous-
ness, and efficiency.”

It is when my critics, my supporters,
and myself seek to account for the exist-
ence of those evils which we unite in
deploring that we separate into two
camps, one affirming that the causes
lie fundamentally in the operation of
biological law, the other that they do
not, the negative position being taken
by the biologists.

The real issue, when stripped of all
dialectical trappings, is whether good
government (however it may be de-
fined) depends ultimately upon good
human qualities or upon good political
machinery. If it depends chiefly upon
the former, all discussions of govern-
ment must be founded in biology; if
upon the latter, the discussion must
center around constitutional law and
political technique.

My own view is that since govern-
ment forms are merely the instruments
through which men administer their
public affairs, the essence of govern-
ment is to be sought not in the shape
of the instrument—still less in its
name—but in the character of those
who employ it.

Viewed from this standpoint the dis-
tinguishing mark of modern specula-
tions on government seem to me to be
a constant effort to find in political ma-
chinery a substitute for human char-
acter, and a persistent determination to
attribute all failure in government to
any cause rather than to the widespread
distribution of stupidity and corruption
in man.

It is a most curious circumstance that
Professor Conklin, Professor Cook and
Mr. Robert Carter Cook should de-
scribe the present state of democracy
in terms which imply a widespread dis-

Ireland: Democracy and Heredity 363

tribution of stupidity and corruption;
should agree that mental and moral
qualities, such as stupidity and corrupt-
ness, are chiefly derived from heredity ;
should agree that acquired characteris-
tics, such as may result from secular
education and religious training, can-
not be transmitted through heredity ;
and should also agree that there is no
essential connection between biological
law and the amount of stupidity and
corruption in democratic government.
What is not less curious is that none
of the dissentients from my hypothesis,
that in a democracy like ours the char-
acter of the government depends chiefly
on the character of the people, and that
the character of the people is deter-
mined chiefly through the operation of
biological law, states, in his reply to
me, by what other causes, in his opin-
ion, the quality of government is in
fact determined. Indeed, so far as

these gentlemen do assign causes for

bad government—and they say very lit-
tle on this point—they assign causes
which are of a biological nature.

For instance, Professor Conklin
says: “Many faults of democracies
are not so much results of the form
of government as of the condition and
character of the people.” But surely
character is a biological factor. Again:
“A democracy no less than an autoc-
racy is a government by leaders, but
in the former case these leaders are
chosen by the people and are responsi-
ble to them and in the latter they are
Hoi. >. | But «surely, whether: the
leader be good or bad, whether he be
elected by the people or appointed by
a king, the qualities of his leadership
are not conferred upon him by his ap-
pointment or election, but are derived
from his mental and moral characteris-
tics; and these, as most biologists, in-
cluding Professor Conklin, agree, are
derived chiefly from the operation of
heredity; which brings us back again
to biological causation.

Professor Cook and Mr. Robert Car-
ter Cook complain that we do not give
special ability and usefulness a selective
value and that our tendency, is to “re-
strict ourselves further and further to-

ward mediocrity and inferiority.” But
mediocrity and inferiority are ad-
mittedly derived chiefly from heredity ;
and the fact that ability and usefulness
are not given a selective value under
our democratic system can only be due
to the ignorance and stupidity of the
mediocre and inferior majority which
exercises control by force of its num-
bers.

A logical consideration of these
truths should, it seems to me, have led
their authors to a conclusion closely
similar to that expressed in my first
article, namely, that the majority of
people being mediocre or inferior, it is
unreasonable to expect that majority
to provide a government which will not
be mediocre or inferior. But so far
from reaching any such conclusion, they
describe my inferences as “reactionary”
and “archaic,” compare me with “an-
other disillusioned specialist in govern-
ment,” and, having for the purpose of
destroying one part of my argument,
stated their conviction that we are
breeding toward mediocrity and in-
feriority, they reprove me for not “look-
ing forward to a world of capable,
right-minded people. .. .”

Now, as a matter of fact, my sincere
hope, though hardly my confident ex-
pectation, is that we may some day see a
world in which capable and_ right-
minded people shall exercise a much
greater power in government than they
now do. This hope is founded on the
opinion that the two extremes of ca-
pacity and incapacity, of right-minded-
ness and wrong-mindedness, are,
through the operation of assortative
mating, becoming more distinctly sepa-
rated from each other in the social
scale, and that the more clearly this
becomes evident the more likelihood
there will be that special ability and
usefulness will be given a_ survival
value in our political system.

This brings me to a discussion of the
only purely biological point on which
my critics and myself are not in agree-
ment—the effects of assortative mating.

I was careful to say in my former
article that this was a point upon which
biologists alone were competent to ex-

364 The Journal

press an authoritative opinion. | must
still leave the determination of this
question with the biologists; but Pro-
fessor Conklin having called for the
evidence upon which my tentative opin-
ion was based, I am glad to furnish it.

My statement appeared to me to be
justified by the results of two investi-
gations into the social distribution of
genius and talent in the United King-
dom. The first was made by Prof.
Havelock Ellis; the second, which is in
continuation of the first, by Dr. Fred-
erick Adams Woods. The material
worked over in each case was furnished
by the “Dictionary of National Biog-
raphy” and by the successive supple-
ments to that work. The former in-
vestigation is embodied in Ellis’s
“Study of British» Genius”; the latter
is not yet in print.

What these investigations disclose is
that over a period of several centuries
there has occurred a striking and pro-
gressive decline in the cultural contri-
bution from the “lower” classes, and,
of course, a corresponding relative in-
crease in the contribution from the rest
of the population.

It appears that, from the earliest
times to ihe end of the nineteenth
century, the contribution to eminent
achievement made by the sons of crafts-
men, artisans, and unskilled laborers
vielded 11.7 per cent of the total num-
ber of names utilized from the “Dic-
tionary of National Biography”; that
the representatives of that class who
were born in the first quarter of the
nineteenth century yielded 7.2 per cent
of the names: and that those born dur-
ing the second quarter of the nineteenth
century yielded only 4.2 per cent of
the total.

These figures are of great interes!
when they are considered in relation to
the social and political history of Eng-
land during the nineteenth century.

Everybody knows that in England
the nineteenth century witnessed a
rapid and all-pervading democratization
of social and political conditions. It
was during this century that the Eng-
lish parliamentary system became, for
the first time in the six hundred years

of Heredity

of its existence, an institution repre-
sentative of the great mass of the peo-
ple; that schooling was made available
for all; that in industry, in politics, in
society, the gates of opportunity were
opened wide for any person ot what-
ever parentage who could make any
contribution in any field of achievement ;
that peers became business men, and
business men peers; that any scientist,
any scholar, any painter, sculpt or, musi-
cian, poet, novelist, actor, dramatist,
engineer, chemist, architect, shipbuilder,
lawyer, or merchant, whose talents had
made him prominent in his calling,
could entertain a reasonable hope of
finding wealth in the favor of the pub-
lic and a title of nobility in the appre-
ciation of the political leaders.

In England in the nineteenth cen-
tury, then, there were to be observed,
in a measure never before attained in
any age in any country, the conditions
which give every man a chance, ac-
cording to the qualities of his mind and
temperament. If social opportunity
was less free than in the United States,
political opportunity was very much
greater—a fact which can be verified
by anyone who will take the trouble
to compare the number of professions
and occupations represented in the
House of Lords and in the House of
Commons with the number represented
in the Senate and the House of Repre-
sentatives at any moment during the
past fifty years.

With every circumstance of life grow-
ing constantly more favorable to the
self-assertion of genius and talent in the
“lower” classes in England, how was
it that the contributions to” eminent
achievement from that group fell from
an average of 11.7 per cent of the total
to a proportion of 4.2 per cent?

It seems to me that as the vast 1m-
provement in environmental conditions
had not only failed to produce an in-
crease in high achievement by those
whom this improvement had done most
to serve, but had, on the contrary, taken
place parri passu with a very serious
decline in achievement, the cause must
be sought in an influence strong enough
to offset whatever beneficent effects im-

Ireland: Democracy and Heredity

proved environment might actually ex-
ert upon a stationary class during a
single generation.

This influence | deem to have been
that of assortative mating. Its opera-
tion appears to have been of a dual
character. On the one hand, the effect
in heredity of intelligence mating with
intelligence and of stupidity mating
with stupidity—to put the matter
roughly—has been to perpetuate and to
increase these opposite traits in the re-
spective groups. On the other hand,
the practical social consequence of these
effects being produced under conditions
of an ever-widening democratization of
life has been that the more intelligent
and talented elements in the “lower”
classes have constantly been rising out
of their class into one socially above it,
and that this movement is draining the
“lower” classes of talent and genius,
tion, is increasing the genius and talent
of each succeeding upper layer in the
and, through a process of social migra-
social series.

Now, if assortative mating really oc-
curs, as an inevitable consequence of
social propinquity, and if democratic
opportunity does actually enable a fam-
ily to move upwards in the social scale,
those who question the soundness of
my inferences from these facts are
placed in a curious dilemma.

If they admit the existence of as-
sortative mating as an ordinary, every-
day occurrence, they must, it seems to
me, either deny the part played by
heredity in determining the character
of offspring or renounce the view that
gence and penalties for stupidity. If
democratic conditions have any _ ten-
dency to provide rewards for intelli-
such rewards and penalties are in fact
apportioned, there must of necessity
exist a constant upward and downward
genetic pressure tending to produce an
increasing difference between the two
ends of the social spectrum; if such
rewards and penalties are not among
the consequences which follow the ap-
plication of democratic principles then,
so far from democracy presenting to
every man a better chance in life, it
must have the effect of placing a pre-

365

mium on inefficiency and a handicap
on talent.

Professor Cook appears to accept the
latter alternative when he says: *.. .
our tendency is to restrict ourselves fur-
ther and further toward mediocrity and
inferiority. The need is to give
special ability or usefulness a selective
value, to preserve and increase the fam-
ily stock, but our system works gen-
erally in the opposite direction of using
up and exterminating talent as rapidly
as possible.”

[ may point out that, viewed in its
relation to the future of democratic
government, this statement describes a
condition much more unfavorable than
that which would exist if truth were
found to lie in my hypothesis of an
increasing intelligence and ability at one
end of the social scale and of an increas-
ing stupidity and incapacity at the other.
In the former circumstances there could
be found no reasonable hope of im-
provement; in the latter there could be
discerned at least the possibility that
the balance of political power might
some day be transferred from numbers
to intelligence.

Professor Conklin appears to regard.
my general argument as leading to the
conclusion that the world should, in my
opinion, be ruled by a fixed hereditary
class ; and he refers to ‘a real movement
against fixed hereditary classes.”

To whatever extent this movement is
effective it claims my hearty support ;
but my support is entirely dependent
upon the appearance in the phrase of
the word “fixed.” Wherever an hered-
itary class has become fixed—as was
notably the case in Austria—the conse-
quences have been disastrous, and for
a very simple reason, namely, that such
a “fixed” class cannot draw into its
genetic reservoir the best elements of
other classes.

In my judgment, the separation of
society into classes—a phenomenon to
be observed in every society, whatever
may be its cultural or political status —
is not only inevitable under all circum-
stances, but is highly beneficial wherever
there is assured a free social migration
from class to class. As man is con-

3606. The Journal

stituted—and one has only to compare
the satire of Aristophanes with that
of Bernard Shaw to be convinced ot
the permanence of his general charac-
teristics—no greater stimulus can be
afforded to talent and industry in the
individual than the certainty that their
diligent application will keep in a higher
social order those who are already
there and will carry into a higher social
order those who are born in a lower.

In conclusion I may refer to the
unanimous dissent expressed by my
biologist critics from my conviction that
the hb est governed countries are those
in which the mass of the people have
the least control over the administra-
tion of public affairs.

I cannot do more in this place than
somewhat extend my former statement
of this conviction, for it will readily be
appreciated that a full discussion of
comparative government would not be
acceptable to “readers of THE JOURNAL
or Herepity, and would demand more
space than the journal could possibly
afford it.

My conviction, then, is based upon
a somewhat extended observation of
government in practice. I have ob-
served the operation of constitutional
democracy in England, in Canada, in
the United States, in Australia, and in
France; of constitutional monarchy of
a non-democratic type in Germany; of
an almost pure absolutism in the King-
dom of Sarawak, Borneo; of non-par-
liamentary paternalism i in India, in Java,
in Burma, in Indo-China, and in the
Federated Malay States; of parliamen-
tary paternalism in the Straits Settle-
ments, in Barbados, in British Guiana,
and in Hong Kong.

So confused is the terminology of
sovernment that no standard definition
of terms is available. I have adopted
the foregoing classification simply for
the purpose of making clear a distinc-
tion which is, I believe, vital to an un-
derstanding of any question connected
with comparative government.

So far as my observation goes, Eng-
land, Canada, the United States, Aus-
tralia, and France have, in varying de-
grees, been less well governed in mod-

of Heredity

ern times than the countries which fol-
low them in the list. The reason for
this is, in my judgment, very clear,
namely, that in the tormer group local
politics have cast a blight upon the ad-
ministrative functions of government,
whilst in the latter group almost all
administrative projects have been con-
ceived and carried out, chiefly by ex-
perts, on the basis of their intrinsic
merits. In other words, in the latter
group of countries the health, comfort,
convenience, and prosperity of the peo-
ple have not been the pawns in that
political game SO wittily described by
Mr. Balfour as “a sy stem of organized
quarrelling.”

A word of explanation is necessary
in regard to Germany. Until 1914 we
heard little but praise of Germany’s
internal administration. As Professor
Cook and Mr. Robert Carter Cook say
in their reply to me: “German cities
were cleaner than English or Amer-
ican cities. The visitor to Germany did
not see the docks of Hamburg lined
with human scarecrows, or little chil-
dren going barefoot in the snow, as in
the streets of Liverpool. Disheveled
slums like those of New York or Lon-
don did not exist. There were no hun-
gry beggars or aimless people wander-
ing in rags. Irresponsible indigence was
as strictly forbidden as other misde-
meanors.”

Now it was‘surely not any of these
things which led Germany to adopt her
foreign policy of violent aggression or
to carry it out with such infamous bar-
barity. To attribute her conduct to
such causes would be to declare that
clean, healthy, well-educated, and in-
dusttious people are more affected than
others toward lust and violence. It
was because German Administration
was controlled by a special class that
it was so excellent; it was because her
Policy was controlled by a special class
that it was so pernicious.

The distinetion between policy and
administration, as the two elements in
government, is seldom drawn by writers
on politics; yet it is, in fact, mainly
upon the drawing of this distinction
that good government depends.

Shamel: Bud Variation of Dahlia

The comparative inefficiency of goy-
ernment in democratic countries is due
in a large measure to the circumstance
that a single method, that of the ballot-
box, is employed to achieve two wholly
different aims—the ascertainment of the
popular will, and its execution.

So long as the task of government
was little more than to build the post-
roads, impound stray cattle, punish a
few criminals and misdemeanants, and
collect a few taxes, it was easy to dis-
cern the popular will; and to execute it
required little more than common sense.

Today, however, there is practically
nothing which is not the concern of
government; and in relation to the vast
majority of administrative problems the
public is not only absolutely incompe-
tent to form an opinion, but is almost
equally incompetent to select someone
who is competent to form one. As-
suming, however, that there is an in-

367

formed majority opinion in regard to
any question of domestic policy; and
assuming further—what is a very wild
assumption—that this opinion upon this
question is reflected at the polls; we still
have to face the fact that the carrying
out of the public will today is for the
most part a matter of extremely tech-
nical knowledge, a matter of chemistry,
of engineering, of bacteriology, of elec-
tricity, of preventive medicine, and of
other highly specialized sciences.

It is this shift in the center of grav-
ity of government which has escaped
the notice of those who approach the
question of politics as though patriot-
ism and democracy were still chiefly
concerned in emancipating the people
from the tyranny of a king, and who
seem to believe that the people will al-
ways be content to accept an impotent
political freedom as a substitute for effi-
cient administration.

A BUD VARIATION OF THE
LE GRANDE MANITOU DAHLIA

A. D.. SHAMEL

N THE Journat or Herepity for

December, 1918, the writer de-

scribed a striking bud variation in

a dahlia plant found in a garden at
Riverside, Cal. Since that time he has
been on the lookout for similar in-
stances of dahlia bud sports. In Sep-
tember the dahlias of southern Cali-
fornia are in full bloom. While visiting
acitrus ranch at Alta Loma on Septem-
ber 9, 1919, my attention was called by
the manager, Mr. W. M. Mertz, to a
very interesting case of bud variation
in the well-known dahlia variety Le
Grande Manitou. The two plants of
this variety are growing in the door-
yard of the manager’s house and are in
fine physical condition. The typical
flowers have a white ground and are
striped and speckled with violet. The

flower on the left in Fig. 10 is a repre-
sentative bloom of the le Grande
Manitou from these plants.

The two Le Grande Manitou plants
both produce, in addition to the typical
flowers, blooms having solid violet
color as shown in the flower on the
right in Tig. 10. At the time of our
examination of these plants one violet
bloom was found on each plant to about
twelve of the typical flowers of the
variety. Mr. Mertz told the writer that
up to this time each plant had pro-
duced several violet blooms.

As can be seen in the illustration, the
two flowers, borne by the same plant,
vary in other characteristics than that
of color. The number, shape, arrange-
ment and size of petals are decidedly
different in the two blooms.

COL ‘Sly) ‘SUOTZRLIIVA pNq WOI] SoljOLIVA MOU JO ULSLIO oY} SozeIYSNI[I pue syueld eiyep ut syiods pnq jo saseo surylys
OY} JOOUOSTSIYy, “que]d ouIeS oY} WOT] WOIZeLIVA pnq BST }YSII9YyZUGQ “Yo] 94} UO UMOYS d.J0Y SI JOMOY nNopURpY oapueID oT [eordAy oy,

VITHVG DOLINVW FHONVYHD WT

DEFICIENCY IN INTELLECT FOUND TO
BE CORRELATED WITH DEFICIENCY
IN THE NUMBER OF BRAIN CELLS

ATHOLOGISTS have known for
some time that imbecility de-
pends in part at least upon a
deficiency in the actual number

of cells of the higher cerebral regions.
Hammarberg in 1895 showed by actual
counting that such is the case. This
theory is supplemented and supported
by some recent work on the lesser-brain.

“In the spring of 1916, while examining
the cerebellum of a general paralytic,
the writer! was first impressed by the
fact, familiar perhaps to most neuro-
pathologists, that in this disease there
is often a disintegration and disappear-
ance of a large number of the Purkinje
cells, leaving, however, the basket of
fibers which normally surrounds them.
Over a year later, while examining the
cerebellum of a microcephalic idiot, the
same scarcity of Purkinje cells was
observed, with the difference, however,
that the section did not show the same
evidence of the cells having become
reduced in number by disintegration;
the empty pericellular baskets were not
found as in the case of paresis; it seemed,
rather, that through some defect of
development the normal number had
never been present.

“In order to get a fair basis for com-
parison, a number of cerebella were
studied and the relative frequencies of
cells noted. In some of the cases the
cells appeared to be almost uniformly
distributed and with few large spaces
between them; others showed losses
similar to the two cases already men-
tioned.

“Among the cerebella examined was
one of a man who had died at about
the age of sixty-five years. after a pro-
tracted illness, and this, too, showed a
distinct loss of cells. So from this pre-
liminary set of observations it seemed
clear that the number of Purkinje cells
is variable under different conditions.

“Tt is well known that in paresis, in

extreme old age, and in low grades of
feeble-mindedness there is ordinarily a
considerable degree of deficiency in
motor coérdination. The question con-
sequently arose, how far 1s it possible to
find differences in the number of cells
that will account, partially at least, for
the observed differences in behavior?

““Dhewriter’s primary interest at the
time of taking up this investigation lay
in the question of the anatomical basis
of mental defect, and it seemed not im-
probable that a careful study of the
Purkinje cells might throw some light on
one of the most evident. deficiencies
found in such cases. The human motor
mechanism is much more highly devel-
oped than that of lower forms, especially
with reference to speech, hand move-
ment, and the maintenance of equili-
brium while standing or walking. Men-
tal defectives generally show less motor
control along these lines, and it is de-
sirable that we know as far as possible
the neural basis for such lack of co6érdi-
nation. A further reason for making a_
study of the cerebellum in such cases is
found in the fact that a number of
writers, especially Tredgold (’03) and
Bolton (’03, ’10) in England, have em-
phasized, perhaps unduly, the import-
ance of the frontal lobe of the cerebral
cortex as the area particularly affected
inamentia. It accordingly seemed worth
while to determine whether the brains
of aments show defects in other parts,
such as the cerebellum, which is not
generally associated with intelligent re-
actions as such.”

Dr. Ellis at the close of his article
comes to the conclusion that in low grade
mental defectives there is a distinct
deficiency either numerically or cytologi-
cally in a large percentage of the Pur-
kinje cells. He does not go into the
question of heredity, but he does con-
tend that practically all the cases are due
to some form of antenatal degeneration.

1 Robert S. Ellis: ‘“‘A preliminary quantitative study of the Purkinje cells in normal, sub-

normal and senescent human cerebella, with some notes on functional localization.

The Journal

of Comparative Neurology, vol. 30, No. 2, February 15, 1919.

369

FIRST: “BAD HABIT’ —SUCKING 105) Pout ite

Davip FAIRCHILD

OW is it to be explained that
these babies, when still too
young to imitate what is going
on around them and without

being taught, acquire what many
doctors and dentists declare to be a
very bad habit? Baby mud-wasps which
hatch after their mothers and fathers are
dead know how to build their compli-
cated mud nests without being taught.
Are we sure that this human habit of
thumb-sucking, which has appeared
successively generation after generation
in very young babies, 1s not of a similar
instinctive or hereditary character?

If it is hereditary, is it beyond ques-
tion injurious, and does it certainly
produce protruding teeth and flattened
thumbs, and does it arch the roof of the
mouth, or are these changes merely coin-
cidental with the habit? Are we con-
fident that by employing forcible means
to cure the habit we do not run the
risk of affecting the child’s emotional
or moral nature—of making it secre-
tive or even untruthful? Should not
the habit be cured by the ridicule of a
child’s peers on the playground—by
its own self-control ?

If this habit is hereditary, are not
others of the same nature, and should
we not, in our discipline of children,
differentiate between the habits of 1mi-
tation and those which are inherited?

According to Dr. Alexander Graham
Sell:

The mere act of suction could produce no
such effect as the protrusion of the teeth.
On the contrary, with a partial vacuum in
the mouth the atmospheric: pressure from
outside would tend to push the teeth im, not

out. Theory would indicate that the act of
suction should actually be beneficial to the
plastic growing mouth by bringing atmospheric
pressure into play from outside, tending to
consolidate the mouth and oppose any tend-
ency to the spreading of the parts.

Any spreading action could only be due to
pressure applied from within. A child for
example might press his tongue against the
roof of the mouth or against the back of the
Pry, front teeth and thus produce a pressure which
/ Ti if constantly applied would gradually result

} in a spreading action, but there is no evidence
that a child ever does this:

370

Fairchild: First ‘‘Bad Habit’”’

Again it is conceivable that a child in the
intervals between suction might press his
thumb against the back of the front teeth
but here again there is no evidence of active
muscular effort. On the contrary the intervals
between the acts of suction are characterized
by relaxation of the whole muscular system,
the child tending to fall asleep and the thumb
tending to fall out of the mouth.

Sucking the thumb is such an instinctive
action with very young children that it is
probable that most babies, if not all, indulge
in the habit during the first year of life. Some
people have protruding teeth in adult life and
if you examine their past history it is probable
that most of them sucked their thumbs in
infancy. Hence we are apt to jump to the
conclusion that the sucking of the thumb was
the cause of the protrusion of the teeth, in
spite of the fact that will be at once perceived
by those who know anything about atmospheric
pressure that the act of suction could not
possibly produce any such effect.

The idea that suction could produce a
spreading action in the mouth is as ridiculous
as the very common notion that sucking the
thumb causes a child to become cross-eyed!

The importance of being able to make
or break a habit at will was so drilled
into me by one of my great friends that
it has come to seem to me one of the
greatest things in life. When the first
baby came I determined that he should
have a fair start. He should not be
allowed to form any undesirable habit.
Almost immediately, or certainly when
he was only a week or two old, he got
his thumb into his mouth. Everybody
admitted that this was the beginning of
a bad habit. Some predicted that he
would make his front teeth protrude
and spoil the shape of his mouth, others
knew he would ruin the looks of his
thumb, and others said that thumb-
sucking was connected with internal dis-
orders of a serious character.

With the impression firmly implanted
in our minds that the forming of a bad
habit was the worst thing that could
happen to a baby, we began to try to
cure this one of sucking his thumb. We
tried cassia solution, but he enjoyed the
bitter taste. We put tiny mittens on his
hands, and he either sucked them
until they were wet through or pulled
them off. We tied his arms, but he al-
ways struggled loose. We bought those
round aluminum hand balls which are
supposed to be a real cure, but he

Srl

bumped his head with them and got
into almost hysterical fits of temper.

The weeks stretched into months
and we did not give up the fight. As
the months became years we _ tried
bribery and corruption. We threatened
and we punished. When the second
child came she followed in her brother’s
footsteps, with variations, and when
the third baby arrived she embroidered
the thumb-sucking habit by twisting
her night dress or sheet around her
third finger. By this time we began
to realize that we were confronted by
something which was not so simple as
one of the habits of later life, and we
finally gave up. There seemed to be
something almost instinctive in the
way this habit resisted our treatment,
and we began to suspect a hereditary
character in it.

Among some old photographs of the
children’s mother (perhaps luckily for
the father none of his own baby photo-
graphs were on hand) we came across
one in which she was shown sucking
her thumb. By a curious coincidence
we had had one taken of our eldest
child at about the same age and in the
same attitude without knowing of the-
existence of the mother’s photograph.
And while we were discussing this, it
came up in conversation that the
mother’s mother had also sucked her
thumb, and later the daguerreotype
evidence of this was found.’

The evidence seems strong to his
parents that it was natural for the boy
to suck his thumb and did not come
from sheer wilfulness on his part.

If this is indeed an inherited instinct
and not a personally acquired habit,
the breaking of it may be a long and
difficult task, and we should be very
sure that it is indeed injurious before
we waste our time and worry our poor
little babies trying to do so.

What a weight would be lifted from
the shoulders of thousands of young
parents could they with clear consci-
ences let their babies suck their thumbs
in peace!

1 The photographs here published, with the permission of all three babies, it is under-
stood, are of Mabel G. Hubbard (Mrs. Alexander Graham Bell), Marian Hubbard Bell (Mrs.
David Fairchild), and Graham Bell Fairchild. Each of these three babies has its right thumb

in its mouth.

AN EARLY FAMILY HISTORY
OF COLOR BLINDNESS

Illustrating the Rule That Sons Can Inherit Normal Color Vision Only from Their
Mothers, While Daughters May Inherit It from Either Parent or Both
Leon J. CoLe ;
Professor of Genetics, University of Wisconsin

N THE Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London for
1779 is recorded a rather complete
family history of color blindness, to

which, so far as I am aware, attention
has not been called in recent studies
on the subject. It consists of a letter
from one J. Scott, describing his own
condition and that of his near relatives,
which was communicated to the Society
by the Rev. Michael Lort.2 it is of
interest because of its early date and be-
cause the facts as given fall so perfectly
into line with the interpretation of color
blindness as a sex-linked character in
man.

In describing the imperfection in his
own sight Mr. Scott states that he does
“not know any green in the world.”
Pink and pale blue appeared alike; full
red and full green the same. He could
tell yellows and all degrees of blue ex-
cept very pale. He was sometimes baf-
fled by full purple and deep blue. In
this connection he cites an incident
which is so quaint and full of human
interest that it may be quoted verbatim.
He relates:

“I married my daughter to a genteel,
worthy man a few years ago; the day
before the marriage he came to my
house, dressed in a new suit of fine
cloth clothes. I was much disappointed
that he should come (as I supposed)
in black: said, He should go back to
change his colour. But my daughter
said, No, no; the colour is very gen-
teel; that it was my eyes that deceived

me. He was a gentleman of the law,
in a fine rich claret-coloured dress,
which is as much a black to my eyes
as any black that ever was dyed.”

The accompanying diagram is con-
structed from the data supplied by Mr.
Scott on the occurrence of color blind-
ness in his family. In the following
quotation the numbers inserted in
brackets show the position of the in-
dividual referred to in the diagram. To
use then his own words:

“It is a family failing: my fathers
[11 1] has exactly the same impediment :
my mother [II 2] and one of my sis-
ters [III 5] were perfect in all colours:
my other sister [III 2] and myself
[III 3] alike imperfect: my last men-
tioned sister has two sons [IV 1, 2]
both imperfect: I have a son [IV 3]
and daughter [IV 4], who both know
all colours without exception; and so
did their mother [III 4]: my mother’s
own brother [II 3] had the like impedi-
ment with me, though my mother, as
mentioned above, knew all colours very
well.”

Using the symbol N for normal vision
and 2 for its allelomorph, and also as-
suming that N is sex-linked, we may
have the following genotypes: NN,
homozygous normal female; Nu, heter-
ozygous normal female; nn, color blind
female; N—, normal male; n—, color
blind male. It is then possible, on the
basis of the data given, to designate the
genotypes of all the individuals men-

‘Papers from the Department of Genetics, Agricultural Experiment Station, University
of Wisconsin. No. 17. Published with the approval of the Director of the Station.

*Lort, Michael.

Rev Michael Lort, B.D., F.R.S.
611-614, 1779.

372

An account of a remarkable imperfection of sight.
J. Scott to the Rev. Mr. Whiffon, of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., Vol. 68, Part 2, pp-

In a letter from
Communicated by the

I
1
1 |
ee
N-orn-

hn

n=

n-
THE

Pg
» \ 1
|
\ i] i ‘ ]
ee (oes See
NnnorNn N-orn- NnorNn

A 3

Nn

NN Nn

a |
Be

N- Nn

OCCURRENCE OF COLOR BLINDNESS IN ONE FAMILY

The above diagram illustrates the history of color-blindness as it occurred in three successive

generations.
one daughter.

color blind had two sons, both with imperfect eyesight.
a girl, who both, like their mother, had normal color vision.

boy and

tioned. For the males this is of course
simple, since it may be known from
the phenotype, all normal males (IV 3)
being N— and the color blind ones
elie leeg: TL Sic EV 1,2)... aethe
case of the normal females, on the other
hand, the genotype must be ascertained
from the known kin. The subject’s
mother (II 2), for example, was nor-
mal, but since she had both a color
blind son and daughter she must have
been Nun, that is, a “carrier” of color
blindness; the son must have inherited
the color blindness from his mother,

The father was color blind, and the impediment was inherited by his son and
The mother and one daughter had perfect eye-sight.

The daughter who was
The son also had two children, a
(Fig. 12.)

since it 1s transmitted only in that way,
and a daughter can be color blind only
when she inherits it from both parents.
The other daughter (III 5) was nor-
mal, but must have been heterozygous
(Nn) because of her father being color
blind. The same rule applies to the sub-
ject’s own daughter (IV 4). The only
other woman described is the subject’s
wife (III 4), who had normal vision,
and who probably was homozygous
(NN), for had she been heterozygous
the chances would have been even for
either the son or the daughter to be

2-2
By W (Ps 7

374 The Journal

color blind, and considerably less than
even that they would both be normal.

As to the conditions of the subject’s
grandparents (I 1 and 2, 3. and 4),
which are not stated, it is possible only
to conjecture, though it is apparent that
both the grandmothers must have been
either color blind or heterozygous for
the defect. The grandfathers might
have been color blind or not as far as
the data go. Nothing further can be
said about the paternal grandparents,
but the subject’s mother having had
normal vision it is possible to say that
if his maternal grandmother (I 4) was
color blind her husband must have had
normal vision, whereas if she had nor-

of Heredity

mal vision he must have been color
blind. That is, to give the results ob-
tained (heterozygous normal daughter
and color blind son) the mating must
have been N— X nn or n— X Nn.

It would have been interesting if he
had noted the condition of his brother-
in-law (III 1), that is, the husband of
his color-blind sister (III 2). It was a
foregone conclusion that all her sons
would have defective vision since she
herself was color blind, but any daugh-
ters would have served as an index to
the father’s condition, since their vision
would have corresponded to his. As it
is, he may or may not have been color
blind.

THE GESTATION OF THE CARABAO

B. M. GONZALEZ,
Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, University
of the Philippines.

ing habits of the carabao (Bos

bubalus), since these animals are

on the range most of the time.
They rarely go under shelter except
during the busy season of harvesting,
when they are tied close to the house
of the farmer, under a light bamboo and
cogon or nipa shed, and are fed on
sugar-cane leaves or rice straw. While
the crops are growing, the carabaos are
used in cultivating the crops, and are
grazed on vacant lots, on paths over-
grown with grass, or on the roadside.
At these times breeding is not likely to
occur, as these animals are herded more
or less individually by the children of
the farmers.

After harvest, all the carabaos in the
neighborhood have the run of all the
fields in common, since fenced areas
are rather rare in the Philippines, and
it may be presumed that it is at this
period when breeding occurs. Carabaos
mature later than cattle, bulls hardly
breeding regularly before three years of
age, and cows usually bringing their first

ITTLE is known about the breed-

young at five, sometimes at four, but
rarely before that. Under such condi-
tions it is impossible to determine the
exact gestation of the carabao, and an
inquiry among the farmers elicits a var-
iety of answers ranging from nine to
thirteen months or more.

With the acquisition of a small herd
of these animals by the College of
Agriculture, the cows were kept sep-
arate from the bull from the start, and
observations were made on _ their
estrum. The period of estrum of these
animals is very obscure, and the only
way we succeeded in breeding them
was by attempted matings of them at
frequent intervals.

The figures obtained so far, while
few, are significant, inasmuch as they
are fairly uniform. Due to the reasons
mentioned above, observations on the
period of gestation of this animal will
probably never become numerous. At
the College we estimate that we lost
about half a year on an average for
each cow observed by not knowing the
exact time when each cow should be
bred, due to the obscurity of estrum.

CARABAO COW WITH THREE DAYS OLD CALF.

The Philippine carabao is essentially
the same as the buffalo or water buffalo
of India, China, Java, and other
oriental countries, except for slight
variety differences as to size and shape
of horn, color and texture of skin, and
slight differences in conformation. The
writer examined the literature from the

(Fig. 13.)

above countries but has not come across
any observations pertaining to this
question.

The animals observed so far are as
follows:

The gestation of the carabao, there-
fore, is approximately 320 days, or
forty days more than the cow (280),

Animal. Date bred. Date calved. Sex of calf. Period of gestation
Cow No. 1.. June 24, 1918.......| May 14, 1919... ...| Female...... 324 days.
Cow No. 2.. aise L OMS ee sree ie: Nov. 19, 1918... Female.... 318 days.
Cow No. 4.. jan. 26-10) 19t8 22 Noy. 30; 1918... .|"Malen ta, 324-328 days.

and twenty days less than the mare
(340).

Observations were also made on the
period of estrum immediately following
parturition, and this gave us:

This period was determined by try-
ing, every two days after calving, to
mate the animals. These latter figures

are simply offered as observations and

may not hold true in every instance.

Lapse of time after

Animal Date of calving Date of first estrum a Rees
Gowa Nol Gare odcctn. November.19, 1918....) Jan. 12, 1919.......... 54 davs
COWINOG Aas ot cies November 30,1913. 4 2iJan: 23, 1919s ok ae. 54 davs

'

Ww
sI
mn

A REMARKABLE BUD
SPORT OF -PANDAN(UsS:

Joun H.

SCHAFFNER

SMALL specimen of Pandanus,

planted in a flower pot, had been

carrying on a precarious exist-

ance for many years in the bo-
tanical greenhouse of the Ohio State
University, when in the fall of 1916 it
was transplanted into a bed of rich
earth in the aquatic room. This screw-
palm apparently belongs to the species
Pandanus utilis Bory. The genera ot
Pandanaceae—Freycinetia, Sararanga,
and Pandanus—are all described
having spirally arranged leaves and ap-
parently all have three spirals. It is
not certain, however, from the descrip-
tions at hand, whether or not all the
species have the three spirals.

The plant under consideration had
the normal three spirals of leaves char-
acteristic of the species and continued
this character for awhile after being
transplanted; but the leaves imme-
diately began to grow larger and longer,
probably due entirely to the improved
soil and water conditions. Soon, how-
ever, the terminal growing bud under-
went a remarkable transformation and
sported in such an extreme manner that
the plant has assumed an entirely new
aspect. The mutation resulted in a two-
ranked arrangement of the leaves in
which the spiral twist is entirely absent
(see Fig. 14). After growing for some
time, the plant took on the aspect of
a great fan, putting one in mind of a
traveler’s tree, Ravenala madagas-
cariensis. The last three leaves before
the change were each about 2 feet 1
inch long and quite rigid. The first two
leaves of the two-ranked portion were
also 2 feet 1 inch long and rigid, but in
the subsequent stages the leaves con-
tinued to become longer and very flex-

as

ible and recurved. The eighth and ninth
leaves were each 4 feet 3 inches long,
while the latest leaves produced meas-
ure > feet 3,inches inblensth:

The families, Sparganiaceae and
Typhaceae, are closely related to the
Pandanaceae, and in passing up the
series to Typha one finds not only a
much more specialized type of flower
but also the more extreme conditions
represented in the herbaceous stem,
geophilous habit, two-ranked leaves,
and distinct internodes. The leaves of
Typha are still somewhat spiral in ar-
rangement, but have the prominent
sheath characteristic of many of the
highly evolved monocotyls.

The Pandanales are probably more
closely related to the lower palms than
to any other group of plants, and the
palms approach such lower lily types
as Yucca and Cordyline. Among the
lilies and their relatives the change
from three to two spirals or to the
two-ranked condition is frequent, and
takes place even at the lower levels of
the evolutionary series.

The palms are well known as mostly
trees with unbranched trunks and three
spirals of specialized leaves. Assuming
such an origin for the Pandanales, the
phyletic arrangement of the three re-
lated genera is as follows: Pandanus,
Sparganium, Typha. We have, then,
the following progressive series:

1. From tree to geophilous, rhizome
herb.

2. From three spiral leaves to two-
ranked condition with the spiral more
or less obliterated.

3. From no internodes
veloped internodes.

4. From -fleshy drupes to minute,
dry, nut-like fruits.

to well-de-

‘Papers from the Department of Botany, the Ohio State University, No. 113.

376

LEAVES OF PANDANUS

This unusual specimen of Pandanus originally had the three spiral leaves characteristic of its
species, but after being transplanted from a flower pot into a bed of rich earth, transformed
its leaves into two ranks with the spiral twist entirely absent. The leaves which were at first
2 feet 1 inch long and quite rigid grew to a length of 5 feet 3 inches and became very flexible

(Fig. 14.)

378

The present bud sport of Pandanus
utilis has therefore made two funda-
mental progressive changes at one
mutation. It has lost one spiral of
leaves and also has changed the posi-
tions of the two remaining ranks in
such a manner that the spiral or twist
is entirely obliterated. The cause for
those peculiarities must be in some
changes in the nature of the hereditary
apparatus, presumably the chromo-
somes, but whatever the cause, it is of
the same nature as that which must

The Journal of Heredity

have occurred a great number of times
either in the vegetative tissues or in the
reproductive cells of numerous inde-
pendent series of Monocotyls. In some
groups one of these characters has been
acquired independently. In those cases
where a species has advanced to the
two-ranked condition without a spiral
twist there may have been but one
mutation, as the bud-sport in hand, or
there may have been two or more suc-
cessive mutations to bring about the
final form.

Beyond the Veil

Mopern PsycHIcAL PHENOMENA, by
Hereward . Carrington, Ph.D, < Pp.
331, illustrated, price $2.50. New
York: Dodd; Mead & Co., 1919.

Psychical research is becoming am-
bitious. Not content with lifting the
veil that conceals the future, it will now
raise the veil from the past. Thus Dr.
Carrington not only elucidates the na-
ture of sex and bisexual reproduction
in the spirit world of after-death, but
illuminates the origin of natural selec-
tion.

Life appeared on this planet when
the conditions “were favorable to the
formation and continuance of life.’ So
far, so good. “So long as these condi-
tions lasted, life prospered; everything
favored its growth. This first living
matter grew and finally split up, or in
some manner gave birth to other living
matter, and the procession of life had
begun.’”” Simple, like all other great
discoveries,

“But mark this—death had not yet
appeared upon thie.earth ; sickness and
deeay had not yet made their presence
felt—for if they had, at the very origin
of creation, life would have become ex-
tinct as soon as it came into being.”
The argument is at least plausible.

“So long as life went on in an unin-
terrupted and peaceful manner,*just so
long was ‘everything in the’ garden
lovely.’ Life increased and multiplied,
and nothing had come to destroy it. But
one fine day the living substance reacted

wrongly—contrary to the laws govern-
ing its,environment, and then the ex-
ternal forces of nature burst forth,
swept down and destroyed a portion of
this living substance, and injured an-
other portion, causing it to become ‘dis-
eased’ and decay. The uninjured por-
tion continued to live and propagate;
the injured portions died.” “Disobed-
ience to cosmic law thus constituted the
first evil—protoplasmic disobedience—
the penalties for which were disease and
death.”

Aside from such evolutionary re-
velations, Dr. Harrington’s book con-
tains a readable account of the status
of psychical research as viewed by one
whom the professional researchers re-
gard as an authority. He considers
“hypnotism, dreams, telepathy, crystal
gazing, automatic writing, the vast
powers of the subconscious mind, dis-
sociation of personality, multiple per-
sonality, and many other phenomena
today recognized and accepted by ‘orth-
odox’ science,” and believes that “many
other phenomena (such as apparitions,
‘ghosts,’ haunted houses, telekinesis,
materialization, thought photography—
even spirit communication itself) are
today gradually but surely winning ac-
ceptance.”’ His ideas of the valuation
of evidence may be measured by his dis-
covery of “a mathematical proof of the
existence of a spirit world” in the fact
that mathematicians find “imaginary
quantities” convenient in their notation.

RHE RELATION OF HEREDITARY EVE
DEFECTS TO GENETICS AND EUGENICS’

LuciEN Howe, M.D., Buffalo

F LATE years, while trying to
-) learn something about ocular

muscles, I have been confronted

often by questions concerning
heredity. I have found, as others
doubtless have, three, four or even more
persons in the same family with a
similar form of heterophoria,? hetero-
tropia,*® predisposition to ocular fatigue,
or similar abnormal muscular conditions.
It seemed impossible to study these
anomalies satisfactorily without first
halting to learn something about that
mystery which we call heredity.

It is not possible here to give any
systematic account of the studies al-
ready made of hereditary eye defects,
except to mention the classic work by
Groenouw,* the interesting histories
collected by Nettleship, the more recent
bibliography by Loeb, with the exhaus-
tive articles by him, or those by Libby
and others. The point is that we oph-
thalmologists have been content thus far
with reporting family histories without
attempting to relate those histories to
other facts, now well established by
geneticists.

The best way to learn these princi-
ples, and one vastly more interesting,
is to supplement the reading with at
least a few experiments.

The breeding of eye defects is easier
than most persons imagine. Chickens
and pigeons are the best subjects for
such experiments.

By advertising in the Reliable Poultry
Journal and other trade papers, it has

been possible to obtain for the parent
stock more than a dozen specimens of
eye defects. These included corneal
irregularities, and variations in the color
of the iris and in the position of the eyes
and of the pupil. The different pens of
chickens at a small place, known as
Mendel Farm, on the lake shore near
Buffalo, have proved to me a source of
much interest and enlightenment.

The breeding of dogs has not been
found satisfactory. Eye defects are
rare, the generations slow and the litters
small. For similar reasons, cats are
undesirable. It is probable, however,
that interesting results could be obtained
by breeding white cats which have
blue eyes—such cats being often deaf.
This fact had been already observed
by Darwin and has been the subject of
breeding experiments by Dr. Graham
Bell.®

The eyes of the small fruit fly, Dro-
sophila ampelophila, have proved most
interesting. I am indebted to Professor
Morgan of Columbia for parent stock,
the blind variety of which I bred through
more than twelve generations.

PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE STUDY

The average reader of this paper may
say that such a glance at the principles
of heredity may be curious and possibly
interesting, but of what practical use
is it?

Of course. we never find a typical
Mendelian ratio in the human species,
because brothers and _ sisters never

1 Read before the Section on Ophthalmology at the Sixty-Ninth Annual Session of the Ameri-
can Medical Association, Chicago, June, 1918. Reprinted in condensed form from the Journal
of the American Medical Association, Vol. 70, pp. 1994-1997.

2 A tendency of the visual axes to fail to meet in the fixation point, due to weakness of one
or more of the ocular muscles or their faulty innervation. —_

3 Displacements in position.

—we

4Groenouw, in Handbuch der gesamten Augenheilkunde, Graefe-Saemisch, Ed. 2, Part 1,

Vol. 11, p. 415.

5 Bell, Alexander Graham: Tr. Otol. Soc., 1885, Vol. 3, p. 478.

379

380 The Journal

marry. But an approach to these
ratios we do find constantly, and that
law furnishes an important guide, not
only in recognizing heredity itself in a
given family history, as distinguished
from an infection, but in also indicating
when the defect is dominant or recessive.
In other words, this relation between
genetics and ophthalmology throws
light on the differential diagnosis (the
next step in our study), and is very
decidedly practical in connection with
eugenics.

With this reassurance as to the reason
for continuing, let us pass to the exami-
nation of family histories to determine
whether a given defect is in reality
hereditary, or whether it is due to infec-
tion from syphilis or other causes.

It would necessitate a rather long
digression to show just how this differen-
tial diagnosis is made. Suffice it to say
that our criterion is the technical defini-
tion of heredity given at the outset.
The fact is that a very considerable
proportion of defects which we all sup-
posed formerly were hereditary are
probably not hereditary, but the effect
of some infection more or less obscure.
An excellent example of this is a family
history of aniridia reported by one of
the oldest and best known members?
of this section. The author and all
other ophthalmologists accepted this as
an undoubted example of heredity, but
competent geneticists now demonstrate
that to be highly improbable.

The term “‘hereditary’’ we should also
define more exactly as including two
groups—one in w hich the recurrence of
the defect is only “‘possible,’”’ especially
when that defect is “‘recessive,’”’ the
other in which its recurrence is ‘‘ proba-
ble,” especially when that defect is
“dominant.’’ Evidently, therefore, we
have as many conditions to deal with as
there are combinations, in pairs, of these
four factors.

Still another factor enters into the
problem—the personal equation of the
parties to a marriage contract. For
when two persons contemplate matri-

6 Risley, S. D.: Hereditary Aniridia, The Journal Amer. Med. Assn., April 17, 1915, p.

of Heredity

mony, it can usually be taken for granted
that their judgment has, for the time,
taken wings. Professor McCready, in
his lectures at the College of Physicians
and Surgeons, used to say his case
records showed that for various reasons
he had advised one or both parties
against marriage some sixty-eight times;
and his records also showed that sixty-
eight times the couples went almost
straight to the altar.

But temporary obsessions by those
who ask an opinion is no excuse for
inability to advise intelligently, or, if
necessary, to restrain persons from a
fatal mistake. Therefore the other four
factors in our problem demand all the
more careful study. While the differ-
ence between a simple deformity and
blindness is evident, it is not easy to
say whether the recurrence of a given
defect is “possible” or “probable.”
Our decision, then, must be based on
three groups of data: first, whether the
defect is inherited as a dominant or a
recessive; second, whether it is a sex-
linked characteristic, and, third, whether
both families show the defect.

A few illustrations will show how
these four cardinal conditions in our
problem may serve as the basis for an
opinion by an ophthalmologist when he
is called on to give advice in the case of
a proposed marriage. Thus:

(a) When we have to do only with a
deformity, and its reappearance is
doubtful, no special objection need be
raised.

(b) When we have to do only with a
deformity, and its reappearance is
probable, the parties to the marriage
should both be warned of the probability
of the reappearance of that defect in
their offspring.

(c) When we have to do with blind-
ness, and its reappearance is doubtful,
a stricter attitude toward the union can
be assumed.

(d) When we have to do with blind-
ness, and its reappearance is probable,
the question assumes its most serious
aspect. If the family history shows

1310.

zi Matings between brothers and sisters are not essential to the formation of Mendelian ratios.

Ed.

Howe: Heredity Eye Defects

that this defect is in reality dominant,
then half the children on the average
will develop the defect; or even if the
defect is recessive, but occurs in both
families, the danger is practically the
same.

Another phase of the same problem
is presented when a couple is already
married, and with little or no history on
either side of eye defect; yet in spite of
that, for reasons which we do not know,
one child after another, blind or partly
blind, is born to these parents. This
congenital blindness is in one way quite
different genetically from hereditary
blindness, but from the standpoint of
eugenics, families with hereditary and
with congenital blindness may be con-
sidered together as one group and classed
as hereditary. It is desirable to appre-
ciate how important this group is, but
space permits here only the categorical
statement of a few facts, which, properly
presented, would fill a small volume.
These facts are:

(a) The number of this group in the
United States is considerable. It has
been estimated at about 8,000 and
upward. According to the census of
1910, the total number of blind was
52,272. Counting unavoidable and ad-
mitted errors in that census, the results
of subsequent surveys, and increase of
population, the National Committee
for the Prevention of Blindness esti-
mated the number of blind in 1917 at
from 100,000 to 110,000. According
to the data given by Best in his exhaus-
tive and recent study of the blind in
this country, the proportion of heredi-
tary and congenital blind is considerably
larger than here stated. But in giving
estimates, the minimum limit is evi-
dently the safest.

(b) The cost also is considerable.
According to statistics carefully col-
lected in Massachusetts and elsewhere,
the average cost per year of each blind
person in and out of institutions is at
least $475. This gives us a total annual
cost of some $3,800,000.

(c) It is unjust to the blind to allow
them to be brought into existence
simply to lead miserable lives.

(d) It is unjust to taxpayers to be
compelled to support them.

381

(e) The longer we delay action to pre-
vent this blindness, the more difficult
the problem becomes.

(f) A large part, if not all, of this
misery and expense could be gradually
eradicated by sequestration or by sterili-
zation, if the transmitter of the defect
preferred the latter. An idea of this
plan is given by the somewhat similar
one for dealing with feeblemindedness.
In 1913, laws for sterilization, under
certain circumstances, had been passed
in twelve states and proposed in nine
others. Bulletin 10 of the Eugenics
Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, L. L.,
N. Y., gives a map showing the status
at that time of such legislation. Where
such eugenic laws have been enacted or
favorably considered, probably existing
laws could be properly amended or new
laws passed to prevent this form of
blindness. The same bulletin gives the
form of a model law for this purpose. It
was prepared by committees composed
of the most eminent physicians, sur-
geons, sociologists, students of genetics
and similar experts in this country.
That law could be made applicable to
the prevention of hereditary blindness,
but with an important difference, which
makes the prevention of this form of
blindness comparatively easy and inex-
pensive. No lega! action is essential
until after a marriage has been found to
produce blind children, and even then
sequestration of the transmitter of the
defect may be substituted for steriliza-
tion. Moreover, if this sequestration
is of a kindly nature, with congenial
occupations suited to the intelligence
and social tastes of the subject, the sense
of restraint is slight, since it is reduced
to the minimum. This is not theory
but experience, as shown especially by
the colonies for the feebleminded estab-
lished by Dr. Charles Bernstein of the
State Custodial Asylum at Rome,
NY

WHAT ARE WE GOING TO DO ABOUT IT?

In other words, we have all this
misery and expense, both of which are
largely unnecessary; we have also an
effective method of relief prepared by
committees of our foremost experts and
already well supported, in principle, by

382 The Journal

public opinion. What are we going to
do about it? That is the question at
last forced on ophthalmologists—espe-
cially on the Section on Ophthalmology
of the American Medical Association.
Shall we complacently continue to do
nothing, thus retarding social advance-
ment and even ophthalmology itself?
The answer to this question involves
many details, both of principle and of
method, far too complicated for discus-

of Heredity

sion now. But in executive session a
motion will be made for the appoint-
ment of a committee to report on this
subject another year.® If at that time
or later, some plan can be formulated
for the prevention of this form of blind-
ness, 1t will perhaps seem worth while
for us to have directed our attention
now, even in this hasty manner, to the
relation of hereditary eye defects to
genetics and eugenics.

A STRAIN PRODUCING

MULTIPLE BIRTHS

C.°B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.

MONG tthe findings of the
Eugenics Record Office has been

that of a family in Cleveland

(Mrs. W. G. C.) which has a
remarkable record in the production of
two or more children at a birth. The
history has a special interest owing to
the fact that the present Mrs. C. has
married three times. There is no in-
formation at present available concern-
ing the tendency toward multiple births
in the families of the husbands, but, in
view of the fact tliat multiple births
are relatively rare, it is exceedingly
improbable that all three husbands
belong to families having such ten-
dencies. The propositus (Mrs. C.) has
been interviewed at different times by
three representatives of the Eugenics
Record Office. To each the history
given has differed in some details. The
last of the field workers who visited
the woman secured the facts concerning
her first husband and her children by
him which had remained unknown to
the other field workers, and were incee:!
divulged only after five visits had been
made by the last field worker. Further
studies are being made upon the family,
but it seems probable that the facts are
now so nearly ascertained as to warrant
a description of it.

The details of the family are set
forth in the accompanying figure (Fig.
15), which is a pedigree chart for five
generations. The propositus is No. 3
of the third generation, IIT 3. Hier
mother and her mother’s mother are
said by the propositus to have had only
twins, triplets, and quadruplets. It must
be said in all candor that the propositus,
although willing to cooperate, has cer-
tain mental limitations which make it
necessary to check all her statements
from independent sources, and this has
not been possible in the case of the
statement concerning her mother and
mother’s mother, as the propositus was
born in Paris and her parents and
grandparents never came to America.

The propositus married first husband
No. 1, and by him had twins (IV 1, 2)
but her husband, Mr. M., died fourteen
months after their marriage. Two
years after her first marriage, the pro-
positus married T. R., who was a
French Canadian, and who died in
1896. By him the propositus had first
children, twins, Violet and Clay. This
Violet married a Mr. N., and had a
single child, and two years later twins,
who with the mother died shortly after
birth. The next children of the pro-
positus were triplets, named Esther,
Flossie and Theodore. These all died

*That committee was appointed and we have begun the work.

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384 The Journal

young of some intestinal disorder. Two
years after (in 1895) there were again
born to the propositus twins—Anna,
who still survives, and Charles,» who
died young. The next year another
pair of twins were born—lIrene, who
still survives, and Clarence, who died
young. The propositus married, third,
W. G. C., in 1902, and he is still living.
He is of English and Scotch descent.
By him the propositus had first (pro-
bably 1903) a pair of twins by the names
of Howard (who died at eight months
of hydrocephalus and Noah (who died
soon after his twin brother). In Decem-
ber, 1904, triplets were born, of whom
the eldest, Will, is still living, but of
whom the other two were born dead.
About a year later the propositus had
a miscarriage of triplets (1V 18, 19,
20). In 1907 there were born twins
(IV 21, 22); a boy, Hugh, is still liv-
ing, but the girl died one hour after
birth. Then followed the next year a
miscarriage of two boys and two girls.
This seems to have been brought on by
the poor health of the mother. In 1909
there were born twins (IV 27, 28); a
boy, Edward, is still living and a girl
died at the age of ten days in the hos-
pital. In 1910 triplets were born (IV
29, 30, 31); a boy, Roland, still lives
at home, one of the girls died at the
age of one week, and the other was a
“blue baby” (that is, one in which the
foramen ovale failed to close). In 1912

of Heredity

the propositus gave birth to four girls,
born at full term in March, and in
December of the same year, she had a
miscarriage at about five months, asso-
ciated with a severe burn that she ex-
perienced. In April, 1913, the proposi-
tus had another miscarriage, at about
three months, of females, asindicated on
the chart IV 40, 41, 42. Thus the pro-
positus has averaged nearly three chil-

dren at a birth and has had thirty preg- ©

nancies inside of twelve years in the
last mating, in addition to the eleven
by the two earlier matings.

The foregoing remarkable case is by
no means unique, but accords very well
with the similar cases that are reported
by Gould and Pyle, “Curiosities of
Medicine.” The present case, however,
is of especial interest because of the
testimony that the tendency to multiple
births has appeared in each of four suc-
cessive generations. That the tendency
to multiple births is hereditary is clearly
brought out in the case of sheep in
strains which, like that of Dr. Alex-
ander Graham Bell, have been developed
in which twins are almost exclusively
produced. Even among commercial
breeders the existence of such twin-
producing strains is well known. The
Dorset horned sheep are reputed to
show a greater tendency toward twin-
ning than other races of sheep. It is
hoped to make further studies upon the
case described in this communication.

OLD NUMBERS PURCHASED

The American Genetic Association desires to purchase old numbers of

the Journal of Heredity, or American Breeders Magazine, such as are now

out of print.

Members having old numbers, odd volumes, or entire sets

for sale should communicate with the managing editor.

Address -
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
P. O. Box 472, 11th St. Station, Washington, D. G

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. X, No. 9 December, 1919

CONTENTS

A year ago the American Genetic Association announced its desire to com-
municate with twins living in any part of the world. The response has been
highly gratifying. Six hundred twins, and parents of twins, have written let-
ters, and approximately 175 photographs were received. This entire number
of the JOURNAL is devoted to discussions based on this correspondence.

Mawars. Dy David: Warrebalde es A eh. cv ease ens ee aoe op E ane ee 387
Resemblance and Difference in Twins, by C. H. Danforth.............. 399
P hysical Correspondence in Two Sets of Duplicate Twins, by Harris
Hawthorne: Walder: x 3:2- 3 iec ne oF ae hee ae ate ee ok, See ote 110
@arriersyof ithe: Germ (Plasnis «7065.2 hin. ei on aad he a) ks ee 422

Twins Prove The Importance of Chromosomes, by Frederick Adams
Woods c .052. Sot ire. cscs tty A eager! tc a ttity ) eee 423
Definition of Heredity—‘‘Nature ys. Nurture’? Not a Good Expression,

bypBrederick*Adamis; Woods... 3 ehto5 sp hss ies ae oa eee wets 426

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly with the exception of July, August
and September by the American Genetic Association (formerly called the American
Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire
to receive it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership
dues of $2, because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50
cents extra for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $2.00 a year,
foreign postage extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

ntered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1919 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, December 24, 1919.

~

COULD TWO LIVING BEINGS BE MORE ALIKE?

In height the same, in weight the same, in tastes, in dispositions and in talent the same,
these twin brothers have worked together for twenty-five years and have never been
separated. Nine persons out of ten cannot tellthem apart. What possibilities in the field
of education lie in a study of twins like these? How far could they by different environ-
ments be forced apart in character? Supposing one grew up in China, speaking only
Chinese, the other in Spain, speaking Spanish, would they still look as much alike as
they do, and when we came to know them would they seem as much alike? (Frontispiece).

TWINS

Their Importance as Furnishing Evidence of theSLimitations of Environment

FAIRCHILD

Davip
DENTICAL twins are the only
human beings in the world who

have exactly the same heredity. If

we can find out the characteristic
ways in which they remain the same
throughout life, the qualities and habits
and mannerisms which persist un-
changed in them both, in spite of their
living in entirely different surroundings,
we shall know much more than we do
at present about what attributes are
hereditary and fixed and what are those
which we can hope to modify by en-
vironment and education.

THE INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY
ENVIRONMENT

AND

In all our experiments in education
and civic improvements and in our
dealings with different races we are
always hampered by our ignorance of
that great unknown quantity, heredity,
and its influence on the people with
whom we are dealing.

Any exact knowledge we can gain
by a study of two identical twins who
were separated from each other as
babies and brought up in different
towns under entirely different circum-
stances, scarcely knowing each other,
will give us a clearer idea than we
appear to have now, of what changes
in our bodies, and perhaps, too, in some
of our mental and moral characters,
are clearly due to the things we eat, the
exercise we take, the associations we
make, and the work we do—to our
environment, as it is called—and what
changes, or failures to change, can be
correctly traced to our very beginnings
in that momentous meeting of the two
parent cells which began our earthly
lives.

WHAT DETERMINES OUR CHAR-
ACTERISTICS

It is strange to think of the way our
inheritance comes to us, to realize that

all we are to inherit from our mother
and from her entire family is contained
in a single tiny cell, while all that we
are to inherit from our father and his
family is contained in another tiny cell.
When these two cells meet they become
one larger cell and form the beginning
of a new individual.

It is wonderful and almost passing
belief to realize that a single micro-
scopic cell holds so much of our destiny
within itself and that it contains the
mechanism which will determine the
color of our eyes, the shape of our nose,
the love of music, the taste for litera-
ture, for law or for science, the quick-
ness of temper or sullenness of disposi-
tion which will go so far in deciding
what our future is to be. All that the
generations of ancestors behind us can
give us of themselves, they give us
through this tiny cell.

This cell grows and divides into two
cells; each of these grows and divides
into two more cells, and so the process
goes on, controlled by the mechanism
contained in the original cell—that
mechanism, the so-called chromosomes
which are easily visible through the
microscope.

No two mother cells are alike, nor
any two father cells; each contains a
different arrangement of the hereditary
characteristics, and so it is that every
individual produced by the union of a
father and mother cell is different from
one produced by any other union.
Although they are brothers and sisters,
with the same heredity characteristics
behind them to draw from, they have
inherited these characteristics in such
varying arrangement that they may vary
as much as did the hundreds of people
who were their ancestors on either side
of the family.

387

388 The Journal

A SINGLE DIVIDED CELL PRODUCES
TWINS

Now it sometimes happens—we do
not yet know why—that this original
cell, made from the two parent cells,
in one of its earliest divisions splits
entirely in two, and the two halves,
instead of remaining together as they
usually do, remain separate and grow
into separate individuals. In this case
the two new individuals will have ex-
actly the same heredity, and they are
the only human beings we know of who
have, and it is such individuals whom
we speak of as identical twins. They
are always of the same sex and always
resemble each other to an extraordinary
degree throughout the whole of their
lives. Fraternal twins, who do not re-
semble one another, and who may not
even be of the same sex, are the product
of two unions of two different mother
and father cells, and have simply hap-
pened to be born at the same time.

There are cases where two of triplets
appear to be identical twins and the
third to have originated from a separate
cell. Cases of identical quadruplets are
theoretically possible by assuming that
the fertilized cell splits into four quar-
ters. If one of these failed to grow,
identical triplets would result.

IDENTICAL TWINS LIKENED TO
DIVIDED PLANTS

We have then, in these identical

twins, cases of human beings who
start out, not as two different m1x-
tures of the free and variable cells

of their parents, but as halves, so to
speak, of one mixture. To roughly
illustrate the difference let us take two
apple seeds. They have come from the
same apple, but they will not grow into
apple trees producing the same kind of
apples. One may produce a tree which
has a very fair apple on it; the other
may produce apples which are too sour
or bitter to eat. The trees themselves
may even be distinctly different; one
may grow upright and the other be
spreading. The explanation is that they
have different heredities at the very
start—different pollen grains from a
flower on the same tree have fer-

of Heredity

tilized different egg cells in the young
fruits. Supposing, however, we were to
divide a single seed from an apple and
that these two exact halves grew,
would we not then be able to produce
two apple trees which looked alike and
which, when they bore, had almost ex-
actly similar fruits on them? While it
is not possible to divide the seed, hori-
culturists have found that they get al-
most the same result by dividing the
plants after they are partly or entirely
grown up. The whole great fabric of
our cultivated varieties of fruit trees
is built up on this approximate identity
of the heredity of trees produced by
growing them from parts—buds—taken
from a single remarkable tree which
produces delicious fruits, and putting
them where they can grow and form
thousands of orchard trees. Millions of
navel orange trees, all of which pro-
duce fruits so much alike that even one
who is not an expert can tell they
are navel oranges at a glance, came
in this way from a_ single bud
which was put into a_bitter-orange
tree in Riverside, Cal., in 1870. The
reason these all look so much alike,
even though grown in California or
Florida, is because their heredity at
the very start was so nearly identical.
They are not all absolutely alike as they
are influenced by the climate and soil
in which they grow. The flavor of a
navel orange grown in Florida is dif-
ferent from one grown in California
and quite as different from one grown
in Bahia, Brazil, where the first buds
came from; but they all have the navel
which is so characteristic of the variety
as to have given it its name.

Roughly speaking, then, identical
twins can be compared with plants
which have been propagated by the
division of one individual.

ALL DIFFERENCES NOT APPARENT
IN PHOTOGRAPHS

There are certain questions which may
arise in the minds of those who look at
these photographs. I surmise these will
mainly deal with-their invisible differ-
ences — differences in temperament,
mental ability, tastes, mechanical abili-

a ee

TWIN ACROBATS

Even their mother cannot always tell Robert and Frank Michel apart; once she bathed the

same little fellow twice. They are very much attached to each other and do not care to be
separated for one minute. They even get hungry and sleepy at the same time. Although
they are only five years old, they are clever little acrobats and work for moving-picture
companies. It is interesting to know that their maternal grandmother was also a

twin. (Fig. 1.)

EMINENT TWINS AS BOYS AND YOUNG MEN

ograph is of Gilbert and Edwin Grosvenor with their older brother, Asa,
hotograph is of the twins as students at

The upper phot
as boys of four and a half years of age. The lower p

Amherst. (See also following page.) (Fig. 2.)

EMINENT TWINS TODAY

If there were any theory that identical twins, starting from only half a cell, are lacking
in mental or physical vigor, the record of the Grosvenor twins would shatter it. They both, as
students at Amherst College, divided highest honors in the class room and on the tennis
field, and one, as builder and director of the National Geographic Society, and the other
as Assistant Attorney General and partner in one of the most important law firms in
America, have demonstrated their abilities as leaders.

During their whole lives they have never varied more than a pound in weight. In college
their grades never varied more than one-tenth of one per cent. Their tailor says that one
of the twins has a short left arm and the other a short right arm. Although absolutely
dependent upon glasses, each can wear the other’s.

Their illnesses have often coincided. They have always been devoted friends, and fre-
quently their letters cross. Most of their tastes are similar, but they never agreed when it
came to girls. (Fig. 3.) .

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394 The Journal

ties, etc. Let me suggest, as Dr. Fred-
erick Adams Woods has pointed out,
that we do not know how great or how
small are the physical differences which
are associated with very considerable
differences in these invisible mental and
moral characteristics. A close study of
these photographs will reveal that no
two of the most similar twins are abso-
lutely alike. Perhaps there is some
slight difference in the lobe of the ear
or the direction of the hair on the fore-
head. Supposing there were as slight a
difference in the lobes or convolutions
of the brain, who knows what changes
in intellect this might bring with it?

In studying these photographs and
judging of their likenesses or unlike-
nesses, the fact ought to be kept in
mind that our eyes are more critical
about faces than about almost anything
else. From babyhood we have studied
each other’s faces. Down through the
ages from geologic times man has made
a study of the human face, and it is
hardly to be wondered at that he has
a remarkable memory of its form and
can tell at a glance whether he has
seen a face which he once saw years
ago. This form memory, heightened no
doubt by natural selection, we bring to
bear on these photographs, and differ-
ences so slight as to escape our atten-
tion in horses or dogs are immediately
detected by us in these photographs.

It may not appeal to some as 1m-
portant that we learn which of our
characteristics are hereditary and which
are environmental, but to those who
have given serious attention to the sub-
ject the matter appears to be of tran-
scendent importance, involving asit does
the whole question of our attitude to-
wards each other as human beings, our
understanding of the ereat race ques-
tion, the limitations of education in the
elevation of races, and the understand-
ing of the fact, which is being con-
tinually jiost sight of, that acqwred
characters are not imherited, and that
education affects only the generation to
which it is given.

of Heredity

Some of the most violent of our so-
called race antipathies are based upon
characters which are entirely environ-
mental. Language is one of these. But
table manners, fashions in foods and
clothes and methods of living, styles of
architecture, forms of address, attitudes
towards music and painting, behavior in
the relation of the sexes, emotional
likes and dislikes on sight, respectful-
ness and attractiveness, obedience and
disobedience, honesty and dishonesty,
bravery. and cowardice—all these reac-
tions of the individual to his surround-
ings must be studied from the double
standpoint to determine how far the re-
sponse is the result of environment,
and how far it is the result of heredity,.
for both factors are certainly there and
must be given their proper weight.

When the barbers ascribe to the
wearing of hats the bald heads of the
old men, they are neglecting to give
the right weight to the fact that a man
inherits his particular type of baldness.
When a woman ascribes her alarming
increase in weight to the food she eats,
she is often neglecting to consider the
fact that she may have inherited the
tendency to become large from _ her
mother or her father, and the fact that
she had a sylph-like form as a young
girl tallies with the behavior of her
mother or father when they were
young. The old man past seventy who:
becomes convinced that his long life
was caused by his not using tobacco or
the fact that he never ate any butter,
or that he always walked a mile or two
a day, or that he took a cold bath every
morning even if he had to break the
ice to do it, should not overlook the
fact that he comes from a long-lived
ancestry nor that other fact, pointed out
by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell,’ that of
1594” individuals examined only 5%
of those whose parents (both of them)
died under eighty, themselves lived to:
be eighty; 10% of those having one
parent who lived to be eighty and 20%
of those having both parents who lived
to be eighty, lived to be eighty.

1“The Duratiom of Life,” Volta Building, Washington, D. C. “Who Shall Inherit

Long Life” Nat. Geographic, June, 1919.

. 44
se Oekhees144lsen
1vsy ey iris

Joneaioe “ane

TWIN GIRLS WHO ARE STRIKINGLY ALIKE IN
DISPOSITION

Differing slightly in height and weight and with a different way
of walking, Lettie and Linda Johnson are otherwise as much
alike in voice, in tastes and in disposition as they are in looks.
They are both out-of-door girls and do not care much for read-
ing. In school they got practically the same marks. Neither
of them cares much for gardening or traveling. They are both
fond of children and like animals, although they both detest
spiders and snakes. They are unusually fond of each other and
are always together, and even their handwriting is quite alike.
The two boys are twins, evidently fraternal, and are not re-
lated to the Johnson girls. (Fig. 6.)

396

It seems to be a universal habit to
ascribe a cause to every effect and
one’s peace of mind is satisfied in this
way, whether there is any real proof of
the connection between the two or not.

This collection of photographs of
some of the more interesting of the
150 photographs of twins is pub-
lished with the object of bringing to
the attention of the readers of THE
JoURNAL oF Herepity the existence of
thousands of human beings who have
gone through changes of environment
which we have been in the habit of con-
sidering sufficient to acount for all sorts
of effects without varying enough in
their likenesses to each other to make
them easily distinguishable.

These photographs are published for
the purpose of putting into the minds of
as many people as possible this illustra-
tion of the force of heredity, so that
they will appreciate the importance of
the work of those men who are pushing
into the field of its study. The field is
worthy of the attention of the most
brilliant minds: of this age, and those
who are successful in increasing the
sum of our knowledge of it will most
certainly be benefactors of the human
race.

Should we not always remember that
the sum total of our knowledge as com-
pared to the future acquisitions of the
human mind is as nothing; that we

stand looking out on the world
with the same blindness of vision
that the mariners had when they

saw every day the masts of the ap-
proaching vessels before the hulls ap-
peared and failed to interpret the fact

The Journal of Heredity

to mean that they were sailing round a
gigantic globe?

I have some such impression when I
look at this collection of the photo-
graphs of identical twins—identical
from their babyhood through to old
age. A study of them cannot be a
trivial thing, and somewhere there
must be a mind which will assemble
the facts about them and bring these
to bear on the greatest problem of the
world, which is the understanding of
what constitutes human progress.

COOPERATION FROM THE TWINS

To those who have so _ generously
volunteered themselves—and there
were over 600 of them—as subjects for
the study of the specialists of the Amer-
ican Genetic Association, I wish to ex-
press the deepest gratitude. Nothing
has occurred since the establishment of
the association which has so encour-
aged its officers as this response from
the Twins of the World. It has given
them a feeling of confidence that there
is deep in the consciousness of every-
one a keen interest as to what character
of human race is to inhabit the globe
after we are gone. That this interest
will grow until it occupies the high-
est and most important place in human
consciousness is the conviction of
students of the new science of genetics.

The special studies made from the
data supplied by the Codperating Twins
will be published from time to time in
THe JouRNAL OF HeErepity, and such
of the photographs as have been given
to the association will be kept for ref-
erence purposes.

BOTH MARRIED BUT ONLY ONE WITH CHILDREN

For the first eighteen years of their lives, Rose and Louise Briot were always together, needing
no other chums. Since then their lives have varied greatly. One is a widow and lives in
the west near her children and grandchildren; the other is married but has no children and
has lived always in Chicago.

Although their environment has been so different, the similarity between the twin sisters is
in no way lessened. Their friends do not tell them apart any more easily, either when they
see them or when they hear their voices over the telephone. As girls they often voiced each
other’s thoughts, and even now their letters cross repeatedly. Their mother, besides having
twins herself, has twin great-grandchildren, and her brother has twin grandchildren, though
neither pair areidentical. (Fig. 7.)

T.

THREE PAIRS OF TWIN GIRLS

Of the top pair their aunt writes that few can tell them apart, that there
never has been more than a half pound difference in weight or a half inch
difference in height.

Concerning the middle pair we have no information but their names and
ages.

Mrs. Vera De Mott, of Battle Creek, Mich., and her twin sister (lower
pair) were separated when three years of age and have always lived apart,
seeing each other at long intervals only, yet that peculiar affection com-
mon to identical twins has always existed between them, and their
characteristics have been so similar that even their best friends cannot
tell them apart when they meet. (Fig. 8.)

RESEMBLANCE AND
DIFFERENCE IN TWINS

Twins That Look and Act Alike Attract Attention First, While Dissimilar
Ones Are Apt to Be Overlooked

C. H. DANForTH
Department of Anatomy, Washington University School of Medicine

S EXPLAINED elsewhere in this
number of the journal, the
American Genetic Association
began some time ago to accumu-

late a collection of photographs of
twins. After a considerable number of
twins had been found, a questionnaire
was sent out to get data on resem-
blances and differences between _ the
members of twin pairs. It is the pur-
pose of this paper to discuss briefly
some phases of the question that were
emphasized by the answers received.
The writer’ is indebted to the president
of the Association for putting all the
material at his disposal.

TWINS NOT ALWAYS ALIKE

Some of the photographs reproduced
in this issue bear witness to the remark-
able degree of facial resemblance that
may exist between twins, while others
illustrate the fact that twins are some-
times surprisingly dissimilar. What the
photographs show with reference to
facial resemblance, the questionnaires,
filled out by the twins themselves, show
for other traits, both physical and men-
tal. While all types of twins are repre-
sented in the replies, there is some evi-
dence, as will be explained below, that
the material on hand comes from a
somewhat selected group. For this rea-
son it does not seem wise to present a
tabulated summary of the answers.
Such a tabulation would give the im-
pression that the average resemblance
of all twins is higher than it really is.

The questionnaire was so planned
that it would afford data for comparing
purely physical, more or less physio-
logical, and mental traits including

likes, dislikes and normal reactions. The
answers may be briefly summarized
under general headings.

Height —Exact correspondence in
height is not unusual, and a difference
of a quarter of an inch or less is com-
mon. On the other hand, variations of
several inches sometimes occur, and
considerable differences are occasion-
ally found between twins that are other-
wise very similar.

Weight.—The resemblances and dif-
ferences in weight are similar to those
for height, but there is no absolute cor-
relation between the two traits. Com-
plete identity, or a difference of only a
pound or two, is common. Some twins
state that, while their weight fluctuates,
the changes are always parallel so that
they never differ from each other by
more than a small amount. In other
cases there is a wide divergence even
when height and many other charac-
teristics are similar.

Eye and Hair Color.—These features
are generally given as similar. For ex-
ample, one twin speaks of a “switch,”
perfectly uniform in color, made from
the combings of both heads. Neverthe-
less twins, of which one is dark with
brown eyes, the other light with blue
eyes, are rather frequent.

Other Physical Traits—So far -as
can be judged by the answers, other
physical traits follow the same general
rule as those already mentioned—al-
most complete identity in some cases,
and wide divergence in others. In gen-
eral, similarity with reference to one
trait is correlated with similarity in
reference to most other traits. Rarely
are there only a few points in common;

399

‘

400 The Journal

still more rarely, what are otherwise
similar twins may be characterized by
one or two points of difference. As an
illustration of the latter class, there may
be mentioned a pair which in a baby
show were scored as identical except
for the shape of the occipital region of
the head.

Physiological Traits—Such mani-
festations of the general make-up as
gait, sound of the voice, reaction to
foods, susceptibility to disease, all show
a distribution similar to that of the
purely physical traits. One pair of
twins state that bananas make them
“both very sick.” Another pair have
no special aversion for any food but
tapioca. Still another pair agree in all
their likes and dislikes except for cante-
loupe. In other cases the lists of
preferences differ very considerably.

THE “MIRROR IMAGE” OF EACH OTHER

Perhaps the matter of right and left
handedness should not be passed over
in this connection. Rather a surprising
number of twin pairs seem to be com-
posed of one right and one left handed
individual. It has been suggested that
one twin is frequently the “mirror
image’ of the other, left-handed and
with heart and other viscera reversed
in their symmetry. The responses to
the questionnaire do not show definitely
whether or not this condition, known to
anatomists as situs imversus, occurs in
any of these twins. Some persons be-
lieve that right or left handedness is an
acquired characteristic and not heredi-
tary. While this position probably can-
not be maintained, it may be of inter-
est to reca:l that twin babies generally
face each other in their beds, and if
care is not taken to change them about
frequently their heads become asymetri-
cal on opposite sides. This may possibly
affect the hemisphere of the brain dif-
ferently and certainly influences the
amount of use that is made of the left
hand in one infant and the right in the
~ other.

Handwriting—Each twin was asked
to copy a short sentence. The hand-
writing of the two members of a pair

of Heredity

frequently showed great similarity and
in one case was virtually identical. In
other instances the differences in style
and other characteristics were very
noticeable.

Mental Traits—Much of the in-
formation received through the ques-
tionnaires concerned mental capacities,
intellectual tastes, and likes and dis-
likes. Without analyzing this data in
detail it may be stated that ample evi-
dence is afforded that the same resem-
blances and differences obtain with
reference to mental traits as are found
for characteristics that are generally
thought of as more purely physical or
physiological. Over and over the two
twins of a pair enumerate virtually the
same list of preferences and aversions.
One pair of twin girls heartily dislike
mathematics, while another pair record
it as their favorite study. One twin
mentions that not only do she and her
sister commonly dream about the same
person at the same time but they dream
the same things about them. She states
that this happens even when they are
in different places.

STRONGER AFFECTION

Many twins state that their fondness
for each other far exceeds their liking
for other brothers and sisters. Both
men and women twins write that they
are always dissatisfied when separated
from their co-twins. “No one was ever
quite so entertaining to us as the other.”
It is noticeable that twins who express
this sentiment are not only of the same
sex, but otherwise similar.

On the other hand there are plenty
of twins who differ widely in their
tastes and capacities and who find their
co-twin no more congenial than their
other brothers and sisters, indeed some-
times less so. These are the “Jacobs
and Esaus,” as a twin in an insane
asylum once explained to the writer.

Summary.—Summarizing this very
sketchy review of the questionnaires, it
may be said that there is ample evidence
that the twins of certain pairs show
profound resemblances in both physical
and mental traits, while those of other

‘,Y

a Mt. i 4 i* Xu .

TWINS AS DIFFERENT AS ANY SISTERS

These little twin sisters have grown up together in the same surroundings and under the
same influences; even their prenatal influences were the same. Yet they are so unlike
as to be almost opposite in every characteristic, so much so that their education and manage-
ment has been quite a problem.

These two girls, born at practically the same time, of the same parents, and yet with such
different characteristics, illustrate clearly the difference between identical parentage and
identical heredity. Both are mixtures of the same two human stocks—the maternal with
its long line of ancestors and the paternal with its own line. But each girl is a different
mixture or combination of these stocks—in one more of the paternal perhaps and in the
other more of the maternala ppears. They doubtless arose from separate egg cells. (Fig. 9.)

STRIKING CONTRASTS DUE TO DIFFERENT
HEREDITY COMBINATIONS

These triplets, in the top picture, show in a very striking
way the difference between fraternal and identical twins.
The two little girls at the right are probably identical,
while the boy at the left has evidently a very different
combination of the hereditary elements of his parents.

The mother of the little twin boys, shown at the bottom,
writes that they are so ‘utterly unlike in every way that
it is hard for anyone to realize they aretwins.” (Fig. 10.)

ENGLISH TWIN GIRLS

In each of these photographs of the Misses Stallard of Portsmouth, England,
one of the twins holds her head down a little, while the other one holds hers up.
If it is the same one who does so in each picture; it is probably a characteristic
difference, but that seems to be the only difference there is. (Fig. 11.)

404 The Journal

pairs show no such unusual similarity.
The resemblance between similar pairs
is never quite complete and practically
every pair is found to differ more or
less widely in at least one respect. On
the whole one might gain the impres-
sion that while absolute identity is not
attained, rather marked similarity 1s,
with rare exception, the rule.

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES EX-
PLAINED

It may now be of interest to seek an
explanation for these likenesses and
differences, and particularly to try to
explain the intermediate grades of re-
semblance

The similarities of some twins and
the differences of others are commonly
explained on the familiar assumption
that there are two classes of twins,
those derived from a single ovum and
those derived from two separate and
independent ova.t_ The former, having
identical heredity, are similar, while the
latter, arising from different ova and
different sperms, are dissimilar. Both
of these types furnish strong evidence
for the overwhelming potency of fac-
tors of heredity as compared with those
of environment. In the one case the re-
semblance persists, as can sometimes be
shown, in spite of dissimilar environ-
ments, while, in the other, identity of
home surroundings, food, and even
clothes fails to lessen inborn differences.

It cannot be maintained, however,
that heredity is the sole factor in de-
termining the characteristics of the
individual. Thorndike? has found, for
example, that many twins which are
undoubtedly biovular in origin resemble
each other more than they resemble
their other brothers and sisters. While
this is not Thorndike’s conclusion, the
observation might be interpreted as
indicating the possibility of an environ-
mental influence. Since it is also to be

of Heredity

observed that uniovular twins are never
quite “identical,” it is conceivable that
their differences might be due to en-
vironmental factors. How far such
similarities in the one case and differ-
ences in the other are in reality directly
induced by the environment cannot be
easily answered. A few considerations
bearing on this question may be of some
interest. In this connection there are
three questions that it may be profitable
to consider: (1) Are the resemblances
of uniovular twins confined to certain
traits or does the similarity pervade
their whole being? (2) Apart from
environmental influences, how great is
the similarity that may be expected be-
tween biovular twins? (3) How great
are the differences that. may be ex-
pected to appear in uniovular twins?

In regard to the first of these ques-
tions it will at once be apparent that
many of the so-called superficial re-
semblances are in reality expressions of
more deep-seated similarities. The
color of the hair and eyes is due to
fundamental factors in the make-up of
the individual. The gait and many other
peculiarities that might seem superficial
are the product of the condition of the
muscular and nervous systems. Some
few dissections of twins have been
made, and these revealed remarkable
similarity in the configuration of the
brain? and in the muscles and blood
vesselS.* So there is every reason to
believe that the resemblances between
twins are fundamental, involving all
parts and systems. But while every part
may be concerned, there is some indi-
cation that the total resemblance is due,
not to some general quality that the two
individuals have in common, but rather
to the sum of the many similar special
traits which, added together, give the
individual his character. On this as-
sumption we can understand at least
a part of the cases in which there is

1 For a fuller discussion of this matter the reader may referred to an article in this
journal, vol. vii, No. 5, pp. 195-202, “Is Twinning Hereditary?”

2 Archives of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, No. 1, 1905.

2 Sano F.: “The convolutional pattern of the brains of identical twins: a study on
hereditary resemblance in the furrows of the cerebral hemispheres.” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,

Lon., Series B, vol. ceviii. pp. 3761, 1916.

4Danforth, C. H.: “A comparison of the hands of a pair of polydactyl negro twins.”
Amer. Jour. Physical Anthropology, vol. ii, pp. 147-165, 1919. Ss

Danforth: Resemblance and Difference

similarity in some respects and dissimi-
larity in others, for it may be assumed
that the traits are not all quite identical.
Stated in other words, there would
seem to be evidence that all bodily and
mental traits tend_to be similar in cer-
tain (mostly uniovular) twins, but that
it is not unusual in twins of either type
to find differences, now in one trait and
now in another.

EXTENT OF SIMILARITY IN
BIOVULAR TWINS

In regard to the second question, it
may be assumed that biovular twins wil!
on the whole resemble each other to a
degree about equal to the average for
all children of the same family. In indi-
vidual sets the degree of resemblance
will vary widely, since the possible com-
bination of traits from the maternal
and paternal germ plasms are very
many.® It is conceivable that occa-
sionally (with our population and birth
rate, perhaps once in eight or ten years)
a pair of biovular twins would be born
with identical germ plasms. More fre-
quent should be biovular twins differ-
ing in only one chromosome, and pro-
gressively more frequent the pairs dif-
fering by larger and larger degrees until
the average of fraternal resemblance is
reached. Then progressively less fre-
quent should be pairs differing to in-
creasing degree below the fraternal
average.

Since most pairs of parents have
many points in common, perhaps select-
ing each other on the basis of com-
munity of physical as well as mental
traits,© the possible average of com-
bination of traits within a given family
is somewhat reduced and the likelihood
of children with similar germ plasm
correspondingly increased. If two very
similar children are born a few years
apart, their likeness may be easily over-
looked—the photograph of a boy at
eight and the same boy at fourteen may

5 On the assumption that chromosomes inaintain their individuality and that “crossing . |

405

show no more than a family resemblance
—but when such similar children hap-
pen to be twins of the same sex, even
though the degree of resemblance is
such as could easily be matched in other
brothers and sisters who are not twins,
the similarity of age and frequently of
dress immediately becomes noticeable.
Such twins will pass among their
friends as strikingly similar. It is in-
teresting to note that in submitting
photographs, many twins explain that
they are really more alike than their
pictures indicate. On da priori grounds,
then, many pairs of biovular twins
should be expected to show resem-
blances, either real or apparent, that
would be much above the average for
the ordinary run of brothers and
sisters.

TWINS OF DIFFERENT TRAITS OFTEN
OVERLOOKED

It will no doubt be objected that, for
every pair of biovular twins which
show a resemblance greater than the
average fraternal resemblance, the laws
of chance lead one to expect that there
will be another pair that will show a
corresponding dissimilarity, bringing the
average resemblance down to that for
brothers and sisters in general. Assum-
ing that the distribution of traits in
biovular twins at birth is in accordance
with the laws of chance, and ignoring
the possibility of subsequent environ-
mental selection (e. g., by disease)
against dissimilarity in children, there
remains an important factor to be con-
sidered in any study of twins that have
passed the age of infancy. This is the
likelihood of overlooking twins who do
not closely resemble each other. Chil-
dren who differ widely in general ap-
pearance, size, mental capacity and
tastes are less likely to be together,
more likely to leave school at different
times and, curiously enough, often take
little interest in the fact that they are

over” does not occur, there would still be no less than 4,096 possible kinds of germ cells ~
to be produced by a given individual of either sex.

6 Harris, J. Arthur:
pp. 476-492, 1912.

“Assortative Mating in Man.” Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol.

Ixxx,

BORN AT THE SAME TIME BUT OF DIFFERENT SEX

Fraternal twins—like Merton and Myrtle Collins—are not more alike than if they had
been born a year or two apart. Merton has blue eyes and fair hair and is near sighted,
while Myrtle is dark with dark brown eyes and good eyesight. Except in mathematics
their abilities are about the same, and they have quite similar likes and dislikes. They are
unusually fond of each other. No cases of identical twins are known in which they differ
jn sex nor are such conceivable as our knowledge of heredity stands today. (Fig. 12.)

Danforth: Resemblance and Difference

twins. In any statistical studies on
school children or inquiries addressed
to twins themselves this group tends to
become lost, a fact that was interest-
ingly brought out in the responses of
twins to the requests for photographs.
Of 160 pairs whose pictures were sub-
mitted 77 pairs were women or girls,
61 pairs were men or boys, and only
22 pairs were of both sexes, most of
the last being children whose pictures
were sent in by their parents. Statistics
based on thousands of cases show that
about one pair of twins in every three
pair born consists of a boy and a girl,
yet, despite the fact that the appeal
sent out to the newspapers asked for
pictures of twins irrespective of their
sex or resemblance, “pigeon” twins
were not sufficiently interested to co-
Operate or to show curiosity to any
appreciable extent. Similarly, by an
easy deduction,’ it can be shown that
twins of the same sex should be uniovu-
lar in about two cases out of five, yet in
the opinion of the writer those twins
of like sex who submitted their pictures
show very striking resemblances in at
least three cases out of five. This seems
to indicate that even where both twins
are of the same sex the interest in each
other is roughly proportional to their
resemblance.

The conclusion with reference to our
second question would seem to be that
biovular twins should be expected to
show resemblances in hereditary traits
ranging from practical identity to wide
divergence, and that in any ordinary
collection of photographs or data sup-
plied by twins themselves or their
friends they will seem to show an aver-
age degree of resemblance greater than
that for brothers and sisters in general.
That is, of course, entirely apart from
any environmental influences that might
be supposed to still further heighten
their resemblances.

ARE THERE DIFFERENCES IN
UNIOVULAR TWINS?

While known facts furnish a basis
for understanding the marked similari-

WHY

7See article by Margaret V. Cobb in Science N. S., vol. xli,

Arilee sa 925:

407

ties that sometimes exist between bi-
ovular twins, considerable difficulty is
experienced in explaining the ditfer-
ences that occur in twins known, or
assumed, to be uniovular. Why are
these twins not actually identical? The
answer to this query must wait, but
there are a few points that may throw
some light on the question. In the first
place, it is a matter of common observa-
tion that the two sides of the same indi-
vidual are by no means identical. It
may be recalled that a few years ago
it was a fad with certain newspapers to
secure full-face views of prominent
people and, dividing them in the median
line, reproduce a left side to correspond
to the right and a right to correspond
to the left. The faked pictures were
then printed showing Mr. Blank as he
would look (a) if the left side of his
face were symmetrical with the right
and (b) if the right side were sym-
metrical with the left. The hair line,
the arch of the eyebrows, the shape of
the eyes, the ears, and the mouth, the
facial expression, were often very dif-
ferent in (a)-and (b), so much so that
in some cases the two pictures would
hardly have been supposed to represent
uniovular twins. Anatomists are ta-
miliar with the rather frequent depart-
ures from symmetry in bilateral mus-
cles, nerves and vessels. Occasionally
individuals occur with one blue and one
brown eye, and indeed it is probable
that all symmetrical parts of the body
are subject to occasional unilateral
variations. The origin of these varia-
tions, however, 1s probably not en-
vironmental in the usual sense, since
here the environment factor is reduced
to its minimum.

Whatever may be the cause of varia-
tion between the two sides of the body
when they develop together as a single
individual, it is reasonable to expect
that they will be equally effective when
each half of the blastoderm develops as
a separate individual. It might there-
fore be predicted that uniovular twins
would differ from each other in the

No. 1057, pp. 501-502,

408

same respects and to the same degree
as the two sides of the body differ in
ordinary individuals.

Whether the fact that a twin is de-
veloped from only a part of the ovum
while the ordinary individual is devel-
oped from all of it makes the two sides
of the twin any less variable is not defi-
nitely known, but Professor Wilder®
makes the interesting suggestion that it
does and that twins are therefore apt
to be more symmetrical than ordinary
individuals. Moreover, it is possible, so
far as we can see, that occasionally—
although rarely, no doubt—they may
differ not in one or two particulars but
in many, giving uniovular twins which
are decidedly different. These facts

The Journal of Heredity

help us to understand, if not to explain,
why uniovular twins are not really
identical in the strict sense of the word.

The theoretical considerations briefly
set forth in the preceding paragraphs
may serve to account for most of the
resemblances and differences actually
observed among twins. They help. us
to understand why uniovular twins are
not absolutely identical and why biovu-
lar twins are often very similar. In the
same facts we find an explanation for
those intermediate grades of resem-
blance that often prove so puzzling but
which, after all, seem to be due more
to the inherent constitution of the germ
plasm than to influence of the environ-
ment. %

TWINS WHO INHERITED NIGHT BLINDNESS
Mr. E. C. McCurdy and Mr. R. G. McCurdy feel very strongly that all identical twins are

fonder of each other than ordinary brothers and sisters.

The McCurdy twins are also fond of

the same things, and they like children and animals, enjoy the same kind of diversions, foods

and intellectual interests, and they share an abhorance of bugs, spiders and snakes.

They

both suffer from night blindness and neither can get about at night, although they both have

a good sense of direction.

Their handwriting is very different.

(Fig. 13.)

8 Wilder H. H.: “Palm and Sole Studies.” Biological Bulletin, vol. xxx, 1916. For a
further discussion of symmetry in twins see “The Biology of Twins,” by H. H. Newman,

University of Chicago Press, 1916.

TYPICAL IDENTICAL TWINS

These sturdy little twins are certainly as much alike as any two peas. It would
be interesting to watch them throughout their lives, particularly should they live in
different countries, subjected to different climatic conditions. (Fig. 14.)

PHYSICAL CORRESPONDENCES IN
TWO SETS._OF DUPLICAEE TWINS:

Striking Degree of Identity Shown in Bodily Measurements and Skin Patterns
of Palms and Soles

Harris HAWTHORNE WILDER
Professor of Zoology, Smith College

We are now, thanks to the long-con-
tinued researches of Newman and Pat-
erson, absolutely certain that all the
members of a single litter of young
armadillos come from what is originally
one egg, fertilized by one spermatozoon,
and that the striking similarities in cer-
tain details of the individual members
are due to the fact that all develop
equally from the same germ-plasm and
thus inherit the same characters.

Human twins of the duplicate type
show precisely the same degree of
correspondence in similar parts, for the
friction-ridges of the palmar and plan-
tar ee made from the fusion of
epidermal units (scales?) in rows
correspond morphologically very closely
to the rows of scales in the armadillo
carapace. It may thus be expected
a priori that the degree of correspond-
ence in the two cases would be about
the same, and this, as nearly as can be
estimated by the inspection of many
cases in each, seems to be the case.
Both in normal sets of armadillos, and
in man, in the rather frequent cases of
true duplicates, we have undoubtedly
instances of typical polyembryony, with
remarkable correspondences in numer-
ous characters, more than is likely to
be found in single individuals from
separate eggs.

Naturally on the basis of develop-
ment of twins from either a single egg
or from two separate ones, there must
be two and two only sharply defined
classes, with no possibility of inter-
mediate or transitional forms, and con-
sequently the presence of doubtful
cases, where, perhaps, neither the facial

1The term “duplicate,”
meaning as the term “

410

which the author uses throughout this article,
‘identical’ used by the other authors writing in this issue——Ep1ror.

resemblance nor the palm and sole con-
figuration is absolutely conclusive,

threatens the security of the whole
theory. [t is very encouraging, how-

ever, to hear from Newman a plea for
the classification of certain doubtful
cases formerly published by me as such,
under the head of true duplicates,
where the departures from identity are
only of about the same grade as those
occasionally met with among his arma-
dillos, where there is absolutely. no
doubt that they are from a single egg,
and therefore duplicates.

It is also quite possible, on the other
hand, that either fraternal twins, or
children of different births but with the
same parents, may show many similar
qualities, since very similar combina-
tions of character may chance to occur.
Indeed, with all the possibilities of link-
age, and with the consequent tendency
to the association of large groups of
characters, it would be unlikely that
such duplications did not occasionally
occur. One such case has come under
our direct observation, where there are
three sisters in a certain family, two of
them fraternal twins, and where the
younger single sister so closely resem-
bles one of the twins that she is gen-
erally considered by strangers to be
herself the other twin, while the latter
is of a quite different type, markedly
unlike the other two. Here, evidently,
is a case of three distinct eggs, two
born at the same time, and one at a
subsequent birth, but with a similar
composition in the germ plasm of this
latter and one of the two born simul-
taneously.

has the same

Wilder: Physical Correspondences

STRIKING SIMILARITY IN PALM AND

SOLE PRINTS

In several papers during the past
twenty years | have put forth as an
exact criterion of the degree of bodily
correspondence between twins the use
of the friction-skin patterns covering
the surfaces of the palms and soles;
parts the individual character of which
is now well known. Sir Francis Galton
and others, notably Feéré, have made
careful comparisons of the finger-print
patterns, with for the most part rather
inconclusive results, but in my opinion
these areas are too small and the varia-
tions too slight to serve well for the
purpose. The larger area presented by
an entire palm or sole, on the other
hand, allows the delineation of a much
more extended pattern, or rather a
series of patterns, in which the general
configuration of the whole surface may
show a striking similarity not even no-
ticeable in a single detail of the size
and importance of a finger-print only.

The result of the study of some fifty
sets of twins in this particular justifies
me in making the following claims:

1. The friction-skin configuration of
twins corroborates the conclusions
based upon the general physical appear-
ance, that there are two distinct types
of human twins, duplicate (or identi-
cal) and fraternal. Twins of the first

| type are monochorial at birth, and rep-

resent typical cases of polyembryony,
similar to the normal condition in
armadillos; those of the second type
are dichorial, and represent simply
cases of multipary, the normal condi-
tion in many small mammals like dogs
and rabbits.

2. Twins of the first type show the
high degree of facial and bodily resem-
blance noted throughout this magazine
and illustrated through photographs ;
those of the second type either may or
may not look alike, as in the case of
any brothers or sisters of distinct birth.
Twins of the first type are necessarily
of the same sex; those of the second
may be either of the same or of oppo-
site sex, as in any two children of one
family.

411

3. The correspondence in the fric-
tion-skin configuration is confined to the
general plan of the surface as a whole
and does not extend in the least to the
finer details, the “minutiae” of Galton.
Thus a loop pattern upon a given area
of the right hand of one twin will be
found, usually to about the same de-
gree of development, in’ ‘the corre-
sponding place on the right hand of
the other, but there will be no similar-
ity in the number of individual ridges
of which the loop is composed in the
two cases; technically, the “ridge-
count” in the two cases will be differ-
ent. The two will present the same
painting, but with different brush-
marks. Heredity determines with con-
siderable precision the occurrence and
arrangement of patterns and _ other
larger features, but the execution of
them, as drawn by the ridges, is wholly
individual, and is quite beyond the limit
of hereditary control.

4. Not only does the degree of de-
velopment of a given pattern in the
two twins differ within considerable
limits, but it frequently happens that
a definite pattern in one twin may be
represented in the other by nothing
more than a convergence of lines rep-
resenting the last vestige of the pat-
tern in question. In such cases, how-
ever, there is always a well-marked and
definite area left’ for either the pat-
tern or the pattern vestige, thus keep-
ing the general plan of the w hole area.

5. In duplicate twins there is, in both
hands and feet, a marked correspond-
ence between the two sides, so that the
right and left hands of each twin cor-
respond as completely as do the right
or the left hands of the two individuals.
All four of the hands involved are thus
duplicates of virtually the same pic-
ture, and the same phenomenon is
shown in the four feet. It is true that
in normal single individuals some form
of bilateral symmetry between the two
sides is often found, but this is seldom
as complete as in duplicate twins. There
are found also all grades of dissimi-
larity between the two sides, while they
are often entirely unlike. Then, too, if

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414

the hands are similar the feet are
likely to be unlike, and vice versa, so
that complete correspondence between
the two sides of an individual, and ex-
tending to both hands and feet, is ex-
tremely rare in single individuals, or
may be said never to occur, while in
duplicate twins the phenomenon is unt-
versal and occurs in both members.

As an excellent illustration of the
palm and sole prints of duplicate twins
we may first present a complete set
from the two M boys of Port-
land, Me., taken about fourteen to fif-
teen years ago when they were twelve
years old. Aside from being perfect
duplicates these prints show in the
hands the full set of eleven possible
patterns to be expected in a palm when
in its most complete form, as follows:

5 apical patterns (‘finger-prints’’).

4 interdigital patterns (below the four in-
tervals).

1 thenar (at the base of the thumb).

1 hypothenar (upon the fleshy pad on the
side of the palm corresponding to the
little finger).

11

As is universal in man, in cases where
these patterns occur at all, the first inter-
val between thumb and index, is found
in close association with the true thenar,
placed just below it, together making
a sort of double pattern at the base of
the thumb. As is also usual in such
cases the interdigital member of this
compound pattern is small or vestigeal
and is represented by a simple loop,
opening upwards or distally between
digits 1 and 2. On the two left hands,
as would be expected from the fifth rule
above, the record is nearly as complete
as to the presence of the eleven pat-
terns, save that in both the second in-
terdigital, between digits 2 and 3, is
wanting, although its place is defined
clearly by a marked-off area where it
would be expected. This pattern is
normally of rare occurrence, and even
when present is scarcely ever more
than a small loop, involving few ridges.
A whorl here has not as yet been
reported.

The occurrence of all the typical

The Journal of Heredity

eleven palmar patterns, such as is seen
in all four of the hands of this set,
is in single individuals one of the
rarest phenomena. Among more than
1,200 single individuals my collection
shows it but once or twice. The com-
bination of the true thenar with the
first interdigital is almost constant when
either pattern appears at all, but in
the white race this is only in about
4% of all cases, so that in any two
individuals taken at random, if one of
them has this pattern, the other has
just one chance in twenty-five of hav-
ing it also. One must acknowledge,
however, that in children of the same
family, where one parent has such a
pattern, it is almost certain to appear
in all or nearly all. Similarly, the per-
centage of occurrence of each of the
other patterns must be reckoned with
by itself, and the total chance of the
appearance of each and every one of
the typical eleven in any one individ-
ual becomes very slight. The chance
of this complete occurrence in any two:
brothers, not twins, is naturally but one
in a number represented by the square
of this first number, naturally so large
a one as to practically preclude its ap-
pearance otherwise than as the result
of some genetic principle which must
be considered as causal.

CORRESPONDENCE IN BODILY
MENTS

MEASURE-

For many years now this case of
the two M s, with its many fea-
tures that have to be duplicated, has
been my best case, because of the many
separate features involved, but recently
there has appeared a second case,
equally complete, where, too, in addi-
tion to the palm and sole prints, there
has been obtained a full set of bodily
measurements. These are the B S,
students of Smith College, and evi-
dently, from the close facial and gen-
eral physical correspondence, duplicates.
From the tracings, which are here pre-
sented, instead of the actual prints, the
complete representation of all eleven
patterns is evidently as good as in the
other case.

SOLE PRINTS OF THE M—— TWINS (males)

The prints at the top are those of the right feet of Henry (left) and Bernard (right) ;
those shown at the bottom are of the left feet of Henry (left) and Bernard (right), the

‘lines of interpretation being traced out with India ink upon the actual prints. Although the

individual ridges may seem to differ to a large extent, the general pattern of the whole
surface shows a striking similarity of outline in cases of identical twins. (Fig. 17.)

416

The three last interdigital patterns,
those of the upper row, are, with the
exception of the first one of this row,
really the second interdigital, on the
left hand of Mabel, large and well-
developed, rather better, in fact, than
in most cases in the M hands.
There is again almost a failure of the
hypothenar, also in the left hand of
Mabel, which shows the other lack.
The right thenar of May is also weak,
but well indicated. In only one of the
four was the little extra loop (= first
interdigital) printed, the left of May,
but the prints are probably deficient in
this region in the others, owing to
faulty technique in printing.

The feet of both sets, as in the case
of the hands, happen. to be decidedly
similar to the M s, and with the
same slight discrepancies, occasionally
amounting to a lack of harmony in one
of the main features, as has been no-
ticed in the hands. For instance, note
the third interdigital of the left feet
of the two M s, where the ridges
taper to a point, but develop no lower
triradius, as in the rights; also the
fourth, or last, interdigitals of the two
B s, which show but one real pat-
tern out of the four, the one on the
right foot of May.

RESEMBLANCES CONTROLLED BY
PLASM

Recapitulating, the general similari-
ties, with various minor departures
therefrom, appear in these two cases
about as in other typical cases of twins
that closely resemble each other, and
which, for these and other reasons, may
be considered duplicates. The resem-
blance is close, but not exact, and never
extends to the ridge details, the minu-
tiae of Galton. The conclusion is hard
to avoid, that, as has been done by
Newman and Patterson in the similar
correspondence of the ridges of the
carapace of armadillos, the corre-
spondences are of those parts that are
under the control of the germ-plasm,
and that where there is no definite cor-
respondence the development is left
to other forces, whatever they may be.

The bodily measurements of the B

GERM-

The Journal of Heredity

twins were taken in the nude by a grad-
uate student, Miss Margaret Washing-
ton, and constituted a part of the similar
careful measurements of 100 students
used in the preparation of a thesis.
These twins were taken towards the
end of the series, after the measurer
had had the greater part of her prac-
tice, and the results may be relied upon
as accurate. The measurements were
taken in millimeters by the anthro-
pometer of Martin, made by R. Her-
mann, of Zurich, with the occasional
use of other instruments from the same
source. Miss Washington followed,
both in the selection of the measures
to be used and the technique by which
the measures were taken, the Interna-
tional Prescription of the Congress of
Geneva, in 1912.

The measurements of the two are as
follows:

May Mabel
Rotalistatunenimcesa 5 see eet 1668 1669
ii stretChvaenr eyes ae enlace 1631) 1624
Eleighteatractisme eee aeereeee 152252)
Height; vertebra prom........ 1431 = 1431
Heights) incisuga stern)... 1361 =1360
Heisht sderomionge=- ee sa 1349 = 1361
lakselmes. Kahn 655 casc05000ac 1248 §=1233
HMeicht-ambilicis sae seeceee 1030 ~=1020
Height- sant spinel ilessses 966 964
leicht atrochanteme peer 911 891
Height: sympliysismere seen oe 879 885
Height = olecranon en eae sae 1055 1080
HMershts styloideradiicmeseee see 822 838
Height; end middle finger .... 621 639
Breadth; biacromial ......... 340 337
Breadth a cumiste)ieed| eee eee 255 254
ByeaKaldns symarl, wl oogonapavec 250 256
Breadthitrochanteric a. se acer 205 205
Breadth snipplesmeee ae 190 195
lsineevahelS VOI ood caonccecer 232 236
Depth thorax) eee 175 175
engthi) foo tee neeee eee eee eee 254 251
Statunes? Sittiom see eerie 848 840
Metin pronieastttin Sas eeeenreaee 620 613
Incisumal ste Gnitesittin oar aes 551 530
INCOMING MHS aotocdouacec 539 530
Elec dae enct ee 185 185
Head ibreadthe = 80 naaee 142 142
Birontalebreadth meena enacts 97 96
Breadth between eyes ....... 28 27
Zyeomatic Dread times eee eee 116 116

Breadth of jaw, angle ........ 96 95

@hin-hair GWleneth oo. -aa5- 185 188
Chin=nastons lengthier 122 122
Nasion=pLostitonmenr seen nesese 76 76

(Continued on page 419)

TRACINGS FROM PALM PRINTS OF THE B— TWINS (females)

ght hands of May and Mabel at eighteen years of age
ands of the same twins. These illustrations were made
gh the actual prints by means of carbon paper, and thus
paper. They thus correspond to the inked lines seen on

the prints in Figures 15 and 16. (Fig. 18.)

The two at the top are of the rj
Those at the bottom are of the left h
by tracing the essential lines throu
transferring them to blank white

weer?
sy
or

ee,
ee eae

ee es

" . ae

He OO een =>

s on oe fl

tea Te hte

eer en nae meee

Pa =
ae

saeenre™

Terre eeereseetewy

TRACINGS FROM SOLE PRINTS OF THE B— TWINS

Made in the same manner as those shown in Fig. 18. Those at the top are of the right
feet, and those at the bottom, the left feet of May and Mabel. “Heredity determines with
considerable precision the occurrence and arrangement of patterns, and other larger features
but the execution of them, as drawn by the ridges, is wholly individual, and is quite beyond
the limit of hereditary control.” (Fig. 19.)

Wilder: Physical

May Mabel

Wenothy OL nNOS. escrow 60 60
Gea th sO NOSei se: are 29 28
menor Ole Gal co tutions. 58 58
reaatnrob eat <7... sane s 31 29

Color of eyes, hair, and skin, obtained
by comparison with the standard numbers of
the tables prepared by P. Hermann, namely,
the eye color table of Martin; the hair color
table of E. Fischer, and the skin color table
of Luschan. The numbers are as follows:

Colomor yes... ise. bene No. 15 15
@olotgor hair .)oaes. sce <- No. 8 8
Hem OG Ole SKIN actin ncaa S| No. 3 3

At the time of the measurements the

twins were eighteen years old.

From these tables, which give the
actual height from the floor of numer-
ous points upon the trunk and limbs,
many other measurements may be ob-
tained through subtractions. Thus the
total length of the arm is obtained by
subtracting the height of the extended
middle finger from that of the acro-
mion; that of the arm alone by sub-
tracting the height of the styloid process
of the radius from the same height, that
of the acromion. Similarly the ole-
cranal height, which is that of the head
of the radius, with the styloid height

taken from it, is exactly the length of ©

that bone and may be considered as
that of the forearm.

To apply this, the total arm-length of
May is 1,349 — 621, or 728 mm.; while
that of Mabel is 1,361 — 639, or 722,
showing an insignificant difference of
6mm. For the arm alone, without the
hand the figures are respectively 527
and 523. It will be noticed that the
height of the acromion differs almost
more than any other height, which is
due to the impossibility of always hold-
ing the shoulder skeleton, with its mass
of muscles, at just the same level.

For this cause there is always fully
as much variation in the measurement
of the acromial height of the same in-
dividual taken at different times; and
as the total arm lengths are so nearly
alike in the two twins, it is fair to con-
sider the normal, or average, acromion
height as practically the same in both.

The leg height, or that from the head
of the femur to the ground, is quite

Correspondences 419
impossible to get directly, owing to the
depth to which this part of the femur
is imbedded in the soft. parts. Many
workers take as a good substitute the
height of the iliac spine, and from this
subtract 40 mm.; others subtract the
total sitting height from the total stand-
ing height. By the first method the
two twins, in the order used here, have
as leg lengths, respectively, 926 and 924
mm.; by the second the leg lengths are
820 and 829. These last are not really
leg lengths ai all, but represent merely
that portion of the total stature remain-
ing after the subtraction of head and
trunk, and hence are much less than the
true leg length, or that of the femur
and tibia together with that portion of
the foot used in standing.

The trunk length, measured to the
plane of the ischia in the sitting figure,
may either include the neck vertebrae
and be measured from the upper plane
of the atlas, or may be that of the
trunk alone, beginning with the thorax.
In the first case one may also use the
tragus height or that of the subnasale,
both of which fall at about the plane
sought when the head is placed in the
usual position, with the eyes looking
straight forward: in the second, one has
the choice of either the suprasternal
notch or the vertebra priminens. These
heights are ir: all cases measured down
to the plane of the table upon which
the subject is sitting and give the va-
rious trunk heights, with or without the
neck. With the inclusion of the neck,
using the vertebra priminens for the
upper limit, the trunk lengths of the
two girls are, respectively, 620 and 613,
the slight difference being easily ac-
counted for by a slightly different de-
gree of relaxation in the two spinal
columns, causing a similar difference in
the shape of the lumbar curve. Using
the incisura sterni, however, and thus
excluding the neck, the figures given
are 551 and 530. These are consid-
erable, rather more than in other cases,
and although they are possible, it is
quite likely that we have here a cler-
ical error, made during the measure-
ment or the later copying, as the fig-

420

ures used here were twice copied. The

fact that in the second twin the same :

number, 530, is also given as the acro-
mial height, and occurs on the list im-
mediately beneath it, suggests such an
error as an easily explained possibility.

CLOSE IDENTITY IN PHYSICAL
STRUCTURE

Taking, now, the figures directly from
the tables, there are some very strik-
ing similarities, amounting in a few
cases to complete or practical identity.
Thus, starting with a total stature of
1,668 and 1,669, we find the height of
the vertebra prominens and that of the
Incisura sterni the same exactly, while
the height of the tragus has but a single
millimeter of difference. The heights
of the very mobile shoulder girdle and
of the parts of the arm depending from
them, as already explained, cannot be
expected to be constant, but the
length of the arm and its parts in the
two, as obtained by subtraction of
heights from one another, is very close.
As for breadths, the biacromial differs
by but 3 mm., the cristal, across the
hips, by 1, and the trochanteric not at
all. In thoracic measures we have
232 x 175 and 236 x 175, where the

The Journal of Heredity

4 mm. difference in one dimension
alone is negligible. The length and
breadth of the two heads is identical in
both twins, 185 x 142, and it is also
significant that the facial measurements
show so close a similarity. The few
measurements of the soft parts, the
nipples and the umbilicus, are of minor
importance, as they do not depend upon
a bony support and are easily change-
able. Taken in general, there is a sur-
prising degree of identity in the bodies
of these twins.

This test of bodily measurements
offers an important field in the inves-
tigation of twins. They should be
measured while young, before the
varied experiences of after life have
effected much modification, but after
maturity is reached. It would be also
of interest to get several series of such
measurements of the same sets of
twins during growth, from infancy to
maturity. From such studies could be
learned, for instance, the effect of va-
rious illnesses undergone by one twin
and not the other, and in such things
could be found explanations for many
of the slight lacks of complete corre-
spondence which are out of harmony
with what would be expected in gen-
uine duplicate twins.

A MARKED DIFFERENCE IN GROWTH

These little twins have both had four years in which to grow. Just what were the forces that
checked the development of the smaller boy, could not be ascertained. Very likely it was an
early illness. The mother, Mrs. S. Cooper of Newark, N. J., states that the ‘‘smallest boy is
doing fine now and is very bright and lively.’ We have no evidence that these are identical
twins. (Fig. 20.)

422

The Journal of Heredity

Carriers of the Germ Plasm

The two large spheres in the top
picture are egg cells, alive in Ringer’s
solution when photographed. A single
whip-like spermatozoon may be seen
at the point of the arrow. The pene-
tration of an egg cell by a single sper-
matozoon results ina cell, the fertilized
egg, which has within itself the power
of developing into a new individual
when properly nourished.

The middle picture shows an egg
cell which has been penetrated by a
spermatozoon. The unabsorbed tail
of the latter can be seen next to the
single nucleus produced by the fusion
of the egg and sperm nuclei.

A living egg in the two-cell stage
appears in the illustration at the bot-
tom. Under normal conditions the
two cells into which the egg cell
divides after fertilization remain to-
gether and become the millions of cells

which form a single individual. After;

the early cell divisions, however, each
of the cells still possesses the poten-
tiality for development into a perfect

individual, and may do so if separated. ’

Human identical twins are produced
by the breaking apart of a single egg
in the two-cell stage, or very soon
after, and resemble each other closely
because of their identical heredity.
Ordinary twins develop from two
wholly independent egg cells which
merely happen to be fertilized at about
the same time. Such twins resemble
each other no more than ordinary
brothers and sisters. These photo-
micrographs, of white rat eggs cells
magnified 500 diameters, are by Dr.
Joseph Long, of the University of
California.

TWINS PROVE THE IMPORTANCE
OF CHROMOSOMES

The Most Powerful of All Forces Operating to Control Human Destiny—‘The
Most Important Things in the Whole Known World”—Are So Small
That a Microscope Is Required to See Them

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

E KNOW at present that the

chief, though probably not

the sole, determiners of differ-

ences among higher animals
lie in those infinitely important and
complex microscopic granules known as
chromosomes. The material out of
which they are formed remains con-
stant in every living cell, and they are
visible and subject to numerical count-
ing, at times of cell division. Most
people have never heard of chromo-
somes. But they will if they live long
enough; unless, perchance, some other
word is introduced to take its place,
for chromosomes are among the most
important things, and, considering their
size, they are the most important things
in the whole known world. A genera-
tion from now the public will have
heard of chromosomes: just as today
the public has heard of evolution and
of bacteria. Chromosomes and hered-
ity are in a way synonymous, but hered-
ity is used in various senses by different
people. When we say chromosomes,
we speak of things tangible, or at least,
if we cannot actually touch them, they
are objects that can be seen and meas-
ured and counted.

Identical twins are among the most
interesting of beings, because they
alone have the same kind of chromo-
somes. This is due to the fact that
very early in embryonic life there
occurs an almost absolutely precise
division of the chromosomes, so that
two individuals are developed side by
side, each controlled by similar deter-
miners. The extreme resemblance of
identical twins is itself a proof of the

importance of these determiners (chro-
mosomes), for otherwise we cannot
explain all the phenomena.

It is known as a result of a great
number of observations that children

. on the average resemble their fathers,

and their father’s family, quite as much
as their mother’s and their mother’s
family. The far-reaching significance
of this every-day fact, like most won-
ders that are ever before our eyes, is
apt to be overlooked. Even this fact
alone is a proof of the extreme im-
portance of chromosomes, since the egg
is many hundred times as large as the
sperm, but the chromosomes of the egg
are no larger than those of the sperm.
They are practically the same size, and
presumably of corresponding chemical
structure and importance.

Twins, then, are not needed to prove
the extreme importance of chromo-
somes. What twins prove is_ this:
They prove the lack of importance of
environment, but only in one aspect and
in one restricted meaning.

There is a great deal of loose talk
about environment, all of which means
nothing and gets nowhere. The only
discussions that are today worth con-
sidering are those which are based upon
quantitative measurements.

In a sense. environment is all-impor-
tant, for without nourishment, oxygen,
and warmth, growth is impossible; and
without training, education, and social
control, the development of the higher
traits would not take place. But this
environment is customary and ex-
pected. The question of practical
interest is: How far do changes in the

423

-

x
Ay

| -* — J
{eta "5

NOT IDENTICAL TWINS MAY DIFFER IN RATE OF GROWTH AS WELL
AS IN LOOKS

While it would be a mistake to overlook the influence of proper food upon the develop-
ment of a child, it is just as great an error not to realize that children inherit different

reactions with regard to the same foods.

If one child develops more slowly than

another, it may be because of its heredity and not because of any environmental

influence. (Fig. 22.)

customary environment produce meas-
ureable modifications? In order to
prove that a modification is due to an
environmental change it is essential that
the heredity (or chromosome) factor
should be a constant. This requirement
may be sometimes attained by using a
large number of individuals whose
average heredity may be reasonably

424

supposed to be the same. For exam-
ple, there cannot be any doubt but that
the striking differences in the growth
of dogs, sheep, and other animals, when
given greater and smaller amounts of
glandular extracts—thyroid, etc.—are
really caused by~ these environmental
forces; 1. e., a difference not caused by
chromosome differences.

STRIKINGLY ALIKE IN OLD AGE

When these pictures were taken in 1915 these twins were about eighty years old.

They had

never been more than 10 months away from the village of Bethal, Maine, in all their lives.
They invariably went for a walk every afternoon at about 4 o'clock, always accompanied by

the two white cats. (Fig. 23.)

The great lesson derived from the
records of identical twins is that the or-
dinary differences within the uterus of
the mother and the ordinary differences
within the home life and school life
and even adult life are not of sufficient
force to modify greatly the control of
the chromosomes.

The non-identical or “fraternal”
twins have the same chance to become
similar through environmental action as
the “identical,” yet they are not so
moulded. Photographs show this in
the most obvious manner, and, if as
appears from the records of the ques-
tionnaires, the resemblances are no
greater in physical than in mental

aspects, then the far-reaching inference
is forced upon us that even mental and

moral differences are controlled by
forces lying in the primary chromo-
somes.

This does not mean that great

changes in the environment may not
cause considerable modification in the
individual; but the point is that great
changes are not usual. The very fact
that they are great is associated with
their scarcity, and under usual condi-
tions of life the physical and mental
differences that we commonly observe
among our fellow-beings are really due
to differences traceable in the chromo-
somes themselves.

425

A DEFINITION OF HEREDITY

“NATURE VS.

NURTURE” NOT A GOOD EXPRESSION

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

ee

HE expression “Nature versus

Nurture,” introduced originally

by Galton, has been very widely

adopted, but this prettily
balanced phrase is not altogether satis-
factory from the standpoint of scien-
tific definiteness. From the artistic
point of view we cannot but admire
a dainty little bit of word carpentry.
We have the two N’s furnishing alliter-
ation, and the words nearly balance in
weight. The last four letters are
identical, and in addition to this the
words seem to express well, the same
idea as heredity vs. environment for the
antithetical forces of nature. But here
is already the first objection. The
word nature can never be made to mean
anything less than all the forces of the
cosmos. Surely everything is nature.

Sometimes, again, the word nature
is employed in another limited, ‘yet
entirely different sense, as meaning the
wild-woods, the fields, the clouds, and
the birds. The zealot advocates a “back
to nature’”’ movement, as though human
nature were not a part of nature. In
the same way our forefathers invented
for us the phrase “natural history,” thus
suggesting that human history was un-
natural or at least non-natural, and that
man was apart from the world of
organic life.

Of course this sort of criticism is
almost inevitable, if we start to dissect
the English language. The same
objections can be raised against the
words heredity and inheritance. We
all use these words in different senses

with different associative ideas, accord-
ing to our age, habits of thought, and
professional training, even if we are
trying to use them in a narrowly defined
and technical sense. The word heredity
to a biologist, trained in microscopical
anatomy and embryology, suggests a
single cell—a_ germ-cell immediately
after fertilization. Is it likely that this
word suggests the same picture to a
man trained in theology or law?

But we shall all have to see the same
picture some time—that is, if we are to
make the science of heredity part of
the curriculum of education, and the
best definition of heredity will have to
be closely associated with the mech-
anism of chromosomes and germ-cells,
and the clearest pictures will be mentally
held only by those who have some ideas
of the structures and functionings of
these primordial elements.

The use of the word “nature” as
synonymous with heredity is associated
with an objection beyond the academic
one that ‘everything is nature anyway ;
and that is, because we have the com-
mon phrase “human nature,’ so that
when we say the nature of that man
is bad, we do not know whether we
mean to suggest that his bad nature is
inherent or the result of bad associates.

Again, we have the familiar phrase
applied to kindly souls that he or she
has a “good nature.” This last idea
can only be conveyed if the words are
spoken (or read as spoken) quickly.
How different is the picture portrayed
of one who has a good nature (spoken

Note: In connection with this discussion it may interest some readers to refer to a
former article in the JourNAL or Herepity for February, 1918 (vol. ix, No. 2) on the

“Meanings of.Genetic Terms.”
genetics are there discussed.—Ed.

426

About sixty of the terms commonly used in the subject of

~

Woods: ‘‘Nature vs. Nurture’’ Not

quickly) from one who has (accent on
the good) a good nature. So we may
have good-natured people who may be
lazy, dirty, and incompetent. It is only
by stressing the last word that we can
convey in good nature anything of the
Galtonian usage of the word.

The word heredity is also far from
ideal as an expression of scientific ex-
actitude. In the first place, we have our
“social heredity” or even our “heredity
from God,” though these usages are
usually pretty clearly differentiated, and
it is evident from the text that we are
talking abeut something other than the
functioning of reproductive germ-cells.
The chief difficulty in using the word
heredity is that to many people heredity
either means all that one is at birth, or
means all that one has for an ancestry.
Neither of these conceptions is in ac-
cordance with modern views on the
method of reproductive generation and
therefore it is undesirable to use the
word heredity in either of these senses.

All that one is at birth is already
a compound resultant of germ-plasm
and environment. All that one has for
an ancestry may amount to little. It is
solely a question of how the ancestral
germ-plasms are sorted and arranged in
any particular case.

The word “heredity” should be un-
derstood to signify all that 1s contained
in the original fertilized cell (zygote)
from which all the subsequent cells are,
by cell-division, produced. If the
chromosomes are found to be the sole
intracellular agencies controlling the
normal development of the body, then
the word “heredity” may be considered
as synonymous with chromosomes, and
to say a man has a good heredity is to
say he has good chromosomes. If, as
is more probable, other portions of the
cell enter somewhat into the matter,
though to a limited extent, then the
word “heredity” is almost, though not
quite, an equivalent of the word
chromosomes.

ral

a Good Expression 427

OF THE SAME HEREDITY

George and John Seiffert, of York, Pa., eighteen
years old. (Fig. 24.)

IDENTICAL TWINS FROM JAPAN, YEITCHI AND YUJI OGATA, OF TOKIO

(Fig. 25)

THEY LOOK THE SAME, THOUGH ONE DRINKS FASTER THAN THE OTHER

(Fig. 26.)

ARE THESE BOYS IDENTICAL?

Appearing at-slightly different angles, it is hard to tell if these boys are identical
twins and’ the Association has no data about them at present. They are sons of
B. E. Burdick, of Racine, Wis. (Fig. 27.)

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TWO SPANISH BOYS FROM CUBA

From Cuba have come the pictures of Enrique and Armando
were born in June, 1912. (Fig. 28.)

Brana.

These twins

STRIKINGLY SIMILAR IN CHARACTER

The Zermansky twins have a similar love of poetry and music, enjoy the same sports,
but differ in their taste for mathematics. Philip dislikes all mathematics except
trigonometry, while Mark has been good in all mathematics. They both have slight eye
trouble, and their gait is different. Mark was left-handed as a child but was taught
to use his right hand. Their writing is strikingly alike; both have a ‘‘double-jointed”’
thumb on the left hand. Mark works hard at anything and does well on examina-
tions, while Philip is inclined to work only at what interests him, and he does not do his
best on examinations as he is apt to be nervous. (Fig. 29.)

THE BROWN TWINS AT FIFTY-NINE YEARS AND THE HARLOW TWINS
AT TEN MONTHS

For fifty-nine years the brothers (top), whose hair is now snow white, have been taken
for one another. Edwin is a Congregational minister and has lived in various places,
and Edgar a bookkeeper who has stayed in Maine. Both were born with defec-
tive eyesight, one in the right, and the other in the left eye. Both are right-handed;
for years with similar gait, with tastes remarkably similar, with similar bodily weak-
nesses, one requiring surgical aid, both with idiosyncrasy against strawberries and
acid foods, both with a good sense of locality and direction, and both peculiarly con-
genial towards each other. Their handwriting is not strikingly similar. Edgar L.,
3 Holyoke St., Brewer, Me. (right); Edwin C., Island Falls, Me. (left).

The chances are very great that, like the Brown twins, the Harlows (bottom
picture) will remain alike through life. (Fig. 30.)

Ss The Journal of heredity

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